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[ [ "Hearts (card game)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hearts''' is an \"evasion-type\" trick-taking playing card game for four players, although most variations can accommodate between three and six players.", "It was first recorded in America in the 1880s and has many variants, some of which are also referred to as \"Hearts\", especially the games of Black Lady and Black Maria.", "The game is a member of the Whist group of trick-taking games (which also includes Bridge and Spades), but is unusual among Whist variants in that it is a trick-avoidance game; players avoid winning certain penalty cards in tricks, usually by avoiding winning tricks altogether.", "The original game of Hearts is still current but has been overtaken in popularity by Black Lady in the United States and Black Maria in Great Britain." ], [ "History", "The game of Hearts probably originated with Reversis, which became popular around 1750 in Spain.", "In this game, a penalty point was awarded for each trick won, plus additional points for taking or in tricks.", "A similar game called \"Four Jacks\" centred around avoiding any trick containing a Jack, which were worth one penalty point, and worth two.Hearts itself emerged in the United States during the 1880s, ''The Standard Hoyle'' of 1887 reporting that it had only been played there for \"the last five years\" and was \"probably of German origin\".", "It described Hearts as \"a most pleasant game, highly provocative of laughter\".", "It was a no-trump, trick-taking game for four players using a full pack of cards, the aim being to avoid taking any hearts in tricks.", "The basic format has changed little since.", "Two scoring variants were mentioned under the name 'Double or Eagle Game'.", "The first was the precursor to Spot Hearts whereby the cards of the heart suit cost the following in chips: Ace 14, King 13, Queen 12, Jack 11 and pip cards their face value.", "The second scoring scheme was: Ace 5, King 4, Queen 3, Jack 2 and all pips 1 chip each.In 1909, the was added as the highest penalty card in a variant called either Discard Hearts, after the new feature of passing unwanted cards to other players after the deal, or Black Lady, after the nickname for the .", "This new variant has since become the standard game of the Hearts group in America where it is often, somewhat confusingly, also called \"Hearts\".", "To begin with, Black Lady did not have the option of \"shooting the moon\"; that came later.In the 1920s, the variation (ten positive points) was introduced, and sometime later the scoring was reversed so that penalty points were expressed as positive instead of negative.The slam is known as \"shooting the moon\" and first appeared in Britain in 1939 in a variant of Hearts called Hitting the Moon.", "Today this feature is a common element of modern Black Lady.", "Meanwhile, in Britain the game of Black Maria, with its additional penalty cards in the suit of spades, emerged in 1939 and, both it and another offshoot, Omnibus Hearts, are \"sufficiently different and popular to justify descriptions as separate games.", "\"The game has increased in popularity through Internet gaming sites which, however, usually offer the Black Lady variant while still calling it Hearts, whereas most books maintain the distinction between the two games.", "Microsoft Windows included Hearts (in fact Black Lady) in its operating system from Windows 3.1 to Windows 7 making it one of the earliest digital renditions." ], [ "Earliest rules (1887)", "The following rules are based on those published in ''The Standard Hoyle'' of 1887.=== Preliminaries ===The game is usually played by four players, but three to six can be accommodated (see below).", "The aim is to avoid taking any cards of the heart suit in tricks.", "A standard 52-card pack of English pattern cards is used, cards ranking from ace (high) down to the two.", "Players draw a fixed number of chips, typically 25 or 50, which may or may not have a monetary value.", "The deck is shuffled by the dealer, cut by the player to the right, and then dealt clockwise beginning with eldest hand, the player left of the dealer, until each player has thirteen cards.", "There are no trumps.", "If cards are misdealt, the deal passes to the left.", "If cards are faced in the pack, the dealer reshuffles, offers it for the cut and re-deals.=== Playing ===Eldest hand leads to the first trick.", "Players must follow suit if able; otherwise may discard any card.", "The trick is won by the highest card of the led suit and the trick winner leads to the next trick.", "If a player revokes, they lose the trick and pay the pre-agreed penalty in chips.=== Scoring ===A player taking all 13 hearts pays 13 chips: four to each opponent and one to the table.", "Otherwise, the player with the lowest number of hearts wins and the others pay that player in chips the number of hearts they took.", "So if A has one heart, B two, C four and D six, A will receive 2 chips from B, 4 from C and six from D making 12 ''in toto''.", "If two or more players have the lowest number of hearts, they divide the spoils, any remainder staying on the table for the next round.", "So if A and B have two hearts, C has three and D has six, C pays 3 chips, D pays 6 and A and B claim 4 each, leaving the remaining chip on the table.", "A player who revokes in order to avoid taking 13 chips, pays 8 to each opponent.==== Variants ====There are two scoring variants known as the Double Game of Hearts (or Eagle Game of Hearts):# The hearts score the following in chips: ace 14, king 13, queen 12, jack 11 and pip cards their face value (e.g.", "the nine is worth 9 chips)# The hearts score the following in chips: ace 5, king 4, queen 3, jack 2 and pip cards their face value." ], [ "Modern rules (2011)", "The following rules are based on Arnold (2011).=== Preliminaries ===Three to six may play, but four is best.", "A standard pack is used.", "For three players, the is removed; for five players the and are removed, for six players the , , and are left out.", "Players draw cards to determine the first dealer; lowest deals.", "Deal and play are clockwise.", "Dealer shuffles and youngest hand (right of dealer) cuts.", "The dealer then deals all the cards, individually and face down, beginning with the eldest hand (to the left of the dealer).=== Playing ===Eldest hand leads to the first trick.", "Players must follow suit if able; otherwise, they may play any card.", "The trick is won by the highest card of the suit led, and the winning player captures the cards played in the trick.", "The winner also leads the following trick.=== Scoring ===Each heart captured in tricks incurs a penalty point, there being thirteen penalty points in total.", "The winner is the player with the lowest score after an agreed number of deals.", "Alternatively, a target score may be agreed (such as 80 for four players) and when the first player reaches the target, the game ends.", "The player with the lowest score wins.If Hearts is played for stakes, the average score is worked out and those above it pay the difference into a pool, while those below it draw the difference." ], [ "Variants", "=== Auction Hearts ===The variant of Auction Hearts appears for the first time in the 1897 edition of ''Foster's Complete Hoyle''.", "It is a game for four players, although five or six may \"form a table\".", "Its novel feature is that, after the deal, players may bid in sequence to declare the penalty suit.", "Eldest hand begins the bidding by stating the number of chips he or she is willing to pay for the privilege of naming the suit; the succeeding players may pass or bid higher.", "The dealer goes last and there is only one round of bidding.", "The player who wins the auction pays the winning bid into the pool and leads to the first trick.=== Black Jack ===Black Jack appeared at the same time as Black Lady, both as alternative names for the more general name of Discard Hearts.", "Discard Hearts, as the name suggests, introduced the concept of discarding (also called passing or exchanging) for the first time into Hearts.", "It is identical with the basic Black Lady game, but with the as the penalty card, worth 10 \"hearts\" (i.e.", "points).", "It is last mentioned by Gibson in 1974, only this time with the same penalty as Black Lady of 13 points.=== Black Lady ===Black Lady appeared in 1909, at which time it was also called Discard Hearts, and has since become the most popular variant in the United States, overtaking Hearts itself to become a game in its own right.", "It is frequently, and confusingly, also called Hearts, not least in computer gaming versions.", "However, its distinguishing feature is that the , the Black Lady, is an additional penalty card worth 13 points.", "The first description of the game already included the feature of discarding cards to one's neighbour after the deal.", "Over time, the game has developed elaborations such as 'shooting the moon' and passing cards in different directions with each deal.=== Black Maria ===Black Maria is the British variant of Hearts and features three additional penalty cards – the worth 10 points, the worth 7 points and the Black Maria or worth 13 points.", "It was first described by Hubert Phillips in the mid-20th century.", "It usually includes passing to the right (not left as in other variants) which is considered more challenging because you don't know any of the next player's cards.", "Hitting the moon is an optional rule.", "Confusingly, sometimes the name Black Lady is given to this game and sometimes Black Lady is called Black Maria.=== Cancellation Hearts ===Cancellation Hearts is first described in 1950 by Culbertson and is a variant designed for larger numbers of players, typically 6 to 11 players, using two packs shuffled together.", "If exactly the same card is played twice in one trick, the cards cancel each other out, and neither can win the trick.", "If two such pairs appear in the same trick, the whole trick is cancelled and the cards are rolled over to the winner of the next trick.=== Chasse Coeur ===A French variant of the second half of the 19th century both in France and Belgium in which the aim is to avoid taking all four Queens as well all hearts.", "Three to six may play, but the game is best for four.", "Queens are worth 13 penalty points each, the hearts (except the Q) 1 penalty point each.", "A player may declare a ''Générale'' and seek to win all the penalty cards; if successful the opponents score 64 penalty points each; if unsuccessful the declarer scores 64.A silent (unannounced) ''Générale'' incurs 54 penalty points for each opponent.=== Domino Hearts ===Another variant first noted by Foster in 1909, the key feature of which is that it is played with a stock.", "Each player receives six cards and the remainder are placed face down on the table as stock.", "A player unable to follow suit, has to draw cards, one at a time, from the stock until able to can follow suit.", "The last player holding cards must pick up any remaining cards in the stock and count them with their tricks.", "Every heart taken scores one penalty point.", "As soon as any player reaches or exceeds thirty-one points, the game is over and the winner is the player with the fewest hearts scored.=== Greek Hearts ===Greek Hearts is a name given to at least three different variants.", "In the earliest version, which Phillips and Westall (1939) say is widely played in Greece hence why they call it \"Greek Hearts\", the scores 50 penalty points, the scores 15, the courts score 10 and the remaining pip cards of the Hearts suit score their face value.", "A player taking all the penalty cards scores 150, that is, gets paid 150 points by each opponent.", "There is \"a great deal more in the game than there is in 'Slippery Anne'\" (Black Lady).", "Meanwhile, Culbertson (1950) describes it as the game of Black Lady with three changes: three cards are always passed to the right, the counts as 10 plus points and a heart card may not be led to the first trick of the game.", "Maguire's version (1990) is essentially Spot Hearts with passing to the left and Parlett (2008) has a similar scoring system to the original, with the valued at 50 penalty points, the at 15, courts 10 each, but the remaining hearts as only 1 each.=== Heartsette ===Heartsette is another very early variant that is still played.", "Its distinguishing feature is a widow.", "When four play, the is removed, twelve cards are dealt to each player and the remaining three cards are placed face down in the centre of the table to form the widow.", "For other numbers of players, the full pack is used, the widow comprising three cards when three play, two when five play and four when six play.", "The player winning the first trick takes in the widow and any hearts it contains.", "That player may look at these cards but may not show them to anyone.", "Otherwise, the game is played as normal.", "The key difference from basic Hearts is that the first winner is the only one who knows how many and which hearts are still to be played.=== Joker Hearts ===Joker Hearts is recorded as early as 1897.One or more Jokers are added, which can be played at any time (regardless if following suit is possible).", "They cannot win tricks or score any penalty points.=== Omnibus Hearts ===In 1950, Culbertson reported that Omnibus Hearts was \"rapidly becoming the most popular of Hearts games\" and was so called because it included all the features found in different members of the Hearts family and Arnold states that it is \"sufficiently different and popular\" to justify being described as a separate game.\"", "In effect, Omnibus Hearts is really a variant of Black Lady to which has been added the bonus card of the which earns 10 plus points for the player who takes it in a trick.", "A player who takes all fifteen counters (, and thirteen hearts), scores 26 plus points for the deal and the rest score zero (noting that in Culbertson's Black Lady rules, what is now called shooting the moon results in no player scoring for that deal).", "Arnold (2011) states that Omnibus Hearts is considered the best version of Hearts by many players.", "He refers to the capture of all counting cards as \"hitting the moon, take-all or slam\".", "The game ends when a player reaches or exceeds 100 penalty points, whereupon the player with the lowest score wins.=== Partnership Hearts ===A recent variant to enable players to play in partnership.", "There are three versions of Partnership Hearts.", "In the first, partners sit opposite one another and combine their scores, a team that successfully shoots the moon causing the other to earn 52 penalty points.", "In the second, partners also face each other at the table, but keep individual scores.", "A player shooting the moon must do this alone.", "When any player reaches 100 or more, the partners combine their scores and the team with the lower score wins.", "The third is really a variant of Omnibus Hearts with a slam bid.", "After the deal, players bid to shoot the moon by taking all tricks.", "The player holding the becomes the silent partner of the winning bidder and they combine their scores.", "If no one bids, the game is played as in Omnibus Hearts with no partnerships.=== Spot Hearts ===Spot Hearts appears as a variant in the very first description of Hearts in 1887, albeit referred to as the Double Game of Hearts or the Eagle Game of Hearts, being first named as Spot Hearts by Foster in 1897.Both names continue to be used until the 1920s when Spot Hearts becomes the standard name of the game.", "The key difference is that the hearts are now worth values ranging from 2 to 14, rather than being worth 1 chip (or penalty point) each.", "The actual values are: at 14, at 13, at 12, at 11 and pips score their face value.", "Foster remarks that \"this adds nothing to the interest or skill of the game; but rather tends to create confusion and delay, owing to the numerous disputes as to the correctness of the count.\"", "Nevertheless, the game has been regularly listed right up to the present day with the ''Little Giant Encyclopedia'' (2009) giving an alternative name of Chip Hearts.", "Modern rules, however, tend to score the as 1 penalty point rather than the original 14." ], [ "Strategy", ";Leading Hearts earlyAlthough it appears wise to play low hearts first, it is usually better to hold onto them until it is clearer, from the fall of the cards, to whom you are giving them.", "Low hearts are especially handy for passing the lead over in the dangerous final few tricks.", "The exception to this is when one's plain suit cards are high or dangerous, but hearts are relatively low.", "In this case, it may be better to ditch the hearts earlier on.", "; VoidsTo have a void is to have no cards of one suit.", "Generally, this is a highly advantageous situation, because it prevents the player from winning any points in that suit, and provides a means to dispose of poor cards.", "These can be intentionally created with good passing strategy, or appear by themselves." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "See also", "Gong Zhu, a Chinese version of Hearts" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", " * * * * * * * Gerver, Frans (1966).", "''Tous les Jeux de Cartes''.", "Verviers: Gérard.", "* * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hastings" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hastings''' ( ) is a seaside town and borough in East Sussex on the south coast of England, east of Lewes and south east of London.", "The town gives its name to the Battle of Hastings, which took place to the north-west at Senlac Hill in 1066.It later became one of the medieval Cinque Ports.", "In the 19th century, it was a popular seaside resort, as the railway allowed tourists and visitors to reach the town.", "Today, Hastings is a fishing port with the UK's largest beach-based fishing fleet.", "It has an estimated population of 91,100 as of 2021." ], [ "History", "===Early history===''Hastings- Boats making the Shore in a Breeze,'' by John James Chalon, 1819The first mention of Hastings is found in the late 8th century in the form ''Hastingas''.", "This is derived from the Old English tribal name ''Hæstingas'', meaning 'the constituency (followers) of Hæsta'.", "Symeon of Durham records the victory of Offa in 771 over the ''Hestingorum gens'', that is, \"the people of the Hastings tribe.\"", "Hastingleigh in Kent was named after that tribe.", "The place name ''Hæstingaceaster'' is found in the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' entry for 1050, and may be an alternative name for Hastings.", "However, the absence of any archaeological remains of or documentary evidence for a Roman fort at Hastings suggest that ''Hæstingaceaster'' may refer to a different settlement, most likely that based on the Roman remains at Pevensey.Evidence of prehistoric settlements have been found at the town site: flint arrowheads and Bronze Age artefacts have been found.", "Iron Age forts have been excavated on both the East and West Hills.", "This suggests that the inhabitants moved early to the safety of the valley in between the forts.", "The settlement was already based on the port when the Romans arrived in Britain for the first time in 55 BC.", "At this time, they began to exploit the iron (Wealden rocks provide a plentiful supply of the ore), and shipped it out by boat.", "Iron was worked locally at Beauport Park, to the north of the town.", "It employed up to one thousand men and is considered to have been the third-largest mine in the Roman Empire.", "There was also a possible iron-working site near Blacklands Church in the town – the old name of 'Ponbay Bridge' for a bridge that used to exist in the area is a corruption of 'Pond Bay' as suggested by Thomas Ross (Mayor of Hastings and author of an 1835 guide book)With the departure of the Romans, the town suffered setbacks.", "The Beauport site was abandoned, and the town suffered from problems from nature and man-made attacks.", "The Sussex coast has always suffered from occasional violent storms; with the additional hazard of longshore drift (the eastward movement of shingle along the coast), the coastline has been frequently changing.", "The original Roman port is likely now under the sea.Bulverhythe was probably a harbour used by Danish invaders, which suggests that ''-hythe'' or ''hithe'' means a port or small haven.===Kingdom of Haestingas===From the 6th century AD until 771, the people of the area around modern-day Hastings, identified the territory as that of the Haestingas tribe and a kingdom separate from the surrounding kingdoms of Suth Saxe (\"South Saxons\", i.e.", "Sussex) and Kent.", "It worked to retain its separate cultural identity until the 11th century.", "The kingdom was probably a sub-kingdom, the object of a disputed overlordship by the two powerful neighbouring kingdoms: when King Wihtred of Kent settled a dispute with King Ine of Sussex & Wessex in 694, it is probable that he ceded the overlordship of Haestingas to Ine as part of the treaty.In 771 King Offa of Mercia invaded Southern England, and over the next decade gradually seized control of Sussex and Kent.", "Symeon of Durham records a battle fought at an unidentified location near Hastings in 771, at which Offa defeated the Haestingas tribe, effectively ending its existence as a separate kingdom.", "By 790, Offa controlled Hastings effectively enough to confirm grants of land in Hastings to the Abbey of St Denis, in Paris.", "But, the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' for 1011 relates that Vikings overran \"all Kent, Sussex, Surrey and Haestingas\", indicating the town was still considered a separate 'county' or province to its neighbours 240 years after Offa's conquest.During the reign of Athelstan, he established a royal mint in Hastings in AD 928.===Medieval Hastings===Duke William of Normandy (right) lances King Harold II of England at the Battle of Hastings.", "14th-century manuscript in the British Library, London.The start of the Norman Conquest was the Battle of Hastings, fought on 14 October 1066, although the battle itself took place to the north at Senlac Hill, and William had landed on the coast between Hastings and Eastbourne at Pevensey.", "It is thought that the Norman encampment was on the town's outskirts, where there was open ground; a new town was already being built in the valley to the east.", "That \"New Burgh\" was founded in 1069 and is mentioned in the Domesday Book as such.", "William defeated and killed Harold Godwinson, the last Saxon King of England, and destroyed his army, thus opening England to the Norman conquest.William caused a castle to be built at Hastings probably using the earthworks of the existing Saxon castle.Hastings was shown as a borough by the time of the Domesday Book (1086); it had also given its name to the Rape of Hastings, one of the six administrative divisions of Sussex.", "As a borough, Hastings had a corporation consisting of a \"bailiff, jurats, and commonalty\".", "By a Charter of Elizabeth I in 1589, the bailiff was replaced by a mayor.Muslim scholar Muhammad al-Idrisi, writing c.1153, described Hastings as \"a town of large extent and many inhabitants, flourishing and handsome, having markets, workpeople and rich merchants\".===Hastings and the sea===Turner (1810)By the end of the Saxon period, the port of Hastings had moved eastward near the present town centre in the Priory Stream valley, whose entrance was protected by the White Rock headland (since demolished).", "It was to be a short stay: Danish attacks and huge floods in 1011 and 1014 motivated the townspeople to relocate to the New Burgh.In the Middle Ages Hastings became one of the Cinque Ports; Sandwich, Dover and New Romney being the first, Hastings and Hythe followed, all finally being joined by Rye and Winchelsea, at one point 42 towns were directly or indirectly affiliated with the group.Hastings Castle, with the Pier and Town Centre in the background, and Eastbourne on the horizonIn the 13th century, much of the town and half of Hastings Castle was washed away in the South England flood of February 1287.During a naval campaign of 1339, and again in 1377, the town was raided and burnt by the French, and seems then to have gone into a decline.", "As a port, Hastings' days were finished.Hastings town centre and the Memorial from an old postcardHastings had suffered over the years from the lack of a natural harbour, and there have been attempts to create a sheltered harbour.", "Attempts were made to build a stone harbour during the reign of Elizabeth I, but the foundations were destroyed by the sea in terrible storms.", "The fishing boats are still stored on and launched from the beach.Hastings was then just a small fishing settlement, but it was soon discovered that the new taxes on luxury goods could be made profitable by smuggling; the town was ideally located for that purpose.", "Near the castle ruins, on the West Hill, are \"St Clement's Caves\", partly natural, but mainly excavated by hand by smugglers from the soft sandstone.", "Their trade was to come to an end with the period following the Napoleonic Wars, for the town became one of the most fashionable resorts in Britain, brought about by the so-called health-giving properties of seawater, as well as the local springs and Roman baths.", "Once this came about the expansion of the town took place, to the west, since there was little space left in the valley.The double decker promenade that runs from Hastings Pier beyond Marine Court (seen in the distance), with a break at Warrior Square, was built in the 1930s by the borough engineer Sidney LittleIt was at this time that the elegant Pelham Crescent and Wellington Square were built: other building followed.", "In the Crescent (designed by architect Joseph Kay) is the classical style church of St Mary in the Castle (its name recalling the old chapel in the castle above) now in use as an arts centre.", "The building of the crescent and the church necessitated further cutting away of the castle hill cliffs.", "Once that move away from the old town had begun, it led to the further expansion along the coast, eventually linking up with the new St Leonards.The extensive development meant that a large transient work-force was required.", "Many of the people coming in to Hastings at this time, settled on some waste-ground to the west of the main town called the America Ground.", "This land, originally a shingle spit created by the great storm of 1287, was declared to be Crown Property after an inquiry held at Battle during 1827 and the land was cleared in preparation for the development of this area of land by Patrick Francis Robertson.George Street, Old townLike many coastal towns, the population of Hastings grew significantly as a result of the construction of railway links and the fashionable growth of seaside holidays during the Victorian era.", "In 1801, its population was a mere 3,175; by 1831, it had reached over ten thousand; by 1891, it was almost sixty thousand.The last harbour project began in 1896, but this also failed when structural problems and rising costs exhausted all the available funds.", "Today a fractured seawall is all that remains of what might have become a magnificent harbour.", "In 1897, the foundation stone was laid on a large concrete structure, but there was insufficient money to complete the work and the \"Harbour arm\" remains uncompleted.", "It was later partially blown up to discourage possible use by German invasion forces during World War II.Between 1903 and 1919 Fred Judge FRPS photographed many of the towns events and disasters.", "These included storms, the first tram, visit of the Lord Mayor of London, Hastings Marathon Race and the pier fire of 1917.Many of these images were produced as picture postcards by the British Postcard manufacturer he founded now known as Judges Postcards.In the 1930s, the town underwent some rejuvenation.", "Seaside resorts were starting to go out of fashion, Hastings perhaps more than most.", "The town council set about a huge rebuilding project, among which the promenade was rebuilt, and an Olympic-size bathing pool was erected.", "The latter, regarded in its day as one of the best open-air swimming and diving complexes in Europe, later became a holiday camp before closing in 1986.It was demolished, but the area is still known by locals as \"The Old Bathing Pool\".Hastings Old Town July 1965.The 2001 census reported over 85,000 inhabitants." ], [ "Governance", "Borough of Hastings, shown within East SussexHastings returned two Members of Parliament (MPs) from the 14th century until 1885, since when it has returned one.", "Since 1983, it has been part of the parliamentary constituency of Hastings and Rye; the current MP, since December 2019, is Sally-Ann Hart of the Conservative Party.", "Prior to 1983, the town formed the Hastings parliamentary constituency by itself.Hastings, it is thought, was a Saxon town before the arrival of the Normans: the Domesday Book refers to a ''new Borough'': as a borough, Hastings had a corporation consisting of a \"bailiff, jurats, and commonalty\".", "Its importance was such that it also gave its name to one of the six Rapes or administrative districts of Sussex.Hastings Town HallBy a Charter of Elizabeth I in 1589 the bailiff was replaced by a mayor, by which time the town's importance was dwindling.", "In the Georgian era, patronage of such seaside places (such as nearby Brighton) gave it a new lease of life so that, when the time came with the reform of English local government in 1888, Hastings became a County Borough, responsible for all its local services, independent of the surrounding county, then Sussex (East); less than one hundred years later, in 1974, that status was abolished.Hastings Borough Council is now in the second tier of local government, below East Sussex County Council." ], [ "Geography and climate", "East Cliff and the beach at HastingsHastings is situated where the sandstone beds, at the heart of the Weald, known geologically as the Hastings Sands, meet the English Channel, forming tall cliffs to the east of the town.", "Hastings Old Town is in a sheltered valley between the East Hill and West Hill (on which the remains of the Castle stand).", "In Victorian times and later the town has spread westwards and northwards, and now forms a single urban centre with the more suburban area of St Leonards-on-Sea to the west.", "Roads from the Old Town valley lead towards the Victorian area of Clive Vale and the former village of Ore, from which \"The Ridge\", marking the effective boundary of Hastings, extends north-westwards towards Battle.", "Beyond Bulverhythe, the western end of Hastings is marked by low-lying land known as Glyne Gap, separating it from Bexhill-on-Sea.The sandstone cliffs have been the subject of considerable erosion in relatively recent times: much of the Castle was lost to the sea before the present sea defences and promenade were built, and a number of cliff-top houses are in danger of disappearing around the nearby village of Fairlight.The beach is mainly shingle, although wide areas of sand are uncovered at low tide.", "The town is generally built upon a series of low hills rising to above sea level at \"The Ridge\" before falling back in the river valley further to the north.Dinosaur footprint found amongst rocks at the cliff baseThere are three Sites of Special Scientific Interest within the borough; Marline Valley Woods, Combe Haven and Hastings Cliffs To Pett Beach.", "Marline Valley Woods lies within the Ashdown ward of Hastings.", "It is an ancient woodland of Pedunculate oak—hornbeam which is uncommon nationally.", "Sussex Wildlife Trust own part of the site.", "Combe Haven is another site of biological interest, with alluvial meadows, and the largest reed bed in the county, providing habitat for breeding birds.", "It is in the West St Leonards ward, stretching into the parish of Crowhurst.", "The final SSSI, Hastings Cliffs to Pett Beach, is within the Ore ward of Hastings, extending into the neighbouring Fairlight and Pett parishes.", "The site runs along the coast and is of both biological and geological interest.", "The cliffs hold many fossils and the site has many habitats, including ancient woodland and shingle beaches.===Climate===As with the rest of the British Isles and Southern England, Hastings experiences a maritime climate with mild summers and mild winters.", "In terms of the local climate, Hastings is on the eastern edge of what is, on average, the sunniest part of the UK, the stretch of coast from the Isle of Wight southeastern coast Sandown Bay to the Hastings area.", "Hastings, tied with Eastbourne, recorded the highest duration of sunshine of any month anywhere in the United Kingdom – 384 hours – in July 1911.Temperature extremes since 1960 at Hastings have ranged from in July 2019, down to in January 1987.A new record temperature of was recorded on 19 July 2022 The Köppen climate classification subtype for this climate is \"Cfb\" (Marine West Coast Climate/Oceanic climate).===Neighbourhoods and areas===Some of the areas and suburbs of Hastings are Ore, St Leonards, Silverhill, West St Leonards, and Hollington.", "Ore, Silverhill and Hollington were once villages that have since become part of the Hastings conurbation area during rapid growth.", "The original part of St Leonards was bought by James Burton and laid out by his son, the architect Decimus Burton, in the early 19th century as a new town: a place of elegant houses designed for the well-off.", "It also included a central public garden, a hotel, an archery, assembly rooms and a church.", "Today's St Leonards has extended well beyond that original design, although the original town still exists within it." ], [ "Demography", "The population of the town in 2001 was 85,029, by 2009 the estimated population was 86,900.Hastings suffers at a disadvantage insofar as growth is concerned because of its restricted situation, lying as it does with the High Weald Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty to the north.", "Redevelopment of the area is partly hampered by the split administration of the combined Hastings and Bexhill economic region between Hastings and Rother district councils.", "There is little space for further large-scale housing and employment growth within the designated boundaries of Hastings, and development on the outskirts is resisted by Rother council whose administrative area surrounds Hastings.", "Rother has a policy of urban expansion in the area immediately north of Bexhill, but this requires infrastructure improvements by central Governments which have been under discussion for decades.", "This situation has now become the subject of parliamentary consideration.===Ethnicity=== Ethnicity Count Percentage White: British 80004 94.09 White: Irish 808 0.95 White: Other 1686 1.98 Mixed: White and Black Caribbean 320 0.38 Mixed: White and Black African 145 0.17 Mixed: White and Asian 361 0.42 Mixed: Other 268 0.32 Asian: Indian 317 0.37 Asian: Pakistani 57 0.07 Asian: Bangladeshi 112 0.13 Asian: Other 143 0.17 Black: Caribbean 184 0.22 Black: African 180 0.21 Black: Other 46 0.05 Chinese 180 0.21 Other 220 0.26Ethnicity in 2001" ], [ "Economy", "Traditional fisher on the shingle beach at Hastings – Rye registrationUntil the development of tourism, fishing was Hastings' major industry.", "The fishing fleet, based at the Stade, remains Europe's largest beach-launched fishing fleet and has recently won accreditation for its sustainable methods.", "The fleet has been based on the same beach, below the cliffs at Hastings, for at least 400, possibly 600, years.", "Its longevity is attributed to the prolific fishing ground of Rye Bay nearby.", "Hastings fishing vessels are registered at Rye, and thus bear the letters \"RX\" ('''R'''ye, Susse'''X''').There are now various industrial estates that lie around the town, mostly on the outskirts, which include engineering, catering, motoring and construction; however, most of the jobs within the Borough are concentrated on health, public services, retail and education.", "85% of the firms (in 2005) employed fewer than 10 people; as a consequence the unemployment rate was 3.3% (''cf.''", "East Sussex 1.7%).", "However, qualification levels are similar to the national average: 8.2% of the working-age population have no qualifications while 28% hold degree-level qualifications or higher, compared with 11% and 31% respectively across England.===Shopping and retail===Entrance to Kings Walk, Priory Meadow Shopping CentreHastings main shopping centre is Priory Meadow Shopping Centre, which was built on the site of the old Central Recreation Ground which played host to some Sussex CCC first-class fixtures, and cricketing royalty such as Dr. W. G. Grace and Sir Don Bradman.", "The centre houses 56 stores and covers around 420,000 ft2.Further retail areas in the town centre include Queens Road, Wellington Place and Robertson Street.Lacuna Place by Proctor and Matthews Architects, where the SAGA offices are basedThere are plans to expand the retail area in Hastings, which includes expanding Priory Meadow and creating more retail space as part of the Priory Quarter development.", "Priory was intended to have a second floor added to part of the retail area, which has not happened yet and so far only office space has been created as part of the Priory Quarter.===Regeneration===In 2002 the Hastings and Bexhill task force, set up by the South East England Development Agency, was founded to regenerate the local economy, a 10-year programme being set up to tackle the local reliance on public sector employment.", "The regeneration scheme saw the construction of the University Centre Hastings, (now known as the University of Brighton in Hastings) the new Sussex Coast College campus and construction of the Priory Quarter, which still remains unfinished but now houses Saga offices, bringing 800 new jobs to the area." ], [ "Culture and community", "===Cadets===Hastings has an Army Cadet Force (ACF) detachment which is part of Sussex ACF.", "This detachment is based in the old Territorial Army Unit Building on Cinque Ports Way, and is affiliated to PWRR.", "Hastings also has a Royal Air Force Air Cadet Squadron, 304 (Hastings) Squadron of Sussex Wing RAFAC, based in the same building.", "The town also has a Sea Cadet squadron, T.S.", "''Hastings''.", "This sits adjacent to the Army and Air Cadet building on the seafront.", "The site features a climbing wall and other training facilities.===Events===Hastings Borough Bonfire Society at the Old Town Carnival 2010Jack in the Green celebration: a giant mermaid processing through Hastings Old TownThroughout the year many annual events take place in Hastings, the largest of which being the May Day bank holiday weekend, which features a Jack-in-the-Green festival (revived since 1983) and usually falls around 1-3 May, and the culmination of the Maydayrun—tens of thousands of motorcyclists having ridden the A21 to Hastings.", "The yearly carnival during Old Town Week takes place every August, which includes a week of events around Hastings Old Town, including a Seaboot race, bike race, street party and pram race.", "In September, there is a month-long arts festival 'Coastal Currents' and a Seafood and Wine Festival.", "During Hastings Week held each year around 14 October the Hastings Bonfire Society stages a traditional Sussex Bonfire which includes a torchlight procession through the streets, a beach bonfire and firework display.Hastings Pirate Day takes place in July every year.", "Hastings, as of November 2017, still holds the Guinness World Record for the most pirates in one place.Other events include the Hastings Beer and Music Festival, held every July on the Oval (Previously Alexandra Park), the Hastings Musical Festival held every March in the White Rock Theatre, the International Composers Festival split between Hastings and Bexhill during August and the Hastings International Chess Congress.", "There is also a small Wildman event in late January.===Theatre and cinema===There are two main theatres in the town, the White Rock Theatre and the Stables Theatre.", "The White Rock theatre is the venue of the yearly pantomime and throughout the year hosts comedy, dance and music acts.", "The Stables stages more local productions and acts as an arts exhibition centre.", "An additional theatre is located in Cambridge Road, the Opus Theatre in a space shared with the His Place church in what used to be the Robertson Street United Reformed Church.There is a small four screen Odeon cinema in the town, located opposite the town hall; however, there are plans to build a new multiplex cinema as part of the Priory Quarter development in the town centre.", "The town has an independent cinema called the Electric Palace located in the Old Town and a restored cinema in St Leonards called the Kino Teatr.", "The new luxury 'Sussex Exchange' Cinema, bar and conference venue is situated in St. Leonards.The Regal cinema and the Cinema de Luxe in Hastings, and the Elite Cinema in St. Leonards, featured in a 1942 legal case, Regal (Hastings) Ltd v Gulliver, a leading case heard in the High Court and the Appeal Court, and ultimately resolved in the House of Lords, on the issue of company directors' duty of loyalty to the company they direct.===Museums and art galleries===Fishermen's Museum, housed in former St. Nicholas Church.", "Opened in 1854, it is a grade II listed building.There are three museums in Hastings; the Hastings Museum and Art Gallery, the Hastings Fishermen's Museum and the Shipwreck Museum.", "The former two mentioned are open for the whole year while the Shipwreck Museum is open only weekends during the winter, but daily for the rest of the year.The Hastings Museum and Art gallery concentrates mostly on local history and contains exhibits on Grey Owl and John Logie Baird.", "It also features a Durbar Hall, donated by Lord Brassey; the hall contains displays focusing on the Indian subcontinent and the Brassey Family.", "The Fishermen's Museum, housed in the former fishermen's church, is dedicated to the fishing industry and maritime history of Hastings.", "The Shipwreck Museum displays artifacts from wrecks around the area.The Hastings Contemporary (formerly Jerwood Gallery until 02 July 2019) located in the Stade area of Hastings Old Town is the home for the Jerwood Collection of 20th and 21st century art and a changing contemporary exhibition programme.", "The project was opposed by many locals who felt that a new art gallery would have been better located elsewhere in the town.In 2019, following a funding dispute with its sponsor the Jerwood Foundation, the gallery was renamed the Hastings Contemporary.===Parks and open spaces===There are many parks and open spaces located throughout the town, one of the most popular and largest being Alexandra Park opened in 1882 by the Prince and Princess of Wales.", "The park contains gardens, open spaces, woods, a bandstand, tennis courts and a cafe.", "Other open spaces include White Rock Gardens, West Marina Gardens, St Leonards Gardens, Gensing Gardens, Markwick Gardens, Summerfields Woods, Linton Gardens, Hollington woods, Filsham Valley, Warrior Square, Castle Hill, St Helens Woods and Hastings Country Park.===Local media===Local news and television programmes is provided by BBC South East and ITV Meridian.", "Television signals are received from the local TV transmitter.", "Hastings’s local radio stations are BBC Radio Sussex on 104.5 FM, Heart South on 102.0 FM and More Radio Hastings on 107.8 FM.Local newspapers are the Hastings Observer and Hastings Independent Press." ], [ "Landmarks", "An aerial view of Hastings Castle.", "Also shown St. Mary in the castle, former church completed 1828.The listed building is now a 500-seat auditorium and exhibition venue.Hastings Castle was built in 1070 by the Normans, four years after the Norman invasion.", "It is located on the West Hill, overlooking the town centre and is a Grade I listed building.", "Little remains of the castle apart from the arch left from the chapel, part of the walls and dungeons.", "The nearby St. Clements Caves are home to the Smugglers Adventure, which features interactive displays relating to the history of smuggling on the south coast of England.Hastings Pier can be seen from any part of the seafront in the town.", "The old pier was opened in 1872, but closed in 2006 following safety concerns from the council.", "In October 2010, a serious fire burned down most of the buildings on the pier and caused further damage to the structure.", "However, the pier reopened on 27 April 2016 in modern architectural forms after a £14.2m refurbishment.", "It won the Stirling Prize of the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA)in 2017.Marine CourtMany church buildings throughout the town are Grade II listed including; Church in the Wood, Blacklands Parish Church, Ebenezer Particular Baptist Chapel, Fishermen's Museum and St Mary Magdalene's Church.On the seafront at St Leonards is Marine Court, a 1938 block of flats in the Art Deco style that was originally called 'The Ship' due to its style being based on the ocean liner RMS ''Queen Mary''.", "This block of flats can be seen up to away on a clear day, from Holywell, in the Meads area of Eastbourne.An important former landmark was \"the Memorial\", a clock tower commemorating Albert the Prince Consort which stood for many years at the traffic junction at the town centre, but was demolished following an arson attack in the 1970s." ], [ "Transport", "===Road===Hastings urban area (2011 census: includes Bexhill) is by a sizeable margin the most populous area in Britain to have no direct dual-carriageway link to the national motorway network.", "There are two major roads in Hastings: the A21 trunk road to London; and the A259 coastal road.", "Both are beset with traffic problems: although the London road, which has to contend with difficult terrain, has had several sections of widening over the past decades there are still many delays.", "Long-term plans for a much improved A259 east–west route (including a Hastings bypass) were abandoned in the 1990s.", "A new Hastings-Bexhill Link Road opened in April 2016 known as the A2690 with the hope of reducing traffic congestion along the A259 Bexhill Road.", "The new link road travels from Queensway in the North of Hastings and joins up to the A259 in Bexhill.", "Hastings is also linked to Battle via the A2100, the original London road.The town is served by Stagecoach South East buses on routes that serve the town, and also extend to Bexhill, Eastbourne and Dover as part of The Wave route.", "Stagecoach also run long distance buses up to Northiam, Hawkhurst, Royal Tunbridge Wells, Ashford and Canterbury.National Express run service 023 to London.===National rail===1914 Railway Junction Diagram of Hastings area lines and stations; the Bexhill West branch and West Marina station have since closed.Front of Hastings railway station, rebuilt in 2004Hastings has four rail links: two to London, one to Brighton and one to Ashford.", "Of the London lines, the shorter is the Hastings Line, the former South Eastern Railway (SER) route to Charing Cross via Battle and Tunbridge Wells, which opened in 1852; and the longer is the East Coastway Line, the former London, Brighton & South Coast Railway (LBSCR) route to Victoria via Bexhill, Eastbourne and Lewes.", "Trains to Brighton also use the East Coastway Line.", "The Marshlink Line runs via Rye to Ashford where a connection can be made with Eurostar services, and is unelectrified except for the Hastings to Ore segment.A historic British Rail Class 201 \"Thumper\" can sometimes be seen on historic runs to and from Hastings.Hastings is served by two rail companies: Southeastern and Southern.", "Southeastern services run along the Hastings Line, generally terminating at Hastings, with some peak services extending to Ore; the other lines are served by Southern, with services terminating at Ore or Ashford.The town currently has four railway stations: from west to east they are West St Leonards, St Leonards Warrior Square, Hastings and Ore; this latter has been proposed to be renamed to Ore Valley.", "There is also one closed station and one proposed station in the area.", "West Marina station (on the LBSCR line) was very near West St Leonards (on the SER line) and was closed in 1967.A new station has been proposed at Glyne Gap in Bexhill, which would also serve residents from western Hastings.===Local rail===East Hill Lift: one of the two funicular railways in HastingsThere are two funicular railways, known locally as the West Hill and East Hill Lifts respectively.The Hastings Miniature Railway operates along the beach from Rock-a-Nore to Marine Parade, and has provided tourist transport since 1948.The railway was considerably restored and re-opened in 2010.===Paths===The Saxon Shore Way, (a long distance footpath, in length from Gravesend, Kent traces the Kent and Sussex coast \"as it was in Roman times\" to Hastings.", "The National Cycle Network route NCR2 links Dover to St Austell along the south coast, and passes through Hastings.===Historical transport systems=======Turnpike====In 1753 many prominent Hastings figures – including the major landowners Edward Milward and John Collier – obtained an Act that allowed them to take control of the existing Hastings-London trackway via Battle and Whatlington, as far north as Flimwell, however the first properly recognised turnpike developed in St. Leonards in 1837 when builder James Burton was building his new town of St Leonards.", "The route of the road is that taken by the A21 today.====Trams and Trolleybuses====Map of the Hastings and District Electric TramwaysHastings had a network of trams from 1905 to 1929.The trams ran as far as Bexhill, and were worked by overhead electric wires, except for the stretch along the seafront from Bo-Peep to the Memorial, which was initially worked by the Dolter stud contact system.", "The Dolter system was replaced by petrol electric trams in 1914 due to safety concerns, but overhead electrification was extended to this section in 1921.Trolleybuses rather than trams were used in the section that included the very narrow High Street, and the entire tram network was replaced by the Hastings trolleybus system in 1928–1929.Maidstone & District bought the Hastings Tramway Company in 1935, but the trolleybuses still carried the \"Hastings Tramways\" logo until shortly before they were replaced by diesel buses in 1959, following the failure of the \"Save our trolleys\" campaign." ], [ "Education", "Hastings has 18 primary schools, four secondary schools, one further education college and one higher education institution.The University of Brighton in Hastings offers higher education courses in a range of subjects and currently attracts over 800 students.", "The university's Hastings campus doubled in size in 2012, with the addition of the new Priory Square building designed by Proctor and Matthews Architects.", "This is located in the town centre a short distance from the railway station.Sussex Coast College and Hastings railway stationSussex Coast College, formerly called Hastings College, is the town's further education college; it is located at Station Plaza, next to the railway station.The secondary schools in the town include Ark Alexandra Academy, Hastings Academy and The St Leonards Academy.", "East Sussex County Council closed three mixed comprehensive schools: Filsham Valley, The Grove and Hillcrest, replacing them with two academy schools; The St Leonards Academy, and The Hastings Academy.", "The sponsors for the academies are University of Brighton (lead sponsor), British Telecom and East Sussex County Council itself." ], [ "Religious buildings", "The most important buildings from the late medieval period are the two churches in the Old Town, St Clement's (probably built after 1377) and All Saints (early 15th century).There is also a mosque, formerly \"Mercatoria School\" until purchased by the East Sussex Islamic Association.", "The former Ebenezer Particular Baptist Chapel in the Old Town dates from 1817 and is listed at Grade II.", "Christ Church, Blacklands (1876) has a complete decorative scheme of Mural, Stained Glass, Mosaic and Wrought Iron from the firm of Hardman's which gives it a ll* listing.", "When St. Andrew's was demolished in 1970 to make way for a supermarket, a fragment of the decorative scheme there, painted by Robert Noonan (also known as Robert Tressell, author of ''The Ragged Trousered Philanthropists'') was rescued and features in the Hastings Museum.", "The Parish and title were added to Blacklands Church." ], [ "Sport", "Runners during the 2009 edition of the Hastings Half Marathon.Every year the Hastings Half Marathon is held in the town although due to Covid-19 restrictions there was no half marathon that took place in 2020 or 2021.The 13.1 mi (21.1 km) race first took place in 1984 and attracts entrants from all over the country, taking runners on a route encircling the town, starting and finishing by the West Marina Gardens in St Leonards.Hastings United is the town's most senior football team, playing in the Premier Division of the Isthmian League.", "It was founded in 1894 and plays its home games at The Pilot Field, which ground used to be home to two other senior clubs; St Leonards and the original Hastings United which folded in 1985.There are football clubs in Hastings that compete in the East Sussex League, such as Hollington United, St Leonards Social and Rock-a-Nore, playing at local parks and recreation grounds about the town.", "United attracted sports media headlines, when in 2013 they made it to the third round of the FA Cup for the first time in their history, being the lowest ranked team left in the contest before going out – losing 4–1 to Middlesbrough.The Central Recreation Ground was one of England's oldest, most scenic and most famous cricket grounds.", "The first match was played there in 1864 and the last in 1989, after which the site was redeveloped into a shopping centre which opened in 1996.It was particularly popular with touring Australian sides who played 18 matches there.", "Hastings Priory is the town's largest cricket club, having 4 teams playing competitive, as well as a large junior section.", "The club's home is at Horntye Park, though it also makes use of the facilities at Ark Alexandra Academy.ARK Alexandra Academy sees clubs using the school as their base, such as Hastings & Bexhill Rugby Football Club, Hastings Athletic Club and Hastings Priory Cricket Club 3rd and 4th teams.Founded in 1895 South Saxons Hockey Club is one of the largest sports clubs in Hastings and is the towns only field hockey club.", "Locally known as 'Saxons' their home ground is the astroturf pitch at Horntye Park Sports Complex.", "Saxons field nine Saturday teams (4 Mens, 2 Ladies, 2 Boys development and a Girls development team).", "Saxons also have a thriving junior section who train on a Sunday and play in county 7's tournaments.", "Saxons Mens 1st XI play in Kent and Sussex Regional Division One and Saxons Ladies 1st XI play in Sussex Ladies League Premier Division.Hastings Conquerors is the town's only American Football Club.", "The club was founded in March 2013 by local resident Chris Chillingworth and currently trains at William Parker Sports College.", "The club made history in June 2013 when it became the UK's first Co-Operative run not-for-profit American Football club.There are many bowling greens in the parks and gardens located about the town; the Hastings Open Bowls Tournament has been held annually in June since 1911 and attracts many entrants country-wide.Since 1920 Hastings has hosted the Hastings International Chess Congress.", "The annual event is held over the Christmas period at Horntye Park Sports Complex.", "A testament to its importance is that every World Champion before Garry Kasparov except Bobby Fischer played at Hastings including Emanuel Lasker (1895), José Raúl Capablanca (1919, 1929/30, 1930/1 and 1934/5), Alexander Alekhine (1922, 1925/6, 1933/4 and 1936/7), Max Euwe (1923/4, 1930/1, 1931/2, 1934/5, 1945/6 and 1949/50), Mikhail Botvinnik (1934/5, 1961/2 and 1966/7), Vasily Smyslov (1954/5, 1962/3 and 1968/9), Mikhail Tal (1963/4), Tigran Petrosian (1977/8), Boris Spassky (1965/6), and Anatoly Karpov (1971/2).Hastings & St Leonards/Hastings Downs Golf Club (now defunct) was founded in 1893.The club disappeared in the 1950s.Hastings has hosted the World Crazy Golf Championships since 2003." ], [ "Notable people", "John Logie Baird lived in Hastings in the 1920s where he carried out experiments that led to the transmission of the first television image.", "Robert Tressell wrote ''The Ragged-Trousered Philanthropists'' in Hastings between 1906 and 1910.Many notable figures were born, raised, or lived in Hastings, including computer scientist Alan Turing, poet Fiona Pitt-Kethley, actress Gwen Watford, comedian Jo Brand, Madness singer Suggs and Thomas H. Jukes, biologist.Gareth Barry, who holds the record number of appearances in the Premier League, was born in Hastings.", "Archibald Belaney, the author who worked as Grey Owl, was born in Hastings and lived here for several years.Harry H Corbett, an actor best known for his role as Harold Steptoe in the BBC sitcom Steptoe and Son, lived in Hastings up until his death in 1982.Mark Edwards, a best-selling British fiction writer, grew up in Hastings.", "Anna Brassey, a collector and feminist pioneer of early photography, was based in Hastings until her death in 1887 (she was buried at sea).Tom Chaplin, best known as the lead singer of the English pop rock band Keane, was born in Hastings.The internationally renowned punk rock band Maid of Ace is from Hastings." ], [ "Filmography", "===Film===''Shadow of a Man'' (1956)''The Canterbury Tales (1972)''''I Want You'' (1998)''Grey Owl'' (1999)''Some Voices'' (2000)''The Final Curtain'' (2000)''The Last of the Blonde Bombshells'' (2000)''Another Life (2001)''''When I Was 12'' (2001)''Byzantium'' (2013)''Drunk on Love (2015)''''The Great Escaper'' (2023)===Television===''Buddy'' (1986)''Foyle's War'' (2002–15)''Roadkill (TV series)'' (2020)''Giri/Haji TV series'' (2019) ''Close to Me'' (2021)" ], [ "Twin towns", "Hastings is twinned with: Béthune, France* Oudenaarde, Belgium* Schwerte, Germany* Dordrecht, Netherlands* Hastings, Sierra Leone" ], [ "See also", "Healthcare in SussexHastings Borough Council elections" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Bibliography===******''Down the Line to Hastings'' Brian Jewell, The Baton Press Robert J Harley, ''Hastings Tramways''.", "Middleton Press 1993..*" ], [ "External links", " Hastings Borough Council official website" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Human rights" ], [ "Introduction", "''Magna Carta'' or \"Great Charter\" was one of the world's first documents containing commitments by a sovereign to his people to respect certain legal rights.", "'''Human rights''' are moral principles or norms for certain standards of human behaviour and are regularly protected in municipal and international law.", "They are commonly understood as inalienable, fundamental rights \"to which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being\" and which are \"inherent in all human beings\", regardless of their age, ethnic origin, location, language, religion, ethnicity, or any other status.", "They are applicable everywhere and at every time in the sense of being universal, and they are egalitarian in the sense of being the same for everyone.", "They are regarded as requiring empathy and the rule of law and imposing an obligation on persons to respect the human rights of others, and it is generally considered that they should not be taken away except as a result of due process based on specific circumstances.The doctrine of human rights has been highly influential within international law and global and regional institutions.", "Actions by states and non-governmental organisations form a basis of public policy worldwide.", "The idea of human rights suggests that \"if the public discourse of peacetime global society can be said to have a common moral language, it is that of human rights\".", "The strong claims made by the doctrine of human rights continue to provoke considerable scepticism and debates about the content, nature and justifications of human rights to this day.", "The precise meaning of the term ''right'' is controversial and is the subject of continued philosophical debate; while there is consensus that human rights encompass a wide variety of rights such as the right to a fair trial, protection against enslavement, prohibition of genocide, free speech or a right to education, there is disagreement about which of these particular rights should be included within the general framework of human rights; some thinkers suggest that human rights should be a minimum requirement to avoid the worst-case abuses, while others see it as a higher standard.", "It has also been argued that human rights are \"God-given\", although this notion has been criticized.Many of the basic ideas that animated the human rights movement developed in the aftermath of the Second World War and the events of the Holocaust, culminating in the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Paris by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948.Ancient peoples did not have the same modern-day conception of universal human rights.", "The true forerunner of human rights discourse was the concept of natural rights which appeared as part of the medieval natural law tradition that became prominent during the European Enlightenment with such philosophers as John Locke, Francis Hutcheson and Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui and which featured prominently in the political discourse of the American Revolution and the French Revolution.", "From this foundation, the modern human rights arguments emerged over the latter half of the 20th century, possibly as a reaction to slavery, torture, genocide and war crimes, as a realization of inherent human vulnerability and as being a precondition for the possibility of a just society.", "Human rights advocacy has continued into the early 21st century, centered around achieving greater economic and political freedom." ], [ "History", "U.S.", "Declaration of Independence ratified by the Continental Congress on 4 July 1776The concept of human rights has, in some sense, existed for centuries, although peoples have not always thought of universal human rights in the same way humans do today.Among the oldest evidence of human rights is the Cyrus Cylinder dated from 6th Century BCE, it had rights like no slavery, worship of your own religion, and racial equality.The true forerunner of human rights discourse was the concept of natural rights which appeared as part of the medieval natural law tradition.", "This tradition was heavily influenced by the writings of St Paul's early Christian thinkers such as St Hilary of Poitiers, St Ambrose, and St Augustine.", "Augustine was among the earliest to examine the legitimacy of the laws of man, and attempt to define the boundaries of what laws and rights occur naturally based on wisdom and conscience, instead of being arbitrarily imposed by mortals, and if people are obligated to obey laws that are unjust.This medieval tradition became prominent during the European Enlightenment.", "From this foundation, the modern human rights arguments emerged over the latter half of the 20th century.", "''Magna Carta'' is an English charter originally issued in 1215 which influenced the development of the common law and many later constitutional documents related to human rights, such as the 1689 English Bill of Rights, the 1789 United States Constitution, and the 1791 United States Bill of Rights.17th century English philosopher John Locke discussed natural rights in his work, identifying them as being \"life, liberty, and estate (property)\", and argued that such fundamental rights could not be surrendered in the social contract.", "In Britain in 1689, the English Bill of Rights and the Scottish Claim of Right each made a range of oppressive governmental actions, illegal.", "Two major revolutions occurred during the 18th century, in the United States (1776) and in France (1789), leading to the United States Declaration of Independence and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen respectively, both of which articulated certain human rights.", "Additionally, the Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776 encoded into law a number of fundamental civil rights and civil freedoms.===1800 to World War I===Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen approved by the National Assembly of France, 26 August 1789Philosophers such as Thomas Paine, John Stuart Mill, and Hegel expanded on the theme of universality during the 18th and 19th centuries.", "In 1831, William Lloyd Garrison wrote in a newspaper called ''The Liberator'' that he was trying to enlist his readers in \"the great cause of human rights\", so the term ''human rights'' probably came into use sometime between Paine's ''The Rights of Man'' and Garrison's publication.", "In 1849 a contemporary, Henry David Thoreau, wrote about human rights in his treatise ''On the Duty of Civil Disobedience'' which was later influential on human rights and civil rights thinkers.", "United States Supreme Court Justice David Davis, in his 1867 opinion for Ex Parte Milligan, wrote \"By the protection of the law, human rights are secured; withdraw that protection and they are at the mercy of wicked rulers or the clamor of an excited people.", "\"Many groups and movements have managed to achieve profound social changes over the course of the 20th century in the name of human rights.", "In Western Europe and North America, labour unions brought about laws granting workers the right to strike, establishing minimum work conditions and forbidding or regulating child labour.", "The women's rights movement succeeded in gaining for many women the right to vote.", "National liberation movements in many countries succeeded in driving out colonial powers.", "One of the most influential was Mahatma Gandhi's leadership of the Indian independence movement.", "Movements by long-oppressed racial and religious minorities succeeded in many parts of the world, among them the civil rights movement, and more recent diverse identity politics movements, on behalf of women and minorities in the United States.The foundation of the International Committee of the Red Cross, the 1864 Lieber Code and the first of the Geneva Conventions in 1864 laid the foundations of International humanitarian law, to be further developed following the two World Wars.===Between World War I and World War II===The League of Nations was established in 1919 at the negotiations over the Treaty of Versailles following the end of World War I.", "The League's goals included disarmament, preventing war through collective security, settling disputes between countries through negotiation, diplomacy and improving global welfare.", "Enshrined in its Charter was a mandate to promote many of the rights which were later included in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.The League of Nations had mandates to support many of the former colonies of the Western European colonial powers during their transition from colony to independent state.Established as an agency of the League of Nations, and now part of United Nations, the International Labour Organization also had a mandate to promote and safeguard certain of the rights later included in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR):===After World War II=======Universal Declaration of Human Rights====\"It is not a treaty...", "In the future, it may well become the international Magna Carta.\"", "Eleanor Roosevelt with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1949.The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a non-binding declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948, partly in response to the events of World War II.", "The UDHR urges member states to promote a number of human, civil, economic and social rights, asserting these rights are part of the \"foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world\".", "The declaration was the first international legal effort to limit the behavior of states and make sure they did their duties to their citizens following the model of the rights-duty duality.The UDHR was framed by members of the Human Rights Commission, with Eleanor Roosevelt as chair, who began to discuss an ''International Bill of Rights'' in 1947.The members of the Commission did not immediately agree on the form of such a bill of rights, and whether, or how, it should be enforced.", "The Commission proceeded to frame the UDHR and accompanying treaties, but the UDHR quickly became the priority.", "Canadian law professor John Humprey and French lawyer René Cassin were responsible for much of the cross-national research and the structure of the document respectively, where the articles of the declaration were interpretative of the general principle of the preamble.", "The document was structured by Cassin to include the basic principles of dignity, liberty, equality and brotherhood in the first two articles, followed successively by rights pertaining to individuals; rights of individuals in relation to each other and to groups; spiritual, public and political rights; and economic, social and cultural rights.", "The final three articles place, according to Cassin, rights in the context of limits, duties and the social and political order in which they are to be realized.", "Humphrey and Cassin intended the rights in the UDHR to be legally enforceable through some means, as is reflected in the third clause of the preamble:Some of the UDHR was researched and written by a committee of international experts on human rights, including representatives from all continents and all major religions, and drawing on consultation with leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi.", "The inclusion of both civil and political rights and economic, social and cultural rights was predicated on the assumption that basic human rights are indivisible and that the different types of rights listed are inextricably linked.", "Though this principle was not opposed by any member states at the time of adoption (the declaration was adopted unanimously, with the abstention of the Soviet bloc, Apartheid South Africa and Saudi Arabia), this principle was later subject to significant challenges.On the issue of \"universal\", the declarations did not apply to domestic discrimination or racism.", "Henry J. Richardson III has argued::All major governments at the time of drafting the U.N. charter and the Universal declaration did their best to ensure, by all means known to domestic and international law, that these principles had only international application and carried no legal obligation on those governments to be implemented domestically.", "All tacitly realized that for their own discriminated-against minorities to acquire leverage on the basis of legally being able to claim enforcement of these wide-reaching rights would create pressures that would be political dynamite.The onset of the Cold War soon after the UDHR was conceived brought to the fore divisions over the inclusion of both economic and social rights and civil and political rights in the declaration.", "Capitalist states tended to place strong emphasis on civil and political rights (such as freedom of association and expression), and were reluctant to include economic and social rights (such as the right to work and the right to join a union).", "Socialist states placed much greater importance on economic and social rights and argued strongly for their inclusion.Because of the divisions over which rights to include, and because some states declined to ratify any treaties including certain specific interpretations of human rights, and despite the Soviet bloc and a number of developing countries arguing strongly for the inclusion of all rights in a so-called ''Unity Resolution'', the rights enshrined in the UDHR were split into two separate covenants, allowing states to adopt some rights and derogate others.", "Though this allowed the covenants to be created, it denied the proposed principle that all rights are linked which was central to some interpretations of the UDHR.Although the UDHR is a non-binding resolution, it is now considered to be a central component of international customary law which may be invoked under appropriate circumstances by state judiciaries and other judiciaries.====Human Rights Treaties====In 1966, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ('''ICCPR''') and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ('''ICESCR''') were adopted by the United Nations, between them making the rights contained in the UDHR binding on all states.", "However, they came into force only in 1976, when they were ratified by a sufficient number of countries (despite achieving the ICCPR, a covenant including no economic or social rights, the US only ratified the ICCPR in 1992).", "The ICESCR commits 155 state parties to work toward the granting of economic, social, and cultural rights (ESCR) to individuals.Numerous other treaties (pieces of legislation) have been offered at the international level.", "They are generally known as ''human rights instruments''.", "Some of the most significant are:Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (adopted 1948, entry into force: 1951) unhchr.chConvention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination ('''CERD''') (adopted 1966, entry into force: 1969) unhchr.chConvention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women ('''CEDAW''') (entry into force: 1981) Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against WomenUnited Nations Convention Against Torture ('''CAT''') (adopted 1984, entry into force: 1984)Convention on the Rights of the Child ('''CRC''') (adopted 1989, entry into force: 1989) Convention on the Rights of the Child \| UNICEF International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families ('''ICRMW''') (adopted 1990)Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court ('''ICC''') (entry into force: 2002)In 2022, the United Nations General Assembly has passed a resolution declaring that everyone on the planet has a right to a healthy environment, including clean air, clean water, and a stable climate." ], [ "Promotion strategies", "===Military force===Responsibility to protect refers to a doctrine for United Nations member states to intervene to protect populations from atrocities.", "It has been cited as justification in the use of recent military interventions.", "An example of an intervention that is often criticized is the 2011 military intervention in the First Libyan Civil War by NATO and Qatar where the goal of preventing atrocities is alleged to have taken upon itself the broader mandate of removing the target government.===Economic actions===Economic sanctions are often levied upon individuals or states who commit human rights violations.", "Sanctions are often criticized for its feature of collective punishment in hurting a country's population economically in order dampen that population's view of its government.", "It is also argued that, counterproductively, sanctions on offending authoritarian governments strengthen that government's position domestically as governments would still have more mechanisms to find funding than their critics and opposition, who become further weakened.The risk of human rights violations increases with the increase in financially vulnerable populations.", "Girls from poor families in non-industrialized economies are often viewed as a financial burden on the family and marriage of young girls is often driven in the hope that daughters will be fed and protected by wealthier families.", "Female genital mutilation and force-feeding of daughters is argued to be similarly driven in large part to increase their marriage prospects and thus their financial security by achieving certain idealized standards of beauty.", "In certain areas, girls requiring the experience of sexual initiation rites with men and passing sex training tests on girls are designed to make them more appealing as marriage prospects.", "Measures to help the economic status of vulnerable groups in order to reduce human rights violations include girls' education and guaranteed minimum incomes and conditional cash transfers, such as Bolsa familia which subsidize parents who keep children in school rather than contributing to family income, has successfully reduced child labor.===Informational strategies===Human rights abuses are monitored by United Nations committees, national institutions and governments and by many independent non-governmental organizations, such as Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, World Organisation Against Torture, Freedom House, International Freedom of Expression Exchange and Anti-Slavery International.", "These organisations collect evidence and documentation of human rights abuses and apply pressure to promote human rights.Educating people on the concept of human rights has been argued as a strategy to prevent human rights abuses.===Legal instruments===Many examples of legal instruments at the international, regional and national level described below are designed to enforce laws securing human rights." ], [ "Protection at the international level", "===The United Nations===The UN General AssemblyThe '''United Nations (UN)''' is the only multilateral governmental agency with universally accepted international jurisdiction for universal human rights legislation.", "All UN organs have advisory roles to the United Nations Security Council and the United Nations Human Rights Council, and there are numerous committees within the UN with responsibilities for safeguarding different human rights treaties.", "The most senior body of the UN with regard to human rights is the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights.", "The United Nations has an international mandate to: ===Human Rights Council===The UN Human Rights Council, created in 2005, has a mandate to investigate alleged human rights violations.", "47 of the 193 UN member states sit on the council, elected by simple majority in a secret ballot of the United Nations General Assembly.", "Members serve a maximum of six years and may have their membership suspended for gross human rights abuses.", "The council is based in Geneva, and meets three times a year; with additional meetings to respond to urgent situations.Independent experts (''rapporteurs'') are retained by the council to investigate alleged human rights abuses and to report to the council.The Human Rights Council may request that the Security Council refer cases to the International Criminal Court (ICC) even if the issue being referred is outside the normal jurisdiction of the ICC.===UN treaty bodies===In addition to the political bodies whose mandate flows from the UN charter, the UN has set up a number of ''treaty-based'' bodies, comprising committees of independent experts who monitor compliance with human rights standards and norms flowing from the core international human rights treaties.", "They are supported by and are created by the treaty that they monitor, With the exception of the CESCR, which was established under a resolution of the Economic and Social Council to carry out the monitoring functions originally assigned to that body under the Covenant, they are technically autonomous bodies, established by the treaties that they monitor and accountable to the state parties of those treaties – rather than subsidiary to the United Nations, though in practice they are closely intertwined with the United Nations system and are supported by the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (UNHCHR) and the UN Centre for Human Rights.", " The ''Human Rights Committee'' promotes participation with the standards of the ICCPR.", "The members of the committee express opinions on member countries and make judgments on individual complaints against countries which have ratified an Optional Protocol to the treaty.", "The judgments, termed \"views\", are not legally binding.", "The member of the committee meets around three times a year to hold sessions* The ''Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights'' monitors the ICESCR and makes general comments on ratifying countries performance.", "It will have the power to receive complaints against the countries that opted into the Optional Protocol once it has come into force.", "Unlike the other treaty bodies, the economic committee is not an autonomous body responsible to the treaty parties, but directly responsible to the Economic and Social Council and ultimately to the General Assembly.", "This means that the Economic Committee faces particular difficulties at its disposal only relatively \"weak\" means of implementation in comparison to other treaty bodies.", "Particular difficulties noted by commentators include: perceived vagueness of the principles of the treaty, relative lack of legal texts and decisions, ambivalence of many states in addressing economic, social and cultural rights, comparatively few non-governmental organisations focused on the area and problems with obtaining relevant and precise information.", "* The ''Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination'' monitors the CERD and conducts regular reviews of countries' performance.", "It can make judgments on complaints against member states allowing it, but these are not legally binding.", "It issues warnings to attempt to prevent serious contraventions of the convention.", "* The ''Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women'' monitors the CEDAW.", "It receives states' reports on their performance and comments on them, and can make judgments on complaints against countries which have opted into the 1999 Optional Protocol.", "* The ''Committee Against Torture'' monitors the CAT and receives states' reports on their performance every four years and comments on them.", "Its subcommittee may visit and inspect countries which have opted into the Optional Protocol.", "* The ''Committee on the Rights of the Child'' monitors the CRC and makes comments on reports submitted by states every five years.", "It does not have the power to receive complaints.", "* The ''Committee on Migrant Workers'' was established in 2004 and monitors the ICRMW and makes comments on reports submitted by states every five years.", "It will have the power to receive complaints of specific violations only once ten member states allow it.", "* The ''Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities'' was established in 2008 to monitor the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.", "It has the power to receive complaints against the countries which have opted into the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.", "* The ''Committee on Enforced Disappearances'' monitors the ICPPED.", "All States parties are obliged to submit reports to the committee on how the rights are being implemented.", "The Committee examines each report and addresses its concerns and recommendations to the State party in the form of \"concluding observations\".Each treaty body receives secretariat support from the Human Rights Council and Treaties Division of Office of the High Commissioner on Human Rights (OHCHR) in Geneva except CEDAW, which is supported by the Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW).", "CEDAW formerly held all its sessions at United Nations headquarters in New York but now frequently meets at the United Nations Office in Geneva; the other treaty bodies meet in Geneva.", "The Human Rights Committee usually holds its March session in New York City.The human rights enshrined in the UDHR, the Geneva Conventions and the various enforced treaties of the United Nations are enforceable in law.", "In practice, many rights are very difficult to legally enforce due to the absence of consensus on the application of certain rights, the lack of relevant national legislation or of bodies empowered to take legal action to enforce them.===International courts===The official logo of the ICCThere exist a number of internationally recognized organisations with worldwide mandate or jurisdiction over certain aspects of human rights:The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the United Nations' primary judiciary body.", "It has worldwide jurisdiction.", "It is directed by the Security Council.", "The ICJ settles disputes between nations.", "The ICJ does not have jurisdiction over individuals.", "The International Criminal Court (ICC) is the body responsible for investigating and punishing war crimes, and crimes against humanity when such occur within its jurisdiction, with a mandate to bring to justice perpetrators of such crimes that occurred after its creation in 2002.A number of UN members have not joined the court and the ICC does not have jurisdiction over their citizens, and others have signed but not yet ratified the Rome Statute, which established the court.The ICC and other international courts (see Regional human rights below) exist to take action where the national legal system of a state is unable to try the case itself.", "If national law is able to safeguard human rights and punish those who breach human rights legislation, it has primary jurisdiction by complementarity.", "Only when all ''local remedies'' have been exhausted does international law take effect." ], [ "Regional human rights regimes", "In over 110 countries, national human rights institutions (NHRIs) have been set up to protect, promote or monitor human rights with jurisdiction in a given country.", "Although not all NHRIs are compliant with the Paris Principles, the number and effect of these institutions is increasing.", "The Paris Principles were defined at the first International Workshop on National Institutions for the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights in Paris on 7–9 October 1991, and adopted by United Nations Human Rights Commission Resolution 1992/54 of 1992 and the General Assembly Resolution 48/134 of 1993.The Paris Principles list a number of responsibilities for national institutions.===Africa===Flag of the African UnionThe African Union (AU) is a continental union consisting of fifty-five African states.", "Established in 2001, the AU's purpose is to help secure Africa's democracy, human rights, and a sustainable economy, especially by bringing an end to intra-African conflict and creating an effective common market.The African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights (ACHPR) is a quasi-judicial organ of the African Union tasked with promoting and protecting human rights and collective (peoples') rights throughout the African continent as well as interpreting the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights and considering individual complaints of violations of the Charter.", "The commission has three broad areas of responsibility:* Promoting human and peoples' rights* Protecting human and peoples' rights* Interpreting the African Charter on Human and Peoples' RightsIn pursuit of these goals, the commission is mandated to \"collect documents, undertake studies and researches on African problems in the field of human and peoples, rights, organise seminars, symposia and conferences, disseminate information, encourage national and local institutions concerned with human and peoples' rights and, should the case arise, give its views or make recommendations to governments\" (Charter, Art.", "45).With the creation of the African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights (under a protocol to the Charter which was adopted in 1998 and entered into force in January 2004), the commission will have the additional task of preparing cases for submission to the Court's jurisdiction.", "In a July 2004 decision, the AU Assembly resolved that the future Court on Human and Peoples' Rights would be integrated with the African Court of Justice.The Court of Justice of the African Union is intended to be the \"principal judicial organ of the Union\" (Protocol of the Court of Justice of the African Union, Article 2.2).", "Although it has not yet been established, it is intended to take over the duties of the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights, as well as act as the supreme court of the African Union, interpreting all necessary laws and treaties.", "The Protocol establishing the African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights entered into force in January 2004 but its merging with the Court of Justice has delayed its establishment.", "The Protocol establishing the Court of Justice will come into force when ratified by 15 countries.There are many countries in Africa accused of human rights violations by the international community and NGOs.===Americas===The Organization of American States (OAS) is an international organization, headquartered in Washington, D.C., United States.", "Its members are the thirty-five independent states of the Americas.", "Over the course of the 1990s, with the end of the Cold War, the return to democracy in Latin America, and the thrust toward globalization, the OAS made major efforts to reinvent itself to fit the new context.", "Its stated priorities now include the following:* Strengthening democracy* Working for peace* Protecting human rights* Combating corruption* The rights of Indigenous Peoples* Promoting sustainable developmentThe Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (the IACHR) is an autonomous organ of the Organization of American States, also based in Washington, D.C.", "Along with the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, based in San José, Costa Rica, it is one of the bodies that comprise the inter-American system for the promotion and protection of human rights.", "The IACHR is a permanent body which meets in regular and special sessions several times a year to examine allegations of human rights violations in the hemisphere.", "Its human rights duties stem from three documents:* the American Convention on Human Rights* the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man* the Charter of the Organization of American StatesThe Inter-American Court of Human Rights was established in 1979 with the purpose of enforcing and interpreting the provisions of the American Convention on Human Rights.", "Its two main functions are thus adjudicatory and advisory.", "Under the former, it hears and rules on the specific cases of human rights violations referred to it.", "Under the latter, it issues opinions on matters of legal interpretation brought to its attention by other OAS bodies or member states.===Asia===There are no Asia-wide organisations or conventions to promote or protect human rights.", "Countries vary widely in their approach to human rights and their record of human rights protection.The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is a geo-political and economic organization of 10 countries located in Southeast Asia, which was formed in 1967 by Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand.", "The organisation now also includes Brunei Darussalam, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar and Cambodia.", "In October 2009, the ASEAN Intergovernmental Commission on Human Rights was inaugurated, and subsequently, the ASEAN Human Rights Declaration was adopted unanimously by ASEAN members on 18 November 2012.The Arab Charter on Human Rights (ACHR) was adopted by the Council of the League of Arab States on 22 May 2004.===Europe===European Court of Human Rights in StrasbourgThe Council of Europe, founded in 1949, is the oldest organisation working for European integration.", "It is an international organisation with legal personality recognised under public international law and has observer status with the United Nations.", "The seat of the Council of Europe is in Strasbourg in France.", "The Council of Europe is responsible for both the European Convention on Human Rights and the European Court of Human Rights.", "These institutions bind the council's members to a code of human rights which, though strict, are more lenient than those of the United Nations charter on human rights.", "The council also promotes the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages and the European Social Charter.", "Membership is open to all European states which seek European integration, accept the principle of the rule of law and are able and willing to guarantee democracy, fundamental human rights and freedoms.The Council of Europe is an organisation that is not part of the European Union, but the latter is expected to accede to the European Convention and potentially the Council itself.", "The EU has its own human rights document; the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union.The European Convention on Human Rights defines and guarantees since 1950 human rights and fundamental freedoms in Europe.", "All 47 member states of the Council of Europe have signed this convention and are therefore under the jurisdiction of the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg.", "In order to prevent torture and inhuman or degrading treatment (Article 3 of the convention), the European Committee for the Prevention of Torture was established." ], [ "Philosophies of human rights", "Several theoretical approaches have been advanced to explain how and why human rights become part of social expectations.One of the oldest Western philosophies on human rights is that they are a product of a natural law, stemming from different philosophical or religious grounds.Other theories hold that human rights codify moral behavior which is a human social product developed by a process of biological and social evolution (associated with Hume).", "Human rights are also described as a sociological pattern of rule setting (as in the sociological theory of law and the work of Weber).", "These approaches include the notion that individuals in a society accept rules from legitimate authority in exchange for security and economic advantage (as in Rawls) – a social contract.===Natural rights===Natural law theories base human rights on a \"natural\" moral, religious or even biological order which is independent of transitory human laws or traditions.Socrates and his philosophic heirs, Plato and Aristotle, posited the existence of natural justice or natural right (, ''δικαιον φυσικον'', Latin ).", "Of these, Aristotle is often said to be the father of natural law, although evidence for this is due largely to the interpretations of his work by Thomas Aquinas.The development of this tradition of natural justice into one of natural law is usually attributed to the Stoics.Some of the early Church fathers sought to incorporate the until then pagan concept of natural law into Christianity.", "Natural law theories have featured greatly in the philosophies of Thomas Aquinas, Francisco Suárez, Richard Hooker, Thomas Hobbes, Hugo Grotius, Samuel von Pufendorf, and John Locke.In the Seventeenth Century, Thomas Hobbes founded a contractualist theory of legal positivism on what all men could agree upon: what they sought (happiness) was subject to contention, but a broad consensus could form around what they feared (violent death at the hands of another).", "The natural law was how a rational human being, seeking to survive and prosper, would act.", "It was discovered by considering humankind's natural rights, whereas previously it could be said that natural rights were discovered by considering the natural law.", "In Hobbes' opinion, the only way natural law could prevail was for men to submit to the commands of the sovereign.", "In this lay the foundations of the theory of a social contract between the governed and the governor.Hugo Grotius based his philosophy of international law on natural law.", "He wrote that \"even the will of an omnipotent being cannot change or abrogate\" natural law, which \"would maintain its objective validity even if we should assume the impossible, that there is no God or that he does not care for human affairs.\"", "(''De iure belli ac pacis'', Prolegomeni XI).", "This is the famous argument ''etiamsi daremus'' (''non-esse Deum''), that made natural law no longer dependent on theology.John Locke incorporated natural law into many of his theories and philosophy, especially in ''Two Treatises of Government''.", "Locke turned Hobbes' prescription around, saying that if the ruler went against natural law and failed to protect \"life, liberty, and property,\" people could justifiably overthrow the existing state and create a new one.The Belgian philosopher of law Frank van Dun is one among those who are elaborating a secular conception of natural law in the liberal tradition.", "There are also emerging and secular forms of natural law theory that define human rights as derivative of the notion of universal human dignity.The term \"human rights\" has replaced the term \"natural rights\" in popularity, because the rights are less and less frequently seen as requiring natural law for their existence.===Other theories of human rights===The philosopher John Finnis argues that human rights are justifiable on the grounds of their instrumental value in creating the necessary conditions for human well-being.", "Interest theories highlight the duty to respect the rights of other individuals on grounds of self-interest:The biological theory considers the comparative reproductive advantage of human social behavior based on empathy and altruism in the context of natural selection.The philosopher Zhao Tingyang argues that the traditional human rights framework fails to be universal, because it arose from contingent aspects of Western culture, and that the concept of inalienable and unconditional human rights is in tension with the principle of justice.", "He proposes an alternative framework called \"credit human rights\", in which rights are tied to responsibilities." ], [ "Concepts in human rights", "===Indivisibility and categorization of rights===The most common categorization of human rights is to split them into civil and political rights, and economic, social and cultural rights.Civil and political rights are enshrined in articles 3 to 21 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and in the ICCPR.", "Economic, social and cultural rights are enshrined in articles 22 to 28 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and in the ICESCR.", "The UDHR included both economic, social and cultural rights and civil and political rights because it was based on the principle that the different rights could only successfully exist in combination:This is held to be true because without civil and political rights the public cannot assert their economic, social and cultural rights.", "Similarly, without livelihoods and a working society, the public cannot assert or make use of civil or political rights (known as the ''full belly thesis'').Although accepted by the signatories to the UDHR, most of them do not in practice give equal weight to the different types of rights.", "Western cultures have often given priority to civil and political rights, sometimes at the expense of economic and social rights such as the right to work, to education, health and housing.", "For example, in the United States there is no universal access to healthcare free at the point of use.", "That is not to say that Western cultures have overlooked these rights entirely (the welfare states that exist in Western Europe are evidence of this).", "Similarly, the ex Soviet bloc countries and Asian countries have tended to give priority to economic, social and cultural rights, but have often failed to provide civil and political rights.Another categorization, offered by Karel Vasak, is that there are ''three generations of human rights'': first-generation civil and political rights (right to life and political participation), second-generation economic, social and cultural rights (right to subsistence) and third-generation solidarity rights (right to peace, right to clean environment).", "Out of these generations, the third generation is the most debated and lacks both legal and political recognition.", "This categorisation is at odds with the indivisibility of rights, as it implicitly states that some rights can exist without others.", "Prioritisation of rights for pragmatic reasons is however a widely accepted necessity.", "Human rights expert Philip Alston argues:He, and others, urge caution with prioritisation of rights:Some human rights are said to be \"inalienable rights\".", "The term inalienable rights (or unalienable rights) refers to \"a set of human rights that are fundamental, are not awarded by human power, and cannot be surrendered\".The adherence to the principle of indivisibility by the international community was reaffirmed in 1995:This statement was again endorsed at the 2005 World Summit in New York (paragraph 121).===Universalism vs cultural relativism===Map: Estimated prevalence of Female Genital Cutting (FGC) in Africa.", "Data based on uncertain estimates.The Universal Declaration of Human Rights enshrines, by definition, rights that apply to all humans equally, whichever geographical location, state, race or culture they belong to.Proponents of cultural relativism suggest that human rights are not all universal, and indeed conflict with some cultures and threaten their survival.Rights which are most often contested with relativistic arguments are the rights of women.", "For example, female genital mutilation occurs in different cultures in Africa, Asia and South America.", "It is not mandated by any religion, but has become a tradition in many cultures.", "It is considered a violation of women's and girl's rights by much of the international community, and is outlawed in some countries.Universalism has been described by some as cultural, economic or political imperialism.", "In particular, the concept of human rights is often claimed to be fundamentally rooted in a politically liberal outlook which, although generally accepted in Europe, Japan or North America, is not necessarily taken as standard elsewhere.For example, in 1981, the Iranian representative to the United Nations, Said Rajaie-Khorassani, articulated the position of his country regarding the UDHR by saying that the UDHR was \"a secular understanding of the Judeo-Christian tradition\", which could not be implemented by Muslims without trespassing the Islamic law.", "The former Prime Ministers of Singapore, Lee Kuan Yew, and of Malaysia, Mahathir bin Mohamad both claimed in the 1990s that ''Asian values'' were significantly different from western values and included a sense of loyalty and foregoing personal freedoms for the sake of social stability and prosperity, and therefore authoritarian government is more appropriate in Asia than democracy.", "This view is countered by Mahathir's former deputy:Singapore's opposition leader Chee Soon Juan also states that it is racist to assert that Asians do not want human rights.An appeal is often made to the fact that influential human rights thinkers, such as John Locke and John Stuart Mill, have all been Western and indeed that some were involved in the running of Empires themselves.Relativistic arguments tend to neglect the fact that modern human rights are new to all cultures, dating back no further than the UDHR in 1948.They also do not account for the fact that the UDHR was drafted by people from many different cultures and traditions, including a US Roman Catholic, a Chinese Confucian philosopher, a French Zionist and a representative from the Arab League, amongst others, and drew upon advice from thinkers such as Mahatma Gandhi.Michael Ignatieff has argued that cultural relativism is almost exclusively an argument used by those who wield power in cultures which commit human rights abuses, and that those whose human rights are compromised are the powerless.", "This reflects the fact that the difficulty in judging universalism versus relativism lies in who is claiming to represent a particular culture.Although the argument between universalism and relativism is far from complete, it is an academic discussion in that all international human rights instruments adhere to the principle that human rights are universally applicable.", "The 2005 World Summit reaffirmed the international community's adherence to this principle:===Universal jurisdiction vs state sovereignty===Universal jurisdiction is a controversial principle in international law whereby states claim criminal jurisdiction over persons whose alleged crimes were committed outside the boundaries of the prosecuting state, regardless of nationality, country of residence, or any other relation with the prosecuting country.", "The state backs its claim on the grounds that the crime committed is considered a crime against all, which any state is authorized to punish.", "The concept of universal jurisdiction is therefore closely linked to the idea that certain international norms are erga omnes, or owed to the entire world community, as well as the concept of jus cogens.", "In 1993, Belgium passed a ''law of universal jurisdiction'' to give its court's jurisdiction over crimes against humanity in other countries, and in 1998 Augusto Pinochet was arrested in London following an indictment by Spanish judge Baltasar Garzón under the universal jurisdiction principle.", "The principle is supported by Amnesty International and other human rights organisations as they believe certain crimes pose a threat to the international community as a whole and the community has a moral duty to act, but others, including Henry Kissinger, argue that state sovereignty is paramount, because breaches of rights committed in other countries are outside states' sovereign interest and because states could use the principle for political reasons.===State and non-state actors===Companies, NGOs, political parties, informal groups, and individuals are known as ''non-State actors''.", "Non-State actors can also commit human rights abuses, but are not subject to human rights law other than International Humanitarian Law, which applies to individuals.Multinational companies play an increasingly large role in the world, and are responsible for a large number of human rights abuses.", "Although the legal and moral environment surrounding the actions of governments is reasonably well developed, that surrounding multinational companies is both controversial and ill-defined.", "Multinational companies often view their primary responsibility as being to their shareholders, not to those affected by their actions.", "Such companies are often larger than the economies of the states in which they operate, and can wield significant economic and political power.", "No international treaties exist to specifically cover the behavior of companies with regard to human rights, and national legislation is very variable.", "Jean Ziegler, Special Rapporteur of the UN Commission on Human Rights on the right to food stated in a report in 2003:In August 2003, the Human Rights Commission's Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights produced draft ''Norms on the responsibilities of transnational corporations and other business enterprises with regard to human rights''.", "These were considered by the Human Rights Commission in 2004, but have no binding status on corporations and are not monitored.", "Additionally, the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 10 aims to substantially reduce inequality by 2030 through the promotion of appropriate legislation.===Human rights in emergency situations===Guantanamo BayWith the exception of non-derogable human rights (international conventions class the right to life, the right to be free from slavery, the right to be free from torture and the right to be free from retroactive application of penal laws as non-derogable), the UN recognises that human rights can be limited or even pushed aside during times of national emergency – although:Rights that cannot be derogated for reasons of national security in any circumstances are known as peremptory norms or ''jus cogens''.", "Such International law obligations are binding on all states and cannot be modified by treaty." ], [ "Criticism", "Critics of the view that human rights are universal argue that human rights are a western concept that \"emanate from a European, Judeo-Christian, and/or Enlightenment heritage (typically labeled Western) and cannot be enjoyed by other cultures that don't emulate the conditions and values of 'Western' societies.", "\"Right-wing critics of human rights argue that they are \"unrealistic and unenforceable norms and inappropriate intrusions on state sovereignty\", while left-wing critics of human rights argue that they fail \"to achieve – or prevents better approaches to achieving – progressive goals\"." ], [ "See also", "* Animal rights* Civil liberties* Deaf rights movement* Disability rights movement* Discrimination* Human right to water and sanitation* Labor rights* LGBT rights by country or territory* List of human rights organisations* List of human rights awards* Minority rights* Needs* Prisoners' rights* Welfare rights" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References and further reading", "* Amnesty International (2004).", "''Amnesty International Report''.", "Amnesty International.", "* * * * * Chauhan, O.P.", "(2004).", "''Human Rights: Promotion and Protection''.", "Anmol Publications PVT.", "LTD.", ".", "* * Cope, K., Crabtree, C., & Fariss, C. (2020).", "\"Patterns of disagreement in indicators of state repression\" ''Political Science Research and Methods'', 8(1), 178–187.", "* Cross, Frank B.", "\"The relevance of law in human rights protection.\"", "''International Review of Law and Economics'' 19.1 (1999): 87–98 online .", "* Davenport, Christian (2007).", "''State Repression and Political Order.''", "''Annual Review of Political Science.", "''* Donnelly, Jack.", "(2003).", "''Universal Human Rights in Theory & Practice.''", "2nd ed.", "Ithaca & London: Cornell University Press.", "* * Fomerand, Jacques.", "ed.", "''Historical Dictionary of Human Rights'' (2021) excerpt* Forsythe, David P. (2000).", "''Human Rights in International Relations.''", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.", "International Progress Organization.", "* Freedman, Lynn P.; Isaacs, Stephen L. (Jan–Feb 1993).", "\"Human Rights and Reproductive Choice\".", "''Studies in Family Planning'' '''Vol.24''' (No.1): p. 18–30 * * * Gorman, Robert F. and Edward S. Mihalkanin, eds.", "''Historical Dictionary of Human Rights and Humanitarian Organizations'' (2007) excerpt* Houghton Miffin Company (2006).", "''The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language''.", "Houghton Miffin.", "* * Ishay, Micheline.", "''The History of Human Rights: From Ancient Times to the Era of Globalization'' (U of California Press, 2008) excerpt* * Istrefi, Remzije.", "\"International Security Presence in Kosovo and its Human Rights Implications.\"", "''Croatian International Relations Review'' 23.80 (2017): 131–154.online* (reprint of 1952 edition published by University of Chicago Press)* * Köchler, Hans (1981).", "''The Principles of International Law and Human Rights''.", "hanskoechler.com* Köchler, Hans.", "(1990).", "\"Democracy and Human Rights\".", "''Studies in International Relations, XV.''", "Vienna: International Progress Organization.", "* * Landman, Todd (2006).", "''Studying Human Rights''.", "Oxford and London: Routledge * * * Maan, Bashir; McIntosh, Alastair (1999).", "\"Interview with William Montgomery Watt\" ''The Coracle'' '''Vol.", "3''' (No.", "51) pp. 8–11.", "* Maret, Susan 2005.Formats Are a Tool for the Quest for Truth': HURIDOCS Human Rights Materials for Library and Human Rights Workers\".", "''Progressive Librarian'', no.", "26 (Winter): 33–39.", "* * McAuliffe, Jane Dammen (ed) (2005).", "''Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an: vol 1–5'' Brill Publishing.", "* McLagan, Meg (2003) \"Principles, Publicity, and Politics: Notes on Human Rights Media\".", "''American Anthropologist''.", "'''Vol.", "105''' (No.", "3).", "pp.", "605–612* Maddex, Robert L., ed.", "''International encyclopedia of human rights: freedoms, abuses, and remedies'' (CQ Press, 2000).", "* Möller, Hans-Georg.", "\"How to distinguish friends from enemies: Human rights rhetoric and western mass media\".", "in ''Technology and Cultural Values'' (U of Hawaii Press, 2003) pp. 209–221.", "* * Neier, Aryeh.", "''The international human rights movement : a history'' (Princeton UP, 2012)* * Paul, Ellen Frankel; Miller, Fred Dycus; Paul, Jeffrey (eds) (2001).", "''Natural Law and Modern Moral Philosophy'' Cambridge University Press.", "* Power, Samantha.", "''A Problem from Hell\": America and the Age of Genocide'' (Basic Books, 2013).", "* Robertson, Arthur Henry; Merrills, John Graham (1996).", "''Human Rights in the World: An Introduction to the Study of the International Protection of Human Rights''.", "Manchester University Press.", ".", "* Reyntjens, Filip.", "\"Rwanda: progress or powder keg?.\"", "''Journal of Democracy'' 26.3 (2015): 19–33.", "* Salevao, Lutisone (2005).", "''Rule of Law, Legitimate Governance and Development in the Pacific''.", "ANU E Press.", "Scott, C. (1989).", "\"The Interdependence and Permeability of Human Rights Norms: Towards a Partial Fusion of the International Covenants on Human Rights\".", "''Osgood Law Journal'' '''Vol.", "27''' * * Shelton, Dinah.", "\"Self-Determination in Regional Human Rights Law: From Kosovo to Cameroon\".", "''American Journal of International Law'' 105.1 (2011): 60–81 online.", "* Sills, David L. (1968, 1972) ''International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences''.", "MacMillan.", "* * Sen, Amartya (1997).", "''Human Rights and Asian Values''.", ".", "* Shute, Stephen & Hurley, Susan (eds.).", "(1993).", "''On Human Rights: The Oxford Amnesty Lectures.''", "New York: BasicBooks.", "* Sobel, Meghan, and Karen McIntyre.", "\"Journalists' Perceptions of Human Rights Reporting in Rwanda\".", "''African Journalism Studies'' 39.3 (2018): 85–104.online * Steiner, J.", "& Alston, Philip.", "(1996).", "''International Human Rights in Context: Law, Politics, Morals.''", "Oxford: Clarendon Press.", "* Straus, Scott, and Lars Waldorf, eds.", "''Remaking Rwanda: State building and human rights after mass violence'' (Univ of Wisconsin Press, 2011).", "* Sunga, Lyal S. (1992) Individual Responsibility in International Law for Serious Human Rights Violations, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.", "* Tierney, Brian (1997).", "''The Idea of Natural Rights: Studies on Natural Rights, Natural Law, and Church Law''.", "Wm.", "B. Eerdmans Publishing.", "* ===Primary sources===* Ishay, Micheline, ed.", "''The Human Rights Reader: Major Political Essays, Speeches, and Documents from Ancient Times to the Present'' (2nd ed.", "2007) excerpt" ], [ "External links", "* Universal Declaration of Human Rights by the United Nations* Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights* The Universal Human Rights Index of United Nations documents" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hash table" ], [ "Introduction", "A small phone book as a hash tableIn computing, a '''hash table''', also known as a '''hash map''' or a '''hash set''', is a data structure that implements an associative array, also called a dictionary, which is an abstract data type that maps keys to values.", "A hash table uses a hash function to compute an ''index'', also called a ''hash code'', into an array of ''buckets'' or ''slots'', from which the desired value can be found.", "During lookup, the key is hashed and the resulting hash indicates where the corresponding value is stored.Ideally, the hash function will assign each key to a unique bucket, but most hash table designs employ an imperfect hash function, which might cause hash ''collisions'' where the hash function generates the same index for more than one key.", "Such collisions are typically accommodated in some way.In a well-dimensioned hash table, the average time complexity for each lookup is independent of the number of elements stored in the table.", "Many hash table designs also allow arbitrary insertions and deletions of key–value pairs, at amortized constant average cost per operation.Hashing is an example of a space-time tradeoff.", "If memory is infinite, the entire key can be used directly as an index to locate its value with a single memory access.", "On the other hand, if infinite time is available, values can be stored without regard for their keys, and a binary search or linear search can be used to retrieve the element.In many situations, hash tables turn out to be on average more efficient than search trees or any other table lookup structure.", "For this reason, they are widely used in many kinds of computer software, particularly for associative arrays, database indexing, caches, and sets." ], [ "History", "The idea of hashing arose independently in different places.", "In January 1953, Hans Peter Luhn wrote an internal IBM memorandum that used hashing with chaining.", "The first example of open addressing was proposed by A. D. Linh, building on Luhn's memorandum.", "Around the same time, Gene Amdahl, Elaine M. McGraw, Nathaniel Rochester, and Arthur Samuel of IBM Research implemented hashing for the IBM 701 assembler.", "Open addressing with linear probing is credited to Amdahl, although Andrey Ershov independently had the same idea.", "The term \"open addressing\" was coined by W. Wesley Peterson on his article which discusses the problem of search in large files.", "The first published work on hashing with chaining is credited to Arnold Dumey, who discussed the idea of using remainder modulo a prime as a hash function.", "The word \"hashing\" was first published in an article by Robert Morris.", "A theoretical analysis of linear probing was submitted originally by Konheim and Weiss." ], [ "Overview", "An associative array stores a set of (key, value) pairs and allows insertion, deletion, and lookup (search), with the constraint of unique keys.", "In the hash table implementation of associative arrays, an array of length is partially filled with elements, where .", "A value gets stored at an index location , where is a hash function, and .", "Under reasonable assumptions, hash tables have better time complexity bounds on search, delete, and insert operations in comparison to self-balancing binary search trees.Hash tables are also commonly used to implement sets, by omitting the stored value for each key and merely tracking whether the key is present.===Load factor===A ''load factor'' is a critical statistic of a hash table, and is defined as follows:where* is the number of entries occupied in the hash table.", "* is the number of buckets.The performance of the hash table deteriorates in relation to the load factor .To maintain good performance, the software makes sure the load factor never exceeds some constant .Therefore a hash table is resized or ''rehashed'' whenever the load factor reaches .A table is also resized if the load factor drops below .==== Load factor for separate chaining ====With separate chaining hash tables, each slot of the bucket array stores a pointer to a list or array of data.Separate chaining hash tables suffer gradually declining performance as the load factor grows, and no fixed point beyond which resizing is absolutely needed.With separate chaining, the value of that gives best performance is typically between 1 and 3.==== Load factor for open addressing ====With open addressing, each slot of the bucket array holds exactly one item.", "Therefore an open-addressed hash table cannot have a load factor greater than 1.The performance of open addressing becomes very bad when the load factor approaches 1.Therefore a hash table that uses open addressing ''must'' be resized or ''rehashed'' if the load factor approaches 1.With open addressing, acceptable figures of max load factor should range around 0.6 to 0.75." ], [ "Hash function", "A hash function maps the universe of keys to array indices or slots within the table for each where and .", "The conventional implementations of hash functions are based on the ''integer universe assumption'' that all elements of the table stem from the universe , where the bit length of is confined within the word size of a computer architecture.A perfect hash function is defined as an injective function such that each element in maps to a unique value in .", "A perfect hash function can be created if all the keys are known ahead of time.=== Integer universe assumption ===The schemes of hashing used in ''integer universe assumption'' include hashing by division, hashing by multiplication, universal hashing, dynamic perfect hashing, and static perfect hashing.", "However, hashing by division is the commonly used scheme.==== Hashing by division ====The scheme in hashing by division is as follows:Where is the hash digest of and is the size of the table.==== Hashing by multiplication ====The scheme in hashing by multiplication is as follows:Where is a real-valued constant and is the size of the table.", "An advantage of the hashing by multiplication is that the is not critical.", "Although any value produces a hash function, Donald Knuth suggests using the golden ratio.===Choosing a hash function===Uniform distribution of the hash values is a fundamental requirement of a hash function.", "A non-uniform distribution increases the number of collisions and the cost of resolving them.", "Uniformity is sometimes difficult to ensure by design, but may be evaluated empirically using statistical tests, e.g., a Pearson's chi-squared test for discrete uniform distributions.", "The distribution needs to be uniform only for table sizes that occur in the application.", "In particular, if one uses dynamic resizing with exact doubling and halving of the table size, then the hash function needs to be uniform only when the size is a power of two.", "Here the index can be computed as some range of bits of the hash function.", "On the other hand, some hashing algorithms prefer to have the size be a prime number.For open addressing schemes, the hash function should also avoid ''clustering'', the mapping of two or more keys to consecutive slots.", "Such clustering may cause the lookup cost to skyrocket, even if the load factor is low and collisions are infrequent.", "The popular multiplicative hash is claimed to have particularly poor clustering behavior.", "K-independent hashing offers a way to prove a certain hash function does not have bad keysets for a given type of hashtable.", "A number of K-independence results are known for collision resolution schemes such as linear probing and cuckoo hashing.", "Since K-independence can prove a hash function works, one can then focus on finding the fastest possible such hash function." ], [ "Collision resolution", "A search algorithm that uses hashing consists of two parts.", "The first part is computing a hash function which transforms the search key into an array index.", "The ideal case is such that no two search keys hashes to the same array index.", "However, this is not always the case and is impossible to guarantee for unseen given data.", "Hence the second part of the algorithm is collision resolution.", "The two common methods for collision resolution are separate chaining and open addressing.===Separate chaining===Hash collision resolved by separate chainingHash collision by separate chaining with head records in the bucket array.In separate chaining, the process involves building a linked list with key–value pair for each search array index.", "The collided items are chained together through a single linked list, which can be traversed to access the item with a unique search key.", "Collision resolution through chaining with linked list is a common method of implementation of hash tables.", "Let and be the hash table and the node respectively, the operation involves as follows: Chained-Hash-Insert(''T'', ''k'') ''insert'' ''x'' ''at the head of linked list'' ''T''''h''(''k'') Chained-Hash-Search(''T'', ''k'') ''search for an element with key'' ''k'' ''in linked list'' ''T''''h''(''k'') Chained-Hash-Delete(''T'', ''k'') ''delete'' ''x'' ''from the linked list'' ''T''''h''(''k'')If the element is comparable either numerically or lexically, and inserted into the list by maintaining the total order, it results in faster termination of the unsuccessful searches.====Other data structures for separate chaining====If the keys are ordered, it could be efficient to use \"self-organizing\" concepts such as using a self-balancing binary search tree, through which the theoretical worst case could be brought down to , although it introduces additional complexities.In dynamic perfect hashing, two-level hash tables are used to reduce the look-up complexity to be a guaranteed in the worst case.", "In this technique, the buckets of entries are organized as perfect hash tables with slots providing constant worst-case lookup time, and low amortized time for insertion.", "A study shows array-based separate chaining to be 97% more performant when compared to the standard linked list method under heavy load.Techniques such as using fusion tree for each buckets also result in constant time for all operations with high probability.==== Caching and locality of reference ====The linked list of separate chaining implementation may not be cache-conscious due to spatial locality—locality of reference—when the nodes of the linked list are scattered across memory, thus the list traversal during insert and search may entail CPU cache inefficiencies.In cache-conscious variants of collision resolution through separate chaining, a dynamic array found to be more cache-friendly is used in the place where a linked list or self-balancing binary search trees is usually deployed, since the contiguous allocation pattern of the array could be exploited by hardware-cache prefetchers—such as translation lookaside buffer—resulting in reduced access time and memory consumption.===Open addressing===Hash collision resolved by open addressing with linear probing (interval=1).", "Note that \"Ted Baker\" has a unique hash, but nevertheless collided with \"Sandra Dee\", that had previously collided with \"John Smith\".This graph compares the average number of CPU cache misses required to look up elements in large hash tables (far exceeding size of the cache) with chaining and linear probing.", "Linear probing performs better due to better locality of reference, though as the table gets full, its performance degrades drastically.Open addressing is another collision resolution technique in which every entry record is stored in the bucket array itself, and the hash resolution is performed through '''probing'''.", "When a new entry has to be inserted, the buckets are examined, starting with the hashed-to slot and proceeding in some ''probe sequence'', until an unoccupied slot is found.", "When searching for an entry, the buckets are scanned in the same sequence, until either the target record is found, or an unused array slot is found, which indicates an unsuccessful search.Well-known probe sequences include:* Linear probing, in which the interval between probes is fixed (usually 1).", "* Quadratic probing, in which the interval between probes is increased by adding the successive outputs of a quadratic polynomial to the value given by the original hash computation.", "* Double hashing, in which the interval between probes is computed by a secondary hash function.The performance of open addressing may be slower compared to separate chaining since the probe sequence increases when the load factor approaches 1.The probing results in an infinite loop if the load factor reaches 1, in the case of a completely filled table.", "The average cost of linear probing depends on the hash function's ability to distribute the elements uniformly throughout the table to avoid clustering, since formation of clusters would result in increased search time.==== Caching and locality of reference ====Since the slots are located in successive locations, linear probing could lead to better utilization of CPU cache due to locality of references resulting in reduced memory latency.====Other collision resolution techniques based on open addressing=========Coalesced hashing=====Coalesced hashing is a hybrid of both separate chaining and open addressing in which the buckets or nodes link within the table.", "The algorithm is ideally suited for fixed memory allocation.", "The collision in coalesced hashing is resolved by identifying the largest-indexed empty slot on the hash table, then the colliding value is inserted into that slot.", "The bucket is also linked to the inserted node's slot which contains its colliding hash address.=====Cuckoo hashing=====Cuckoo hashing is a form of open addressing collision resolution technique which guarantees worst-case lookup complexity and constant amortized time for insertions.", "The collision is resolved through maintaining two hash tables, each having its own hashing function, and collided slot gets replaced with the given item, and the preoccupied element of the slot gets displaced into the other hash table.", "The process continues until every key has its own spot in the empty buckets of the tables; if the procedure enters into infinite loop—which is identified through maintaining a threshold loop counter—both hash tables get rehashed with newer hash functions and the procedure continues.=====Hopscotch hashing=====Hopscotch hashing is an open addressing based algorithm which combines the elements of cuckoo hashing, linear probing and chaining through the notion of a ''neighbourhood'' of buckets—the subsequent buckets around any given occupied bucket, also called a \"virtual\" bucket.", "The algorithm is designed to deliver better performance when the load factor of the hash table grows beyond 90%; it also provides high throughput in concurrent settings, thus well suited for implementing resizable concurrent hash table.", "The neighbourhood characteristic of hopscotch hashing guarantees a property that, the cost of finding the desired item from any given buckets within the neighbourhood is very close to the cost of finding it in the bucket itself; the algorithm attempts to be an item into its neighbourhood—with a possible cost involved in displacing other items.Each bucket within the hash table includes an additional \"hop-information\"—an ''H''-bit bit array for indicating the relative distance of the item which was originally hashed into the current virtual bucket within ''H''-1 entries.", "Let and be the key to be inserted and bucket to which the key is hashed into respectively; several cases are involved in the insertion procedure such that the neighbourhood property of the algorithm is vowed: if is empty, the element is inserted, and the leftmost bit of bitmap is set to 1; if not empty, linear probing is used for finding an empty slot in the table, the bitmap of the bucket gets updated followed by the insertion; if the empty slot is not within the range of the ''neighbourhood,'' i.e.", "''H''-1, subsequent swap and hop-info bit array manipulation of each bucket is performed in accordance with its neighbourhood invariant properties.=====Robin Hood hashing=====Robin Hood hashing is an open addressing based collision resolution algorithm; the collisions are resolved through favouring the displacement of the element that is farthest—or longest ''probe sequence length'' (PSL)—from its \"home location\" i.e.", "the bucket to which the item was hashed into.", "Although Robin Hood hashing does not change the theoretical search cost, it significantly affects the variance of the distribution of the items on the buckets, i.e.", "dealing with cluster formation in the hash table.", "Each node within the hash table that uses Robin Hood hashing should be augmented to store an extra PSL value.", "Let be the key to be inserted, be the (incremental) PSL length of , be the hash table and be the index, the insertion procedure is as follows:* If : the iteration goes into the next bucket without attempting an external probe.", "* If : insert the item into the bucket ; swap with —let it be ; continue the probe from the st bucket to insert ; repeat the procedure until every element is inserted." ], [ "Dynamic resizing", "Repeated insertions cause the number of entries in a hash table to grow, which consequently increases the load factor; to maintain the amortized performance of the lookup and insertion operations, a hash table is dynamically resized and the items of the tables are ''rehashed'' into the buckets of the new hash table, since the items cannot be copied over as varying table sizes results in different hash value due to modulo operation.", "If a hash table becomes \"too empty\" after deleting some elements, resizing may be performed to avoid excessive memory usage.===Resizing by moving all entries===Generally, a new hash table with a size double that of the original hash table gets allocated privately and every item in the original hash table gets moved to the newly allocated one by computing the hash values of the items followed by the insertion operation.", "Rehashing is simple, but computationally expensive.===Alternatives to all-at-once rehashing===Some hash table implementations, notably in real-time systems, cannot pay the price of enlarging the hash table all at once, because it may interrupt time-critical operations.", "If one cannot avoid dynamic resizing, a solution is to perform the resizing gradually to avoid storage blip—typically at 50% of new table's size—during rehashing and to avoid memory fragmentation that triggers heap compaction due to deallocation of large memory blocks caused by the old hash table.", "In such case, the rehashing operation is done incrementally through extending prior memory block allocated for the old hash table such that the buckets of the hash table remain unaltered.", "A common approach for amortized rehashing involves maintaining two hash functions and .", "The process of rehashing a bucket's items in accordance with the new hash function is termed as ''cleaning'', which is implemented through command pattern by encapsulating the operations such as , and through a wrapper such that each element in the bucket gets rehashed and its procedure involve as follows:* Clean bucket.", "* Clean bucket.", "* The ''command'' gets executed.====Linear hashing====Linear hashing is an implementation of the hash table which enables dynamic growths or shrinks of the table one bucket at a time." ], [ "Performance", "The performance of a hash table is dependent on the hash function's ability in generating quasi-random numbers () for entries in the hash table where , and denotes the key, number of buckets and the hash function such that .", "If the hash function generates the same for distinct keys (), this results in ''collision'', which is dealt with in a variety of ways.", "The constant time complexity () of the operation in a hash table is presupposed on the condition that the hash function doesn't generate colliding indices; thus, the performance of the hash table is directly proportional to the chosen hash function's ability to disperse the indices.", "However, construction of such a hash function is practically infeasible, that being so, implementations depend on case-specific collision resolution techniques in achieving higher performance." ], [ "Applications", "===Associative arrays===Hash tables are commonly used to implement many types of in-memory tables.", "They are used to implement associative arrays.===Database indexing===Hash tables may also be used as disk-based data structures and database indices (such as in dbm) although B-trees are more popular in these applications.===Caches===Hash tables can be used to implement caches, auxiliary data tables that are used to speed up the access to data that is primarily stored in slower media.", "In this application, hash collisions can be handled by discarding one of the two colliding entries—usually erasing the old item that is currently stored in the table and overwriting it with the new item, so every item in the table has a unique hash value.===Sets===Hash tables can be used in the implementation of set data structure, which can store unique values without any particular order; set is typically used in testing the membership of a value in the collection, rather than element retrieval.===Transposition table===A transposition table to a complex Hash Table which stores information about each section that has been searched." ], [ "Implementations", "Many programming languages provide hash table functionality, either as built-in associative arrays or as standard library modules.", "In JavaScript, an \"object\" is a mutable collection of key-value pairs (called \"properties\"), where each key is either a string or a guaranteed-unique \"symbol\"; any other value, when used as a key, is first coerced to a string.", "Aside from the seven \"primitive\" data types, every value in JavaScript is an object.", "ECMAScript 2015 also added the Map data structure, which accepts arbitrary values as keys.C++11 includes unordered_map in its standard library for storing keys and values of arbitrary types.Go's built-in map implements a hash table in the form of a type.Java programming language includes the HashSet, HashMap, LinkedHashSet, and LinkedHashMap generic collections.Python's built-in dict implements a hash table in the form of a type.Ruby's built-in Hash uses the open addressing model from Ruby 2.4 onwards.Rust programming language includes HashMap, HashSet as part of the Rust Standard Library.", "The .NET standard library includes HashSet and Dictionary, so it can be used from languages such as C# and VB.NET." ], [ "See also", "* Bloom filter* Consistent hashing* Distributed hash table* Extendible hashing* Hash array mapped trie* Lazy deletion* Pearson hashing* PhotoDNA* Rabin–Karp string search algorithm* Search data structure* Stable hashing* Succinct hash table" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", " NIST entry on hash tables* Open Data Structures – Chapter 5 – Hash Tables, Pat Morin* MIT's Introduction to Algorithms: Hashing 1 MIT OCW lecture Video* MIT's Introduction to Algorithms: Hashing 2 MIT OCW lecture Video" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "\"Hello, World!\" program" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''\"Hello, World!\"", "program''' is generally a simple computer program which outputs (or displays) to the screen (often the console) a message similar to \"Hello, World!\"", "while ignoring any user input.", "A small piece of code in most general-purpose programming languages, this program is used to illustrate a language's basic syntax.", "A \"Hello, World!\"", "program is often the first written by a student of a new programming language, but such a program can also be used as a sanity check to ensure that the computer software intended to compile or run source code is correctly installed, and that its operator understands how to use it." ], [ "History", "\"Hello, World!\"", "program handwritten in the C language and signed by Brian Kernighan (1978)While small test programs have existed since the development of programmable computers, the tradition of using the phrase \"Hello, World!\"", "as a test message was influenced by an example program in the 1978 book ''The C Programming Language'', with likely earlier use in BCPL.", "The example program from the book prints , and was inherited from a 1974 Bell Laboratories internal memorandum by Brian Kernighan, ''Programming in C: A Tutorial'':main( ) { printf(\"hello, world\");}In the above example, the function defines where the program should start executing.", "The function body consists of a single statement, a call to the function, which stands for \"''print f''ormatted\"; it outputs to the console whatever is passed to it as the parameter, in this case the string .The C-language version was preceded by Kernighan's own 1972 ''A Tutorial Introduction to the Language B'', where the first known version of the program is found in an example used to illustrate external variables:main( ) { extern a, b, c; putchar(a); putchar(b); putchar(c); putchar('!", "n');} a 'hell';b 'o, w';c 'orld';The program above prints '''' on the terminal, including a newline character.", "The phrase is divided into multiple variables because in B a character constant is limited to four ASCII characters.", "The previous example in the tutorial printed '''' on the terminal, and the phrase '''' was introduced as a slightly longer greeting that required several character constants for its expression.The Jargon File reports that \"hello, world\" instead originated in 1967 with the language BCPL.", "Outside computing, use of the exact phrase began over a decade prior; it was the catchphrase of New York radio disc jockey William B. Williams beginning in the 1950s." ], [ "Variations", "PlayStation Portable as a proof of concept\"Hello, World!\"", "programs vary in complexity between different languages.", "In some languages, particularly scripting languages, the \"Hello, World!\"", "program can be written as a single statement, while in others (particularly many low-level languages) there can be many more statements required.", "For example, in Python, to print the string '''' followed by a newline, one only needs to write print(\"Hello, World!\").", "In contrast, the equivalent code in C++ requires the import of the input/output software library, the manual declaration of an entry point, and the explicit instruction that the output string should be sent to the standard output stream.CNC machining test in PerspexThe phrase \"Hello, World!\"", "has seen various deviations in casing and punctuation, such as the capitalization of the leading ''H'' and ''W'', and the presence of the comma or exclamation mark.", "Some devices limit the format to specific variations, such as all-capitalized versions on systems that support only capital letters, while some esoteric programming languages may have to print a slightly modified string.", "For example, the first non-trivial Malbolge program printed \"HEllO WORld\", this having been determined to be good enough.", "Other human languages have been used as the output; for example, a tutorial for the Go programming language outputted both English and Chinese or Japanese characters, demonstrating the programming language's built-in Unicode support.", "Another notable example is the Rust programming language, whose management system automatically inserts a \"Hello, World\" program when creating new projects.A \"Hello, World!\"", "message being displayed through long-exposure light painting with a moving strip of LEDsSome languages change the functionality of the \"Hello, World!\"", "program while maintaining the spirit of demonstrating a simple example.", "Functional programming languages, such as Lisp, ML, and Haskell, tend to substitute a factorial program for \"Hello, World!", "\", as functional programming emphasizes recursive techniques, whereas the original examples emphasize I/O, which violates the spirit of pure functional programming by producing side effects.", "Languages otherwise capable of printing \"Hello, World!\"", "(Assembly, C, VHDL) may also be used in embedded systems, where text output is either difficult (requiring additional components or communication with another computer) or nonexistent.", "For devices such as microcontrollers, field-programmable gate arrays, and CPLDs, \"Hello, World!\"", "may thus be substituted with a blinking LED, which demonstrates timing and interaction between components.The Debian and Ubuntu Linux distributions provide the \"Hello, World!\"", "program through their software package manager systems, which can be invoked with the command ''''.", "It serves as a sanity check and a simple example of installing a software package.", "For developers, it provides an example of creating a .deb package, either traditionally or using ''debhelper'', and the version of used, GNU Hello, serves as an example of writing a GNU program.Variations of the \"Hello, World!\"", "program that produce a graphical output (as opposed to text output) have also been shown.", "Sun demonstrated a \"Hello, World!\"", "program in Java based on scalable vector graphics, and the XL programming language features a spinning Earth \"Hello, World!\"", "using 3D computer graphics.", "Mark Guzdial and Elliot Soloway have suggested that the \"hello, world\" test message may be outdated now that graphics and sound can be manipulated as easily as text." ], [ "Time to Hello World", "\"Time to hello world\" (TTHW) is the time it takes to author a \"Hello, World!\"", "program in a given programming language.", "This is one measure of a programming language's ease of use; since the program is meant as an introduction for people unfamiliar with the language, a more complex \"Hello, World!\"", "program may indicate that the programming language is less approachable.", "The concept has been extended beyond programming languages to APIs, as a measure of how simple it is for a new developer to get a basic example working; a shorter time indicates an easier API for developers to adopt." ], [ "Wikipedia articles containing \"Hello, World!\" programs" ], [ "See also", "\"99 Bottles of Beer\" as used in computer science* (graphic equivalent to \"Hello, World!\"", "for old hardware)FoobarJava Pet StoreJust another Perl hackerOutline of computer scienceTPK algorithm" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " The Hello World Collection***" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Heavy metal" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Heavy metal''' may refer to:Heavy metals, a loose category of relatively dense metals and metalloidsToxic heavy metal, any heavy metal chemical element of environmental concernHeavy metal music, a genre of rock music*Heavy metal genres''Heavy Metal'' (magazine), an American fantasy comic book magazine" ], [ "People", "Heavy Metal (wrestler) (Erick Francisco Casas Ruiz, born 1970), Mexican professional wrestler\"Heavy Metal\" Van Hammer (Mark Hildreth, born 1967), American professional wrestler" ], [ "Fictional characters", "Heavy Metal (''G.I.", "Joe''), a character in the ''G.I.", "Joe'' universeHeavy Metal (Marvel Comics), a team of supervillains in the Marvel Universe* Heavy Metal ''(Ninjago)'', a character in ''Ninjago''" ], [ "Songs and albums", "\"Heavy Metal (Takin' a Ride)\", a 1981 song by Don Felder from the soundtrack of ''Heavy Metal''\"Heavy Metal\", a 1981 song by Sammy Hagar from the album ''Standing Hampton'', also on the soundtrack of ''Heavy Metal''\"Heavy Metal: The Black and Silver\", a 1981 song by Blue Öyster Cult from ''Fire of Unknown Origin''\"Heavy Metal\", a 1985 song by Helloween from ''Walls of Jericho''\"Heavy Metal\", a 1988 song by Judas Priest from ''Ram It Down''\"Heavy Metal\", a 2005 song by Clap Your Hands Say Yeah from ''Clap Your Hands Say Yeah''\"Heavy Metal\", a 2016 song by Justice from ''Woman''\"Heavy Metal x DVNO\", a 2018 song by Justice from ''Woman Worldwide''''Heavy Metal Music'' (album), a 2013 album by Newsted" ], [ "Video games", " ''Heavy Metal'' (1988 video game), by Access Software''Heavy Metal: F.A.K.K.", "2'', a 2000 computer game by Gathering of Developers''Heavy Metal: Geomatrix'', a 2001 arcade game for Sega NAOMI and Dreamcast by Capcom''HeavyMetal'', a series of commercial software titles designed to complement ''Classic BattleTech''" ], [ "Film and television", "''Heavy Metal'' (film), a 1981 animated film based on the magazine''Heavy Metal 2000'', a.k.a.", "''Heavy Metal: F.A.K.K.²'' or ''Heavy Metal 2'', a 2000 animated film, sequel to the 1981 film ''Heavy Metal'' Heavy Metal, an episode of the American sitcom sequel ''The New Leave It to Beaver''\"Heavy Metal\" (''Sliders''), a 1999 episode of ''Sliders''\"Heavy Metal\" (''Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles''), a 2008 episode of ''Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles''" ], [ "Literature", "''Heavy Metal: A Tank Company's Battle to Baghdad'', a 2005 book about Operation Iraqi Freedom''Métal hurlant'', also called \"Heavy Metal\", a French comic book" ], [ "Other uses", "Heavy Metal (cricket), an incident in a 1979 cricket match involving Dennis Lillee" ], [ "See also", " Hard metal (disambiguation)* Heavy rock (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of Hebrew grammar" ], [ "Introduction", "Hebrew grammar is the grammar of the Hebrew language." ], [ "History of studies in Hebrew grammar", "The Masoretes in the 7th to 11th centuries laid the foundation for grammatical analysis of Hebrew.", "As early as the 9th century Judah ibn Kuraish discussed the relationship between Arabic and Hebrew.", "In the 10th century, Aaron ben Moses ben Asher refined the Tiberian vocalization, an extinct pronunciation of the Hebrew Bible.The first treatises on Hebrew grammar appear in the High Middle Ages, in the context of Midrash (a method of interpreting and studying the Hebrew Bible).", "The Karaite tradition originated in Abbasid Baghdad around the 7th century.", "The ''Diqduq'' (10th century) is one of the earliest grammatical commentaries on the Hebrew Bible.Solomon ibn Gabirol in the 11th century composed a versified Hebrew grammar, consisting of 400 verses divided into ten parts.", "In the 12th century, Ibn Barun compared the Hebrew language with Arabic in the Islamic grammatical tradition.11th to 12th century grammarians of the Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain included Judah ben David Hayyuj, Jonah ibn Janah, Abraham ibn Ezra, Joseph Kimhi, Moses Kimhi and David Kimhi.", "Ibn Ezra gives a list of the oldest Hebrew grammarians in the introduction to his ''Moznayim'' (1140).", "Profiat Duran published an influential grammar in 1403.Judah Messer Leon's 1454 grammar is a product of the Italian Renaissance.", "Hebrew grammars by Christian authors appeared during the Renaissance.", "Hieronymus Buclidius, a friend of Erasmus, gave more than 20,000 francs to establish a branch of Hebrew studies at Louvain in Flanders.", "Elijah Levita was called to the chair of Hebrew at the University of Paris.", "Cardinal Grimani and other dignitaries, both of the state and of the Church, studied Hebrew and the Cabala with Jewish teachers; even the warrior Guido Rangoni attempted the Hebrew language with the aid of Jacob Mantino (1526).", "Pico de la Mirandola (d. 1494) was the first to collect Hebrew manuscripts, and Reuchlin was the first Christian author to write a vocabulary and short grammar of the Hebrew language (1506).", "A more detailed grammar was published in 1590 by Otto Walper.Conrad Gesner (d. 1565) was the first Christian to compile a catalogue of Hebrew books.Paul Fagius and Elia Levita operated the first Hebrew printing office in the 1540s.", "Levita also compiled the first Hebrew-Yiddish dictionary.Through the influence of Johannes Buxtorf (d. 1629) a serious attempt was made to understand the post-Biblical literature, and many of the most important works were translated into Latin.", "Gesenius' ''Hebrew Grammar'' appeared in 1813." ], [ "Eras", "The Hebrew language is subdivided by era, with significant differences apparent between the varieties.", "All varieties, from Biblical to Modern, use a typically Semitic templatic morphology with triconsonantal stems, though Mishnaic and Modern Hebrew have significant borrowed components of the lexicon that do not fit into this pattern.", "Verbal morphology has remained relatively unchanged, though Mishnaic and Modern Hebrew have lost some modal distinctions of Biblical Hebrew and created others through the use of auxiliary verbs.Significant syntactic changes have arisen in Modern Hebrew as a result of non-Semitic substrate influences.", "In particular:* In Biblical Hebrew, possession is normally expressed with status constructus, a construction in which the possessed noun occurs in a phonologically reduced, \"construct\" form and is followed by the possessor noun in its normal, \"absolute\" form.", "Modern Hebrew tends to reserve this construction for phrases where the two components form a unified concept, whereas ordinary possession is more commonly expressed analytically with the preposition ''shel'' 'of' (etymologically consisting of the relativizer ''she''- 'that' and the preposition ''le''- 'to').", "* Possession in pronouns is expressed with pronominal suffixes added to the noun.", "Modern Hebrew tends to reserve this for a limited number of nouns, but usually prefers to use the preposition ''shel'', as in the previous case.", "* Biblical Hebrew often expresses a pronoun direct object by appending a pronominal suffix directly to the verb, as an alternative to appending it to the preposition that signals a definite direct object.", "The latter construction is the one generally used in Modern Hebrew.", "* The tense–aspect that is formed by prefixes could denote either the present (especially frequentative) or the future, as well as frequentative past in Biblical Hebrew (some scholars argue that it simply denoted imperfective aspect), while in modern Hebrew it is always future.", "The suffixed form denotes what is commonly translated as past in both cases, though some scholars argue that it denoted perfective aspect.", "* Biblical Hebrew employs the so-called waw consecutive construction, in which the conjunction \"and\" seemingly reverses the tense of a verb (though its exact meaning is a matter of debate).", "This is not typical of Modern Hebrew.", "* The default word order in Biblical Hebrew is VSO, while Modern Hebrew is SVO.However, most Biblical Hebrew constructions are still permissible in Modern Hebrew in formal, literary, archaic or poetic style." ], [ "See also", "* Grammar and Orthography Biblical Hebrew grammar Modern Hebrew grammar Modern Hebrew verb conjugation Prefixes in Hebrew Suffixes in Hebrew Hebrew spelling** Biblical Hebrew orthography* Stages of Hebrew Biblical Hebrew – Attested from 10th century BCE to about 70 CE Mishnaic Hebrew – Post Temple Roman Era (1st through 4th Century CE) Medieval Hebrew – From about the 4th century until the revival of Hebrew in the late 19th and early 20th centuries Modern Hebrew – Early 20th century CE to present* Other forms of Hebrew Israelian Hebrew – Proposed dialect of Hebrew used by the Northern Israelite tribes in the 1st millennium BCE Samaritan Hebrew – Form of Hebrew used by the Samaritans* Pronunciation Variation Sephardi Hebrew pronunciation used by Jews of Spain and Portugal Mizrahi Hebrew used by Jews of the Middle East and North Africa Yemenite Hebrew pronunciation (Temani Hebrew) used by Jews of Yemen Ashkenazi Hebrew pronunciation used by Jews of Germany and by Yiddish-speaking Jews** Modern Hebrew phonology* Miscellaneous Yiddish language – a High-German language with Hebrew and Slavic influence, used by Ashkenazi Jews Ladino language – a Spanish language with Hebrew and Aramaic influence, used by Sephardi Jews" ], [ "References", "===Works cited===* * * * " ], [ "Bibliography", "'''Modern Hebrew''' * * * * '''Biblical Hebrew'''* " ], [ "External links", " * Hebrew Verbs Conjugation Tool - Online Hebrew Verb Learning Tool (Hebrew/English)* Glamour of the Grammar – Hebraist Dr. Joel M. Hoffman's biweekly column on Hebrew grammar* ''Foundationstone'' — Online Hebrew Tutorial* A Basic Introduction to Hebrew grammar* History of the Ancient and Modern Hebrew Language, David Steinberg" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Modern Hebrew phonology" ], [ "Introduction", "Modern Hebrew has 25 to 27 consonants and 5 to 10 vowels, depending on the speaker and the analysis.Hebrew has been used primarily for liturgical, literary, and scholarly purposes for most of the past two millennia.", "As a consequence, its pronunciation was strongly influenced by the vernacular of individual Jewish communities.", "With the revival of Hebrew as a native language, and especially with the establishment of Israel, the pronunciation of the modern language rapidly coalesced.The two main accents of modern Hebrew are Oriental and Non-Oriental.", "Oriental Hebrew was chosen as the preferred accent for Israel by the Academy of the Hebrew Language, but has since declined in popularity.", "The description in this article follows the language as it is pronounced by native Israeli speakers of the younger generations." ], [ "Oriental and non-Oriental accents", "According to the Academy of the Hebrew Language, in the 1880s (the time of the beginning of the Zionist movement and the Hebrew revival) there were three groups of Hebrew regional accents: Ashkenazi (Eastern European), Sephardi (Southern European), and Mizrahi (Middle Eastern, Iranian, and North African).", "Over time features of these systems of pronunciation merged, and at present scholars identify two main pronunciations of modern (i.e., not liturgical) Hebrew: Oriental and Non-Oriental.", "Oriental Hebrew displays traits of an Arabic substrate.Elder oriental speakers tend to use an alveolar trill , preserve the pharyngeal consonants and (less commonly) , preserve gemination, and pronounce in some places where non-Oriental speakers do not have a vowel (the ''shva na'').", "A limited number of Oriental speakers, for example elderly Yemenite Jews, even maintain some pharyngealized (emphatic) consonants also found in Arabic, such as for Biblical .", "Israeli Arabs ordinarily use the Oriental pronunciation, vocalising the ''‘ayin'' () as , resh (ר) as r and, less frequently, the ''ḥet'' () as .===Pronunciation of ===Non-Oriental (and General Israeli) pronunciation lost the emphatic and pharyngeal sounds of Biblical Hebrew under the influence of Indo-European languages (Germanic and Slavic for Ashkenazim and Romance for Sephardim).", "The pharyngeals and are preserved by older Oriental speakers.Dialectally, Georgian Jews pronounce as , while Western European Sephardim and Dutch Ashkenazim traditionally pronounce it , a pronunciation that can also be found in the Italian tradition and, historically, in south-west Germany.", "However, according to Sephardic and Ashkenazic authorities, such as the Mishnah Berurah and the Shulchan Aruch and Mishneh Torah, is the proper pronunciation.", "Thus, it is still pronounced as such by some Sephardim and Ashkenazim.===Pronunciation of ===The classical pronunciation associated with the consonant ''rêš'' was a flap , and was grammatically ungeminable.", "In most dialects of Hebrew among the Jewish diaspora, it remained a flap or a trill .", "However, in some Ashkenazi dialects of northern Europe it was a uvular rhotic, either a trill or a fricative .", "This was because most native dialects of Yiddish were spoken that way, and the liturgical Hebrew of these speakers carried the Yiddish pronunciation.", "Some Iraqi Jews also pronounce ''rêš'' as a guttural , reflecting Baghdad Jewish Arabic.Though an Ashkenazi Jew in the Russian Empire, the Zionist Eliezer Ben-Yehuda based his Standard Hebrew on Sephardi Hebrew, originally spoken in Spain, and therefore recommended an alveolar .", "However, just like him, the first waves of Jews to resettle in the Holy Land were Ashkenazi, and Standard Hebrew would come to be spoken with their native pronunciation.", "Consequently, by now nearly all Israeli Jews pronounce the consonant ''rêš'' as a uvular approximant (), which also exists in Yiddish.Many Jewish immigrants to Israel spoke a variety of Arabic in their countries of origin, and pronounced the Hebrew rhotic consonant as an alveolar trill, identical to Arabic '''', and which followed the conventions of old Hebrew.", "In modern Ashkenazi, Sephardi, and Mizrahi poetry and folk music, as well as in the standard (or \"standardised\") Hebrew used in the Israeli media, an alveolar rhotic is sometimes used." ], [ "Consonants", "The following table lists the consonant phonemes of Israeli Hebrew in IPA transcription: Labial Alveolar Palato-alveolar Palatal Velar/uvular Glottal Stop 2 Affricate 4** Fricative * 1 3 2 Nasal Approximant : Phoneme was introduced through loanwords.", ":1 In modern Hebrew for ח has merged with (which was traditionally used only for fricative כ) into .", "Some older Mizrahi speakers still separate these (as explained above).", ":2 The glottal consonants tend to be elided, which is most common in unstressed syllables.", "In informal speech it may occur in stressed syllables as well, whereas careful or formal speech may retain them in all positions.", "In modern Hebrew for ע has been absorbed by , which was traditionally used only for .", "Again, some speakers still separate these.", ":3 is usually pronounced as a uvular approximant , and sometimes as a uvular trill , alveolar trill or alveolar flap , depending on the background of the speaker.", ":4 While the phoneme was introduced through borrowings, it can appear in native words as a sequence of and as in .For many young speakers, obstruents assimilate in voicing.", "Voiceless obstruents (stops/affricates and fricatives ) become voiced () when they appear immediately before voiced obstruents, and vice versa.", "For example: > ('to close'), > * > ('a right'), > * > ('a bill'), > * > ('a printer'), > * > ('security'), > is pronounced before velar consonants.===Illustrative words=== Letter Example word IPA Hebrew IPA Hebrew English mouth what baker jackal fleet end miracle passion year day all how hot Letter Example word IPA Hebrew IPA Hebrew English interview son harp fuel this no giraffe beige penguin also head with echo===Historical sound changes===Standard Israeli Hebrew (SIH) phonology, based on the Sephardic Hebrew pronunciation tradition, has a number of differences from Biblical Hebrew (BH) and Mishnaic Hebrew (MH) in the form of splits and mergers.", "* BH/MH and merged into SIH .", "* BH/MH and merged into SIH .", "* BH/MH and generally merge into SIH or became silent, but the distinction is maintained in the speech of older Sephardim and is reintroduced in the speech of some other speakers.", "* BH/MH had two allophones, and , which split into separate phonemes and in SIH.", "* BH/MH had two allophones, and .", "The allophone merged with into SIH .", "A new phoneme was introduced in loanwords (see Hebrew ''vav'' as consonant), so SIH has phonemic .", "* BH/MH had two allophones, and .", "The allophone merged with into SIH , while the allophone merged with into SIH , though a distinction between and is maintained in the speech of older Sephardim.", "* BH/MH , and merged into their plosive counterparts, , and .", "* BH/MH de-pharyngealized and affricated to SIH .", "* BH/MH backed to SIH , the former pronunciation is still used by Sephardi and Mizrahi speakers.====Spirantization====The consonant pairs – (archaically ), – (archaically ), and – (archaically ) were historically allophonic, as a consequence of a phenomenon of spirantisation known as ''begadkefat'' under the influence of the Aramaic language on BH/MH.", "In Modern Hebrew, the above six sounds are phonemic.The full inventory of Hebrew consonants which undergo and/or underwent spirantisation are:letterstop fricativebetbecomesin Biblical/Mishnaic,evolved into inStandard Israeli Hebrewgimelbecomes in Biblical/Mishnaic,reverted to inStandard Israeli Hebrewdaletbecomesin Biblical/Mishnaic,reverted to inStandard Israeli Hebrewkaphbecomes, in Biblical/Mishnaic,evolved into inStandard Israeli Hebrewpebecomes in Biblical/Mishnaic,evolved into inStandard Israeli Hebrewtawbecomes in Biblical/Mishnaic,reverted to inStandard Israeli Hebrew However, the above-mentioned allophonic alternation of BH/MH –, – and – was lost in Modern Hebrew, with these six allophones merging into simple .These phonemic changes were partly due to the mergers noted above, to the loss of consonant gemination, which had distinguished stops from their fricative allophones in intervocalic position, and the introduction of syllable-initial and non-syllable-initial and in loan words.", "Spirantization still occurs in verbal and nominal derivation, but now the alternations –, –, and – are phonemic rather than allophonic.=== Loss of final H consonant ===In Traditional Hebrew words can end with an H consonant, e.g.", "when the suffix \"-ah\" is used, meaning \"her\" (see ''Mappiq'').", "The final H sound is hardly ever pronounced in Modern Hebrew.", "However, the final H with Mappiq still retains the guttural characteristic that it should take a patach and render the pronunciation /a(h)/ at the end of the word, for example, גָּבוֹהַּ ''gavoa(h)'' (\"tall\")." ], [ "Vowels", "The vowel phonemes of Modern HebrewModern Hebrew has a simple five-vowel system.", "Front Central Back High Mid Low Vowel length is non-contrastive and consecutive identical vowels are allowed in the case of glottal consonant elision, e.g.", "vs and vs .There are two diphthongs, and .", "Phoneme Example 'man' 'red' (f) 'mother' 'light' 'father'===Vowel length===In Biblical Hebrew, each vowel had three forms: short, long and interrupted ('''').", "However, there is no audible distinction between the three in Modern Hebrew, except that is often pronounced as in Ashkenazi Hebrew.===Shva===Modern pronunciation does not follow traditional use of the niqqud (diacritic) \"shva\".", "In Modern Hebrew, words written with a shva may be pronounced with either or without any vowel, and this does not correspond well to how the word was pronounced historically.", "For example, the first shva in the word 'you (fem.)", "crumpled' is pronounced () though historically it was silent, whereas the shva in ('time'), which was pronounced historically, is usually silent ().", "Orthographic ''shva'' is generally pronounced in prefixes such as ''ve-'' ('and') and ''be-'' ('in'), or when following another shva in grammatical patterns, as in ('you f. sg.", "will learn').", "An epenthetic appears when necessary to avoid violating a phonological constraint, such as between two consonants that are identical or differ only in voicing (e.g.", "'I learned', not ) (though this rule is lost in some younger speakers and quick speech) or when an impermissible initial cluster would result (e.g.", "or , where ''C'' stands for any consonant).", "Guttural consonants (א, ה, ח, ע) rarely take a shva.", "Instead, they can take reduced segol (חֱ), reduced patach (חֲ), or reduced kamatz (חֳ)." ], [ "Stress", "Stress is phonemic in Modern Hebrew.", "There are two frequent patterns of lexical stress, on the last syllable ('''' מִלְּרַע) and on the penultimate syllable ('''' מִלְּעֵיל).", "Final stress has traditionally been more frequent, but in the colloquial language many words are shifting to penultimate stress.", "Contrary to the prescribed standard, some words exhibit stress on the antepenultimate syllable or even farther back.", "This often occurs in loanwords, e.g.", "('politics'), and sometimes in native colloquial compounds, e.g.", "('somehow').", "Colloquial stress has often shifted from the last syllable to the penultimate, e.g.", "'hat', normative (Ezekiel 38 5) or (Isaiah 59 17), colloquial (always) ; ('dovecote'), normative , colloquial .", "This shift is common in the colloquial pronunciation of many personal names, for example ('David'), normative , colloquial .Historically, stress was phonemic, but bore low functional load.", "While minimal pairs existed (e.g.", ", 'in/with us' and , 'they built'), stress was mostly predictable, depending on syllable weight (that is, vowel length and whether a syllable ended in a consonant).", "Because spoken Israeli Hebrew has lost gemination (a common source of syllable-final consonants) as well as the original distinction between long and short vowels, but the position of the stress often remained where it had been, stress has become phonemic, as the following table illustrates.", "Phonetically, the following word pairs differ only in the location of the stress; orthographically they differ also in the written representation of vowel length of the vowels (assuming the vowels are even written):Usual spelling(ktiv hasar niqqud)Penultimate stressFinal stressspelling withvowel diacriticspronunciationtranslationspelling withvowel diacriticspronunciationtranslationwill give birth (m.sg.", "3rd person)eating (m.sg.", ")cowboy" ], [ "Morphophonology", "In fast-spoken colloquial Hebrew, when a vowel falls beyond two syllables from the main stress of a word or phrase, it may be reduced or elided.", "For example::: > ('that is to say'):: > (what's your name, lit.", "'How are you called?", "')When follows an unstressed vowel, it is sometimes elided, possibly with the surrounding vowels::: > ('your father'):: > ('he will give / let you')Syllables drop before except at the end of a prosodic unit::: > ('usually')but: ('he is on his way') at the end of a prosodic unit.Sequences of dental stops reduce to a single consonant, again except at the end of a prosodic unit::: > ('I once studied')but: ('that I studied')" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "House of Hohenzollern" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''House of Hohenzollern''' (, ; , ; ) is a formerly royal (and from 1871 to 1918, imperial) German dynasty whose members were variously princes, electors, kings and emperors of Hohenzollern, Brandenburg, Prussia, the German Empire, and Romania.", "The family came from the area around the town of Hechingen in Swabia during the late 11th century and took their name from Hohenzollern Castle.", "The first ancestors of the Hohenzollerns were mentioned in 1061.The Hohenzollern family split into two branches, the Catholic Swabian branch and the Protestant Franconian branch, which ruled the Burgraviate of Nuremberg and later became the Brandenburg-Prussian branch.", "The Swabian branch ruled the principalities of Hohenzollern-Hechingen and Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen until 1849, and also ruled Romania from 1866 to 1947.Members of the Franconian branch became Margrave of Brandenburg in 1415 and Duke of Prussia in 1525.The Margraviate of Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia were ruled in personal union after 1618 and were called Brandenburg-Prussia.", "From there, the Kingdom of Prussia was created in 1701, eventually leading to the unification of Germany and the creation of the German Empire in 1871, with the Hohenzollerns as hereditary German Emperors and Kings of Prussia.Germany's defeat in World War I in 1918 led to the German Revolution.", "The Hohenzollerns were overthrown and the Weimar Republic was established, thus bringing an end to the German and Prussian monarchy.", "Georg Friedrich, Prince of Prussia, is the current head of the formerly royal Prussian line, while Karl Friedrich, Prince of Hohenzollern, is the head of the formerly princely Swabian line." ], [ "County of Zollern", "Hohenzollern Castle, near Hechingen, was built in the mid-19th century by Frederick William IV of Prussia on the remains of the castle founded in the early 11th century.", "Alpirsbach Abbey, founded by the Hohenzollerns in 1095Zollern, from 1218 Hohenzollern, was a county of the Holy Roman Empire.", "Later its capital was Hechingen.The Hohenzollerns named their estates after Hohenzollern Castle in the Swabian Alps.", "The Hohenzollern Castle lies on an 855 meters high mountain called Hohenzollern.", "It still belongs to the family today.The dynasty was first mentioned in 1061.According to the medieval chronicler Berthold of Reichenau, Burkhard I, Count of Zollern (''de Zolorin'') was born before 1025 and died in 1061.In 1095, Count Adalbert of Zollern founded the Benedictine monastery of Alpirsbach, situated in the Black Forest.The Zollerns received the Graf title from Emperor Henry V in 1111.As loyal vassals of the Swabian Hohenstaufen dynasty, they were able to significantly enlarge their territory.", "Count Frederick III () accompanied Emperor Frederick Barbarossa against Henry the Lion in 1180, and through his marriage was granted the Burgraviate of Nuremberg by Emperor Henry VI in 1192.In about 1185, he married Sophia of Raabs, the daughter of Conrad II, Burgrave of Nuremberg.", "After the death of Conrad II who left no male heirs, Frederick III was granted Nuremberg as Burgrave Frederick I.In 1218, the burgraviate passed to Frederick's elder son Conrad I, he thereby became the ancestor of the Franconian Hohenzollern branch, which acquired the Electorate of Brandenburg in 1415.===Counts of Zollern (1061–1204)===* until 1061: Burkhard I* before 1125: Frederick I* between and 1142: Frederick II, eldest son of Frederick I* between and 1150–1155: Burkhard II, 2nd oldest son of Frederick I* between –1155 and 1160: Gotfried of Zimmern, 4th oldest son of Frederick I* before 1171 – : Frederick III/I (son of Frederick II, also Burgrave of Nuremberg)After Frederick's death, his sons partitioned the family lands between themselves:* Conrad I received the county of Zollern and exchanged it for the Burgraviate of Nuremberg with his younger brother Frederick IV in 1218, thereby founding the Franconian branch of the House of Hohenzollern.", "Members of the Franconian line eventually became the Brandenburg-Prussia branch and later converted to Protestantism.", "* Frederick IV received the burgraviate of Nuremberg in 1200 from his father and exchanged it for the county of Zollern in 1218 with his brother, thereby founding the Swabian branch of the House of Hohenzollern, which remains Catholic." ], [ "Franconian branch", "The senior Franconian branch of the House of Hohenzollern was founded by Conrad I, Burgrave of Nuremberg (1186–1261).The family supported the Hohenstaufen and Habsburg rulers of the Holy Roman Empire during the 12th to 15th centuries, being rewarded with several territorial grants.", "Beginning in the 16th century, this branch of the family became Protestant and decided on expansion through marriage and the purchase of surrounding lands.In the first phase, the family gradually added to their lands, at first with many small acquisitions in the Franconian region of Germany:* Ansbach in 1331* Kulmbach in 1340In the second phase, the family expanded their lands further with large acquisitions in the Brandenburg and Prussian regions of Germany and present-day Poland:* Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1417* Duchy of Prussia in 1525These acquisitions eventually transformed the Franconian Hohenzollerns from a minor German princely family into one of the most important dynasties in Europe.From 8 January 1701 the title of Elector of Brandenburg was attached to the title of King ''in'' Prussia and, from 13 September 1772, to that of King ''of'' Prussia.===Burgraves of Nuremberg (1192–1427)===75pxRegion of Nuremberg, Ansbach, Kulmbach and Bayreuth (Franconia)* 1192–1200/1204: Frederick I (also count of Zollern as Frederick III)* 1204–1218: Frederick II (son of, also count of Zollern as Frederick IV)* 1218–1261/1262: Conrad I/III (brother of, also count of Zollern)* 1262–1297: Frederick III (–1297), son of* 1297–1300: John I (c. 1279–1300), son of* 1300–1332: Frederick IV (1287–1332), brother of* 1332–1357: John II (c. 1309–1357), son of* 1357–1397: Frederick V (before 1333–1398), son ofAt Frederick V's death on 21 January 1398, his lands were partitioned between his two sons:* 1397–1420: John III/I (son of, also Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach)* 1397–1427: Frederick VI/I/I, (brother of, also Elector and Margrave of Brandenburg, also Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach and Brandenburg-Kulmbach)After John III/I's death on 11 June 1420, the margraviates of Brandenburg-Ansbach and Brandenburg-Kulmbach were briefly reunited under Frederick VI/I/I.", "He ruled the Margraviate of Brandenburg-Ansbach after 1398.From 1420, he became Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach.", "From 1411 Frederick VI became governor of Brandenburg and later Elector and Margrave of Brandenburg as Frederick I.", "Upon his death on 21 September 1440, his territories were divided among his sons:* Frederick II, Elector of Brandenburg* Albert III, Elector of Brandenburg and Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach* John II, Margrave of Brandenburg-KulmbachIn 1427 Frederick, Elector of Brandenburg sold Nuremberg Castle and his rights as burgrave to the Imperial City of Nuremberg.", "The territories of Brandenburg-Ansbach and Brandenburg-Kulmbach remained possessions of the family, once parts of the Burgraviate of Nuremberg.", "File:Nürnberger Burg im Herbst 2013.jpg\|Nuremberg Castle (the Emperor's castle, left, and the Burgrave's castle, right)File:Cadolzburg-burg-wseite-gesamt-v-nw.jpg\|Cadolzburg Castle near Nuremberg (from 1260 seat of the Burgraves)File:Münster (Heilsbronn).jpg\|Heilsbronn Abbey, which the Hohenzollerns used as the family burial place===Margraves of Brandenburg-Ansbach (1398–1791)===75px* 1398–1440: Frederick I (also Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach)* 1440–1486: Albert I/I/III Achilles (son of, also Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach and Elector of Brandenburg)* 1486–1515: Frederick II/II (son of, also Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach)* 1515–1543: George I/I the Pious (son of, also Duke of Brandenburg-Jägerndorf)* 1543–1603: George Frederick I/I/I/I (son of, also Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach, Duke of Brandenburg-Jägerndorf and Regent of Prussia)* 1603–1625: Joachim Ernst (1583–1625), son of John George of Brandenburg* 1625–1634: Frederick III (1616–1634), son of* 1634–1667: Albert II, brother of* 1667–1686: John Frederick (1654–1686), son of* 1686–1692: Christian I Albrecht, son of* 1692–1703: George Frederick II/II (brother of, later Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach)* 1703–1723: William Frederick (before 1686–1723), brother of* 1723–1757: Charles William (1712–1757), son of* 1757–1791: Christian II Frederick (1736–1806) (son of, also Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach)On 2 December 1791, Christian II Frederick sold the sovereignty of his principalities to King Frederick William II of Prussia.===Margraves of Brandenburg-Kulmbach (1398–1604), later Brandenburg-Bayreuth (1604–1791)===75px* 1398–1420: John I (c. 1369–1420), son of Frederick V of Nuremberg* 1420–1440: Frederick I (also Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach)* 1440–1457: John II (1406–1464), son of* 1457–1486: Albert I/I/III Achilles (also Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach and Elector of Brandenburg)* 1486–1495: Siegmund (1468–1495), son of* 1495–1515: Frederick II/II (also Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach)* 1515–1527: Casimir (1481–1527), son of* 1527–1553: Albert II Alcibiades (1522–1557), son of* 1553–1603: George Frederick I/I/I/I (also Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach, Duke of Brandenburg-Jägerndorf and Regent of Prussia)* 1603–1655: Christian I (1581–1655), son of John George, of Brandenburg* 1655–1712: Christian II Ernst (1644–1712), son of Erdmann August * 1712–1726: George I William (1678–1726), son of * 1726–1735: George Frederick II/II (previously Margrave of Kulmbach)* 1735–1763: Frederick IV (1711–1763), son of * 1763–1769: Frederick V Christian (1708–1769), son of Christian Heinrich* 1769–1791: Charles Alexander (also Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach)On 2 December 1791, Charles Alexander sold the sovereignty of his principalities to King Frederick William II of Prussia.===Dukes of Jägerndorf (1523–1622)===80pxThe Duchy of Jägerndorf (Krnov) was purchased in 1523.", "* 1541–1543: George I the Pious (also Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach)* 1543–1603: George Frederick I (also Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach, Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach and Regent of Prussia)* 1603–1606: Joachim I (also Regent of Prussia and Elector of Brandenburg)* 1606–1621: Johann Georg von BrandenburgThe duchy of Jägerndorf was confiscated by Emperor Ferdinand III in 1622." ], [ "Brandenburg-Prussian branch", "===Margraves of Brandenburg (1415–1619)===Frederick VI became Margrave of Brandenburg in 1415.In 1411, Frederick VI, Burgrave of the small but wealthy Nuremberg, was appointed governor of Brandenburg in order to restore order and stability.", "At the Council of Constance in 1415, King Sigismund elevated Frederick to the rank of Elector and Margrave of Brandenburg as Frederick I.", "In 1417, Elector Frederick purchased Brandenburg from its then-sovereign, Emperor Sigismund, for 400,000 Hungarian guilders.PortraitNameDynastic StatusReignBirthDeathMarriages 108x108pxFrederick Ialso as Frederick VI Burgrave of Nuremberg 1415–144013711440Elisabeth of Bavaria107x107pxFrederick IISon of1440–1471 14131471Catherine of Saxony107x107pxAlbrecht III AchillesBrother of1471–148614141486Margaret of BadenAnna of Saxony107x107pxJohn CiceroSon of1486–149914551499Margaret of Thuringia107x107pxJoachim I NestorSon of1499–153514841535Elizabeth of Denmark107x107pxJoachim II HectorSon of1535–157115051571Magdalena of SaxonyHedwig of Poland107x107pxJohn GeorgeSon of1571–159815251598Sophie of LegnicaSabina of Brandenburg-AnsbachElisabeth of Anhalt-Zerbst107x107pxJoachim FrederickSon of1598–160815461608Catherine of Brandenburg-KüstrinEleanor of Prussia99x99pxJohn SigismundSon ofpersonal union with Prussia after 1618 called Brandenburg-Prussia.1608–161915721619Anna, Duchess of Prussia===Margraves of Brandenburg-Küstrin (1535–1571)===75pxThe short-lived Margraviate of Brandenburg-Küstrin was set up as a secundogeniture of the House of Hohenzollern.", "* 1535–1571: John the Wise, Margrave of Brandenburg-Küstrin (son of Joachim I Nestor, Elector of Brandenburg).", "He died without issue.", "The Margraviate of Brandenburg-Küstrin was absorbed in 1571 into Brandenburg.===Margraves of Brandenburg-Schwedt (1688–1788)===75pxAlthough recognized as a branch of the dynasty since 1688, the Margraviate of Brandenburg-Schwedt remained subordinate to the electors, and was never an independent principality.", "* 1688–1711: Philip William, Prince in Prussia, Margrave of Brandenburg-Schwedt (son of Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg)* 1731–1771: Frederick William, Prince in Prussia, Margrave of Brandenburg-Schwedt (son of)* 1771–1788: Frederick Henry, Prince in Prussia, Margrave of Brandenburg Schwedt (brother of)===Dukes of Prussia (1525–1701)===rightGrowth of Brandenburg-Prussia, 1600–1795In 1525, the Duchy of Prussia was established as a fief of the King of Poland.", "Albert of Prussia was the last Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights and the first Duke of Prussia.", "He belonged to the Ansbach branch of the dynasty.", "The Duchy of Prussia adopted Protestantism as the official state religion.", "* 1525–1568: Albert I* 1568–1618: Albert II Frederick co-heir (son of)* 1568–1571: Joachim I/II Hector co-heir (also Elector of Brandenburg) 1578–1603: George Frederick I/I/I/I (Regent, also Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach, Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach and Duke of Brandenburg-Jägerndorf) 1603–1608: Joachim I/I/III Frederick (Regent, also Duke of Brandenburg-Jägerndorf and Elector of Brandenburg)** 1608–1618: John Sigismund (Regent, also Elector of Brandenburg)* 1618–1619: John Sigismund (Regent, also Elector of Brandenburg, after 1618 Brandenburg-Prussia)* 1619–1640: George William I/I (son of, also Elector of Brandenburg)* 1640–1688: Frederick I/III William the Great Elector (son of, also Elector of Brandenburg)* 1688–1701: Frederick II/IV/I (also Elector of Brandenburg and King in Prussia)From 1701, the title of Duke of Prussia was attached to the title of King in and of Prussia.===Kings in Prussia (1701–1772)===leftFrederick I in KönigsbergIn 1701, the title of King in Prussia was granted, without the Duchy of Prussia being elevated to a Kingdom within Poland but recognized as a kingdom by the Holy Roman Emperor, theoretically the highest sovereign in the West.", "From 1701 onwards the titles of Duke of Prussia and Elector of Brandenburg were always attached to the title of King in Prussia.", "The Duke of Prussia adopted the title of king as Frederick I, establishing his status as a monarch whose royal territory lay outside the boundaries of the Holy Roman Empire, with the assent of Emperor Leopold I: Frederick could not be \"King of Prussia\" because part of Prussia's lands were under the suzerainty of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland.", "In Brandenburg and the other Hohenzollern domains within the borders of the empire, he was legally still an elector under the ultimate overlordship of the emperor.", "By this time, however, the emperor's authority had become purely nominal over the other German prices outside the immediate hereditary lands of the emperor.", "Brandenburg was still legally part of the empire and ruled in personal union with Prussia, though the two states came to be treated as one ''de facto.''", "The king was officially ''Margrave of Brandenburg'' within the Empire until the Empire's dissolution in 1806.In the age of absolutism, most monarchs were obsessed with the desire to emulate Louis XIV of France with his luxurious palace at Versailles.In 1772, the Duchy of Prussia was elevated to a kingdom.PortraitNameDynastic StatusReignBirthDeathMarriages 108x108pxFrederick ISon of1701–1713Duke of Prussia and Elector of Brandenburg since 168816571713Elisabeth Henriette of Hesse-KasselSophia Charlotte of HanoverSophia Louise of Mecklenburg-Schwerin107x107pxFrederick William ISon of1713–174016881740Sophia Dorothea of Hanover 99x99pxFrederick II''the Great''Son of1740–1772King of Prussia from 177217121786Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel-Bevern===Kings of Prussia (1772–1918)===Expansion of Prussia, 1807–1871Frederick William's successor, Frederick the Great gained Silesia in the Silesian Wars so that Prussia emerged as a great power.", "The king was strongly influenced by French culture and civilization and preferred the French language.In the 1772 First Partition of Poland, the Prussian king Frederick the Great annexed neighboring Royal Prussia, i.e., the Polish voivodeships of Pomerania (Gdańsk Pomerania or Pomerelia), Malbork, Chełmno and the Prince-Bishopric of Warmia, thereby connecting his Prussian and Farther Pomeranian lands and cutting the rest of Poland from the Baltic coast.", "The territory of Warmia was incorporated into the lands of former Ducal Prussia, which, by administrative deed of 31 January 1772 were named ''East Prussia''.", "The former Polish Pomerelian lands beyond the Vistula River together with Malbork and Chełmno Land formed the Province of West Prussia with its capital at Marienwerder (Kwidzyn) in 1773.The Polish Partition Sejm ratified the cession on 30 September 1772, whereafter Frederick officially went on to call himself '''King \"of\" Prussia'''.", "From 1772 onwards the titles of Duke of Prussia and Elector of Brandenburg were always attached to the title King of Prussia.In 1871, the Kingdom of Prussia became a constituent member of the German Empire, and the King of Prussia gained the additional title of German Emperor.PortraitNameDynastic StatusReignBirthDeathMarriages 99x99pxFrederick II''the Great''Son of1772–1786King in Prussia since 174017121786Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel-Bevern108x108pxFrederick William IINephew of1786–179717441797Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-LüneburgFrederika Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt108x108pxFrederick William IIISon of1797–184017701840Louise of Mecklenburg-StrelitzAuguste von Harrach108x108pxFrederick William IVSon of1840–186117951861Elisabeth Ludovika of Bavaria108x108pxWilliam IBrother of1861–1888German Emperor from 187117971888Augusta of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach107x107pxFrederick IIISon of1888German Emperor18311888Victoria, Princess Royal99x99pxWilhelm IISon of1888–1918German Emperor18591941Augusta Victoria of Schleswig-HolsteinHermine Reuss of Greiz===German Emperors (1871–1918)===75pxPrussia in the German Empire, 1871–1918In 1871, the German Empire was proclaimed.", "With the accession of William I to the newly established imperial German throne, the titles of King of Prussia, Duke of Prussia and Elector of Brandenburg were always attached to the title of German Emperor.Prussia's Minister President Otto von Bismarck convinced William that German Emperor instead of Emperor of Germany would be appropriate.", "He became ''primus inter pares'' among other German sovereigns.William II intended to develop a German navy capable of challenging Britain's Royal Navy.", "The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria on 28 June 1914 set off the chain of events that led to World War I.", "As a result of the war, the German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires ceased to exist.In 1918, the German empire was abolished and replaced by the Weimar Republic.", "After the outbreak of the German revolution in 1918, both Emperor William II and Crown Prince William signed the document of abdication.File:Kaiser Wilhelm I.", ".JPG\|William I (1871–1888)File:Emperor Friedrich III.png\|Frederick III (1888)File:Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany - 1902.jpg\|William II (1888–1918)===Prussian Hohenzollern religion and religious policy===The official religion of the state was \"bi-confessional\".", "John Sigismund's most significant action was his conversion from Lutheranism to Calvinism, after he had earlier equalized the rights of Catholics and Protestants in the Duchy of Prussia under pressure from the King of Poland.", "He was probably won over to Calvinism during a visit to Heidelberg in 1606, but it was not until 25 December 1613 that he publicly took communion according to the Calvinist rite.", "The vast majority of his subjects in Brandenburg, including his wife Anna of Prussia, remained deeply Lutheran, however.", "After the Elector and his Calvinist court officials drew up plans for mass conversion of the population to the new faith in February 1614, as provided for by the rule of ''Cuius regio, eius religio'' within the Holy Roman Empire, there were serious protests, with his wife backing the Lutherans.", "This was doubly important as Anna brought with her the duchy of Prussia into the Brandenburg line of the house and the nascent Brandenburg-Prussian state.", "Resistance was so strong that in 1615, John Sigismund backed down and relinquished all attempts at forcible conversion.", "Instead, he allowed his subjects to be either Lutheran or Calvinist according to the dictates of their own consciences.", "Henceforward, Brandenburg-Prussia would be a bi-confessional state, with the ruling Hohenzollern house staying Calvinist.", "This situation persisted until Frederick William III of Prussia.", "Frederick William was determined to unify the Protestant churches to homogenize their liturgy, organization, and architecture.", "The long-term goal was to have fully centralized royal control of all the Protestant churches in the Prussian Union of churches.", "The merging of the Lutheran and Calvinist (Reformed) confessions to form the United Church of Prussia was highly controversial.", "Angry responses included a large and well-organized opposition.", "The crown's aggressive efforts to restructure religion were unprecedented in Prussian history.", "In a series of proclamations over several years, the ''Church of the Prussian Union'' was formed, bringing together the majority group of Lutherans and the minority group of Reformed Protestants.", "The main effect was that the government of Prussia had full control over church affairs, with the king himself recognized as the leading bishop." ], [ "Brandenburg-Prussian branch since 1918 abdication", "Georg Friedrich, the head of the Prussian Hohenzollerns, and his wifeGeorge Friedrich photographed by Oliver Mark in Hohenzollern Castle, Bisingen 2018In June 1926, a referendum on expropriating the formerly ruling princes of Germany without compensation failed and as a consequence, the financial situation of the Hohenzollern family improved considerably.", "A settlement between the state and the family made Cecilienhof property of the state but granted a right of residence to Crown Prince Wilhelm and his wife Cecilie.", "The family also kept the ownership of Monbijou Palace in Berlin, Oleśnica Castle in Silesia, Rheinsberg Palace, Schwedt Palace and other property until 1945.Since the abolition of the German monarchy, no Hohenzollern claims to imperial or royal prerogatives are recognized by Germany's Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany of 1949, which guarantees a republic.The communist government of the Soviet occupation zone expropriated all landowners and industrialists; the House of Hohenzollern lost almost all of its fortune, retaining a few company shares and Hohenzollern Castle in West Germany.", "The Polish government appropriated the Silesian property and the Dutch government seized Huis Doorn, the Emperor's seat in exile.After German reunification, however, the family was legally able to reclaim their portable property, namely art collections and parts of the interior of their former palaces.", "Negotiations on the return of or compensation for these assets are not yet completed.The Berlin Palace, home of the German monarchs, was rebuilt in 2020.The Berlin Palace and the Humboldt Forum are located in the middle of Berlin.===Order of succession=== NameTitular reign Relation to predecessor Wilhelm II 1918–1941 Succeeded himself as pretender to the throne.", "Crown Prince Wilhelm 1941–1951 Son of Louis Ferdinand, Prince of Prussia 1951–1994 Son of Georg Friedrich, Prince of Prussia since 1994Grandson of Carl Friedrich, Prince of Prussia Son of (heir apparent)File:Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany - 1902.jpg\|Wilhelm II, the last incumbent of the throneFile:Kronprinz Wilhelm 1.Leib-Husarenregiment.jpg\|Crown Prinz WilhelmFile:Louis ferdinand c1930.jpg\|Louis FerdinandFile:Georg Friedrich Prinz von Preußen1, Pour le Merite 2014.JPG\|Georg Friedrich The head of the house is the titular King of Prussia and German Emperor.", "He also bears a historical claim to the title of Prince of Orange.", "Members of this line style themselves princes of Prussia.Georg Friedrich, Prince of Prussia, the current head of the royal Prussian House of Hohenzollern, was married to Princess Sophie of Isenburg on 27 August 2011.On 20 January 2013, she gave birth to twin sons, Carl Friedrich Franz Alexander and Louis Ferdinand Christian Albrecht, in Bremen.", "Carl Friedrich, the elder of the two, is the heir apparent." ], [ "Royal House of Hohenzollern table", "Table of the Royal Brandenburg-Prussian House of Hohenzollern" ], [ "Family tree of the House of Hohenzollern" ], [ "Swabian branch", "Combined coat of arms of the House of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (1849)The cadet Swabian branch of the House of Hohenzollern was founded by Frederick IV, Count of Zollern.", "The family ruled three territories with seats at, respectively, Hechingen, Sigmaringen and Haigerloch.", "The counts were elevated to princes in 1623.The Swabian branch of the Hohenzollerns is Roman Catholic.Affected by economic problems and internal feuds, the Hohenzollern counts from the 14th century onwards came under pressure by their neighbors, the Counts of Württemberg and the cities of the Swabian League, whose troops besieged and finally destroyed Hohenzollern Castle in 1423.Nevertheless, the Hohenzollerns retained their estates, backed by their Brandenburg cousins and the Imperial House of Habsburg.", "In 1535, Count Charles I of Hohenzollern (1512–1576) received the counties of Sigmaringen and Veringen as Imperial fiefs.In 1576, when Charles I, Count of Hohenzollern died, his county was divided to form the three Swabian branches.", "Eitel Frederick IV took Hohenzollern with the title of Hohenzollern-Hechingen, Karl II took Sigmaringen and Veringen, and Christopher got Haigerloch.", "Christopher's family died out in 1634.", "* Eitel Frederick IV of Hohenzollern-Hechingen (1545–1605)* Charles II of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (1547–1606)* Christopher of Hohenzollern-Haigerloch (1552–1592)In 1695, the remaining two Swabian branches entered into an agreement with the Margrave of Brandenburg, which provided that if both branches became extinct, the principalities should fall to Brandenburg.", "Because of the Revolutions of 1848, Constantine, Prince of Hohenzollern-Hechingen and Karl Anton, Prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen abdicated their thrones in December 1849.The principalities were ruled by the Kings of Prussia from December 1849 onwards, with the Hechingen and Sigmaringen branches obtaining official treatment as cadets of the Prussian royal family.The Hohenzollern-Hechingen branch became extinct in 1869.A descendant of this branch was Countess Sophie Chotek, morganatic wife of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Lotharingen.File:Sigmaringen Schloss 2015-04-29 15-52-34.jpg\|Sigmaringen CastleFile:Neues Schloss (Hechingen).JPG\|The New Castle, HechingenFile:Schlosskirche Haigerloch 2010.JPG\|Haigerloch Castle===Counts of Hohenzollern (1204–1575)===rightHohenzollern region, in present-day Baden-Württemberg, Germany (red color) and their Prussian cousins' kingdom (light beige)In 1204, the County of Hohenzollern was established out of the fusion of the County of Zollern and the Burgraviate of Nuremberg.", "The Swabian branch inherited the county of Zollern and, being descended from Frederick I of Nuremberg, were all named \"Friedrich\" down through the 11th generation.", "Each one's numeral is counted from the first Friedrich to rule his branch's appanage.The most senior of these in the 14th century, Count Frederick VIII (d. 1333), had two sons, the elder of whom became Frederick IX (d. 1379), first Count of Hohenzollern, and fathered Friedrich X who left no sons when he died in 1412.But the younger son of Friedrich VIII, called ''Friedrich of Strassburg'', uniquely, took no numeral of his own, retaining the old title \"Count of Zollern\" and pre-deceased his brother in 1364/65.Prince Wilhelm Karl zu Isenburg's 1957 genealogical series, ''Europäische Stammtafeln'', says Friedrich of Strassburg shared, rather, in the rule of Zollern with his elder brother until his premature death.It appears, but is not stated, that Strassburg's son became the recognized co-ruler of his cousin Friedrich X (as compensation for having received no appanage and/or because of incapacity on the part of Friedrich X) and, as such, assumed (or is, historically, attributed) the designation Frederick XI although he actually pre-deceased Friedrich X, dying in 1401.Friedrich XI, however, left two sons who jointly succeeded their cousin-once-removed, being Count Frederick XII (d. childless 1443) and Count Eitel Friedrich I (d. 1439), the latter becoming the ancestor of all subsequent branches of the Princes of Hohenzollern.", "* 1204–1251/1255: Frederick IV, also Burgrave of Nuremberg as Frederick II until 1218* 1251/1255–1289: Frederick V* 1289–1298: Frederick VI (d. 1298), son of* 1298–1309: Frederick VII (d. after 1309), son of * 1309–1333: Frederick VIII (d. 1333), brother of * 1333–1377: Frederick IX* 1377–1401: Frederick XI* 1401–1426: Frederick XII* 1426–1439: Eitel Frederick I, brother of* 1433–1488: Jobst Nicholas I (1433–1488), son of* 1488–1512: Eitel Frederick II (c. 1452–1512), son of* 1512–1525: Eitel Frederick III (1494–1525), son of* 1525–1575: Charles I (1516–1576), son ofIn the 12th century, a son of Frederick I secured the county of Hohenberg.", "The county remained in the possession of the family until 1486.The influence of the Swabian line was weakened by several partitions of its lands.", "In the 16th century, the situation changed completely when Eitel Frederick II, a friend and adviser of the emperor Maximilian I, received the district of Haigerloch.", "His grandson Charles I was granted the counties of Sigmaringen and Vehringen by Charles V.===Counts, later Princes of Hohenzollern-Hechingen (1576–1849)===Stetten Abbey church in Hechingen, the burial place of the Swabian lineleftThe County of Hohenzollern-Hechingen was established in 1576 with allodial rights.", "It included the original County of Zollern, with the Hohenzollern Castle and the monastery at Stetten.In December 1849, the ruling princes of both Hohenzollern-Hechingen and Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen abdicated their thrones, and their principalities were incorporated as the Prussian province of Hohenzollern.", "The Hechingen branch became extinct in dynastic line with Konstantin's death in 1869.PortraitNameDynastic StatusReignBirthDeathMarriages108x108pxEitel Friedrich IVSon of Charles I1576–160515451605Veronica of OrtenburgSibylle of ZimmernJohanna of Eberstein50pxJohann GeorgSon ofraised to Prince in 16231605–162315771623Franziska of Salm-Neufville50pxEitel Frederick VSon ofalso count of Hohenzollern-Hechingen1623–166116011661Maria Elisabeth van Bergh ’s-Heerenberg 50pxPhilippBrother of1661–167116161671Marie Sidonie of Baden-Rodemachern108x108pxFriedrich WilhelmSon of1671–173516631735Maria Leopoldina of SinzendorfMaximiliane Magdalena of Lützau50pxFriedrich LudwigSon of1735–175016881750unmarried108x108pxJosef Friedrich WilhelmSon of Herman Frederick of Hohenzollern-Hechingen1750–179817171798Maria Theresia Folch de Cardona y SilvaMaria Theresia of Waldburg-Zeil108x108pxHermannSon of Franz Xaver of Hohenzollern-Hechingen1798–181017511810Louise of Merode-WesterlooMaximiliane of GavreMaria Antonia of Waldburg-Zeil-Wurzach50pxFriedrich Hermann OttoSon of1810–183817761838Pauline, Duchess of Sagan 108x108pxConstantineSon of1838–184918011869Eugénie de BeauharnaisAmalie Schenk von Geyern===Counts of Hohenzollern-Haigerloch (1576–1634 and 1681–1767)===75pxThe County of Hohenzollern-Haigerloch was established in 1576 without allodial rights.", "* 1576–1601 : Christopher (1552–1592), son of Charles I of Hohenzollern* 1601–1623 : John Christopher (1586–1620), son of * 1601–1634 : Charles (1588–1634)Between 1634 and 1681, the county was temporarily integrated into the principality of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen.", "* 1681–1702: Francis Anthony, Count of Hohenzollern-Haigerloch* 1702–1750: Ferdinand Leopold, Count of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen* 1750–1767: Francis Christopher Anton, Count of Hohenzollern-SigmaringenUpon the death of Francis Christopher Anton in 1767, the Haigerloch territory was incorporated into the principality of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen.===Counts, later Princes of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (1576–1849)===Sigmaringen CastleThe County of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was established in 1576 with allodial rights and a seat at Sigmaringen Castle.leftIn December 1849, sovereignty over the principality was yielded to the Franconian branch of the family and incorporated into the Kingdom of Prussia, which accorded status as cadets of the Prussian Royal Family to the Swabian Hohenzollerns.", "The last ruling Prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, Karl Anton, would later serve as Minister President of Prussia between 1858 and 1862.PortraitNameDynastic StatusReignBirthDeathMarriages 108x108pxCharles IISon of Charles I1576–160615471606Euphrosyne of Oettingen-WallersteinElisabeth of Palant 108x108pxJohannSon ofelevated to Prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen in 16231606–163815781638Johanna of Hohenzollern-Hechingen 108x108pxMeinrad ISon of1638–168116051681Anna Marie of Törring at Seefeld 108x108pxMaximilian I Son of1681–168916361689Maria Clara of Berg-'s-Heerenberg 50pxMeinrad IISon of1689–171516731715Johanna Catharina of Montfort107x107pxJoseph Friedrich ErnstSon of1715–176917021769Marie Franziska of Oettingen-SpielbergJudith of Closen-ArnstorfMaria Theresa of Waldburg-Trauchburg 50pxKarl FriedrichSon of1769–178517241785Johanna of Hohenzollern-Bergh 99x99pxAnton AloysSon of1785–183117621831Amalie Zephyrine of Salm-Kyrburg 99x99pxKarl Son of1831–184817851853Marie Antoinette MuratKatharina of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfürst 99x99pxKarl AntonSon of1848–184918111885Josephine of Baden===House of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen after 1849===Map of the Prussian Province of Hohenzollern after 1850Karl Friedrich, Prince of Hohenzollern, head of the Swabian branchThe family continued to use the title of Prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen.", "After the Hechingen branch became extinct in 1869, the Sigmaringen branch adopted title of ''Prince of Hohenzollern''.", "* 1849–1885: Karl Anton I (1811–1885)* 1885–1905: Leopold I (1835–1905), son of* 1905–1927: William I (1864–1927), son of* 1927–1965: Frederick I (1891–1965), son of * 1965–2010: Friedrich Wilhelm I (1924–2010), son of * 2010–present: Karl Friedrich I (1952–), son of* heir apparent: AlexanderIn 1866, Prince Charles of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was chosen prince of Romania, becoming King Carol I of Romania in 1881.Charles's elder brother, Leopold, Prince of Hohenzollern, was offered the Spanish throne in 1870 after a revolt exiled Isabella II in 1868.Although encouraged by Bismarck to accept, Leopold declined in the face of French opposition.", "Nonetheless, Bismarck altered and then published the Ems telegram to create a ''casus belli'': France declared war, but Bismarck's Germany won the Franco-Prussian War.The head of the Sigmaringen branch (the only extant line of the Swabian branch of the dynasty) is Karl Friedrich, styled ''His Highness'' The Prince of Hohenzollern.", "His official seat is Sigmaringen Castle." ], [ "Kings of the Romanians", "right===Reigning (1866–1947)===Carol I in BucharestEvolution of RomaniaThe Principality of Romania was established in 1862, after the Ottoman vassal states of Wallachia and Moldavia had been united in 1859 under Alexandru Ioan Cuza as Prince of Romania in a personal union.", "He was deposed in 1866 by the Romanian parliament.Prince Charles of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was invited to become reigning Prince of Romania in 1866.In 1881 he became Carol I, King of Romania.", "Carol I had an only daughter who died young, so the younger son of his brother Leopold, Prince Ferdinand of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, would succeed his uncle as King of Romania in 1914, and his descendants, having converted to the Orthodox Church, continued to reign there until the end of the monarchy in 1947.PortraitNameDynastic StatusReignBirthDeathMarriages108x108pxCarol ISon of Karl Anton, Prince of Hohenzollerntitled as Prince until 18811866–191418391914Elisabeth of Wied108x108pxFerdinand INephew of Carol I1914–192718651927Marie of Edinburgh108x108pxMichael IGrandson of Ferdinand I1st reign1927–1930 (regency)19212017Anne of Bourbon-Parma108x108pxCarol IISon of Ferdinand I1930–194018931953Zizi LambrinoHelen of Greece and DenmarkMagda Lupescu 108x108pxMichael ISon of Carol II2nd reign1940–194719212017Anne of Bourbon-Parma===Succession since 1947===In 1947, the King Michael I abdicated and the country was proclaimed a People's Republic.", "Michael did not press his claim to the defunct Romanian throne, but he was welcomed back to the country after half a century in exile as a private citizen, with substantial former royal properties being placed at his disposal.", "However, his dynastic claim was not recognized by post-Communist Romanians.On 10 May 2011, King Michael I severed the dynastic ties between the Romanian Royal Family and the House of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen.After that the branch of the Hohenzollerns was dynastically represented only by the last king Michael, and his daughters.", "Having no sons, he declared that his dynastic heir, instead of being a male member of the Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen princely family to which he formerly belonged patrilineally and in accordance with the last Romanian monarchical constitution, should be his eldest daughter Margareta.The royal house remains popular in Romania and in 2014 Prime Minister Victor Ponta promised a referendum on whether or not to reinstate the monarchy if he were re-elected." ], [ "Residences", "===Palaces of the Prussian Hohenzollerns===File:BurgHohenzollernInnenhof02.jpg\|Hohenzollern CastleFile:Berlin Stadtschloss 1920er.jpg\|Berlin PalaceFile:Charlottenburg Hohenzollern 2.jpg\|Charlottenburg Palace, BerlinFile:Königsberg Castle courtyard.jpg\|Königsberg Castle, PrussiaFile:Bundesarchiv Bild 170-237, Potsdam, Stadtschloss vom Turm der Nikolaikirche.jpg\|City Palace, PotsdamFile:Potsdam Sanssouci 07-2017 img4.jpg\|New Palace, PotsdamFile:Schloss Sanssouci 2014.jpg\|Sanssouci, PotsdamFile:Marmorpalais.jpg\|Marmorpalais, PotsdamFile:BabelsbergP1020137.jpg\|Babelsberg Palace, PotsdamFile:Schloss Cecilienhof .jpg\|Cecilienhof Palace, PotsdamFile:Schloss Oranienburg - Jan 2013.jpg\|Oranienburg PalaceFile:Rheinsberg Castle.jpg\|Rheinsberg PalaceFile:Wrocław Kazimierza Wielkiego 35 sm.jpg\|Wrocław Palace, SilesiaFile:3273viki Zamek w Oleśnicy.", "Foto Barbara Maliszewska.jpg\|Oels Castle, SilesiaFile:Schloss Stolzenfels 01 Koblenz 2015.jpg\|Stolzenfels Castle, Koblenz===Palaces of the Franconian branches===File:Plassenburg oben.jpg\|Plassenburg Castle at KulmbachFile:Neues schloß bayreuth.JPG\|The New Castle at BayreuthFile:Ansbach - 2013 Mattes (73).JPG\|Residenz Ansbach File:Erlangen Schloss 006.JPG\|Erlangen Castle ===Palaces of the Swabian Hohenzollerns===File:Neues Schloss (Hechingen).JPG\|The New Castle at Hechingen" ], [ "Property claims", "In mid-2019, it was revealed that Prince Georg Friedrich, Prince of Prussia, Head of the House of Hohenzollern had filed claims for permanent right of residency for his family in Cecilienhof, or one of two other Hohenzollern palaces in Potsdam, as well as return of the family library, 266 paintings, an imperial crown and sceptre, and the letters of Empress Augusta Victoria.Central to the argument was that Monbijou Palace, which had been permanently given to the family following the fall of the Kaiser, was demolished by the East German government in 1959.Lawyers for the German state argued that the involvement of members of the family in National Socialism had voided any such rights.In June 2019, a claim made by Prince Georg Friedrich that Rheinfels Castle be returned to the Hohenzollern family was dismissed by a court.", "In 1924, the ruined Castle had been given by the state of Rhineland-Palatinate to the town of St Goar, under the provision it was not sold.", "In 1998, the town leased the ruins to a nearby hotel.", "His case made the claim that this constituted a breach of the bequest." ], [ "Coats of arms", "File:Wappen Hohenzollern 2.svg\|Quartered coat of arms of the HohenzollernsFile:Zollern ZW.png\|Counts of Zollern (1340)File:Hohenzollern-herb-rodowy.jpg\|Achievement of Counts of ZollernFile:Nürenberg ZW.png\|Burgraves of Nuremberg (1340)File:COA family de Burggrafen von Nürnberg (Haus Hohenzollern).svg\|Burgraves of NurembergFile:Hohenzollern.jpg\|The princely Swabian branch (1605)File:POL Prusy książęce COA.svg\|Arms of the Duke of PrussiaFile:Arms of East Prussia.svg\|Arms of the King of PrussiaFile:Coat of Arms of the Kingdom of Prussia 1873-1918.svg\|Achievement of the King of PrussiaFile:Wappenschild des Deutschen Kaiserreiches (1889-1918).svg\|Coat of Arms of the German Emperor (1871-1918)File:Greater imperial coat of arms of Germany.svg\|The greater coat of arms as German Emperor (1871-1918)" ], [ "Members of the family after abdication", "===Royal Brandenburg-Prussian branch===* Prince Franz Wilhelm of Prussia (1943–)* Prince Frederick of Prussia (1911–1966)* Georg Friedrich, Prince of Prussia (1976–)* Prince Hubertus of Prussia (1909–1950)* Princess Kira of Prussia (1943–2004)* Louis Ferdinand, Prince of Prussia (1907–1994)* Prince Louis Ferdinand of Prussia (1944–1977)* Prince Michael of Prussia (1940–2014)* Prince Oskar of Prussia (1959–)* Wilhelm, Prince of Prussia (1882–1951)* Prince Wilhelm of Prussia (1906–1940)* Prince Wilhelm-Karl of Prussia (1922–2007)* Prince Wilhelm-Karl of Prussia (b.", "1955) (2007-present)===Princely Swabian branch===* Princess Augusta Victoria of Hohenzollern (1890–1966)* Prince Ferfried of Hohenzollern (1943–2022)* Frederick, Prince of Hohenzollern (1891–1965)* Friedrich Wilhelm, Prince of Hohenzollern (1924–2010)* Prince Johann Georg of Hohenzollern (1932–2016)* Karl Friedrich, Prince of Hohenzollern (1952–)" ], [ "See also", "* Coat of arms of Prussia* Family tree of the German monarchs* House Order of Hohenzollern* Iron Cross* Monarchism in Romania* Order of the Black Eagle and Suum cuique* Order of the Crown (Prussia) and Gott mit uns* Order of the Red Eagle* Prussian Army* Peleș Castle* Peter Gumpel - Jesuit priest who abandoned the Hohenzollern name* Wilhelm-Orden" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Bogdan, Henry.", "''Les Hohenzollern : La dynastie qui a fait l'Allemagne (1061–1918)* Carlyle, Thomas.", "''A Short Introduction to the House of Hohenzollern'' (2014)* Clark, Christopher.", "''Iron Kingdom: The Rise and Downfall of Prussia, 1600–1947'' (2009), standard scholarly history * Koch, H. W. ''History of Prussia'' (1987), short scholarly history" ], [ "External links", "* of the imperial house of Germany and royal house of Prussia* of the princely house of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen * of the royal house of Romania * Hohenzollern Castle* Sigmaringen Castle * European Heraldry page * Hohenzollern heraldry page*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hang gliding" ], [ "Introduction", "Hang glider just after launch from Salève, France'''Hang gliding''' is an air sport or recreational activity in which a pilot flies a light, non-motorised, heavier-than-air aircraft called a '''hang glider'''.", "Most modern hang gliders are made of an aluminium alloy or composite frame covered with synthetic sailcloth to form a wing.", "Typically the pilot is in a harness suspended from the airframe, and controls the aircraft by shifting body weight in opposition to a control frame.Early hang gliders had a low lift-to-drag ratio, so pilots were restricted to gliding down small hills.", "By the 1980s this ratio significantly improved, and since then pilots have been able to soar for hours, gain thousands of feet of altitude in thermal updrafts, perform aerobatics, and glide cross-country for hundreds of kilometers.", "The Federation Aeronautique Internationale and national airspace governing organisations control some regulatory aspects of hang gliding.", "Obtaining the safety benefits of being instructed is highly recommended and indeed a mandatory requirement in many countries." ], [ "History", "Otto Lilienthal in flightIn 1853, George Cayley invented a slope-launched, piloted glider.Most early glider designs did not ensure safe flight; the problem was that early flight pioneers did not sufficiently understand the underlying principles that made a bird's wing work.", "Starting in the 1880s, technical and scientific advancements were made that led to the first truly practical gliders, such as those developed in the United States by John Joseph Montgomery.", "Otto Lilienthal built controllable gliders in the 1890s, with which he could ridge soar.", "His rigorously documented work influenced later designers, making Lilienthal one of the most influential early aviation pioneers.", "His aircraft was controlled by weight shift and is similar to a modern hang glider.Jan Lavezzari with a double sail gliderHang gliding saw a stiffened flexible wing hang glider in 1904, when Jan Lavezzari flew a double lateen sail hang glider off Berck Beach, France.", "In 1910 in Breslau, the triangle control frame with hang glider pilot hung behind the triangle in a hang glider, was evident in a gliding club's activity.", "The biplane hang glider was very widely publicized in public magazines with plans for building; such biplane hang gliders were constructed and flown in several nations since Octave Chanute and his tailed biplane hang gliders were demonstrated.", "In April 1909, a how-to article by Carl S. Bates proved to be a seminal hang glider article that seemingly affected builders even of contemporary times.", "Many builders would have their first hang glider made by following the plan in his article.", "Volmer Jensen with a biplane hang glider in 1940 called VJ-11 allowed safe three-axis control of a foot-launched hang glider.NASA's Paresev glider in flight with tow cable .On 23 November 1948, Francis Rogallo and Gertrude Rogallo applied for a kite patent for a fully flexible kited wing with approved claims for its stiffenings and gliding uses; the ''flexible wing'' or Rogallo wing, which in 1957 the American space agency NASA began testing in various flexible and semi-rigid configurations in order to use it as a recovery system for the Gemini space capsules.", "The various stiffening formats and the wing's simplicity of design and ease of construction, along with its capability of slow flight and its gentle landing characteristics, did not go unnoticed by hang glider enthusiasts.", "In 1960–1962 Barry Hill Palmer adapted the flexible wing concept to make foot-launched hang gliders with four different control arrangements.", "In 1963 Mike Burns adapted the flexible wing to build a towable kite-hang glider he called Skiplane.", "In 1963, John W. Dickenson adapted the flexible wing airfoil concept to make another water-ski kite glider; for this, the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale vested Dickenson with the Hang Gliding Diploma (2006) for the invention of the \"modern\" hang glider.", "Since then, the Rogallo wing has been the most used airfoil of hang gliders." ], [ "Components", "Hang gliding=== Hang glider sailcloth ===Hang glider sailcloth is normally made from woven or laminated fiber, such as dacron or mylar, respectively.Woven polyester sailcloth is a very tight weave of small diameter polyester fibers that has been stabilized by the hot-press impregnation of a polyester resin.", "The resin impregnation is required to provide resistance to distortion and stretch.", "This resistance is important in maintaining the aerodynamic shape of the sail.", "Woven polyester provides the best combination of light weight and durability in a sail, with the best overall handling qualities.Laminated sail materials using polyester film achieve superior performance by using a lower stretch material that is better at maintaining sail shape, but is still relatively light in weight.", "The disadvantages of polyester film fabrics are that the reduced elasticity under load generally results in stiffer and less responsive handling, and polyester laminated fabrics are generally not as durable or long-lasting as the woven fabrics.=== Triangle control frame ===In most hang gliders, the pilot is ensconced in a harness suspended from the airframe, and exercises control by shifting body weight in opposition to a stationary control frame, also known as a triangle control frame, or an A-frame.", "The control frame normally consists of 2 \"down-tubes\" and a control bar/base bar/base-tube.", "Either end of the control bar is attached to an upright tube or a more aerodynamic strut (a \"down-tube\"), where both extend from the base-tube and are connected to the apex of the control frame/ the keel of the glider.", "This creates the shape of a triangle or 'A-frame'.", "In many of these configurations additional wheels or other equipment can be suspended from the bottom bar or rod ends.Images showing a triangle control frame on Otto Lilienthal's 1892 hang glider shows that the technology of such frames has existed since the early design of gliders, but he did not mention it in his patents.", "A control frame for body weight shift was also shown in Octave Chanute's designs.", "It was a major part of the now common design of hang gliders by George A. Spratt from 1929.The most simple A-frame that is cable-stayed was demonstrated in a Breslau gliding club hang gliding meet in a battened wing foot-launchable hang glider in the year 1908 by W. Simon; hang glider historian Stephan Nitsch has collected instances also of the U control frame used in the first decade of the 1900s; the U is variant of the A-frame." ], [ "Training and safety", "Learning to hang glideDue to the poor safety record of early hang gliding pioneers, the sport has traditionally been considered unsafe.", "Advances in pilot training and glider construction have led to a much improved safety record.", "Modern hang gliders are very sturdy when constructed to Hang Glider Manufacturers Association, BHPA, Deutscher Hängegleiterverband, or other certified standards using modern materials.", "Although lightweight, they can be easily damaged, either through misuse or by continued operation in unsafe wind and weather conditions.", "All modern gliders have built-in dive recovery mechanisms such as luff lines in kingposted gliders, or \"sprogs\" in topless gliders.Pilots fly in harnesses that support their bodies.", "Several different types of harnesses exist.", "Pod harnesses are put on like a jacket and the leg portion is behind the pilot during launch.", "Once in the air the feet are tucked into the bottom of the harness.", "They are zipped up in the air with a rope and unzipped before landing with a separate rope.", "A cocoon harness is slipped over the head and lies in front of the legs during launch.", "After takeoff, the feet are tucked into it and the back is left open.", "A knee hanger harness is also slipped over the head but the knee part is wrapped around the knees before launch and just pick up the pilots leg automatically after launch.", "A supine or suprone harness is a seated harness.", "The shoulder straps are put on before launch and after takeoff the pilot slides back into the seat and flies in a seated position.Pilots carry a parachute enclosed in the harness.", "In case of serious problems, the parachute is manually deployed (either by hand or with a ballistic assist) and carries both pilot and glider down to earth.", "Pilots also wear helmets and generally carry other safety items such as knives (for cutting their parachute bridle after impact or cutting their harness lines and straps in case of a tree or water landing), light ropes (for lowering from trees to haul up tools or climbing ropes), radios (for communication with other pilots or ground crew), and first-aid equipment.The accident rate from hang glider flying has been dramatically decreased by pilot training.", "Early hang glider pilots learned their sport through trial and error and gliders were sometimes home-built.", "Training programs have been developed for today's pilot with emphasis on flight within safe limits, as well as the discipline to cease flying when weather conditions are unfavorable, for example: excess wind or risk cloud suck.In the UK, a 2011 study reported there is one death per 116,000 flights, a risk comparable to sudden cardiac death from running a marathon or playing tennis.", "An estimate of worldwide mortality rate is one death per 1,000 active pilots per year.Most pilots learn at recognised courses which lead to the internationally recognised International Pilot Proficiency Information card issued by the FAI." ], [ "Launch", "Video of a foot-launching from a hillLaunch techniques include launching from a hill/cliff/mountain/sand dune/any raised terrain on foot, tow-launching from a ground-based tow system, aerotowing (behind a powered aircraft), powered harnesses, and being towed up by a boat.", "Modern winch tows typically utilize hydraulic systems designed to regulate line tension, this reduces scenarios for lock out as strong aerodynamic forces will result in additional rope spooling out rather than direct tension on the tow line.", "Other more exotic launch techniques have also been used successfully, such as hot air balloon drops from very high altitude.", "When weather conditions are unsuitable to sustain a soaring flight, this results in a top-to-bottom flight and is referred to as a \"sled run\".", "In addition to typical launch configurations, a hang glider may be so constructed for alternative launching modes other than being foot launched; one practical avenue for this is for people who physically cannot foot-launch.In 1983 Denis Cummings re-introduced a safe tow system that was designed to tow through the centre of mass and had a gauge that displayed the towing tension, it also integrated a 'weak link' that broke when the safe tow tension was exceeded.", "After initial testing, in the Hunter Valley, Denis Cummings, pilot, John Clark, (Redtruck), driver and Bob Silver, officianado, began the Flatlands Hang gliding competition at Parkes, NSW.", "The competition quickly grew, from 16 pilots the first year to hosting a World Championship with 160 pilots towing from several wheat paddocks in western NSW.In 1986 Denis and 'Redtruck' took a group of international pilots to Alice Springs to take advantage of the massive thermals.", "Using the new system many world records were set.", "With the growing use of the system, other launch methods were incorporated, static winch and towing behind an ultralight trike or an ultralight airplane." ], [ "Soaring flight and cross-country flying", "Good gliding weather.", "Well formed cumulus clouds with darker bases suggest active thermals and light winds.A glider in flight is continuously descending, so to achieve an extended flight, the pilot must seek air currents rising faster than the sink rate of the glider.", "Selecting the sources of rising air currents is the skill that has to be mastered if the pilot wants to achieve flying long distances, known as cross-country (XC).", "Rising air masses derive from the following sources:; Thermals: The most commonly used source of lift is created by the Sun's energy heating the ground which in turn heats the air above it.", "This warm air rises in columns known as thermals.", "Soaring pilots quickly become aware of land features which can generate thermals and their trigger points downwind, because thermals have a surface tension with the ground and roll until hitting a trigger point.", "When the thermal lifts, the first indicator are the swooping birds feeding on the insects being carried aloft, or dust devils or a change in wind direction as the air is pulled in below the thermal.", "As the thermal climbs, bigger soaring birds indicate the thermal.", "The thermal rises until it either forms into a cumulus cloud or hits an inversion layer, which is where the surrounding air is becoming warmer with height, and stops the thermal developing into a cloud.", "Also, nearly every glider contains an instrument known as a variometer (a very sensitive vertical speed indicator) which shows visually (and often audibly) the presence of lift and sink.", "Having located a thermal, a glider pilot will circle within the area of rising air to gain height.", "In the case of a cloud street, thermals can line up with the wind, creating rows of thermals and sinking air.", "A pilot can use a cloud street to fly long straight-line distances by remaining in the row of rising air.", "; Ridge lift: Ridge lift occurs when the wind encounters a mountain, cliff, hill, sand dune, or any other raised terrain.", "The air is pushed up the windward face of the mountain, creating lift.", "The area of lift extending from the ridge is called the lift band.", "Providing the air is rising faster than the gliders sink rate, gliders can soar and climb in the rising air by flying within the lift band parallel to the ridge.", "Ridge soaring is also known as slope soaring.", "; Mountain waves: The third main type of lift used by glider pilots is the lee waves that occur near mountains.", "The obstruction to the airflow can generate standing waves with alternating areas of lift and sink.", "The top of each wave peak is often marked by lenticular cloud formations.", "; Convergence: Another form of lift results from the convergence of air masses, as with a sea-breeze front.", "More exotic forms of lift are the polar vortices which the Perlan Project hopes to use to soar to great altitudes.", "A rare phenomenon known as Morning Glory has also been used by glider pilots in Australia." ], [ "Performance", "Hang glider launching from Mount TamalpaisWith each generation of materials and with the improvements in aerodynamics, the performance of hang gliders has increased.", "One measure of performance is the glide ratio.", "For example, a ratio of 12:1 means that in smooth air a glider can travel forward 12 metres while only losing 1 metre of altitude.Some performance figures as of 2006:* Topless gliders (no kingpost): glide ratio ~17:1, speed range ~, best glide at * Rigid wings: glide ratio ~20:1, speed range ~, best glide at ~.", ".", "; Ballast: The extra weight provided by ballast is advantageous if the lift is likely to be strong.", "Although heavier gliders have a slight disadvantage when climbing in rising air, they achieve a higher speed at any given glide angle.", "This is an advantage in strong conditions when the gliders spend only little time climbing in thermals." ], [ "Stability and equilibrium", "High performance flexible wing hang glider.", "2006Because hang gliders are most often used for recreational flying, a premium is placed on gentle behaviour, especially at the stall and natural pitch stability.", "The wing loading must be very low in order to allow the pilot to run fast enough to get above stall speed.", "Unlike a traditional aircraft with an extended fuselage and empennage for maintaining stability, hang gliders rely on the natural stability of their flexible wings to return to equilibrium in yaw and pitch.", "Roll stability is generally set to be near neutral.", "In calm air, a properly designed wing will maintain balanced trimmed flight with little pilot input.", "The flex wing pilot is suspended beneath the wing by a strap attached to their harness.", "The pilot lies prone (sometimes supine) within a large, triangular, metal control frame.", "Controlled flight is achieved by the pilot pushing and pulling on this control frame, thus shifting their weight fore or aft, and right or left in coordinated maneuvers.", "; Roll: Most flexible wings are set up with near neutral roll due to sideslip (anhedral effect).", "In the roll axis, the pilot shifts their body mass using the wing control bar, applying a rolling moment directly to the wing.", "The flexible wing is built to flex differentially across the span in response to the pilot applied roll moment.", "For example, if the pilot shifts their weight to the right, the right wing trailing edge flexes up more than the left, creating dissimilar lift that rolls the glider to the right.", "; Yaw: The yaw axis is stabilized through the backward-sweep of the wings.", "The swept platform, when yawed out of the relative wind, creates more lift on the advancing wing and also more drag, stabilizing the wing in yaw.", "If one wing advances ahead of the other, it presents more area to the wind and causes more drag on that side.", "This causes the advancing wing to go slower and to retreat back.", "The wing is at equilibrium when the aircraft is travelling straight and both wings present the same amount of area to the wind.", "; Pitch: The pitch control response is direct and very efficient.", "It is partially stabilized by the washout combined with the sweep of the wings, which results in a different angle of attack of the rear most lifting surfaces of the glider.", "The wing centre of gravity is close to the hang point and, at the trim speed, the wing will fly \"hands off\" and return to trim after being disturbed.", "The weight-shift control system only works when the wing is positively loaded (right side up).", "Positive pitching devices such as reflex lines or washout rods are employed to maintain a minimum safe amount of washout when the wing is unloaded or even negatively loaded (upside down).", "Flying faster than trim speed is accomplished by moving the pilot's weight forward in the control frame; flying slower by shifting the pilot's weight aft (pushing out).Furthermore, the fact that the wing is designed to bend and flex, provides favourable dynamics analogous to a spring suspension.", "This provides a gentler flying experience than a similarly sized rigid-winged hang glider." ], [ "Instruments", "To maximize a pilot's understanding of how the hang glider is flying, most pilots carry flight instruments.", "The most basic being a variometer and altimeter—often combined.", "Some more advanced pilots also carry airspeed indicators and radios.", "When flying in competition or ''cross country'', pilots often also carry maps and/or GPS units.", "Hang gliders do not have instrument panels as such, so all the instruments are mounted to the control frame of the glider or occasionally strapped to the pilot's forearm.=== Variometer ===Vario-altimeter (c. 1998)Gliding pilots are able to sense the acceleration forces when they first hit a thermal, but have difficulty gauging constant motion.", "Thus it is difficult to detect the difference between constantly rising air and constantly sinking air.", "A variometer is a very sensitive vertical speed indicator.", "The variometer indicates climb rate or sink rate with audio signals (beeps) and/or a visual display.", "These units are generally electronic, vary in sophistication, and often include an altimeter and an airspeed indicator.", "More advanced units often incorporate a barograph for recording flight data and/or a built-in GPS.", "The main purpose of a variometer is in helping a pilot find and stay in the 'core' of a thermal to maximize height gain, and conversely indicating when he or she is in sinking air and needs to find rising air.", "Variometers are sometimes capable of electronic calculations to indicate the optimal speed to fly for given conditions.", "The MacCready theory answers the question on how fast a pilot should cruise between thermals, given the average lift the pilot expects in the next thermal climb and the amount of lift or sink he encounters in cruise mode.", "Some electronic variometers make the calculations automatically, allowing for factors such as the glider's theoretical performance (glide ratio), altitude, hook in weight, and wind direction.=== Radio ===Aircraft radioPilots sometimes use 2-way radios for training purposes, for communicating with other pilots in the air, and with their ground crew when traveling on cross-country flights.One type of radio used are PTT (push-to-talk) handheld transceivers, operating in VHF FM.", "Usually a microphone is worn on the head or incorporated in the helmet, and the PTT switch is either fixed to the outside of the helmet, or strapped to a finger.", "Operating a VHF band radio without an appropriate license is illegal in most countries that have regulated airwaves (including United States, Canada, Brazil, etc.", "), so additional information must be obtained with the national or local Hang Gliding association or with the competent radio regulatory authority.As aircraft operating in airspace occupied by other aircraft, hang glider pilots may also use the appropriate type of radio (i.e.", "the aircraft transceiver into Aero Mobile Service VHF band).", "It can, of course, be fitted with a PTT switch to a finger and speakers inside the helmet.", "The use of aircraft transceivers is subject to regulations specific to the use in the air such as frequencies restrictions, but has several advantages over FM (i.e.", "frequency modulated) radios used in other services.", "First is the great range it has (without repeaters) because of its amplitude modulation (i.e.", "AM).", "Second is the ability to contact, inform and be informed directly by other aircraft pilots of their intentions thereby improving collision avoidance and increasing safety.", "Third is to allow greater liberty regarding distance flights in regulated airspaces, in which the aircraft radio is normally a legal requirement.", "Fourth is the universal emergency frequency monitored by all other users and satellites and used in case of emergency or impending emergency.=== GPS ===GPS (global positioning system) can be used to aid in navigation.", "For competitions, it is used to verify the contestant reached the required check-points." ], [ "Records", "Records are sanctioned by the FAI.", "The world record for straight distance is held by Dustin B. Martin, with a distance of in 2012, originating from Zapata, Texas.Judy Leden (GBR) holds the altitude record for a balloon-launched hang glider: 11,800 m (38,800 ft) at Wadi Rum, Jordan on 25 October 1994.Leden also holds the gain of height record: 3,970 m (13,025 ft), set in 1992.The altitude records for balloon-launched hang gliders: Altitude (ft) Location Pilot Date Reference 38,800 Wadi Rum, Jordan Judy Leden 25 October 1994 33,000 Edmonton, Alberta, Canada John Bird 29 August 1982 32,720 California City, California, USA Stephan Dunoyer 9 September 1978 31,600 Mojave Desert, California, USA Bob McCaffrey 21 November 1976 17,100 San Jose, California, USA Dennis Kulberg 25 December 1974" ], [ "Competition", "Competitions started with \"flying as long as possible\" and spot landings.", "With increasing performance, cross-country flying has largely replaced them.", "Usually two to four waypoints have to be passed with a landing at a goal.", "In the late 1990s low-power GPS units were introduced and have completely replaced photographs of the goal.", "Every two years there is a world championship.", "The Rigid and Women's World Championship in 2006 was hosted by Quest Air in Florida.", "Big Spring, Texas hosted the 2007 World Championship.", "Hang gliding is also one of the competition categories in World Air Games organized by Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (World Air Sports Federation - FAI), which maintains a chronology of the FAI World Hang Gliding Championships.Other forms of competition include Aerobatic competitions, and Speedgliding competitions, wherein the goal is to descend from a mountain as fast as possible while passing through various gates in a manner similar to down-hill skiing.=== Classes ===Modern 'flexible wing' hang glider.For competitive purposes, there are three classes of hang glider:* Class 1 The ''flexible wing'' hang glider, having flight controlled by virtue of the shifted weight of the pilot.", "This is not a paraglider.", "Class 1 hang gliders sold in the United States are usually rated by the Hang Gliders Manufacturers' Association.", "* Class 5 The ''rigid wing'' hang glider, having flight controlled by spoilers, typically on top of the wing.", "In both flexible and rigid wings the pilot hangs below the wing without any additional fairing.", "* Class 2 (designated by the FAI as Sub-Class O-2) where the pilot is integrated into the wing by means of a fairing.", "These offer the best performance and are the most expensive." ], [ "Aerobatics", "There are four basic aerobatic maneuvers in a hang glider:* Loop — a maneuver that starts in a wings level dive, climbs, without any rolling, to the apex where the glider is upside down, wings level (heading back where it came from), and then returning to the start altitude and heading, again without rolling, having completed an approximately circular path in the vertical plane.", "* Spin — A spin is scored from the moment one wing stalls and the glider rotates noticeably into the spin.", "The entry heading is noted at this point.", "The glider must remain in the spin for at least 1/2 of a revolution to score any versatility spin points.", "* Rollover — a maneuver where the apex heading is less than 90° left or right of the entry heading.", "* Climb over — a maneuver where the apex heading is greater than 90° left or right of the entry heading." ], [ "Comparison of gliders, hang gliders and paragliders", "There can be confusion between gliders, hang gliders, and paragliders.", "Paragliders and hang gliders are both foot-launched glider aircraft and in both cases the pilot is suspended (\"hangs\") below the lift surface, but \"hang glider\" is the default term for those where the airframe contains rigid structures.", "The primary structure of paragliders is supple, consisting mainly of woven material.Hang gliding in Media (section)* 1973 First film made on the sport of hang gliding, \"The New Freedom\" is produced.", "It was distributed by Paramount Communications, a short film division of Paramount Pictures." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * " ], [ "References", "=== Notes ====== Bibliography === * * * === External links ===* HangGlider.Org" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hole (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''hole''' is a hollow place, an opening in/through a solid body, or an excavation in the ground.", "'''Hole''' or '''holes''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Science and healthcare", "* Black hole* Electron hole, a concept in physics and chemistry* K-hole, a psychological state associated with ketamine use* Sinkhole, a hole in the ground due to natural subterranean subsidence* White hole* Wormhole* Hole (topology) - in a topological space, a hole is a sphere that cannot be continuously extended to a ball." ], [ "Technology", "* Blind hole, a hole, usually drilled, which does not emerge on the other side of the substrate* Buttonhole, a hole in fabric as part of a fastener* Punchhole, a hole punched in paper, including punched cards and punched tape* Sound hole, on a musical instrument* Through hole, a hole, usually drilled, which emerges on the other side of the substrate* Tone hole, an opening in a wind instrument which, when closed changes the pitch* Touch hole, part of a gun or cannon where the powder is ignited* Whitewater hole, a feature found in some white-water rapids" ], [ "Construction", "* Fox hole, a defensive fighting position* Lightening hole a hole made in a structural member, usually of a vehicle, to lighten it* Manhole, an opening in the ground to access the sewers or other underground services* Murder-hole, or ''meurtrière'', a hole in the ceiling of a gateway or passageway in a fortification through which the defenders could fire, throw, or pour harmful substances or objects down on attackers* Porthole, a window on a ship's external hull* Spider hole, a type of camouflaged one-man foxhole" ], [ "People with the name", "* Hole (surname)* Holes (surname)" ], [ "Places", "* Hôle, a municipality in Belgium also called Halen* Høle, Norway, a borough and former municipality* Hole, Norway, a municipality in Buskerud county, Norway" ], [ "Prison", "Black Hole of Calcutta, small prison or dungeon in Fort WilliamCelle Hole (German: ''Celler Loch''), a breach in the outer wall of the prison of Celle, Germany* \"The hole\", prison slang describing the location for solitary confinement" ], [ "Arts, entertainment, and media", "===Films===* ''Hole'' (film), 2014 Canadian short drama film directed by Martin Edralin* ''Holes'' (film), 2003 theatrical adaptation of Louis Sachar's novel===Games===* Hole (chess), a chess term* Hole, a poker term===Literature===* ''Holes'' (novel), 1998 young adult mystery by Louis Sachar** ''Holes'' (play), 1998 stage adaptation of Louis Sachar's novel* Plot hole, in writing===Music=======Groups====* Hole (band), an alternative rock band formed by Courtney Love and Eric Erlandson in 1989====Albums and EPs====* ''Hole'' (EP), 2005 EP by 65daysofstatic* ''Hole'' (Foetus album), 1984 album by Foetus* ''Hole'' (Merzbow album), 1994 album by Merzbow* ''Hole'' (One-Eyed Doll album), 2007 album by American band One-Eyed Doll* ''Holes'' (album), 2004 album by melpo mene===Songs===* \"Hole\" (song), by Kelly Clarkson on the 2007 album ''My December''* \"Holes\" (Mercury Rev song), from the 1999 album ''Deserter's Songs''* \"Holes\" (Passenger song), a 2013 single from the 2012 album ''All the Little Lights''* \"Holes\", by Pint Shot Riot from the 2008 EP ''Round One''* \"Holes\", by Electric Guest from the 2012 album ''Mondo''* \"Holes\", by Scratch Acid from the 1986 album ''Just Keep Eating''* \"Holes\", by Rascal Flatts from the 2004 album ''Feels Like Today''* \"Holes\", by Jon Oliva's Pain from the 2006 album ''Maniacal Renderings''* \"Holes\", a 1985 single by Specimen* \"Holes\", by Mateo Messina from the soundtrack to the 2015 film ''Barely Lethal''* \"Holes\" (born 1987), by Jetty Rae from the 2008 album ''Blackberries''* \"Holes\", by Smile Empty Soul from the 2005 album ''Anxiety''* \"Holes\", by Red Plastic Bag===Television===* \"Hole\" (''Bottom''), an episode of the British television sitcom ''Bottom''* \"Holes\" (''American Horror Story''), a 2017 episode of the anthology television series ''American Horror Story''" ], [ "Sports", "* Hole (American football), a space between the defensive linemen* Hole (golf), a segment of a golf course* Hole in one (also known as a hole-in-one or an ace, mostly in American English), occurs when a ball hit from a tee to start a hole finishes in the cup*''Hole-in-one Register'' (or ''United States Golf Register''), the United States' official historical registry of holes-in-one Hole set, a position in water polo" ], [ "Other uses", "* Law of holes, an adage which states that \"if you find yourself in a hole, stop digging\"" ], [ "See also", "* * * Amsterdam Airport Schiphol* Gap (disambiguation)* Hol (disambiguation)* Orifice (disambiguation)* The Hole (disambiguation)* Void (disambiguation)* Whole (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of France" ], [ "Introduction", "The first written records for the '''history of France''' appeared in the Iron Age.", "What is now France made up the bulk of the region known to the Romans as Gaul.", "Greek writers noted the presence of three main ethno-linguistic groups in the area: the Gauls, the Aquitani, and the Belgae.", "The Gauls, the largest and best attested group, were Celtic people speaking what is known as the Gaulish language.Over the course of the first millennium BC the Greeks, Romans and Carthaginians established colonies on the Mediterranean coast and the offshore islands.", "The Roman Republic annexed southern Gaul as the province of Gallia Narbonensis in the late 2nd century BC, and Roman Legions under Julius Caesar conquered the rest of Gaul in the Gallic Wars of 58–51 BC.", "Afterwards a Gallo-Roman culture emerged and Gaul was increasingly integrated into the Roman Empire.In the later stages of the Roman Empire, Gaul was subject to barbarian raids and migration, most importantly by the Germanic Franks.", "The Frankish king Clovis I united most of Gaul under his rule in the late 5th century, setting the stage for Frankish dominance in the region for hundreds of years.", "Frankish power reached its fullest extent under Charlemagne.", "The medieval Kingdom of France emerged from the western part of Charlemagne's Carolingian Empire, known as West Francia, and achieved increasing prominence under the rule of the House of Capet, founded by Hugh Capet in 987.A succession crisis following the death of the last direct Capetian monarch in 1328 led to the series of conflicts known as the Hundred Years' War between the House of Valois and the House of Plantagenet.", "The war formally began in 1337 following Philip VI's attempt to seize the Duchy of Aquitaine from its hereditary holder, Edward III of England, the Plantagenet claimant to the French throne.", "Despite early Plantagenet victories, including the capture and ransom of John II of France, fortunes turned in favor of the Valois later in the war.", "Among the notable figures of the war was Joan of Arc, a French peasant girl who led French forces against the English, establishing herself as a national heroine.", "The war ended with a Valois victory in 1453.Victory in the Hundred Years' War had the effect of strengthening French nationalism and vastly increasing the power and reach of the French monarchy.", "During the ''Ancien Régime'' period over the next centuries, France transformed into a centralized absolute monarchy through Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation.", "At the height of the French Wars of Religion, France became embroiled in another succession crisis, as the last Valois king, Henry III, fought against rival factions the House of Bourbon and the House of Guise.", "Henry, the Bourbon King of Navarre, won the conflict and established the Bourbon dynasty.", "A burgeoning worldwide colonial empire was established in the 16th century.", "The French monarchy's political power reached a zenith under the rule of Louis XIV, \"The Sun King\".In the late 18th century the monarchy and associated institutions were overthrown in the French Revolution.", "The Revolutionary Tribunal executed thousands of political opponents by guillotine, instituting the Reign of Terror (1793–1794).", "The country was governed for a period as a Republic, until Napoleon Bonaparte's French Empire was declared in 1804.Following his defeat in the Napoleonic Wars, France went through several further regime changes, being ruled as a monarchy, then briefly as a Second Republic, and then as a Second Empire, until a more lasting French Third Republic was established in 1870.France was one of the Triple Entente powers in World War I against Germany and the Central Powers.", "France was one of the Allied Powers in World War II, but was conquered by Nazi Germany in 1940.The Third Republic was dismantled, and most of the country was controlled directly by Germany while the south was controlled until 1942 by the collaborationist Vichy government.", "Living conditions were harsh as Germany drained away food and manpower, and many Jews were killed.", "The Free France movement took over the colonial empire, and coordinated the wartime Resistance.", "Following liberation in 1944, the Fourth Republic was established.", "France slowly recovered, and enjoyed a baby boom that reversed its very low fertility rate.", "Long wars in Indochina and Algeria drained French resources and ended in political defeat.", "In the wake of the 1958 Algerian Crisis, Charles de Gaulle set up the French Fifth Republic.", "Into the 1960s decolonization saw most of the French colonial empire become independent, while smaller parts were incorporated into the French state as overseas departments and collectivities.", "Since World War II France has been a permanent member in the UN Security Council and NATO.", "It played a central role in the unification process after 1945 that led to the European Union.", "Despite slow economic growth in recent years, it remains a strong economic, cultural, military and political factor in the 21st century." ], [ "Prehistory", "Cave painting in Lascaux, 15,000 BC.Stone tools discovered at Chilhac (1968) and Lézignan-la-Cèbe in 2009 indicate that pre-human ancestors may have been present in France at least 1.6 million years ago.", "Neanderthals were present in Europe from about 400,000 BC, but died out about 40,000 years ago, possibly out-competed by the modern humans during a period of cold weather.", "The earliest modern humans — ''Homo sapiens'' — entered Europe by 43,000 years ago (the Upper Palaeolithic).", "Gavrinis megalithic tomb, Brittany, 4200-4000 BCThe Paleolithic cave paintings of Gargas (c. 25,000 BC) and Lascaux (c. 15,000 BC) as well as the Neolithic-era Carnac stones (c. 4500 BC) are among the many remains of local prehistoric activity in the region.", "In the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age the territory of France was largely dominated by the Bell Beaker culture, followed by the Armorican Tumulus culture, Rhône culture, Tumulus culture, Urnfield culture and Atlantic Bronze Age culture, among others.", "The Iron Age saw the development of the Hallstatt culture followed by the La Tène culture, the final cultural stage prior to Roman expansion across Gaul.", "The first written records for the history of France appear in the Iron Age.", "What is now France made up the bulk of the region known to the Romans as Gaul.", "Roman writers noted the presence of three main ethno-linguistic groups in the area: the Gauls, the Aquitani, and the Belgae.", "The Gauls, the largest and best attested group, were Celtic people speaking what is known as the Gaulish language.Over the course of the 1st millennium BC the Greeks, Romans, and Carthaginians established colonies on the Mediterranean coast and the offshore islands.", "The Roman Republic annexed southern Gaul as the province of Gallia Narbonensis in the late 2nd century BC, and Roman forces under Julius Caesar conquered the rest of Gaul in the Gallic Wars of 58–51 BC.", "Afterwards a Gallo-Roman culture emerged and Gaul was increasingly integrated into the Roman empire." ], [ "Ancient history", "=== Greek colonies ===Massalia (modern Marseille) Greek silver coin, 5th–1st century BCIn 600 BC, Ionian Greeks from Phocaea founded the colony of Massalia (present-day Marseille) on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, making it one of the oldest cities in France.", "At the same time, some Celtic tribes arrived in the eastern parts (Germania superior) of the current territory of France, but this occupation spread in the rest of France only between the 5th and 3rd century BC.=== Gaul ===Vix palace, central France, late 6th century BCCovering large parts of modern-day France, Belgium, northwest Germany and northern Italy, Gaul was inhabited by many Celtic and Belgae tribes whom the Romans referred to as Gauls and who spoke the Gaulish language roughly between the Oise and the Garonne (''Gallia Celtica''), according to Julius Caesar.", "On the lower Garonne the people spoke Aquitanian, a Pre-Indo-European language related to (or a direct ancestor of) Basque whereas a Belgian language was spoken north of Lutecia but north of the Loire according to other authors like Strabo.", "The Celts founded cities such as Lutetia Parisiorum (Paris) and Burdigala (Bordeaux) while the Aquitanians founded Tolosa (Toulouse).Celtic expansion in Europe, 6th–3rd century BCLong before any Roman settlements, Greek navigators settled in what would become Provence.", "The Phoceans founded important cities such as Massalia (Marseille) and Nikaia (Nice), bringing them into conflict with the neighboring Celts and Ligurians.", "Some Phocean great navigators, such as Pytheas, were born in Marseille.", "The Celts themselves often fought with Aquitanians and Germans, and a Gaulish war band led by Brennus invaded Rome c. 393 or 388 BC following the Battle of the Allia.Gaulish soldiers (Larousse Illustré 1898)However, the tribal society of the Gauls did not change fast enough for the centralized Roman state, who would learn to counter them.", "The Gaulish tribal confederacies were then defeated by the Romans in battles such as Sentinum and Telamon during the 3rd century BC.", "In the early 3rd century BC, some Belgae (Germani cisrhenani) conquered the surrounding territories of the Somme in northern Gaul after battles supposedly against the Armoricani (Gauls) near Ribemont-sur-Ancre and Gournay-sur-Aronde, where sanctuaries were found.When Carthaginian commander Hannibal Barca fought the Romans, he recruited several Gaulish mercenaries who fought on his side at Cannae.", "It was this Gaulish participation that caused Provence to be annexed in 122 BC by the Roman Republic.", "Later, the Consul of Gaul — Julius Caesar — conquered all of Gaul.", "Despite Gaulish opposition led by Vercingetorix, the Gauls succumbed to the Roman onslaught.", "The Gauls had some success at first at Gergovia, but were ultimately defeated at Alesia in 52 BC.", "The Romans founded cities such as Lugdunum (Lyon), Narbonensis (Narbonne) and allow in a correspondence between Lucius Munatius Plancus and Cicero to formalize the existence of Cularo (Grenoble).=== Roman Gaul ===''Vercingetorix throws down his arms at the feet of Julius Caesar'' after the Battle of Alesia.", "Painting by Lionel-Noël Royer, 1899.Roman Temple at NîmesGaul was divided into several different provinces.", "The Romans displaced populations to prevent local identities from becoming a threat to Roman control.", "Thus, many Celts were displaced in Aquitania or were enslaved and moved out of Gaul.", "There was a strong cultural evolution in Gaul under the Roman Empire, the most obvious one being the replacement of the Gaulish language by Vulgar Latin.", "It has been argued the similarities between the Gaulish and Latin languages favoured the transition.", "Gaul remained under Roman control for centuries and Celtic culture was then gradually replaced by Gallo-Roman culture.The Gauls became better integrated with the Empire with the passage of time.", "For instance, generals Marcus Antonius Primus and Gnaeus Julius Agricola were both born in Gaul, as were emperors Claudius and Caracalla.", "Emperor Antoninus Pius also came from a Gaulish family.", "In the decade following Valerian's capture by the Persians in 260, Postumus established a short-lived Gallic Empire, which included the Iberian Peninsula and Britannia, in addition to Gaul itself.", "Germanic tribes, the Franks and the Alamanni, entered Gaul at this time.", "The Gallic Empire ended with Emperor Aurelian's victory at Châlons in 274.A migration of Celts occurred in the 4th century in Armorica.", "They were led by the legendary king Conan Meriadoc and came from Britain.", "They spoke the now extinct British language, which evolved into the Breton, Cornish, and Welsh languages.In 418 the Aquitanian province was given to the Goths in exchange for their support against the Vandals.", "Those same Goths had sacked Rome in 410 and established a capital in Toulouse.The Roman Empire had difficulty responding to all the barbarian raids, and Flavius Aëtius had to use these tribes against each other in order to maintain some Roman control.", "He first used the Huns against the Burgundians, and these mercenaries destroyed Worms, killed king Gunther, and pushed the Burgundians westward.", "The Burgundians were resettled by Aëtius near Lugdunum in 443.The Huns, united by Attila, became a greater threat, and Aëtius used the Visigoths against the Huns.", "The conflict climaxed in 451 at the Battle of Châlons, in which the Romans and Goths defeated Attila.The Roman Empire was on the verge of collapsing.", "Aquitania was definitely abandoned to the Visigoths, who would soon conquer a significant part of southern Gaul as well as most of the Iberian Peninsula.", "The Burgundians claimed their own kingdom, and northern Gaul was practically abandoned to the Franks.", "Aside from the Germanic peoples, the Vascones entered Wasconia from the Pyrenees and the Bretons formed three kingdoms in Armorica: Domnonia, Cornouaille and Broërec." ], [ "Frankish kingdoms (486–987)", "Victory over the Umayyads at the Battle of Tours (732) marked the furthest Muslim advance and enabled Frankish domination of Europe for the next century.In 486, Clovis I, leader of the Salian Franks, defeated Syagrius at Soissons and subsequently united most of northern and central Gaul under his rule.", "Clovis then recorded a succession of victories against other Germanic tribes such as the Alamanni at Tolbiac.", "In 496, pagan Clovis adopted Catholicism.", "This gave him greater legitimacy and power over his Christian subjects and granted him clerical support against the Arian Visigoths.", "He defeated Alaric II at Vouillé in 507 and annexed Aquitaine, and thus Toulouse, into his Frankish kingdom.The Goths retired to Toledo in what would become Spain.", "Clovis made Paris his capital and established the Merovingian dynasty but his kingdom would not survive his death in 511.Under Frankish inheritance traditions, all sons inherit part of the land, so four kingdoms emerged: centered on Paris, Orléans, Soissons, and Rheims.", "Over time, the borders and numbers of Frankish kingdoms were fluid and changed frequently.", "Also during this time, the Mayors of the Palace, originally the chief advisor to the kings, would become the real power in the Frankish lands; the Merovingian kings themselves would be reduced to little more than figureheads.By this time Muslims had conquered Hispania and Septimania became part of the Al-Andalus, which were threatening the Frankish kingdoms.", "Duke Odo the Great defeated a major invading force at Toulouse in 721 but failed to repel a raiding party in 732.The mayor of the palace, Charles Martel, defeated that raiding party at the Battle of Tours and earned respect and power within the Frankish Kingdom.", "The assumption of the crown in 751 by Pepin the Short (son of Charles Martel) established the Carolingian dynasty as the kings of the Franks.The coronation of Charlemagne (painting by Jean Fouquet).Carolingian power reached its fullest extent under Pepin's son, Charlemagne.", "In 771, Charlemagne reunited the Frankish domains after a further period of division, subsequently conquering the Lombards under Desiderius in what is now northern Italy (774), incorporating Bavaria (788) into his realm, defeating the Avars of the Danubian plain (796), advancing the frontier with Al-Andalus as far south as Barcelona (801), and subjugating Lower Saxony after a prolonged campaign (804).In recognition of his successes and his political support for the papacy, Charlemagne was crowned Emperor of the Romans, or Roman Emperor in the West, by Pope Leo III in 800.Charlemagne's son Louis the Pious (emperor 814–840) kept the empire united; however, this Carolingian Empire would not survive Louis I's death.", "Two of his sons — Charles the Bald and Louis the German — swore allegiance to each other against their brother — Lothair I — in the Oaths of Strasbourg, and the empire was divided among Louis's three sons (Treaty of Verdun, 843).", "After a last brief reunification (884–887), the imperial title ceased to be held in the western realm, which was to form the basis of the future French kingdom.", "The eastern realm, which would become Germany, elected the Saxon dynasty of Henry the Fowler.Under the Carolingians, the kingdom was ravaged by Viking raiders.", "In this struggle some important figures such as Count Odo of Paris and his brother King Robert rose to fame and became kings.", "This emerging dynasty, whose members were called the Robertines, were the predecessors of the Capetian dynasty.", "Led by Rollo, some Vikings had settled in Normandy and were granted the land, first as counts and then as dukes, by King Charles the Simple, in order to protect the land from other raiders.", "The people that emerged from the interactions between the new Viking aristocracy and the already mixed Franks and Gallo-Romans became known as the Normans." ], [ "State building into the Kingdom of France (987–1453)", "=== Kings ===Capetian dynasty (House of Capet):Hugh Capet, 940–996Robert the Pious, 996–1027Henry I, 1027–1060Philip I, 1060–1108Louis VI the Fat, 1108–1137Louis VII the Young, 1137–1180Philip II Augustus, 1180–1223Louis VIII the Lion, 1223–1226Saint Louis IX, 1226–1270Philip III the Bold, 1270–1285Philip IV the Fair, 1285–1314Louis X the Quarreller, 1314–1316John I the Posthumous, 1316Philip V the Tall, 1316–1322Charles IV the Fair, 1322–1328House of Valois:Philip VI of Valois, 1328–1350John II the Good, 1350–1364Charles V the Wise, 1364–1380Charles VI the Mad, 1380–1422*Disputed English interlude (between Charles VI and VII), 1422:Henry V of EnglandHenry VI of England and FranceCharles VII the Well Served, 1422–1461=== Strong princes ===France was a very decentralised state during the Middle Ages.", "The authority of the king was more religious than administrative.", "The 11th century in France marked the apogee of princely power at the expense of the king when states like Normandy, Flanders or Languedoc enjoyed a local authority comparable to kingdoms in all but name.", "The Capetians, as they were descended from the Robertians, were formerly powerful princes themselves who had successfully unseated the weak and unfortunate Carolingian kings.", "The Capetians, in a way, held a dual status of King and Prince; as king they held the Crown of Charlemagne and as Count of Paris they held their personal fiefdom, best known as Île-de-France.Some of the king's vassals would grow sufficiently powerful that they would become some of the strongest rulers of western Europe.", "The Normans, the Plantagenets, the Lusignans, the Hautevilles, the Ramnulfids, and the House of Toulouse successfully carved lands outside France for themselves.", "The most important of these conquests for French history was the Norman Conquest by William the Conqueror.An important part of the French aristocracy also involved itself in the crusades, and French knights founded and ruled the Crusader states.=== Rise of the monarchy ===The monarchy overcame the powerful barons over ensuing centuries, and established absolute sovereignty over France in the 16th century.", "Hugh Capet in 987 became \"King of the Franks\" (Rex Francorum).", "He was recorded to be recognised king by the Gauls, Bretons, Danes, Aquitanians, Goths, Spanish and Gascons.Abbey of Cluny, a Benedictine monastery that was the centre of monastic life revival in the Middle Ages and marked an important step in the cultural rebirth following the Dark Ages.Hugh's son—Robert the Pious—was crowned King of the Franks before Capet's demise.", "Hugh Capet decided so in order to have his succession secured.", "Robert II, as King of the Franks, met Emperor Henry II in 1023 on the borderline.", "They agreed to end all claims over each other's realm, setting a new stage of Capetian and Ottonian relationships.", "The reign of Robert II was quite important because it involved the Peace and Truce of God (beginning in 989) and the Cluniac Reforms.Godefroy de Bouillon, a French knight, leader of the First Crusade and founder of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.Under King Philip I, the kingdom enjoyed a modest recovery during his extraordinarily long reign (1060–1108).", "His reign also saw the launch of the First Crusade to regain the Holy Land.It is from Louis VI (reigned 1108–37) onward that royal authority became more accepted.", "Louis VI was more a soldier and warmongering king than a scholar.", "The way the king raised money from his vassals made him quite unpopular; he was described as greedy and ambitious.", "His regular attacks on his vassals, although damaging the royal image, reinforced the royal power.", "From 1127 onward Louis had the assistance of a skilled religious statesman, Abbot Suger.", "Louis VI successfully defeated, both military and politically, many of the robber barons.", "When Louis VI died in 1137, much progress had been made towards strengthening Capetian authority.Thanks to Abbot Suger's political advice, King Louis VII (junior king 1131–37, senior king 1137–80) enjoyed greater moral authority over France than his predecessors.", "Powerful vassals paid homage to the French king.", "Abbot Suger arranged the 1137 marriage between Louis VII and Eleanor of Aquitaine in Bordeaux, which made Louis VII Duke of Aquitaine and gave him considerable power.", "The marriage was ultimately annulled and Eleanor soon married the Duke of Normandy — Henry Fitzempress, who would become King of England as Henry II two years later.=== Late Capetians (1165–1328) ===Philip II victorious at Bouvines, thus annexing Normandy and Anjou into his royal domains.", "This battle involved a complex set of alliances from three important states, the Kingdoms of France and England and the Holy Roman Empire.The late direct Capetian kings were considerably more powerful and influential than the earliest ones.", "This period also saw the rise of a complex system of international alliances and conflicts opposing, through dynasties, kings of France and England and the Holy Roman Emperor.", "The reign of Philip II Augustus (junior king 1179–80, senior king 1180–1223) saw the French royal domain and influence greatly expanded.", "He set the context for the rise of power to much more powerful monarchs like Saint Louis and Philip the Fair.", "Philip II spent an important part of his reign fighting the so-called Angevin Empire.During the first part of his reign Philip II allied himself with the Duke of Aquitaine and son of Henry II—Richard Lionheart—and together they launched a decisive attack on Henry's home of Chinon and removed him from power.", "Richard replaced his father as King of England afterward.", "The two kings then went crusading during the Third Crusade; however, their alliance and friendship broke down during the crusade.John Lackland, Richard's successor, refused to come to the French court for a trial against the Lusignans and, as Louis VI had done often to his rebellious vassals, Philip II confiscated John's possessions in France.", "John's defeat was swift and his attempts to reconquer his French possession at the decisive Battle of Bouvines (1214) resulted in complete failure.", "Philip II had annexed Normandy and Anjou, plus capturing the Counts of Boulogne and Flanders, although Aquitaine and Gascony remained loyal to the Plantagenet King.Prince Louis (the future Louis VIII, reigned 1223–26) was involved in the subsequent English civil war as French and English (or rather Anglo-Norman) aristocracies were once one and were now split between allegiances.", "While the French kings were struggling against the Plantagenets, the Church called for the Albigensian Crusade.", "Southern France was then largely absorbed in the royal domains.France became a truly centralised kingdom under Louis IX (reigned 1226–70).", "The kingdom was vulnerable: war was still going on in the County of Toulouse, and the royal army was occupied fighting resistance in Languedoc.", "Count Raymond VII of Toulouse finally signed the Treaty of Paris in 1229, in which he retained much of his lands for life, but his daughter, married to Count Alfonso of Poitou, produced him no heir and so the County of Toulouse went to the King of France.", "King Henry III of England had not yet recognized the Capetian overlordship over Aquitaine and still hoped to recover Normandy and Anjou and reform the Angevin Empire.", "He landed in 1230 at Saint-Malo with a massive force.", "This evolved into the Saintonge War (1242).", "Ultimately, Henry III was defeated and had to recognise Louis IX's overlordship, although the King of France did not seize Aquitaine.", "Louis IX was now the most important landowner of France.", "There were some opposition to his rule in Normandy, yet it proved remarkably easy to rule, especially compared to the County of Toulouse which had been brutally conquered.", "The Conseil du Roi, which would evolve into the Parlement, was founded in these times.", "After his conflict with King Henry III of England, Louis established a cordial relation with the Plantagenet King.The Kingdom was involved in two crusades under Louis: the Seventh Crusade and the Eighth Crusade.", "Both proved to be complete failures for the French King.", "Philip III became king when Saint Louis died in 1270 during the Eighth Crusade.", "Philip III was called \"the Bold\" on the basis of his abilities in combat and on horseback, and not because of his character or ruling abilities.", "Philip III took part in another crusading disaster: the Aragonese Crusade, which cost him his life in 1285.More administrative reforms were made by Philip IV, also called Philip the Fair (reigned 1285–1314).", "This king was responsible for the end of the Knights Templar, signed the Auld Alliance, and established the Parlement of Paris.", "Philip IV was so powerful that he could name popes and emperors, unlike the early Capetians.", "The papacy was moved to Avignon and all the contemporary popes were French, such as Philip IV's puppet Bertrand de Goth, Pope Clement V.=== Early Valois Kings and the Hundred Years' War (1328–1453) ===John II at Poitiers in 1356The tensions between the Houses of Plantagenet and Capet climaxed during the so-called Hundred Years' War (actually several distinct wars over the period 1337 to 1453) when the Plantagenets claimed the throne of France from the Valois.", "This was also the time of the Black Death, as well as several devastating civil wars.", "In 1420, by the Treaty of Troyes Henry V was made heir to Charles VI.", "Henry V failed to outlive Charles so it was Henry VI of England and France who consolidated the Dual-Monarchy of England and France.It has been argued that the difficult conditions the French population suffered during the Hundred Years' War awakened French nationalism, a nationalism represented by Joan of Arc (1412–1431).", "Although this is debatable, the Hundred Years' War is remembered more as a Franco-English war than as a succession of feudal struggles.", "During this war, France evolved politically and militarily.Although a Franco-Scottish army was successful at the Battle of Baugé (1421), the humiliating defeats of Poitiers (1356) and Agincourt (1415) forced the French nobility to realise they could not stand just as armoured knights without an organised army.", "Charles VII (reigned 1422–61) established the first French standing army, the Compagnies d'ordonnance, and defeated the Plantagenets once at Patay (1429) and again, using cannons, at Formigny (1450).", "The Battle of Castillon (1453) was the last engagement of this war; Calais and the Channel Islands remained ruled by the Plantagenets." ], [ "Early Modern France (1453–1789)", "France in the late 15th century: a mosaic of feudal territories=== Kings during this period ===The Early Modern period in French history spans the following reigns, from 1461 to the Revolution, breaking in 1789:* House of Valois Louis XI the Prudent, 1461–83 Charles VIII the Affable, 1483–98 Louis XII, 1498–1515 Francis I, 1515–47 Henry II, 1547–59 Francis II, 1559–60 Charles IX, 1560–74 (1560–63 under regency of Catherine de' Medici) Henry III, 1574–89* House of Bourbon Henry IV the Great, 1589–1610 the Regency of Marie de Medici, 1610–17 Louis XIII the Just and his minister Cardinal Richelieu, 1610–43 the Regency of Anne of Austria and her minister Cardinal Mazarin, 1643–51 Louis XIV the Sun King and his minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert, 1643–1715 the Régence, a period of regency under Philip II of Orléans, 1715–23 Louis XV the Beloved and his minister Cardinal André-Hercule de Fleury, 1715–74 Louis XVI, 1774–92=== Life in the Early Modern period ===France in the Ancien Régime covered a territory of around .", "This land supported 13 million people in 1484 and 20 million people in 1700.France had the second largest population in Europe around 1700.France's lead slowly faded after 1700, as other countries grew faster.Political power was widely dispersed.", "The law courts (\"Parlements\") were powerful.", "However, the king had only about 10,000 officials in royal service – very few indeed for such a large country, and with very slow internal communications over an inadequate road system.", "Travel was usually faster by ocean ship or river boat.", "The different estates of the realm — the clergy, the nobility, and commoners — occasionally met together in the \"Estates General\", but in practice the Estates General had no power, for it could petition the king but could not pass laws.The Catholic Church controlled about 40% of the wealth.", "The king (not the pope) nominated bishops, but typically had to negotiate with noble families that had close ties to local monasteries and church establishments.", "The nobility came second in terms of wealth, but there was no unity.", "Each noble had his own lands, his own network of regional connections, and his own military force.The cities had a quasi-independent status, and were largely controlled by the leading merchants and guilds.", "Peasants made up the vast majority of population, who in many cases had well-established rights that the authorities had to respect.", "In the 17th century peasants had ties to the market economy, provided much of the capital investment necessary for agricultural growth, and frequently moved from village to village (or town).Although most peasants in France spoke local dialects, an official language emerged in Paris and the French language became the preferred language of Europe's aristocracy and the lingua franca of diplomacy and international relations.", "Holy Roman Emperor Charles V quipped, \"I speak Spanish to God, Italian to women, French to men, and German to my horse.", "\"=== Consolidation (15th and 16th centuries) ===Charles the Bold, the last Valois Duke of Burgundy.", "His death at the Battle of Nancy (1477) marked the division of his lands between the kings of France and Habsburg dynasty.With the death in 1477 of Charles the Bold, France and the Habsburgs began a long process of dividing his rich Burgundian lands, leading to numerous wars.", "In 1532, Brittany was incorporated into the Kingdom of France.France engaged in the long Italian Wars (1494–1559), which marked the beginning of early modern France.", "Francis I faced powerful foes, and he was captured at Pavia.", "The French monarchy then sought for allies and found one in the Ottoman Empire.", "The Ottoman Admiral Barbarossa captured Nice in 1543 and handed it down to Francis I.During the 16th century, the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs were the dominant power in Europe.", "The many domains of Charles V encircled France.", "The Spanish Tercio was used with great success against French knights.", "Finally, on 7 January 1558, the Duke of Guise seized Calais from the English.Economic historians call the era from about 1475 to 1630 the \"beautiful 16th century\" because of the return of peace, prosperity and optimism across the nation, and the steady growth of population.", "In 1559, Henry II of France signed (with the approval of Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor) two treaties (''Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis''): one with Elizabeth I of England and one with Philip II of Spain.", "This ended long-lasting conflicts between France, England and Spain.=== Protestant Huguenots and wars of religion (1562–1629) ===Henry IV of France was the first French Bourbon kingThe Protestant Reformation, inspired in France mainly by John Calvin, began to challenge the legitimacy and rituals of the Catholic Church.", "French King Henry II severely persecuted Protestants under the Edict of Chateaubriand (1551).", "Renewed Catholic reaction — headed by the powerful Francis, Duke of Guise — led to a massacre of Huguenots at Vassy in 1562, starting the first of the French Wars of Religion, during which English, German, and Spanish forces intervened on the side of rival Protestant (\"Huguenot\") and Catholic forces.King Henry II died in 1559 in a jousting tournament; he was succeeded in turn by his three sons, each of which assumed the throne as minors or were weak, ineffectual rulers.", "In the power vacuum entered Henry's widow, Catherine de' Medici, who became a central figure in the early years of the Wars of Religion.", "She is often blamed for the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of 1572, when thousands of Huguenots were murdered in Paris and the provinces of France.The Wars of Religion culminated in the War of the Three Henrys (1584–98), at the height of which bodyguards of the King Henry III assassinated Henry de Guise, leader of the Spanish-backed Catholic league, in December 1588.In revenge, a priest assassinated Henry III in 1589.This led to the ascension of the Huguenot Henry IV; in order to bring peace to a country beset by religious and succession wars, he converted to Catholicism.", "He issued the Edict of Nantes in 1598, which guaranteed religious liberties to the Protestants, thereby effectively ending the civil war.", "Henry IV was assassinated in 1610 by a fanatical Catholic.When in 1620 the Huguenots proclaimed a constitution for the 'Republic of the Reformed Churches of France', the chief minister Cardinal Richelieu invoked the entire powers of the state to stop it.", "Religious conflicts therefore resumed under Louis XIII when Richelieu forced Protestants to disarm their army and fortresses.", "This conflict ended in the Siege of La Rochelle (1627–28), in which Protestants and their English supporters were defeated.", "The following Peace of Alais (1629) confirmed religious freedom yet dismantled the Protestant military defences.In the face of persecution, Huguenots dispersed widely throughout Europe and America.=== Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) ===The religious conflicts that plagued France also ravaged the Habsburg-led Holy Roman Empire.", "The Thirty Years' War eroded the power of the Catholic Habsburgs.", "Although Cardinal Richelieu, the powerful chief minister of France, had mauled the Protestants, he joined this war on their side in 1636 because it was in the national interest.", "Imperial Habsburg forces invaded France, ravaged Champagne, and nearly threatened Paris.Richelieu died in 1642 and was succeeded by Cardinal Mazarin, while Louis XIII died one year later and was succeeded by Louis XIV.", "France was served by some very efficient commanders such as Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Condé and Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, Vicomte de Turenne.", "The French forces won a decisive victory at Rocroi (1643), and the Spanish army was decimated; the Tercio was broken.", "The Truce of Ulm (1647) and the Peace of Westphalia (1648) brought an end to the war.France was hit by civil unrest known as The Fronde which in turn evolved into the Franco-Spanish War in 1653.Louis II de Bourbon joined the Spanish army this time, but suffered a severe defeat at Dunkirk (1658) by Henry de la Tour d'Auvergne.", "The terms for the peace inflicted upon the Spanish kingdoms in the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659) were harsh, as France annexed Northern Catalonia.=== Colonies (16th and 17th centuries) ===During the 16th century, the king began to claim North American territories and established several colonies.", "Jacques Cartier was one of the great explorers who ventured deep into American territories during the 16th century.The early 17th century saw the first successful French settlements in the New World with the voyages of Samuel de Champlain in 1608.The largest settlement was New France.", "In 1699, French territorial claims in North America expanded still further, with the foundation of Louisiana.The French presence in Africa began in Senegal in 1626, although formal colonies and trading posts were not established until 1659 with the founding of Saint-Louis.", "The first French settlement of Madagascar began in 1642 with the establishment of Fort Dauphin.=== Louis XIV (1643–1715) ===Louis XIV of France, the \"Sun King\".Louis XIV, known as the \"Sun King\", reigned over France from 1643 until 1715.Louis continued his predecessors' work of creating a centralized state governed from Paris, sought to eliminate remnants of feudalism in France, and subjugated and weakened the aristocracy.", "By these means he consolidated a system of absolute monarchical rule in France that endured until the French Revolution.", "However, Louis XIV's long reign saw France involved in many wars that drained its treasury.France dominated League of the Rhine fought against the Ottoman Turks at the Battle of Saint Gotthard in 1664.France fought the War of Devolution against Spain in 1667.France's defeat of Spain and invasion of the Spanish Netherlands alarmed England and Sweden.", "With the Dutch Republic they formed the Triple Alliance to check Louis XIV's expansion.", "Louis II de Bourbon had captured Franche-Comté, but in face of an indefensible position, Louis XIV agreed to the peace of Aachen.", "War broke out again between France and the Dutch Republic in the Franco-Dutch War (1672–78).", "France attacked the Dutch Republic and was joined by England in this conflict.", "Through targeted inundations of polders by breaking dykes, the French invasion of the Dutch Republic was brought to a halt.", "The Dutch Admiral Michiel de Ruyter inflicted a few strategic defeats on the Anglo-French naval alliance and forced England to retire from the war in 1674.Because the Netherlands could not resist indefinitely, it agreed to peace in the Treaties of Nijmegen, according to which France would annex France-Comté and acquire further concessions in the Spanish Netherlands.On 6 May 1682, the royal court moved to the lavish Palace of Versailles, which Louis XIV had greatly expanded.", "Over time, Louis XIV compelled many members of the nobility, especially the noble elite, to inhabit Versailles.", "He controlled the nobility with an elaborate system of pensions and privileges, and replaced their power with himself.Peace did not last, and war between France and Spain again resumed.", "The War of the Reunions broke out (1683–84), and again Spain, with its ally the Holy Roman Empire, was defeated.", "Meanwhile, in October 1685 Louis signed the Edict of Fontainebleau ordering the destruction of all Protestant churches and schools in France.", "Its immediate consequence was a large Protestant exodus from France.", "Over two million people died in two famines in 1693 and 1710.France would soon be involved in another war, the War of the Grand Alliance.", "This time the theatre was not only in Europe but also in North America.", "Although the war was long and difficult (it was also called the Nine Years' War), its results were inconclusive.", "The Treaty of Ryswick in 1697 confirmed French sovereignty over Alsace, yet rejected its claims to Luxembourg.", "Louis also had to evacuate Catalonia and the Palatinate.", "This peace was considered a truce by all sides, thus war was to start again.The expansion of France, 1552 to 1798.In 1701, the War of the Spanish Succession began.", "The Bourbon Philip of Anjou was designated heir to the throne of Spain as Philip V. The Habsburg Emperor Leopold opposed a Bourbon succession, because the power that such a succession would bring to the Bourbon rulers of France would disturb the delicate balance of power in Europe.", "Therefore, he claimed the Spanish thrones for himself.", "England and the Dutch Republic joined Leopold against Louis XIV and Philip of Anjou.", "They inflicted a few resounding defeats on the French army; the Battle of Blenheim in 1704 was the first major land battle lost by France since its victory at Rocroi in 1643.Yet, the extremely bloody battles of Ramillies (1706) and Malplaquet (1709) proved to be Pyrrhic victories for the allies, as they had lost too many men to continue the war.", "Led by Villars, French forces recovered much of the lost ground in battles such as Denain (1712).", "Finally, a compromise was achieved with the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713.Philip of Anjou was confirmed as Philip V, king of Spain; Emperor Leopold did not get the throne, but Philip V was barred from inheriting France.Louis XIV wanted to be remembered as a patron of the arts, and invited Jean-Baptiste Lully to establish the French opera.The wars were so expensive, and so inconclusive, that although France gained some territory to the east, its enemies gained more strength than it did.", "Vauban, France's leading military strategist, warned the King in 1689 that a hostile \"Alliance\" was too powerful at sea.", "He recommended the best way for France to fight back was to license French merchants ships to privateer and seize enemy merchant ships, while avoiding its navies:Vauban was pessimistic about France's so-called friends and allies and recommended against expensive land wars, or hopeless naval wars:=== Major changes in France, Europe, and North America (1718–1783) ===The Battle of Fontenoy, 11 May 1745.Louis XIV died in 1715 and was succeeded by his five-year-old great-grandson who reigned as Louis XV until his death in 1774.In 1718, France was once again at war, as Philip II of Orléans's regency joined the War of the Quadruple Alliance against Spain.", "In 1733 another war broke in central Europe, this time about the Polish succession, and France joined the war against the Austrian Empire.", "Peace was settled in the Treaty of Vienna (1738), according to which France would annex, through inheritance, the Duchy of Lorraine.Two years later, in 1740, war broke out over the Austrian succession, and France seized the opportunity to join the conflict.", "The war played out in North America and India as well as Europe, and inconclusive terms were agreed to in the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748).", "Prussia was then becoming a new threat, as it had gained substantial territory from Austria.", "This led to the Diplomatic Revolution of 1756, in which the alliances seen during the previous war were mostly inverted.", "France was now allied to Austria and Russia, while Britain was now allied to Prussia.In the North American theatre, France was allied with various Native American peoples during the Seven Years' War and, despite a temporary success at the battles of the Great Meadows and Monongahela, French forces were defeated at the disastrous Battle of the Plains of Abraham in Quebec.", "In 1762, Russia, France, and Austria were on the verge of crushing Prussia, when the Anglo-Prussian Alliance was saved by the Miracle of the House of Brandenburg.", "At sea, naval defeats against British fleets at Lagos and Quiberon Bay in 1759 and a crippling blockade forced France to keep its ships in port.", "Finally peace was concluded in the Treaty of Paris (1763), and France lost its North American empire.Lord Cornwallis surrenders at Yorktown to American and French allies.Britain's success in the Seven Years' War had allowed them to eclipse France as the leading colonial power.", "France sought revenge for this defeat, and under Choiseul France started to rebuild.", "In 1766, the French Kingdom annexed Lorraine and the following year bought Corsica from Genoa.", "Having lost its colonial empire, France saw a good opportunity for revenge against Britain in signing an alliance with the Americans in 1778, and sending an army and navy that turned the American Revolution into a world war.", "Admiral de Grasse defeated a British fleet at Chesapeake Bay while Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau and Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette joined American forces in defeating the British at Yorktown.", "The war was concluded by the Treaty of Paris (1783); the United States became independent.", "The British Royal Navy scored a major victory over France in 1782 at the Battle of the Saintes and France finished the war with huge debts and the minor gain of the island of Tobago.=== French Enlightenment ===Cover of the Encyclopédie.The \"Philosophes\" were 18th-century French intellectuals who dominated the French Enlightenment and were influential across Europe.", "The philosopher Denis Diderot was editor in chief of the famous Enlightenment accomplishment, the 72,000-article ''Encyclopédie'' (1751–72).", "It sparked a revolution in learning throughout the enlightened world.In the early part of the 18th century the movement was dominated by Voltaire and Montesquieu.", "Around 1750 the Philosophes reached their most influential period, as Montesquieu published ''Spirit of Laws'' (1748) and Jean Jacques Rousseau published ''Discourse on the Moral Effects of the Arts and Sciences'' (1750).", "The leader of the French Enlightenment and a writer of enormous influence across Europe, was Voltaire.Astronomy, chemistry, mathematics and technology flourished.", "French chemists such as Antoine Lavoisier worked to replace the archaic units of weights and measures by a coherent scientific system.", "Lavoisier also formulated the law of Conservation of mass and discovered oxygen and hydrogen." ], [ "Revolutionary France (1789–1799)", "Day of the Tiles in 1788 at Grenoble was the first riot.", "(Musée de la Révolution française).When King Louis XV died in 1774 he left his grandson, Louis XVI, \"A heavy legacy, with ruined finances, unhappy subjects, and a faulty and incompetent government.\"", "Wars effectively bankrupted the state.", "The taxation system was highly inefficient.", "Several years of bad harvests and an inadequate transportation system had caused rising food prices, hunger, and malnutrition; the country was further destabilized by the lower classes' increased feeling that the royal court was isolated from, and indifferent to, their hardships.", "In February 1787, the king's finance minister, Charles Alexandre de Calonne, convened an Assembly of Notables to approve a new land tax that would, for the first time, include a tax on the property of nobles and clergy.", "The assembly did not approve the tax, and instead demanded that Louis XVI call the Estates-General.The Tennis Court Oath of 20 June 1789 was a pivotal event during the first days of the Revolution.", "It signified the first time that French citizens formally stood in opposition to Louis XVI.In August 1788, the King agreed to convene the Estates-General in May 1789.While the Third Estate demanded and was granted \"double representation\" so as to balance the First and Second Estate, voting was to occur \"by orders\" – votes of the Third Estate were to be weighted – effectively canceling double representation.", "This eventually led to the Third Estate breaking away from the Estates-General and, joined by members of the other estates, proclaiming the creation of the National Assembly, an assembly not of the Estates but of \"the People\".", "In an attempt to keep control of the process and prevent the Assembly from convening, Louis XVI ordered the closure of the Salle des États where the Assembly met.", "The Assembly met nearby on a tennis court and pledged the Tennis Court Oath on 20 June 1789, binding them \"never to separate, and to meet wherever circumstances demand, until the constitution of the kingdom is established and affirmed on solid foundations\".The Storming of the Bastille, 14 July 1789.Paris was soon consumed with riots and widespread looting.", "Because the royal leadership essentially abandoned the city, the mobs soon had the support of the French Guard, including arms and trained soldiers.", "On 14 July 1789, the insurgents set their eyes on the large weapons and ammunition cache inside the Bastille fortress, which also served as a symbol of royal tyranny.", "Insurgents seized the Bastille prison.", "The French now celebrate 14 July each year as 'Bastille day' or, as the French say: ''Quatorze Juillet'' (the Fourteenth of July), as a symbol of the shift away from the Ancien Régime to a more modern, democratic state.=== Violence against aristocracy and abolition of feudalism (15 July – August 1789) ===Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette, a hero of the American War of Independence, on 15 July took command of the National Guard, and the king on 17 July accepted to wear the two-colour cockade (blue and red), later adapted into the tricolour cockade, as the new symbol of revolutionary France.", "Although peace was made, several nobles did not regard the new order as acceptable and emigrated in order to push the neighboring, aristocratic kingdoms to war against the new regime.", "The state was now struck for several weeks in July and August 1789 by violence against aristocracy, also called 'the Great Fear'.August 1789 Decrees – in bas relief, Place de la République.On 4 and 11 August 1789, the National Constituent Assembly abolished privileges and feudalism, sweeping away personal serfdom, exclusive hunting rights and other seigneurial rights of the Second Estate (nobility).", "The tithe was also abolished.", "The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was adopted by the National Assembly on 27 August 1789, as a first step in their effort to write a constitution.=== Curtailment of Church powers (October 1789 – December 1790) ===An illustration of the Women's March on Versailles, 5 October 1789.When a mob from Paris attacked the royal palace at Versailles in October 1789 seeking redress for their severe poverty, the royal family was forced to move to the Tuileries Palace in Paris.", "In November 1789, the Assembly decided to nationalize and sell all church property, thus in part addressing the financial crisis.In July 1790, the Assembly adopted the Civil Constitution of the Clergy.", "This law reorganized the French Catholic Church, arranged that henceforth the salaries of the priests would be paid by the state, abolished the Church's authority to levy a tax on crops and again cancelled some privileges for the clergy.", "In October a group of bishops wrote a declaration saying they could not accept the law, and this fueled civilian opposition against it.", "The Assembly then in late November 1790 decreed that all clergy should take an oath of loyalty to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy.", "This stiffened the resistance, especially in the west of France including Normandy, Brittany and the Vendée, where few priests took the oath and the civilian population turned against the revolution.", "Priests swearing the oath were designated 'constitutional', and those not taking the oath as 'non-juring' or 'refractory' clergy.=== Making a constitutional monarchy (June–September 1791) ===In June 1791, the royal family secretly fled Paris in disguise for Varennes, but they were soon discovered and returned to Paris, essentially under house arrest.", "In August 1791, Emperor Leopold II of Austria and King Frederick William II of Prussia in the Declaration of Pillnitz declared their intention to bring the French king in a position \"to consolidate the basis of a monarchical government\", and that they were preparing their own troops for action.", "Instead of cowing the French, this infuriated them, and they militarised the borders.With most of the Assembly still favoring a constitutional monarchy rather than a republic, the various groups reached a compromise.", "Under the Constitution of 3 September 1791, France would function as a constitutional monarchy.", "The King had to share power with the elected Legislative Assembly, although he still retained his royal veto and the ability to select ministers.", "He had perforce to swear an oath to the constitution, and a decree declared that retracting the oath, heading an army for the purpose of making war upon the nation or permitting anyone to do so in his name would be a de jure abdication.=== War and internal uprisings (October 1791 – August 1792) ===On 1 October 1791, the Legislative Assembly was formed.", "A group of Assembly members who propagated war against Austria and Prussia was, after a remark by politician Maximilien Robespierre, henceforth designated the 'Girondins'.", "A group around Robespierre – later called 'Montagnards' or 'Jacobins' – pleaded against war; this opposition between those groups would harden and become bitter in the next years.The storming of the Tuileries Palace, 10 August 1792, (Musée de la Révolution française).In response to the threat of war of August 1791 from Austria and Prussia, leaders of the Assembly saw such a war as a means to strengthen support for their revolutionary government, and the French people as well as the Assembly thought that they would win a war against Austria and Prussia.", "On 20 April 1792, France declared war on Austria.", "Late April 1792, France invaded and conquered the Austrian Netherlands (roughly present-day Belgium and Luxembourg).Nevertheless, in the summer of 1792, all of Paris was against the king, and hoped that the Assembly would depose the king, but the Assembly hesitated.", "At dawn of 10 August 1792, a crowd of Parisians and soldiers marched on the Tuileries Palace where the king resided.", "After 11:00am, the Assembly 'temporarily relieved the king from his task'.", "In reaction, on 19 August an army under Prussian general Duke of Brunswick invaded France and besieged Longwy.", "Late August 1792, elections were held, now under male universal suffrage, for the new National Convention.", "On 26 August, the Assembly decreed the deportation of refractory priests in the west of France.", "In reaction, peasants in the Vendée took over a town, in another step toward civil war.=== Bloodbath in Paris and the Republic established (September 1792) ===On 2, 3 and 4 September 1792, hundreds of Parisians, supporters of the revolution, infuriated by Verdun being captured by the Prussian enemy, the uprisings in the west of France, and rumours that the incarcerated prisoners in Paris were conspiring with the foreign enemy, raided the Parisian prisons and murdered between 1,000 and 1,500 prisoners, many of them Catholic priests but also common criminals.", "Jean-Paul Marat, a political ally of prominent politician Robespierre, in an open letter on 3 September incited the rest of France to follow the Parisian example; Robespierre himself kept a low profile in regard to the murder orgy.", "The Assembly and the city council of Paris (''la Commune'') seemed inapt and hardly motivated to call a halt to the unleashed bloodshed.On 20 September 1792, the French won a battle against Prussian troops near Valmy and the new National Convention replaced the Legislative Assembly.", "From the start the Convention suffered from the bitter division between a group around Robespierre, Danton and Marat referred to as 'Montagnards' or 'Jacobins' or 'left' and a group referred to as 'Girondins' or 'right'.", "But the majority of the representatives, referred to as 'la Plaine', were member of neither of those two antagonistic groups and managed to preserve some speed in the convention's debates.", "Right away on 21 September the Convention abolished the monarchy, making France the French First Republic.", "A new French Republican Calendar was introduced to replace the Christian Gregorian calendar, renaming the year 1792 as year 1 of the Republic.=== War and civil war (November 1792 – spring 1793) ===The Execution of Louis XVI on 21 January 1793 in what is now the Place de la Concorde, facing the empty pedestal where the statue of his grandfather, Louis XV, had stood.With wars against Prussia and Austria having started earlier in 1792, in November France also declared war on the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Dutch Republic.", "Ex-king Louis XVI was tried, convicted, and guillotined in January 1793.Introduction of a nationwide conscription for the army in February 1793 was the spark that in March made the Vendée, already rebellious since 1790 because of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, ignite into civil war against Paris.", "Meanwhile, France in March also declared war on Spain.", "That month, the Vendée rebels won some victories against Paris and the French army was defeated in Belgium by Austria with the French general Dumouriez defecting to the Austrians: the French Republic's survival was now in real danger.Mass shootings at Nantes, War in the Vendée, 1793.On 6 April 1793, to prevent the Convention from losing itself in abstract debate and to streamline government decisions, the (Committee of Public Safety) was created of nine, later twelve members, as executive government which was accountable to the convention.", "That month the 'Girondins' group indicted Jean-Paul Marat before the Revolutionary Tribunal for 'attempting to destroy the sovereignty of the people' and 'preaching plunder and massacre', referring to his behaviour during the September 1792 Paris massacres.", "Marat was quickly acquitted but the incident further acerbated the 'Girondins' versus 'Montagnards' party strife in the convention.In the spring of 1793, Austrian, British, Dutch and Spanish troops invaded France.=== Showdown in the Convention (May–June 1793) ===With rivalry, even enmity, in the National Convention and its predecessors between so-called 'Montagnards' and 'Girondins' smouldering ever since late 1791, Jacques Hébert, Convention member leaning to the 'Montagnards' group, on 24 May 1793 called on the ''sans-culottes''—the idealized simple, non-aristocratic, hard-working, upright, patriotic, republican, Paris labourers—to rise in revolt against the \"henchmen of Capet =the killed ex-king and Dumouriez =the defected general\".", "Hébert was arrested immediately by a Convention committee investigating Paris rebelliousness.", "While that committee consisted only of members from la Plaine and the Girondins, the anger of the sans-culottes was directed towards the Girondins.", "25 May, a delegation of (the Paris city council) protested against Hébert's arrest.", "The convention's President Isnard, a Girondin, answered them: \"Members of ''la Commune'' ...", "If by your incessant rebellions something befalls to the representatives of the nation, I declare, in the name of France, that Paris will be totally obliterated\".On 29 May 1793, in Lyon an uprising overthrew a group of Montagnards ruling the city; Marseille, Toulon and more cities saw similar events.On 2 June 1793, the convention's session in Tuileries Palace—since early May their venue—not for the first time degenerated into chaos and pandemonium.", "This time crowds of people including 80,000 armed soldiers swarmed in and around the palace.", "Incessant screaming from the public galleries, always in favour of the Montagnards, suggested that all of Paris was against the Girondins, which was not really the case.", "Petitions circulated, indicting and condemning 22 Girondins.", "Barère, member of the Committee of Public Safety, suggested: to end this division which is harming the Republic, the Girondin leaders should lay down their offices voluntarily.", "A decree was adopted that day by the convention, after much tumultuous debate, expelling 22 leading Girondins from the convention.", "Late that night, indeed dozens of Girondins had resigned and left the convention.In the course of 1793, the Holy Roman Empire, the kings of Portugal and Naples and the Grand-Duke of Tuscany declared war against France.=== Counter-revolution subdued (July 1793 – April 1794) ===By the summer of 1793, most French departments in one way or another opposed the central Paris government, and in many cases 'Girondins', fled from Paris after 2 June, led those revolts.", "In Brittany's countryside, the people rejecting the Civil Constitution of the Clergy of 1790 had taken to a guerrilla warfare known as ''Chouannerie''.", "But generally, the French opposition against 'Paris' had now evolved into a plain struggle for power over the country against the 'Montagnards' around Robespierre and Marat now dominating Paris.In June–July 1793, Bordeaux, Marseilles, Brittany, Caen and the rest of Normandy gathered armies to march on Paris and against 'the revolution'.", "In July, Lyon guillotined the deposed 'Montagnard' head of the city council.", "Barère, member of the Committee of Public Safety, on 1 August incited the convention to tougher measures against the Vendée, at war with Paris since March: \"We'll have peace only when no Vendée remains ... we'll have to exterminate that rebellious people\".", "In August, Convention troops besieged Lyon.In August–September 1793, militants urged the convention to do more to quell the counter-revolution.", "A delegation of the (Paris city council) suggested to form revolutionary armies to arrest hoarders and conspirators.", "Bertrand Barère, member of the Committee of Public Safety—the ''de facto'' executive government—ever since April 1793, among others on 5 September reacted favorably, saying: let's \"make terror the order of the day!\"", "On 17 September, the National Convention passed the Law of Suspects, a decree ordering the arrest of all declared opponents of the current form of government and suspected \"enemies of freedom\".", "This decree was one of the causes for 17,000 death sentences until the end of July 1794, reason for historians to label those months 'the (Reign of) Terror'.On 19 September the Vendée rebels again defeated a Republican Convention army.", "On 1 October Barère repeated his plea to subdue the Vendée: \"refuge of fanaticism, where priests have raised their altars\".", "In October the Convention troops captured Lyon and reinstated a Montagnard government there.Criteria for bringing someone before the Revolutionary Tribunal, created March 1793, had always been vast and vague.", "By August, political disagreement seemed enough to be summoned before the Tribunal; appeal against a Tribunal verdict was impossible.", "Late August 1793, an army general had been guillotined on the accusation of choosing too timid strategies on the battlefield.", "Mid-October, the widowed former queen Marie Antoinette was on trial for a long list of charges such as \"teaching her husband Louis Capet the art of dissimulation\" and incest with her son, she too was guillotined.", "In October, 21 former 'Girondins' Convention members who had not left Paris after June were convicted to death and executed, on the charge of verbally supporting the preparation of an insurrection in Caen by fellow-Girondins.On 17 October 1793, the 'blue' Republican army near Cholet defeated the 'white' Vendéan insubordinate army and all surviving Vendée residents, counting in tens of thousands, fled over the river Loire north into Brittany.", "A Convention's representative on mission in Nantes commissioned in October to pacify the region did so by simply drowning prisoners in the river Loire: until February 1794 he drowned at least 4,000.By November 1793, the revolts in Normandy, Bordeaux and Lyon were overcome, in December also that in Toulon.", "Two representatives on mission sent to punish Lyon between November 1793 and April 1794 executed 2,000 people by guillotine or firing-squad.", "The Vendéan army since October roaming through Brittany on 12 December 1793 again ran up against Republican troops and saw 10,000 of its rebels perish, meaning the end of this once threatening army.", "Some historians claim that after that defeat Convention Republic armies in 1794 massacred 117,000 Vendéan civilians to obliterate the Vendéan people, but others contest that claim.", "Some historians consider the civil war to have lasted until 1796 with a toll of 450,000 lives.=== Death-sentencing politicians (February–July 1794) ===Robespierre, 28 July 1794.Maximilien Robespierre, since July 1793 member of the Committee of Public Prosperity, on 5 February 1794 in a speech in the Convention identified Jacques Hébert and his faction as \"internal enemies\" working toward the triumph of tyranny.", "After a dubious trial Hébert and some allies were guillotined in March.", "On 5 April, again at the instigation of Robespierre, Danton and 13 associated politicians were executed.", "A week later again 19 politicians.", "This hushed the Convention deputies: if henceforth they disagreed with Robespierre they hardly dared to speak out.", "A law enacted on 10 June 1794 (22 Prairial II) further streamlined criminal procedures: if the Revolutionary Tribunal saw sufficient proof of someone being an \"enemy of the people\" a counsel for defence would not be allowed.", "The frequency of guillotine executions in Paris now rose from on average three a day to an average of 29 a day.Meanwhile, France's external wars were going well, with victories over Austrian and British troops in May and June 1794 opening up Belgium for French conquest.", "However, cooperation within the Committee of Public Safety, since April 1793 the ''de facto'' executive government, started to break down.", "On 29 June 1794, three colleagues of Robespierre at the Committee called him a dictator in his face; Robespierre, baffled, left the meeting.", "This encouraged other Convention members to also defy Robespierre.", "On 26 July, a long and vague speech of Robespierre was not met with thunderous applause as usual but with hostility; some deputies yelled that Robespierre should have the courage to say which deputies he deemed necessary to be killed next, which Robespierre refused to do.In the Convention session of 27 July 1794, Robespierre and his allies hardly managed to say a word as they were constantly interrupted by a row of critics such as Tallien, Billaud-Varenne, Vadier, Barère and acting president Thuriot.", "Finally, even Robespierre's own voice failed on him: it faltered at his last attempt to beg permission to speak.", "A decree was adopted to arrest Robespierre, Saint-Just and Couthon.", "On 28 July, they and 19 others were beheaded.", "On 29 July, again 70 Parisians were guillotined.", "Subsequently, the Law of 22 Prairial (10 June 1794) was repealed, and the 'Girondins' expelled from the Convention in June 1793, if not dead yet, were reinstated as Convention deputies.=== Disregarding the working classes (August 1794 – October 1795) ===After July 1794, most civilians henceforth ignored the Republican calendar and returned to the traditional seven-day weeks.", "The government in a law of 21 February 1795 set steps of return to freedom of religion and reconciliation with the since 1790 refractory Catholic priests, but any religious signs outside churches or private homes, such as crosses, clerical garb, bell ringing, remained prohibited.", "When the people's enthusiasm for attending church grew to unexpected levels the government backed out and in October 1795 again, like in 1790, required all priests to swear oaths on the Republic.In the very cold winter of 1794–95, with the French army demanding more and more bread, the same was getting scarce in Paris, as was wood to keep houses warm, and in an echo of the October 1789 March on Versailles, on 1 April 1795 (12 Germinal III) a mostly female crowd marched on the Convention calling for bread.", "But no Convention member sympathized; they just told the women to return home.", "Again in May a crowd of 20,000 men and 40,000 women invaded the convention and even killed a deputy in the halls, but again they failed to make the Convention take notice of the needs of the lower classes.", "Instead, the Convention banned women from all political assemblies, and deputies who had solidarized with this insurrection were sentenced to death: such allegiance between parliament and street fighting was no longer tolerated.Late 1794, France conquered present-day Belgium.", "In January 1795 they subdued the Dutch Republic with full consent and cooperation of the influential Dutch ('patriots' movement'), resulting in the Batavian Republic, a satellite and puppet state of France.", "In April 1795, France concluded a peace agreement with Prussia; later that year peace was agreed with Spain.=== Fighting Catholicism and royalism (October 1795 – November 1799) ===In October 1795, the Republic was reorganised, replacing the one-chamber parliament (the National Convention) by a bi-cameral system: the first chamber called the 'Council of 500' initiating the laws, the second the 'Council of Elders' reviewing and approving or not the passed laws.", "Each year, one-third of the chambers was to be renewed.", "The executive power lay with five directors – hence the name 'Directory' for this form of government – with a five-year mandate, each year one of them being replaced.", "The early directors did not much understand the nation they were governing; they especially had an innate inability to see Catholicism as anything other than counter-revolutionary and royalist.", "Local administrators had a better sense of people's priorities, and one of them wrote to the minister of the interior: \"Give back the crosses, the church bells, the Sundays, and everyone will cry: 'French armies in 1796 advanced into Germany, Austria and Italy.", "In 1797, France conquered the Rhineland, Belgium and much of Italy, and unsuccessfully attacked Wales.Parliamentary elections in the spring of 1797 resulted in considerable gains for the royalists.", "This frightened the republican directors and they staged a coup d'état on 4 September 1797 (Coup of 18 Fructidor V) to remove two supposedly pro-royalist directors and some prominent royalists from both Councils.The new, 'corrected' government, still strongly convinced that Catholicism and royalism were equally dangerous to the Republic, started a fresh campaign to promote the Republican calendar officially introduced in 1792, with its ten-day week, and tried to hallow the tenth day, , as substitute for the Christian Sunday.", "Not only citizens opposed and even mocked such decrees, also local government officials refused to enforce such laws.France was still waging wars, in 1798 in Egypt, Switzerland, Rome, Ireland, Belgium and against the U.S.A., in 1799 in Baden-Württemberg.", "In 1799, when the French armies abroad experienced some setbacks, the newly chosen director Sieyes considered a new overhaul necessary for the Directory's form of government because in his opinion it needed a stronger executive.", "Together with general Napoleon Bonaparte who had just returned to France, Sieyes began preparing another coup d'état, which took place on 9–10 November 1799 (18–19 Brumaire VIII), replacing the five directors now with three \"consuls\": Napoleon, Sieyes, and Roger Ducos." ], [ "Napoleonic France (1799–1815)", "''Napoleon I on His Imperial Throne'', by Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres.During the War of the First Coalition (1792–1797), the Directory had replaced the National Convention.", "Five directors then ruled France.", "As Great Britain was still at war with France, a plan was made to take Egypt from the Ottoman Empire, a British ally.", "This was Napoleon's idea and the Directory agreed to the plan in order to send the popular general away from the mainland.", "Napoleon defeated the Ottoman forces during the Battle of the Pyramids (21 July 1798) and sent hundreds of scientists and linguists out to thoroughly explore modern and ancient Egypt.", "Only a few weeks later the British fleet under Admiral Horatio Nelson unexpectedly destroyed the French fleet at the Battle of the Nile (1–3 August 1798).", "Napoleon planned to move into Syria but was defeated at the Siege of Acre and he returned to France without his army, which surrendered.The Directory was threatened by the Second Coalition (1798–1802).", "Royalists and their allies still dreamed of restoring the monarchy to power, while the Prussian and Austrian crowns did not accept their territorial losses during the previous war.", "In 1799, the Russian army expelled the French from Italy in battles such as Cassano, while the Austrian army defeated the French in Switzerland at Stockach and Zurich.", "Napoleon then seized power through a coup and established the Consulate in 1799.The Austrian army was defeated at the Battle of Marengo (1800) and again at the Battle of Hohenlinden (1800).While at sea the French had some success at Boulogne but Nelson's Royal Navy destroyed an anchored Danish and Norwegian fleet at the Battle of Copenhagen (1801) because the Scandinavian kingdoms were against the British blockade of France.", "The Second Coalition was beaten and peace was settled in two distinct treaties: the Treaty of Lunéville and the Treaty of Amiens.", "A brief interlude of peace ensued in 1802–03, during which Napoleon sold French Louisiana to the United States because it was indefensible.In 1801, Napoleon concluded a \"Concordat\" with Pope Pius VII that opened peaceful relations between church and state in France.", "The policies of the Revolution were reversed, except the Church did not get its lands back.", "Bishops and clergy were to receive state salaries, and the government would pay for the building and maintenance of churches.", "Napoleon reorganized higher learning by dividing the into four (later five) academies.Napoléon at the Battle of Austerlitz, by François Gérard.In 1804, Napoleon was titled Emperor by the senate, thus founding the First French Empire.", "Napoleon's rule was constitutional, and although autocratic, it was much more advanced than traditional European monarchies of the time.", "The proclamation of the French Empire was met by the Third Coalition.", "The French army was renamed in 1805 and Napoleon used propaganda and nationalism to control the French population.", "The French army achieved a resounding victory at Ulm (16–19 October 1805), where an entire Austrian army was captured.A Franco-Spanish fleet was defeated at Trafalgar (21 October 1805) and all plans to invade Britain were then made impossible.", "Despite this naval defeat, it was on land that this war would be won; Napoleon inflicted on the Austrian and Russian Empires one of their greatest defeats at Austerlitz (also known as the \"Battle of the Three Emperors\" on 2 December 1805), destroying the Third Coalition.", "Peace was settled in the Treaty of Pressburg; the Austrian Empire lost the title of Holy Roman Emperor and the Confederation of the Rhine was created by Napoleon over former Austrian territories.=== Coalitions formed against Napoleon ===Prussia joined Britain and Russia, thus forming the Fourth Coalition.", "Although the Coalition was joined by other allies, the French Empire was also not alone since it now had a complex network of allies and subject states.", "The largely outnumbered French army crushed the Prussian army at Jena-Auerstedt in 1806; Napoleon captured Berlin and went as far as Eastern Prussia.", "There the Russian Empire was defeated at the Battle of Friedland (14 June 1807).", "Peace was dictated in the Treaties of Tilsit, in which Russia had to join the Continental System, and Prussia handed half of its territories to France.", "The Duchy of Warsaw was formed over these territorial losses, and Polish troops entered the Grande Armée in significant numbers.In order to ruin the British economy, Napoleon set up the Continental System in 1807, and tried to prevent merchants across Europe from trading with British.", "The large amount of smuggling frustrated Napoleon, and did more harm to his economy than to his enemies'.First Empire.Freed from his obligation in the east, Napoleon then went back to the west, as the French Empire was still at war with Britain.", "Only two countries remained neutral in the war: Sweden and Portugal, and Napoleon then looked toward the latter.", "In the Treaty of Fontainebleau (1807), a Franco-Spanish alliance against Portugal was sealed as Spain eyed Portuguese territories.", "French armies entered Spain in order to attack Portugal, but then seized Spanish fortresses and took over the kingdom by surprise.", "Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon's brother, was made King of Spain after Charles IV abdicated.This occupation of the Iberian peninsula fueled local nationalism, and soon the Spanish and Portuguese fought the French using guerilla tactics, defeating the French forces at the Battle of Bailén (June and July 1808).", "Britain sent a short-lived ground support force to Portugal, and French forces evacuated Portugal as defined in the Convention of Sintra following the Allied victory at Vimeiro (21 August 1808).", "France only controlled Catalonia and Navarre and could have been definitely expelled from the Iberian peninsula had the Spanish armies attacked again, but the Spanish did not.Another French attack was launched on Spain, led by Napoleon himself, and was described as \"an avalanche of fire and steel\".", "However, the French Empire was no longer regarded as invincible by European powers.", "In 1808, Austria formed the Fifth Coalition in order to break down the French Empire.", "The Austrian Empire defeated the French at Aspern-Essling, yet was beaten at Wagram while the Polish allies defeated the Austrian Empire at Raszyn (April 1809).", "Although not as decisive as the previous Austrian defeats, the peace treaty in October 1809 stripped Austria of a large amount of territory, reducing it even more.Napoleon Bonaparte retreating from Moscow, by Adolf Northern.In 1812, war broke out with Russia, engaging Napoleon in the disastrous French invasion of Russia (1812).", "Napoleon assembled the largest army Europe had ever seen, including troops from all subject states, to invade Russia, which had just left the continental system and was gathering an army on the Polish frontier.", "Following an exhausting march and the bloody but inconclusive Battle of Borodino, near Moscow, the Grande Armée entered and captured Moscow, only to find it burning as part of the Russian scorched earth tactics.", "Although there still were battles, the Napoleonic army left Russia in late 1812 annihilated, most of all by the Russian winter, exhaustion, and scorched earth warfare.", "On the Spanish front the French troops were defeated at Vitoria (June 1813) and then at the Battle of the Pyrenees (July–August 1813).", "Since the Spanish guerrillas seemed to be uncontrollable, the French troops eventually evacuated Spain.Since France had been defeated on these two fronts, states that had been conquered and controlled by Napoleon saw a good opportunity to strike back.", "The Sixth Coalition was formed under British leadership.", "The German states of the Confederation of the Rhine switched sides, finally opposing Napoleon.", "Napoleon was largely defeated in the Battle of the Nations outside Leipzig in October 1813, his forces heavily outnumbered by the Allied coalition armies and was overwhelmed by much larger armies during the Six Days Campaign (February 1814), although, the Six Days Campaign is often considered a tactical masterpiece because the allies suffered much higher casualties.", "Napoleon abdicated on 6 April 1814, and was exiled to Elba.The conservative Congress of Vienna reversed the political changes that had occurred during the wars.", "Napoleon suddenly returned, seized control of France, raised an army, and marched on his enemies in the Hundred Days.", "It ended with his final defeat at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, and his exile to St. Helena, a remote island in the South Atlantic Ocean.The monarchy was subsequently restored and Louis XVIII, Younger brother of Louis XVI became king, and the exiles returned.", "However many of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic reforms were kept in place.=== Napoleon's impact on France ===Napoleon centralized power in Paris, with all the provinces governed by all-powerful prefects whom he selected.", "They were more powerful than royal intendants of the and had a long-term impact in unifying the nation, minimizing regional differences, and shifting all decisions to Paris.Religion had been a major issue during the Revolution, and Napoleon resolved most of the outstanding problems, moving the clergy and large numbers of devout Catholics from hostility to the government to support for him.", "The Catholic system was reestablished by the Concordat of 1801 (signed with Pope Pius VII), so that church life returned to normal; the church lands were not restored but the Jesuits were allowed back in and the bitter fights between the government and Church ended.", "Protestants, Jews and atheists were tolerated.The French taxation system had collapsed in the 1780s.", "In the 1790s the government seized and sold church lands and lands of exiled aristocrats.", "Napoleon instituted a modern, efficient tax system that guaranteed a steady flow of revenues and made long-term financing possible.Napoleon kept the system of conscription that had been created in the 1790s, so that every young man served in the army, which could be rapidly expanded even as it was based on a core of careerists and talented officers.", "Before the Revolution the aristocracy formed the officer corps.", "Now promotion was by merit and achievement—every private carried a marshal's baton, it was said.The modern era of French education began in the 1790s.", "The Revolution in the 1790s abolished the traditional universities.", "Napoleon sought to replace them with new institutions, the École Polytechnique, focused on technology.", "The elementary schools received little attention.==== Napoleonic Code ====Of permanent importance was the Napoleonic Code created by eminent jurists under Napoleon's supervision.", "Praised for its clarity, it spread rapidly throughout Europe and the world in general, and marked the end of feudalism and the liberation of serfs where it took effect.", "The Code recognized the principles of civil liberty, equality before the law, and the secular character of the state.", "It discarded the old right of primogeniture (where only the eldest son inherited) and required that inheritances be divided equally among all the children.", "The court system was standardized; all judges were appointed by the national government in Paris." ], [ "Long 19th century, 1815–1914", "The century after the fall of Napoleon I was politically unstable:France was no longer the dominant power it had been before 1814, but it played a major role in European economics, culture, diplomacy and military affairs.", "The Bourbons were restored, but left a weak record and one branch was overthrown in 1830 and the other branch in 1848 as Napoleon's nephew was elected president.", "He made himself emperor as Napoleon III, but was overthrown when he was defeated and captured by Prussians in an 1870 war that humiliated France and made the new nation of Germany dominant in the continent.", "The Third Republic was established, but the possibility of a return to monarchy remained into the 1880s.", "The French built up an empire, especially in Africa and Indochina.", "The economy was strong, with a good railway system.", "The arrival of the Rothschild banking family of France in 1812 guaranteed the role of Paris alongside London as a major center of international finance.Population growth 1801–2001.For sources, see Demographics of France.=== Permanent changes in French society ===The French Revolution and Napoleonic eras brought a series of major changes to France which the Bourbon restoration did not reverse.", "First of all, France became highly centralized, with all decisions made in Paris.", "The political geography was completely reorganized and made uniform.", "France was divided into 80+ departments, which have endured into the 21st century.", "Each department had an identical administrative structure, and was tightly controlled by a prefect appointed by Paris.", "The complex multiple overlapping legal jurisdictions of the old regime had all been abolished, and there was now one standardized legal code, administered by judges appointed by Paris, and supported by police under national control.", "Education was centralized, with the Grand Master of the University of France controlling every element of the entire educational system from Paris.", "Newly technical universities were opened in Paris which to this day have a critical role in training the elite.Conservatism was bitterly split into the old aristocracy that returned, and the new elites that arose after 1796.The old aristocracy was eager to regain its land but felt no loyalty to the new regime.", "The new elite – the – ridiculed the other group as an outdated remnant of a discredited regime that had led the nation to disaster.", "Both groups shared a fear of social disorder, but the level of distrust as well as the cultural differences were too great and the monarchy too inconsistent in its policies for political cooperation to be possible.The old aristocracy had returned, and recovered much of the land they owned directly.", "However they completely lost all their old seigneurial rights to the rest of the farmland, and the peasants no longer were under their control.", "The old aristocracy had dallied with the ideas of the Enlightenment and rationalism.", "Now the aristocracy was much more conservative, and much more supportive of the Catholic Church.", "For the best jobs meritocracy was the new policy, and aristocrats had to compete directly with the growing business and professional class.", "Anti-clerical sentiment became much stronger than ever before, but was now based in certain elements of the middle class and indeed the peasantry as well.In France, as in most of Europe, the sum total of wealth was concentrated.", "The richest 10 percent of families owned between 80 and 90 percent of the wealth from 1810 to 1914.Their share then fell to about 60 percent, where it remained into the 21st century.", "The share of the top one percent of the population grew from 45 percent in 1810 to 60 percent in 1914, then fell steadily to 20 percent in 1970 to the present.The \"200 families\" controlled much of the nation's wealth after 1815.The \"200\" is based on the policy that of the 40,000 shareholders of the Bank of France, only 200 were allowed to attend the annual meeting and they cast all the votes.", "Out of a nation of 27 million people, only 80,000 to 90,000 were allowed to vote in 1820, and the richest one-fourth of them had two votes.The great masses of the French people were peasants in the countryside, or impoverished workers in the cities.", "They gained new rights, and a new sense of possibilities.", "Although relieved of many of the old burdens, controls, and taxes, the peasantry was still highly traditional in its social and economic behavior.", "Many eagerly took on mortgages to buy as much land as possible for their children, so debt was an important factor in their calculations.", "The working class in the cities was a small element, and had been freed of many restrictions imposed by medieval guilds.", "However France was very slow to industrialize (in the sense of large factories using modern machinery), and much of the work remained drudgery without machinery or technology to help.", "This provided a good basis for small-scale expensive luxury crafts that attracted an international upscale market.", "France was still localized, especially in terms of language, but now there was an emerging French nationalism that showed its national pride in the Army, and foreign affairs.=== Religion ===The Catholic Church lost all its lands and buildings during the Revolution, and these were sold off or came under the control of local governments.", "The bishop still ruled his diocese (which was aligned with the new department boundaries), but could only communicate with the pope through the government in Paris.", "Bishops, priests, nuns and other religious people were paid salaries by the state.", "All the old religious rites and ceremonies were retained, and the government maintained the religious buildings.", "The Church was allowed to operate its own seminaries and to some extent local schools as well, although this became a central political issue into the 20th century.", "Bishops were much less powerful than before, and had no political voice.", "However, the Catholic Church reinvented itself and put a new emphasis on personal religiosity that gave it a hold on the psychology of the faithful.France remained basically Catholic.", "The 1872 census counted 36 million people, of whom 35.4 million were listed as Catholics, 600,000 as Protestants, 50,000 as Jews and 80,000 as freethinkers.", "The Revolution failed to destroy the Catholic Church, and Napoleon's concordat of 1801 restored its status.", "The return of the Bourbons in 1814 brought back many rich nobles and landowners who supported the Church, seeing it as a bastion of conservatism and monarchism.", "However the monasteries with their vast land holdings and political power were gone; much of the land had been sold to urban entrepreneurs who lacked historic connections to the land and the peasants.Few new priests were trained in the 1790–1814 period, and many left the church.", "The result was that the number of parish clergy plunged from 60,000 in 1790 to 25,000 in 1815, many of them elderly.", "Entire regions, especially around Paris, were left with few priests.", "On the other hand, some traditional regions held fast to the faith, led by local nobles and historic families.The comeback was very slow in the larger cities and industrial areas.", "With systematic missionary work and a new emphasis on liturgy and devotions to the Virgin Mary, plus support from Napoleon III, there was a comeback.", "In 1870, there were 56,500 priests, representing a much younger and more dynamic force in the villages and towns, with a thick network of schools, charities and lay organizations.", "Conservative Catholics held control of the national government from 1820 to 1830, but most often played secondary political roles or had to fight the assault from republicans, liberals, socialists and seculars.=== Economy ===French economic history since its late-18th century Revolution was tied to three major events and trends: the Napoleonic Era, the competition with Britain and its other neighbors in regards to industrialization, and the 'total wars' of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.", "Quantitative analysis of output data shows the French per capita growth rates were slightly smaller than Britain.", "However the British population tripled in size, while France grew by only a third—so the overall British economy grew much faster.", "The ups and downs of French per capita economic growth in 1815–1913:* 1815–1840: irregular, but sometimes fast growth* 1840–1860: fast growth* 1860–1882: slowing down* 1882–1896: stagnation* 1896–1913: fast growthFor the 1870–1913 era, the growth rates for 12 similar advanced countries – 10 in Europe plus the United States and Canada – show that in terms of per capita growth, France was about average.", "However its population growth was very slow, so as far as the growth rate in total size of the economy France was in next to the last place, just ahead of Italy.", "The 12 countries averaged 2.7% per year in total output, but France only averaged 1.6%.=== Bourbon restoration (1814–1830) ===Louis XVIII makes a return at the Hôtel de Ville de Paris on 29 August 1814.This period of time is called the Bourbon Restoration and was marked by conflicts between reactionary Ultra-royalists, who wanted to restore the pre-1789 system of absolute monarchy, and liberals, who wanted to strengthen constitutional monarchy.", "Louis XVIII was the younger brother of Louis XVI, and reigned from 1814 to 1824.On becoming king, Louis issued a constitution known as the Charter which preserved many of the liberties won during the French Revolution and provided for a parliament composed of an elected Chamber of Deputies and a Chamber of Peers that was nominated by the king.==== Evaluation ====After two decades of war and revolution, the restoration brought peace and quiet, and general prosperity.", "\"Frenchmen were, on the whole, well governed, prosperous, contented during the 15-year period; one historian even describes the restoration era as 'one of the happiest periods in France's history'.", "\"France had recovered from the strain and disorganization, the wars, the killings, and the horrors of two decades of disruption.", "It was at peace throughout the period.", "It paid a large war indemnity to the winners, but managed to finance that without distress; the occupation soldiers left peacefully.", "Population increased by 3 million, and prosperity was strong from 1815 to 1825, with the depression of 1825 caused by bad harvests.", "The national credit was strong, there was significant increase in public wealth, and the national budget showed a surplus every year.", "In the private sector, banking grew dramatically, making Paris a world center for finance, along with London.", "The Rothschild family was world-famous, with the French branch led by James Mayer de Rothschild (1792–1868).", "The communication system was improved, as roads were upgraded, canals were lengthened, and steamboat traffic became common.", "Industrialization was delayed in comparison to Britain and Belgium.", "The railway system had yet to make an appearance.", "Industry was heavily protected with tariffs, so there was little demand for entrepreneurship or innovation.Culture flourished with the new romantic impulses.", "Oratory was highly regarded, and debates were very high standard.", "Châteaubriand and Madame de Staël enjoyed Europe-wide reputations for their innovations in romantic literature.", "De Staël made important contributions to political sociology, and the sociology of literature.", "History flourished; François Guizot, Benjamin Constant and Madame de Staël drew lessons from the past to guide the future.", "The paintings of Eugène Delacroix set the standards for romantic art.", "Music, theater, science, and philosophy all flourished.", "The higher learning flourished at the Sorbonne.", "Major new institutions gave France world leadership in numerous advanced fields, as typified by the École Nationale des Chartes (1821) for historiography, the École Centrale des Arts et Manufactures in 1829 for innovative engineering; and the École des Beaux-Arts for the fine arts, reestablished in 1830.Overall, the Bourbon government's handling of foreign affairs was successful.", "France kept a low profile, and Europe forgot its animosities.", "Louis and Charles had little interest in foreign affairs, so France played only minor roles.", "Its army helped restore the Spanish monarch in 1823.It helped the other powers deal with Greece and Turkey.", "King Charles X, an ultra-reactionary, mistakenly thought that foreign glory would cover domestic frustration, so he made an all-out effort to conquer Algiers in 1830.He sent a massive force of 38,000 soldiers and 4,500 horses carried by 103 warships and 469 merchant ships.", "The expedition was a dramatic military success in only three weeks.", "The invasion paid for itself with 48 million francs from the captured treasury.", "The episode launched the second French colonial empire, but it did not provide desperately needed political support for the King at home.", "Charles X repeatedly exacerbated internal tensions, and tried to neutralize his enemies with repressive measures.", "He depended too heavily upon his inept chief minister Polignac.", "Repression failed and a quick sudden revolution forced Charles into exile for the third time.=== July Monarchy (1830–1848) ===Hôtel de Ville – the seat of Paris's government – during the July Revolution of 1830.Protest against the absolute monarchy was in the air.", "The elections of deputies to 16 May 1830 had gone very badly for King Charles X.", "In response, he tried repression but that only aggravated the crisis as suppressed deputies, gagged journalists, students from the university and many working men of Paris poured into the streets and erected barricades during the \"three glorious days\" () of 26–29 July 1830.Charles X was deposed and replaced by King Louis-Philippe in the July Revolution.", "It is traditionally regarded as a rising of the bourgeoisie against the absolute monarchy of the Bourbons.", "Participants in the July Revolution included the Marquis de Lafayette.", "Working behind the scenes on behalf of the bourgeois propertied interests was Louis Adolphe Thiers.Louis-Philippe's \"July Monarchy\" (1830–1848) was dominated by the \"high bourgeoisie\" of bankers, financiers, industrialists and merchants.During the reign of the July Monarchy, the Romantic Era was starting to bloom.", "Driven by the Romantic Era, an atmosphere of protest and revolt was all around in France.", "On 22 November 1831 in Lyon (the second largest city in France) the silk workers revolted and took over the town hall in protest of recent salary reductions and working conditions.", "This was one of the first instances of a free workers' revolt in the entire world.Because of the constant threats to the throne, the July Monarchy began to rule with a stronger and stronger hand.", "Soon political meetings were outlawed.", "However, \"banquets\" were still legal and all through 1847, there was a nationwide campaign of republican banquets demanding more democracy.", "The climactic banquet was scheduled for 22 February 1848 in Paris but the government banned it.", "In response citizens of all classes poured out onto the streets of Paris in a revolt against the July Monarchy.", "Demands were made for abdication of \"Citizen King\" Louis-Philippe and for establishment of a representative democracy in France.", "The king abdicated, and the French Second Republic was proclaimed.", "Alphonse Marie Louis de Lamartine, who had been a leader of the moderate republicans in France during the 1840s, became the Minister of Foreign Affairs and in effect the premier in the new Provisional government.", "In reality Lamartine was the virtual head of government in 1848.=== Second Republic (1848–1852) ===Napoleon III, Emperor of the French.", "His very widespread popularity came from being the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte.Frustration among the laboring classes arose when the Constituent Assembly did not address the concerns of the workers.", "Strikes and worker demonstrations became more common as the workers gave vent to these frustrations.", "These demonstrations reached a climax when on 15 May 1848, workers from the secret societies broke out in armed uprising against the anti-labor and anti-democratic policies being pursued by the Constituent Assembly and the Provisional Government.", "Fearful of a total breakdown of law and order, the Provisional Government invited General Louis Eugene Cavaignac back from Algeria, in June 1848, to put down the workers' armed revolt.", "From June 1848 until December 1848 General Cavaignac became head of the executive of the Provisional Government.On 10 December 1848, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was elected president by a landslide.", "His support came from a wide section of the French public.", "Various classes of French society voted for Louis Napoleon for very different and often contradictory reasons.", "Louis Napoleon himself encouraged this contradiction by \"being all things to all people\".", "One of his major promises to the peasantry and other groups was that there would be no new taxes.The new National Constituent Assembly was heavily composed of royalist sympathizers of both the Legitimist (Bourbon) wing and the Orleanist (Citizen King Louis Philippe) wing.", "Because of the ambiguity surrounding Louis Napoleon's political positions, his agenda as president was very much in doubt.", "For prime minister, he selected Odilon Barrot, an unobjectionable middle-road parliamentarian who had led the \"loyal opposition\" under Louis Philippe.", "Other appointees represented various royalist factions.The Pope had been forced out of Rome as part of the Revolutions of 1848, and Louis Napoleon sent a 14,000-man expeditionary force of troops to the Papal State under General Nicolas Charles Victor Oudinot to restore him.", "In late April 1849, it was defeated and pushed back from Rome by Giuseppe Garibaldi's volunteer corps, but then it recovered and recaptured Rome.In June 1849, demonstrations against the government broke out and were suppressed.", "The leaders, including prominent politicians, were arrested.", "The government banned several democratic and socialist newspapers in France; the editors were arrested.", "Karl Marx was at risk, so in August he moved to London.The government sought ways to balance its budget and reduce its debts.", "Toward this end, Hippolyte Passy was appointed Finance Minister.", "When the Legislative Assembly met at the beginning of October 1849, Passy proposed an income tax to help balance the finances of France.", "The bourgeoisie, who would pay most of the tax, protested.", "The furor over the income tax caused the resignation of Barrot as prime minister, but a new wine tax also caused protests.The 1850 elections resulted in a conservative body.", "It passed the Falloux Laws, putting education into the hands of the Catholic clergy.", "It opened an era of cooperation between Church and state that lasted until the Jules Ferry laws reversed course in 1879.The Falloux Laws provided universal primary schooling in France and expanded opportunities for secondary schooling.", "In practice, the curricula were similar in Catholic and state schools.", "Catholic schools were especially useful in schooling for girls, which had long been neglected.", "Although a new electoral law was passed that respected the principle of universal (male) suffrage, the stricter residential requirement of the new law actually had the effect of disenfranchising 3,000,000 of 10,000,000 voters.=== Social reform ===A wide range of reforms were carried out during the time Napoleon III led France.", "As noted by one study \"While the emperor imposed new authoritarian measures and used censorship and surveillance to stifle any opposition, he offered workers an unprecedented range of relief measures: soup kitchens, price controls on bread, insurance schemes, retirement plans, orphanages, nurseries, and hospitals.\"", "Regulations for the prevention of food adulterations were introduced, along with the transfer of taxes from necessaries to luxuries, the assurance of Christian burial to the poorest Christian, and increased pay and honour to the lower ranks of the army and to the private soldier.", "Public assistance was encouraged, while a law of 1864 legalised strikes although not trade unions.", "Substantial contributions were also made by Napoleon to a fund to develop worker's cooperatives.", "Other laws originated and institutions founded by Napoleon included the organisation of public baths and lavatories, maternity societies to provide attendance on poor women at their houses during childbirth, orphanages, refuges for old age, the Convalescent Institution at Vincennes, the Asylum for Incurables at Vesinet, a retiring fund for the poorer assistant clergy, loan societies to make provision for their members in sickness, and for their widows and orphans, and a law for improving the dwellings of the working classes.", "A decree was issued providing for the observance of Sunday rest in all public works.", "In 1851, some enactment was introduced for providing the indigent with legal assistance.", "Another law from that year, which regulated assistance for the needy, \"specifically impressed upon hospitals their obligation to take in the poor and sick regardless of their origins.\"", "Napoleon also authorized several cooperatives and moderate unions, supported welfare institutions like orphanages, nurseries and aid for accident victims, and \"encouraged the first adult education programs and pension plans for workers.", "\"=== Second Empire, 1852–1870 ===The president rejected the constitution and made himself emperor as Napoleon III.", "He is known for working to modernize the French economy, the rebuilding of Paris, expanding the overseas empire, and engaging in numerous wars.", "His effort to build an empire in Mexico was a fiasco.", "Autocratic at first, he opened the political system somewhat in the 1860s.", "He lost all his allies and recklessly declared war on a much more powerful Prussia in 1870; he was captured and deposed.As 1851 opened, Louis Napoleon was not allowed by the Constitution of 1848 to seek re-election as President of France.", "He proclaimed himself Emperor of the French in 1852, with almost dictatorial powers.", "He made completion of a good railway system a high priority.", "He consolidated three dozen small, incomplete lines into six major companies using Paris as a hub.", "Paris grew dramatically in terms of population, industry, finance, commercial activity, and tourism.", "Napoleon working with Georges-Eugène Haussmann spent lavishly to rebuild the city into a world-class showpiece.", "The financial soundness for all six companies was solidified by government guarantees.", "Although France had started late, by 1870 it had an excellent railway system, supported as well by good roads, canals and ports.A map of the County of Nice showing the area of the Italian kingdom of Sardinia annexed in 1860 to France (light brown).", "The area in red had already become part of France before 1860.Despite his promises in 1852 of a peaceful reign, the Emperor could not resist the temptations of glory in foreign affairs.", "He was visionary, mysterious and secretive; he had a poor staff, and kept running afoul of his domestic supporters.", "In the end he was incompetent as a diplomat.", "Napoleon did have some successes: he strengthened French control over Algeria, established bases in Africa, began the takeover of Indochina, and opened trade with China.", "He facilitated a French company building the Suez Canal, which Britain could not stop.", "In Europe, however, Napoleon failed again and again.", "The Crimean War of 1854–1856 produced no gains.", "Napoleon had long been an admirer of Italy and wanted to see it unified, although that might create a rival power.", "He plotted with Cavour of the Italian kingdom of Sardinia to expel Austria and set up an Italian confederation of four new states headed by the pope.", "Events in 1859 ran out of his control.", "Austria was quickly defeated, but instead of four new states a popular uprising united all of Italy under the Italian kingdom of Sardinia.", "The pope held onto Rome only because Napoleon sent troops to protect him.", "His reward was the County of Nice (which included the city of Nice and the rugged Alpine territory to its north and east, as well as the Free Cities of Menton and Roquebrune) and the Duchy of Savoy.", "He angered Catholics when the pope lost most of his domains.", "Napoleon then reversed himself and angered both the anticlerical liberals at home and his erstwhile Italian allies when he protected the pope in Rome.The British grew annoyed at Napoleon's humanitarian intervention in Syria in 1860–1861.Napoleon lowered the tariffs, which helped in the long run but in the short run angered owners of large estates and the textile and iron industrialists, while leading worried workers to organize.", "Matters grew worse in the 1860s as Napoleon nearly blundered into war with the United States in 1862, while his takeover of Mexico in 1861–1867 was a total disaster.", "The puppet emperor he put on the Mexican throne was overthrown and executed.", "Finally in the end he went to war with the Germans in 1870 when it was too late to stop German unification.", "Napoleon had alienated everyone; after failing to obtain an alliance with Austria and Italy, France had no allies and was bitterly divided at home.", "It was disastrously defeated on the battlefield, losing Alsace and Lorraine.", "Historian A. J. P. Taylor was blunt: \"he ruined France as a great power\".==== Foreign wars ====In 1854, the Second Empire joined the Crimean War, which saw France and Britain opposed to the Russian Empire, which was decisively defeated at Sevastopol in 1854–55 and at Inkerman in 1854.In 1856, France joined the Second Opium War on the British side against China; a missionary's murder was used as a pretext to take interests in southwest Asia in the Treaty of Tientsin.When France was negotiating with the Netherlands about purchasing Luxembourg in 1867, the Prussian Kingdom threatened the French government with war.", "This \"Luxembourg Crisis\" came as a shock to French diplomats as there had been an agreement between the Prussian and French governments about Luxembourg.", "Napoleon III suffered stronger and stronger criticism from Republicans like Jules Favre, and his position seemed more fragile with the passage of time.The country interfered in Korea in 1866 taking, once again, missionaries' murders as a pretext.", "The French finally withdrew from the war with little gain but war's booty.", "The next year a French expedition to Japan was formed to help the Tokugawa shogunate to modernize its army.", "However, Tokugawa was defeated during the Boshin War at the Battle of Toba–Fushimi by large Imperial armies.==== Franco-Prussian War (1870–71) ====Shaded areas: Occupied France after the Franco-Prussian War until war reparations were paid.Rising tensions in 1869 about the possible candidacy of Prince Leopold von Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen to the throne of Spain caused a rise in the scale of animosity between France and Germany.", "Prince Leopold was a part of the Prussian royal family.", "He had been asked by the Spanish Cortes to accept the vacant throne of Spain.Such an event was more than France could possibly accept.", "Relations between France and Germany deteriorated, and finally the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71) broke out.", "German nationalism united the German states, with the exception of Austria, against Napoleon III.", "The French Empire was defeated decisively at Metz and Sedan.", "Napoleon III surrendered himself and 100,000 French troops to the German troops at Sedan on 1–2 September 1870.Two days later, on 4 September 1870, Léon Gambetta proclaimed a new republic in France.", "Later, when Paris was encircled by German troops, Gambetta fled Paris and became the virtual dictator of the war effort which was carried on from the rural provinces.", "Metz remained under siege until 27 October 1870, when 173,000 French troops there finally surrendered.", "Surrounded, Paris was forced to surrender on 28 January 1871.The Treaty of Frankfurt allowed the newly formed German Empire to annex the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine.=== Modernisation and railways (1870–1914) ===The seemingly timeless world of the French peasantry swiftly changed from 1870 to 1914.French peasants had been poor and locked into old traditions until railroads, republican schools, and universal (male) military conscription modernized rural France.", "The centralized government in Paris had the goal of creating a unified nation-state, so it required all students be taught standardized French.", "In the process, a new national identity was forged.Railways became a national medium for the modernization of traditionalistic regions, and a leading advocate of this approach was the poet-politician Alphonse de Lamartine.", "In 1857, an army colonel hoped that railways might improve the lot of \"populations two or three centuries behind their fellows\" and eliminate \"the savage instincts born of isolation and misery\".", "Consequently, France built a centralized system that radiated from Paris (plus in the south some lines that cut east to west).", "This design was intended to achieve political and cultural goals rather than maximize efficiency.", "After some consolidation, six companies controlled monopolies of their regions, subject to close control by the government in terms of fares, finances, and even minute technical details.The central government Corps of Bridges, Waters and Forests brought in British engineers, handled much of the construction work, and provided engineering expertise and planning, land acquisition, and construction of permanent infrastructure such as track beds, bridges and tunnels.", "It also subsidized militarily necessary lines along the German border.", "Private operating companies provided management, hired labor, laid the tracks, and built and operated stations.", "They purchased and maintained the rolling stock—6,000 locomotives were in operation in 1880, which averaged 51,600 passengers a year or 21,200 tons of freight.", "Much of the equipment was imported from Britain and therefore did not stimulate machinery makers in France.Although starting the whole system at once was politically expedient, it delayed completion, and forced even more reliance on temporary experts brought in from Britain.", "Financing was also a problem.", "The solution was a narrow base of funding through the Rothschilds and the closed circles of the Paris Bourse, so France did not develop the same kind of national stock exchange that flourished in London and New York.", "The system did help modernize the parts of rural France it reached, but it did not help create local industrial centers.", "Critics such as Émile Zola complained that it never overcame the corruption of the political system, but rather contributed to it.The railways probably helped the industrial revolution in France by facilitating a national market for raw materials, wines, cheeses, and imported manufactured products.", "Yet the goals set by the French for their railway system were moralistic, political, and military rather than economic.", "As a result, the freight trains were shorter and less heavily loaded than those in such rapidly industrializing nations such as Britain, Belgium or Germany.", "Other infrastructure needs in rural France, such as better roads and canals, were neglected because of the expense of the railways, so it seems likely that there were net negative effects in areas not served by the trains.=== Third Republic and the Belle Époque: 1871–1914 ======= Third Republic and the Paris Commune ====Following the defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71), German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck proposed harsh terms for peace – including the German occupation of the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine.", "A new French National Assembly was elected to consider the German terms for peace.", "Elected on 8 February 1871, this new National Assembly was composed of 650 deputies.Sitting in Bordeaux, the French National Assembly established the Third Republic.", "However, 400 members of the new Assembly were monarchists.", "(Léon Gambetta was one of the \"non-monarchist\" Republicans that were elected to the new National Assembly from Paris.)", "On 16 February 1871, Adolphe Thiers was elected as the chief executive of the new Republic.", "Because of the revolutionary unrest in Paris, the centre of the Thiers government was located at Versailles.A barricade in the Paris Commune, 18 March 1871.In late 1870 to early 1871, the workers of Paris rose up in premature and unsuccessful small-scale uprisings.", "The National Guard within Paris had become increasingly restive and defiant of the police, the army chief of staff, and even their own National Guard commanders.", "Thiers immediately recognized a revolutionary situation and, on 18 March 1871, sent regular army units to take control of artillery that belonged to the National Guard of Paris.", "Some soldiers of the regular army units fraternized with the rebels and the revolt escalated.The barricades went up just as in 1830 and 1848.The Paris Commune was born.", "Once again the (Town Hall) became the center of attention for the people in revolt; this time the became the seat of the revolutionary government.", "Other cities in France followed the example of the Paris Commune, as in Lyon, Marseille, and Toulouse.", "All of the Communes outside Paris were promptly crushed by the Thiers government.An election on 26 March 1871 in Paris produced a government based on the working class.", "Louis Auguste Blanqui was in prison but a majority of delegates were his followers, called \"Blanquists\".", "The minority comprised anarchists and followers of Pierre Joseph Proudhon (1809–1855); as anarchists, the \"Proudhonists\" were supporters of limited or no government and wanted the revolution to follow an ''ad hoc'' course with little or no planning.", "Analysis of arrests records indicate the typical communard was opposed to the military, the clerics, and the rural aristocrats.", "He saw the bourgeoisie as the enemy.After two months the French army moved in to retake Paris, with pitched battles fought in working-class neighbourhoods.", "Hundreds were executed in front of the Communards' Wall, while thousands of others were marched to Versailles for trials.", "The number killed during the \"Bloody Week\" () of 21–28 May 1871 was perhaps 30,000, with as many as 50,000 later executed or imprisoned; 7,000 were exiled to New Caledonia; thousands more escaped to exile.", "The government won approval for its actions in a national referendum with 321,000 in favor and only 54,000 opposed.==== Political battles ====The Republican government next had to confront counterrevolutionaries who rejected the legacy of the 1789 Revolution.", "Both the Legitimists (embodied in the person of Henri, Count of Chambord, grandson of Charles X) and the Orleanist royalists rejected republicanism, which they saw as an extension of modernity and atheism, breaking with France's traditions.", "This conflict became increasingly sharp in 1873, when Thiers himself was censured by the National Assembly as not being \"sufficiently conservative\" and resigned to make way for Marshal Patrice MacMahon as the new president.", "Amidst the rumors of right-wing intrigue and/or coups by the Bonapartists or Bourbons in 1874, the National Assembly set about drawing up a new constitution that would be acceptable to all parties.The new constitution provided for universal male suffrage and called for a bicameral legislature, consisting of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies.", "The initial republic was in effect led by pro-royalists, but republicans (the \"Radicals\") and Bonapartists scrambled for power.", "The first election under this new constitution – held in early 1876 – resulted in a republican victory, with 363 republicans elected as opposed to 180 monarchists.", "However, 75 of the monarchists elected to the new Chamber of Deputies were Bonapartists.The possibility of a coup d'état was an ever-present factor.", "Léon Gambetta chose moderate Armand Dufaure as premier but he failed to form a government.", "MacMahon next chose conservative Jules Simon.", "He too failed, setting the stage for the 16 May 1877 crisis, which led to the resignation of MacMahon.", "A restoration of the king now seemed likely, and royalists agreed on Henri, Count of Chambord, the grandson of Charles X.", "He insisted on the impossible demand that France abandons its republican tricolour flag and returns to the use of the royalist ''fleur de lys'' flag, which ruined the royalist cause.", "Its turn never came again as the Orleanist faction rallied themselves to the Republic, behind Adolphe Thiers.", "The new President of the Republic in 1879 was Jules Grevy.", "In January 1886, Georges Boulanger became Minister of War.", "Georges Clemanceau was instrumental in obtaining this appointment for Boulanger.", "This was the start of the Boulanger era and another time of threats of a coup.The Legitimist (Bourbon) faction mostly left politics but one segment founded ''L'Action Française'' in 1898, during the Dreyfus Affair; it became an influential movement throughout the 1930s, in particular among the conservative Catholic intellectuals.==== Solidarism and Radical Party ====While liberalism was individualistic and laissez-faire in Britain and the United States, in France liberalism was based instead on a solidaristic conception of society, following the theme of the French Revolution, (\"liberty, equality, fraternity\").", "In the Third Republic, especially between 1895 and 1914 \"solidarism\" was the guiding concept of a liberal social policy, whose chief champions were the prime ministers Leon Bourgeois (1895–96) and Pierre Waldeck-Rousseau (1899–1902).The period from 1879 to 1914 saw power mostly in the hands of moderate republicans and \"radicals\"; they avoided state ownership of industry and had a middle class political base.", "Their main policies were governmental intervention (financed by a progressive income tax) to provide a social safety net.", "They opposed church schools.", "They expanded educational opportunities and promoted consumers' and producers' cooperatives.", "In terms of foreign policy they supported the League of Nations, compulsory arbitration, controlled disarmament, and economic sanctions to keep the peace.The French welfare state expanded when it tried to followed some of Bismarck's policies, starting with relief for the poor.==== Foreign policy ====French foreign policy from 1871 to 1914 showed a dramatic transformation from a humiliated power with no friends and not much of an empire in 1871, to the centerpiece of the European alliance system in 1914, with a flourishing empire that was second in size only to Great Britain.", "Although religion was a hotly contested matter and domestic politics, the Catholic Church made missionary work and church building a specialty in the colonies.", "Most French ignored foreign policy; its issues were a low priority in politics.French foreign policy was based on a fear of Germany—whose larger size and fast-growing economy could not be matched—combined with a revanchism that demanded the return of Alsace and Lorraine.", "At the same time, in the midst of the Scramble for Africa, French and British interest in Africa came into conflict.", "The most dangerous episode was the Fashoda Incident of 1898 when French troops tried to claim an area in the Southern Sudan, and a British force purporting to be acting in the interests of the Khedive of Egypt arrived.", "Under heavy pressure the French withdrew securing Anglo-Egyptian control over the area.", "The status quo was recognised by an agreement between the two states acknowledging British control over Egypt, while France became the dominant power in Morocco, but France suffered a humiliating defeat overall.The Suez Canal, initially built by the French, became a joint British-French project in 1875, as both saw it as vital to maintaining their influence and empires in Asia.", "In 1882, ongoing civil disturbances in Egypt prompted Britain to intervene, extending a hand to France.", "France's leading expansionist Jules Ferry was out of office, and the government allowed Britain to take effective control of Egypt.France had colonies in Asia and looked for alliances and found in Japan a possible ally.", "During his visit to France, Iwakura Tomomi asked for French assistance in reforming Japan.", "French military missions were sent to Japan in 1872–1880, in 1884–1889 and the last one much later in 1918–1919 to help modernize the Japanese army.", "Conflicts between the Chinese Emperor and the French Republic over Indochina climaxed during the Sino-French War (1884–1885).", "Admiral Courbet destroyed the Chinese fleet anchored at Fuzhou.", "The treaty ending the war, put France in a protectorate over northern and central Vietnam, which it divided into Tonkin and Annam.In an effort to isolate Germany, France went to great pains to woo Russia and Great Britain, first by means of the Franco-Russian Alliance of 1894, then the 1904 Entente Cordiale with Great Britain, and finally the Anglo-Russian Entente in 1907, which became the Triple Entente.", "This alliance with Britain and Russia against Germany and Austria eventually led Russia and Britain to enter World War I as France's Allies.==== Dreyfus Affair ====Distrust of Germany, faith in the army, and native French antisemitism combined to make the Dreyfus Affair (the unjust trial and condemnation of a Jewish military officer for \"treason\" in 1894) a political scandal of the utmost gravity.", "For a decade, the nation was divided between \"dreyfusards\" and \"anti-dreyfusards\", and far-right Catholic agitators inflamed the situation even when proofs of Dreyfus's innocence came to light.", "The writer Émile Zola published an impassioned editorial on the injustice (''J'Accuse...!'')", "and was himself condemned by the government for libel.", "Dreyfus was finally pardoned in 1906.The upshot was a weakening of the conservative element in politics.", "Moderates were deeply divided over the Dreyfus Affair, and this allowed the Radicals to hold power from 1899 until World War I.", "During this period, crises like the threatened \"Boulangist\" coup d'état (1889) showed the fragility of the republic.The Eiffel Tower under construction in July 1888.==== Religion 1870–1924 ====Throughout the lifetime of the Third Republic there were battles over the status of the Catholic Church.", "The French clergy and bishops were closely associated with the Monarchists and many of its hierarchy were from noble families.", "Republicans were based in the anticlerical middle class who saw the Church's alliance with the monarchists as a political threat to republicanism, and a threat to the modern spirit of progress.", "The Republicans detested the church for its political and class affiliations; for them, the church represented outmoded traditions, superstition and monarchism.", "The Republicans were strengthened by Protestant and Jewish support.", "Numerous laws were passed to weaken the Catholic Church.", "In 1879, priests were excluded from the administrative committees of hospitals and of boards of charity.", "In 1880, new measures were directed against the religious congregations.", "From 1880 to 1890 came the substitution of lay women for nuns in many hospitals.", "Napoleon's 1801 Concordat continued in operation but in 1881, the government cut off salaries to priests it disliked.The 1882 school laws of Republican Jules Ferry set up a national system of public schools that taught strict puritanical morality but no religion.", "For a while privately funded Catholic schools were tolerated.", "Civil marriage became compulsory, divorce was introduced and chaplains were removed from the army.When Leo XIII became pope in 1878 he tried to calm Church-State relations.", "In 1884, he told French bishops not to act in a hostile manner to the State.", "In 1892, he issued an encyclical advising French Catholics to rally to the Republic and defend the Church by participating in Republican politics.", "This attempt at improving the relationship failed.Deep-rooted suspicions remained on both sides and were inflamed by the Dreyfus Affair.", "Catholics were for the most part anti-dreyfusard.", "The Assumptionists published antisemitic and anti-republican articles in their journal ''La Croix''.", "This infuriated Republican politicians, who were eager to take revenge.", "Often they worked in alliance with Masonic lodges.", "The Waldeck-Rousseau Ministry (1899–1902) and the Combes Ministry (1902–1905) fought with the Vatican over the appointment of bishops.", "Chaplains were removed from naval and military hospitals (1903–04), and soldiers were ordered not to frequent Catholic clubs (1904).", "Combes as Prime Minister in 1902, was determined to thoroughly defeat Catholicism.", "He closed down all parochial schools in France.", "Then he had parliament reject authorisation of all religious orders.", "This meant that all 54 orders were dissolved and about 20,000 members immediately left France, many for Spain.In 1905 the 1801 Concordat was abrogated; Church and state were separated.", "All Church property was confiscated.", "Public worship was given over to associations of Catholic laymen who controlled access to churches.", "In practice, Masses and rituals continued.", "The Church was badly hurt and lost half its priests.", "In the long run, however, it gained autonomy—for the State no longer had a voice in choosing bishops and Gallicanism was dead.", "Conservative Catholics regained control of Parliament in 1919 and reversed most of the penalties imposed on the Church, and gave bishops back control of Church lands and buildings.", "The new pope was eager to assist the changes, and diplomatic relations were restored with the Vatican.", "However, the long-term secularization of French society continued, as most people only attended ceremonies for such major events as birth, marriage and funerals.==== ====The end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century was referred to as the because of peace, prosperity and the cultural innovations of Monet, Bernhardt, and Debussy, and popular amusements – cabaret, can-can, the cinema, and new art movements such as Impressionism and Art Nouveau.In 1889, the showed off newly modernised Paris to the world, which could look over it all from atop the new Eiffel Tower.", "Meant to last only a few decades, the tower was never removed and became France's most iconic landmark.France was nevertheless a nation divided internally on notions of ideology, religion, class, regionalisms, and money.", "On the international front, France came repeatedly to the brink of war with the other imperial powers, such as the 1898 Fashoda Incident with Great Britain over East Africa." ], [ "Colonial empire", "French empire, 17th-20th centuries.Dark blue = Second Empire 1830–1960.The second colonial empire constituted the overseas colonies, protectorates and mandate territories that came under French rule from the 16th century onward.", "A distinction is generally made between the \"first colonial empire\", that existed until 1814, by which time most of it had been lost, and the \"second colonial empire\", which began with the conquest of Algiers in 1830.The second colonial empire came to an end after the loss in later wars of Vietnam (1954) and Algeria (1962), and relatively peaceful decolonizations elsewhere after 1960.France lost wars to Britain that stripped away nearly all of its colonies by 1765.France rebuilt a new empire mostly after 1850, concentrating chiefly in Africa as well as Indochina and the South Pacific.", "Republicans, at first hostile to empire, only became supportive when Germany after 1880 started to build their own colonial empire.", "As it developed, the new empire took on roles of trade with France, especially supplying raw materials and purchasing manufactured items as well as lending prestige to the motherland and spreading French civilization and language and the Catholic religion.", "It also provided manpower in the World Wars.It became a moral mission to lift the world up to French standards by bringing Christianity and French culture.", "In 1884, the leading proponent of colonialism, Jules Ferry, declared; \"The higher races have a right over the lower races, they have a duty to civilize the inferior races.\"", "Full citizenship rights – ''assimilation'' – were offered.", "In reality the French settlers were given full rights and the natives given very limited rights.", "Apart from Algeria few settlers permanently settled in its colonies.", "Even in Algeria, the \"Pied-Noir\" (French settlers) always remained a small minority.At its apex, it was one of the largest empires in history.", "Including metropolitan France, the total amount of land under French sovereignty reached in 1920, with a population of 110 million people in 1939.In World War II, the Free French used the overseas colonies as bases from which they fought to liberate France.", "\"In an effort to restore its world-power status after the humiliation of defeat and occupation, France was eager to maintain its overseas empire at the end of the Second World War.\"", "Only two days after the defeat of Nazi Germany, France suppressed Algerian calls for independence, who were celebrating VE day, ending in a massacre, which killed at least 30,000 Muslims.", "However, gradually anti-colonial movements successfully challenged European authority.", "The French Constitution of 27 October 1946 (Fourth Republic), established the French Union which endured until 1958.Newer remnants of the colonial empire were integrated into France as overseas departments and territories within the French Republic.", "These now total about 1% of the pre-1939 colonial area, with 2.7 million people living in them in 2013.By the 1970s, the last \"vestiges of empire held little interest for the French.", "...", "Except for the traumatic decolonization of Algeria, however, what is remarkable is how few long-lasting effects on France the giving up of empire entailed.\"" ], [ "1914–1945", "=== Population trends ===The population held steady from 40.7 million in 1911, to 41.5 million in 1936.The sense that the population was too small, especially in regard to the rapid growth of more powerful Germany, was a common theme in the early twentieth century.", "Natalist policies were proposed in the 1930s, and implemented in the 1940s.France experienced a baby boom after 1945; it reversed a long-term record of low birth rates.", "In addition, there was a steady immigration, especially from former French colonies in North Africa.", "The population grew from 41 million in 1946, to 50 million in 1966, and 60 million by 1990.The farming population declined sharply, from 35% of the workforce in 1945 to under 5% by 2000.By 2004, France had the second highest birthrate in Europe, behind only Ireland.=== World War I ===A French bayonet charge in 1913.The 114th infantry in Paris, 14 July 1917.France did not expect war in 1914, but when it came in August the entire nation rallied enthusiastically for two years.", "It specialized in sending infantry forward again and again, only to be stopped again and again by German artillery, trenches, barbed wire and machine guns, with horrific casualty rates.", "Despite the loss of major industrial districts France produced an enormous output of munitions that armed both the French and the American armies.", "By 1917 the infantry was on the verge of mutiny, with a widespread sense that it was now the American turn to storm the German lines.", "But they rallied and defeated the greatest German offensive, which came in spring 1918, then rolled over the collapsing invaders.", "November 1918 brought a surge of pride and unity, and an unrestrained demand for revenge.Preoccupied with internal problems, France paid little attention to foreign policy in the 1911–14 period, although it did extend military service to three years from two over strong Socialist objections in 1913.The rapidly escalating Balkan crisis of 1914 caught France unaware, and it played only a small role in the coming of World War I.", "The Serbian crisis triggered a complex set of military alliances between European states, causing most of the continent, including France, to be drawn into war within a few short weeks.", "Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia in late July, triggering Russian mobilization.", "On 1 August both Germany and France ordered mobilization.", "Germany was much better prepared militarily than any of the other countries involved, including France.", "The German Empire, as an ally of Austria, declared war on Russia.", "France was allied with Russia and so was ready to commit to war against the German Empire.", "On 3 August Germany declared war on France, and sent its armies through neutral Belgium.", "Britain entered the war on 4 August, and started sending in troops on 7 August.", "Italy, although tied to Germany, remained neutral and then joined the Allies in 1915.Germany's \"Schlieffen Plan\" was to quickly defeat the French.", "They captured Brussels, Belgium by 20 August and soon had captured a large portion of northern France.", "The original plan was to continue southwest and attack Paris from the west.", "By early September they were within of Paris, and the French government had relocated to Bordeaux.", "The Allies finally stopped the advance northeast of Paris at the Marne River (5–12 September 1914).The war now became a stalemate – the famous \"Western Front\" was fought largely in France and was characterized by very little movement despite extremely large and violent battles, often with new and more destructive military technology.", "On the Western Front, the small improvised trenches of the first few months rapidly grew deeper and more complex, gradually becoming vast areas of interlocking defensive works.", "The land war quickly became dominated by the muddy, bloody stalemate of Trench warfare, a form of war in which both opposing armies had static lines of defense.", "The war of movement quickly turned into a war of position.", "Neither side advanced much, but both sides suffered hundreds of thousands of casualties.", "German and Allied armies produced essentially a matched pair of trench lines from the Swiss border in the south to the North Sea coast of Belgium.", "Meanwhile, large swaths of northeastern France came under the brutal control of German occupiers.Trench warfare prevailed on the Western Front from September 1914 until March 1918.Famous battles in France include Battle of Verdun (spanning 10 months from 21 February to 18 December 1916), Battle of the Somme (1 July to 18 November 1916), and five separate conflicts called the Battle of Ypres (from 1914 to 1918).After Socialist leader Jean Jaurès, a pacifist, was assassinated at the start of the war, the French socialist movement abandoned its antimilitarist positions and joined the national war effort.", "Prime Minister René Viviani called for unity—for a \"Union sacrée\" (\"Sacred Union\")--Which was a wartime truce between the right and left factions that had been fighting bitterly.", "France had few dissenters.", "However, war-weariness was a major factor by 1917, even reaching the army.", "The soldiers were reluctant to attack; Mutiny was a factor as soldiers said it was best to wait for the arrival of millions of Americans.", "The soldiers were protesting not just the futility of frontal assaults in the face of German machine guns but also degraded conditions at the front lines and at home, especially infrequent leaves, poor food, the use of African and Asian colonials on the home front, and concerns about the welfare of their wives and children.After defeating Russia in 1917, Germany now could concentrate on the Western Front, and planned an all-out assault in the spring of 1918, but had to do it before the very rapidly growing American army played a role.", "In March 1918 Germany launched its offensive and by May had reached the Marne and was again close to Paris.", "However, in the Second Battle of the Marne (15 July to 6 August 1918), the Allied line held.", "The Allies then shifted to the offensive.", "The Germans, out of reinforcements, were overwhelmed day after day and the high command saw it was hopeless.", "Austria and Turkey collapsed, and the Kaiser's government fell.", "Germany signed \"The Armistice\" that ended the fighting effective 11 November 1918, \"the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month.", "\"=== Wartime losses ===The war was fought in large part on French soil, with 3.4 million French dead including civilians, and four times as many military casualties.", "The economy was hurt by the German invasion of major industrial areas in the northeast.", "While the occupied area in 1913 contained only 14% of France's industrial workers, it produced 58% of the steel, and 40% of the coal.", "In 1914, the government implemented a war economy with controls and rationing.", "By 1915 the war economy went into high gear, as millions of French women and colonial men replaced the civilian roles of many of the 3 million soldiers.", "Considerable assistance came with the influx of American food, money and raw materials in 1917.This war economy would have important reverberations after the war, as it would be a first breach of liberal theories of non-interventionism.", "The damages caused by the war amounted to about 113% of the GDP of 1913, chiefly the destruction of productive capital and housing.", "The national debt rose from 66% of GDP in 1913 to 170% in 1919, reflecting the heavy use of bond issues to pay for the war.", "Inflation was severe, with the franc losing over half its value against the British pound.The richest families were hurt, as the top 1 percent saw their share of wealth drop from about 60% in 1914 to 36% in 1935, then plunge to 20 percent in 1970 to the present.", "A great deal of physical and financial damage was done during the world wars, foreign investments were cashed in to pay for the wars, the Russian Bolsheviks expropriated large-scale investments, postwar inflation demolished cash holdings, stocks and bonds plunged during the Great Depression, and progressive taxes ate away at accumulated wealth.=== Postwar settlement ===The Council of Four (from left to right): David Lloyd George, Vittorio Emanuele Orlando, Georges Clemenceau, and Woodrow Wilson in Versailles.Peace terms were imposed by the Big Four, meeting in Paris in 1919: David Lloyd George of Britain, Vittorio Orlando of Italy, Georges Clemenceau of France, and Woodrow Wilson of the United States.", "Clemenceau demanded the harshest terms and won most of them in the Treaty of Versailles in 1919.Germany was forced to admit its guilt for starting the war, and was permanently weakened militarily.", "Germany had to pay huge sums in war reparations to the Allies (who in turn had large loans from the U.S. to pay off).France regained Alsace-Lorraine and occupied the German industrial Saar Basin, a coal and steel region.", "The German African colonies were put under League of Nations mandates, and were administered by France and other victors.", "From the remains of the Ottoman Empire, France acquired the Mandate of Syria and the Mandate of Lebanon.", "French Marshal Ferdinand Foch wanted a peace that would never allow Germany to be a threat to France again, but after the Treaty of Versailles was signed he said, \"This is not a peace.", "It is an armistice for 20 years.", "\"=== Interwar years: Foreign policy and Great Depression ===French cavalry entering Essen during the Occupation of the Ruhr.France was part of the Allied force that occupied the Rhineland following the Armistice.", "Foch supported Poland in the Greater Poland Uprising and in the Polish–Soviet War and France also joined Spain during the Rif War.", "From 1925 until his death in 1932, Aristide Briand, as Prime Minister during five short intervals, directed French foreign policy, using his diplomatic skills and sense of timing to forge friendly relations with Weimar Germany as the basis of a genuine peace within the framework of the League of Nations.", "He realized France could neither contain the much larger Germany by itself nor secure effective support from Britain or the League.As a response to the Weimar Republic's default on its reparations in the aftermath of World War I, France occupied the industrial region of the Ruhr as a means of ensuring German payments.", "The intervention was a failure, and France accepted the international solution to the reparations issues, as expressed in the Dawes Plan and the Young Plan.Politically, the 1920s was dominated by the Right, with right-wing coalitions in 1919, 1926, and 1928, and later in 1934 and 1938.In the 1920s, France established an elaborate system of border defences called the Maginot Line, designed to fight off any German attack.", "The Line did not extend into Belgium, which Germany would exploit in 1940.Military alliances were signed with weak powers in 1920–21, called the \"Little Entente\".The Great Depression affected France a bit later than other countries, hitting around 1931.While the GDP in the 1920s grew at the very strong rate of 4.43% per year, the 1930s rate fell to only 0.63%.", "The depression was relatively mild: unemployment peaked under 5%, the fall in production was at most 20% below the 1929 output; there was no banking crisis.In contrast to the mild economic upheaval, the political upheaval was enormous.", "Socialist Leon Blum, leading the Popular Front, brought together Socialists and Radicals to become Prime Minister from 1936 to 1937; he was the first Jew and the first Socialist to lead France.", "The Communists in the Chamber of Deputies voted to keep the government in power, and generally supported the government's economic policies, but rejected its foreign policies.", "The Popular Front passed numerous labor reforms, which increased wages, cut working hours to 40 hours with overtime illegal and provided many lesser benefits to the working class such as mandatory two-week paid vacations.", "However, renewed inflation cancelled the gains in wage rates, unemployment did not fall, and economic recovery was very slow.", "The Popular Front failed in economics, foreign policy, and long-term stability: \"Disappointment and failure was the legacy of the Popular Front.\"", "At first the Popular Front created enormous excitement and expectations on the left—including very large scale sitdown strikes—but in the end it failed to live up to its promise.", "However, Socialists would later take inspiration from the attempts of the Popular Front to set up a welfare state.The government joined Britain in establishing an arms embargo during the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939).", "Blum rejected support for the Spanish Republicans because of his fear that civil war might spread to deeply divided France.", "Financial support in military cooperation with Poland was also a policy.", "The government nationalized arms suppliers, and dramatically increased its program of rearming the French military in a last-minute catch-up with the Germans.Appeasement of Germany, in cooperation with Britain, was the policy after 1936, as France sought peace even in the face of Hitler's escalating demands.", "Prime Minister Édouard Daladier refused to go to war against Germany and Italy without British support as Neville Chamberlain wanted to save peace at Munich in 1938.=== World War II ===German soldiers on parade marching past the Arc de Triomphe.Vichy police escorting French Jewish citizens for deportation during the Marseille roundup, January 1943.Germany's invasion of Poland in 1939 finally caused France and Britain to declare war against Germany.", "But the Allies did not launch massive assaults and instead kept a defensive stance: this was called the Phoney War in Britain or ''Drôle de guerre'' — the funny sort of war — in France.", "It did not prevent the German army from conquering Poland in a matter of weeks with its innovative Blitzkrieg tactics, also helped by the Soviet Union's attack on Poland.When Germany had its hands free for an attack in the west, the Battle of France began in May 1940, and the same Blitzkrieg tactics proved just as devastating there.", "The Wehrmacht bypassed the Maginot Line by marching through the Ardennes forest.", "A second German force was sent into Belgium and the Netherlands to act as a diversion to this main thrust.", "In six weeks of savage fighting the French lost 90,000 men.Many civilians sought refuge by taking to the roads of France: some 2 million refugees from Belgium and the Netherlands were joined by between 8 and 10 million French civilians, representing a quarter of the French population, all heading south and west.", "This movement may well have been the largest single movement of civilians in history prior to the Partition of India in 1947.Paris fell to the Germans on 14 June 1940, but not before the British Expeditionary Force was evacuated from Dunkirk, along with many French soldiers.Vichy France was established on 10 July 1940 to govern the unoccupied part of France and its colonies.", "It was led by Philippe Pétain, the aging war hero of the First World War.", "Petain's representatives signed a harsh Armistice on 22 June 1940 whereby Germany kept most of the French army in camps in Germany, and France had to pay out large sums in gold and food supplies.", "Germany occupied three-fifths of France's territory, leaving the rest in the southeast to the new Vichy government.", "However, in practice, most local government was handled by the traditional French officialdom.", "In November 1942 all of Vichy France was finally occupied by German forces.", "Vichy continued in existence but it was closely supervised by the Germans.The Vichy regime sought to collaborate with Germany, keeping peace in France to avoid further occupation although at the expense of personal freedom and individual safety.", "Some 76,000 Jews were deported during the German occupation, often with the help of the Vichy authorities, and murdered in the Nazis' extermination camps.==== Women in Vichy France ====The 2 million French soldiers held as POWs and forced laborers in Germany throughout the war were not at risk of death in combat, but the anxieties of separation for their 800,000 wives were high.", "The government provided a modest allowance, but one in ten became prostitutes to support their families.", "It gave women a key symbolic role to carry out the national regeneration.", "It used propaganda, women's organizations, and legislation to promote maternity, patriotic duty, and female submission to marriage, home, and children's education.", "Conditions were very difficult for housewives, as food was short as well as most necessities.", "Divorce laws were made much more stringent, and restrictions were placed on the employment of married women.", "Family allowances that had begun in the 1930s were continued, and became a vital lifeline for many families; it was a monthly cash bonus for having more children.", "In 1942, the birth rate started to rise, and by 1945 it was higher than it had been for a century.==== Resistance ====General Charles de Gaulle in London declared himself on BBC radio to be the head of a rival government in exile, and gathered the Free French Forces around him, finding support in some French colonies and recognition from Britain but not the United States.", "After the Attack on Mers-el-Kébir in 1940, where the British fleet destroyed a large part of the French navy, still under command of Vichy France, that killed about 1,100 sailors, there was nationwide indignation and a feeling of distrust in the French forces, leading to the events of the Battle of Dakar.", "Eventually, several important French ships joined the Free French Forces.", "The United States maintained diplomatic relations with Vichy and avoided recognition of de Gaulle's claim to be the one and only government of France.", "Churchill, caught between the U.S. and de Gaulle, tried to find a compromise.Within France proper, the organized underground grew as the Vichy regime resorted to more strident policies in order to fulfill the enormous demands of the Nazis and the eventual decline of Nazi Germany became more obvious.", "They formed the Resistance.", "The most famous figure of the French resistance was Jean Moulin, sent in France by de Gaulle in order to link all resistance movements; he was captured and tortured by Klaus Barbie (the \"butcher of Lyon\").", "Increasing repression culminated in the complete destruction and extermination of the village of Oradour-sur-Glane at the height of the Battle of Normandy.", "At 2.15 p.m. on the afternoon of 10 June 1944, a company of the 2nd SS Panzer Division, 'Das Reich', entered Oradour-sur-Glane.", "They herded most of its population into barns, garages and the church, and then massacred 642 men, women and children, all of whom were civilians.A Resistance fighter during street fighting in 1944.In 1953, 21 men went on trial in Bordeaux for the Oradour killings.", "Fourteen of the accused proved to be French citizens of Alsace.", "Following convictions, all but one were pardoned by the French government.On 6 June 1944 the Allies landed in Normandy (without a French component); on 15 August Allied forces landing in Provence, this time they included 260,000 men of the French First Army.", "The German lines finally broke, and they fled back to Germany while keeping control of the major ports.", "Allied forces liberated France and the Free French were given the honor of liberating Paris in late August 1944.The French army recruited French Forces of the Interior (de Gaulle's formal name for resistance fighters) to continue the war until the final defeat of Germany; this army numbered 300,000 men by September 1944 and 370,000 by spring 1945.The Vichy regime disintegrated.", "An interim Provisional Government of the French Republic was quickly put into place by de Gaulle.", "The ''gouvernement provisoire de la République française'', or GPRF, operated under a ''tripartisme'' alliance of communists, socialists, and democratic republicans.", "The GPRF governed France from 1944 to 1946, when it was replaced by the French Fourth Republic.", "Tens of thousands of collaborators were executed without trial.", "The new government declared the Vichy laws unconstitutional and illegal, and elected new local governments.", "Women gained the right to vote." ], [ "Since 1945", "The political scene in 1944–45 was controlled by the Resistance, but it had numerous factions.", "Charles de Gaulle and the Free France element had been based outside France, but now came to dominate, in alliance with the Socialists, the Christian Democrats (MRP), and what remained of the Radical party.", "The Communists had largely dominated the Resistance inside France, but cooperated closely with the government in 1944–45, on orders from the Kremlin.", "There was a general consensus that important powers that had been an open collaboration with the Germans should be nationalized, such as Renault automobiles and the major newspapers.", "A new Social Security system was called for, as well as important new concessions to the labour unions.", "Unions themselves were divided among communist, Socialist, and Christian Democrat factions.", "Frustrated by his inability to control all the dominant forces, de Gaulle resigned early in 1946.On 13 October 1946, a new constitution established the Fourth Republic.", "The Fourth Republic consisted of a parliamentary government controlled by a series of coalitions.", "France attempted to regain control of French Indochina but was defeated by the Viet Minh in 1954.Only months later, France faced another anti-colonialist conflict in Algeria and the debate over whether or not to keep control of Algeria, then home to over one million European settlers, wracked the country and nearly led to a coup and civil war.", "Charles de Gaulle managed to keep the country together while taking steps to end the war.", "The Algerian War was concluded with the Évian Accords in 1962 which led to Algerian independence.The June 1951 elections saw a re-emergence of the right, and until June 1954 France was governed by a succession of centre-right coalitions.=== Economic recovery ===Wartime damage to the economy was severe, and apart from gold reserves, France had inadequate resources to recover on its own.", "The transportation system was in total shambles — the Allies had bombed out the railways and the bridges, and the Germans had destroyed the port facilities.", "Energy was in extremely short supply, with very low stocks of coal and oil.", "Imports of raw materials were largely cut off, so most factories shut down.", "The invaders had stripped most of the valuable industrial tools for German factories.", "Discussions with the United States for emergency aid dragged on, with repeated postponements on both sides.", "Meanwhile, several million French prisoners of war and forced labourers were being returned home, with few jobs and little food available for them.", "The plan was for 20 percent of German reparations to be paid to France, but Germany was in much worse shape even in France, and in no position to pay.After de Gaulle left office in January 1946, the diplomatic logjam was broken in terms of American aid.", "The U.S. Army shipped in food, from 1944 to 1946, and U.S. Treasury loans and cash grants were disbursed from 1945 until 1947, with Marshall Plan aid continuing until 1951.France received additional aid from 1951 to 1955 in order to help the country rearm and prosecute its war in Indochina.", "Apart from low-interest loans, the other funds were grants that did not involve repayment.", "The debts left over from World War I, whose payment had been suspended since 1931, were renegotiated in the Blum-Byrnes agreement of 1946.The United States forgave all $2.8 billion in debt from the First World War, and gave France a new loan of $650 million.", "In return, French negotiator Jean Monnet set out the French five-year plan for recovery and development.", "The Marshall Plan gave France $2.3 billion with no repayment.", "The total of all American grants and credits to France from 1946 to 1953, amounted to $4.9 billion.A central feature of the Marshall Plan was to encourage international trade, reduce tariffs, lower barriers, and modernize French management.", "The Marshall Plan set up intensive tours of American industry.", "France sent 500 missions with 4700 businessmen and experts to tour American factories, farms, stores and offices.", "They were especially impressed with the prosperity of American workers, and how they could purchase an inexpensive new automobile for nine months work, compared to 30 months in France.", "Some French businesses resisted Americanization, but the most profitable, especially chemicals, oil, electronics, and instrumentation, seized upon the opportunity to attract American investments and build a larger market.", "The U.S. insisted on opportunities for Hollywood films, and the French film industry responded with new life.Although the economic situation in France was grim in 1945, resources did exist and the economy regained normal growth by the 1950s.", "France managed to regain its international status thanks to a successful production strategy, a demographic spurt, and technical and political innovations.", "Conditions varied from firm to firm.", "Some had been destroyed or damaged, nationalized or requisitioned, but the majority carried on, sometimes working harder and more efficiently than before the war.", "Industries were reorganized on a basis that ranged from consensual (electricity) to conflictual (machine tools), therefore producing uneven results.", "Despite strong American pressure through the ERP, there was little change in the organization and content of the training for French industrial managers.", "This was mainly due to the reticence of the existing institutions and the struggle among different economic and political interest groups for control over efforts to improve the further training of practitioners.The Monnet Plan provided a coherent framework for economic policy, and it was strongly supported by the Marshall Plan.", "It was inspired by moderate, Keynesian free-trade ideas rather than state control.", "Although relaunched in an original way, the French economy was about as productive as comparable West European countries.Claude Fohlen argues that:: in all then, France received 7000 million dollars, which were used either to finance the imports needed to get the economy off the ground again or to implement the Monnet Plan....Without the Marshall Plan, however, the economic recovery would have been a much slower process — particularly in France, where American aid provided funds for the Monnet Plan and thereby restored equilibrium in the equipment industries, which govern the recovery of consumption, and opened the way... To continuing further growth.", "This growth was affected by a third factor... decolonization.=== Vietnam and Algeria ===Pierre Mendès France, was a Radical party leader who was Prime Minister for eight months in 1954–55, working with the support of the Socialist and Communist parties.", "His top priority was ending the war in Indochina, which had already cost 92,000 dead 114,000 wounded and 28,000 captured in the wake of the humiliating defeat at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu.", "The United States had paid most of the costs of the war, but its support inside France had collapsed.", "Public opinion polls showed that in February 1954, only 7% of the French people wanted to continue the fight to keep Indochina out of the hands of the Communists, led by Ho Chi Minh and his Viet Minh movement.", "At the Geneva Conference in July 1954 Mendès France made a deal that gave the Viet Minh control of Vietnam north of the seventeenth parallel, and allowed France to pull out all its forces.", "That left South Vietnam standing alone.", "However, the United States moved in and provided large-scale financial military and economic support for South Vietnam.", "Mendès-France next came to an agreement with Habib Bourguiba, the nationalist leader in Tunisia, for the independence of that colony by 1956, and began discussions with the nationalist leaders in Morocco for a French withdrawal.With over a million European residents in Algeria (the Pieds-Noirs), France refused to grant independence until the Algerian War of Independence had turned into a French political and civil crisis.", "Algeria was given its independence in 1962, unleashing a massive wave of immigration from the former colony back to France of both Pied-Noir and Algerians who had supported France.=== Suez crisis (1956) ===Smoke rises from oil tanks beside the Suez Canal hit during the initial Anglo-French assault on Port Said, 5 November 1956.In 1956, another crisis struck French colonies, this time in Egypt.", "The Suez Canal, having been built by the French government, belonged to the French Republic and was operated by the Compagnie universelle du canal maritime de Suez.", "Great Britain had bought the Egyptian share from Isma'il Pasha and was the second-largest owner of the canal before the crisis.The Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the canal despite French and British opposition; he determined that a European response was unlikely.", "Great Britain and France attacked Egypt and built an alliance with Israel against Nasser.", "Israel attacked from the east, Britain from Cyprus and France from Algeria.", "Egypt, the most powerful Arab state of the time, was defeated in a mere few days.", "The Suez crisis caused an outcry of indignation in the entire Arab world and Saudi Arabia set an embargo on oil on France and Britain.", "The US President Dwight D. Eisenhower forced a ceasefire; Britain and Israel soon withdrew, leaving France alone in Egypt.", "Under strong international pressures, the French government ultimately evacuated its troops from Suez and largely disengaged from the Middle East.=== President de Gaulle, 1958–1969 ===The May 1958 seizure of power in Algiers by French army units and French settlers opposed to concessions in the face of Arab nationalist insurrection ripped apart the unstable Fourth Republic.", "The National Assembly brought De Gaulle back to power during the May 1958 crisis.", "He founded the Fifth Republic with a strengthened presidency, and he was elected in the latter role.", "He managed to keep France together while taking steps to end the war, much to the anger of the Pieds-Noirs (Frenchmen settled in Algeria) and the military; both had supported his return to power to maintain colonial rule.", "He granted independence to Algeria in 1962 and progressively to other French colonies.Proclaiming ''grandeur'' essential to the nature of France, de Gaulle initiated his \"Politics of Grandeur.\"", "He demanded complete autonomy for France in world affairs, which meant that major decisions could not be forced upon it by NATO, the European Community or anyone else.", "De Gaulle pursued a policy of \"national independence.\"", "He vetoed Britain's entry into the Common Market, fearing it might gain too great a voice on French affairs.", "While not officially abandoning NATO, he withdrew from its military integrated command, fearing that the United States had too much control over NATO.", "He launched an independent nuclear development program that made France the fourth nuclear power.", "France then adopted the dissuasion du faible au fort doctrine which meant a Soviet attack on France would only bring total destruction to both sides.De Gaulle and Germany's Konrad Adenauer in 1961.He restored cordial Franco-German relations in order to create a European counterweight between the \"Anglo-Saxon\" (American and British) and Soviet spheres of influence.", "De Gaulle openly criticised the U.S. intervention in Vietnam.", "He was angry at American economic power, especially what his Finance minister called the \"exorbitant privilege\" of the U.S. dollar.", "He went to Canada and proclaimed \"Vive le Québec libre\", the catchphrase for an independent Quebec.In May 1968, he appeared likely to lose power amidst widespread protests by students and workers, but persisted through the crisis with backing from the army.", "His party, denouncing radicalism, won the 1968 election with an increased majority in the Assembly.", "Nonetheless, de Gaulle resigned in 1969 after losing a referendum in which he proposed more decentralization.", "His ''War Memoirs'' became a classic of modern French literature and many French political parties and figures claim the gaullist heritage.=== Economic crises: 1970s-1980s ===By the late 1960s, France's economic growth, while strong, was beginning to lose steam.", "A global currency crisis meant a devaluation of the Franc against the West German Mark and the U.S. Dollar in 1968, which was one of the leading factors for the social upheaval of that year.", "Industrial policy was used to bolster French industries.The ''Trente Glorieuses'' era (1945–1975) ended with the worldwide 1973 oil crisis, which increased costs in energy and thus on production.", "Economic instability marked the Giscard d'Estaing government (1974–1981).", "Giscard turned to Prime Minister Raymond Barre in 1976, who advocated numerous complex, strict policies (\"Barre Plans\").", "The first Barre plan emerged on 22 September 1976, with a priority to stop inflation.", "It included a three-month price freeze; a reduction in the value-added tax; wage controls; salary controls; a reduction of the growth in the money supply; and increases in the income tax, automobile taxes, luxury taxes and bank rates.", "There were measures to restore the trade balance, and support the growth of the economy and employment.", "Oil imports, whose price had shot up, were limited.", "There was special aid to exports, and an action fund was set up to aid industries.", "There was increased financial aid to farmers, who were suffering from a drought, and for social security.", "The package was not very popular, but was pursued with vigour.Economic troubles continued into the early years of the presidency of François Mitterrand.", "A recession in the early 1980s led to the abandonment of ''dirigisme'' in favour of a more pragmatic approach to economic intervention.", "Growth resumed later in the decade, only to be slowed down by the economic depression of the early 1990s, which affected the Socialist Party.", "Liberalisation under Jacques Chirac in the late 1990s strengthened the economy.", "However, after 2005 the world economy stagnated and the 2008 global crisis and its effects in both the Eurozone and France itself dogged the conservative government of Nicolas Sarkozy, who lost reelection in 2012 against Socialist Francois Hollande.France's recent economic history has been less turbulent than in many other countries.", "The average income in France, after having been steady for a long time, increased elevenfold between 1700 and 1975, which constitutes a 0.9% growth rate per year, a rate which has been outdone almost every year since 1975: By the early Eighties, for instance, wages in France were on or slightly above the EEC average.=== 1989 to early 21st century ===After the fall of the USSR and the end of the Cold War potential menaces to mainland France appeared considerably reduced.", "France began reducing its nuclear capacities and conscription was abolished in 2001.In 1990, France, led by François Mitterrand, joined the short successful Gulf War against Iraq; the French participation to this war was called the Opération Daguet.Terrorism grew worse.", "In 1994, Air France Flight 8969 was hijacked by terrorists; they were captured.Conservative Jacques Chirac assumed office as president on 17 May 1995, after a campaign focused on the need to combat France's stubbornly high unemployment rate.", "While France continues to revere its rich history and independence, French leaders increasingly tie the future of France to the continued development of the European Union.", "In 1992, France ratified the Maastricht Treaty establishing the European Union.", "In 1999, the Euro was introduced to replace the French franc.", "Beyond membership in the European Union, France is also involved in many joint European projects such as Airbus, the Galileo positioning system and the Eurocorps.The French have stood among the strongest supporters of NATO and EU policy in the Balkans to prevent genocide in former Yugoslavia.", "French troops joined the 1999 NATO bombing of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.", "France has also been actively involved against international terrorism.", "In 2002, Alliance Base, an international Counterterrorist Intelligence Center, was secretly established in Paris.", "The same year France contributed to the toppling of the Taliban regime in Afghanistan, but it strongly rejected the 2003 invasion of Iraq, even threatening to veto the US proposed resolution.Emmanuel Macron and Germany's Angela Merkel in 2017.Jacques Chirac was reelected in 2002, mainly because his socialist rival Lionel Jospin was removed from the runoff by the right-wing candidate Jean-Marie Le Pen.", "Chirac was especially remembered as a fierce opponent of the U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003.Conservative Nicolas Sarkozy was elected and took office on 16 May 2007.The problem of high unemployment has yet to be resolved.", "Sarkozy was very actively involved in the military operation in Libya to oust the Gaddafi government in 2011.In 2012 election for president, Socialist François Hollande defeated Sarkozy's try for reelection.", "Hollande advocated a growth policy in contrast to the austerity policy advocated by Germany's Angela Merkel as a way of tackling the European sovereign debt crisis.", "In 2014, Hollande stood with Merkel and US President Obama in imposing sanctions on Russia for its actions against Ukraine.", "In December 2016, Hollande announced he will not seek re-election as president of France.In the 2017 election for president the winner was Emmanuel Macron, the founder of a new party \"La République En Marche!\".", "It declared itself above left and right.", "He called parliamentary elections that brought him the absolute majority of députés.", "He appointed a prime minister from the centre right, and ministers from both the centre left and centre right.In the 2022 presidential election president Macron was re-elected after beating his far-right rival, Marine Le Pen, in the runoff.", "He was the first re-elected incumbent French president since 2002.Sophie Meunier in 2017 ponders whether France is still relevant in world affairs::\"France does not have as much relative global clout as it used to.", "Decolonization... diminished France's territorial holdings and therefore its influence.", "Other countries acquired nuclear weapons and built up their armies.", "The message of \"universal\" values carried by French foreign policy has encountered much resistance, as other countries have developed following a different political trajectory than the one preached by France.", "By the 1990s, the country had become, in the words of Stanley Hoffmann, an \"ordinary power, neither a basket case nor a challenger.\"", "Public opinion, especially in the United States, no longer sees France as an essential power.", "The last time that its foreign policy put France back in the world spotlight was at the outset of the Iraq intervention...with France's refusal to join the US-led coalition....In reality, however, France is still a highly relevant power in world affairs....France is a country of major military importance nowadays...., France also showed it mattered in world environmental affairs with....the Paris Agreement, a global accord to reduce carbon emissions.", "The election of Trump in 2016 may reinforce demands for France to step in and lead global environmental governance if the US disengages, as the new president has promised, from a variety of policies.", "\"=== Muslim tensions ===At the close of the Algerian war, hundreds of thousands of Muslims, including some who had supported France (Harkis), settled permanently in France, especially in the larger cities where they lived in subsidized public housing, and suffered very high unemployment rates.", "In October 2005, the predominantly Arab-immigrant suburbs of Paris, Lyon, Lille, and other French cities erupted in riots by socially alienated teenagers, many of them second- or third-generation immigrants.Schneider says:Traditional interpretations say these race riots were spurred by radical Muslims or unemployed youth.", "Another view states that the riots reflected a broader problem of racism and police violence in France.On 11 January 2015, over 1 million demonstrators, plus dozens of foreign leaders, gather at the Place de la Republique to pledge solidarity to liberal French values, after the Charlie Hebdo shooting.In March 2012, a Muslim radical named Mohammed Merah shot three French soldiers and four Jewish citizens, including children in Toulouse and Montauban.In January 2015, the satirical newspaper ''Charlie Hebdo'' that had ridiculed the Islamic prophet, Muhammad, and a neighbourhood Jewish grocery store came under attack from angry Muslims who had been born and raised in the Paris region.", "World leaders rally to Paris to show their support for free speech.", "Analysts agree that the episode had a profound impact on France.", "''The New York Times'' summarized the ongoing debate:" ], [ "See also", "* Annales School, historiography* Demographics of France, For population history* Economic history of France* Foreign relations of France, Since the 1950s French colonial empire History of French foreign relations, To 1954 International relations, 1648–1814 International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919) International relations (1919–1939).", " Diplomatic history of World War I Diplomatic history of World War II Cold War** International relations since 1989* French law** French criminal law* French peasants* French Revolution** Historiography of the French Revolution* History of French journalism* History of Paris* Legal history of France** Fundamental laws of the Kingdom of France* List of French monarchs List of presidents of France List of prime ministers of France* Military history of France* Politics of France* ''Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine''* Territorial evolution of France* Timeline of French history* Women in France* Turkish Airlines Flight 981, where a DC-10 crashed into a French forest (Ermenonville Forest) in Northern France." ], [ "References", "=== Works cited ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", "* History of France, from Prehistory to Nowadays (in French + English translation)* History of France, from Middle Ages to the 19th century * History of France: Primary Documents (English interface)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Halloween" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Halloween''' or '''Hallowe'en''' (less commonly known as '''Allhalloween''', '''All Hallows' Eve''', or '''All Saints' Eve''') is a celebration observed in many countries on 31 October, the eve of the Western Christian feast of All Hallows' Day.", "It is at the beginning of the observance of Allhallowtide, the time in the liturgical year dedicated to remembering the dead, including saints (hallows), martyrs, and all the faithful departed.", "In popular culture, the day has become a celebration of horror, being associated with the macabre and supernatural.One theory holds that many Halloween traditions were influenced by Celtic harvest festivals, particularly the Gaelic festival Samhain, which are believed to have pagan roots.", "Some go further and suggest that Samhain may have been Christianized as All Hallow's Day, along with its eve, by the early Church.", "Other academics believe Halloween began solely as a Christian holiday, being the vigil of All Hallow's Day.", "Celebrated in Ireland and Scotland for centuries, Irish and Scottish immigrants took many Halloween customs to North America in the 19th century, and then through American influence various Halloween customs spread to other countries by the late 20th and early 21st century.Popular Halloween activities include trick-or-treating (or the related guising and souling), attending Halloween costume parties, carving pumpkins or turnips into jack-o'-lanterns, lighting bonfires, apple bobbing, divination games, playing pranks, visiting haunted attractions, telling scary stories, and watching horror or Halloween-themed films.", "Some people practice the Christian observances of All Hallows' Eve, including attending church services and lighting candles on the graves of the dead, although it is a secular celebration for others.", "Some Christians historically abstained from meat on All Hallows' Eve, a tradition reflected in the eating of certain vegetarian foods on this vigil day, including apples, potato pancakes, and soul cakes." ], [ "Etymology", "Halloween\" (1785) by Scottish poet Robert Burns, recounts various legends of the holiday.The word ''Halloween'' or ''Hallowe'en'' (\"Saints' evening\") is of Christian origin; a term equivalent to \"All Hallows Eve\" is attested in Old English.", "The word ''hallowe'en'' comes from the Scottish form of ''All Hallows' Eve'' (the evening before All Hallows' Day): is the Scots term for \"eve\" or \"evening\", and is contracted to or ; ''(All) Hallow(s) E(v)en'' became ''Hallowe'en''." ], [ "History", "===Christian origins and historic customs===Halloween is thought to have influences from Christian beliefs and practices.", "The English word 'Halloween' comes from \"All Hallows' Eve\", being the evening before the Christian holy days of All Hallows' Day (All Saints' Day) on 1 November and All Souls' Day on 2 November.", "Since the time of the early Church, major feasts in Christianity (such as Christmas, Easter and Pentecost) had vigils that began the night before, as did the feast of All Hallows'.", "These three days are collectively called Allhallowtide and are a time when Western Christians honour all saints and pray for recently departed souls who have yet to reach Heaven.", "Commemorations of all saints and martyrs were held by several churches on various dates, mostly in springtime.", "In 4th-century Roman Edessa it was held on 13 May, and on 13 May 609, Pope Boniface IV re-dedicated the Pantheon in Rome to \"St Mary and all martyrs\".", "This was the date of Lemuria, an ancient Roman festival of the dead.In the 8th century, Pope Gregory III (731–741) founded an oratory in St Peter's for the relics \"of the holy apostles and of all saints, martyrs and confessors\".", "Some sources say it was dedicated on 1 November, while others say it was on Palm Sunday in April 732.By 800, there is evidence that churches in Ireland and Northumbria were holding a feast commemorating all saints on 1 November.", "Alcuin of Northumbria, a member of Charlemagne's court, may then have introduced this 1 November date in the Frankish Empire.", "In 835, it became the official date in the Frankish Empire.", "Some suggest this was due to Celtic influence, while others suggest it was a Germanic idea, although it is claimed that both Germanic and Celtic-speaking peoples commemorated the dead at the beginning of winter.", "They may have seen it as the most fitting time to do so, as it is a time of 'dying' in nature.", "It is also suggested the change was made on the \"practical grounds that Rome in summer could not accommodate the great number of pilgrims who flocked to it\", and perhaps because of public health concerns over Roman Fever, which claimed a number of lives during Rome's sultry summers.By the end of the 12th century, the celebration had become known as the holy days of obligation in Western Christianity and involved such traditions as ringing church bells for souls in purgatory.", "It was also \"customary for criers dressed in black to parade the streets, ringing a bell of mournful sound and calling on all good Christians to remember the poor souls\".", "The Allhallowtide custom of baking and sharing soul cakes for all christened souls, has been suggested as the origin of trick-or-treating.", "The custom dates back at least as far as the 15th century and was found in parts of England, Wales, Flanders, Bavaria and Austria.", "Groups of poor people, often children, would go door-to-door during Allhallowtide, collecting soul cakes, in exchange for praying for the dead, especially the souls of the givers' friends and relatives.", "This was called \"souling\".", "Soul cakes were also offered for the souls themselves to eat, or the 'soulers' would act as their representatives.", "As with the Lenten tradition of hot cross buns, soul cakes were often marked with a cross, indicating they were baked as alms.", "Shakespeare mentions souling in his comedy ''The Two Gentlemen of Verona'' (1593).", "While souling, Christians would carry \"lanterns made of hollowed-out turnips\", which could have originally represented souls of the dead; jack-o'-lanterns were used to ward off evil spirits.", "On All Saints' and All Souls' Day during the 19th century, candles were lit in homes in Ireland, Flanders, Bavaria, and in Tyrol, where they were called \"soul lights\", that served \"to guide the souls back to visit their earthly homes\".", "In many of these places, candles were also lit at graves on All Souls' Day.", "In Brittany, libations of milk were poured on the graves of kinfolk, or food would be left overnight on the dinner table for the returning souls; a custom also found in Tyrol and parts of Italy.Christian minister Prince Sorie Conteh linked the wearing of costumes to the belief in vengeful ghosts: \"It was traditionally believed that the souls of the departed wandered the earth until All Saints' Day, and All Hallows' Eve provided one last chance for the dead to gain vengeance on their enemies before moving to the next world.", "In order to avoid being recognized by any soul that might be seeking such vengeance, people would don masks or costumes\".", "In the Middle Ages, churches in Europe that were too poor to display relics of martyred saints at Allhallowtide let parishioners dress up as saints instead.", "Some Christians observe this custom at Halloween today.", "Lesley Bannatyne believes this could have been a Christianization of an earlier pagan custom.", "Many Christians in mainland Europe, especially in France, believed \"that once a year, on Hallowe'en, the dead of the churchyards rose for one wild, hideous carnival\" known as the ''danse macabre'', which was often depicted in church decoration.", "Christopher Allmand and Rosamond McKitterick write in ''The New Cambridge Medieval History'' that the ''danse macabre'' urged Christians \"not to forget the end of all earthly things\".", "The ''danse macabre'' was sometimes enacted in European village pageants and court masques, with people \"dressing up as corpses from various strata of society\", and this may be the origin of Halloween costume parties.In Britain, these customs came under attack during the Reformation, as Protestants berated purgatory as a \"popish\" doctrine incompatible with the Calvinist doctrine of predestination.", "State-sanctioned ceremonies associated with the intercession of saints and prayer for souls in purgatory were abolished during the Elizabethan reform, though All Hallow's Day remained in the English liturgical calendar to \"commemorate saints as godly human beings\".", "For some Nonconformist Protestants, the theology of All Hallows' Eve was redefined; \"souls cannot be journeying from Purgatory on their way to Heaven, as Catholics frequently believe and assert.", "Instead, the so-called ghosts are thought to be in actuality evil spirits\".", "Other Protestants believed in an intermediate state known as Hades (Bosom of Abraham).", "In some localities, Catholics and Protestants continued souling, candlelit processions, or ringing church bells for the dead; the Anglican church eventually suppressed this bell-ringing.", "Mark Donnelly, a professor of medieval archaeology, and historian Daniel Diehl write that \"barns and homes were blessed to protect people and livestock from the effect of witches, who were believed to accompany the malignant spirits as they traveled the earth\".", "After 1605, Hallowtide was eclipsed in England by Guy Fawkes Night (5 November), which appropriated some of its customs.", "In England, the ending of official ceremonies related to the intercession of saints led to the development of new, unofficial Hallowtide customs.", "In 18th–19th century rural Lancashire, Catholic families gathered on hills on the night of All Hallows' Eve.", "One held a bunch of burning straw on a pitchfork while the rest knelt around him, praying for the souls of relatives and friends until the flames went out.", "This was known as ''teen'lay''.", "There was a similar custom in Hertfordshire, and the lighting of 'tindle' fires in Derbyshire.", "Some suggested these 'tindles' were originally lit to \"guide the poor souls back to earth\".", "In Scotland and Ireland, old Allhallowtide customs that were at odds with Reformed teaching were not suppressed as they \"were important to the life cycle and rites of passage of local communities\" and curbing them would have been difficult.In parts of Italy until the 15th century, families left a meal out for the ghosts of relatives, before leaving for church services.", "In 19th-century Italy, churches staged \"theatrical re-enactments of scenes from the lives of the saints\" on All Hallow's Day, with \"participants represented by realistic wax figures\".", "In 1823, the graveyard of Holy Spirit Hospital in Rome presented a scene in which bodies of those who recently died were arrayed around a wax statue of an angel who pointed upward towards heaven.", "In the same country, \"parish priests went house-to-house, asking for small gifts of food which they shared among themselves throughout that night\".", "In Spain, they continue to bake special pastries called \"bones of the holy\" () and set them on graves.", "At cemeteries in Spain and France, as well as in Latin America, priests lead Christian processions and services during Allhallowtide, after which people keep an all night vigil.", "In 19th-century San Sebastián, there was a procession to the city cemetery at Allhallowtide, an event that drew beggars who \"appealed to the tender recollections of one's deceased relations and friends\" for sympathy.===Gaelic folk influence===An early 20th-century Irish Halloween mask displayed at the Museum of Country Life in County Mayo, IrelandToday's Halloween customs are thought to have been influenced by folk customs and beliefs from the Celtic-speaking countries, some of which are believed to have pagan roots.", "Jack Santino, a folklorist, writes that \"there was throughout Ireland an uneasy truce existing between customs and beliefs associated with Christianity and those associated with religions that were Irish before Christianity arrived\".", "The origins of Halloween customs are typically linked to the Gaelic festival Samhain.Samhain is one of the quarter days in the medieval Gaelic calendar and has been celebrated on 31 October1 November in Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man.", "A kindred festival has been held by the Brittonic Celts, called ''Calan Gaeaf'' in Wales, ''Kalan Gwav'' in Cornwall and ''Kalan Goañv'' in Brittany; a name meaning \"first day of winter\".", "For the Celts, the day ended and began at sunset; thus the festival begins the evening before 1 November by modern reckoning.", "Samhain is mentioned in some of the earliest Irish literature.", "The names have been used by historians to refer to Celtic Halloween customs up until the 19th century, and are still the Gaelic and Welsh names for Halloween.", "''Snap-Apple Night'', painted by Daniel Maclise in 1833, shows people feasting and playing divination games on Halloween in Ireland.Samhain marked the end of the harvest season and beginning of winter or the 'darker half' of the year.", "It was seen as a liminal time, when the boundary between this world and the Otherworld thinned.", "This meant the ''Aos Sí'', the 'spirits' or 'fairies', could more easily come into this world and were particularly active.", "Most scholars see them as \"degraded versions of ancient gods ... whose power remained active in the people's minds even after they had been officially replaced by later religious beliefs\".", "They were both respected and feared, with individuals often invoking the protection of God when approaching their dwellings.", "At Samhain, the ''Aos Sí'' were appeased to ensure the people and livestock survived the winter.", "Offerings of food and drink, or portions of the crops, were left outside for them.", "The souls of the dead were also said to revisit their homes seeking hospitality.", "Places were set at the dinner table and by the fire to welcome them.", "The belief that the souls of the dead return home on one night of the year and must be appeased seems to have ancient origins and is found in many cultures.", "In 19th century Ireland, \"candles would be lit and prayers formally offered for the souls of the dead.", "After this the eating, drinking, and games would begin\".Throughout Ireland and Britain, especially in the Celtic-speaking regions, the household festivities included divination rituals and games intended to foretell one's future, especially regarding death and marriage.", "Apples and nuts were often used, and customs included apple bobbing, nut roasting, scrying or mirror-gazing, pouring molten lead or egg whites into water, dream interpretation, and others.", "Special bonfires were lit and there were rituals involving them.", "Their flames, smoke, and ashes were deemed to have protective and cleansing powers.", "In some places, torches lit from the bonfire were carried sunwise around homes and fields to protect them.", "It is suggested the fires were a kind of imitative or sympathetic magicthey mimicked the Sun and held back the decay and darkness of winter.", "They were also used for divination and to ward off evil spirits.", "In Scotland, these bonfires and divination games were banned by the church elders in some parishes.", "In Wales, bonfires were also lit to \"prevent the souls of the dead from falling to earth\".", "Later, these bonfires \"kept away the devil\".A plaster cast of a traditional Irish Halloween turnip (swede, rutabaga) lantern on display in the Museum of Country Life, IrelandFrom at least the 16th century, the festival included mumming and guising in Ireland, Scotland, the Isle of Man and Wales.", "This involved people going house-to-house in costume (or in disguise), usually reciting verses or songs in exchange for food.", "It may have originally been a tradition whereby people impersonated the ''Aos Sí'', or the souls of the dead, and received offerings on their behalf, similar to 'souling'.", "Impersonating these beings, or wearing a disguise, was also believed to protect oneself from them.", "In parts of southern Ireland, the guisers included a hobby horse.", "A man dressed as a ''Láir Bhán'' (white mare) led youths house-to-house reciting verses – some of which had pagan overtones – in exchange for food.", "If the household donated food it could expect good fortune from the 'Muck Olla'; not doing so would bring misfortune.", "In Scotland, youths went house-to-house with masked, painted or blackened faces, often threatening to do mischief if they were not welcomed.", "F. Marian McNeill suggests the ancient festival included people in costume representing the spirits, and that faces were marked or blackened with ashes from the sacred bonfire.", "In parts of Wales, men went about dressed as fearsome beings called ''gwrachod''.", "In the late 19th and early 20th century, young people in Glamorgan and Orkney cross-dressed.Elsewhere in Europe, mumming was part of other festivals, but in the Celtic-speaking regions, it was \"particularly appropriate to a night upon which supernatural beings were said to be abroad and could be imitated or warded off by human wanderers\".", "From at least the 18th century, \"imitating malignant spirits\" led to playing pranks in Ireland and the Scottish Highlands.", "Wearing costumes and playing pranks at Halloween did not spread to England until the 20th century.", "Pranksters used hollowed-out turnips or mangel wurzels as lanterns, often carved with grotesque faces.", "By those who made them, the lanterns were variously said to represent the spirits, or used to ward off evil spirits.", "They were common in parts of Ireland and the Scottish Highlands in the 19th century, as well as in Somerset (see Punkie Night).", "In the 20th century they spread to other parts of Britain and became generally known as jack-o'-lanterns.===Spread to North America===\"Halloween Days\", article from American newspaper, ''The Sunday Oregonian'', 1916Lesley Bannatyne and Cindy Ott write that Anglican colonists in the southern United States and Catholic colonists in Maryland \"recognized All Hallow's Eve in their church calendars\", although the Puritans of New England strongly opposed the holiday, along with other traditional celebrations of the established Church, including Christmas.", "Almanacs of the late 18th and early 19th century give no indication that Halloween was widely celebrated in North America.It was not until after mass Irish and Scottish immigration in the 19th century that Halloween became a major holiday in America.", "Most American Halloween traditions were inherited from the Irish and Scots, though \"In Cajun areas, a nocturnal Mass was said in cemeteries on Halloween night.", "Candles that had been blessed were placed on graves, and families sometimes spent the entire night at the graveside\".", "Originally confined to these immigrant communities, it was gradually assimilated into mainstream society and was celebrated coast to coast by people of all social, racial, and religious backgrounds by the early 20th century.", "Then, through American influence, these Halloween traditions spread to many other countries by the late 20th and early 21st century, including to mainland Europe and some parts of the Far East." ], [ "Symbols", "At Halloween, yards, public spaces, and some houses may be decorated with traditionally macabre symbols including skeletons, ghosts, cobwebs, headstones, and witches.Development of artifacts and symbols associated with Halloween formed over time.", "Jack-o'-lanterns are traditionally carried by guisers on All Hallows' Eve in order to frighten evil spirits.", "There is a popular Irish Christian folktale associated with the jack-o'-lantern, which in folklore is said to represent a \"soul who has been denied entry into both heaven and hell\": In Ireland and Scotland, the turnip has traditionally been carved during Halloween, but immigrants to North America used the native pumpkin, which is both much softer and much larger, making it easier to carve than a turnip.", "The American tradition of carving pumpkins is recorded in 1837 and was originally associated with harvest time in general, not becoming specifically associated with Halloween until the mid-to-late 19th century.Decorated house in Weatherly, PennsylvaniaThe modern imagery of Halloween comes from many sources, including Christian eschatology, national customs, works of Gothic and horror literature (such as the novels ''Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus'' and ''Dracula'') and classic horror films such as ''Frankenstein'' (1931) and ''The Mummy'' (1932).", "Imagery of the skull, a reference to Golgotha in the Christian tradition, serves as \"a reminder of death and the transitory quality of human life\" and is consequently found in ''memento mori'' and ''vanitas'' compositions; skulls have therefore been commonplace in Halloween, which touches on this theme.", "Traditionally, the back walls of churches are \"decorated with a depiction of the Last Judgment, complete with graves opening and the dead rising, with a heaven filled with angels and a hell filled with devils\", a motif that has permeated the observance of this triduum.", "One of the earliest works on the subject of Halloween is from Scottish poet John Mayne, who, in 1780, made note of pranks at Halloween; ''\"What fearfu' pranks ensue!", "\"'', as well as the supernatural associated with the night, ''\"bogles\"'' (ghosts), influencing Robert Burns' \"Halloween\" (1785).", "Elements of the autumn season, such as pumpkins, corn husks, and scarecrows, are also prevalent.", "Homes are often decorated with these types of symbols around Halloween.", "Halloween imagery includes themes of death, evil, and mythical monsters.", "Black cats, which have been long associated with witches, are also a common symbol of Halloween.", "Black, orange, and sometimes purple are Halloween's traditional colors." ], [ "Trick-or-treating and guising", "Trick-or-treaters in SwedenTrick-or-treating is a customary celebration for children on Halloween.", "Children go in costume from house to house, asking for treats such as candy or sometimes money, with the question, \"Trick or treat?\"", "The word \"trick\" implies a \"threat\" to perform mischief on the homeowners or their property if no treat is given.", "The practice is said to have roots in the medieval practice of mumming, which is closely related to souling.", "John Pymm wrote that \"many of the feast days associated with the presentation of mumming plays were celebrated by the Christian Church.\"", "These feast days included All Hallows' Eve, Christmas, Twelfth Night and Shrove Tuesday.", "Mumming practiced in Germany, Scandinavia and other parts of Europe, involved masked persons in fancy dress who \"paraded the streets and entered houses to dance or play dice in silence\".Girl in a Halloween costume in 1928, Ontario, Canada, the same province where the Scottish Halloween custom of guising was first recorded in North AmericaIn England, from the medieval period, up until the 1930s, people practiced the Christian custom of souling on Halloween, which involved groups of soulers, both Protestant and Catholic, going from parish to parish, begging the rich for soul cakes, in exchange for praying for the souls of the givers and their friends.", "In the Philippines, the practice of souling is called Pangangaluluwa and is practiced on All Hallow's Eve among children in rural areas.", "People drape themselves in white cloths to represent souls and then visit houses, where they sing in return for prayers and sweets.In Scotland and Ireland, guisingchildren disguised in costume going from door to door for food or coinsis a secular Halloween custom.", "It is recorded in Scotland at Halloween in 1895 where masqueraders in disguise carrying lanterns made out of scooped out turnips, visit homes to be rewarded with cakes, fruit, and money.", "In Ireland, the most popular phrase for kids to shout (until the 2000s) was \"Help the Halloween Party\".", "The practice of guising at Halloween in North America was first recorded in 1911, where a newspaper in Kingston, Ontario, Canada, reported children going \"guising\" around the neighborhood.American historian and author Ruth Edna Kelley of Massachusetts wrote the first book-length history of Halloween in the US; ''The Book of Hallowe'en'' (1919), and references souling in the chapter \"Hallowe'en in America\".", "In her book, Kelley touches on customs that arrived from across the Atlantic; \"Americans have fostered them, and are making this an occasion something like what it must have been in its best days overseas.", "All Halloween customs in the United States are borrowed directly or adapted from those of other countries\".While the first reference to \"guising\" in North America occurs in 1911, another reference to ritual begging on Halloween appears, place unknown, in 1915, with a third reference in Chicago in 1920.The earliest known use in print of the term \"trick or treat\" appears in 1927, in the ''Blackie Herald'', of Alberta, Canada.automobile trunk at a trunk-or-treat event at St. John Lutheran Church and Early Learning Center in Darien, IllinoisThe thousands of Halloween postcards produced between the turn of the 20th century and the 1920s commonly show children but not trick-or-treating.", "Trick-or-treating does not seem to have become a widespread practice in North America until the 1930s, with the first US appearances of the term in 1934, and the first use in a national publication occurring in 1939.A popular variant of trick-or-treating, known as trunk-or-treating (or Halloween tailgating), occurs when \"children are offered treats from the trunks of cars parked in a church parking lot\", or sometimes, a school parking lot.", "In a trunk-or-treat event, the trunk (boot) of each automobile is decorated with a certain theme, such as those of children's literature, movies, scripture, and job roles.", "Trunk-or-treating has grown in popularity due to its perception as being more safe than going door to door, a point that resonates well with parents, as well as the fact that it \"solves the rural conundrum in which homes are built a half-mile apart\"." ], [ "Costumes", "Halloween shop in Derry, Northern Ireland, selling masksHalloween costumes were traditionally modeled after figures such as vampires, ghosts, skeletons, scary looking witches, and devils.", "Over time, the costume selection extended to include popular characters from fiction, celebrities, and generic archetypes such as ninjas and princesses.Dressing up in costumes and going \"guising\" was prevalent in Scotland and Ireland at Halloween by the late 19th century.", "A Scottish term, the tradition is called \"guising\" because of the disguises or costumes worn by the children.", "In Ireland and Scotland, the masks are known as 'false faces', a term recorded in Ayr, Scotland in 1890 by a Scot describing guisers: \"I had mind it was Halloween .", ".", ".", "the wee callans (boys) were at it already, rinning aboot wi’ their fause-faces (false faces) on and their bits o’ turnip lanthrons (lanterns) in their haun (hand)\".", "Costuming became popular for Halloween parties in the US in the early 20th century, as often for adults as for children, and when trick-or-treating was becoming popular in Canada and the US in the 1920s and 1930s.Eddie J. Smith, in his book ''Halloween, Hallowed is Thy Name'', offers a religious perspective to the wearing of costumes on All Hallows' Eve, suggesting that by dressing up as creatures \"who at one time caused us to fear and tremble\", people are able to poke fun at Satan \"whose kingdom has been plundered by our Saviour\".", "Images of skeletons and the dead are traditional decorations used as ''memento mori''.New York Halloween Parade in Greenwich Village, Manhattan, is the world's largest Halloween parade, with millions of spectators annually.", "\"Trick-or-Treat for UNICEF\" is a fundraising program to support UNICEF, a United Nations Programme that provides humanitarian aid to children in developing countries.", "Started as a local event in a Northeast Philadelphia neighborhood in 1950 and expanded nationally in 1952, the program involves the distribution of small boxes by schools (or in modern times, corporate sponsors like Hallmark, at their licensed stores) to trick-or-treaters, in which they can solicit small-change donations from the houses they visit.", "It is estimated that children have collected more than $118 million for UNICEF since its inception.", "In Canada, in 2006, UNICEF decided to discontinue their Halloween collection boxes, citing safety and administrative concerns; after consultation with schools, they instead redesigned the program.The yearly New York's Village Halloween Parade was begun in 1974; it is the world's largest Halloween parade and America's only major nighttime parade, attracting more than 60,000 costumed participants, two million spectators, and a worldwide television audience.Since the late 2010s, ethnic stereotypes as costumes have increasingly come under scrutiny in the United States.===Pet costumes===According to a 2018 report from the National Retail Federation, 30 million Americans will spend an estimated $480 million on Halloween costumes for their pets in 2018.This is up from an estimated $200 million in 2010.The most popular costumes for pets are the pumpkin, followed by the hot dog, and the bumblebee in third place." ], [ "Games and other activities", "In this 1904 Halloween greeting card, divination is depicted: the young woman, looking into a mirror in a darkened room, hopes to catch a glimpse of her future husband.There are several games traditionally associated with Halloween.", "Some of these games originated as divination rituals or ways of foretelling one's future, especially regarding death, marriage and children.", "During the Middle Ages, these rituals were done by a \"rare few\" in rural communities as they were considered to be \"deadly serious\" practices.", "In recent centuries, these divination games have been \"a common feature of the household festivities\" in Ireland and Britain.", "They often involve apples and hazelnuts.", "In Celtic mythology, apples were strongly associated with the Otherworld and immortality, while hazelnuts were associated with divine wisdom.", "Some also suggest that they derive from Roman practices in celebration of Pomona.bobbing for apples at Hallowe'enThe following activities were a common feature of Halloween in Ireland and Britain during the 17th–20th centuries.", "Some have become more widespread and continue to be popular today.One common game is apple bobbing or dunking (which may be called \"dooking\" in Scotland) in which apples float in a tub or a large basin of water and the participants must use only their teeth to remove an apple from the basin.", "A variant of dunking involves kneeling on a chair, holding a fork between the teeth and trying to drive the fork into an apple.", "Another common game involves hanging up treacle or syrup-coated scones by strings; these must be eaten without using hands while they remain attached to the string, an activity that inevitably leads to a sticky face.", "Another once-popular game involves hanging a small wooden rod from the ceiling at head height, with a lit candle on one end and an apple hanging from the other.", "The rod is spun round and everyone takes turns to try to catch the apple with their teeth.Image from the ''Book of Hallowe'en'' (1919) showing several Halloween activities, such as nut roastingSeveral of the traditional activities from Ireland and Britain involve foretelling one's future partner or spouse.", "An apple would be peeled in one long strip, then the peel tossed over the shoulder.", "The peel is believed to land in the shape of the first letter of the future spouse's name.", "Two hazelnuts would be roasted near a fire; one named for the person roasting them and the other for the person they desire.", "If the nuts jump away from the heat, it is a bad sign, but if the nuts roast quietly it foretells a good match.", "A salty oatmeal bannock would be baked; the person would eat it in three bites and then go to bed in silence without anything to drink.", "This is said to result in a dream in which their future spouse offers them a drink to quench their thirst.", "Unmarried women were told that if they sat in a darkened room and gazed into a mirror on Halloween night, the face of their future husband would appear in the mirror.", "The custom was widespread enough to be commemorated on greeting cards from the late 19th century and early 20th century.Another popular Irish game was known as ''púicíní'' (\"blindfolds\"); a person would be blindfolded and then would choose between several saucers.", "The item in the saucer would provide a hint as to their future: a ring would mean that they would marry soon; clay, that they would die soon, perhaps within the year; water, that they would emigrate; rosary beads, that they would take Holy Orders (become a nun, priest, monk, etc.", "); a coin, that they would become rich; a bean, that they would be poor.", "The game features prominently in the James Joyce short story \"Clay\" (1914).Barmbrack (showing ring found inside) at Halloween in 2020In Ireland and Scotland, items would be hidden in food – usually a cake, barmbrack, cranachan, champ or colcannon – and portions of it served out at random.", "A person's future would be foretold by the item they happened to find; for example, a ring meant marriage and a coin meant wealth.Up until the 19th century, the Halloween bonfires were also used for divination in parts of Scotland, Wales and Brittany.", "When the fire died down, a ring of stones would be laid in the ashes, one for each person.", "In the morning, if any stone was mislaid it was said that the person it represented would not live out the year.", "In Mexico, children create altars to invite the spirits of deceased children to return (''angelitos'').Telling ghost stories, listening to Halloween-themed songs and watching horror films are common fixtures of Halloween parties.", "Episodes of television series and Halloween-themed specials (with the specials usually aimed at children) are commonly aired on or before Halloween, while new horror films are often released before Halloween to take advantage of the holiday." ], [ "Haunted attractions", "tombstones in front of a house in CaliforniaHumorous display window in Historic 25th Street, Ogden, UtahHaunted attractions are entertainment venues designed to thrill and scare patrons.", "Most attractions are seasonal Halloween businesses that may include haunted houses, corn mazes, and hayrides, and the level of sophistication of the effects has risen as the industry has grown.The first recorded purpose-built haunted attraction was the Orton and Spooner Ghost House, which opened in 1915 in Liphook, England.", "This attraction actually most closely resembles a carnival fun house, powered by steam.", "The House still exists, in the Hollycombe Steam Collection.It was during the 1930s, about the same time as trick-or-treating, that Halloween-themed haunted houses first began to appear in America.", "It was in the late 1950s that haunted houses as a major attraction began to appear, focusing first on California.", "Sponsored by the Children's Health Home Junior Auxiliary, the San Mateo Haunted House opened in 1957.The San Bernardino Assistance League Haunted House opened in 1958.Home haunts began appearing across the country during 1962 and 1963.In 1964, the San Manteo Haunted House opened, as well as the Children's Museum Haunted House in Indianapolis.The haunted house as an American cultural icon can be attributed to the opening of The Haunted Mansion in Disneyland on 12 August 1969.Knott's Berry Farm began hosting its own Halloween night attraction, Knott's Scary Farm, which opened in 1973.Evangelical Christians adopted a form of these attractions by opening one of the first \"hell houses\" in 1972.The first Halloween haunted house run by a nonprofit organization was produced in 1970 by the Sycamore-Deer Park Jaycees in Clifton, Ohio.", "It was cosponsored by WSAI, an AM radio station broadcasting out of Cincinnati, Ohio.", "It was last produced in 1982.Other Jaycees followed suit with their own versions after the success of the Ohio house.", "The March of Dimes copyrighted a \"Mini haunted house for the March of Dimes\" in 1976 and began fundraising through their local chapters by conducting haunted houses soon after.", "Although they apparently quit supporting this type of event nationally sometime in the 1980s, some March of Dimes haunted houses have persisted until today.On the evening of 11 May 1984, in Jackson Township, New Jersey, the Haunted Castle at Six Flags Great Adventure caught fire.", "As a result of the fire, eight teenagers perished.", "The backlash to the tragedy was a tightening of regulations relating to safety, building codes and the frequency of inspections of attractions nationwide.", "The smaller venues, especially the nonprofit attractions, were unable to compete financially, and the better funded commercial enterprises filled the vacuum.", "Facilities that were once able to avoid regulation because they were considered to be temporary installations now had to adhere to the stricter codes required of permanent attractions.In the late 1980s and early 1990s, theme parks became a notable figure in the Halloween business.", "Six Flags Fright Fest began in 1986 and Universal Studios Florida began Halloween Horror Nights in 1991.Knott's Scary Farm experienced a surge in attendance in the 1990s as a result of America's obsession with Halloween as a cultural event.", "Theme parks have played a major role in globalizing the holiday.", "Universal Studios Singapore and Universal Studios Japan both participate, while Disney now mounts Mickey's Not-So-Scary Halloween Party events at its parks in Paris, Hong Kong and Tokyo, as well as in the United States.", "The theme park haunts are by far the largest, both in scale and attendance." ], [ "Food", "Pumpkins for sale during HalloweenOn All Hallows' Eve, many Western Christian denominations encourage abstinence from meat, giving rise to a variety of vegetarian foods associated with this day.A candy appleBecause in the Northern Hemisphere Halloween comes in the wake of the yearly apple harvest, candy apples (known as toffee apples outside North America), caramel apples or taffy apples are common Halloween treats made by rolling whole apples in a sticky sugar syrup, sometimes followed by rolling them in nuts.At one time, candy apples were commonly given to trick-or-treating children, but the practice rapidly waned in the wake of widespread rumors that some individuals were embedding items like pins and razor blades in the apples in the United States.", "While there is evidence of such incidents, relative to the degree of reporting of such cases, actual cases involving malicious acts are extremely rare and have never resulted in serious injury.", "Nonetheless, many parents assumed that such heinous practices were rampant because of the mass media.", "At the peak of the hysteria, some hospitals offered free X-rays of children's Halloween hauls in order to find evidence of tampering.", "Virtually all of the few known candy poisoning incidents involved parents who poisoned their own children's candy.One custom that persists in modern-day Ireland is the baking (or more often nowadays, the purchase) of a barmbrack (), which is a light fruitcake, into which a plain ring, a coin, and other charms are placed before baking.", "It is considered fortunate to be the lucky one who finds it.", "It has also been said that those who get a ring will find their true love in the ensuing year.", "This is similar to the tradition of king cake at the festival of Epiphany.", "Halloween-themed foods are also produced by companies in the lead up to the night, for example Cadbury releasing Goo Heads (similar to Creme Eggs) in spooky wrapping.", "A jack-o'-lantern Halloween cake with a witches hatList of foods associated with Halloween:* Barmbrack (Ireland)* Bonfire toffee (Great Britain)* Candy apples/toffee apples (Great Britain and Ireland)* Candy apples, candy corn, candy pumpkins (North America)* Chocolate* Monkey nuts (peanuts in their shells) (Ireland and Scotland)* Caramel apples* Caramel corn* Colcannon (Ireland; see below)* Halloween cake* Sweets/candy* Novelty candy shaped like skulls, pumpkins, bats, worms, etc.", "* Roasted pumpkin seeds* Roasted sweet corn* Soul cakes* Pumpkin pie" ], [ "Christian observances", "Episcopal Christian church on Hallowe'en.On Hallowe'en (All Hallows' Eve), in Poland, believers were once taught to pray out loud as they walk through the forests in order that the souls of the dead might find comfort; in Spain, Christian priests in tiny villages toll their church bells in order to remind their congregants to remember the dead on All Hallows' Eve.", "In Ireland, and among immigrants in Canada, a custom includes the Christian practice of abstinence, keeping All Hallows' Eve as a meat-free day and serving pancakes or colcannon instead.", "The Christian Church traditionally observed Hallowe'en through a vigil.", "Worshippers prepared themselves for feasting on the following All Saints' Day with prayers and fasting.", "This church service is known as the ''Vigil of All Hallows'' or the ''Vigil of All Saints''; an initiative known as ''Night of Light'' seeks to further spread the ''Vigil of All Hallows'' throughout Christendom.", "After the service, \"suitable festivities and entertainments\" often follow, as well as a visit to the graveyard or cemetery, where flowers and candles are often placed in preparation for All Hallows' Day.", "In England, Light Parties are organized by churches after worship services on Halloween with the focus on Jesus as the Light of the World.", "In Finland, because so many people visit the cemeteries on All Hallows' Eve to light votive candles there, they \"are known as ''valomeri'', or seas of light\".gospel tractToday, Christian attitudes towards Halloween are diverse.", "In the Anglican Church, some dioceses have chosen to emphasize the Christian traditions associated with All Hallow's Eve.", "Some of these practices include praying, fasting and attending worship services.Votive candles in the Halloween section of WalmartOther Protestant Christians also celebrate All Hallows' Eve as Reformation Day, a day to remember the Protestant Reformation, alongside All Hallow's Eve or independently from it.", "This is because Martin Luther is said to have nailed his ''Ninety-five Theses'' to All Saints' Church in Wittenberg on All Hallows' Eve.", "Often, \"Harvest Festivals\" or \"Reformation Festivals\" are held on All Hallows' Eve, in which children dress up as Bible characters or Reformers.", "In addition to distributing candy to children who are trick-or-treating on Hallowe'en, many Christians also provide gospel tracts to them.", "One organization, the American Tract Society, stated that around 3 million gospel tracts are ordered from them alone for Hallowe'en celebrations.", "Others order Halloween-themed ''Scripture Candy'' to pass out to children on this day.Belizean children dressed up as Biblical figures and Christian saintsSome Christians feel concerned about the modern celebration of Halloween because they feel it trivializes – or celebrates – paganism, the occult, or other practices and cultural phenomena deemed incompatible with their beliefs.", "Father Gabriele Amorth, an exorcist in Rome, has said, \"if English and American children like to dress up as witches and devils on one night of the year that is not a problem.", "If it is just a game, there is no harm in that.\"", "In more recent years, the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Boston has organized a \"Saint Fest\" on Halloween.", "Similarly, many contemporary Protestant churches view Halloween as a fun event for children, holding events in their churches where children and their parents can dress up, play games, and get candy for free.", "To these Christians, Halloween holds no threat to the spiritual lives of children: being taught about death and mortality, and the ways of the Celtic ancestors actually being a valuable life lesson and a part of many of their parishioners' heritage.", "Christian minister Sam Portaro wrote that Halloween is about using \"humor and ridicule to confront the power of death\".In the Roman Catholic Church, Halloween's Christian connection is acknowledged, and Halloween celebrations are common in many Catholic parochial schools, such as in the United States, while schools throughout Ireland also close for the Halloween break.", "Many fundamentalist and evangelical churches use \"Hell houses\" and comic-style tracts in order to make use of Halloween's popularity as an opportunity for evangelism.", "Others consider Halloween to be completely incompatible with the Christian faith due to its putative origins in the Festival of the Dead celebration.", "Indeed, even though Eastern Orthodox Christians observe All Hallows' Day on the First Sunday after Pentecost, the Eastern Orthodox Church recommends the observance of Vespers or a Paraklesis on the Western observance of All Hallows' Eve, out of the pastoral need to provide an alternative to popular celebrations." ], [ "Analogous celebrations and perspectives", "===Judaism===According to Alfred J. Kolatch in the ''Second Jewish Book of Why'', in Judaism, Halloween is not permitted by Jewish Halakha because it violates Leviticus 18:3, which forbids Jews from partaking in gentile customs.", "Many Jews observe Yizkor communally four times a year, which is vaguely similar to the observance of Allhallowtide in Christianity, in the sense that prayers are said for both \"martyrs and for one's own family\".", "Nevertheless, many American Jews celebrate Halloween, disconnected from its Christian origins.", "Reform Rabbi Jeffrey Goldwasser has said that \"There is no religious reason why contemporary Jews should not celebrate Halloween\" while Orthodox Rabbi Michael Broyde has argued against Jews' observing the holiday.", "Purim has sometimes been compared to Halloween, in part due to some observants wearing costumes, especially of Biblical figures described in the Purim narrative.===Islam===Sheikh Idris Palmer, author of ''A Brief Illustrated Guide to Understanding Islam'', has ruled that Muslims should not participate in Halloween, stating that \"participation in Halloween is worse than participation in Christmas, Easter, ... it is more sinful than congratulating the Christians for their prostration to the crucifix\".", "It has also been ruled to be haram by the National Fatwa Council of Malaysia because of its alleged pagan roots stating \"Halloween is celebrated using a humorous theme mixed with horror to entertain and resist the spirit of death that influence humans\".", "Dar Al-Ifta Al-Missriyyah disagrees provided the celebration is not referred to as an 'eid' and that behaviour remains in line with Islamic principles.===Hinduism===Hindus remember the dead during the festival of Pitru Paksha, during which Hindus pay homage to and perform a ceremony \"to keep the souls of their ancestors at rest\".", "It is celebrated in the Hindu month of Bhadrapada, usually in mid-September.", "The celebration of the Hindu festival Diwali sometimes conflicts with the date of Halloween; but some Hindus choose to participate in the popular customs of Halloween.", "Other Hindus, such as Soumya Dasgupta, have opposed the celebration on the grounds that Western holidays like Halloween have \"begun to adversely affect our indigenous festivals\".===Neopaganism===There is no consistent rule or view on Halloween amongst those who describe themselves as Neopagans or Wiccans.", "Some Neopagans do not observe Halloween, but instead observe Samhain on 1 November, some neopagans do enjoy Halloween festivities, stating that one can observe both \"the solemnity of Samhain in addition to the fun of Halloween\".", "Some neopagans are opposed to the celebration of Hallowe'en, stating that it \"trivializes Samhain\", and \"avoid Halloween, because of the interruptions from trick or treaters\".", "''The Manitoban'' writes that \"Wiccans don't officially celebrate Halloween, despite the fact that 31 Oct. will still have a star beside it in any good Wiccan's day planner.", "Starting at sundown, Wiccans celebrate a holiday known as Samhain.", "Samhain actually comes from old Celtic traditions and is not exclusive to Neopagan religions like Wicca.", "While the traditions of this holiday originate in Celtic countries, modern day Wiccans don't try to historically replicate Samhain celebrations.", "Some traditional Samhain rituals are still practised, but at its core, the period is treated as a time to celebrate darkness and the deada possible reason why Samhain can be confused with Halloween celebrations.\"" ], [ "Geography", "Halloween display in Kobe, JapanThe traditions and importance of Halloween vary greatly among countries that observe it.", "In Scotland and Ireland, traditional Halloween customs include children dressing up in costume going \"guising\", holding parties, while other practices in Ireland include lighting bonfires, and having firework displays.", "In Brittany children would play practical jokes by setting candles inside skulls in graveyards to frighten visitors.", "Mass transatlantic immigration in the 19th century popularized Halloween in North America, and celebration in the United States and Canada has had a significant impact on how the event is observed in other nations.", "This larger North American influence, particularly in iconic and commercial elements, has extended to places such as Brazil, Ecuador, Chile, Australia, New Zealand, (most) continental Europe, Finland, Japan, and other parts of East Asia." ], [ "Cost", "According to the National Retail Federation, Americans are expected to spend $12.2 billion on Halloween in 2023, up from $10.6 billion in 2022.Of this amount, $3.9 billion is projected to be spent on home decorations, up from $2.7 billion in 2019.The popularity of Halloween decorations has been growing in recent years, with retailers offering a wider range of increasingly elaborate and oversized decorations." ], [ "See also", "* Campfire story* Devil's Night* Dziady* Ghost Festival* Naraka Chaturdashi* Kekri* List of fiction works about Halloween* List of films set around Halloween* List of Halloween television specials* Martinisingen* Neewollah* Skelly (Halloween decoration)* St. John's Eve* Walpurgis Night* Will-o'-the-wisp* English festivals" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Diane C. Arkins, ''Halloween: Romantic Art and Customs of Yesteryear'', Pelican Publishing Company (2000).", "96 pages.", "* Diane C. Arkins, ''Halloween Merrymaking: An Illustrated Celebration Of Fun, Food, And Frolics From Halloweens Past'', Pelican Publishing Company (2004).", "112 pages.", "* Lesley Bannatyne, ''Halloween: An American Holiday, An American History'', Facts on File (1990, Pelican Publishing Company, 1998).", "180 pages.", "* Lesley Bannatyne, ''A Halloween Reader.", "Stories, Poems and Plays from Halloweens Past'', Pelican Publishing Company (2004).", "272 pages.", "* Phyllis Galembo, ''Dressed for Thrills: 100 Years of Halloween Costumes and Masquerade'', Harry N. Abrams, Inc. (2002).", "128 pages.", "* Editha Hörandner (ed.", "), ''Halloween in der Steiermark und anderswo'', ''Volkskunde (Münster in Westfalen)'', LIT Verlag Münster (2005).", "308 pages.", "* Lisa Morton, ''Trick or Treat A history of Halloween'', Reaktion Books (2012).", "229 pages.", "* Lisa Morton, ''The Halloween Encyclopedia'', McFarland & Company (2003).", "240 pages.", "* Nicholas Rogers, ''Halloween: From Pagan Ritual to Party Night'', Oxford University Press, US (2002).", "* Jack Santino (ed.", "), ''Halloween and Other Festivals of Death and Life'', University of Tennessee Press (1994).", "280 pages.", "* David J. Skal, ''Death Makes a Holiday: A Cultural History of Halloween'', Bloomsbury US (2003).", "224 pages.", "* James Tipper, ''Gods of The Nowhere: A Novel of Halloween'', Waxlight Press (2013).", "294 pages." ], [ "External links", "* * \"A brief history of Halloween\" by the BBC* \"All Hallows Eve (Halloween) in the Traditional, Pre-1955 Liturgical Books\" by the Liturgical Arts Journal* \"The History of Halloween\" by the History Channel" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hayling Island" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hayling Island''' is an island off the south coast of England, in the borough of Havant in the county of Hampshire, east of Portsmouth." ], [ "History", "Hayling Island between Selsey Bill and Portsea Island, seen from the west, with north to the leftAn Iron Age shrine in the north of Hayling Island was later developed into a Roman temple in the 1st century BC and was first recorded in Richard Scott's ''Topographical and Historical Account of Hayling Island'' (1826).", "The site was dug between 1897 and 1907 and again from 1976 to 1978.The remains are now buried under farmland.", "The first coin credited to Commius that was found in an archaeological dig was found at the temple.", "This Commius was probably the son of the Commius mentioned by Julius Caesar, although it is possible the coin was issued by the same Commius.Salt production was an industry on the island from the 11th century, and the Domesday Book records a saltpan on the island.", "This industry continued until the late 19th century.The monks of Jumièges Abbey, Normandy, began to build Northwode Chapel about 1140; this became the site of the present St Peter's Church, now the oldest surviving church on the island.", "St Peter's three bells, cast in about 1350, are one of the oldest peals in England.", "St Mary's Church is a standard design for the churches of its era, but the walls were built with a mortar of local shells and beach pebbles.", "The ancient yew tree in the churchyard is believed to be the oldest yew in the county, with a girth of some .", "Estimates of its age range from over a thousand to nearly two thousand years old.The grave of Princess Catherine Yurievskaya (1878–1959), a daughter of Alexander II of Russia, who lived in North Hayling for many years, is in St Peter's churchyard; and that of George Glas Sandeman, nephew of the founder of Sandeman Port and second head of that company, is prominent in the north-east part of St Mary's graveyard.In May 1944, the island was the location of a mock invasion during the military Exercise Fabius, rehearsing the preparations for D-Day.In 1982, the English Court of Appeal recognised prior art by Peter Chilvers, who in 1958 as a 12-year-old boy on Hayling Island assembled his first board combined with a sail.", "It had all the elements of the modern windsurfer.", "The court found that later innovations were \"merely an obvious extension\" and upheld the defendant's claim based on film footage.", "This court case set a significant precedent for patent law in the United Kingdom, in terms of Inventive step and non-obviousness.", "The case, Chilvers, Hayling, and a replica of Chilvers's original board were featured on an episode of the BBC's ''The One Show'' in 2009.On 20 October 2013, at least one hundred properties on the island were damaged when it was hit by a tornado.", "No injuries were reported." ], [ "Geography", "Hayling Island is a true island, surrounded by water.", "Looking at its north to south orientation, it is shaped like an inverted T, about long and wide.", "A road bridge connects its northern end to the mainland of England at Langstone.", "The Hayling Ferry is a small pedestrian ferry connecting to the Eastney area of the city of Portsmouth on the neighbouring Portsea Island.", "To the west is Langstone Harbour and to the east is Chichester Harbour.The natural beach at Hayling was predominantly sandy, but in recent years it has been mechanically topped with shingle dredged from the bed of the Solent in an effort to reduce beach erosion and reduce the potential to flood low-lying land.", "At low tide, the East Winner sandbank is visible, extending a mile out to sea.", "The coastline in this area has substantially changed since Roman times: it is believed much land has been lost from the coasts of Hayling and Selsey by erosion and subsequent flooding." ], [ "Climate", "As with the rest of the British Isles and Southern England, Hayling Island experiences a maritime climate with cool summers and mild winters.", "Temperatures have never fallen into double figures below freezing, illustrating the relative warmth of the island – comparable to the far southwest of England and its neighbour, the Isle of Wight.", "Temperature extremes between 1960 and 2010 have ranged from during January 1963, up to during June 1976." ], [ "Sport and leisure", "Beaches at Hayling IslandHayling Island has a non-League football club, Hayling United F.C., which plays at Hayling Park.Although largely residential, Hayling is also a holiday, windsurfing and sailing centre, the site where windsurfing was invented.In summer 2010, the Hayling Island Sailing Club hosted the 2010 World Laser Standard Senior and Junior Championships (27 August – 5 September).", "The Senior championship was won by Australian Tom Slingsby, whilst Dane Thorbjoern Schierup won the Junior competition.", "Today it is home to many different types of sailing, including a growing Fireball fleet.As a consequence of the island's popularity for water activities, there are two lifeboat services: Hayling Island Lifeboat Station, run by the RNLI and Hayling Island Rescue Service, an independent service run by retired RNLI helmsman, Frank Dunster.The island hosts one of the few active Real Tennis courts in the UK.", "Founded in 1911, Seacourt Tennis club is one of only a handful in the UK where it is possible to play every recognised racquet sport.", "The racquets court itself was opened by Sir Colin Cowdrey.Seacourt Tennis Club also hosts a weekly fencing club featuring all ages, levels and weapons.Hayling Golf Club clubhouseHayling Golf Club has been voted in the top 100 golf courses in the UK.", "A traditional links course, although relatively short by modern standards, the strong prevailing south-westerly winds, fast greens, gorse bushes and traditional deep links bunkers make this a stern test for any golfer.Hayling Seaside RailwayFunland, an amusement park situated at Beachlands, is open year-round, as is the Hayling Seaside Railway which runs from the funfair to Eastoke corner.The Hayling Billy Trail is a former light rail right-of-way which has been converted to one of many footpaths on the island.", "The Ordnance Survey Explorer 120 map covers the area and the local tourist information office supplies leaflets of local interest walks.The Station Theatre hosts a variety of plays staged by the Hayling Island Amateur Dramatics Society, Hayling Musical Society, musical events and films throughout the year.The island has several churches of different denominations including three Anglican churches; St Peter's at Northney, St Mary's at Gable Head and the more recently built St Andrew's in South Hayling." ], [ "Transport", "Station Theatre, West Town, Hayling IslandRemains of the old railway bridge linking Hayling Island to the mainland.", "The present road bridge can be seen to the right.Hayling Ferry links Portsmouth and Hayling Island.", "The ferry is busy in summer in good weather, bringing tourists and cyclists to Hayling.", "In winter, there was a significant reduction of use.", "The ferry service to and from Portsea Island was subsidised by the local authorities, leaving it under constant threat of closure due to limited resources.", "The ferry service ceased when the company running the ferry went into administration in March 2015.It was reopened in August 2016 by Baker Trayte Marine Ltd.During the ferry's closure, the only public connection between Hayling Island and the mainland was the single carriageway road linking Northney to Langstone Havant.", "In summer, in particular, this road can become very congested, rendering the journey between the bridge and South Hayling (the most populated area) anything from 30 minutes to an hour.", "A proposed Millennium project to create a new shared pedestrian and cycle bridge was unsuccessful.A railway to the island was active in the 19th and 20th centuries.", "It opened on 17 July 1867, coinciding with the local races.", "Terrier steam locomotives pulled carriages along the Hayling Billy Line from Havant Station on the mainland to a station which was located at the northern end of Staunton Avenue, passing through Langstone where there was a Halt.", "The railway was popular with tourists throughout the summer, though it saw little service in winter, and at peak times ran up to 24 services per day.", "Despite its popularity, the line was marked for closure in the Beeching Report owing to the prohibitive cost of replacing Langstone Bridge, which connected the island to the mainland, estimated at up to £400,000 to repair.", "Services ended on 3 November 1963, and the bridge was demolished in 1966.The remaining railway buildings are a goods shed, which has now been converted into a theatre run by HIADS, and a station, opposite the Ship Inn over the bridge.", "A railway gatehouse, located opposite Mill Lane, was burned down on 15 November 2018; no other building is believed to survive.A tourist attraction, the East Hayling Light Railway, is a gauge railway which runs for just over from Beachlands Station to Eastoke Corner with aspirations to extend the route to Ferry Point within the next few years.The nearest railway station to Hayling Island is Havant, just on to the mainland off Hayling Island.", "Alternatively, Portsmouth & Southsea is another railway station, used for connections to Bristol Temple Meads and Cardiff." ], [ "Notable people", "Peter Chilvers, inventor of the windsurferStephanie Lawrence, \"a musical actress of rare glamour\", dancer and star of West End musicals such as ''Evita'' and ''Starlight Express'', lived during her childhood on Hayling Island, where her parents ran Broadview House School on Beach Road.", "Gary Mehigan, chef and judge on ''MasterChef Australia'', was born and raised on Hayling Island.", "Herbert Arnould Olivier, a portrait and landscape painter, and uncle of Laurence Olivier, died on Hayling Island in 1952.", "William Padwick 1791–1861, purchased the manor and large estates from the Duke of Norfolk inheriting title and rights of 'Lord of the Manor'.", "Considerable involvement in the developing transport links to the island.", "Nevil Shute (Nevil Shute Norway), the Ealing-born aeronautical engineer and novelist, lived at Pond Head on Hayling Island during World War II.", "His novels include ''A Town Like Alice'' and ''On the Beach''.", "William Thomas Stead, notable political and social campaigner and journalist, had a home on Hayling Island – Hollybush House.", "He died with the sinking of the ''Titanic''.", "Martin White (1779–1846), hydrologist responsible for maritime mapping of areas including Jersey, English Channel, Bristol Channel and Irish Sea Princess Catherine Yurievskaya, the youngest daughter of Alexander II of Russia, lived on Hayling Island for many years and was buried at St Peter's church in 1959.", "Robert Thomas Brudenell-Bruce, was a Commodore of the Royal Navy, inherited Deene Park in Northamptonshire.", "Before inheriting Deene Park the family lived on Hayling Island.", "The west window of St Mary's Church, Hayling Island was installed to his memoryMaurice Wilks, automotive and aeronautical engineer, was born at Eastoke, Hayling Island on 19 August 1904.He became chairman of the Rover Car Company, and was involved in the development of the Land Rover.", "He also led Rover's involvement in the development of the jet engine during World War II." ], [ "Hayling oysterbeds", "Oyster beds in Hayling IslandOysters have been fished on the Hayling oysterbeds, at the northwest corner of the island, from as long ago as Roman times, documented in town records since 1615.The oysters were actively farmed between as early as 1819 until the 1970s.", "Oysters became a delicacy that was exported throughout the country under the classification of \"Emsworth Oysters\".", "Large complexes consisting of several pens separated by a series of bund walls and sluice gates were built to contain the oysters at varying stages of growth.", "Although large sections of the walls have since collapsed into the harbour, much of shape and scale of the beds can still be seen today.In 1996, the oyster beds on the north west coast of Hayling Island were restored by the Havant Borough Council, creating a wildlife haven which has become an important seabird breeding site.", "The Design Council awarded this project 'Millennium Product' status for the renovation." ], [ "Twinning", "Hayling Island started twinning with Gorron, France, in 1997, after many years of social exchanges between the two communities rather than the normal council-led route.", "Charters were signed and exchanged in 1998 and are now displayed in the library in Elm Grove.", "In recognition of the twinning Gorron appears on the welcome signs, there is also a 'twinning' tree outside the library and a Gorron roundabout at Beachlands.", "Gorron has similar recognitions including the 'Rue de Hayling Island' – previously Rue Victor Hugo." ], [ "Paris to Hayling cycle ride", "The island is the home of the Hayling Charity Cycle Ride which organises an annual charity cycle ride most often from Hayling Island to Paris and back.", "This event, run entirely by local unpaid volunteers, was started in 1986 by local cyclist Peter McQuade and has been run every year since.", "Up to 2023 over £1,800,000 had been collected for more than 500 good causes.", "Entrants have come from 15 different countries on five continents.", "Based on their research the organisers believe it may be the oldest long distance charity ride in the world." ], [ "Population", "In the mid- to late 20th century, Hayling Island's population was known to double during the summer months, due to a large influx of holiday makers and the associated tourism employees to accommodate.", "As domestic holidays have declined and Hayling's prominence as a traditional English seaside resort have followed in parallel, the population only swells by approximately 20%–25% (English Tourist Board estimate, 2001).", "Population Date ~300 1086 (Domesday Book) 578 1801 (census) >1,600 1901 >5,500 1950 16,887 2001 (census, usually resident population) 17,379 2011 (census)" ], [ "List of settlements", "MenghamNorthneyEastokeWest TownSinahSandy PointSouth HaylingGable HeadFerry Point Mill RytheTournerburyStokeTyeThe island's place-names are discussed in an online work by Richard Coates (2007)." ], [ "Places of interest", "East Hayling Light RailwayFunlandHam FieldHayling Billy TrailHayling Island Sailing Club, Sandy Point (AKA Black Point)Northney MarinaSeacourt Tennis ClubSparkes MarinaStation TheatreSt Mary's Church, Gable HeadSt. Peter's Church, NorthneyThe Hayling Ferry (Ferry reopened August 2016 after a year out of service) The Kench, near Ferry PointThe RNLI Lifeboat station at Sandy Point" ], [ "See also", "*List of places of worship in the Borough of Havant" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hahn–Banach theorem" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Hahn–Banach theorem''' is a central tool in functional analysis.", "It allows the extension of bounded linear functionals defined on a vector subspace of some vector space to the whole space, and it also shows that there are \"enough\" continuous linear functionals defined on every normed vector space to make the study of the dual space \"interesting\".", "Another version of the Hahn–Banach theorem is known as the '''Hahn–Banach separation theorem''' or the hyperplane separation theorem, and has numerous uses in convex geometry." ], [ "History", "The theorem is named for the mathematicians Hans Hahn and Stefan Banach, who proved it independently in the late 1920s.", "The special case of the theorem for the space of continuous functions on an interval was proved earlier (in 1912) by Eduard Helly, and a more general extension theorem, the M. Riesz extension theorem, from which the Hahn–Banach theorem can be derived, was proved in 1923 by Marcel Riesz.The first Hahn–Banach theorem was proved by Eduard Helly in 1912 who showed that certain linear functionals defined on a subspace of a certain type of normed space () had an extension of the same norm.", "Helly did this through the technique of first proving that a one-dimensional extension exists (where the linear functional has its domain extended by one dimension) and then using induction.", "In 1927, Hahn defined general Banach spaces and used Helly's technique to prove a norm-preserving version of Hahn–Banach theorem for Banach spaces (where a bounded linear functional on a subspace has a bounded linear extension of the same norm to the whole space).", "In 1929, Banach, who was unaware of Hahn's result, generalized it by replacing the norm-preserving version with the dominated extension version that uses sublinear functions.", "Whereas Helly's proof used mathematical induction, Hahn and Banach both used transfinite induction.The Hahn–Banach theorem arose from attempts to solve infinite systems of linear equations.", "This is needed to solve problems such as the moment problem, whereby given all the potential moments of a function one must determine if a function having these moments exists, and, if so, find it in terms of those moments.", "Another such problem is the Fourier cosine series problem, whereby given all the potential Fourier cosine coefficients one must determine if a function having those coefficients exists, and, again, find it if so.Riesz and Helly solved the problem for certain classes of spaces (such as and ) where they discovered that the existence of a solution was equivalent to the existence and continuity of certain linear functionals.", "In effect, they needed to solve the following problem: :('''''') Given a collection of bounded linear functionals on a normed space and a collection of scalars determine if there is an such that for all If happens to be a reflexive space then to solve the vector problem, it suffices to solve the following dual problem::('''The functional problem''') Given a collection of vectors in a normed space and a collection of scalars determine if there is a bounded linear functional on such that for all Riesz went on to define space () in 1910 and the spaces in 1913.While investigating these spaces he proved a special case of the Hahn–Banach theorem.", "Helly also proved a special case of the Hahn–Banach theorem in 1912.In 1910, Riesz solved the functional problem for some specific spaces and in 1912, Helly solved it for a more general class of spaces.", "It wasn't until 1932 that Banach, in one of the first important applications of the Hahn–Banach theorem, solved the general functional problem.", "The following theorem states the general functional problem and characterizes its solution.The Hahn–Banach theorem can be deduced from the above theorem.", "If is reflexive then this theorem solves the vector problem." ], [ "Hahn–Banach theorem", "A real-valued function defined on a subset of is said to be a function if for every Hence the reason why the following version of the Hahn–Banach theorem is called .", "The theorem remains true if the requirements on are relaxed to require only that be a convex function: A function is convex and satisfies if and only if for all vectors and all non-negative real such that Every sublinear function is a convex function.", "On the other hand, if is convex with then the function defined by is positively homogeneous (because for all and one has ), hence, being convex, it is sublinear.", "It is also bounded above by and satisfies for every linear functional So the extension of the Hahn–Banach theorem to convex functionals does not have a much larger content than the classical one stated for sublinear functionals.If is linear then if and only if which is the (equivalent) conclusion that some authors write instead of It follows that if is also , meaning that holds for all then if and only Every norm is a seminorm and both are symmetric balanced sublinear functions.", "A sublinear function is a seminorm if and only if it is a balanced function.", "On a real vector space (although not on a complex vector space), a sublinear function is a seminorm if and only if it is symmetric.", "The identity function on is an example of a sublinear function that is not a seminorm.", "===For complex or real vector spaces===The dominated extension theorem for real linear functionals implies the following alternative statement of the Hahn–Banach theorem that can be applied to linear functionals on real or complex vector spaces.", "The theorem remains true if the requirements on are relaxed to require only that for all and all scalars and satisfying This condition holds if and only if is a convex and balanced function satisfying or equivalently, if and only if it is convex, satisfies and for all and all unit length scalars A complex-valued functional is said to be if for all in the domain of With this terminology, the above statements of the Hahn–Banach theorem can be restated more succinctly::'''Hahn–Banach dominated extension theorem''': If is a seminorm defined on a real or complex vector space then every dominated linear functional defined on a vector subspace of has a dominated linear extension to all of In the case where is a real vector space and is merely a convex or sublinear function, this conclusion will remain true if both instances of \"dominated\" (meaning ) are weakened to instead mean \"dominated \" (meaning ).", "'''Proof'''The following observations allow the Hahn–Banach theorem for real vector spaces to be applied to (complex-valued) linear functionals on complex vector spaces.Every linear functional on a complex vector space is completely determined by its real part through the formula and moreover, if is a norm on then their dual norms are equal: In particular, a linear functional on extends another one defined on if and only if their real parts are equal on (in other words, a linear functional extends if and only if extends ).", "The real part of a linear functional on is always a (meaning that it is linear when is considered as a real vector space) and if is a real-linear functional on a complex vector space then defines the unique linear functional on whose real part is If is a linear functional on a (complex or real) vector space and if is a seminorm then Stated in simpler language, a linear functional is dominated by a seminorm if and only if its real part is dominated above by The proof above shows that when is a seminorm then there is a one-to-one correspondence between dominated linear extensions of and dominated real-linear extensions of the proof even gives a formula for explicitly constructing a linear extension of from any given real-linear extension of its real part.", "'''Continuity'''A linear functional on a topological vector space is continuous if and only if this is true of its real part if the domain is a normed space then (where one side is infinite if and only if the other side is infinite).", "Assume is a topological vector space and is sublinear function.", "If is a continuous sublinear function that dominates a linear functional then is necessarily continuous.", "Moreover, a linear functional is continuous if and only if its absolute value (which is a seminorm that dominates ) is continuous.", "In particular, a linear functional is continuous if and only if it is dominated by some continuous sublinear function.===Proof===The Hahn–Banach theorem for real vector spaces ultimately follows from Helly's initial result for the special case where the linear functional is extended from to a larger vector space in which has codimension This lemma remains true if is merely a convex function instead of a sublinear function.", "Assume that is convex, which means that for all and Let and be as in the lemma's statement.", "Given any and any positive real the positive real numbers and sum to so that the convexity of on guaranteesand hencethus proving that which after multiplying both sides by becomes This implies that the values defined by are real numbers that satisfy As in the above proof of the one–dimensional dominated extension theorem above, for any real define by It can be verified that if then where follows from when (respectively, follows from when ).The lemma above is the key step in deducing the dominated extension theorem from Zorn's lemma.", "When has countable codimension, then using induction and the lemma completes the proof of the Hahn–Banach theorem.", "The standard proof of the general case uses Zorn's lemma although the strictly weaker ultrafilter lemma (which is equivalent to the compactness theorem and to the Boolean prime ideal theorem) may be used instead.", "Hahn–Banach can also be proved using Tychonoff's theorem for compact Hausdorff spaces (which is also equivalent to the ultrafilter lemma)The Mizar project has completely formalized and automatically checked the proof of the Hahn–Banach theorem in the HAHNBAN file." ], [ "Continuous extension theorem", "The Hahn–Banach theorem can be used to guarantee the existence of continuous linear extensions of continuous linear functionals.In category-theoretic terms, the underlying field of the vector space is an injective object in the category of locally convex vector spaces.On a normed (or seminormed) space, a linear extension of a bounded linear functional is said to be if it has the same dual norm as the original functional: Because of this terminology, the second part of the above theorem is sometimes referred to as the \"norm-preserving\" version of the Hahn–Banach theorem.", "Explicitly:===Proof of the continuous extension theorem===The following observations allow the continuous extension theorem to be deduced from the Hahn–Banach theorem.", "The absolute value of a linear functional is always a seminorm.", "A linear functional on a topological vector space is continuous if and only if its absolute value is continuous, which happens if and only if there exists a continuous seminorm on such that on the domain of If is a locally convex space then this statement remains true when the linear functional is defined on a vector subspace of '''Proof for normed spaces'''A linear functional on a normed space is continuous if and only if it is bounded, which means that its dual norm is finite, in which case holds for every point in its domain.", "Moreover, if is such that for all in the functional's domain, then necessarily If is a linear extension of a linear functional then their dual norms always satisfy so that equality is equivalent to which holds if and only if for every point in the extension's domain.", "This can be restated in terms of the function defined by which is always a seminorm::A linear extension of a bounded linear functional is norm-preserving if and only if the extension is dominated by the seminorm Applying the Hahn–Banach theorem to with this seminorm thus produces a dominated linear extension whose norm is (necessarily) equal to that of which proves the theorem:===Non-locally convex spaces===The continuous extension theorem might fail if the topological vector space (TVS) is not locally convex.", "For example, for the Lebesgue space is a complete metrizable TVS (an F-space) that is locally convex (in fact, its only convex open subsets are itself and the empty set) and the only continuous linear functional on is the constant function .", "Since is Hausdorff, every finite-dimensional vector subspace is linearly homeomorphic to Euclidean space or (by F. Riesz's theorem) and so every non-zero linear functional on is continuous but none has a continuous linear extension to all of However, it is possible for a TVS to not be locally convex but nevertheless have enough continuous linear functionals that its continuous dual space separates points; for such a TVS, a continuous linear functional defined on a vector subspace have a continuous linear extension to the whole space.", "If the TVS is not locally convex then there might not exist any continuous seminorm (not just on ) that dominates in which case the Hahn–Banach theorem can not be applied as it was in the above proof of the continuous extension theorem.", "However, the proof's argument can be generalized to give a characterization of when a continuous linear functional has a continuous linear extension: If is any TVS (not necessarily locally convex), then a continuous linear functional defined on a vector subspace has a continuous linear extension to all of if and only if there exists some continuous seminorm on that dominates Specifically, if given a continuous linear extension then is a continuous seminorm on that dominates and conversely, if given a continuous seminorm on that dominates then any dominated linear extension of to (the existence of which is guaranteed by the Hahn–Banach theorem) will be a continuous linear extension." ], [ "Geometric Hahn–Banach (the Hahn–Banach separation theorems)", "The key element of the Hahn–Banach theorem is fundamentally a result about the separation of two convex sets: and This sort of argument appears widely in convex geometry, optimization theory, and economics.", "Lemmas to this end derived from the original Hahn–Banach theorem are known as the '''Hahn–Banach separation theorems'''.", "They are generalizations of the hyperplane separation theorem, which states that two disjoint nonempty convex subsets of a finite-dimensional space can be separated by some , which is a fiber (level set) of the form where is a non-zero linear functional and is a scalar.", "When the convex sets have additional properties, such as being open or compact for example, then the conclusion can be substantially strengthened:Then following important corollary is known as the '''Geometric Hahn–Banach theorem''' or '''Mazur's theorem''' (also known as '''Ascoli–Mazur theorem''').", "It follows from the first bullet above and the convexity of Mazur's theorem clarifies that vector subspaces (even those that are not closed) can be characterized by linear functionals.", "===Supporting hyperplanes===Since points are trivially convex, geometric Hahn–Banach implies that functionals can detect the boundary of a set.", "In particular, let be a real topological vector space and be convex with If then there is a functional that is vanishing at but supported on the interior of Call a normed space '''smooth''' if at each point in its unit ball there exists a unique closed hyperplane to the unit ball at Köthe showed in 1983 that a normed space is smooth at a point if and only if the norm is Gateaux differentiable at that point.===Balanced or disked neighborhoods===Let be a convex balanced neighborhood of the origin in a locally convex topological vector space and suppose is not an element of Then there exists a continuous linear functional on such that" ], [ "Applications", "The Hahn–Banach theorem is the first sign of an important philosophy in functional analysis: to understand a space, one should understand its continuous functionals.For example, linear subspaces are characterized by functionals: if is a normed vector space with linear subspace (not necessarily closed) and if is an element of not in the closure of , then there exists a continuous linear map with for all and (To see this, note that is a sublinear function.)", "Moreover, if is an element of , then there exists a continuous linear map such that and This implies that the natural injection from a normed space into its double dual is isometric.That last result also suggests that the Hahn–Banach theorem can often be used to locate a \"nicer\" topology in which to work.", "For example, many results in functional analysis assume that a space is Hausdorff or locally convex.", "However, suppose is a topological vector space, not necessarily Hausdorff or locally convex, but with a nonempty, proper, convex, open set .", "Then geometric Hahn–Banach implies that there is a hyperplane separating from any other point.", "In particular, there must exist a nonzero functional on — that is, the continuous dual space is non-trivial.", "Considering with the weak topology induced by then becomes locally convex; by the second bullet of geometric Hahn–Banach, the weak topology on this new space separates points.", "Thus with this weak topology becomes Hausdorff.", "This sometimes allows some results from locally convex topological vector spaces to be applied to non-Hausdorff and non-locally convex spaces.===Partial differential equations===The Hahn–Banach theorem is often useful when one wishes to apply the method of a priori estimates.", "Suppose that we wish to solve the linear differential equation for with given in some Banach space .", "If we have control on the size of in terms of and we can think of as a bounded linear functional on some suitable space of test functions then we can view as a linear functional by adjunction: At first, this functional is only defined on the image of but using the Hahn–Banach theorem, we can try to extend it to the entire codomain .", "The resulting functional is often defined to be a weak solution to the equation.===Characterizing reflexive Banach spaces======Example from Fredholm theory===To illustrate an actual application of the Hahn–Banach theorem, we will now prove a result that follows almost entirely from the Hahn–Banach theorem.The above result may be used to show that every closed vector subspace of is complemented because any such space is either finite dimensional or else TVS–isomorphic to" ], [ "Generalizations", "'''General template'''There are now many other versions of the Hahn–Banach theorem.", "The general template for the various versions of the Hahn–Banach theorem presented in this article is as follows:: is a sublinear function (possibly a seminorm) on a vector space is a vector subspace of (possibly closed), and is a linear functional on satisfying on (and possibly some other conditions).", "One then concludes that there exists a linear extension of to such that on (possibly with additional properties).===For seminorms===So for example, suppose that is a bounded linear functional defined on a vector subspace of a normed space so its the operator norm is a non-negative real number.", "Then the linear functional's absolute value is a seminorm on and the map defined by is a seminorm on that satisfies on The Hahn–Banach theorem for seminorms guarantees the existence of a seminorm that is equal to on (since ) and is bounded above by everywhere on (since ).===Geometric separation======Maximal dominated linear extension===If is a singleton set (where is some vector) and if is such a maximal dominated linear extension of then ===Vector valued Hahn–Banach======Invariant Hahn–Banach===A set of maps is (with respect to function composition ) if for all Say that a function defined on a subset of is if and on for every This theorem may be summarized::Every -invariant continuous linear functional defined on a vector subspace of a normed space has a -invariant Hahn–Banach extension to all of ===For nonlinear functions===The following theorem of Mazur–Orlicz (1953) is equivalent to the Hahn–Banach theorem.The following theorem characterizes when scalar function on (not necessarily linear) has a continuous linear extension to all of" ], [ "Converse", "Let be a topological vector space.", "A vector subspace of has '''the extension property''' if any continuous linear functional on can be extended to a continuous linear functional on , and we say that has the '''Hahn–Banach extension property''' ('''HBEP''') if every vector subspace of has the extension property.The Hahn–Banach theorem guarantees that every Hausdorff locally convex space has the HBEP.", "For complete metrizable topological vector spaces there is a converse, due to Kalton: every complete metrizable TVS with the Hahn–Banach extension property is locally convex.", "On the other hand, a vector space of uncountable dimension, endowed with the finest vector topology, then this is a topological vector spaces with the Hahn–Banach extension property that is neither locally convex nor metrizable.A vector subspace of a TVS has '''the separation property''' if for every element of such that there exists a continuous linear functional on such that and for all Clearly, the continuous dual space of a TVS separates points on if and only if has the separation property.", "In 1992, Kakol proved that any infinite dimensional vector space , there exist TVS-topologies on that do not have the HBEP despite having enough continuous linear functionals for the continuous dual space to separate points on .", "However, if is a TVS then vector subspace of has the extension property if and only if vector subspace of has the separation property." ], [ "Relation to axiom of choice and other theorems", "The proof of the Hahn–Banach theorem for real vector spaces ('''HB''') commonly uses Zorn's lemma, which in the axiomatic framework of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory ('''ZF''') is equivalent to the axiom of choice ('''AC''').", "It was discovered by Łoś and Ryll-Nardzewski and independently by Luxemburg that '''HB''' can be proved using the ultrafilter lemma ('''UL'''), which is equivalent (under '''ZF''') to the Boolean prime ideal theorem ('''BPI''').", "'''BPI''' is strictly weaker than the axiom of choice and it was later shown that '''HB''' is strictly weaker than '''BPI'''.The ultrafilter lemma is equivalent (under '''ZF''') to the Banach–Alaoglu theorem, which is another foundational theorem in functional analysis.", "Although the Banach–Alaoglu theorem implies '''HB''', it is not equivalent to it (said differently, the Banach–Alaoglu theorem is strictly stronger than '''HB''').", "However, '''HB''' is equivalent to a certain weakened version of the Banach–Alaoglu theorem for normed spaces.", "The Hahn–Banach theorem is also equivalent to the following statement::(∗): On every Boolean algebra there exists a \"probability charge\", that is: a non-constant finitely additive map from into ('''BPI''' is equivalent to the statement that there are always non-constant probability charges which take only the values 0 and 1.", ")In '''ZF''', the Hahn–Banach theorem suffices to derive the existence of a non-Lebesgue measurable set.", "Moreover, the Hahn–Banach theorem implies the Banach–Tarski paradox.For separable Banach spaces, D. K. Brown and S. G. Simpson proved that the Hahn–Banach theorem follows from WKL0, a weak subsystem of second-order arithmetic that takes a form of Kőnig's lemma restricted to binary trees as an axiom.", "In fact, they prove that under a weak set of assumptions, the two are equivalent, an example of reverse mathematics." ], [ "See also", "* * * * " ], [ "Notes", "'''Proofs'''" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", " * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Reed, Michael and Simon, Barry, ''Methods of Modern Mathematical Physics, Vol.", "1, Functional Analysis,'' Section III.3.Academic Press, San Diego, 1980..* * * * * * * * Tao, Terence, The Hahn–Banach theorem, Menger's theorem, and Helly's theorem* * * Wittstock, Gerd, Ein operatorwertiger Hahn-Banach Satz, J. of Functional Analysis 40 (1981), 127–150* Zeidler, Eberhard, ''Applied Functional Analysis: main principles and their applications'', Springer, 1995.", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hampshire" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hampshire''' (, ; abbreviated to '''Hants.''')", "is a ceremonial county in South East England.", "It is bordered by Berkshire to the north, Surrey and West Sussex to the east, the Isle of Wight across the Solent to the south, Dorset to the west, and Wiltshire to the north-west.", "The city of Southampton is the largest settlement, and the county town is the city of Winchester.The county has an area of and a population of 1,844,245, making it the 5th-most populous in England.", "The South Hampshire built-up area in the south-east of the county has a population of 855,569 and contains the cities of Southampton (269,781) and Portsmouth (208,100).", "In the north-east, the Farnborough/Aldershot conurbation extends into Berkshire and Surrey and has a population of 252,937.The next-largest settlements are Basingstoke (113,776), Andover (50,887), and Winchester (45,184).", "The centre and south-west of the county are rural.", "For local government purposes Hampshire comprises a non-metropolitan county, with eleven districts, and two unitary authority areas: Portsmouth and Southampton.", "The county historically contained the towns of Bournemouth and Christchurch, which are now part of Dorset, and the Isle of Wight.Undulating hills characterise much of the county.", "A belt of chalk crosses the county from north-west, where it forms the Hampshire Downs, to south-east, where it is part of the South Downs.", "The county's major rivers rise in these hills; the Loddon and Wey drain north, into the Thames, and the Itchen and Test flow south into Southampton Water, a large estuary.", "In the south-east are Portsmouth Harbour, Langstone Harbour, and the western edge of Chichester Harbour, three large rias.", "The south-west contains the New Forest, which includes pasture, heath, and forest and is of the largest expanses of ancient woodland remaining in England.Settled about 14,000 years ago, Hampshire's recorded history dates to Roman Britain, when its chief town was Venta Belgarum (now Winchester).", "The county was recorded in Domesday Book as divided into 44 hundreds.", "From the 12th century, the ports settlements grew due to increasing trade with the European mainland resulting from the wool and cloth, fishing, and shipbuilding industries.", "This meant by the 16th century, Southampton had become more populous than Winchester.", "In 20th century conflicts, including World War One and Two, Hampshire played a crucial military role due to its ports." ], [ "Toponymy", "The Saxon settlement at Southampton was known as , while the surrounding area or was called .", "The old name was recorded in the Domesday book as , and it is from this spelling that the modern abbreviation \"Hants\" derives.", "From 1889 until 1959, the administrative county was named the '''County of Southampton'''.", "It has also been called '''Southamptonshire'''.Hampshire was a departure point for several groups of colonists who left England to settle on the east coast of North America during the 17th century, and many inhabitants of Hampshire settled there, naming the land New Hampshire in honour of their original homeland." ], [ "History", "===Before the Roman Conquest===The region is believed to have been continuously occupied since the end of the last Ice Age about 12,000 BCE.", "At that time sea levels were lower and Britain was still attached by a land bridge to the European continent and predominantly covered with deciduous woodland.", "The first inhabitants were Mesolithic hunter-gatherers.", "The majority of the population would have been concentrated around the river valleys.", "Over several thousand years the climate became progressively warmer and sea levels rose; the English Channel, which started out as a river, was a major inlet by 8000 BCE, although Britain was still connected to Europe by a land bridge across the North Sea until 6500 BCE.", "Notable sites from this period include Bouldnor Cliff.Danebury Fort – aerial imageAgriculture was being practised in southern Britain by 4000 BCE and with it a neolithic culture.", "Some deforestation took place at that time, although during the Bronze Age, beginning in 2200 BCE, it became more widespread and systematic.", "Hampshire has few monuments to show from those early periods, although nearby Stonehenge was built in several phases at some time between 3100 and 2200 BCE.", "In the very late Bronze Age fortified hilltop settlements known as hillforts began to appear in large numbers in many parts of Britain including Hampshire, and they became more and more important in the early and middle Iron Age; many of them are still visible in the landscape today and can be visited, notably Danebury Rings, the subject of a major study by archaeologist Barry Cunliffe.", "By that period the people of Britain predominantly spoke a Celtic language, and their culture shared much in common with the Celts described by classical writers.", "The town of Bitterne (''Byterne'' in a reference from the late 11th century.)", "shares the same root as the River Erne, suggesting the name refers to the Iverni.Hillforts largely declined in importance in the second half of the second century BCE, with many being abandoned.", "Probably around that period the first recorded invasion of Britain took place, as southern Britain was largely conquered by warrior-elites from Belgic tribes of northeastern Gaul, but whether those two events were linked to the decline of hillforts is unknown.", "By the time of the Roman conquest the ''oppidum'' at Venta Belgarum, modern-day Winchester, was the ''de facto'' regional administrative centre; Winchester was, however, of secondary importance to the Roman-style town of Calleva Atrebatum, modern Silchester, built further north by a dominant Belgic polity known as the Atrebates in the 50s BCE.", "Julius Caesar invaded south-eastern England briefly in 55 and again in 54 BCE, but he never reached Hampshire.", "Notable sites from this period include Hengistbury Head (now in Dorset), which was a major port.===The Roman Era===The Romans invaded Britain again in 43 CE and Hampshire was incorporated into the Roman province of Britannia very quickly.", "It is generally believed their political leaders allowed themselves to be incorporated peacefully.", "Venta became the capital of the administrative polity of the Belgae, which included most of Hampshire and Wiltshire and reached as far as Bath.", "Whether the people of Hampshire played any role in Boudicca's rebellion of 60–61 is not recorded, but evidence of burning is seen in Winchester dated to around that period.", "For most of the next three centuries southern Britain enjoyed relative peace.", "During the later part of the Roman period most towns built defensive walls; a pottery industry based in the New Forest exported items widely across southern Britain.", "A fortification near Southampton was called Clausentum, part of the Saxon Shore forts, traditionally seen as defences against maritime raids by Germanic tribes.Photograph of Portchester Castle in June 1938Portus Adurni was a Roman fort situated at the north end of Portsmouth Harbour.", "It was part of the Saxon Shore, and is the best-preserved Roman fort north of the Alps.", "Around an eighth of the fort has been excavated.", "A Norman keep was added in the Middle Ages, now known as Portchester Castle.", "The Romans withdrew from Britain in 410.Plaque on Freemantle Common marking the route of the Roman Road from Chichester to BitterneTwo major Roman roads, Ermin Way and Port Way, cross the north of the county connecting Calleva Atrebatum with Corinium Dobunnorum, modern Cirencester, and Old Sarum respectively.", "Other roads connected Venta Belgarum with Old Sarum, Wickham and Clausentum.", "A road presumed to diverge from the Chichester to Silchester Way at Wickham connected Noviomagus Reginorum, modern Chichester, with Clausentum.===The Jutes===Records are sparse for the next 300 years, but later chroniclers speak of an influx of Jutes – an amalgam of Cimbri, Teutons, Gutones and Charudes called ''Eudoses'', ''Eotenas'', ''Iutae'' or ''Euthiones'' in other sources - and recorded by Bede in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People in the early eighth century:They initially settled Hampshire under Visigothic authority sometime after 476 AD, forming several distinct folklands organized around a central geographical feature.", "Various place-names identify locations as Jutish, including Bishopstoke (''Ytingstoc''), the River Itchen (''Ytene'') and the Meon Valley (''Ytedene'').", "There in fact appear to be at least two Jutish folklands in Hampshire: one established along the River Itchen and one along the River Meon.", "Evidence of an early Germanic settlement has been found at Clausentum, dated to the fifth century and likely the Visigothic center of power in the area, either independently or in conjunction with powerful Romano-British trading ports.", "Nevertheless, Visigothic authority waned after 517 A.D and the settlements were gradually encroached upon by South Saxons.===The Saxons===The West Saxons moved south in the late seventh century and incorporated Hampshire into their kingdom.", "Around this period, the administrative region of \"Hampshire\" seems to appear - the name is attested as Hamwic and \"Hamtunscir\" in 755 AD - and suggests that control over the Solent was the motivating factor for establishment of the settlement.Wessex, with its capital at Winchester, gradually expanded westwards into Brythonic Dorset and Somerset.", "A statue in Winchester celebrates the powerful King Alfred, who repulsed the Vikings and stabilised the region in the 9th century.", "A scholar as well as a soldier, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a powerful tool in the development of the English identity, was commissioned in his reign.", "King Alfred proclaimed himself \"King of England\" in 886 AD; but Athelstan of Wessex did not officially control the whole of England until 927 AD.===Middle Ages onwards===Hand-drawn map of Hampshire by Christopher Saxton from 1577By the Norman conquest, London had overtaken Winchester as the largest city in England and after the Norman Conquest, King William I made London his capital.", "While the centre of political power moved away from Hampshire, Winchester remained an important city; the proximity of the New Forest to Winchester made it a prized royal hunting forest; King William Rufus was killed while hunting there in 1100.There were 44 hundreds, covering 483 named places, recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086 which are in present-day Hampshire and part of Sussex.", "From the 12th century, the ports grew in importance, fuelled by trade with the continent, wool and cloth manufacture in the county, and the fishing industry, and a shipbuilding industry was established.", "By 1523 at the latest, the population of Southampton had outstripped that of Winchester.Portsmouth historic dockyard, 2005Over several centuries, a series of castles and forts was constructed along the coast of the Solent to defend the harbours at Southampton and Portsmouth.", "These include the Roman Portchester Castle which overlooks Portsmouth Harbour, and a series of forts built by Henry VIII including Hurst Castle, situated on a sand spit at the mouth of the Solent, Calshot Castle on another spit at the mouth of Southampton Water, and Netley Castle.", "Southampton and Portsmouth remained important harbours when rivals, such as Poole and Bristol, declined, as they are amongst the few locations that combine shelter with deep water.", "''Mayflower'' and ''Speedwell'' set sail for America from Southampton in 1620.During the English Civil War (1642–1651) there were several skirmishes in Hampshire between the Royalist and Parliamentarian forces.", "Principal engagements were the Siege of Basing House between 1643 and 1645, and the Battle of Cheriton in 1644; both were significant Parliamentarian victories.", "Other clashes included the Battle of Alton in 1643, where the commander of the Royalist forces was killed in the pulpit of the parish church, and the Siege of Portsmouth in 1642.By the mid-19th century, with the county's population at 219,210 (double that at the beginning of the century) in more than 86,000 dwellings, agriculture was the principal industry (10 per cent of the county was still forest) with cereals, peas, hops, honey, sheep and hogs important.", "Due to Hampshire's long association with pigs and boars, natives of the county have been known as ''Hampshire hogs'' since the 18th century.", "In the eastern part of the county the principal port was Portsmouth (with its naval base, population 95,000), while several ports (including Southampton, with its steam docks, population 47,000) in the western part were significant.", "In 1868, the number of people employed in manufacture exceeded those in agriculture, engaged in silk, paper, sugar and lace industries, ship building and salt works.", "Coastal towns engaged in fishing and exporting agricultural produce.", "Several places were popular for seasonal sea bathing.", "The ports employed large numbers of workers, both land-based and seagoing; ''Titanic'', lost on her maiden voyage in 1912, was crewed largely by residents of Southampton.On 16 October 1908, Samuel Franklin Cody made the first powered flight of in the United Kingdom at Farnborough, then home to the Army Balloon Factory.===Modern era===Hampshire played a crucial role in both World Wars due to the large Royal Navy naval base at Portsmouth, the army camp at Aldershot, and the military Netley Hospital on Southampton Water, as well as its proximity to the army training ranges on Salisbury Plain and the Isle of Purbeck.", "Supermarine, the designers of the Spitfire and other military aircraft, were based in Southampton, which led to severe bombing of the city in World War II.", "Aldershot remains one of the British Army's main permanent camps.", "Farnborough is a major centre for the aviation industry.During World War II, the Beaulieu estate of Lord Montagu in the New Forest was the site of several group B finishing schools for agents operated by the Special Operations Executive (SOE) between 1941 and 1945.", "(One of the trainers was Kim Philby who was later found to be part of a spy ring passing information to the Soviets.)", "In 2005, a special exhibition was established at the Estate, with a video showing photographs from that era as well as voice recordings of former SOE trainers and agents.Although the Isle of Wight has at times been part of Hampshire, it has been administratively independent for over a century, obtaining a county council of its own in 1890.The Isle of Wight became a full ceremonial county in 1974.Apart from a shared police force, no formal administrative links now exist between the Isle of Wight and Hampshire, though many organisations still combine Hampshire and the Isle of Wight.In the 1970s, local government reorganisation led to a reduction in Hampshire's size; in 1974, the towns of Bournemouth and Christchurch were transferred to Dorset." ], [ "Geography", "Hampshire is bordered by Dorset to the west, Wiltshire to the north-west, Berkshire to the north, Surrey to the north-east, and West Sussex to the east.", "The southern boundary is the coastline of the English Channel and the Solent, facing the Isle of Wight.", "It is the largest county in South East England and remains the third largest shire county in the United Kingdom despite losing more land than any other English county in all contemporary boundary changes.", "At its greatest size in 1890, Hampshire was the fifth-largest county in England.", "It now has an overall area of , and measures about east–west and north–south.===Geology===Hampshire's geology falls into two categories.", "In the south, along the coast is the \"Hampshire Basin\", an area of relatively non-resistant Eocene and Oligocene clays and gravels which are protected from sea erosion by the Isle of Purbeck, Dorset, and the Isle of Wight.", "These low, flat lands support heathland and woodland habitats, a large area of which forms part of the New Forest.", "The New Forest has a mosaic of heathland, grassland, coniferous and deciduous woodland habitats that host diverse wildlife.", "The forest is protected as a national park, limiting development and agricultural use to protect the landscape and wildlife.", "Large areas of the New Forest are open common lands kept as a grassland plagioclimax by grazing animals, including domesticated cattle, pigs and horses, and several wild deer species.", "Erosion of the weak rock and sea level change flooding the low land has carved several large estuaries and rias, notably the long Southampton Water and the large convoluted Portsmouth Harbour.", "The Isle of Wight lies off the coast of Hampshire where the non-resistant rock has been eroded away, forming the Solent.A 2014 study found that Hampshire shares significant reserves of shale oil with other neighbouring counties, totalling 4.4 billion barrels of oil, which then Business and Energy Minister Michael Fallon said \"will bring jobs and business opportunities\" and significantly help with UK energy self-sufficiency.", "Fracking in the area is required to achieve these objectives, which has been opposed by environmental groups.===Natural regions===Natural England identifies a number of national character areas that lie wholly or partially in Hampshire: the Hampshire Downs, New Forest, South Hampshire Lowlands, South Coast Plain, South Downs, Low Weald and Thames Basin Heaths===Green belt===South West Hampshire & South East Dorset green belt (shown in green)Hampshire contains all its green belt in the New Forest district, in the southwest of the county, from the boundary with Dorset along the coastline to Lymington and northwards to Ringwood.", "Its boundary is contiguous with the New Forest National Park.", "The Hampshire portion was first created in 1958.Its function is to control expansion in the South East Dorset conurbation and outlying towns and villages.===Hills===The highest point in Hampshire is Pilot Hill at , in the northwest corner of the county, bordering Berkshire, and there are some 20 other hills exceeding .", "Butser Hill, at , where the A3 crosses the South Downs, is probably the best known.", "In the north and centre of the county the substrate is the rocks of the Chalk Group, which form the Hampshire Downs and the South Downs.", "These are high hills with steep slopes where they border the clays to the south.", "The hills dip steeply forming a scarp onto the Thames valley to the north, and dip gently to the south.", "The highest village in Hampshire at about above sea level is Ashmansworth, located between Andover and Newbury.===Rivers===The Itchen and Test are trout rivers that flow from the chalk through wooded valleys into Southampton Water.", "Other important watercourses are the Hamble, Meon, Beaulieu and Lymington rivers.", "The Hampshire Avon, which links Stonehenge to the sea, passes through Fordingbridge and Ringwood and then forms the modern border between Hampshire and Dorset.", "The northern branch of the River Wey has its source near Alton and flows east past Bentley.", "The River Loddon rises at West Ham Farm and flows north through Basingstoke.===Wildlife===Wild boar at the New Forest Wildlife ParkHampshire's downland supports a calcareous grassland habitat, important for wild flowers and insects.", "A large area of the downs is now protected from further agricultural damage by the East Hampshire Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty.", "The River Test has a growing number of otters as, increasingly, does the Itchen, although other areas of the county have quite low numbers.", "There are wild boar kept for meat in the New Forest, which is known for its ponies and herds of fallow deer, red deer, roe deer, and sika deer as well as a small number of muntjac deer.", "The deer had been hunted for some 900 years until 1997.An unwelcome relative newcomer is the mink population, descended from animals that escaped or were deliberately released from fur farms since the 1950s, which cause havoc amongst native wildlife.Farlington Marshes, of flower-rich grazing marsh and saline lagoon at the north end of Langstone Harbour, is a nature reserve and an internationally important overwintering site for wildfowl.", "In a valley on the downs is Selborne; the countryside surrounding the village was the location of Gilbert White's pioneering observations on natural history.", "Hampshire's county flower is the Dog Rose.Hampshire contains two national parks; the New Forest is wholly within the county, and the South Downs National Park embraces parts of Hampshire, West Sussex and East Sussex; they are each overseen by a national park authority.===Climate===Hampshire has a milder climate than most areas of the British Isles, being in the far south with the climate stabilising effect of the sea, but protected against the more extreme weather of the Atlantic coast.", "Hampshire has a higher average annual temperature than the UK average at , average rainfall at per year, and holds higher than average sunshine totals of around 1,750 hours of sunshine per year." ], [ "Settlements", "''For the complete list of settlements see List of places in Hampshire and List of settlements in Hampshire by population.", "''Hampshire's county town is Winchester, a historic city that was once the capital of the ancient kingdom of Wessex and of England until the Norman conquest of England.", "The port cities of Southampton and Portsmouth were split off as independent unitary authorities in 1997, although they are still included in Hampshire for ceremonial purposes.", "Fareham, Gosport and Havant have grown into a conurbation that stretches along the coast between the two main cities.", "The three cities are all university cities, Southampton being home to the University of Southampton and Southampton Solent University (formerly Southampton Institute), Portsmouth to the University of Portsmouth, and Winchester to the University of Winchester (formerly known as University College Winchester; King Alfred's College).", "The northeast of the county houses the Blackwater Valley conurbation, which includes the towns of Farnborough, Aldershot, Blackwater and Yateley and borders both Berkshire and Surrey.Hampshire lies outside the green belt area of restricted development around London, but has good railway and motorway links to the capital, and in common with the rest of the south-east has seen the growth of dormitory towns since the 1960s.", "Basingstoke, in the northern part of the county, has grown from a country town into a business and financial centre.", "Aldershot, Portsmouth, and Farnborough have strong military associations with the Army, Royal Navy, and Royal Air Force respectively.", "The county also includes several market towns: Alresford, Alton, Andover, Bishop's Waltham, Lymington, New Milton, Petersfield, Ringwood, Romsey and Whitchurch." ], [ "Demographics", "===Population===At the 2001 census the ceremonial county recorded a population of 1,644,249, of which 1,240,103 were in the administrative county, 217,445 were in the unitary authority of Southampton, and 186,701 were in Portsmouth.", "The population of the administrative county grew 5.6 per cent from the 1991 census and Southampton grew 6.2 per cent (Portsmouth remained unchanged), compared with 2.6 per cent for England and Wales as a whole.", "Eastleigh and Winchester grew fastest at 9 per cent each.Southampton and Portsmouth are the main settlements within the South Hampshire conurbation, which is home to about half of the ceremonial county's population.", "The larger South Hampshire metropolitan area has a population of 1,547,000.", "'''Cities and towns by population size:''' (2001 census)Southampton – 244,224Portsmouth – 207,100Basingstoke – 90,171 (town), 152,573 (borough)Gosport – 69,348 (town), 77,000 (borough)Andover – 64,000Waterlooville – 63,558Aldershot – 58,120Farnborough – 57,147Fareham/Portchester – 56,010 (town), 109,619 (borough)Eastleigh – 52,894 (town), 116,177 (borough)Havant – 45,435 (town), 115,300 (borough)Winchester – 41,420 (city), 116,600 (district)Fleet – 32,726Petersfield-14,974 (town)The table below shows the population change up to the 2011 census, contrasting the previous census.", "It also shows the proportion of residents in each district reliant upon lowest income and/or joblessness benefits, the national average proportion of which was 4.5 per cent (August 2012).", "The most populous district of Hampshire is New Forest District.+ ''Population from census to census.", "Claimants of JSA or Income Support (DWP)''UnitJSA or Inc. Supp.", "claimants (August 2012) % of 2011 populationJSA and Income Support claimants (August 2001) % of 2001 populationPopulation (April 2011)Population (April 2001)Hampshire\t\t2.4%\t\t4.3%\t\t1,317,7881,240,103Ranked by districtBorough of Havant\t'''4.1%'''\t\t7.2%\t\t120,684\t\t116,849Borough of Gosport\t\t3.7%\t\t5.7%\t\t82,622\t\t76,415Borough of Rushmoor\t\t2.9%\t\t4.1%\t\t93,807\t\t90,987Borough of Basingstoke and Deane2.6%\t\t3.8%\t\t167,799\t\t152,573Borough of Eastleigh\t\t2.3%\t\t4.0%\t\t125,199\t\t116,169New Forest District\t\t2.2%\t\t4.7%\t\t176,462\t\t169,331Borough of Fareham \t2.0%\t\t3.7%\t\t111,581\t\t107,977Borough of Test Valley\t2.0%\t\t3.8%\t\t116,398\t\t109,801East Hampshire\tDistrict\t1.8%\t\t4.0%\t\t115,608\t\t109,274Winchester District\t1.7%\t\t3.6%\t\t116,595\t\t107,222Hart District\t'''1.3%'''\t\t2.3%\t\t91,033\t\t83,505===Ethnicity and religion===At the 2011 census, about 89 per cent of residents were white British, falling to 85.87 per cent in Southampton.", "The significant ethnic minorities were Asian at 2.6 per cent and mixed race at 1.4 per cent; 10 per cent of residents were born outside the UK.", "59.7 per cent stated their religion as Christian and 29.5 per cent as not religious.", "Significant minority religions were Islam (1.46 per cent) and Hinduism (0.73 per cent).The Church of England Diocese of Winchester was founded in 676AD and covers about two thirds of Hampshire and extends into Dorset.", "Smaller parts of Hampshire are covered by the dioceses of Portsmouth, Guildford and Oxford.The Roman Catholic Diocese of Portsmouth covers Hampshire as well as the Isle of Wight and the Channel Islands." ], [ "Politics", "Hampshire County Council offices and Jubilee FountainThe coat of arms of Hampshire County CouncilWith the exceptions of the unitary authorities of Portsmouth and Southampton, Hampshire is governed by Hampshire County Council based at Castle Hill in Winchester, with eleven non-metropolitan districts beneath it and, for the majority of the county, parish councils or town councils at the local level.In the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum, nearly 55% of Hampshire (including the Isle of Wight) voted in favour of Brexit.", "Gosport was the area that voted to Leave with the highest majority (64%), while Winchester was the area that voted to Remain with the highest majority (59%).", "Hart and East Hampshire also voted to Remain.===Parliament===Hampshire elects eighteen Members of Parliament.", "As of the 2019 General Election, sixteen MPs are Conservative and two MPs are Labour.+ 2019 General Election Results in HampshirePartyVotes%Seats% change from 2017Votes in 2017Vote change from 2017Conservatives512,68157.4%16 1.1%525,222 2.3%Liberal Democrats172,67019.3%0 7%114,794 50.4%Labour169,28419%2 6.9%241,562 29.9%Greens29,6703.3%0 1.1%19,932 48.8%Others8,5861%0 2.2%30,508 71.8%'''Total''''''892,891''''''100.0''' '''18''''''932,018'''In the 2019 General Election there were no seat changes, with the 16 Conservative constituencies and 2 Labour constituencies holding on to the same seats won or held in 2017.This is despite the Liberal Democrats gaining 57,876 more votes (an increase of 50.4%) compared to 2017, and Labour losing 72,278 votes (29.9%) compared to 2017.At the 2017 General Election, the Conservatives won 16 seats, continuing their dominance in the county.", "Labour took two seats, Southampton Test and Portsmouth South.In the 2015 general election, every Hampshire seat except Southampton Test (Labour) was won by the Conservatives.In 2010, 14 constituencies were represented by Conservative Members of Parliament (MPs), two by the Liberal Democrats, and two by Labour.", "Labour represented the largest urban centre, holding both Southampton constituencies (Test and Itchen).", "The Liberal Democrats held Portsmouth South and Eastleigh.The Conservatives represent a mix of rural and urban areas: Aldershot, Basingstoke, East Hampshire, Fareham, Gosport, Havant, Meon Valley, North East Hampshire, North West Hampshire, New Forest East, New Forest West, Portsmouth North, Romsey and Southampton North and Winchester.At the 2013 local elections for Hampshire County Council, the Conservative Party had a 37.51 per cent share of the votes, the Liberal Democrats 21.71 per cent, the UK Independence Party 24.61 per cent and Labour 10 per cent.", "As a result, 45 Conservatives, 17 Liberal Democrats, 10 UKIP, four Labour and one Community Campaign councillor sit on the County Council.", "Southampton City Council, which is a separate Unitary Authority, has 28 Labour, 16 Conservative, 2 Councillors Against the Cuts and 2 Liberal Democrat councillors.", "Portsmouth City Council, also a UA, has 25 Liberal Democrat, 12 Conservative and 5 Labour councillors.Hampshire has its own County Youth Council (HCYC) and is an independent youth-run organisation.", "It meets once a month around Hampshire and aims to give the young people of Hampshire a voice.", "It also has numerous district and borough youth councils including Basingstoke's \"Basingstoke & Deane Youth Council\"." ], [ "Emergency services", "Hampshire and Isle of Wight Fire and Rescue ServiceSouth Central Ambulance ServiceSouth East Coast Ambulance ServiceHampshire & Isle of Wight Air AmbulanceHampshire ConstabularyBritish Transport PoliceHM Coastguard" ], [ "Economy", "Eastleigh railway worksHampshire is one of the most affluent counties in the country, with a gross domestic product (GDP) of £29 billion, excluding Southampton and Portsmouth.", "In 2018, Hampshire had a GDP per capita of £22,100, comparable with the UK as a whole.Portsmouth and Winchester have the highest job densities in the county; 38 per cent of workplace workers in Portsmouth commuted into the city in 2011.Southampton has the highest number of total jobs and commuting both into and out of the city is high.", "The county has a lower level of unemployment than the national average, at 1.3 per cent when the national rate is 2.1 per cent, as of February 2018.About one third are employed by large firms.", "Hampshire has a considerably higher than national average employment in high-tech industries, but average levels in knowledge-based industry.", "About 25 per cent of the population work in the public sector.", "Tourism accounts for some 60,000 jobs in the county, around 9 per cent of the total.One of the principal companies in the high tech sector is IBM which has its research and development laboratories at Hursley and its UK headquarters at Cosham.Many rural areas of Hampshire have traditionally been reliant on agriculture, particularly dairy farming, although the significance of agriculture as a rural employer and rural wealth creator has declined since the first half of the 20th century and agriculture currently employs 1.32 per cent of the rural population.The extractive industries deal principally with sand, gravel, clay and hydrocarbons.", "There are three active oilfields in Hampshire with one being also used as a natural gas store.", "These are in the west of the county in the ''Wessex Basin''.", "The ''Weald Basin'' to the east has potential as a source of shale oil but is not currently exploited.The New Forest area is a national park, and tourism is a significant economic segment in this area, with 7.5 million visitors in 1992.The South Downs and the cities of Portsmouth, Southampton, and Winchester also attract tourists to the county.", "Southampton Boat Show is one of the biggest annual events held in the county, and attracts visitors from throughout the country.", "In 2003, the county had a total of 31 million day visits, and 4.2 million longer stays.Southampton DocksThe cities of Southampton and Portsmouth are both significant ports, with Southampton Docks handling a large proportion of the national container freight traffic as well as being a major base for cruise liners, and Portsmouth Harbour accommodating one of the Royal Navy's main bases and a terminal for cross-channel ferries to France and Spain.", "The docks have traditionally been large employers in these cities, though mechanisation of cargo handling has led to a reduction in manpower needed.The Marine Accident Investigation Branch has its principal offices in Southampton, while the Air Accidents Investigation Branch has its head office in Farnborough in Rushmoor District .", "The Rail Accident Investigation Branch has one of its two offices at Farnborough." ], [ "Transport", "===Air===Southampton Airport, with an accompanying main line railway station, is an international airport situated in the Borough of Eastleigh, close to Swaythling in the city of Southampton.", "The Farnborough International Airshow is a week-long event that combines a major trade exhibition for the aerospace and defence industries with a public airshow.", "The event is held in mid-July in even-numbered years at Farnborough Airport.", "The first five days (Monday to Friday) are dedicated to trade, with the final two days open to the public.===Sea===Cross-channel and cross-Solent ferries from Southampton, Portsmouth and Lymington link the county to the Isle of Wight, the Channel Islands and continental Europe.===Rail===The South West Main Line (operated by South Western Railway) from London to Weymouth runs through Winchester and Southampton, and the Wessex Main Line from Bristol to Portsmouth also runs through the county, as does the Portsmouth Direct Line.===Road===The M3 near BasingstokeThe M3 motorway bisects the county from the southwest, at the edge of the New Forest near Southampton, to the northeast, on its way to connect with the M25 London orbital motorway.", "At its southern end it links with the M27 south coast motorway.", "The construction of the Twyford Down cutting near Winchester caused major controversy by cutting through a series of ancient trackways and other features of archaeological significance.", "The M27 serves as a bypass for the major conurbations and as a link to other settlements on the south coast.", "Other important roads include the A27, A3, A31, A34, A36 and A303.The county has a high level of car ownership, with only 15.7 per cent having no access to a private car compared with 26.8 per cent for England and Wales.", "The county has a lower than average use of trains (3.2 compared with 4.1 per cent for commuting) and buses (3.2 to 7.4 per cent), but a higher than average use of bicycles (3.5 to 2.7 per cent) and cars (63.5 to 55.3 per cent).===Inland waterways===Hampshire formerly had several canals, but most of these have been abandoned and their routes built over.", "The Basingstoke Canal has been extensively restored, and is now navigable for most of its route, but the Salisbury and Southampton Canal, Andover Canal and Portsmouth and Arundel Canal have all disappeared.", "Restoration of the Itchen Navigation, linking Southampton and Winchester, primarily as a wildlife corridor, began in 2008." ], [ "Education", "The school system in Hampshire (including Southampton and Portsmouth) is comprehensive.", "Geographically inside the Hampshire LEA are 24 independent schools, Southampton has three and Portsmouth has four.", "Few Hampshire schools have sixth forms, which varies by district council.", "There are 14 further education colleges within the Hampshire LEA, including six graded as 'outstanding' by Ofsted: Alton College, Barton Peveril Sixth Form College, Brockenhurst College, Farnborough College of Technology, Farnborough Sixth Form College, Peter Symonds College, Queen Mary's College, and South Downs College.Notable independent schools in the county include Winchester College, allegedly England's oldest public school, founded in 1382, and the pioneering co-educational Bedales School, founded in 1893.The four universities are the University of Southampton, Solent University, the University of Portsmouth, and the University of Winchester (which also had a small campus in Basingstoke until 2011).", "Farnborough College of Technology awards University of Surrey-accredited degrees." ], [ "Health", "There are major NHS hospitals in each of the cities, and smaller hospitals in several towns, as well as a number of private hospitals.", "Southern Health NHS Foundation Trust coordinates public health services, while Hampshire Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust coordinates hospital services." ], [ "Culture, arts and sport", "===Flag===The flag of the historic county of HampshireThe Flag of Hampshire was officially added to the Flag Institute's registry of flags on 12 March 2019 after receiving support from Hampshire County Council, the Lord Lieutenant of Hampshire, and many local organisations.", "The county day and flag day is 15 July, St Swithun's Day; St Swithun was an Anglo-Saxon bishop of Winchester.===Music===Hampshire is the home of many orchestras, bands, and groups.", "Musician Laura Marling hails originally from Hampshire.", "The Hampshire County Youth Choir is based in Winchester, and has had successful tours of Canada and Italy in recent years.", "The Hampshire County Youth Orchestra (with its associated chamber orchestra and string orchestra) is based at Thornden Hall.===Museums===Milestones Museum, BasingstokeThere are a number of local museums, such as the City Museum in Winchester, which covers the Iron Age and Roman periods, the Middle Ages, and the Victorian period over three floors.", "A \"Museum of the Iron Age\" is in Andover.", "Solent Sky Museum depicts the story of aviation in Hampshire and the Solent region, with more than 20 airframes from the golden age.", "Southampton's Sea City Museum is primarily focused on the city's links with the ''Titanic''.", "Basingstoke's Milestones Museum records the county's industrial heritage.", "There are also a number of national museums in Hampshire.", "The National Motor Museum is located in the New Forest at Beaulieu.", "The Royal Navy Museum is part of Portsmouth Historic Dockyard.", "Other military museums include The Submarine Museum at Gosport, the Royal Marines Museum, originally in Southsea but was due to transfer to the Dockyard in 2019, the Aldershot Military Museum, the D-Day Story by Southsea Castle and the Museum of Army Flying at Middle Wallop.", "Several museums and historic buildings in Hampshire are the responsibility of the Hampshire Cultural Trust.", "Specialist museums include the Gilbert White museum in his old home in Selborne, which also includes The Oates Collection, dedicated to the explorer Lawrence Oates.===Annual events===The New Forest and Hampshire County Show takes place annually at the end of July; 2020 will mark its centenary.", "The largest gathering of Muslims in Western Europe, Jalsa Salana, takes place near Alton, with 37,000 visitors in 2017.The ancient festival of Beltain takes place at Butser Ancient Farm in the spring.===Buildings and protected monuments===There are 187 Grade I listed buildings in the county, ranging from statues to farm buildings and churches to castles, 511 buildings listed Grade II, and many more listed in the Grade II category.", "National Heritage's figures include the Isle of Wight, listing 208 Grade I buildings, 578 Grade IIand 10,372 Grade II, 731 scheduled monuments, two wrecks, 91 parks and gardens, and a battlefield: the Battle of Cheriton, which took place in 1644, near Winchester.===Sport===Ageas Bowl cricket ground, West End, 2010The game of cricket was largely developed in south-east England, with one of the first teams forming at Hambledon in 1750, with the Hambledon Club creating many of cricket's early laws.", "Hampshire County Cricket Club is a first-class team.", "The main county ground is the Ageas Bowl in West End, which has hosted one day internationals and which, following redevelopment, hosted its first test match in 2011.The world's oldest surviving bowling green is the Southampton Old Bowling Green, which was first used in 1299.Hampshire's relatively safe waters have allowed the county to develop as one of the busiest sailing areas in the country, with many yacht clubs and several manufacturers on the Solent.", "The Hamble, Beaulieu and Lymington rivers are major centres for both competitive and recreational sailing, along with Hythe and Ocean Village marinas.", "The sport of windsurfing was invented at Hayling Island in the south east of the county.Fratton Park football ground, Portsmouth, from Milton End, 2006Hampshire has several association football teams, including EFL Championship side Southampton, EFL League One side Portsmouth and National League sides Aldershot Town, Eastleigh and Havant & Waterlooville.", "Portsmouth and Southampton have traditionally been fierce rivals.", "Portsmouth won the FA Cup in 1939 and 2008 and the Football League title in 1949 and 1950.Southampton won the FA Cup in 1976 and reached the final in 1900, 1902, and 2003, as well as finishing second in the Football League in 1984.Aldershot were members of the Football League from 1932 until they folded in 1992.They were succeeded by Aldershot Town, who in 2008 were crowned the Conference Premier champions and promoted to the Football League but were relegated back to the Conference at the end of the 2012–13 season.", "Hampshire has a number of Non League football teams.", "Bashley, Gosport Borough and AFC Totton play in the Southern Football League Premier Division, and Sholing and Winchester City play in the Southern Football League Division One South and West.Thruxton Circuit, in the north of the county, is Hampshire's premier motor racing circuit, with a karting circuit; there are other karting circuits at Southampton and Gosport.", "The other main circuit was the Ringwood Raceway at Matchams.Lasham Airfield, near Alton, is a major centre for gliding, hosting both regional and national annual competitions.===Media=======Television==== Former ''Hampshire Chronicle'' office in Winchester, The county's television news is covered by BBC South Today from its studios in Southampton and ITV Meridian from a studio in Whiteley, though both BBC London and ITV London can be received in northern and eastern parts of the county.", "A local independent television station, ''That's Hampshire'', started transmitting in May 2017.====Radio====Around 25 commercial radio stations cover the area, including BBC Radio Solent, BBC Radio Berkshire and BBC Radio Surrey.", "University journalism students \"broadcast\" bulletins on line for local areas, such as the University of Winchester's WINOL (Winchester News Online), run by students on its BA (Hons) Journalism course.====Press====Southampton and Portsmouth support daily newspapers; the ''Southern Daily Echo'' and ''The News'' respectively.", "The ''Basingstoke Gazette'' is published three times a week.", "Weekly papers include the ''Hampshire Chronicle'', which is one of the oldest newspapers in the country." ], [ "Notable people", "Possibly the most notable resident was the Duke of Wellington, who lived at Stratfield Saye House in the north of the county from 1817.An eminent Victorian, who made her mark and \"came home\" to Hampshire for burial at East Wellow was Florence Nightingale.Hampshire's literary connections include the birthplace of authors Jane Austen, Wilbert Awdry and Charles Dickens, and the residence of others, such as Charles Kingsley and Mrs Gaskell.", "Austen lived most of her life in Hampshire, where her father was rector of Steventon, and wrote all of her novels in the county.", "Alice Liddell, also known as Alice Hargreaves, the inspiration for Alice in Lewis Carroll's ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'', lived in and around Lyndhurst, Hampshire after her marriage to Reginald Hargreaves, and is buried in the graveyard of St Michael and All Angels Church in the town.", "Hampshire also has many visual art connections, claiming the painter John Everett Millais as a native, and the cities and countryside have been the subject of paintings by L. S. Lowry and J. M. W. Turner.", "Selborne was the home of Gilbert White.", "Journalist and social critic Christopher Hitchens was born into a naval family in Portsmouth.", "Broadcasters Philippa Forrester, Amanda Lamb and Scott Mills also are from the county.", "American actor and gameshow host, Richard Dawson, was born and raised here.", "Richard St. Barbe Baker Founder of the International Tree Foundation and responsible for planting over two billion trees was born in West End." ], [ "See also", "Business in HampshireCustos Rotulorum of Hampshire—Keepers of the RollsHampshire (UK Parliament constituency)—Historical list of MPs for Hampshire constituencyList of High Sheriffs of HampshireList of churches in HampshirePlaces of interest in HampshireRecreational walks in Hampshire" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Bullen, Michael ''et al.''", "''The Buildings of England: Hampshire (Winchester and the North)''.", "Yale, 2010.", "Draper, Jo.", "1990.''Hampshire''.", "Wimborne: Dovecote Press.", "''Pigot & Co's Atlas of the Counties of England'', 1840.London: J Pigot & Co." ], [ "External links", " Hampshire County Council website * Images of Hampshire at the English Heritage Archive* Further historical information and sources on GENUKI" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hard science fiction" ], [ "Introduction", "Arthur C. Clarke, one of the most significant writers of hard science fictionPoul Anderson, author of ''Tau Zero'', ''Kyrie'' and others'''Hard science fiction''' is a category of science fiction characterized by concern for scientific accuracy and logic.", "The term was first used in print in 1957 by P. Schuyler Miller in a review of John W. Campbell's ''Islands of Space'' in the November issue of ''Astounding Science Fiction''.", "The complementary term soft science fiction, formed by analogy to hard science fiction, first appeared in the late 1970s.", "The term is formed by analogy to the popular distinction between the \"hard\" (natural) and \"soft\" (social) sciences, although there are examples generally considered as \"hard\" science fiction such as Isaac Asimov's ''Foundation'' series, built on mathematical sociology.", "Science fiction critic Gary Westfahl argues that neither term is part of a rigorous taxonomy; instead they are approximate ways of characterizing stories that reviewers and commentators have found useful." ], [ "History", "Frank R. Paul's cover for the last issue (December 1953) of ''Science-Fiction Plus''\|leftStories revolving around scientific and technical consistency were written as early as the 1870s with the publication of Jules Verne's ''Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas'' in 1870, among other stories.", "The attention to detail in Verne's work became an inspiration for many future scientists and explorers, although Verne himself denied writing as a scientist or seriously predicting machines and technology of the future.Hugo Gernsback believed from the beginning of his involvement with science fiction in the 1920s that the stories should be instructive, although it was not long before he found it necessary to print fantastical and unscientific fiction in ''Amazing Stories'' to attract readers.", "During Gernsback's long absence from SF publishing, from 1936 to 1953, the field evolved away from his focus on facts and education.", "The Golden Age of Science Fiction is generally considered to have started in the late 1930s and lasted until the mid-1940s, bringing with it \"a quantum jump in quality, perhaps the greatest in the history of the genre\", according to science fiction historians Peter Nicholls and Mike Ashley.However, Gernsback's views were unchanged.", "In his editorial in the first issue of ''Science-Fiction Plus'', he gave his view of the modern SF story: \"the fairy tale brand, the weird or fantastic type of what mistakenly masquerades under the name of Science-Fiction today!\"", "and he stated his preference for \"truly scientific, prophetic Science-Fiction with the full accent on SCIENCE\".", "In the same editorial, Gernsback called for patent reform to give science fiction authors the right to create patents for ideas without having patent models because many of their ideas predated the technical progress needed to develop specifications for their ideas.", "The introduction referenced the numerous prescient technologies described throughout ''Ralph 124C 41+''." ], [ "Definition", "The heart of the \"hard science fiction\" designation is the relationship of the science content and attitude to the rest of the narrative, and (for some readers, at least) the \"hardness\" or rigor of the science itself.", "One requirement for hard SF is procedural or intentional: a story should try to be accurate, logical, credible and rigorous in its use of current scientific and technical knowledge about which technology, phenomena, scenarios and situations that are practically or theoretically possible.", "For example, the development of concrete proposals for spaceships, space stations, space missions, and a US space program in the 1950s and 1960s influenced a widespread proliferation of \"hard\" space stories.", "Later discoveries do not necessarily invalidate the label of hard SF, as evidenced by P. Schuyler Miller, who called Arthur C. Clarke's 1961 novel ''A Fall of Moondust'' hard SF, and the designation remains valid even though a crucial plot element, the existence of deep pockets of \"moondust\" in lunar craters, is now known to be incorrect.There is a degree of flexibility in how far from \"real science\" a story can stray before it leaves the realm of hard SF.", "Hard science fiction authors only include more controversial devices when the ideas draw from well-known scientific and mathematical principles.", "In contrast, authors writing softer SF use such devices without a scientific basis (sometimes referred to as \"enabling devices\", since they allow the story to take place).Readers of \"hard SF\" often try to find inaccuracies in stories.", "For example, a group at MIT concluded that the planet Mesklin in Hal Clement's 1953 novel ''Mission of Gravity'' would have had a sharp edge at the equator, and a Florida high school class calculated that in Larry Niven's 1970 novel ''Ringworld'' the topsoil would have slid into the seas in a few thousand years.", "Niven fixed these errors in his sequel ''The Ringworld Engineers'', and noted them in the foreword.Films set in outer space that aspire to the hard SF label try to minimize the artistic liberties taken for the sake of practicality of effect.", "Such considerations to be made when shooting may include:* How the film accounts for weightlessness in space.", "* How the film depicts sound despite the vacuum of space.", "* Whether telecommunications are instant or are limited by the speed of light." ], [ "Representative works", "Larry Niven, author of ''Ringworld'', \"Inconstant Moon\", \"The Hole Man\" and others.Arranged chronologically by publication year.===Anthologies===* David G. Hartwell and Kathryn Cramer (eds.", "), ''The Ascent of Wonder: The Evolution of Hard SF'' (1994)* David G. Hartwell and Kathryn Cramer (eds.", "), ''The Hard SF Renaissance: An Anthology'' (2002)* Ben Bova and Eric Choi (eds.", "), ''Carbide-Tipped Pens: Seventeen Tales of Hard Science Fiction'' (2014)* Wade Roush (ed.)", "'' Twelve Tomorrows'' (MIT Press 2018)===Short stories===* Robert Heinlein, ''The Past Through Tomorrow'' collection of stories (1939–1962)* James Blish, \"Surface Tension\" (1952) (Book 3 of ''The Seedling Stars'' (1957)* Tom Godwin, \"The Cold Equations\" (1954)* Poul Anderson, \"Kyrie\" (1968)* Frederik Pohl, \"Day Million\" (1971)* Larry Niven, \"Inconstant Moon\" (1971) and \"The Hole Man\" (1974)* Greg Bear, \"Tangents\" (1986)* Geoffrey A. Landis, \"A Walk in the Sun\" (1991)* Vernor Vinge, \"Fast Times at Fairmont High\" (2001)===Novels===* Aldous Huxley, ''Brave New World'' (1932)* Hal Clement, ''Mission of Gravity'' (1953)* Fred Hoyle, ''The Black Cloud'' (1957)* James Blish, ''A Case of Conscience'' (1958)* Jack Vance, ''The Languages of Pao'' (1958)* Arthur C. Clarke, ''A Fall of Moondust'' (1961)* John Brunner, ''Stand on Zanzibar'' (1968), ''The Jagged Orbit'' (1969), ''The Sheep Look Up'' (1972), ''The Shockwave Rider'' (1975)* Michael Crichton, ''The Andromeda Strain'' (1969), ''Jurassic Park'' (1990)* Larry Niven, ''Ringworld'' (1970)* Poul Anderson, ''Tau Zero'' (1970)* James Gunn, ''The Listeners'' (1972)* Bob Shaw, ''Orbitsville'' (1975)* James P. Hogan, ''The Two Faces of Tomorrow'' (1979)* Robert L. Forward, ''Dragon's Egg'' (1980) and its sequel ''Starquake'' (1985)* Steven Barnes and Larry Niven, ''The Descent of Anansi'' (1982)* Kim Stanley Robinson, The ''Mars trilogy'' (''Red Mars'' (1992), ''Green Mars'' (1993), ''Blue Mars'' (1996))* Nancy Kress, ''Beggars in Spain'' (1993)* Allen Steele, The Tranquillity Alternative (1996)* Charles Sheffield, ''Georgia on My Mind, and Other Places'' (1995)* Greg Egan, ''Schild's Ladder'' (2002)* Alastair Reynolds, ''Pushing Ice'' (2005)* Andy Weir, ''The Martian'' (2011), ''Project Hail Mary'' (2021)* Clyde Desouza, ''Memories with Maya'' (2013)* Peter Watts, ''Blindsight'' (2006)* Cixin Liu, ''Remembrance of Earth's Past'' (trilogy, 2006-2016)=== Films and TV shows ===* ''2001: A Space Odyssey'' (1968)* ''Colossus: The Forbin Project'' (1970)* ''The Andromeda Strain'' (1971)* ''Silent Running'' (1972)* ''Blade Runner'' (1982)* ''The Abyss'' (1989)* ''Contact'' (1997)* ''Gattaca'' (1997)* ''Moon'' (2009)* ''Europa Report'' (2013)* ''Her'' (2013)* ''Gravity'' (2014)* ''Ex Machina'' (2014)* ''Interstellar'' (2014)* ''The Martian'' (2015)* ''The Expanse'' (2015)* ''Arrival'' (2016)===Anime / manga===* ''Patlabor'' (1988–present)* ''Ghost in the Shell'' (1989–present)* ''Planetes'' (1999, 2004)* ''Rocket Girls'' (2007)* ''Revisions'' (2018-2019)* ''Space Brothers/Uchuu Kyoudai'' (2007–present, 2012–2014)* ''Godzilla: Planet of the Monsters'' (2017–2018)* ''Godzilla: City on the Edge of Battle'' (2018)* ''Godzilla: The Planet Eater'' (2018–2019)===Video games===* ''Terra Invicta''* ''Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri'' (1999)* ''Kerbal Space Program'' (2015)" ], [ "See also", "* Hard fantasy* Hypothetical technology* Mundane science fiction" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* On Hard Science Fiction: A Bibliography, originally published in ''Science Fiction Studies'' #60 (July 1993).", "* David G. Hartwell, \"Hard Science Fiction\", Introduction to ''The Ascent of Wonder: The Evolution of Hard Science Fiction'', 1994, * Kathryn Cramer's chapter on hard science fiction in ''The Cambridge Companion to SF'', ed.", "Farah Mendlesohn & Edward James.", "* * A Political History of SF by Eric Raymond* ''The Science in Science Fiction'' by Brian Stableford, David Langford, & Peter Nicholls (1982)* David N. Samuelson, \"Hard SF\", pp.", "194–200, ''The Routledge Companion to Science Fiction'', 2009." ], [ "External links", "* Hard Science Fiction Exclusive Interviews* Science Fiction Stories with Good Astronomy & Physics: A Topical Index * The Ascent of Wonder by David G. Hartwell & Kathryn Cramer.", "Story notes and introductions.", "* The Ten Best Hard Science Fiction Books of all Time , selected by the editors of MIT's ''Technology Review'', 2011* \"Low-Level Science fiction: Sci-fi with hard science and a literary slant\"* Hard SF at ''The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction''" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Handloading" ], [ "Introduction", "Components of a modern bottleneck rifle cartridge.", "Top-to-bottom: Copper-jacketed bullet, smokeless powder granules, rimless brass case, Boxer primer.", "'''Handloading''', or '''reloading''', is the practice of making firearm cartridges by assembling the individual components (case, primer, propellant, and projectile), rather than purchasing mass-assembled, factory-loaded ammunition.", "(It should not be confused with the reloading of a firearm ''with'' cartridges, such as by swapping magazines or using a speedloader.", ")The term ''handloading'' is the more general term, and refers generically to the manual assembly of ammunition.", "''Reloading'' refers more specifically to handloading using previously fired cases and shells.", "The terms are often used interchangeably however, as the techniques are largely the same, whether the handloader is using new or recycled components.", "The differences lie in the initial preparation of cases and shells; new components are generally ready to load, while previously fired components often need additional procedures, such as cleaning, removal of expended primers, or the reshaping and resizing of brass cases." ], [ "Reasons for handloading", "Economy, increased performance and accuracy, commercial ammunition shortages, and hobby interests are all common motives for handloading both cartridges and shotshells.", "Handloading ammunition waives the user off the labor costs of commercial production lines, reducing the expenditure to only the cost of purchasing components and equipment.", "Reloading used cartridge cases can save the shooter money, providing not only a greater quantity, but also a higher quality of ammunition within a given budget.", "Reloading may not however be cost effective for occasional shooters, as it takes time to recoup the cost of needed equipment, but those who shoot more frequently will see cost-savings over time, as the brass cartridge cases and shotgun shell hulls, which are often the most expensive components, can be reused with proper maintenance.", "Additionally, most handloading components can be acquired at discounted prices when purchased in bulk, so handloaders are often less affected by changes in ammunition availability.The opportunity to customize performance is another common goal for many handloaders.", "Hunters for instance, may desire cartridges with specialized bullets with specific terminal performance.", "Target shooters often experiment extensively with component combinations in an effort to achieve the best and most consistent bullet trajectories, often using cartridge cases that have been fire formed in order to best fit the chamber of a specific firearm.", "Shotgun enthusiasts can make specialty rounds unavailable through commercial inventories at any price.", "Some handloaders even customize cartridges and shotshells simply to lower recoil, for instance for younger shooters who might otherwise avoid shooting sports because of the high recoil of certain firearms.", "It is also a not infrequent practice for handloaders to make increased-power ammunition (i.e.", "\"hot loads\") if higher muzzle velocities (hence flatter trajectories) are desired.", "Rather than purchasing a special purpose rifle, which a novice or adolescent shooter might outgrow, a single rifle can be used with special handloaded rounds until such time more powerful rounds become appropriate.", "This use of specialized handloading techniques often provides significant cost savings as well, for instance when a hunter in a family already has a full-power rifle and a new hunter in the family wishes to learn the sport.", "This technique also enables hunters to use the same rifle and caliber to hunt a greater diversity of game.Where the most extreme accuracy is demanded, such as in rifle benchrest shooting, handloading is a fundamental prerequisite for success, but can only be done consistently accurately once load development has been done to determine what cartridge parameters works best with a specific rifle.", "Additionally, collectors of rare, antique and foreign-made firearms must often turn to handloading because the appropriate cartridges and shotshells are no longer commercially available.", "Handloaders can also create cartridges for which no commercial equivalent has ever existed — the so-called wildcat cartridges, some of which can eventually acquire mainstream acceptance if the ballistic performance is proven to be good enough.", "However, as with any hobby, the pure enjoyment of the reloading process may be the most important benefit.Recurring shortages of commercial ammunition are also reasons to reload cartridges and shotshells.", "When commercial supplies dry up, and store-bought ammunition is not available at any price, having the ability to reload one's own cartridges and shotshells economically provides an ability to continue shooting despite shortages.There are three aspects to ballistics: internal ballistics, external ballistics, and terminal ballistics.", "Internal ballistics refers to things that happen inside the firearm during and after firing, but before the bullet leaves the muzzle.", "The handloading process can realize increased accuracy and precision through improved consistency of manufacture, by selecting the optimal bullet weight and design, and tailoring bullet velocity to the purpose.", "Each cartridge reloaded can have each component carefully matched to the rest of the cartridges in the batch.", "Brass cases can be matched by volume, weight, and concentricity, bullets by weight and design, powder charges by weight, type, case filling (amount of total usable case capacity filled by charge), and packing scheme (characteristics of granule packing).In addition to these critical items, the equipment used to assemble the cartridge also has an effect on its uniformity/consistency and optimal shape/size; dies used to size the cartridges can be matched to the chamber of a given gun.", "Modern handloading equipment enables a firearm owner to tailor fresh ammunition to a specific firearm, and to precisely measured tolerances far improving the comparatively wide tolerances within which commercial ammunition manufacturers must operate." ], [ "Equipment", "Hornady single stage reloading press (\"O\" frame) with dieInexpensive \"tong\" tools have been used for reloading since the mid-19th century.", "They resemble a large pair of pliers and can be caliber-specific or have interchangeable dies.However, in modern days, handloading equipments are sophisticated machine tools that emphasize on precision and reliability, and often cost more than high-end shooting optics.", "There are also a myriad of various measuring tools and accessory products on the market for use in conjunction with handloading.=== Presses ===The quintessential handloading equipment is the '''press''', which uses compound leverage to push the cases into a die that performs the loading operations.", "Presses vary from simple, inexpensive single-stage models, to complex \"progressive\" models that operate with each pull of the lever like an assembly line at rates up to 10 rounds per minute.Loading presses are often categorized by the letter of the English alphabet that they most resemble in shape: \"O\", \"C\", and \"H\".", "The sturdiest presses, suitable for bullet swaging functions as well as for normal reloading die usage, are of the \"O\" type.", "Heavy steel completely encloses the single die on these presses.", "Equally sturdy presses for all but bullet swaging use often resemble the letter \"C\".", "Both steel and aluminum construction are seen with \"C\" presses.", "Some users prefer \"C\" style presses over \"O\" presses, as there is more room to place bullets into cartridge mouths on \"C\" presses.", "Shotshell style presses, intended for non-batch use, for which each shotshell or cartridge is cycled through the dies before commencing onto the next shotshell or cartridge to be reloaded, commonly resemble the letter \"H\".", "''Single-stage press'', generally of the \"O\" or \"C\" types, is the simplest of press designs.", "These presses can only hold one die and perform a single procedure on a single case at any time.", "They are usually only used to crimp the case neck onto the bullet, and if the user wants to perform any different procedures with the press (e.g.", "priming, powder dispensing, neck resizing), the functioning die/module need to be manually removed and changed.", "When using a single-stage press, cases are loaded in batches, one step for each cartridge per batch at a time.", "The batch sizes are kept small, about 20–50 cases at a time, so the cases are never left in a partially completed state for long because extended exposure to humidity and light can degrade the powder.", "Single-stage presses are commonly most used for high-precision rifle cartridge handloading, but may be used for high-precision reloading of all cartridge types, and for fine-tuning loads (developing loading recipes) for ultimately mass-producing large numbers of cartridges on a progressive press.", "''Turret press'', most commonly of the \"C\" type, is similar to a single-stage press, but has an indexed mounting disc that allows multiple dies to be quickly interchanged, with each die being fastened with lock rings.", "Batch operations are performed similar to a single-stage press, different procedures can be switched by simply rotating the turret and placing a different die into position.", "Although turret presses operate much like single-stage presses, they eliminate much of the setup time required in positioning individual dies correctly.", "''Progressive press'' is far more complex in design and can handle several cases at once.", "These presses have a rotating base that turns with each pull of the lever.", "All the dies/loading modules needed (often including a case hopper, a primer feed, a powder measure, and sometimes also a bullet feeder) are mounted in alignment with each case slot on the base disc, and often also include an additional vacant station where the powder levels are manually checked to prevent over- or under-charges.", "Progressive presses can load hundreds of cartridges sequentially with streamlined efficiency, and all the user has to do is pulling the lever, occasionally provide manual inputs such as placing the bullet in place on the case mouth (if a bullet feeder is not used).Primer pocket swages can be either standalone, bench-mounted, specialized presses, or, alternatively, a special swage anvil die that can be mounted into a standard \"O\" style loading press, along with a special shell holder insert with either a large or a small primer pocket insert swage that is then inserted into the position on the \"O\" press where a normal shell holder is usually clicked into position.", "This way, both small and large primer pockets on different types of military cases can be properly processed to remove primer pocket crimps.", "Both types of presses can be used to remove either ring crimps or stab crimps found on military cartridges when reloading them.", "Reamers for removing primer pocket crimps are not associated with presses, being an alternative to using a press to remove military case primer pocket crimps.====Shotshell presses====Shotshell presses are generally a single unit of the \"H\" configuration that handles all functions, dedicated to reloading just one gauge of shotshell.", "Shotshell reloading is similar to cartridge reloading, except that, instead of a bullet, a wad and a measure of shot are used, and after loading the shot, the shell is crimped shut.", "Both 6 and 8 fold crimps are in use, for paper hulls and plastic hulls, respectively.", "Likewise, roll crimps are in use for metallic, paper, and plastic hulls.", "The shotshell loader contains stations to resize the shell, measure powder, load the wad, measure shot, and crimp the shell.", "Due to the low cost of modern plastic shotshells, and the additional complexity of reloading fired shells, shotshell handloading is not as popular as cartridge handloading.", "For example, unlike when handloading rifle and pistol cartridges, where all the various components (cases, gas checks, powder, primers, etc.)", "from different manufacturers are usually all interchangeable, shotshells typically are loaded for particular brands of shotshell cases (called hulls) only with one specific brand of wad, shot cup (if used), primer, and powder, further increasing the complexity and difficulty of reloading shotshells.", "Substitution of components is not considered safe, as changing just one component, such as a brand of primer, can increase pressures by as much as 3500 PSI, which may exceed SAAMI pressure limits.", "Reloading shotshells is therefore more along the lines of precisely following a recipe with non-fungible components.", "Where shotshell reloading remains popular, however, is for making specialized shotgun shells, such as for providing lowered recoil, when making low-cost \"poppers\" used for training retrievers before hunting season to acclimate hunting dogs to the sound of a gun firing without actually shooting projectiles, for achieving better shot patterning, or for providing other improvements or features not available in commercially loaded shotshells at any price, such as when handloading obsolete shotshells with brass cases for gauges of shotshells that are no longer commercially manufactured.Rifle and pistol loading presses are usually not dedicated to reloading a single caliber of cartridge, although they can be, but are configured for reloading various cartridge calibers as needed.", "In contrast, shotshell presses are most often configured for reloading just one gauge of shotshell, e.g., 12 gauge, and are rarely, if ever, reconfigured for reloading other gauges of shotshells, as the cost of buying all new dies, shot bar, and powder bushing as required to switch gauges on a shotshell press often exceeds the cost of buying a new shotshell press outright, as shotshell presses typically come from the factory already set up to reload one gauge or bore of shotshell.", "Hence, it is common to use a dedicated shotshell press for reloading each gauge or bore of shotshell used.", "Likewise, the price of shot for reloading shotshells over the last several years has also risen significantly, such that lead shot that was readily available for around $0.50/lb.", "(c. 2005) now reaches $2.00 per pound (2013.)", "Due to this large increase in the price of lead shot, the economy of reloading 12 gauge shotshells vs. just using promotional (low-cost) 12 gauge shotshells only starts to make economic sense for higher volume shooters, who may shoot more than 50,000 rounds a year.", "In contrast, the reloading of shotshells that are usually not available in low-cost, promotional pricings, such as .410 bore, 12 ga. slugs, 16 ga, 20 ga., and 28 ga., becomes more economical to reload in much smaller quantities, perhaps within only 3-5 boxes of shells per year.", "Reloading .410 bore, 12 ga. slugs, 16 ga., 20 ga, and 28 ga. shells, therefore, remains relatively common, more so than the reloading of 12 gauge shotshells, for which promotional shotshells are usually readily available from many retailers.", "These smaller bore and gauge shotshells also require much less lead shot, further lessening the effect of the rapid rises seen in the price of lead shot.", "The industry change to steel shot, arising from the US and Canadian Federal bans on using lead shotshells while hunting migratory wildfowl, has also affected reloading shotshells, as the shot bar and powder bushing required on a dedicated shotshell press also must be changed for each hull type reloaded, and are different than what would be used for reloading shotshells with lead shot, further complicating the reloading of shotshells.With the recent rampant rise in lead shot prices, though, a major change in handloading shotshells has also occurred.", "Namely, a transition among high volume 12 gauge shooters from loading traditional 1-1/8 oz.", "shot loads to 7/8 oz.", "shot loads or even 24 gm.", "(so-called International) shot loads have occurred.", "At 1-1/8 oz.", "per shotshell, a 25 lb.", "bag of lead shot can only reload approximately 355 shotshells.", "At 7/8 oz.", "per shotshell, a 25 lb.", "of lead shot can reload 457 shotshells.", "At 24 grams per shotshell, a 25 lb of lead shot can reload approximately 472 shotshells.", "Stretching the number of hulls that it is possible to reload from an industry-standard 25 lb.", "bag of lead shot by 117 shells has significantly helped mitigate the large increase in the price of lead shot.", "That this change has also resulted in minimal changes to scores in shooting sports such as skeet and trap has only expedited the switch among high volume shooters to shooting 24 gm.", "shotshells with their lesser amounts of shot.With the recent shortages over 2012–2013 of 12 gauge shotshells in the United States (among all other types of rifle and pistol ammunition), the popularity of reloading 12 gauge shotshells has seen a widespread resurgence.", "Field use of the International 24 gm.", "12 gauge shells has proven them to be effective on small game, while stretching the number of reloads possible from a bag of shot, and they have subsequently become popular for hunting small game.", "Since shot shells are typically reloaded at least 5 times, although upwards of 15 times are often possible for lightly loaded shells, this transition to field use of 24 gm.", "loads has helped mitigate ammunition shortages for hunters.Shotshell presses typically use a charge bar to drop precise amounts of shot and powder.", "Most commonly, these charge bars are fixed in their capacities, with a single charge bar rated at, say, 1-1/8 oz.", "of lead shot, with a switchable powder bushing that permits dropping precisely measured fixed amounts of different types of powder repetitively (e.g., MEC.)", "On the other hand, some charge bars are drilled to accept bushings for dropping different fixed amounts of both shot and powder (e.g.", "Texan.)", "For the ultimate in flexibility, though, universal charge bars with micrometers dropping fixed volumes of powder and shot are also available; these are able to select differing fixed amounts of both powder and shot, and are popular for handloaders who load more than just a few published recipes, or, especially, among those who wish to experiment with numerous different published recipes.", "Fixed charge bars are rated for either lead or steel shot, but not for both.", "Universal charge bars, on the other hand, are capable of reloading both lead and steel shot, being adjustable.Like their pistol and rifle counterparts, shotshell presses are available in both single-stage and progressive varieties.", "For shooters shooting fewer than approximately 500 shells a month, and especially shooting fewer than 100 shells a month, a single-stage press is often found to be adequate.", "For shooters shooting larger numbers of shells a month, progressive presses are often chosen.", "A single-stage press can typically reload 100 hulls in approximately an hour.", "Progressive presses can typically reload upwards of 400 or 500 hulls an hour.Shotshell presses are most commonly operated in non-batch modes.", "That is, a single hull will often be deprimed, reshaped, primed, loaded with powder, have a wad pressed in, be loaded with shot, be pre-crimped, and then be final crimped before being removed and a new hull being placed on the shotshell press at station 1.An alternative, somewhat faster method, often used on a single stage press is to work on 5 hulls in parallel sequentially, with but a single processed hull being located at each of the 5 stations available on a single stage shotshell press, while manually removing the finished shotshell from station 5 and then moving the 4 in-process hulls to the next station (1 to 2, 2 to 3, 3 to 4, 4 to 5) before adding a new hull at the deprimer (station 1) location.", "Both these modes of shotshell reloading are in distinct contrast to the common practice used with reloading pistol and rifle cartridges on a single-stage press, which is most often processed in batch modes, where a common operation will commonly be done on a batch of up to 50 or 100 cartridges at a time, before proceeding to the next processing step.", "This difference is largely a result of shotshell presses having 5 stations available for use simultaneously, unlike a single-stage cartridge press which typically has but one station available for use.In general, though, shotshell reloading is far more complex than rifle and pistol cartridge reloading, and hence far fewer shotshell presses are therefore used relative to rifle and pistol cartridge reloading presses.====.50 BMG and larger cartridge presses====Reloading presses for reloading .50 BMG and larger cartridges are also typically caliber-specific, much like shotshell presses, as standard-size rifle and pistol reloading presses are not capable of being pressed into such exotic reloading service.", "The reloading of such large cartridges is also much more complex, as developing a load using a specific lot of powder can require nearly all of a 5 lb.", "bottle of powder and a load must be developed with a single load of powder for reasons of safety.=== Dies ===Reloading dies and shell holders for 7.5mm Swiss Dies are generally sold in sets of two or three units, depending on the shape of the case.", "A three-die set is needed for straight cases, while a two-die set is used for bottlenecked cases.", "The first die of either set performs the sizing and decapping operation, except in some cases in the 3-die set, where decapping may be done by the second die.", "The middle die in a three-die set is used to expand the case mouth of straight cases (and decap in the case where this is not done by the first die), while in a two-die set the entire neck is expanded as the case is extracted from the first die.", "The last die in the set seats the bullet and may apply a crimp.", "Special crimping dies are often used to apply a stronger crimp after the bullet is seated.", "Progressive presses sometimes use an additional \"die\" to meter powder into the case (though it is arguably not a real die as it does not shape the case).Standard dies are made from hardened steel, and require that the case be lubricated, for the resizing operation, which requires a large amount of force.", "Rifle cartridges require lubrication of every case, due to the large amount of force required, while smaller, thinner handgun cartridges can get away with alternating lubricated and unlubricated cases.", "Carbide dies have a ring of tungsten carbide, which is far harder and slicker than tool steel, and so carbide dies do not require lubrication.Modern reloading dies are generally standardized with 7/8-14 (or, for the case of .50 BMG dies, with 1-1/4×12) threads and are interchangeable with all common brands of presses, although older dies may use other threads and be press-specific.Dies for bottleneck cases usually are supplied in sets of at least two dies, though sometimes a third is added for crimping.", "This is an extra operation and is not needed unless a gun's magazine or action design requires crimped ammunition for safe operation, such as autoloading firearms, where the cycling of the action may push the bullet back in the case, resulting in poor accuracy and increased pressures.", "Crimping is also sometimes recommended to achieve full velocity for bullets, through increasing pressures so as to make powders burn more efficiently, and for heavy recoiling loads, to prevent bullets from moving under recoil.", "For FMJ bullets mounted in bottleneck cases, roll crimping is generally not ever used unless a cannelure is present on the bullet, to prevent causing bullet deformation when crimping.", "Rimless, straight wall cases, on the other hand, require a taper crimp, because they have headspace on the case mouth; roll crimping causes headspacing problems on these cartridges.", "Rimmed, belted, or bottleneck cartridges, however, generally can safely be roll crimped when needed.", "Three dies are normally supplied for straight-walled cases, with an optional fourth die for crimping.", "Crimps for straight wall cases may be taper crimps, suitable for rimless cartridges used in autoloaders, or roll crimps, which are best for rimmed cartridges such as are used in revolvers.There are also specialty dies.", "Bump dies are designed to move the shoulder of a bottleneck case back just a bit to facilitate chambering.", "These are frequently used in conjunction with neck dies, as the bump die itself does not manipulate the neck of the case whatsoever.", "A bump die can be a very useful tool to anyone who owns a fine shooting rifle with a chamber that is cut to minimum headspace dimensions, as the die allows the case to be fitted to this unique chamber.", "Another die is the \"hand die\".", "A hand die has no threads and is operated—as the name suggests—by hand or by use of a hand-operated arbor press.", "Hand dies are available for most popular cartridges, and although available as full-length resizing dies, they are most commonly seen as neck sizing dies.", "These use an interchangeable insert to size the neck, and these inserts come in 1/1000-inch steps so that the user can custom fit the neck of the case to his own chamber or have greater control over neck tension on the bullet.=== Shellholders ===A shell holder, generally sold separately, is needed to hold the case in place as it is forced into and out of the dies.", "The reason shellholders are sold separately is that many cartridges share the same base dimensions, and a single shell holder can service many different cases.", "Shellholders are also specialized, and will generally only fit a certain make of reloading press, while modern dies are standardized and will fit a wide variety of presses.", "Different shell holders than those used for dies are also required for use with some hand priming tools (e.g., Lee Autoprime tool.", ")=== Scale ===Hornady Powder ScaleA precision weighing scale is a near necessity for reloading.", "While it is possible to load using nothing but a powder measure and a weight-to-volume conversion chart, this greatly limits the precision with which a load can be adjusted, increasing the danger of accidentally overloading cartridges with powder for loads near or at the maximum safe load.", "With a powder scale, an adjustable powder measure can be calibrated more precisely for the powder in question, and spot checks can be made during loading to make sure that the measure is not drifting.", "With a powder trickler, a charge can be measured directly into the scale, giving the most accurate measure.A scale also allows bullets and cases to be sorted by weight, which can increase consistency further.", "Sorting bullets by weight has obvious benefits, as each set of matched bullets will perform more consistently.", "Sorting cases by weight is done to group cases by case wall thickness, and match cases with similar interior volumes.", "Military cases, for example, tend to be thicker, while cases that have been reloaded numerous times will have thinner walls due to brass flowing forward under firing, and excess case length being later trimmed from the case mouth.There are 3 types of reloading scales:* Mechanical reloading scale (they are measured manually with no usage of power).", "* Digital Scales (they need electricity or batteries to operate).", "* Digital Scales with dispenser (they unite both reloading scales and dispense options into one version).=== Priming tool ===RCBS hand primerSingle-stage presses often do not provide an easy way of installing primers to (\"priming\") cases.", "Various add-on tools can be used for priming the case on the down-stroke, or a separate tool can be used.", "Since cases loaded by a single-stage press are done in steps, with the die being changed between steps, a purpose-made priming tool (so-called \"primer\" tool) — is often faster than trying to integrate a priming step to a press step, and also often more robust than a model that needs to be mounted and fitted onto a press, resulting in a more consistent primer seating depth.=== Powder measure ===Hornady Powder MeasureBeginning reloading kits often include a weight-to-volume conversion chart for a selection of common powders and a set of powder volume measures graduated in small increments.", "By adding the various measures of powder the desired charge can be measured with a safe degree of accuracy.", "However, since multiple measures of powder are often needed, and since powder lots may vary slightly in density, a powder measure accurate to is desirable.=== Bullet puller ===Impact Bullet PullerLike any complex process, mistakes in handloading are easy to make, and a bullet puller device allows the handloader to disassemble mistakes.", "Most pullers use inertia to pull the bullet, and are often shaped like hammers.", "When in use, the case is locked in place in a head-down fashion inside the far end of the \"hammer\", and then the device is swung and struck against a firm surface.", "The sharp impact will suddenly decelerate the case, but the inertia exerted by the heavier mass of the bullet will keep it moving and thus pull it free from the case in a few blows, while the powder and bullet will get caught by a trapping container within the puller after the separation.", "Collet-type pullers are also available, which use a caliber-specific clamp to grip the bullet, while a loading press is used to pull the case downwards.", "It is essential that the collet be a good match for the bullet diameter because a poor match can result in significant deformation of the bullet.Bullet pullers are also used to disassemble loaded ammunition of questionable provenance or undesirable configuration so that the components can be salvaged for re-use.", "Surplus military ammunition is often pulled for components, particularly cartridge cases, which are often difficult to obtain for older foreign military rifles.", "Military ammunition is often tightly sealed, to make it resistant to water and rough handling, such as in machine gun feeding mechanisms.", "In this case, the seal between the bullet and cartridge can prevent the bullet puller from functioning.", "Pushing the bullet into the case slightly with a seating die will break the seal, and allow the bullet to be pulled.Primers are a more problematic issue.", "If a primer is not seated deeply enough, the cartridge (if loaded) can be pulled, and the primer re-seated with the seating tool.", "Primers that must be removed are frequently deactivated first—either firing the primed case in the appropriate firearm or soaking in penetrating oil, which penetrates the water-resistant coatings in the primer.Components pulled from loaded cartridges should be reused with care.", "Unknown or potentially contaminated powders, contaminated primers, and bullets that are damaged or incorrectly sized can all cause dangerous conditions upon firing.=== Case trimmer ===Hornady Manual Case TrimmerCases, especially bottleneck cases, will stretch upon firing.", "How much a case will stretch depends upon load pressure, cartridge design, chamber size, functional cartridge headspace (usually the most important factor), and other variables.", "Periodically cases need to be trimmed to bring them back to proper specifications.", "Most reloading manuals list both a ''trim size'' and a ''max length''.", "Long cases can create a safety hazard through improper headspace and possible increased pressure.Several kinds of case trimmers are available.", "Die-based trimmers have an open top and allow the case to be trimmed with a file during the loading process.", "Manual trimmers usually have a base that has a shellholder at one end and a cutting bit at the opposite end, with a locking mechanism to hold the case tight and in alignment with the axis of the cutter, similar to a small lathe.", "Typically the device is cranked by hand, but sometimes they have attachments to allow the use of a drill or powered screwdriver.", "Powered case trimmers are also available.", "They usually consist of a motor (electric drills are sometimes used) and special dies or fittings that hold the case to be trimmed at the appropriate length, letting the motor do the work of trimming.===Primer pocket tools===Primer pocket cleaning tools are used to remove residual combustion debris remaining in the primer pocket; both brush designs and single blade designs are commonly used.", "Dirty primer pockets can prevent setting primers at, or below, the cartridge head.", "Primer pocket reamers or swagers are used to remove military crimps in primer pockets.Primer pocket uniformer tools are used to achieve a uniform primer pocket depth.", "These are small endmills with a fixed depth-spacing ring attached, and are mounted either in a handle for use as a handtool, or are sometimes mounted in a battery-operated screwdriver.", "Some commercial cartridges (notably Sellier & Bellot) use large rifle primers that are thinner than the SAAMI standards common in the United States, and will not permit seating a Boxer primer manufactured to U.S. standards; the use of a primer pocket uniformer tool on such brass avoids setting Boxer primers high when reloading, which would be a safety issue.", "Two sizes of primer pocket uniformer tools exist, the larger one is for large rifle (0.130-inch nominal depth) primer pockets and the smaller one is used for uniforming small rifle/pistol primer pockets.Flash hole uniforming tools are used to remove any burrs, which are residual brass remaining from the manufacturing punching operation used in creating flash holes.", "These tools resemble primer pocket uniformer tools, except being thinner, and commonly include deburring, chamfering, and uniforming functions.", "The purpose of these tools is to achieve a more equal distribution of flame from the primer to ignite the powder charge, resulting in consistent ignition from case to case.===Headspace gauges and modified case gauges===Bottleneck rifle cartridges are particularly prone to encounter incipient head separations if they are full-length re-sized and re-trimmed to their maximum permitted case lengths each time they are reloaded.", "In some such cartridges, such as the .303 British when used in Enfield rifles, as few as 1 or 2 reloadings can be the limit before the head of the cartridge will physically separate from the body of the cartridge when fired.", "The solution to this problem, of avoiding overstretching of the brass case, and thereby avoiding the excessive thinning of the wall thickness of the brass case due to case stretching, is to use what is called a \"headspace gauge\".", "Contrary to its name, it does not actually measure a rifle's headspace.", "Rather, it measures the distance from the head of the cartridge to the middle of the shoulder of the bottleneck cartridge case.", "For semi-automatic and automatic rifles, the customary practice is to move the midpoint of this shoulder back by no more than 0.005 inches, for reliable operation, when resizing the case.", "For bolt-action rifles, with their additional camming action, the customary practice is to move this shoulder back by only 0.001 to 0.002 inches when resizing the case.", "In contrast to full-length resizing of bottleneck rifle cartridges, which can rapidly thin out the wall thickness of bottleneck rifle cartridges due to case stretching that occurs each time when fired, partial length re-sizing of the bottleneck case pushes shoulders back only a few thousandths of an inch will often permit a case to be safely reloaded 5 times or more, even up to 10 times, or more for very light loads.Similarly, by using modified case gauges, it is possible to measure precisely the distance from a bullet ogive to the start of rifling in a particular rifle for a given bottleneck cartridge.", "Maximum accuracy for a rifle is often found to occur for only one particular fixed distance from the start of rifling in a bore to a datum line on a bullet ogive.", "Measuring the overall cartridge length does not permit setting such fixed distances accurately, as different bullets from different manufacturers will often have a different ogive shape.", "It is only by measuring from a fixed diameter point on a bullet ogive to the start of a bore's rifling that proper spacing can be determined to maximize accuracy.", "A modified case gauge can provide the means by which to achieve an improvement in accuracy with precision handloads.Such head space gauges and modified case gauges can, respectively, permit greatly increasing the number of times a rifle bottleneck case can be reloaded safely, as well as improve greatly the accuracy of such handloads.", "Unlike the situation with using expensive factory ammunition, handloaded match ammunition can be made that is vastly more accurate, and, through reloading, that can be much more affordable than anything that can be purchased, being customized for a particular rifle." ], [ "Materials required", ".223 Remington brassThe following materials are needed for handloading ammunition:Cases or shotshell hulls.", "For shotshells, plastic or paper cases can be reloaded, though plastic is more durable.", "Steel and aluminum cases do not have the correct qualities for reloading, so a brass case is essential (although nickel-plated brass cases, while not as reformable as plain brass, can also be reloaded)Propellant of an appropriate type.", "Generally, handgun cartridges (due to shorter barrels) and shotshells (due to heavier projectile weights) use faster burning smokeless powders, and rifle cartridges use slower burning powder.", "The powder is generally of the \"smokeless\" type in modern cartridges, although on occasion the older black powder more commonly known as \"gunpowder\" may be used.", "Projectiles, such as bullets for handguns and rifles, or shot and wads for shotguns.", "Centerfire primers, most commonly a Boxer-type.Case lubrication may also be needed depending on the dies used.", "Carbide pistol dies do not require case lubricant.", "For this reason, they are preferred by many, being inherently less messy in operation.", "In contrast, all dies for bottleneck cartridges, whether made of high-strength steel or carbide, and steel dies for pistols do require the use of a case lubricant to prevent a case become stuck in a die.", "(In the event that a case does ever become stuck in a die, there are stuck case remover tools that are available to remove a stuck case from the die, albeit at the loss of the particular case that became stuck.)", "Powder should always be stored in original containers since they are designed to split open at low pressure to prevent a dangerous pressure buildup, and any cabinet they are stored in should similarly prevent pressure buildup by allowing venting and expansion." ], [ "Reloading process", "===Pistol/Rifle cartridges===A vibratory (\"dry\") case TumblerThe operations performed when handloading cartridges are:* Depriming — the removal of any old, expended primers from previously fired cases.", "Usually done with a thin rod that is inserted into the flash hole via the case mouth and push out the primer from inside.", "* Case cleaning — removal of foulings and tarnishes from the cases, optional but recommended for reused rifle or pistol cases.", "Cleaning can be done with an ultrasonic cleaner, or more commonly with a mass finishing device known as a \"case tumbler\".", "Tumblers use abrasive granules known as ''tumbling media'' (which can be stone or ceramic granules, fragments of corncob or walnut/coconut shells, or small segments of stainless steel wire often called \"pins\") to burnish the cases, and can be either a vibratory type (\"dry tumbling\") or a water/detergent-based rotary type (\"wet tumbling\").", "In either type, when the cleaning is completed, a \"media separator\" is needed to sieve out and remove the abrasive media.", "In the \"wet\" rotary tumbling, a food dehydrator-like convection dryer is sometimes used to eliminate moisture retention that might later interfere with handloading.", "* Case inspection — looking for cracks or other defects, and discard visibly imperfect cases.", "The interior may be inspected by a wire-feeler or feeler gauge to detect emerging interior cracks.", "Bent case mouths ''may'' be repaired during resizing.", "* Case lubrication — applying surface lubricant on the exterior surface of the cases to prevent them from getting stuck inside the die (carbide dies do not require lubrication).", "* Resizing — modifying the shape of the case neck/shoulder and/or removing any dents and deformities.", "Reaming or swage crimping the primer pocket (reloading military cases only), or milling the primer pocket depth using a primer pocket uniformer toolGauging and trimming — measuring the case length and removing excess length from the case neck (as needed; rarely required with handgun cases)Deburring and reaming — smoothing the case mouth edge (optional, as-needed; only trimmed cases need to be deburred); some benchrest shooters also do exterior neck turning at this stage in order to make the cartridge case have a uniform thickness, so the bullet will be crimped and released with the most uniformity.", " Primer pocket cleaning and flash hole uniforming (optional) — the primer pockets and flash holes will have deposits from previous primer combustion, as well as occasional deformation, that need fixing; generally only benchrest shooters perform these.", "* Expanding or chamfering the case mouth — to allow easier, smoother seating of the bullet before pressing (not required for boat-tailed bullets)* Cleaning the lubricant off the cases* Priming — seating a new primer into the case (primer pockets often become loose after multiple loadings; a lack of effort being required to seat new primers indicates a loose primer pocket; cases with loose primer pockets are usually discarded, after crushing the case to prevent its reuse)* Powder charging — adding a measured amount of propellant powder into the case.", "This is a critical step, as incorrect powder charges are extremely dangerous, both undercharged (which can lead to a squib load) as well as overcharged (which can cause the gun to explode).", "* Bullet seating — positioning the bullet in the case mouth for the correct cartridge overall length (OAL) and for aligning bullet cannelure (if present) with the case mouthCrimping — Pressing and tightening the case mouth to fix the bullet in place; some may hold the bullet with neck tension alone.", "Final cartridge inspectionWhen previously fired cases are used, they must be inspected before loading.", "Cases that are dirty or tarnished are often polished in a tumbler to remove oxidation and allow easier inspection of the case.", "Cleaning in a tumbler will also clean the interior of cases, which is often considered important for handloading high-precision target rounds.", "Cracked necks, non-reloadable cases (steel, aluminum, or Berdan primed cases), and signs of head separation are all reasons to reject a case.", "Cases are measured for length, and any that are over the recommended length is trimmed down to the minimum length.", "Competition shooters will also sort cases by brand and weight to ensure consistency.Removal of the primer, called ''decapping'' or ''depriming'', is usually done with a die containing a steel pin that punches out the primer from inside the case.", "Berdan primed cases require a different technique, either a hydraulic ram or a hook that punctures the case and levers it out from the bottom.", "Military cases often have crimped-in primers, and decapping them leaves a slightly indented ring (most common) or, for some military cartridges, a set of stabbed ridges located on the edge of the primer pocket opening that inhibits or prevents seating a new primer into a decapped case.", "A reamer or a swage is used to remove both these styles of crimp, whether ring crimps or stab crimps.", "The purpose of all such primer crimps is to make military ammunition more reliable under more extreme environmental conditions.", "Some military cartridges also have sealants placed around primers, in addition to crimps, to provide additional protection against moisture intrusion that could deactivate the primer for any ammunition exposed to water under battlefield conditions.", "Decapping dies, though, easily overcome the additional resistance of sealed primers, with no significant difficulty beyond that encountered when removing non-sealed primers.When a cartridge is fired, the internal pressure expands the case to fit the chamber in a process called obturation.", "To allow ease of chambering the cartridge when it is reloaded, the case is swaged back to size.", "Competition shooters, using bolt-action rifles that are capable of camming a tight case into place, often resize only the neck of the cartridge, called ''neck sizing'', as opposed to the normal full-length resizing process.", "Neck sizing is only useful for cartridges to be re-fired in the same firearm, as the brass may be slightly oversized in some dimensions for other chambers, but the precise fit of the case to the chamber will allow greater consistency and therefore greater potential accuracy.", "Some believe that neck sizing will permit a larger number of reloads with a given case in contrast to full-size resizing, although this is controversial.", "Semi-automatic rifles and rifles with SAAMI minimum chamber dimensions often require a special ''small base'' resizing die, that sizes further down the case than normal dies, and allows for more reliable feeding.Once the case is sized down, the inside of the neck of the case will actually be slightly smaller than the bullet's diameter.", "To allow the bullet to be seated, the end of the neck is slightly expanded to allow the bullet to start into the case.", "Boattailed bullets need very little expansion, while unjacketed lead bullets require more expansion to prevent shaving of lead when the bullet is seated.Large Rifle primersPriming the case is the most dangerous step of the loading process since the primers are pressure-sensitive.", "The use of safety glasses or goggles during priming operations can provide valuable protection in the rare event that an accidental detonation takes place.", "Seating a Boxer primer not only places the primer in the case, but it also seats the anvil of the primer down onto the priming compound, in effect arming the primer.", "A correctly seated primer will sit slightly below the surface of the case.", "A primer that protrudes from the case may cause a number of problems, including what is known as a ''slam fire,'' which is the firing of a case before the action is properly locked when chambering a round.", "This may either damage the gun and/or injure the shooter.", "A protruding primer will also tend to hang when feeding, and the anvil will not be seated correctly so the primer may not fire when hit by the firing pin.", "Primer pockets may need to be cleaned with a primer pocket brush to remove deposits that prevent the primer from being properly seated.", "Berdan primers must also be seated carefully, and since the anvil is part of the case, the anvil must be inspected before the primer is seated.", "For reloading cartridges intended for use in military-surplus firearms, rifles especially, \"hard\" primers are most commonly used instead of commercial \"soft\" primers.", "The use of \"hard\" primers avoids slamfires when loading finished cartridges in the military-surplus firearm.", "Such primers are available to handloaders commercially.The quantity of gunpowder is specified by weight, but almost always measured by volume, especially in larger-scale operations.", "A powder scale is needed to determine the correct mass thrown by the powder measure, as loads are specified with a precision of 0.10 grain (6.5 mg).", "One grain is 1/7000 of a pound.", "Competition shooters will generally throw a slightly underweight charge, and use a ''powder trickler'' to add a few granules of powder at a time to the charge to bring it to the exact weight desired for maximum consistency.", "Special care is needed when charging large-capacity cases with fast-burning, low-volume powders.", "In this instance, it is possible to put two charges of powder in a case without overflowing the case, which can lead to dangerously high pressures and a significant chance of bursting the chamber of the firearm.", "Non-magnum revolver cartridges are the easiest to do this with, as they generally have relatively large cases, and tend to perform well with small charges of fast powders.", "Some powders meter (measured by volume) better than others due to the shape of each granule.", "When using volume to meter each charge, it is important to regularly check the charge weight on a scale throughout the process.Competition shooters also often sort bullets by weight, often down to 0.10 grain (6.5 mg) increments.", "The bullet is placed in the case mouth by hand and then seated with the press.", "At this point, the expanded case mouth is also sized back down.", "A crimp can optionally be added, either by the seating die or with a separate die.", "Taper crimps are used for cases that are held in the chamber by the case mouth, while roll crimps may be used for cases that have headspace on a rim or on the cartridge neck.", "Roll crimps hold the bullet far more securely, and are preferred in situations, such as magnum revolvers, where recoil velocities are significant.", "A tight crimp also helps to delay the start of the bullet's motion, which can increase chamber pressures, and help develop full power from slower burning powders (see internal ballistics).===Shotgun shells===Pacific single stage shotshell reloading press (an inline design), showing the 5 stations standard to shotshell presses.Unlike the presses used for reloading metallic cartridges, the presses used for reloading shotgun shells have become standardized to contain 5 stations, with the exact configuration of these 5 stations arranged either in a circle or in a straight row.", "Nonetheless, the operations performed using the industry-standard 5 station shotshell presses when handloading shotshells with birdshot, although slightly different, are very similar as to when reloading metallic cartridges:Selecting an appropriate charge bar and powder bushing, or charge bar with shot bushing and powder bushing, or a universal charge bar (if used) for measuring shot and powder, for the shotshell press.", "Verifying that all components are properly selected (hull, primer, powder, wad, and shot).", "(No substitutions are allowed in components, nor in charge weights of shot and powder.", "The only substitution allowed is in the brand of shot and the size of the shot (#8, #9, etc.", "Also, no substitutions are allowed in the shot material itself (whether it is lead shot, Hevi-Shot, steel shot, etc.", "), as the malleability of lead shot is noticeably different than steel.", ")Loading shot and powder in the press, and verifying that the as-dropped weights are per an established, published, loading recipe using a calibrated scale.", "(Typically, 5 to 10 trials of shot and powder drops, each, are recommended by shotshell press or universal charge bar user manuals.)", "Adjusting bushings or universal charge bar settings to account for small differences in densities due to lot-to-lot variations in both powder and shot.", "Inspecting each hull.", "(Examining for cracks or other hull defects, and discarding any visibly imperfect hulls.", "Also, turning each hull upside down to remove any foreign object debris before depriming.", ")Removing the fired primer and sizing/resizing the brass outer diameter at the base of the hull (Station 1).", "Inserting a primer in the well of the press, and sizing/resizing the inner diameter of the hull while inserting a new primer (Station 2).", "Verifying primer is fully seated, not raised.", "If primer is not fully seated, re-running operation at Station 2 until primer is fully seated.", "Positioning primed hull (at Station 3), pulling handle down, toggling charge bar to drop measured amount of powder, raising handle, inserting wad, dropping handle again to seat wad, toggling charge bar to drop measured amount of shot, raising handle.", "Pre-crimping of shell (Station 4).", "Final crimping of shell (Station 5).", "Inspecting crimping on shell.", "If crimp is not fully flat, re-crimping (Station 5).", "Inspecting bottles of shot and powder on the shotshell press, adding more as needed before it runs out.", "Cutting open 4 or 5 shells randomly selected from a large lot of handloaded shells, respectively, and verifying that the as-thrown weights of powder and shot are both within desired tolerances of the published recipe that was followed.", "(Optional, but recommended.", ")The exact details for accomplishing these steps on particular shotshell presses vary depending on the brand of the press, although the presence of 5 stations is standard among all modern presses.The use of safety glasses or goggles while reloading shotshells can provide valuable protection in the rare event that an accidental detonation takes place during priming operations.The quantities of both gunpowder and shot are specified by weight when loading shotshells, but almost always measured solely by volume.", "A powder scale is therefore needed to determine the correct mass thrown by the powder measure, and by the shot measure, as powder loads are specified with a precision of 0.10 grain (6.5 mg), but are usually thrown with a tolerance of 0.2 to 0.3 grains in most shotshell presses.", "Similarly, shot payloads in shells are generally held to within a tolerance of plus or minus 3-5 grains.", "One grain is 1/7000 of a pound.Shotshell reloading for specialty purposes, such as for buckshot or slugs, or other specialty rounds, is often practiced but varies significantly from the process steps discussed previously for handloading birdshot shotshells.", "The primary difference is that large shot cannot be metered in a charge bar, and so must be manually dropped, a ball at a time, in a specific configuration.", "Likewise, the need for specialty wads or extra wads, in order to achieve the desired stackup distance to achieve a full and proper crimp for a fixed shell length, say 2-3/4\", causes the steps to differ slightly when handloading such shells.Modern shotshells are all uniformly sized for Type 209 primers.", "However, reloaders should be aware that older shotshells were sometimes primed with a Type 57 or Type 69 primer (now obsolete), meaning that shotgun shell reloading tends to be done only with modern (or recently produced) components.", "Being essentially \"published recipe\" dependent, antique shotshell reloading is not widely practiced, being more of a specialty, or niche, activity.", "Of course, when reloading for very old shotguns, such as those with Damascus barrels, special shotshell recipes that limit pressures to less than 4500 psi are still available, and these \"recipes\" are reloaded by some shotgunning enthusiasts.", "Typical shotshell pressures for handloads intended for modern shotguns range from approximately 4700 psi to 10,000 psi.Brass shotshells are also reloaded, occasionally, but typically these are reloaded using standard rifle/pistol reloading presses with specialty dies, rather than with modern shotshell presses.", "Rather than plastic wads, traditional felt and paperboard wads are also generally used (both over powder and over shot) when reloading brass shotgun shells.", "Reloading brass shotshells is not widely practiced.Shotguns, in general, operate at much lower pressures than pistols and rifles, typically operating at pressures of 10,000 psi, or less, for 12 gauge shells, whereas rifles and pistols routinely are operated at pressures in excess of 35,000 psi, and sometimes upwards of 50,000 psi.", "The SAAMI maximum permitted pressure limit is only 11,500 psi for 12 gauge 2-3/4 inch shells, so the typical operating pressures for many shotgun shells are only slightly below the maximum permitted pressures allowed for safe ammunition.", "Because of this small difference in typical operating vs. maximum industry allowed pressures and the fact that even small changes in components can cause pressure variances in excess of 4,000 psi, the components used in shotshell reloading must not be varied from published recipes, as the margin of safety relative to operating pressures for shotguns is much lower than for pistols and rifles.", "This lower operating pressure for shotguns and shells is also the reason why shotgun barrels have noticeably thinner walls than rifle and pistol barrels." ], [ "Legal aspects", "Since many countries heavily restrict the civilian possession of ammunition and ammunition components, including primers and smokeless powder, handloading may be explicitly or implicitly illegal in certain countries.", "Even without specific restrictions on powder and primers, they may be covered under other laws governing explosive materials.", "Handloading may require study and passing an exam to acquire a handloading permit prior to being allowed to handload ammunition in some jurisdictions.", "This is done to avoid catastrophic accidents caused by lack of knowledge/skill as much as possible, and also allows the government to maintain information on who reloads their own cartridges.", "The standards organization C.I.P.", "rules that the products of handloaders that do not comply with the C.I.P.", "ammunition approval rules for commercial ammunition manufacturers cannot be legally sold in C.I.P.", "member states.Many firearms manufacturers explicitly advise against the use of handloaded ammunition.", "Generally, this means that the maker's warranty is void, and the manufacturer is not liable for any damage to the gun or personal injury if handloaded ammunition is used that exceeded established limits for a particular arm.", "This arises because firearm manufacturers point out that while they have some influence and scope for redress with ammunition manufacturers, they have no such influence over the actions of incompetent or overly ambitious individuals who assemble ammunition.===United States ===In the United States, handloading is not only legal and requires no permit, but is also quite popular.", "Experts point to potential legal liabilities (depending on the jurisdiction) that the shooter may incur if using handloaded ammunition for defense, such as an implied malice on the part of the shooter, as the use of handloaded ammunition may give the impression that \"regular bullets weren't deadly enough\".", "Additionally, forensic reconstruction of a shooting relies on using identical ammunition from the manufacturer, where handloaded ammunition cannot be guaranteed identical to the ammunition used in the shooting, since \"the defendant literally manufactured the evidence\".", "In particular, powder residue patterning is used by law enforcement to validate the distance between the firearm and the person shot using known facts from the manufacturer about powder type, content, and other factors.===Canada ===Handloading is legal in Canada.", "The Explosives Act places limits on the amount of powder (either smokeless or black) that may be stored in a building, on the manner in which it is stored, and on how much powder may be available for use at any time.", "The Act is the responsibility of Natural Resources Canada.", "If the quantity of powder stored for personal use exceeds 75 kg, then a Propellant Magazine Licence (Type P) is required.", "There is no limit on the number of primers that may be stored for non-commercial use.===Germany ===As an example of a European country, handloading in Germany requires a course, terminated in an exam, in handloading and handling of explosive propellants; often, this is offered in combination with a course and exam in muzzle-loading and black powder-shooting.", "The State's Ministry of the Interior conducts the exam.", "When passed and the reloader can provide a reason for his will to reload (\"Bedürfnisprüfung\"), he can apply for a permit to a quota of propellant for five years (after which time he has to extend the permit).", "Every propellant is recorded in the permit.", "Primers, cartridges, bullets, and reloading equipment are available without a permit.As German law gives maximum pressures for every commercial caliber, the handloader is allowed to non-commercially give away his ammunition.", "He is liable for incorrect loading.", "His references are data books by propellant manufacturers (like RWS), bullet manufacturers (like Speer), reloading tool manufacturers (like Lyman) or neutral manufacturers institutions like the DEVA.", "Firearms manufacturers give guarantees as long as the handloaded ammunition is within the correct parameters.The relevant rules for non-commercial application can be found in §27 of the Explosives Act (\"Sprengstoffgesetz\").In order to investigate gun destruction – material fault or incorrectly loaded ammunition – , and for handloaders to get data for new loads, gun and/or handloaded cartridges can be sent to the DEVA institute (German institute for testing and examining of hunting and sporting guns); the DEVA returns a pressure diagram and a report whether this load is within legal range for this ammunition.=== South Africa ===Handloading or reloading is allowed in South Africa as long as you are in possession of a competency certificate to possess a firearm as well as a license to possess such a firearm.", "Sport shooters load to make shooting sports more affordable and hunters load to obtain greater accuracy.", "Powder and primers are strictly controlled by law and can not exceed for 2 kg for powder and 2400 primers.", "The amount of ammunition you may have in your possession is also limited to 200 rounds per chambering.", "If you are a registered dedicated sportsman, the quantities are unlimited.", "Although the powder's quantity is unlimited if you are a dedicated sportsman, storage of excess amounts of powder is dangerous due to the potential of fire occurring from accidental ignition.", "A manual from a South African powder manufacturer Rheinmetall Denel Munition (previously Somchem) is available for reloaders with adequate information and guidelines." ], [ "Atypical handloading", "Berdan primers, with their off-center flash holes and lack of self-contained anvil, are more difficult to work with than the easily removed Boxer primers.", "The primers may be punctured and pried out from the rear, or extracted with hydraulic pressure.", "Primers must be selected carefully, as there are more sizes of Berdan primers than the standard large and small pistol, large and small rifle of Boxer primers.", "The case must also be inspected carefully to make sure the anvil has not been damaged because this could result in a failure to fire.Rimfire cartridges (e.g.", "22 Long Rifle) are not generally hand-loaded in modern times, although there are some shooters that unload commercial rimfire cartridges, and use the primed case to make their own loads or to generate special rimfire wildcat cartridges.", "These cartridges are highly labor-intensive to produce.", "Historically, liquid priming material was available for reloading rimfire ammunition, but the extreme explosive hazard of bulk primer compound and complexity of the process (including \"ironing out\" the firing pin strike) caused the practice to decline.Some shooters desiring to reload for obsolete rimfire cartridges alter the firearm in question to function as a centerfire, which allows them to reload.", "Often it is possible to reform cases from similarly sized ammunition which is in production, and this is the most economical way of obtaining brass for obscure or out-of-production calibers.", "Even if custom brass must be manufactured, this is often far less expensive than purchasing rare, out-of-production ammunition.", "Cartridges like the 56-50 Spencer, for example, are not readily obtainable in rimfire form, but can be made from shortened 50-70 cartridges or even purchased in loaded form from specialty dealers.An unusual solution to the problem of obtaining ammunition for the very old pinfire cartridges is even available.", "This solution uses specialized cartridges that use a removable pin and anvil which hold a percussion cap of the type use in caplock firearms.", "To reload a fired case, the pin is removed, allowing the anvil to slide out; a percussion cap is placed in the anvil, it is re-inserted, and the pin serves to lock the anvil in place, as well as to ignite the percussion cap.Shotshell reloading is sometimes done for scattershot loads, consisting of multiple wads separating groups of shot, which are intended for use at short-distance hunting of birds.", "Similarly, shotshell reloading for buckshot loads and non-lethal \"bean bag\" loads are sometimes handloaded.", "These types of shotshells are rarely handloaded." ], [ "Accuracy considerations", "Several different powder samplesPrecision and consistency are key to developing accurate ammunition.", "Various methods are used to ensure that ammunition components are as consistent as possible.", "Since the firearm is also a variable in the accuracy equation, careful tuning of the load to a particular firearm can yield significantaccuracy improvements.===Cases===The internal volume of the cartridge case, or case capacity, significantly affects the pressure developed during ignition, which significantly affects the velocity of the bullet.", "Cases from different manufacturers can vary in wall thickness, and as cases are repeatedly fired and reloaded the brass flows up to the neck and is trimmed off, increasing capacity as well as weakening the case.", "The first step to ensuring consistent case capacity is sorting the cases by headstamp, so each lot of cases is from the same manufacturer and/or year.", "A further step would be to then weigh these cases, and sort by case weight.The neck of the case is another variable since this determines how tightly the bullet is held in place during ignition.", "Inconsistent neck thickness and neck tension will result in variations in pressure during ignition.", "These variables can be addressed by annealing and thinning the neck, as well as by careful control of the crimping operation.Common Rifle Casings===Bullets===Bullets must be well balanced and consistent in weight, shape, and seating depth to ensure that they correctly engage the rifling, exit the barrel at a consistent velocity, and fly straight.", "Buying bullets from a high-quality source will help ensure quality, but for ultimate accuracy, some shooters will measure even the best bullets, and reject all but the most consistent.", "Measurement of the weight is the easiest, and bullets that are out of round can be detected by rotating the bullet while measuring with a micrometer.", "There is even a device available that will detect changes in jacket thickness and internal voids in jacketed rifle bullets, though its high cost makes it prohibitively expensive for all but the most dedicated shooters.The transition from the case to the barrel is also very important.", "If the bullets have to travel a varying distance from the case to the point where they engage the rifling, then this can result in variations in pressure and velocity.", "The bearing surface of the bullet should ideally be seated as close as possible to the rifling.", "Since it is the bearing surface that matters here, it is important that the bullets have a consistent bearing surface.===Load tuning===Tuning load to a gun can also yield great increases in accuracy, especially for standard, non-accurized rifles.", "Different rifles, even of the same make and model, will often react to the same ammunition in different ways.", "The handloader is afforded a wider selection of bullet weights than can readily be found in commercially loaded ammunition, and there are many different powders that can be used for any given cartridge.", "Trying a range of bullets and a variety of powders will determine what combination of bullet and powder gives the most consistent velocities and accuracies.", "Careful adjustment of the amount of powder can give the velocity that best fits the natural harmonics of the barrel (see accurize and internal ballistics).", "For ultimate accuracy and performance, the handloader also has the option of using a wildcat cartridge; wildcats are the result of shaping the cartridge and chamber themselves to a specific end, and the results push the envelope of velocity, energy, and accuracy.", "Most, but not all, reloads perform best when the powder selected fills 95% or more of the case (by volume)." ], [ "Cost considerations", "Those who reload with the primary goal of maximizing accuracy or terminal performance may end up paying more per reloaded round than for commercial ammunition—this is especially true for military calibers which are commonly available as surplus.", "Maximum performance, however, requires the highest quality components, which are usually the most expensive.", "Reloaders who reload with the primary goal of saving money on ammunition, however, can make a few tradeoffs to realize significant cost savings with a minimal sacrifice in quality.===Case life maximization===Digital calipers for measuring case lengthSince the case is the single most expensive part of a loaded round, the more times a case can be re-used, the better.", "Cases that are loaded to a moderate pressure will generally last longer, as they will not be work hardened or flow under pressure as much as cases loaded to higher pressures.", "Use of moderate pressure loads extends the life of the case significantly, not to mention saving quite a bit of wear and tear on the barrel.", "Work hardening can cause cracks to occur in the neck as the hardened brass loses its malleability, and is unable to survive swaging back into shape during the resizing operation.", "Rifle brass tends to flow towards the neck (this is why rifle brass must be trimmed periodically) and this takes brass away from the rear of the case.", "Eventually, this will show as a bright ring near the base of the cartridge, just in front of the thick web of brass at the base.", "If brass is used after this ring appears, it risks a crack, or worse, a complete head separation, which will leave the forward portion of the brass lodged in the chamber of the gun.", "This generally requires a special stuck case removal tool to extract, so it is very undesirable to have a head separation.With bottlenecked cartridge cases, choosing the right sizing die can also be important.", "Full-length sizing of cartridges is often thought to greatly shorten case life by work hardening the full length of the case, which can cause the case neck to split, although some studies show that the number of reloads possible with a case is essentially the same for either full length sizing as for neck sizing only if the issue is one of neck hardening.", "If the reloaded cartridges are going to be used in the same firearm in which they were previously fired, though, and if that firearm has a bolt action or other action with a strong camming action on closing, then full-length resizing may not be needed.", "A collet neck sizing die can be used to size just the case neck enough to hold the bullet and leave the rest of the case unsized.", "The resulting cartridge will chamber into the specific rifle that previously fired it, though the fit might be tight and require more force to chamber than a full-length resized case.", "The use of a neck-sizing die in conjunction with moderate pressure loads may extend the life of the case significantly by minimizing the amount of case that is work hardened or stretched.", "This is especially true for reloads intended for military rifles with intentionally large chambers such as the Lee–Enfield in .303 British.", "The use of partial length or neck sizing for cartridges used in such large chambers permits effectively switching the headspacing from relying on the rim of a rimmed cartridge to the shoulder of the bottleneck transition instead, increasing the number of times a rimmed military cartridge can be reloaded from once to perhaps 5 or more times, all while avoiding dangerous incipient head separations.", "One final form of limiting case wear is limited strictly to benchrest shooters with custom-cut chambers.", "The chamber of these rifles is cut so that there is just enough room, typically just a few thousandths of an inch, in the neck area.", "The result of using this type of chamber is that fired rounds do not require any resizing whatsoever once the case is fired.", "The brass will 'spring back' a bit after firing, and will properly hold a new bullet without further manipulation.", "Some refer to this as a 'fitted' neck, however, it is a function of both the carefully cut precision neck and the case adjusted to fit with very little clearance.Work hardening happens to all cases, even low-pressure handgun cases.", "The sudden increase in pressure upon firing hits the brass like a hammer, changing its crystalline structure and making it more brittle.", "The neck of the case, if it becomes too brittle, will be incapable of standing the strain of resizing, expanding, crimping, and firing, and will split during loading or firing.", "Since the case neck remains in tension while holding the bullet in place, aging ammunition may develop split necks in storage.", "While a neck split during firing is not a significant danger, a split neck will render the case incapable of holding the bullet in place, so the case must be discarded or recycled as a wildcat cartridge of shorter overall length, allowing the split section to be removed.", "The simplest way to decrease the effects of work hardening is to decrease the pressure in the case.", "Loading to the minimum power level listed in the reloading manual, instead of the maximum, can significantly increase case life.", "Slower powders generally also have lower pressure peaks and may be a good choice.Annealing brass to make it softer and less brittle is fairly easy, but annealing cartridge cases is a more complex matter.", "Since the base of the case must be hard, it cannot be annealed.", "What is needed is a form of heat treatment called differential hardening, where heat is carefully applied to part of the case until the desired softness is reached, and then the heat treatment process is halted by rapidly cooling the case.", "Since annealing brass requires heating it to about 660 °F (350 °C), the heating must be done in such a way as to heat the neck to that temperature, while preventing the base of the case from being heated and losing its hardness.", "The traditional way is to stand the cases in a shallow pan full of water, then heat the necks of the cases with a torch, but this method makes it difficult to get an even heating of the entire case neck.", "A temperature-sensitive crayon can be used at the point to which it is to be annealed, which is just behind the shoulder for bottlenecked cartridges, or at the bottom of the bullet seating depth for straight-wall cartridges.", "The neck of the case is placed in a propane torch flame and heated it until the crayon mark changes color, indicating the correct temperature.", "Once the correct temperature is reached the case is completely quenched in water to stop the annealing process at the desired hardness.", "Failing to keep the base of the case cool can anneal the case near the head, where it must remain hard to function properly.", "Another approach is to immerse the case mouth in a molten alloy of lead that is at the desired annealing temperature for a few seconds, then quickly shake off the lead and quench the case.Cases that have small cracks at the neck may not be a complete loss.", "Many cartridges, both commercial and wildcats, can be made by shortening a longer cartridge.", "For example, a 223 Remington can be shortened to become a .222 Remington, which can further be shortened to become a .221 Fireball.", "Similarly, .30-06 Springfield can become .308 Winchester, which can become any number of specialized benchrest shooting cartridges.", "Since the cracking is likely due to a brittle neck, the cases should be annealed before attempting to reform them, or the crack may propagate and ruin the newly formed shorter case as well.=== Powder cost minimization ===Powder is another significant cost of reloading, and one over which the handloader has significant control.", "In addition to the obvious step of using a minimum charge, rather than a full power one, significant cost savings may be obtained through careful powder choice.", "Given the same bullet and cartridge, a faster burning powder will generally use a smaller charge of powder than required with a slower powder.", "For example, a 44 Magnum firing a 240-grain lead semi-wadcutter could be loaded with either Accurate Arms #2, a very fast pistol powder, or #9, a very slow pistol powder.", "When using the minimum loads, 9.0 grains (0.58 g) of AA #2 yield a velocity of 1126 ft/s (343 m/s), and 19.5 grains (1.26 g) of #9 yield 1364 ft/s (416 m/s).", "For the same amount of powder, AA #2 can produce approximately twice as many rounds, yet both powders cost the same per weight.The tradeoff comes in terms of power and accuracy; AA #2 is designed for small cases and will burn inconsistently in the large 44 Magnum case.", "AA #9, however, will fill the case much better, and the slow burn rate of AA #9 is ideal for magnum handgun rounds, producing 20% higher velocities (at maximum levels) while still producing less pressure than the fast-burning AA #2.A medium-burning powder might actually be a better choice, as it could split the difference in powder weights while delivering more power and accuracy than the fastest powder.One solution that is applicable to revolvers, in particular, is the possibility of using a reduced-volume case.", "Cartridges such as 357 Magnum and 44 Magnum are just longer versions of their parent rounds of .38 Special and .44 Special, and the shorter rounds will fire in the longer chambers with no problems.", "The reduced case capacity allows greater accuracy with even lighter loads.", "A 44 Special loaded with a minimum load of AA #2 uses only 4.2 grains (0.27 g) of powder, and produces a modest 771 ft/s (235 m/s).", "It is important to note that when reloading .38 Special and .44 Special, extreme care must be exercised to not exceed maximum powder specifications - i.e.", "a 357 Magnum load must never be used in a .38 special case, as even though the powder charge may fit, the difference in case volumes will likely create an overpressure scenario resulting in unsafe conditions." ], [ "Bullets", "27-Caliber Sierra BulletsWhile the case is usually the most expensive component of a cartridge, the bullet is usually the most expensive part of the ''reloaded'' round, especially with handgun ammunition.", "It is also the best place to save money with handgun ammunition.", "This is because the bullets are used one time, and the case lasts for many reloadings.Other advantages of casting or swaging bullets from lead wire (which is pricier but avoids many quality-control issues of casting) is the ability to precisely control many attributes of the resulting bullet.", "Custom bullet molds are available from a number of sources, allowing the handloader to pick the exact weight, shape, and diameter of the bullet to fit the cartridge, firearm, and intended use.", "A good example of where this is useful is for shooters of older military surplus firearms, which often exhibit widely varying bore and groove diameters; by making bullets specifically intended for the firearm in question, the accuracy of the resulting cartridges can be significantly increased.=== Casting ===Cast bullets as cast (left), with gas check (center) and lubricated (right).For the truly frugal, the cheapest method of obtaining bullets, buckshot, and slugs intended for reloading use at low to moderate velocities is casting them.This requires a set of bullet, buckshot, or slug molds, which are available from a number of sources, and a source of known quality lead.", "Linotype and automotive wheelweights are often used as sources of lead that are blended together in a molten state to achieve the desired Brinell hardness.", "Other sources of scrap lead, such as recovered bullets, lead cable sheathing, lead pipe, or even lead–acid battery plates (EXTREME caution should be used as modern battery components, when melted, can yield hazardous, even deadly gases), can yield usable lead with some degree of effort, including purification and measuring of hardness.Cast bullets are also the cheapest bullets to buy, though generally only handgun bullets are available in this form.", "Some firearms manufacturers, such as those using polygonal rifling like Glock and H&K, advise against the use of cast bullets.", "For shooters who would like to shoot cast bullets, aftermarket barrels are generally available for these models with conventional rifling, and the cost of the barrel can generally be recouped in ammunition savings after a few thousand rounds.Soft lead bullets are generally used in handguns with velocities of 1000 ft/s (300 m/s) or lower, while harder cast bullets may be used, with careful powder selection, in rifles with velocities of 2000 ft/s (600 m/s) or slightly more.", "A modern solution to velocity limitations of cast projectiles is to powder coat the projectile, encasing it in a protective skin allowing higher velocities to be achieved with softer lead alloys with no lead build up in the firearm.", "The limit is the point at which the powder gas temperature and pressure starts to melt the base of the bullet, and leave a thin coating of molten and re-solidified lead in the bore of the gun—a process called leading the bore.", "Cast lead bullets may also be fired in full power magnum handgun rounds like the 44 Magnum with the addition of a gas check, which is a thin aluminum, zinc or copper washer or cup that is crimped over a tiny heel on the base of appropriate cast bullets.", "This provides protection for the base of the bullet, and allows velocities of over 1500 ft/s (450 m/s) in handguns, with little or no leading of the bore.Such cast lead bullets, intended for use with a gas check, will have a reduced diameter at the rear of the cast lead bullet, onto which the gas check can be swaged using a lubricating/resizing press.", "All cast lead bullets, whether with or without a gas check, must still be lubricated, to prevent leading of the rifling of the barrel.", "A lubricating/resizing press, which is a special purpose bullet processing press, can be either a standalone press dedicated to lubricating and resizing bullets, or can be an add-on to a reloading press, at the option of the handloader.", "Not all handloaders resize cast lead bullets, although all handloaders do lubricate cast lead bullets.", "An option to using a lubricating press is simply to coat the bullets with bullet lube, which can be done either with a spray, in a tumbler, in a plastic bowel with a liquid lube, in a tray with melted bullet lube, or even with a manual lubricating process.Slugs for shotgun shells are also commonly cast from pure lead by handloaders, for subsequent reloading into shotgun shells.", "Although roll crimps of shotgun hull cases are commonly used for handloading these cast lead slugs, in place of the fold crimps that are used when reloading shot into shotgun shells, some published recipes specifically do include fold crimps.", "For published recipes using fold crimps and shot wads used as sabots, slugs can be easily reloaded using standard shotshell presses and techniques, without requiring any roll crimp tools.", "Whether roll crimps or fold crimps are used, cast lead slugs are commonly used in jurisdictions where rifles are banned for hunting, under the reasoning that fired slugs will not travel but over short distances, unlike rifle bullets which can travel up to several miles when fired.", "Use of cast lead slugs is therefore very common when hunting large game near populated areas.Similarly, cast lead buckshot is often cast by handloaders, for reloading into shotgun shells for hunting larger game animals.", "Such buckshot is then placed by hand into shotgun shells when handloaded, due to the necessity of having to stack the buckshot balls into specific configurations depending on the gauge of shotgun shell being reloaded, the choice of wad, the volume of powder, and the size of the buckshot (e.g., 00, 000, 0000 buckshot).", "Such cast lead buckshot is never simply dropped from a shotshell press charge bar into a shotgun shell when reloading.=== Swaging ===Most shooters prefer jacketed bullets, especially in rifles and pistols.", "The hard jacket material, generally copper or brass, resists deformation and handles far higher pressures and temperatures than lead.", "Several companies offer swaging presses (both manual and hydraulic) that will manufacture on a small scale jacketed bullets that can rival or surpass the quality of commercial jacketed bullets.", "Two swaging equipment manufacturers offer equipment and dies designed to turn 22 Long Rifle cases into brass jackets for 22 caliber (5.56 mm) bullets.Example variants of swage dies include:* ''R dies'', used for bullet swaging in the reloading press.", "No expensive special press is needed; however, the reloading press cannot swage all calibers and variants of bullets.", "* ''S dies'', steel dies for a manual press.", "They have a maximum caliber of and a maximum jacket length of .", "* ''H dies'', dies designed for hydraulic presses and are offered in calibers up to and jacket lengths of more than 1.3\".", "In a hydraulic press, bullets from powdered metal can be swaged.Every bullet diameter, and most of the bullet types, need special dies, making swaging a rather investment-intensive enterprise.===Purchased Bullets===Handloaders have the choice to swage but most choose to purchase pre-made jacketed bullets, due to the obscure nature of swaging and the specialized, expensive equipment.", "The process of manufacturing a jacketed bullet is far more complex than for a cast bullet; first, the jacket must be punched from a metal sheet of precise thickness, filled with a premeasured lead core, and then swaged into shape with a high pressure press in multiple steps.", "This involved process makes jacketed bullets far more expensive on average than cast bullets.", "Further complicating this are the requirements for controlled expansion bullets (see terminal ballistics), which require a tight bond between the jacket and the core.", "Premium expanding bullets are, with match grade bullets, at the top tier in expense.=== Plated Bullets ===A more economical alternative was made available to the handloader in the 1980s, the copper-plated bullet.", "Copper-plated bullets are lead bullets that are electroplated with a copper jacket.", "While thinner than a swaged bullet jacket, the plated jacket is far thicker than normal electroplate, and provides significant structural integrity to the bullet.", "Since the jacket provides the strength, soft lead can be used, which allows bullets to be swaged or cast into shape before plating.", "While not strong enough for most rifle cartridges, plated bullets work well in many handgun rounds, with a recommended maximum velocity of 1250 ft/s (375 m/s).", "Plated bullets fall between cast and traditional jacketed bullets in price.While originally sold only to handloaders as an inexpensive substitute for jacketed bullets, the plated bullet has come far.", "The ammunition manufacturer Speer now offers the Gold Dot line, commercially loaded premium handgun ammunition using copper-plated hollow point bullets.", "The strong bond between jacket and core created by the electroplating process makes expanding bullets hold together very well, and the Gold Dot line is now in use by many police departments." ], [ "See also", "* Pacific Tool Company* Table of handgun and rifle cartridges" ], [ "References" ], [ "Citations", "" ], [ "Further reading", " ''Cartridges of the World 8th Edition'', Book by Frank Barnes, DBI Books, 1997, * ''Handbook for Shooters & Reloaders vol I, Book by P.O.", "Ackley''; Plaza Publishing, 1962, * ''Handbook for Shooters & Reloaders vol II, Book by P.O.", "Ackley''; Plaza Publishing, 1966, ASIN B000BGII48* ''The Handloader's Manual of Cartridge Conversions'', Book by John J. Donnelly, Stoeger Publishing, 1987, * ''Designing and Forming Custom Cartridges'', Book by Ken Howell, Precision Shooting, 1995, * * ''Barnes Reloading Manual Number 3''; Edited by Dave Scovill, LP, 2001* ''Black Powder Handbook & Loading Manual, 2nd Edition''; Book by Sam Fadala, Lyman Publications, 2001 UPC #011516971005* * ''Lapua Shooting and Reloading Manual 2nd Edition''; Book by Nammo Lapua, LP, 2000, * Waters, Ken, ''Ken Waters' Notebook'', Wolfe Publishing Co, 2006, * ''Modern Reloading''; Book by Richard Lee, LP, 1996* * ''Sierra Reloading Manual 5th Edition''; Book by Sierra Bullets, LP, 2003* ''Speer Reloading Manual Number 13''; Book by Speer, Blount, Inc., 1998" ], [ "External links", " MidwayUSA's Application charts and reloading information" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Houston Texans" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Houston Texans''' are a professional American football team based in Houston.", "The Texans compete in the National Football League as a member club of the American Football Conference (AFC) South division, and play their home games at NRG Stadium.The Texans were founded in 1999, and were owned by Bob McNair until his death in 2018; following McNair's death, the majority ownership of the team went to his wife, Janice.", "The team replaced the city's previous NFL franchise, the Houston Oilers, who played from 1960 to 1996 before moving to Nashville and eventually becoming the Tennessee Titans.", "The Texans began play as an expansion team in , making them the youngest franchise currently competing in the NFL.While the Texans mainly struggled in the 2000s, their fortunes would take a turn for the better in the 2010s when they first found success in the 2011 season, winning their first division championship and clinching their first playoff berth.", "The Texans have gone on to win six more AFC South division championships in 2012, 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019, and 2023.They are the only franchise to have never won a road playoff game along with the only one to have never appeared in a conference championship game; they are also one of four franchises to have never appeared in a Super Bowl, alongside the Cleveland Browns, Detroit Lions, and division rival Jacksonville Jaguars.According to an article by ''Forbes,'' the Houston Texans are the eleventh richest team in the NFL with a value of $4.7 billion in August 2022.After the Texas Rangers won the 2023 World Series, the Houston Texans became the only big four professional sports franchise currently based in Texas without a championship." ], [ "Franchise history", "In 1997, Houston entrepreneur Bob McNair had a failed bid to bring a National Hockey League (NHL) expansion team to the city, and Bud Adams relocated the city's NFL team, the Houston Oilers, to Nashville, Tennessee, where they were renamed the Tennessee Titans in 1999.In 1996, the Cleveland Browns had controversially relocated to become the Baltimore Ravens.", "As part of the settlement between the NFL, the city of Cleveland, and the team owned by Art Modell, the league promised to return football to Cleveland within the next three years.In order to even out the franchises to 32, the NFL contemplated adding another expansion franchise.", "As Houston was one of the favorites for the extra franchise, along with Toronto and Los Angeles (the latter of whom had lost the Rams and the Raiders in 1995), McNair then decided to join the football project and founded Houston NFL Holdings with partner Steve Patterson.", "With Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo, they would push for a domed stadium as part of the bid to lure the NFL back to Houston.", "On October 6, 1999, the NFL awarded the 32nd team to Houston at a cost of $700 million.In the process of naming the new franchise leadership conducted an extensive review and research process; the final list of names was determined after several months of research conducted jointly by Houston NFL 2002 and NFL Properties.", "This included an online survey asking fans and the community to weigh in which received more than 65,000 responses in one week.", "On March 2, 2000, it was announced that the team name search had been narrowed down to five choices: Apollos, Bobcats, Stallions, Texans, and Wildcatters.", "On September 6, 2000, the NFL's 32nd franchise was officially christened the Houston Texans before thousands at a downtown rally in Houston.", "McNair explained that the name and logo were chosen to \"embody the pride, strength, independence and achievement that make the people of Houston and our area special.\"", "The name \"Texans\" had been used by several now-defunct football teams, including the Canadian Football League franchise in San Antonio; the World Football League franchise in Houston, which moved to Louisiana to become the Shreveport Steamer; the Dallas Texans of the NFL which played in only the 1952 season; and by the precursor of the present-day Kansas City Chiefs, when they were the second incarnation of the Dallas Texans in the American Football League (AFL).", "Owner Bob McNair received permission from Chiefs' owner Lamar Hunt to use the Texans name for his new team.", "It is also a subtle homage to the naming style of the NHL team the Montreal Canadiens who also named their team after their respective demonym.=== McNair family era (2002–present) ===The Houston Texans joined the NFL in the 2002 season, playing at the newly opened Reliant Stadium under head coach Dom Capers.", "With their opening game victory over the Dallas Cowboys on September 8, 2002, the Texans became the first expansion team to win its opening game since the Minnesota Vikings beat the Chicago Bears in 1961.==== Gary Kubiak years (2006–2013) ====While the team struggled in its early seasons, results began to improve when native Houstonian Gary Kubiak became the head coach in 2006.The Texans finished with a .500 season (8–8) in 2007 and 2008, and nearly qualified for the 2009–10 playoffs with a 9–7 result in 2009.The Texans started the 2010 season on a 4–2 record going into a Week 7 bye week, but promptly collapsed 2–8 in the second half of the season, finishing 6–10.In the 2011 NFL Draft, the Texans acquired Wisconsin star defensive end J. J. Watt 11th overall.", "The following season, former Cowboys head coach Wade Phillips was hired as the defensive coordinator for the Texans, and the improved defense led to them finishing 10–6, winning their first AFC South title.", "The Texans then beat wild card Cincinnati Bengals 31–10 in the first round of the 2011–12 playoffs, before a 20–13 defeat by the Ravens in the Divisional Round.NRG StadiumHouston lines up on offense against the Titans in 2012The Texans surged as the team to beat in the AFC South in , starting 5–0 and holding an 11–1 record by week 14.However, they lost three of their last four games to finish 12–4; beating the rival Indianapolis Colts in that four-game stretch allowing them to clinch their 2nd AFC South title.", "The Texans beat the Bengals again in the wild-card round, but they lost in the Divisional Round to the New England Patriots.In the 2013 NFL Draft, the Texans acquired Clemson wide receiver DeAndre Hopkins 27th overall.", "In 2013, the Texans started 2–0 but went into a tailspin and lost every game afterwards.", "Kubiak was fired as head coach after being swept by the rival Jacksonville Jaguars, who themselves started 0–8.Wade Phillips filled in as head coach, but the Texans' poor form did not change, and they finished 2–14, tying, with 2005, their worst record in franchise history.", "The 14-game losing streak is the worst in franchise history.==== Bill O'Brien years (2014–2020) ====The Texans entered the 2014 season with a 14-game losing streak.", "Former Penn State head coach Bill O'Brien became the Texans' new head coach, and the third in franchise history, during the offseason.", "In 2014, the Texans won three of their first four games, defeating the Redskins in the season opener, the Raiders, and the Bills, losing to the New York Giants.", "They lost three of their next four games, losing to the Dallas Cowboys, the Indianapolis Colts, and the Pittsburgh Steelers, respectively.", "The Texans went on to finish 9–7 in the 2014 season and barely missed the playoffs.In the 2015 season, they were featured on HBO, on the show \"Hard Knocks\".", "That year, the Texans started with a 2–5 record.", "Quarterback Ryan Mallett was released amidst controversy regarding his benching in favor of Brian Hoyer during a loss against the Indianapolis Colts.", "After a poor start, the Texans finished with a 9–7 record and won their third AFC South title.", "However, they were shut out by the Kansas City Chiefs in the Wild Card round 30–0, ending their championship hopes for the year.On March 9, 2016, the Texans signed former Denver Broncos quarterback Brock Osweiler to a 4-year, $72 million deal.", "Despite Osweiler's lucrative deal, he struggled significantly during the 2016 season.", "After throwing two interceptions in Week 15 against the Jaguars, coach Bill O'Brien benched the offseason acquisition in favor of backup quarterback Tom Savage.", "Savage led a comeback effort against the Jaguars, and was named the starter for the remainder of the season.", "The Texans clinched their fourth AFC South division title in six years in Savage's first career start against the Bengals in Week 16.They defeated the wildcard Oakland Raiders 27–14 in the opening round of the playoffs with Osweiler as the starting quarterback due to Savage being out with a concussion.", "Osweiler started in the Divisional Playoffs game against the New England Patriots, throwing three interceptions in the second half.", "The Texans lost 34–16.In the 2017 NFL Draft, the Texans traded up to the 12th overall selection to select Clemson star quarterback Deshaun Watson.", "Watson started six games his rookie year, going 3–3 and having arguably the greatest and most decorated rookie season by a quarterback in NFL history, eventually rising up to become the Texans' franchise quarterback.", "However, his success would come up very short, following a Week 8 41–38 loss to the Seattle Seahawks, Watson tore his ACL in practice and was ruled out the remainder of the season, which caused the Texans to have one of their worst seasons.", "Plagued by a series of unexpected injuries (including a second consecutive season-ending injury to J. J. Watt) and controversy involving the team's suspected violation of the league's concussion protocol, after backup quarterback Tom Savage suffered a seizure following a Week 14 game against the San Francisco 49ers, the Texans went 1–9 the rest of the season and eventually finish 4–12 and last in the AFC South in 2017, missing the playoffs for the first time since 2014 and giving Bill O'Brien his first losing season as Texans head coach.All-Pro DE J. J. Watt (2011–2020)In 2018, the Texans started the season 0–3, losing by a combined 15 points to the New England Patriots, Tennessee Titans, and New York Giants, before winning a 37–34 overtime shootout on the road in Indianapolis.", "This win sparked a nine-game winning streak for the Texans, their first since starting 5–0 in 2012, which included a Week 8 win against the Miami Dolphins that included five touchdown passes from Deshaun Watson.", "This streak was the longest ever for a team that started the season 0–3; the previous record was a seven-game win-streak set by the New York Giants in 1918 after starting out 0–3.On November 23, 2018, the owner of the Houston Texans, Bob McNair, died from skin cancer.", "On November 26, 2018, McNair's wife, Janice McNair, became the principal owner and Senior Chair of the Houston Texans, while their son, D. Cal McNair, became the Chairman and Chief Operating Officer.The Texans finished the season 11–5, and won another AFC South division championship under Bill O'Brien.", "They then lost 21–7 in the first round of the playoffs to their AFC South division rival Indianapolis Colts.In 2019, the Texans won the AFC South division championship and qualified for the NFL playoffs on the back of a 10–6 record.", "They went on to defeat the Buffalo Bills by a score of 22–19 in overtime in the AFC wild-card round.", "However, the Texans' 2019 season came to an end the following week, as they lost to the eventual Super Bowl champion Kansas City Chiefs by a score of 51–31 in the AFC divisional round.On March 22, 2020, the Texans traded away all-pro wide receiver DeAndre Hopkins and a fourth-round pick in the 2020 NFL Draft to the Arizona Cardinals.", "In return, Houston received running back David Johnson, a 2020 second-round pick, and a 2021 fourth-round pick.", "The move was confusing and controversial among fans and sportswriters alike, as many claimed that the Texans should have received more valuable assets for Hopkins, who was among the best receivers in the NFL.The Texans began the 2020 NFL season with a record of 0–4, and Bill O'Brien was consequentially fired following a disappointing loss to the Minnesota Vikings in Week 4.Romeo Crennel, who was the head coach of the Cleveland Browns from 2005 to 2008 and of the Kansas City Chiefs in 2011–12, was named the interim head coach for the remainder of the season.", "Crennel managed to win more than half of his first 7 games as Houston's head coach, giving Houston a record of 4–7.However, the Texans ended the season on a 5-game losing streak.", "With a final record of 4–12, the Texans were unable to make the playoffs.==== Rebuilding years (2021–2022) ====On January 27, 2021, the Texans hired David Culley as the team's head coach.", "Culley most recently worked as the Baltimore Ravens assistant head coach, wide receivers coach and passing game coordinator.", "On February 12, 2021, the Texans released all-pro defensive end J.J. Watt.", "It was confirmed that Watt personally requested owner Cal McNair for his release.On January 13, 2022, the Texans fired David Culley after posting a 4–13 record as the team's head coach and promoted defensive coordinator Lovie Smith as the team's fifth head coach on February 7, 2022.The team traded away their starting quarterback Deshaun Watson to the Cleveland Browns and a 2024 fifth round pick for three 1st round picks, a 3rd round pick and a 4th round pick on March 20, 2022 due to sexual misconduct lawsuits toward Watson.", "The Texans opened their 2022 season in a tie game against the Indianapolis Colts, the franchise’s first tie in their 20 year existence.", "On January 9, 2023, the Texans announced that they were going in a different direction by firing Lovie Smith after a 3–13–1 season.====Ryans and Stroud era (2023–present)====On January 31, 2023, the Texans hired former player and 49ers defensive coordinator DeMeco Ryans as their new head coach, making him the sixth head coach in franchise history.", "With the second overall pick in the 2023 NFL Draft, the Texans selected Ohio State quarterback C. J. Stroud.", "Under Ryans and Stroud, the team saw improved fortunes as they made the playoffs while winning the AFC South for the first time since the 2019 season with a 10–7 record, becoming the first NFL team to win their division under a rookie head coach and quarterback." ], [ "Rivalries", "The Texans are the youngest expansion team in the NFL, having only been competing in the NFL since 2002.For that reason, they have not had the history or the reputation on which to build classic rivalries like the ones that often exist between older franchises.", "Despite this, the team has developed some rivalries.", "Its natural rivals are its fellow AFC South teams, which are the Tennessee Titans, Jacksonville Jaguars, and Indianapolis Colts.===Tennessee Titans===The Tennessee Titans, who were formerly the Houston Oilers before their relocation in 1996, are viewed by many Houston fans as the Texans' chief rival as members of the AFC South ever since the early 2000s.===Indianapolis Colts===Ever since the early 2000s, the Texans also have an AFC South Division rivalry with the Indianapolis Colts, whom the Texans had not defeated until the 2006 season.", "The first time that the Texans would sweep the Colts was in the 2016 NFL season.", "More recently, Houston has increased bitterness with the Indianapolis Colts due to their young Houston-native quarterback Andrew Luck having been drafted by the Colts in 2012 and the franchise's first ever sweep of the Colts against Luck in 2016.In 2018 the two teams met in the AFC Wild Card Playoffs, with the Colts winning 21–7.===Jacksonville Jaguars===Having begun play in 1995 and 2002, respectively, the Jaguars and Texans are among two of the most-recently established franchises in the NFL.", "The Jaguars relocated from the AFC Central to the newly created AFC South where the Texans were placed into and have competed as division rivals since.", "The Jaguars are the only division rival the Texans have a winning record against as the Texans lead the series 29–15.===Dallas Cowboys===2019 pre-season matchup between the Texans and the Dallas CowboysThe Texans also have an intrastate/interconference rivalry with the Dallas Cowboys, with whom they contest the so-called Governor's Cup every year (a tradition started between the cities prior to the Oilers relocating) either in the preseason or the regular season for bragging rights in the state of Texas.", "In 2017, the destruction and flooding caused during Hurricane Harvey a few days before their Week 4 pre-season match up time scheduled caused the game to be relocated to AT&T Stadium in Arlington, Texas.", "However, out of concern for the safety of the fans and the condition of the player's families & communities, the game was canceled." ], [ "Culture", "The Texans are the newest team in the league, but they have been embraced by a fair amount of celebrities since joining the NFL in 2002.The team has also adopted a number of former Houston Oilers fans in search of a new home team.", "Despite the lacking playoff success, there have been a present amount of loyal fans and even various celebrities such as Ryan Trahan, George Foreman, Paul Wall, Rico Rodriguez, and Raini Rodriguez who have been strong supporters of the team.", "During the 2010s, the team adopted the moniker \"Bulls on Parade\" in honor of the Rage Against the Machine song, regularly used prior to the team's introduction before entering the field." ], [ "Logo and uniforms", "Along with the team name, McNair unveiled the team logo, an abstract depiction of a bull's head, split in such a way to resemble the flag of Texas and the state of Texas, including a lone star to stand for the eye, the five points of which representing pride, courage, strength, tradition and independence.", "McNair described the colors as \"Deep Steel Blue\", \"Battle Red\" and \"Liberty White\".", "A year later the Texans unveiled their uniforms during another downtown rally.The Texans' helmet is dark blue with the Texans bull logo.", "The helmet was initially white when the team name and logo were unveiled, but was later changed to dark blue.", "The uniform design consists of red trim and either dark blue or white jerseys.", "The team typically wears white pants with its blue jerseys and blue pants with its white jerseys.", "Starting with the 2006 season, the Texans wore all-white for their home opener, and the team began to wear an all-blue combination for home games vs. the Indianapolis Colts.", "In 2003, the Texans introduced an alternative red jersey with blue trim; they wear this jersey at one home game each year, usually against a division rival.", "In 2007, the Texans introduced red pants for the first time, pairing them with the red jerseys for an all-red look.", "They would wear this look until 2010, but was brought back in 2023.In October 2008 the Texans paired blue socks (instead of the traditional red) with their blue pants and white jerseys, eventually becoming the team's primary road uniform combination.", "In 2016, the Texans unveiled a new uniform combo against the Jacksonville Jaguars, pairing the red jersey with blue pants and red socks.", "In 2017, the Texans unveiled a Color Rush uniform, using an all-blue uniform but with minimal white elements.", "In 2021, the Texans began sporting all-white socks on select home and road games.", "In 2022, the Texans began using a red alternate helmet with the red uniform.", "In 2023, the red alternate helmet was worn with the Color Rush uniform in a 21-16 victory against the Arizona Cardinals.In 2002, the team wore a patch commemorating their inaugural season.", "Also, they celebrated 10 years as a franchise by wearing an anniversary patch throughout 2012.From 2018 to 2019, the Texans wore a memorial patch to honor Bob McNair after his death." ], [ "Players of note", "===Current roster======NFL Draft history=======First-round draft picks by year=======Awards and honors======Ring of Honor===On November 19, 2017, Andre Johnson was the first-ever inductee into the Texans Ring of Honor.", "On October 6, 2019, Bob McNair was posthumously the second inductee into the Texans Ring of Honor.", "On October 1, 2023, J. J. Watt was the third inductee into the Texans Ring of Honor.Houston Texans Ring of HonorNo.InducteePositionTenureInducted '''80''' Andre Johnson WR 2003–2014 November 19, 2017 — Bob McNair Owner / Founder 1999–2018 October 6, 2019 '''99''' J. J. Watt DE 2011–2020 October 1, 2023===Pro Football Hall of Fame===Only two members of the Pro Football Hall of Fame have spent any portion of their career with Texans.", "This is due in part to the requirements to be inducted and the Texans only having been established in 2002.In 2024, Andre Johnson became the first player to be inducted into the Hall of Fame primarily for his time with the Texans.Houston Texans Hall of FamersInducteePositionTenureInducted Ed Reed S 2013 2019 '''Andre Johnson''' WR 2003–2014 2024" ], [ "Staff and head coaches", "===Staff======Head coaches===Name TenureSeasonsRecordDivision titlesWLTDom Capers2002–20054184600Gary Kubiak2006–20138616402Wade Phillips2013Interim0300Bill O'Brien2014–20207524804Romeo Crennel2020Interim4800David Culley2021141300Lovie Smith2022131310DeMeco Ryans2023–present 110701" ], [ "Community", "===Traditions==='''Battle Red Day''' – On Battle Red Day the team wears the red alternate jerseys and fans are encouraged to wear red to the game.", "Starting in 2007 and including 2008, this included the Texans wearing red pants along with the red jerseys.", "'''Liberty White-Out''' – On Liberty White-Out Day One the team wears the road white jerseys and white pants.", "Fans are encouraged to also wear white to the game.", "'''Bull Pen''' – The sections behind the north end zone of NRG/Reliant Stadium are known as the Bull Pen.", "Some of the most avid Texans fans attend games in the Bull Pen and regular members have helped create and implement fan traditions, songs and chants, such as:Holding up giant Texans jerseys while the visiting team's players are announcedTurning their backs on the opposing team after they scoreTailgating in the purple lot, the parking zone with the most barbecue for sale by fans and vendors Gathering as a group for tailgating in the NW corner of the Platinum Lot of Reliant Stadium at the \"Blue Crew\" tailgate and conducting the Bull Pen Toast every game approximately an hour and a half prior to kickoffWalking in the HEB Holiday Parade on Thanksgiving DayVisiting the Bull Pen Pub for TORO Wraps, cheerleader autographs and to listen and dance with the Bull Pen Pep Band'''Bull Pen Pep Band''' – 45-member musical group that performs at all Houston Texans home games.", "* '''Pre-Kickoff Tradition''' – Before each kickoff at a home game, the Texans will run a short clip of a raging bull thrashing the opponent of the week.", "The video is paired with the AC/DC song \"Thunderstruck\".", "* '''Player Introduction''' – When the players are introduced before the game, the announcer says the player's first name and the crowd yells out the last name (e.g.", "The announcer will say \"Defensive End J. J...\" and the crowd will yell out \"WATT\").===Mascots and cheerleaders===The team's official mascot is Toro, an anthropomorphic blue bull.", "The team also has a cheerleading squad simply named the Houston Texans Cheerleaders.===Community outreach===Community outreach by the Houston Texans is primarily operated by the Houston Texans Foundation, who works with multiple community partners.", "The Houston Texans organization is also a supporter of the character education program, Heart of a Champion.", "In 2017, the 15th annual Houston Texans Charity Golf Classic raised more than $380,000 for the Foundation.", "More than $27.2 million has been raised for the Foundation since its creation in 2002.Former Texans DE J. J. Watt raised $41.6 million in relief funds for Hurricane Harvey after the storm devastated the city in 2017." ], [ "Radio and television", ", the Texans' flagship radio stations were KILT SportsRadio 610AM and KILT 100.3FM.", "The AM station has an all-sports format, while the FM station plays contemporary country music.", "Both are owned by Audacy.", "Marc Vandermeer is the play-by-play announcer.", "Heisman Trophy winner Andre Ware provides color commentary, and SportsRadio 610 host Rich Lord serves as the sideline reporter.", "Preseason and regular season Monday night games from ESPN are telecast by KTRK, an ABC owned and operated station.", "Kevin Kugler calls the preseason games on TV, with former Texans defensive end N. D. Kalu providing color commentary.", "Regular season games are aired over CBS affiliate KHOU, FOX affiliate KRIV if the Texans host an NFC team, and NBC affiliate KPRC for Sunday night games.Spanish-language radio broadcasts of the team's games are aired on KGOL ESPN Deportes 1180AM.", "Enrique Vásquez is the play-by-play announcer.", "José Jojo Padrón provides color commentary, and Fernando Hernández serves as sideline reporter.===Radio affiliates===Map of radio affiliates.", "Texans Radio Affiliates City Call sign Frequency Abilene KMWX-FM 92.5 FM Alpine KVLF-AM 1240 AM Amarillo KIXZ 940 AM Athens KLVQ-AM 1410 AM Austin KVET-AM 1300 AMBeaumont KIKR-AM 1450 AM KBED-AM 1510 AM Big Spring KBYG-AM 1400 AM Brenham KWHI-AM 1280 AM Bryan KZNE-AM 1150 AM Carthage KGAS-AM 1590 AM College Station KZNE-AM 1150 AM Corpus Christi KSIX-AM 1230 AM Henderson KWRD-AM 1470 AMHouston KILT-AM 610 AM KILT-FM 100.3 FM Levelland KLVT-AM 1230 AMLubbock KKCL-FM 98.1 FM KKAM-AM 1340 AM (Bill O'Brien Show, only) Lufkin KSML-AM 1260 AM Marble Falls KBEY-FM 103.9 FMMarshall KMHT-AM 1450 AM KMHT-FM 103.9 FM McAllen KBUC-FM 102.1 FM Nacogdoches KSML-AM 1260 AM New Braunfels KGNB-AM 1420 AM San Angelo KKSA-AM 1260 AM San Antonio KZDC-AM 1250 AM San Marcos KGNB-AM 1420 AM Tyler KLVQ-AM 1410 AM Wichita Falls KSEY-AM 1230 AM" ], [ "See also", "* List of Houston Texans seasons" ], [ "Notes and references" ], [ "External links", "* * Houston Texans at the National Football League official website" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Heart of Oak" ], [ "Introduction", "\"'''Heart of Oak'''\" is the official march of the Royal Navy.", "It is also the official march of several Commonwealth navies, including the Royal Canadian Navy and the Royal New Zealand Navy.", "It was the official march of the Royal Australian Navy, but has now been replaced by the new march, \"Royal Australian Navy\".The music of ''Heart of Oak'' was written in 1759 by composer William Boyce, the lyrics by actor David Garrick, for Garrick's pantomime ''Harlequin's Invasion'', to which others contributed as well.", "The pantomime was first performed on New Year's Eve of that year at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, London, with Handel soloist Samuel Thomas Champnes singing ''Heart of Oak''.", "The \"wonderful year\" referenced in the first verse was the Annus Mirabilis of 1759, during which British forces were victorious in several significant battles: the Battle of Minden on 1 August 1759; the Battle of Lagos on 19 August 1759; the Battle of the Plains of Abraham (outside Quebec City) on 13 September 1759; and the Battle of Quiberon Bay on 20 November 1759.The last battle foiled a French invasion project planned by the Duc de Choiseul to defeat Britain during the Seven Years' War, hence the reference in the song to 'flat-bottom' invasion barges.", "These victories were followed a few months later by the Battle of Wandiwash in India on 22 January 1760.Britain's continued success in the war boosted the song's popularity.The oak in the song's title refers to the wood from which British warships were generally made during the age of sail.", "The \"Heart of oak\" is the strongest central wood of the tree.", "The reference to \"freemen not slaves\" echoes the refrain (\"Britons never will be slaves!\")", "of ''Rule, Britannia!", "'', written and composed two decades earlier." ], [ "Lyrics", "===Original===The song was written for the London stage in 1759 by William Boyce with words by David Garrick:Come cheer up, my lads!", "'tis to glory we steer,To add something more to this wonderful year;To honour we call you, as free men not slaves,For who are so free as the sons of the waves?", "''Chorus'':Heart of oak are our ships, heart of oak are our men;We always are ready, steady, boys, steady!We'll fight and we'll conquer again and again.===Amended Words===Come, cheer up, my lads, 'tis to glory we steer,To add something new to this wonderful year;To honour we call you, as freemen not slaves,For who are so free as the sons of the waves?", "''Chorus'':Heart of Oak are our ships, Jolly Tars are our men, We always are ready: Steady, boys, Steady!", "We'll fight and we'll conquer again and again.We ne'er see our foes but we wish them to stay,They never see us but they wish us away;If they run, why we follow, and run them ashore,For if they won't fight us, what can we do more?", "(''Chorus'')They say they'll invade us, these terrible foes,They frighten our women, our children, our beaus,But if they in their flat-bottoms, in darkness set oar,Still Britons they'll find to receive them on shore.", "(''Chorus'')We still make them fear and we still make them flee,And drub them ashore as we drub them at sea,Then cheer up me lads with one heart let us sing,Our soldiers and sailors, our statesmen and king.", "(''Chorus'')'''Alternative first verse''':Come, cheer up, my lads, 'tis to glory we steer,With heads carried high, we will banish all fear;To honour we call you, as freemen not slaves,For who are so free as the sons of the waves?", "'''Alternative last verse''':Britannia triumphant her ships rule the seas,Her watchword is 'Justice' her password is 'Free',So come cheer up my lads, with one heart let us sing,Our soldiers, our sailors, our statesmen, our King Queen.===Royal Canadian Navy===Come, cheer up, my lads, 'tis to glory we steer,To add something new to this wonderful year;To honour we call you, not press you like slaves,For who are so free as the sons of the waves?", "''Chorus'':Heart of Oak are our ships, Jolly Tars are our men, We always are ready: Steady, boys, steady!", "We'll fight and we'll conquer again and again.The first verse and chorus of this version of the song is heard in ''Star Trek: The Next Generation'' (Season 3, Episode 18 \"Allegiance\"), sung in Ten Forward by Patrick Stewart, in-character as an alien doppelgänger of Captain Jean-Luc Picard.", "Both are also sung by Peter Ustinov and Dean Jones in the 1968 Disney movie ''Blackbeard's Ghost''." ], [ "New lyrics", "A new version was presented on 16 April 1809 and published by Reverend Rylance.When Alfred, our King, drove the Dane from this land,He planted an oak with his own royal hand;And he pray'd for Heaven's blessing to hallow the tree,As a sceptre for England, the queen of the sea.Chorus::Heart of oak are our ships,:Hearts of oak are our men,:We always are ready, steady boys, steady,:To charge and to conquer again and again.The sapling shot up and stuck firm to the ground;It defied every tempest that bellow'd around;And still was it seen with fresh vigour to shoot,When the blood of our martyrs had moisten'd its root.", "(Chorus)But the worms of corruption had eaten their wayThrough its bark; till a Wardle has swept them away,He has sworn, no such reptiles our tree shall infest,And our patriots soon shall extirpate the nest.", "(Chorus)Yon tyrant, whose rule abject Europe bemoans —Yon brood of usurpers who sit on her thrones —Shall look on our country, and tremble with awe,''Where a son of the Monarch has bow'd to the law'',(Chorus)Now long live the ''Briton'', who dar'd to reviveThe spirit which Britons scarce felt was alive;His name shall be , while of freedom we sing,On the oak that was planted by Alfred our King.", "(Chorus)" ], [ "See also", "Royal Air Force March Past" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " \"Heart of Oak\" (MP3) at Sounds of the Stadacona Band* \"Heart of Oak\" (MP3) at Canadian Historical Sound Recordings" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Harold Holt" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Harold Edward Holt''' (5 August 190817 December 1967) was an Australian politician and lawyer who served as the 17th prime minister of Australia from 1966 until his disappearance and presumed death in 1967.He held office as leader of the Liberal Party of Australia.Holt was born in Sydney and moved to Melbourne in childhood, studying law at the University of Melbourne.", "Before entering politics he practised law and was a lobbyist for cinema operators.", "He was first elected to the House of Representatives at the age of 27, becoming a member of parliament (MP) for the division of Fawkner at a by-election in 1935.A member of the United Australia Party (UAP), Holt was made a minister without portfolio in 1939, when his mentor Robert Menzies became prime minister.", "His tenure in the ministry was interrupted by a brief stint in the Australian Army, which ended when he was recalled to cabinet following the deaths of three ministers in the 1940 Canberra air disaster.", "The government was defeated in 1941, sending the UAP into opposition, and he joined the new Liberal Party upon its creation in 1945.When the Liberals came to office in 1949, Holt became a senior figure in the new government.", "As Minister for Immigration (1949–1956), he expanded the post-war immigration scheme and relaxed the White Australia policy for the first time.", "He was also influential as Minister for Labour and National Service (1949–1958), where he handled several industrial relations disputes.", "Holt was elected deputy leader of the Liberal Party in 1956, and after the 1958 election replaced Arthur Fadden as Treasurer.", "He oversaw the creation of the Reserve Bank of Australia and the decimal Australian dollar, but was blamed for a credit crunch that almost cost the Coalition the 1961 election.", "However, the economy soon rebounded and Holt retained his place as Menzies' heir apparent.Holt became prime minister in January 1966, elected unopposed as Liberal leader following Menzies' retirement.", "He fought a general election later that year, winning a landslide victory.", "The Holt government continued the dismantling of the White Australia policy, amended the constitution to give the federal government responsibility for indigenous affairs, and took Australia out of the sterling area.", "Holt promoted greater engagement with Asia and the Pacific, and made visits to a number of East Asian countries.", "His government expanded Australia's involvement in the Vietnam War, and maintained close ties with the United States under President Lyndon B. Johnson.", "While visiting the White House, Holt proclaimed that he was \"all the way with LBJ\", a remark which was poorly received at home.In December 1967, Holt disappeared while swimming in rough conditions at Cheviot Beach, Victoria.", "He was presumed dead, although his body was never recovered; his disappearance spawned a number of conspiracy theories.", "Holt was the third Australian prime minister to die in office.", "He was succeeded by Country Party leader John McEwen on an interim basis and then by John Gorton.", "His death was commemorated in a number of ways, among them by the establishment of the Harold Holt Memorial Swimming Centre in Melbourne." ], [ "Early life", "===Birth and family background===Holt was born on 5 August 1908 at his parents' home in Stanmore, New South Wales, a suburb of Sydney.", "He was the first of two sons born to Olive May (née Williams; formerly Pearce) and Thomas James Holt; his younger brother Clifford was born in 1910.His parents had married seven months before his birth, in January 1908.On his father's side, Holt was descended from James Holt, a cobbler from Birmingham, England, who arrived in New South Wales in 1829.His paternal grandfather, Thomas Holt Sr., owned a large farming property in Nubba, and was twice elected mayor of nearby Wallendbeen.", "Holt's father trained as a schoolteacher in Sydney and when Harold was born, worked as a physical education teacher at the Cleveland Street School in Surry Hills.", "Holt's mother was born in Eudunda, South Australia, and had Cornish, English, German, and Irish ancestry; her sister was the actress Vera Pearce.===Education===195x195pxIn 1914, Holt's parents moved to Adelaide, where his father became the licensee of a hotel in Payneham.", "He and his brother stayed behind in Sydney, living with an uncle and attending Randwick Public School.", "In late 1916, Holt was sent to live with grandparents in the country, where he briefly attended the Nubba State School.", "He returned to Sydney the following year, and for three years was enrolled at Abbotsholme College, a private school in Killara; his parents separated around that time.", "In 1920, Holt began boarding at Wesley College, Melbourne.", "He was a popular and talented student, winning a scholarship in his final year and graduating second in his class.", "Holt generally spent school holidays with his relatives in Nubba or with schoolmates, rather than with his parents – his father had begun working as a talent agent, touring the country on the Tivoli circuit, while his mother died in 1925.He was 16 at the time, and was unable to attend the funeral.In 1927, Holt began studying law at the University of Melbourne, living at Queen's College on a scholarship.", "He represented the university in cricket and football, and was also active in various student organisations, serving as president of the Law Students' Society and of the Queen's College social club.", "Holt won prizes for oratory and essay-writing, and was a member of the inter-university debating team.", "He graduated with a Bachelor of Laws degree in 1930.Holt's father – living in London – invited him to continue his studies in England, but he declined the offer.===Legal career===Holt served his articles of clerkship with the firm of Fink, Best, & Miller.", "He was admitted to the Victorian Bar in late 1932, and opened his own legal practice the following year.", "However, clients during the Depression were scarce and frequently underpaid, so Holt lived in a boardinghouse and often relied upon the hospitality of friends.", "Drawing on his family connections in show business, he eventually accepted an offer to become secretary of the Victorian Cinematograph Exhibitors' Association, a film industry lobby group.", "In this capacity he appeared several times before the Commonwealth Court of Conciliation and Arbitration.", "This had a positive effect on his own practice, and he eventually took on two partners, first Jack Graham and later James Newman.", "The firm of Holt, Graham, & Newman was dissolved in 1963, following a financial dispute and subsequently reconstituted as Holt, Newman, & Holt, with Holt's son Sam as the new addition.", "Holt's involvement in the practice declined once he entered politics and ceased altogether in 1949, although he did not formally retire until assuming the prime ministership." ], [ "Early political career", "Holt with 217x217pxIn 1933, Holt joined the Young Nationalists, the youth wing of the United Australia Party.", "He cultivated a friendship with Mabel Brookes, and through Brookes became acquainted with senior members of the influential Australian Women's National League (AWNL).", "He also secured the patronage of Robert Menzies, with whom he shared a similar background and political views.", "At the 1934 federal election, Holt stood for the UAP in the Division of Yarra.", "It was a safe seat for the Labor Party, held by the party's leader (and former prime minister) James Scullin.", "Holt lost heavily, as was expected, but was praised for his campaigning.", "Early the following year, he contested Clifton Hill – another safe Labor seat – at the Victorian state election, losing to Bert Cremean.", "Holt was eventually elected to parliament on his third attempt, winning a federal by-election for the seat of Fawkner in August 1935; his predecessor, George Maxwell, had died in office.", "He won UAP preselection against five other candidates, a victory which ''Smith's Weekly'' attributed to his \"political godmothers\" in the AWNL.", "His new seat was centred on Melbourne's wealthy inner-eastern suburbs.Holt was twenty-seven years old when he entered parliament, making him its youngest member.", "He kept a relatively low profile in his first few years, but spoke on a wide range of topics.", "When Robert Menzies became prime minister in April 1939, he made Holt one of four ministers without portfolio.", "His inclusion was made possible by the collapse of the coalition with the Country Party – previously a certain number of positions had been reserved for Country MPs, but the new ministry was composed solely of UAP members.", "Although Holt officially had no portfolio, he effectively was an assistant minister to Richard Casey, who headed the Department of Supply and Development.", "He was given responsibility for the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), and also acted for periods as Minister for Trade and Customs and Minister for Civil Aviation and Air while the incumbents were overseas.", "Holt's first stint as a government minister came to an end in March 1940, when the coalition with the Country Party was reinstituted.", "His replacement was Arthur Fadden, another future prime minister." ], [ "World War II", "Holt enlisted in the Militia in February 1939, joining a part-time artillery unit for businessmen and professionals.", "He was given indefinite leave during his ministerial service.", "In May 1940, without resigning his seat, Holt enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force with the intent of becoming a full-time soldier.", "Several of his parliamentary colleagues did likewise at various points in the war.", "Holt was posted to the 2/4th Field Regiment, holding the rank of gunner.", "He had been offered a commission as an officer in the Royal Australian Air Force, but declined due to his lack of experience.", "In a press statement, Holt said \"as the youngest member of the House, I could not feel happy in my position if I were not prepared to make some sacrifice and take an active part\".", "He was sent to Puckapunyal for training, and expected to be posted to North Africa or Palestine.Holt's brief military career came to an end as a result of the Canberra air disaster on 13 August, which killed three senior government ministers.", "Menzies called an early general election for 21 September, which resulted in a hung parliament and a UAP–Country minority government.", "Holt was given leave from the army to campaign, and won re-election with a large majority.", "Menzies subsequently asked him to return to cabinet, to which he agreed.", "Holt was sworn in as Minister for Labour and National Service on 28 October, and formally resigned from the army the same day.", "He was placed in charge of the new Department of Labour and National Service, which took over most of the responsibilities of the previous Department of Industry.", "He also became a member of the bipartisan Advisory War Council, although he personally favoured the establishment of a national unity government with the Labor Party.As labour minister, Holt's foremost task was to prevent industrial disputes from disrupting the war effort.", "He met with union leaders and employer groups, and secured their agreement to a streamlining of the arbitration process while the war was underway.", "He had also been made Minister in charge of Scientific and Industrial Research, which gave him responsibility for the CSIR and its wartime efforts.", "In April 1941, Holt sponsored and oversaw the passage of the ''Child Endowment Act'', which introduced a universal child endowment scheme; newspapers labelled him \"the godfather to a million Australian children\".", "When leadership troubles hit the Coalition later in the year, Holt initially supported Menzies.", "However, he and five cabinet colleagues eventually transferred their allegiance to Arthur Fadden, the leader of the Country Party, believing this way the only to ensure stable government.", "Menzies felt he had been betrayed, but forgave Holt and accepted his assurances that he had been acting in the best interests of the country.Holt retained his portfolios in the Fadden government, which lasted only 40 days before being defeated on a confidence motion in October 1941.After going into opposition, he kept a reasonably low profile for the remainder of the war, except for his membership of the Joint Committee on War Expenditure.", "He was criticised by some for not re-joining the army, and at the 1943 election was opposed by Brigadier William Cremor, whose campaign was funded by Sydney businessmen (including Keith Murdoch).", "He lost a significant portion of his primary vote, but suffered only a small swing on the two-party-preferred count.", "Menzies returned as leader of the UAP in September 1943, and Holt was initially a candidate for the deputy leadership; he withdrew once former prime minister Billy Hughes entered the race.", "Holt was in favour of the creation of the Liberal Party, but played little role in the practical aspects of its establishment.", "He became an official member of the new party in February 1945." ], [ "Postwar ministerial career", "After eight years in opposition, the Coalition won the federal election of December 1949 and Menzies began his record-setting second period as Prime Minister.", "In a redistribution held ahead of that election, Holt's majority in Fawkner nearly disappeared.", "He transferred to Higgins, one of several new seats created in the 1949 redistribution.", "The seat was created as a safe Liberal seat; it had been carved out of the wealthier portions of Fawkner.", "Holt won it easily.", "He was appointed to the prestigious portfolios of Minister for Labour and National Service (1949–1958; he had previously served in this portfolio 1940–41) and Minister for Immigration (1949–1956), by which time he was being touted in the press as a \"certain successor to Menzies and a potential Prime Minister\".", "In Immigration, Holt continued and expanded the massive immigration programme initiated by his ALP predecessor, Arthur Calwell.", "However, he displayed a more flexible and caring attitude than Calwell, who was a strong advocate of the White Australia policy.", "One of his first acts was to intervene in the case of Lorenzo Gamboa, a Filipino man with an Australian wife and children who had been denied entry by Calwell due to his race.", "Holt reversed the decision, allowing Gamboa to settle in Australia permanently.", "Holt excelled in the Labour portfolio and has been described as one of the best Labour ministers since Federation.", "Although the conditions were ripe for industrial unrest—Communist influence in the union movement was then at its peak, and the right-wing faction in Cabinet was openly agitating for a showdown with the unions—the combination of strong economic growth and Holt's enlightened approach to industrial relations saw the number of working hours lost to strikes fall dramatically, from over two million in 1949 to just 439,000 in 1958.He also had ministerial responsibility for the Melbourne Olympics in 1956.Holt fostered greater collaboration between the government, the courts, employers and trade unions.", "He enjoyed good relationships with union leaders like Albert Monk, President of the Australian Council of Trade Unions; and Jim Healy, leader of the radical Waterside Workers Federation;and he gained a reputation for tolerance, restraint and a willingness to compromise, although his controversial decision to use troops to take control of cargo facilities during a waterside dispute in Bowen, Queensland in September 1953 provoked bitter criticism.Holt's personal profile and political standing grew throughout the 1950s.", "He served on numerous committees and overseas delegations, he was appointed a Privy Counsellor in 1953, and in 1954 he was named one of Australia's six best-dressed men.", "In 1956, he was elected Deputy Leader of the Liberal Party and became Leader of the House, and from this point on, he was generally acknowledged as Menzies' heir apparent.===Treasurer (1958–1966)===Holt with Prime Minister Robert MenziesIn December 1958, following the retirement of Arthur Fadden, Holt succeeded him as Treasurer.", "Holt had little knowledge or interest in economics, but the job cemented his position as Menzies' likely successor.", "As Treasurer, Holt relied strongly on the advice of Treasury secretary Roland Wilson.", "His achievements included major reforms to the banking system (originated by Fadden)including the establishment of the Reserve Bank of Australiaand the planning and preparation for the introduction of decimal currency.", "It was Holt who convinced Cabinet to call the new currency the \"dollar\" rather than the \"royal\".The economy Holt inherited was growing strongly, aided by the opening of new iron ore mines.", "However, in 1959, inflation was running at 4.5% and Treasury was alarmed.", "Holt was reluctant to act, but in November 1960 introduced a deflationary package of tax changes.", "He also reluctantly agreed to an interest rate rise by the Reserve Bank.", "The credit squeeze was nicknamed the \"Holt jolt\".", "The economy went into recession, and unemployment rose to three percent, which was considered high for the time and contrary to the government's policy of full employment.The credit squeeze brought the Coalition dangerously close to losing the 1961 election, with the Coalition being returned with a precarious one-seat majority.", "There were calls for Holt to be sacked, but he retained Menzies' support.", "He later described 1960–61 as \"my most difficult year in public life\".", "Most of the deflationary measures were reversed in 1962, and unemployment dropped down to 1.5 percent by August 1963.In later budgets, Holt retreated to his Queensland holiday home while it was being prepared.", "He said that the 1965 budget \"has had the best reception yet of any in the series I have presented\"." ], [ "Prime Minister (1966–1967)", "Holt (right) moments after being sworn in as Prime Minister on 26 January 1966Holt was sworn in as prime minister on 26 January 1966, following the retirement of Robert Menzies six days earlier.", "He won the leadership election unopposed, with William McMahon elected as his deputy.", "His swearing in was delayed by the death of Defence Minister Shane Paltridge; he and Menzies were both pallbearers at Paltridge's state funeral on 25 January.", "Holt was the first Australian prime minister born in the 20th century and the first born after federation.", "He was almost fourteen years younger than his predecessor, but, at the age of 57, was still the fourth-oldest man to assume the office.He had been an MP for over 30 years before becoming prime minister, still the longest wait for any non-caretaker Prime Minister.", "The only person who had a longer wait was his caretaker successor John McEwen, who had served 33 years before ascending to the post.", "Stylistically, Holt was more informal and contemporary than Menzies, and his wife accompanied him into the political spotlight.", "He gave the media an unprecedented level of access, and was the first prime minister to conduct regular press conferences and grant regular television interviews.", "His press secretary, Tony Eggleton, accompanied him virtually every time he travelled.Holt (2nd from left) with other world leaders at the SEATO summit in Manila in October 1966Holt's initial cabinet was virtually unchanged from that of his predecessor.", "John Gorton and Les Bury were promoted to replace Menzies and Paltridge, but there were no other changes in composition.", "There were also no major changes in portfolio, outside of McMahon's promotion to Treasurer in place of Holt.", "A notable addition to the outer ministry was Senator Annabelle Rankin as Minister for Housing – the first woman to hold a ministerial portfolio.", "A minor reshuffle occurred after the 1966 election, with Doug Anthony and Ian Sinclair added to cabinet and Charles Barnes demoted to the outer ministry.", "The only new government department created during Holt's tenure was the Department of Education and Science, established in December 1966, which was the first federal department specific to either of those areas.", "The Country Party leader and de facto Deputy Prime Minister, John McEwen, was effectively given veto power over government policy by virtue of being the longest-tenured member of the government.===Elections===On 26 November 1966, Holt fought his first and only general election as prime minister, winning a somewhat unexpected landslide victory.", "The Coalition secured 56.9 percent of the two-party-preferred vote, gaining 10 seats and bringing its total number of seats in the House of Representatives to 82 out of 124, the largest majority government in Australian history at the time.", "The Liberals finished only two seats away from forming majority government in its own right.", "It was a higher margin of victory than Menzies had achieved in eight elections as Liberal leader, and was the Labor Party's worst electoral defeat in 31 years.Holt received little credit for the Coalition's election victory, even from within his own party.", "It was generally held that the Labor Party's poor campaign had been the major factor in its defeat.", "Arthur Calwell, the Leader of the Opposition, was 70 years old and had limited personal popularity – a Gallup poll before the election placed his personal approval rating at 24 percent, compared with Holt's 60 percent.", "Calwell had suffered a damaging rift with his deputy Gough Whitlam earlier in the year, and the general public still perceived the party as divided.", "In an election where the Vietnam War was a major campaign issue, he and Whitlam publicly contradicted each other on major policy decisions.", "Labor ran on an anti-war platform, but struggled to appeal to voters concerned about national security; combined with Calwell's dedication to the White Australia policy, this allowed the party to be portrayed as isolationist and naive about external affairs.", "Calwell was far less telegenic than his opponent, and was seen as gruff and antagonistic where Holt was suave and easy-going.", "At a rally in Adelaide a week before the election, Calwell accused Holt of having \"chickened out of World War II – just as his three stepsons are chickening out of the war in Vietnam today\".", "His attack on Holt's family – which he refused to withdraw – was viewed as desperate and undignified, and it was pointed out that, unlike Holt, Calwell had performed no military service in World War II.In early 1967, Calwell retired as ALP leader.", "Whitlam succeeded him, and proved a far more effective opponent than Calwell had been, consistently getting the better of Holt both in the media and in parliament.", "Labor soon began to recover from its losses and gain ground.", "By this time, the long-suppressed tensions between the Coalition partners over economic and trade policies were also beginning to emerge.", "Throughout his reign as Liberal leader, Menzies had enforced strict party discipline but, once he was gone, dissension began to surface.", "Some Liberals soon became dissatisfied by what they saw as Holt's weak leadership.", "Alan Reid asserts that Holt was being increasingly criticised within the party in the months before his death, that he was perceived as being \"vague, imprecise and evasive\" and \"nice to the point that his essential decency was viewed as weakness\".===Domestic policy===According to his biographer Tom Frame, \"Holt's inclinations and sympathies were those of the political centre ... he was a pragmatist rather than a philosopher, but he nonetheless claimed a philosophical lineage connecting him with Alfred Deakin and approvingly quoted his statement that 'we are liberal always, radical often, and reactionary never'.", "\"====Economy====An Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) video showing Holt (as Treasurer) introducing the coins of the new Australian dollar in 1964Holt as prime minister was sometimes criticised for a failure to be assertive on economic matters.", "A major drought in 1965 had led to slowdown in growth, but he was unwilling to increase public spending in case it increased inflation.", "The Australian dollar – a legacy of Holt's period as Treasurer – came into circulation on 14 February 1966, less than a month after his prime ministership began.", "In November 1967, the British government unexpectedly announced that it would be devaluing the pound sterling by 14 percent.", "Holt announced that the Australian government would not follow suit, effectively withdrawing Australia from the sterling area.", "The decision was strongly opposed by the Country Party, who feared it would disadvantage primary industry.", "McEwen went as far as to issue a public statement criticising the decision, which Holt considered a breach of cabinet solidarity.", "The dispute caused a breakdown in Holt and McEwen's relationship and nearly brought down the Coalition; at one point, Holt made preparations for the Liberals to govern as a minority government the event McEwen tore up the Coalition agreement.", "Ultimately, the dispute was resolved in Holt's favour.", "''The Bulletin'' said that the withdrawal was \"quite certain to mean the end of any remaining special relationship between Australia and Britain\".", "There were no other important economic policy reforms made by the Holt government, although Australia did become a founding member of the Asian Development Bank in 1966.====Immigration====As prime minister, Holt continued the liberalisation of immigration law that he had begun as Minister for Immigration.", "When he came to office, what remained of the White Australia policy was upheld by ministerial decree rather than by explicit legislation.", "In March 1966, the residency requirement for naturalisation was changed to a uniform five years; it had previously been 15 years for non-whites.", "Discriminatory provisions relating to family reunification were also removed.", "As a result, in the two years after March 1966 around 3,000 Asian immigrants were granted Australian citizenship, compared with 4,100 in the preceding two decades.", "Additionally, Immigration Minister Hubert Opperman announced that potential immigrants to Australia would be assessed solely \"on the basis of their suitability as settlers, their ability to integrate readily, and their possession of qualifications which are in fact positively useful to Australia\"; non-whites had previously had to demonstrate that they were \"highly qualified and distinguished\" to gain entry.Keith Wilson believed that the Holt government's reforms ensured that \"from now on there will not be in any of our laws or in any of our regulations anything that discriminates against migrants on the grounds of colour or race\".", "However, there would not be a practical change in the composition of Australia's immigration intake for many more years.", "Holt maintained that \"every country reserves to itself the right to decide what the composition of its people shall be\", and promised \"a community life free from serious minority and racial problems\".", "He was careful to frame his changes as simply a modification of existing policy, in order to avoid alienating organised labour (historically the greatest supporters of restricting non-white immigration).", "The Labor Party had only removed \"White Australia\" from its platform in 1965, and Opposition Leader Arthur Calwell stated he was \"determined to continue to oppose, for many obvious reasons, any attempt to create a multi-racial society in our midst\".", "However, Holt was less circumspect outside Australia, telling British journalists that no White Australia policy existed and ordering Australian embassies to promote the changes to Asian governments and media outlets.====Constitutional reform====Holt, Gordon Bryant (left), and Bill Wentworth (right) meeting with FCAATSI representatives – from left to right, Faith Bandler, Douglas Nicholls, Burnum Burnum, and Winnie BransonIn 1967, the Holt government amended the constitution to alter section 51 (xxvi) and remove section 127.This gave the federal government the power to legislate specifically for Indigenous Australians, and also mandated counting Indigenous people in the census.", "The constitutional amendments required a referendum before they could be enacted, which passed with over 90 percent of the vote; it remains the largest referendum majority in Australian history.", "Holt personally considered the amendments unnecessary and mostly symbolic, but thought they would be well received by the international community (particularly Asia).", "According to Barrie Dexter, he was privately shocked by the referendum result, having been uncertain whether it would even pass.Holt came to regard the referendum as indicative of a shift in the national mood.", "In the following months, he toured Aboriginal communities and consulted with indigenous leaders, including Charles Perkins and Kath Walker.", "Despite opposition from state governments, he created a new Office of Aboriginal Affairs within the Prime Minister's Department, as well as a new advisory body called the Council of Aboriginal Affairs (chaired by H. C. Coombs).", "According to Coombs and Paul Hasluck, Holt had little interest in indigenous affairs before becoming prime minister.", "Despite this, he brought about a fundamental shift in the way policy was handled, paving the way for the federal government to assume many of the powers and responsibilities that had previously been the preserve of the states.", "Indigenous academic Gary Foley has said that Holt's death was a setback for Aboriginal people, as his successors did not show the same commitment to the framework that he established.The Holt government also unsuccessfully attempted to remove section 24 of the constitution (the so-called \"nexus clause\"), which requires the number of members in the House of Representatives to be \"as nearly as practicable, twice the number of senators\".", "The resulting referendum did not come close to passing, with only 40 percent voting in favour nationwide and only one state (New South Wales) recording a majority.", "All three major-party leaders campaigned for the \"Yes\" vote, while opposition came mainly from Coalition backbenchers and Democratic Labor Party senators.", "Supporters of the \"No\" vote successfully argued that section 24 protected the influence of the Senate, and thus the interests of less populous states and rural areas.", "Holt did make one other significant legal reform, albeit one that did not require a constitutional amendment.", "In September 1967, he announced that his government would use section 74 of the constitution to remove the potential for High Court cases to be appealed to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.", "The necessary legislation was not passed until after his death.====The arts====In November 1967, in one of his last major policy statements, Holt announced the establishment of the National Gallery of Australia and the Australia Council for the Arts.", "The National Gallery, which did not open until 1982, was the first arts-related major infrastructure project to be funded by the federal government; previous projects had been funded by state governments or by private subscription.", "Holt said it would \"add significantly to the cultural life of Australia and the national capital\".", "The other element of his announcement, the Australia Council for the Arts, was the first national arts council, intended to provide arms-length advice to the Prime Minister's Department on arts funding.", "Rupert Myer has suggested that \"Holt's legacy ought to be a core belief in, and broad public demand for, the sustained support of cultural activity from all three tiers of government\".===Foreign policy===Holt and Prime Minister Nguyễn Cao Kỳ of South Vietnam on Kỳ's visit to Australia in 1967Holt believed it was his responsibility as prime minister \"to reflect the modern Australia to my fellow countrymen, to our allies and the outside world at large\".", "His approach to national security emphasised opposition to international communism and the need to engage more with Asia.", "Holt said that the \"great central fact of modern history\" was \"the tremendous power conflict between the communist world and the free world\".", "He was a strong believer in the domino theory and containment, holding that communism had to be fought wherever it occurred in order to prevent it spreading to neighbouring countries.", "In April 1967, Holt told parliament that \"geographically we are part of Asia, and increasingly we have become aware of our involvement in the affairs of Asia – our greatest dangers and our highest hopes are centred in Asia's tomorrows\".", "Gough Whitlam said that Holt \"made Australia better known in Asia and he made Australians more aware of Asia than ever before ... this I believe was his most important contribution to our future\".Personal diplomacy was Holt's strong point – he believed diplomatic ties could be strengthened by making intimate connections with other world leaders.", "This approach was disliked by his external affairs minister, Paul Hasluck, who in his memoirs accused him of believing in \"instant diplomacy\" and crediting his personal charms for advances made by diplomatic officials.", "As prime minister, Holt's first overseas trip was to South-East Asia in April 1966, where he visited Malaysia, Singapore, South Vietnam, and Thailand.", "He toured Cambodia, Laos, South Korea, and Taiwan in March and April 1967, and had planned to visit Burma, India, Indonesia, Japan, and Pakistan in 1968.Most of those countries had never before been visited by an Australian prime minister.", "There were also a number of reciprocal visits from East Asian leaders, including Eisaku Satō of Japan, Souvanna Phouma of Laos, and Thanom Kittikachorn of Thailand.", "The most controversial of those occurred in January 1967, when Prime Minister Nguyễn Cao Kỳ of South Vietnam visited on Holt's personal invitation – issued without consulting cabinet.", "Public sentiment was beginning to turn against the war, and Ky's visit was met with large demonstrations; opposition leader Arthur Calwell issued a statement calling him a \"miserable little butcher\".", "Ky nonetheless handled himself well, and ''The Bulletin'' called his visit a \"personal triumph\".====Vietnam War====Holt with U.S. Defense Secretary Robert McNamara at the Pentagon in July 1966The Vietnam War was the dominant foreign policy issue during Holt's term in office.", "He was a strong supporter of Australian involvement in the war, which had begun in 1962, and accused its critics of adopting a \"Lotus Land\" attitude.", "As well as citing Australia's SEATO obligations to South Vietnam, Holt justified the war on the grounds that Australia was morally obligated to \"resist communist subversion and aggression\" and \"defend the right of every people to choose their own social and economic order\".", "He held that \"unless there is security for all small nations, there cannot be security for any small nation\".In March 1966, Holt announced that the 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment, would be withdrawn and replaced by the 1st Australian Task Force, a self-contained brigade-sized unit based at Nui Dat.", "This effectively tripled the number of Australian troops in Vietnam to around 4,500, and also included 1,500 national servicemen – the first conscripts to serve in the conflict.", "By the final months of Holt's prime ministership, Australia had over 8,000 personnel stationed in South Vietnam, drawn from all three branches of the Australian Defence Force; the final troop increase was announced in October 1967.Holt \"never deviated from his whole-hearted support for American bombing of North Vietnam and the hope that steadily increasing the number of foreign troops deployed to South Vietnam would lead to military victory and a solution to the crisis\".", "John Gorton later said it was \"ironical that, being a man of peace, he should have presided over one of the greatest build-ups of military power that Australia has found itself engaged in\".The government's handling of the war initially enjoyed broad public support, and was considered a key contributor to the landslide election victory in 1966 – referred to by some as a \"khaki election\".", "By the end of the following year, however, opinion polls were showing that public sentiment had turned against the war, and previously supportive media outlets had begun to criticised Holt's decision-making.", "He did not live long enough to see the mass demonstrations experienced by his successors.", "Political opposition to the war was initially led by Opposition Leader Arthur Calwell, who promised a total withdrawal from the conflict and labelled it a \"cruel, unwinnable civil war\".", "His replacement, Gough Whitlam, adopted a more pragmatic approach, focusing on policy specifics (particularly the government's apparent lack of an exit strategy) rather than the validity of the war itself.====\"All the way with LBJ\"====Holt with U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson in October 1966Holt cultivated a close relationship with the United States under President Lyndon B. Johnson.", "He believed that \"without the American shield most of us who live in Asia and the South Pacific would have a continuing sense of insecurity\".", "Cooperation between the two countries extended beyond the Vietnam War.", "Holt approved the construction of several Earth stations for use by NASA and American intelligence agencies, including Pine Gap, Honeysuckle Creek, and Tidbinbilla.", "This made Australia \"the most substantial centre for American missile and space operations outside the continental United States\".Holt and Johnson developed a personal friendship.", "They were the same age, and had first met in 1942, when Johnson visited Melbourne as a naval officer; afterwards they shared a similar career trajectory.", "Holt visited the U.S. twice while in office, in June and July 1966, and on the latter visit was invited to stay at Camp David.", "He and Johnson reportedly played tennis, lounged by the pool, and watched movies together.", "In October 1966, Johnson made the first visit to Australia by an incumbent American president; Vice President Hubert Humphrey had visited in February of that year.", "He toured five cities, and was greeted by large crowds as well as a number of anti-war demonstrators, who disrupted the presidential motorcade.", "The opposition criticised the visit as a publicity stunt.", "Johnson later returned to Australia for Holt's memorial service, and invited his widow Zara to stay with him when she visited the United States in 1969.On his first visit to the U.S., Holt made what was widely viewed as a ''faux pas'' while delivering a ceremonial address at the White House.", "Departing from his prepared remarks, he said: \"And so, sir, in the lonelier and perhaps even more disheartening moments which come to any national leader, I hope there will be a corner of your mind and heart which takes cheer from the fact that you have an admiring friend, a staunch friend that will be ''all the way with LBJ''.\"", "Holt had meant it to be a \"light-hearted gesture of goodwill towards a generous host\", referencing the slogan used in Johnson's 1964 presidential campaign.", "It was interpreted as such by his immediate audience, but once it was reported back in Australia it came to be viewed as a \"foolish, sycophantic and dangerous statement\" that was indicative of Australian subservience.", "Bill Hayden said Holt's remarks \"shocked and insulted many Australians ... its seeming servility was an embarrassment and a worry\".", "Newspaper editorials generally agreed with Holt's assertion that he had been misinterpreted, but still criticised him for making an error in judgment.", "His comments intensified anti-war sentiments among those who were already opposed to the war, but had little electoral impact.", "Nonetheless, \"all the way with LBJ\" is still remembered as Holt's \"best-known utterance\".====Britain and the Commonwealth====Harold and Mary Wilson in 1967Holt was a strong supporter of the Commonwealth of Nations, and believed its member states had moral obligations to one another – particularly Britain, as the former \"mother country\".", "However, his relationship with Harold Wilson, the British prime minister, was somewhat frosty.", "He repeatedly lobbied Wilson to maintain a strong British presence \"East of Suez\", in order to complement American efforts, and in early 1967 received assurances that no reduction was being contemplated.", "However, by the middle of the year Wilson had announced that Britain intended to close all of its bases in Asia by the early 1970s (except for Hong Kong).", "In response to Holt's concerns, it was suggested by Wilson that a British naval base could be established in Cockburn Sound.", "Holt rejected this outright, and felt that Wilson had deliberately misled him as to his intentions.===Controversies===Holt's popularity and political standing was damaged by his perceived poor handling of a series of controversies that emerged during 1967.In April, the ABC's new nightly current affairs program ''This Day Tonight'' ran a story which criticised the government's decision not to reappoint the Chair of the ABC Board, Sir James Darling.", "Holt responded rashly, questioning the impartiality of the ABC and implying political bias on the part of journalist Mike Willesee (whose father Don Willesee was an ALP Senator and future Whitlam government minister), and his statement drew strong protests from both Willesee and the Australian Journalists' Association.In May, increasing pressure from the media and within the Liberal Party forced Holt to announce a parliamentary debate on the question of a second inquiry into the 1964 sinking of to be held on 16 May.", "The debate included the maiden speech by newly elected NSW Liberal MP Edward St John QC, who used the opportunity to criticise the government's attitude to new evidence about the disaster.", "An enraged Holt interrupted St John's speech, in defiance of the parliamentary convention that maiden speeches are heard in silence; his blunder embarrassed the government and further undermined Holt's support in the Liberal Party.", "A few days later, Holt announced a new Royal Commission into the disaster.In October the government became embroiled in another embarrassing controversy over the alleged misuse of VIP aircraft, which came to a head when John Gorton (Government Leader in the Senate) tabled documents that showed that Holt had unintentionally misled Parliament in his earlier answers on the matter.", "Support for his leadership was eroded even further by his refusal to sack the Minister for Air, Peter Howson, in order to defuse the scandal, fuelling criticism from within the party that Holt was \"weak\" and lacked Menzies' ruthlessness.", "Much of the blame for the episode within the Public Service was visited upon Sir John Bunting, Secretary of the Prime Minister's Department, although other figures such as the Deputy Secretary Peter Lawler were able to protect themselves.", "One of John Gorton's first acts upon becoming Prime Minister in January 1968 was to sideline Bunting by creating a separate Department of the Cabinet Office with Bunting as its head, and replaced him with Lenox Hewitt.In November 1967, the government suffered a serious setback in the senate election, winning just 42.8 per cent of the vote against Labor's 45 per cent.", "The coalition also lost the seats of Corio and Dawson to Labor in by-elections.", "Alan Reid says that, within the party, the reversal was blamed on Holt's mishandling of the V.I.P.", "planes scandal.", "Disquiet was growing about his leadership style and possible health problems." ], [ "Disappearance", "Cheviot Beach, the site of Holt's disappearanceHolt loved the ocean, particularly spearfishing, and had holiday homes at Portsea, Victoria, and Bingil Bay, Queensland.", "On 17 December 1967, while Holt was spending the weekend at Portsea, he and four companions decided to drive to Point Nepean to watch sailor Alec Rose pass through The Rip on his solo circumnavigation attempt.", "On their way back to Portsea, Holt convinced the group to stop at remote Cheviot Beach for a swim before lunch – he had spearfished there on many previous occasions, and claimed to \"know this beach like the back of my hand\".", "Because of the rough conditions, only one other person, Alan Stewart, joined Holt in the water.", "Stewart kept close to shore, but Holt swam out into deeper water and was seemingly caught up in a rip, eventually disappearing from view.", "One of the witnesses, Marjorie Gillespie, described it as \"like a leaf being taken out ... so quick and final\".Holt's disappearance sparked \"one of the largest search operations in Australian history\", but no trace of his body was ever found.", "At 10 p.m. on 18 December, Governor-General Lord Casey announced he had terminated Holt's commission as prime minister upon his presumed death.", "A police report released in early 1968 made no definitive findings about Holt's death, while a coronial inquest in 2005 returned a verdict of accidental drowning.", "It is generally accepted that Holt overestimated his swimming ability.", "Some have alleged that Holt committed suicide, but those close to him rejected this as uncharacteristic of his personality.", "Conspiracy theories have included suggestions that Holt faked his own death, was assassinated by the CIA, or was collected by a submarine so that he could defect to China.A memorial service for Holt was held at St Paul's Cathedral, Melbourne, on 22 December, and attended by numerous world leaders.", "Aged 59 at the time of his death, Holt became the third Australian prime minister to die in office, after Joseph Lyons (1939) and John Curtin (1945).", "John McEwen, the leader of the Country Party, was sworn in as caretaker prime minister on 19 December.", "The Liberal Party held a leadership election on 9 January 1968, in which John Gorton defeated Paul Hasluck, Billy Snedden, and Les Bury.", "Gorton was a member of the Senate, and in line with constitutional convention sought and gained election to the House of Representatives at the by-election caused by Holt's death." ], [ "Personal life", "===Relationships===Harold and Zara Holt in 1950While at university, Holt met Zara Dickins, the daughter of a Melbourne businessman; there was an \"instant mutual attraction\".", "They made plans to marry once Holt had graduated, but after a financial dispute chose to separate.", "Zara went on a trip to Britain, where she was introduced to James Fell, a British Indian Army officer.", "She accompanied Fell to India, and then in early 1935 returned to Australia where Holt again proposed marriage.", "She declined his offer, and married Fell a short time later, going to live with him in Jabalpur.", "Holt had entered parliament by that time, and was soon being profiled as \"the most eligible bachelor in parliament\".", "He briefly dated Lola Thring, the daughter of his father's business partner, F. W. Thring, but his widowed father Tom was also interested in her (to his son's \"disgust\").", "Tom Holt married Lola in 1936, and their daughter Frances (Harold's half-sister) was born in 1940; Tom Holt died in 1945.In 1937, Zara returned to Australia to give birth to her first child, Nicholas.", "She had two more children, twins Sam and Andrew, in 1939.Her marriage with Fell broke down a short time later, and in late 1940 she returned to Australia permanently and resumed a relationship with Holt.", "Their relationship did not become public for some time, in order to avoid Holt's being implicated in Zara's divorce proceedings.", "They eventually married on 8 October 1946, at Zara's parents' home on St Georges Road, Toorak.", "They initially lived on nearby Washington Street, but in 1954 bought the St Georges Road house.", "Holt legally adopted Zara's three children, and as young men they changed their surname to his.", "According to biographer Tom Frame, it was an \"open secret\" that Holt was the biological father of the twins, as they shared his physical appearance and had been conceived at a time when Zara was known to have been in Melbourne.Zara Holt was a successful businesswoman, owning a chain of dress shops, and out-earned her husband even as prime minister.", "It was her success that allowed the couple to purchase two holiday homes, one at Portsea, Victoria, and the other at Bingil Bay, Queensland.", "She nonetheless made sacrifices for her husband's political career, accompanying him on all but one of his overseas trips, which could last for weeks.After her husband's death, Zara remarried in 1969 to one of his Liberal Party colleagues, Jeff Bate.", "She was widowed a second time in 1984, and died in 1989.In a 1988 interview with ''The Sydney Morning Herald'', Zara stated that her husband Harold had carried on \"dozens\" of extramarital affairs.", "In his biography of Holt, Tom Frame wrote: \"I have not included the names of women with whom Holt allegedly had a sexual relationship because I was unable to confirm or deny that most of these relationships took place … by their very nature they were always illicit and Holt was very discreet.", "\"===Personality===Holt was the first Australian Prime Minister born in the twentieth century.", "He was an enthusiastic sportsman and avid swimmer, in stark contrast to Menzies and the majority of his predecessors and colleagues.", "Like later successor Bob Hawke, this resonated with positive effect within the electorate.", "His oratory skills were vastly superior to that of Arthur Calwell, whom Holt resoundingly beat in 1966.Holt's rhetoric was, however, considered a match to that of new Labor leader Gough Whitlam.", "Whitlam himself later said of Holt:===Religious beliefs===Holt has been described as an \"apathetic agnostic\".", "He was baptised Anglican, attended Methodist schools, and married with Presbyterian forms, but neither he nor his wife had any interest in religion.", "His lack of religiosity apparently had little impact on his political prospects, and was not generally remarked upon.", "Alick Downer believed that Holt's thoughts \"lay in this world not the next\".", "According to his friend Simon Warrender, he \"was an agnostic whose ''raison d'être'' was dedication to his career\".", "Holt had a reputation as something of a fatalist, and frequently quoted from Andrew Marvell's ''carpe diem'' poem \"To His Coy Mistress\".", "He was also fond of Rudyard Kipling's poem \"If—\", which Warrender said he used as a \"guiding light in his political and private life\"." ], [ "Memorials and other legacies", "Melbourne's Harold Holt Swim CentreBust of Harold Holt located in the Prime Ministers Avenue in the Ballarat Botanical GardensHarold Holt is commemorated by the Harold Holt Memorial Swimming Centre in the Melbourne suburb of Glen Iris.", "The complex was under construction at the time of Holt's disappearance, and since he was the local member, it was named in his memory.", "The irony of commemorating a man who is presumed to have drowned with a swimming pool has been a source of wry amusement for many Australians.", "The swimming pool within the 1st Australian Support Compound in South Vietnam was also named for him.In 1968, the newly commissioned United States Navy ''Knox''-class destroyer escort was named in his honour.", "It was launched by Holt's widow Dame Zara at the Todd Shipyards in Los Angeles on 3 May 1969, and was the first American warship to bear the name of a foreign leader.In 1969, a plaque commemorating Holt was bolted to the seafloor off Cheviot Beach after a memorial ceremony.", "It bears the inscription:Other memorials include:* the suburb of Holt, Australian Capital Territory;the Naval Communication Station Harold E. Holt; the Division of Holt, an electoral district in the Australian House of Representatives in Victoria;* a wing for boarders at Wesley College, Melbourne;* the Harold Holt Fisheries Reserves – five protected areas in southern Port Phillip, located at Swan Bay, Point Lonsdale, Mud Islands, Point Nepean and Pope's Eye (The Annulus).", "* a memorial stone within the 'Prime Ministers Garden' of Melbourne General CemeteryBy way of a folk memorial, he is recalled in the Australian vernacular expression \"do a Harold Holt\" (or \"do the Harry\"), rhyming slang for \"do a bolt\" meaning \"to disappear suddenly and without explanation\", although this is usually employed in the context of disappearance from a social gathering rather than a case of presumed death.In the Queen's Birthday Honours of June 1968, Holt's widow Zara was made a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire, becoming Dame Zara Holt DBE.", "She later married for a third time, to a Liberal party colleague of Holt's, Jeff Bate, and was then known as Dame Zara Bate.The mineral holtite is named in his honor.", "It was discovered in Greenbushes Tinfield, Western Australia and formally described in 1971." ], [ "See also", "* First Holt ministry* Second Holt ministry* Presumption of death* List of people who disappeared mysteriously: 1910–1990" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Footnotes======Bibliography===* " ], [ "Further reading", " * * Hancock, Ian (2000), 'Harold Edward Holt,' in Michelle Grattan (ed.", "), ''Australian Prime Ministers'', New Holland, Sydney, pages 270–285.", "* Holt, Zara (1968), ''My Life and Harry.", "An Autobiography'', Herald and Weekly Times, Melbourne.", "* Hughes, Colin A (1976), ''Mr Prime Minister.", "Australian Prime Ministers 1901–1972'', Oxford University Press, Melbourne, Victoria, Ch.19.", "* * * * * " ], [ "External links", " Harold Holt– Australia's Prime Ministers / National Archives of Australia*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Heavy metal music" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Heavy metal''' (or simply '''metal''') is a genre of rock music that developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s, largely in the United Kingdom and United States.", "With roots in blues rock, psychedelic rock and acid rock, heavy metal bands developed a thick, monumental sound characterized by distorted guitars, extended guitar solos, emphatic beats and loudness.In 1968, three of the genre's most famous pioneers – British bands Led Zeppelin, Black Sabbath and Deep Purple – were founded.", "Though they came to attract wide audiences, they were often derided by critics.", "Several American bands modified heavy metal into more accessible forms during the 1970s: the raw, sleazy sound and shock rock of Alice Cooper and Kiss; the blues-rooted rock of Aerosmith; and the flashy guitar leads and party rock of Van Halen.", "During the mid-1970s, Judas Priest helped spur the genre's evolution by discarding much of its blues influence, while Motörhead introduced a punk rock sensibility and an increasing emphasis on speed.", "Beginning in the late 1970s, bands in the new wave of British heavy metal such as Iron Maiden and Saxon followed in a similar vein.", "By the end of the decade, heavy metal fans became known as \"metalheads\" or \"headbangers\".", "The lyrics of some metal genres became associated with aggression and machismo, an issue that has at times led to accusations of misogyny.During the 1980s, glam metal became popular with groups such as Bon Jovi, Mötley Crüe and Poison.", "Meanwhile, however, underground scenes produced an array of more aggressive styles: thrash metal broke into the mainstream with bands such as Metallica, Slayer, Megadeth and Anthrax, while other extreme subgenres such as death metal and black metal became – and remain – subcultural phenomena.", "Since the mid-1990s, popular styles have expanded the definition of the genre.", "These include groove metal and nu metal, the latter of which often incorporates elements of grunge and hip-hop." ], [ "Characteristics", "Heavy metal is traditionally characterized by loud distorted guitars, emphatic rhythms, dense bass-and-drum sound and vigorous vocals.", "Heavy metal subgenres variously emphasize, alter or omit one or more of these attributes.", "In a 1988 article, ''The New York Times'' critic Jon Pareles wrote, \"In the taxonomy of popular music, heavy metal is a major subspecies of hard-rock—the breed with less syncopation, less blues, more showmanship and more brute force.\"", "The typical band lineup includes a drummer, a bassist, a rhythm guitarist, a lead guitarist and a singer, who may or may not be an instrumentalist.", "Keyboard instruments are sometimes used to enhance the fullness of the sound.", "Deep Purple's Jon Lord played an overdriven Hammond organ.", "In 1970, John Paul Jones used a Moog synthesizer on ''Led Zeppelin III''; by the 1990s, synthesizers were used in \"almost every subgenre of heavy metal\".Judas Priest performing in 2005The electric guitar and the sonic power that it projects through amplification has historically been the key element in heavy metal.", "The heavy metal guitar sound comes from a combined use of high volumes and heavy fuzz.", "For classic heavy metal guitar tone, guitarists maintain gain at moderate levels, without excessive preamp or pedal distortion, to retain open spaces and air in the music; the guitar amplifier is turned up loud to produce the \"punch and grind\" characteristic.", "Thrash metal guitar tone has scooped mid-frequencies and tightly compressed sound with multiple bass frequencies.", "Guitar solos are \"an essential element of the heavy metal code ... that underscores the significance of the guitar\" to the genre.", "Most heavy metal songs \"feature at least one guitar solo\", which is \"a primary means through which the heavy metal performer expresses virtuosity\".", "Some exceptions are nu metal and grindcore bands, which tend to omit guitar solos.", "With rhythm guitar parts, the \"heavy crunch sound in heavy metal ... is created by palm muting\" the strings with the picking hand and using distortion.", "Palm muting creates a tighter, more precise sound and it emphasizes the low end.The lead role of the guitar in heavy metal often collides with the traditional \"frontman\" or bandleader role of the vocalist, creating a musical tension as the two \"contend for dominance\" in a spirit of \"affectionate rivalry\".", "Heavy metal \"demands the subordination of the voice\" to the overall sound of the band.", "Reflecting metal's roots in the 1960s counterculture, an \"explicit display of emotion\" is required from the vocals as a sign of authenticity.", "Critic Simon Frith claims that the metal singer's \"tone of voice\" is more important than the lyrics.The prominent role of the bass ‍is also key to the metal sound, and the interplay of bass and guitar is a central element.", "The bass provides the low-end sound crucial to making the music \"heavy\".", "The bass plays a \"more important role in heavy metal than in any other genre of rock\".", "Metal basslines vary widely in complexity, from holding down a low pedal point as a foundation to doubling complex riffs and licks along with the lead or rhythm guitars.", "Some bands feature the bass as a lead instrument, an approach popularized by Metallica's Cliff Burton with his heavy emphasis on bass ‍solos and use of chords while playing the ‍bass in the early 1980s.", "Lemmy of Motörhead often played overdriven power chords in his bass lines.The essence of heavy metal drumming is creating a loud, constant beat for the band using the \"trifecta of speed, power, and precision\".", "Heavy metal drumming \"requires an exceptional amount of endurance\", and drummers have to develop \"considerable speed, coordination, and dexterity ... to play the intricate patterns\" used in heavy metal.", "A characteristic metal drumming technique is the cymbal choke, which consists of striking a cymbal and then immediately silencing it by grabbing it with the other hand (or, in some cases, the same striking hand), producing a burst of sound.", "The metal drum setup is generally much larger than those employed in other forms of rock music.", "Black metal, death metal and some \"mainstream metal\" bands \"all depend upon double-kicks and blast beats\".Enid Williams from Girlschool and Lemmy from Motörhead live in 2009.The ties that bind the two bands started in the 1980s and were still strong in the 2010s.In live performance, loudness – an \"onslaught of sound\", in sociologist Deena Weinstein's description – is considered vital.", "In his book, ''Metalheads'', psychologist Jeffrey Arnett refers to heavy metal concerts as \"the sensory equivalent of war\".", "Following the lead set by Jimi Hendrix, Cream and the Who, early heavy metal acts such as Blue Cheer set new benchmarks for volume.", "As Blue Cheer's Dick Peterson put it, \"All we knew was we wanted more power.\"", "A 1977 review of a Motörhead concert noted how \"excessive volume in particular figured into the band's impact\".", "Weinstein makes the case that in the same way that melody is the main element of pop and rhythm is the main focus of house music, powerful sound, timbre and volume are the key elements of metal.", "She argues that the loudness is designed to \"sweep the listener into the sound\" and to provide a \"shot of youthful vitality\".Heavy metal performers tended to be almost exclusively male until at least the mid-1980s, with some exceptions such as Girlschool.", "However, by the 2010s, women were making more of an impact, and PopMatters' Craig Hayes argues that metal \"clearly empowers women\".", "In the power metal and symphonic metal subgenres, there has been a sizable number of bands that have had women as the lead singers, such as Nightwish, Delain and Within Temptation.===Musical language=======Rhythm and tempo====palm-muted rhythm guitar part.", "The lower stave is the drum part.The rhythm in metal songs is emphatic, with deliberate stresses.", "Weinstein observes that the wide array of sonic effects available to metal drummers enables the \"rhythmic pattern to take on a complexity within its elemental drive and insistency\".", "In many heavy metal songs, the main groove is characterized by short, two- or three-note rhythmic figures – generally made up of eighth or 16th notes.", "These rhythmic figures are usually performed with a staccato attack created by using a palm-muted technique on the rhythm guitar.Brief, abrupt and detached rhythmic cells are joined into rhythmic phrases with a distinctive, often jerky texture.", "These phrases are used to create rhythmic accompaniment and melodic figures called riffs, which help to establish thematic hooks.", "Heavy metal songs also use longer rhythmic figures such as whole note- or dotted quarter note-length chords in slow-tempo power ballads.", "The tempos in early heavy metal music tended to be \"slow, even ponderous\".", "By the late 1970s, however, metal bands were employing a wide variety of tempos, and as recently as the 2000s, metal tempos range from slow ballad tempos (quarter note = 60 beats per minute) to extremely fast blast beat tempos (quarter note = 350 beats per minute).====Harmony====One of the signatures of the genre is the guitar power chord.", "In technical terms, the power chord is relatively simple: it involves just one main interval, generally the perfect fifth, though an octave may be added as a doubling of the root.", "When power chords are played on the lower strings at high volumes and with distortion, additional low-frequency sounds are created, which add to the \"weight of the sound\" and create an effect of \"overwhelming power\".", "Although the perfect fifth interval is the most common basis for the power chord, power chords are also based on different intervals such as the minor third, major third, perfect fourth, diminished fifth or minor sixth.", "Most power chords are also played with a consistent finger arrangement that can be slid easily up and down the fretboard.====Typical harmonic structures====Heavy metal is usually based on riffs created with three main harmonic traits: modal scale progressions, tritone and chromatic progressions, and the use of pedal points.", "Traditional heavy metal tends to employ modal scales, in particular the Aeolian and Phrygian modes.", "Harmonically speaking, this means the genre typically incorporates modal chord progressions such as the Aeolian progressions I-♭VI-♭VII, I-♭VII-(♭VI), or I-♭VI-IV-♭VII and Phrygian progressions implying the relation between I and ♭II (I-♭II-I, I-♭II-III, or I-♭II-VII for example).", "Tense-sounding chromatic or tritone relationships are used in a number of metal chord progressions.", "In addition to using modal harmonic relationships, heavy metal also uses \"pentatonic and blues-derived features\".The tritone, an interval spanning three whole tones – such as C to F# – was considered extremely dissonant and unstable by medieval and Renaissance music theorists.", "It was nicknamed the ''diabolus in musica –'' \"the devil in music\".Heavy metal songs often make extensive use of pedal point as a harmonic basis.", "A pedal point is a sustained tone, typically in the bass range, during which at least one foreign (i.e., dissonant) harmony is sounded in the other parts.", "According to Robert Walser, heavy metal harmonic relationships are \"often quite complex\" and the harmonic analysis done by metal players and teachers is \"often very sophisticated\".", "In the study of heavy metal chord structures, it has been concluded that \"heavy metal music has proved to be far more complicated\" than other music researchers had realized.====Relationship with classical music====Ritchie Blackmore, founder of Deep Purple and Rainbow, known for the neoclassical approach in his guitar performances.Robert Walser stated that, alongside blues and R&B, the \"assemblage of disparate musical styles known ... as 'classical music'\" has been a major influence on heavy metal since the genre's earliest days, and that metal's \"most influential musicians have been guitar players who have also studied classical music.", "Their appropriation and adaptation of classical models sparked the development of a new kind of guitar virtuosity and changes in the harmonic and melodic language of heavy metal.", "\"In an article written for ''Grove Music Online'', Walser stated that the \"1980s brought on ... the widespread adaptation of chord progressions and virtuosic practices from 18th-century European models, especially Bach and Antonio Vivaldi, by influential guitarists such as Ritchie Blackmore, Marty Friedman, Jason Becker, Uli Jon Roth, Eddie Van Halen, Randy Rhoads and Yngwie Malmsteen.\"", "Kurt Bachmann of Believer has stated that \"if done correctly, metal and classical fit quite well together.", "Classical and metal are probably the two genres that have the most in common when it comes to feel, texture, creativity.", "\"Although a number of metal musicians cite classical composers as inspiration, classical and metal are rooted in different cultural traditions and practices – classical in the art music tradition, metal in the popular music tradition.", "As musicologists Nicolas Cook and Nicola Dibben note: \"Analyses of popular music also sometimes reveal the influence of 'art traditions.'", "An example is Walser's linkage of heavy metal music with the ideologies and even some of the performance practices of nineteenth-century Romanticism.", "However, it would be clearly wrong to claim that traditions such as blues, rock, heavy metal, rap or dance music derive primarily from \"art music.", "'\"===Lyrical themes===According to David Hatch and Stephen Millward, Black Sabbath and the numerous heavy metal bands that they inspired have concentrated lyrically \"on dark and depressing subject matter to an extent hitherto unprecedented in any form of pop music.\"", "They take as an example Black Sabbath's second album, ''Paranoid'' (1970), which \"included songs dealing with personal trauma—'Paranoid' and 'Fairies Wear Boots' (which described the unsavoury side effects of drug-taking)—as well as those confronting wider issues, such as the self-explanatory 'War Pigs' and 'Hand of Doom.'\"", "Deriving from the genre's roots in blues music, sex is another important topic – a thread running from Led Zeppelin's suggestive lyrics to the more explicit references of glam metal and nu metal bands.King Diamond, known for writing conceptual lyrics about horror storiesThe thematic content of heavy metal has long been a target of criticism.", "According to Jon Pareles, \"Heavy metal's main subject matter is simple and virtually universal.", "With grunts, moans and subliterary lyrics, it celebrates ... a party without limits ...", "The bulk of the music is stylized and formulaic.\"", "Music critics have often deemed metal lyrics juvenile and banal, and others have objected to what they see as advocacy of misogyny and the occult.", "During the 1980s, the Parents Music Resource Center petitioned the U.S. Congress to regulate the popular music industry due to what the group asserted were objectionable lyrics, particularly those in heavy metal songs.", "Andrew Cope stated that claims that heavy metal lyrics are misogynistic are \"clearly misguided\" as these critics have \"overlooked the overwhelming evidence that suggests otherwise\".", "Music critic Robert Christgau called metal \"an expressive mode that it sometimes seems will be with us for as long as ordinary white boys fear girls, pity themselves, and are permitted to rage against a world they'll never beat\".Heavy metal artists have had to defend their lyrics in front of the U.S. Senate and in court.", "In 1985, Twisted Sister frontman Dee Snider was asked to defend his song \"Under the Blade\" at a U.S. Senate hearing.", "At the hearing, the PMRC alleged that the song was about sadomasochism and rape; Snider stated that the song was about his bandmate's throat surgery.", "In 1986, Ozzy Osbourne was sued over the lyrics of his song \"Suicide Solution\".", "A lawsuit against Osbourne was filed by the parents of John McCollum, a depressed teenager who committed suicide allegedly after listening to Osbourne's song.", "Osbourne was not found to be responsible for the teen's death.", "In 1990, Judas Priest was sued in American court by the parents of two young men who had shot themselves five years earlier, allegedly after hearing the subliminal statement \"do it\" in the band's cover of the song \"Better by You, Better than Me\".", "While the case attracted a great deal of media attention, it was ultimately dismissed.", "In 1991, U.K. police seized death metal records from the British record label Earache Records, in an \"unsuccessful attempt to prosecute the label for obscenity\".In some predominantly Muslim countries, heavy metal has been officially denounced as a threat to traditional values, and in countries such as Morocco, Egypt, Lebanon and Malaysia, there have been incidents of heavy metal musicians and fans being arrested and incarcerated.", "In 1997, the Egyptian police jailed many young metal fans, and they were accused of \"devil worship\" and blasphemy after police found metal recordings during searches of their homes.", "In 2013, Malaysia banned Lamb of God from performing in their country, on the grounds that the \"band's lyrics could be interpreted as being religiously insensitive\" and blasphemous.", "Some people consider heavy metal music to be a leading factor for mental health disorders, and that heavy metal fans are more likely to suffer poor mental health, but a study from 2009 suggests that this is not true and that fans of heavy metal music suffer from poor mental health at a similar or lower rate compared to the general population.===Image and fashion===Kiss performing in 2004, wearing makeupFor many artists and bands, visual imagery plays a large role in heavy metal.", "In addition to its sound and lyrics, a heavy metal band's image is expressed in album cover art, logos, stage sets, clothing, design of instruments and music videos.Down-the-back long hair is the \"most crucial distinguishing feature of metal fashion\".", "Originally adopted from the hippie subculture, by the 1980s and 1990s, heavy metal hair \"symbolised the hate, angst and disenchantment of a generation that seemingly never felt at home\", according to journalist Nader Rahman.", "Long hair gave members of the metal community \"the power they needed to rebel against nothing in general\".The classic uniform of heavy metal fans consists of light-colored, ripped, frayed or torn blue jeans, black T-shirts, boots, and black leather or denim jackets.", "Deena Weinstein wrote, \"T-shirts are generally emblazoned with the logos or other visual representations of favorite metal bands.\"", "In the 1980s, a range of sources – from punk rock and goth music to horror films – influenced metal fashion.", "Many metal performers of the 1970s and 1980s used radically shaped and brightly colored instruments to enhance their stage appearance.Fashion and personal style was especially important for glam metal bands of the era.", "Performers typically wore long, dyed, hairspray-teased hair (hence the nickname \"hair metal\"); makeup such as lipstick and eyeliner; gaudy clothing, including leopard-skin-printed shirts or vests and tight denim, leather or spandex pants; and accessories such as headbands and jewelry.", "Pioneered by the heavy metal act X Japan in the late 1980s, bands in the Japanese movement known as visual kei, which includes many non-metal groups, emphasize elaborate costumes, hair and makeup.===Physical gestures===\"devil horns\" gesture at a Metsatöll concertWhen performing live, many metal musicians – as well as the audience for whom they're playing – engage in headbanging, which involves rhythmically beating time with the head, often emphasized by long hair.", "The ''il cornuto'', or \"devil horns\", hand gesture was popularized by vocalist Ronnie James Dio during his time with the bands Black Sabbath and Dio.", "Although Gene Simmons of Kiss claims to have been the first to make the gesture on the 1977 ''Love Gun'' album cover, there is speculation as to who started the phenomenon.Attendees of metal concerts do not dance in the usual sense.", "It has been argued that this is due to the music's largely male audience and \"extreme heterosexualist ideology\".", "Two primary body movements used are headbanging and an arm thrust that is both a sign of appreciation and a rhythmic gesture.", "The performance of air guitar is popular among metal fans both at concerts and listening to records at home.", "According to Deena Weinstein, thrash metal concerts have two elements that are not part of the other metal genres: moshing and stage diving, which \"were imported from the punk/hardcore subculture\".", "Weinstein states that moshing participants bump and jostle each other as they move in a circle in an area called the \"pit\" near the stage.", "Stage divers climb onto the stage with the band and then jump \"back into the audience\".===Fan subculture===A heavy metal fan wearing a denim jacket with band patches and artwork of the heavy metal bands Metallica, Guns N' Roses, Iron Maiden, Slipknot, Dio and Led Zeppelin.It has been argued that heavy metal has outlasted many other rock genres largely due to the emergence of an intense, exclusionary and strongly masculine subculture.", "While the metal fan base is largely young, white, male and blue-collar, the group is \"tolerant of those outside its core demographic base who follow its codes of dress, appearance, and behavior\".", "Identification with the subculture is strengthened not only by the group experience of concert-going and shared elements of fashion, but also by contributing to metal magazines and, more recently, websites.", "Attending live concerts in particular has been called the \"holiest of heavy metal communions\".The metal scene has been characterized as a \"subculture of alienation\" with its own code of authenticity.", "This code puts several demands on performers: they must appear both completely devoted to their music and loyal to the subculture that supports it; they must appear uninterested in mainstream appeal and radio hits; and they must never \"sell out\".", "Deena Weinstein stated that for the fans themselves, the code promotes \"opposition to established authority, and separateness from the rest of society\".Musician and filmmaker Rob Zombie observed, \"Most of the kids who come to my shows seem like really imaginative kids with a lot of creative energy they don't know what to do with\" and that metal is \"outsider music for outsiders.", "Nobody wants to be the weird kid; you just somehow end up being the weird kid.", "It's kind of like that, but with metal you have all the weird kids in one place.\"", "Scholars of metal have noted the tendency of fans to classify and reject some performers (and some other fans) as \"poseurs\" \"who pretended to be part of the subculture, but who were deemed to lack authenticity and sincerity\"." ], [ "Etymology", "The origin of the term \"heavy metal\" in a musical context is uncertain.", "The phrase has been used for centuries in chemistry and metallurgy, where the periodic table organizes elements of both light and heavy metals (e.g., uranium).", "An early use of the term in modern popular culture was by countercultural writer William S. Burroughs.", "His 1961 novel ''The Soft Machine'' includes a character known as \"Uranian Willy, the Heavy Metal Kid\".", "Burroughs' next novel, ''Nova Express'' (1964), develops the theme, using \"heavy metal\" as a metaphor for addictive drugs: \"With their diseases and orgasm drugs and their sexless parasite life forms—Heavy Metal People of Uranus wrapped in cool blue mist of vaporized bank notes—And The Insect People of Minraud with metal music.\"", "Inspired by Burroughs' novels, the term was used in the title of the 1967 album ''Featuring the Human Host and the Heavy Metal Kids'' by Hapshash and the Coloured Coat, which has been claimed to be its first use in the context of music.", "The phrase was later lifted by Sandy Pearlman, who used the term to describe the Byrds for their supposed \"aluminium style of context and effect\", particularly on their album ''The Notorious Byrd Brothers'' (1968).Metal historian Ian Christe describes what the components of the term mean in \"hippiespeak\": \"heavy\" is roughly synonymous with \"potent\" or \"profound\", and \"metal\" designates a certain type of mood, grinding and weighted as with metal.", "The word \"heavy\" in this sense was a basic element of beatnik and later countercultural hippie slang, and references to \"heavy music\" – typically slower, more amplified variations of standard pop fare – were already common by the mid-1960s, such as in reference to Vanilla Fudge.", "Iron Butterfly's debut album, which was released in early 1968, was titled ''Heavy''.", "The first use of \"heavy metal\" in a song lyric is in reference to a motorcycle in the Steppenwolf song \"Born to Be Wild\", also released that year: \"I like smoke and lightning / Heavy metal thunder / Racin' with the wind / And the feelin' that I'm under\".An early documented use of the phrase in rock criticism appears in Sandy Pearlman's February 1967 ''Crawdaddy'' review of the Rolling Stones' ''Got Live If You Want It'' (1966), albeit as a description of the sound rather than as a genre: \"On this album the Stones go metal.", "Technology is in the saddle—as an ideal and as a method.\"", "Another appears in the 11 May 1968 issue of ''Rolling Stone'', in which Barry Gifford wrote about the album ''A Long Time Comin''' by U.S. band Electric Flag: \"Nobody who's been listening to Mike Bloomfield—either talking or playing—in the last few years could have expected this.", "This is the new soul music, the synthesis of white blues and heavy metal rock.\"", "In the 7 September 1968 edition of the ''Seattle Daily Times'', reviewer Susan Schwartz wrote that the Jimi Hendrix Experience \"has a heavy-metals blues sound\".", "In January 1970, Lucian K. Truscott IV, reviewing ''Led Zeppelin II'' for the ''Village Voice'', described the sound as \"heavy\" and made comparisons with Blue Cheer and Vanilla Fudge.Other early documented uses of the phrase are from reviews by critic Mike Saunders.", "In the 12 November 1970 issue of ''Rolling Stone'', he commented on an album put out the previous year by the British band Humble Pie: \"''Safe as Yesterday Is,'' their first American release, proved that Humble Pie could be boring in lots of different ways.", "Here they were a noisy, unmelodic, heavy metal-leaden shit-rock band with the loud and noisy parts beyond doubt.", "There were a couple of nice songs ... and one monumental pile of refuse.\"", "He described the band's latest, self-titled release as \"more of the same 27th-rate heavy metal crap\".In a review of Sir Lord Baltimore's ''Kingdom Come'' in the May 1971 edition of ''Creem'', Saunders wrote, \"Sir Lord Baltimore seems to have down pat most all the best heavy metal tricks in the book.\"", "''Creem'' critic Lester Bangs is credited with popularizing the term via his early 1970s essays on bands such as Led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath.", "Through the decade, \"heavy metal\" was used by certain critics as a virtually automatic putdown.", "In 1979, lead ''New York Times'' popular music critic John Rockwell described what he called \"heavy-metal rock\" as \"brutally aggressive music played mostly for minds clouded by drugs\" and, in a different article, as \"a crude exaggeration of rock basics that appeals to white teenagers\".Coined by Black Sabbath drummer Bill Ward, \"downer rock\" was one of the earliest terms used to describe this style of music and was applied to acts such as Sabbath and Bloodrock.", "''Classic Rock'' magazine described the downer rock culture revolving around the use of Quaaludes and the drinking of wine.", "The term would later be replaced by \"heavy metal\".Earlier on, as \"heavy metal\" emerged partially from heavy psychedelic rock, also known as acid rock, \"acid rock\" was often used interchangeably with \"heavy metal\" and \"hard rock\".", "\"Acid rock\" generally describes heavy, hard or raw psychedelic rock.", "Musicologist Steve Waksman stated that \"the distinction between acid rock, hard rock, and heavy metal can at some point never be more than tenuous\", while percussionist John Beck defined \"acid rock\" as synonymous with hard rock and heavy metal.Apart from \"acid rock\", the terms \"heavy metal\" and \"hard rock\" have often been used interchangeably, particularly in discussing bands of the 1970s, a period when the terms were largely synonymous.", "For example, the 1983 edition of the ''Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll'' includes the following passage: \"Known for its aggressive blues-based hard-rock style, Aerosmith was the top American heavy-metal band of the mid-Seventies\".", "\"The term 'heavy metal' is self-defeating,\" remarked Kiss bassist Gene Simmons.", "\"When I think of heavy metal, I've always thought of elves and evil dwarves and evil princes and princesses.", "A lot of the Maiden and Priest records were real metal records.", "I sure as hell don't think Metallica's metal, or Guns N' Roses is metal, or Kiss is metal.", "It just doesn't deal with the ground opening up and little dwarves coming out riding dragons!", "You know, like bad Dio records.\"" ], [ "History", "===Antecedents: 1950s to late 1960s===Heavy metal's quintessential guitar style, which is built around distortion-heavy riffs and power chords, traces its roots to early 1950s Memphis blues guitarists such as Joe Hill Louis, Willie Johnson and particularly Pat Hare, who captured a \"grittier, nastier, more ferocious electric guitar sound\" on records such as James Cotton's \"Cotton Crop Blues\" (1954).", "Other early influences include the late 1950s instrumentals of Link Wray, particularly \"Rumble\" (1958); the early 1960s surf rock of Dick Dale, including \"Let's Go Trippin'\" (1961) and \"Misirlou\" (1962); and The Kingsmen's version of \"Louie Louie\" (1963), which became a garage rock standard.Cream performing on the Dutch television program ''Fanclub'' in 1968However, the genre's direct lineage begins in the mid-1960s.", "American blues music was a major influence on the early British rockers of the era.", "Bands like The Rolling Stones and The Yardbirds developed blues rock by recording covers of classic blues songs, often speeding up the tempos.", "As they experimented with the music, the U.K. blues-based bands – and in turn the U.S. acts they influenced – developed what would become the hallmarks of heavy metal (in particular, the loud, distorted guitar sound).", "The Kinks played a major role in popularising this sound with their 1964 hit \"You Really Got Me\".In addition to The Kinks' Dave Davies, other guitarists such as The Who's Pete Townshend and The Yardbirds' Jeff Beck were experimenting with feedback.", "Where the blues rock drumming style started out largely as simple shuffle beats on small kits, drummers began using a more muscular, complex and amplified approach to match and be heard against the increasingly loud guitar.", "Vocalists similarly modified their technique and increased their reliance on amplification, often becoming more stylized and dramatic.", "In terms of sheer volume, especially in live performance, The Who's \"bigger-louder-wall-of-Marshalls\" approach was seminal to the development of the later heavy metal sound.The combination of this loud and heavy blues rock with psychedelic rock and acid rock formed much of the original basis for heavy metal.", "The variant or subgenre of psychedelic rock often known as \"acid rock\" was particularly influential on heavy metal and its development; acid rock is often defined as a heavier, louder, or harder variant of psychedelic rock, or the more extreme side of the psychedelic rock genre, frequently containing a loud, improvised, and heavily distorted, guitar-centered sound.", "Acid rock has been described as psychedelic rock at its \"rawest and most intense\", emphasizing the heavier qualities associated with both the positive and negative extremes of the psychedelic experience rather than only the idyllic side of psychedelia.", "In contrast to more idyllic or whimsical pop psychedelic rock, American acid rock garage bands such as the 13th Floor Elevators epitomized the frenetic, heavier, darker, and more psychotic psychedelic rock sound known as acid rock, a sound characterized by droning guitar riffs, amplified feedback, and guitar distortion, while the 13th Floor Elevators' sound in particular featured yelping vocals and \"occasionally demented\" lyrics.", "Frank Hoffman noted that \"Psychedelic rock was sometimes referred to as 'acid rock'.", "The latter label was applied to a pounding, hard rock variant that evolved out of the mid-1960s garage-punk movement....", "When rock began turning back to softer, roots-oriented sounds in late 1968, acid-rock bands mutated into heavy metal acts.", "\"One of the most influential bands in forging the merger of psychedelic rock and acid rock with the blues rock genre was the British power trio Cream, who derived a massive, heavy sound from unison riffing between guitarist Eric Clapton and bassist Jack Bruce, as well as Ginger Baker's double bass drumming.", "Their first two LPs – ''Fresh Cream'' (1966) and ''Disraeli Gears'' (1967) – are regarded as essential prototypes for the future style of heavy metal.", "The Jimi Hendrix Experience's debut album, ''Are You Experienced'' (1967), was also highly influential.", "Hendrix's virtuosic technique would be emulated by many metal guitarists, and the album's most successful single, \"Purple Haze\", is identified by some as the first heavy metal hit.", "Vanilla Fudge, whose first album also came out in 1967, has been called \"one of the few American links between psychedelia and what soon became heavy metal,\" and the band has been cited as an early American heavy metal group.", "On their self-titled debut album, Vanilla Fudge created \"loud, heavy, slowed-down arrangements\" of contemporary hit songs, blowing these songs up to \"epic proportions\" and \"bathing them in a trippy, distorted haze\".During the late 1960s, many psychedelic singers, such as Arthur Brown, began to create outlandish, theatrical, and often macabre performances that influenced many metal acts.", "The American psychedelic rock band Coven, who opened for early heavy metal influencers such as Vanilla Fudge and the Yardbirds, portrayed themselves as practitioners of witchcraft or black magic, using dark – Satanic or occult – imagery in their lyrics, album art and live performances, which consisted of elaborate, theatrical \"Satanic rites\".", "Coven's 1969 debut album, ''Witchcraft Destroys Minds & Reaps Souls'', featured imagery of skulls, black masses, inverted crosses, and Satan worship, and both the album artwork and the band's live performances marked the first appearances in rock music of the sign of the horns, which would later become an important gesture in heavy metal culture.", "Coven's lyrical and thematic influences on heavy metal were quickly overshadowed by the darker and heavier sounds of Black Sabbath.===Origins: late 1960s and early 1970s===SteppenwolfCritics disagree over who can be thought of as the first heavy metal band.", "Most credit the British bands Led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath, with American commentators tending to favour Led Zeppelin and British commentators tending to favour Black Sabbath, though many give equal credit to both.", "Deep Purple, the third band in what is sometimes considered the \"unholy trinity\" of heavy metal along with Led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath, fluctuated between many rock styles until late 1969 when they took a heavy metal direction.", "A few commentators – mainly American – argue for other groups, including Iron Butterfly, Steppenwolf, Blue Cheer, or Vanilla Fudge, as the first to play heavy metal.In 1968, the sound that would become known as heavy metal began to coalesce.", "That January, San Francisco band Blue Cheer released a cover of Eddie Cochran's classic \"Summertime Blues\" as a part of their debut album, ''Vincebus Eruptum'', and many consider it to be the first true heavy metal recording.", "The same month, Steppenwolf released their self-titled debut album, on which the track \"Born to Be Wild\" refers to \"heavy metal thunder\" in describing a motorcycle.", "In July, the Jeff Beck Group, whose leader had preceded Page as The Yardbirds' guitarist, released its debut record, ''Truth'', which featured some of the \"most molten, barbed, downright funny noises of all time\", breaking ground for generations of metal ax-slingers.", "In September, Page's new band, Led Zeppelin, made its live debut in Denmark (but were billed as The New Yardbirds).", "The Beatles' self-titled double album, released in November, included \"Helter Skelter\", then one of the heaviest-sounding songs ever released by a major band.", "The Pretty Things' rock opera ''S.F.", "Sorrow'', released in December, featured \"proto heavy metal\" songs such as \"Old Man Going\" and \"I See You\".", "Iron Butterfly's 1968 song \"In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida\" is sometimes described as an example of the transition between acid rock and heavy metal or the turning point in which acid rock became \"heavy metal\", and both Iron Butterfly's 1968 album ''In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida'' and Blue Cheer's 1968 album ''Vincebus Eruptum'' have been described as laying the foundation of heavy metal and greatly influential in the transformation of acid rock into heavy metal.In this counterculture period, MC5, who began as part of the Detroit garage rock scene, developed a raw, distorted style that has been seen as a major influence on the future sound of both heavy metal and later punk music.", "The Stooges also began to establish and influence a heavy metal and later punk sound, with songs such as \"I Wanna Be Your Dog\", featuring pounding and distorted heavy guitar power chord riffs.", "Pink Floyd released two of their heaviest and loudest songs to date, \"Ibiza Bar\" and \"The Nile Song\", the latter of which being regarded as \"one of the heaviest songs the band recorded.\"", "King Crimson's debut album started with \"21st Century Schizoid Man\", which was considered heavy metal by several critics.Led Zeppelin performing at Chicago Stadium in January 1975\|alt=A colour photograph of the four members of Led Zeppelin performing onstage, with some other figures visible in the background.", "The band members shown are, from left to right, the bassist, drummer, guitarist, and lead singer.", "Large guitar speaker stacks are behind the band members.In January 1969, Led Zeppelin's self-titled debut album was released and reached No.", "10 on the ''Billboard'' album chart.", "In July, Led Zeppelin and a power trio with a Cream-inspired, but cruder sound, called Grand Funk Railroad played the Atlanta Pop Festival.", "That same month, another Cream-rooted trio led by Leslie West released ''Mountain'', an album filled with heavy blues rock guitar and roaring vocals.", "In August, the group – now itself dubbed Mountain – played an hour-long set at the Woodstock Festival, exposing the crowd of 300,000 people to the emerging sound of heavy metal.", "Mountain's proto-metal or early heavy metal hit song \"Mississippi Queen\" from the album ''Climbing!''", "is especially credited with paving the way for heavy metal and was one of the first heavy guitar songs to receive regular play on radio.", "In September 1969, the Beatles released the album ''Abbey Road'' containing the track \"I Want You (She's So Heavy)\", which has been credited as an early example of or influence on heavy metal or doom metal.", "In October 1969, British band High Tide debuted with the heavy, proto-metal album ''Sea Shanties''.Led Zeppelin defined central aspects of the emerging genre, with Page's highly distorted guitar style and singer Robert Plant's dramatic, wailing vocals.", "Other bands, with a more consistently heavy, \"purely\" metal sound, would prove equally important in codifying the genre.", "The 1970 releases by Black Sabbath (''Black Sabbath'', which is generally accepted as the first heavy metal album, and ''Paranoid'') and Deep Purple (''Deep Purple in Rock'') were crucial in this regard.Birmingham's Black Sabbath had developed a particularly heavy sound in part due to a work accident in which guitarist Tony Iommi lost the ends of two fingers.", "Unable to play normally, Iommi had to tune his guitar down for easier fretting and rely on power chords with their relatively simple fingering.", "The bleak, industrial, working-class environment of Birmingham, a manufacturing city full of noisy factories and metalworking, has itself been credited with influencing Black Sabbath's heavy, chugging, metallic sound – and the sound of heavy metal in general.Deep Purple had fluctuated between styles in its early years, but by 1969, vocalist Ian Gillan and guitarist Ritchie Blackmore had led the band toward the developing heavy metal style.", "In 1970, Black Sabbath and Deep Purple scored major U.K. chart hits with \"Paranoid\" and \"Black Night\", respectively.", "That same year, two other British bands released debut albums in a heavy metal mode: Uriah Heep with ''...Very 'Eavy...", "Very 'Umble'' and UFO with ''UFO 1''.", "Bloodrock released their self-titled debut album, a collection of heavy guitar riffs, gruff style vocals and sadistic and macabre lyrics.", "The influential Budgie brought the new metal sound into a power trio context, creating some of the heaviest music of the time.", "The occult lyrics and imagery employed by Black Sabbath and Uriah Heep would prove particularly influential; Led Zeppelin also began foregrounding such elements with its fourth album, released in 1971.In 1973, Deep Purple released the song \"Smoke on the Water\", whose iconic riff is usually considered as the most recognizable one in \"heavy rock\" history, as a single of the classic live album ''Made in Japan''.Brian Robertson, Phil Lynott, Scott Gorham of Thin Lizzy performing during the Bad Reputation Tour, 24 November 1977On the other side of the Atlantic, the trendsetting group was Grand Funk Railroad, who was described as \"the most commercially successful American heavy-metal band from 1970 until they disbanded in 1976, they established the Seventies success formula: continuous touring.\"", "Other influential bands identified with metal emerged in the U.S. such as Sir Lord Baltimore (''Kingdom Come,'' 1970), Blue Öyster Cult (''Blue Öyster Cult'', 1972), Aerosmith (''Aerosmith'', 1973) and Kiss (''Kiss'', 1974).", "Sir Lord Baltimore's 1970 debut album and both Humble Pie's debut and self-titled third album were among the first albums to be described in print as \"heavy metal\", with ''As Safe As Yesterday Is'' referred to by the term \"heavy metal\" in a 1970 review in ''Rolling Stone'' magazine.", "Various smaller bands from the U.S., U.K. and Continental Europe – including Bang, Josefus, Leaf Hound, Primeval, Hard Stuff, Truth and Janey, Dust, JPT Scare Band, Frijid Pink, Cactus, Irish Coffee, May Blitz, Captain Beyond, Toad, Granicus, Iron Claw, and Yesterday's Children – though lesser known outside of their respective scenes, proved to be greatly influential on the emerging metal movement.", "In Germany, Scorpions debuted with ''Lonesome Crow'' in 1972.Blackmore, who had emerged as a virtuoso soloist with Deep Purple's highly influential album ''Machine Head'' (1972), left the band in 1975 to form Rainbow with Ronnie James Dio, singer and bassist for blues rock band Elf and future vocalist for Black Sabbath and heavy metal band Dio.", "Rainbow with Ronnie James Dio would expand on the mystical and fantasy-based lyrics and themes sometimes found in heavy metal, pioneering both power metal and neoclassical metal.", "These bands also built audiences via constant touring and increasingly elaborate stage shows.There are arguments about whether these and other early bands truly qualify as \"heavy metal\" or simply as \"hard rock\".", "Those closer to the music's blues roots or placing greater emphasis on melody are now commonly ascribed the latter label.", "AC/DC, which debuted with ''High Voltage'' in 1975, is a prime example.", "The 1983 ''Rolling Stone'' encyclopedia entry begins, \"Australian heavy-metal band AC/DC ...\" Rock historian Clinton Walker wrote, \"Calling AC/DC a heavy metal band in the seventies was as inaccurate as it is today....", "They were a rock 'n' roll band that just happened to be heavy enough for metal.\"", "The issue is not only one of shifting definitions, but also a persistent distinction between musical style and audience identification; Ian Christe describes how the band \"became the stepping-stone that led huge numbers of hard rock fans into heavy metal perdition\".In certain cases, there is little debate.", "After Black Sabbath, the next major example is Britain's Judas Priest, which debuted with ''Rocka Rolla'' in 1974.In Christe's description,Black Sabbath's audience was... left to scavenge for sounds with similar impact.", "By the mid-1970s, heavy metal aesthetic could be spotted, like a mythical beast, in the moody bass and complex dual guitars of Thin Lizzy, in the stagecraft of Alice Cooper, in the sizzling guitar and showy vocals of Queen, and in the thundering medieval questions of Rainbow.... Judas Priest arrived to unify and amplify these diverse highlights from hard rock's sonic palette.", "For the first time, heavy metal became a true genre unto itself.Though Judas Priest did not have a top 40 album in the United States until 1980, for many it was the definitive post-Sabbath heavy metal band; its twin-guitar attack, featuring rapid tempos and a non-bluesy, more cleanly metallic sound, was a major influence on later acts.", "While heavy metal was growing in popularity, most critics were not enamored of the music.", "Objections were raised to metal's adoption of visual spectacle and other trappings of commercial artifice, but the main offense was its perceived musical and lyrical vacuity: reviewing a Black Sabbath album in the early 1970s, Robert Christgau described it as \"dull and decadent... dim-witted, amoral exploitation.", "\"===Mainstream: late 1970s and 1980s===Iron Maiden, one of the central bands in the new wave of British heavy metalPunk rock emerged in the mid-1970s as a reaction against contemporary social conditions as well as what was perceived as the overindulgent, overproduced rock music of the time, including heavy metal.", "Sales of heavy metal records declined sharply in the late 1970s in the face of punk, disco and more mainstream rock.", "With the major labels fixated on punk, many newer British heavy metal bands were inspired by the movement's aggressive, high-energy sound and \"lo-fi\", do it yourself ethos.", "Underground metal bands began putting out cheaply recorded releases independently to small, devoted audiences.Motörhead, founded in 1975, was the first important band to straddle the punk/metal divide.", "With the explosion of punk in 1977, others followed.", "British music magazines such as the ''NME'' and ''Sounds'' took notice, with ''Sounds'' writer Geoff Barton christening the movement the \"New Wave of British Heavy Metal\".", "NWOBHM bands including Iron Maiden, Saxon and Def Leppard re-energized the heavy metal genre.", "Following the lead set by Judas Priest and Motörhead, they toughened up the sound, reduced its blues elements and emphasized increasingly fast tempos.", "\"This seemed to be the resurgence of heavy metal,\" noted Ronnie James Dio, who joined Black Sabbath in 1979.", "\"I've never thought there was a ''desurgence'' of heavy metal – if that's a word!", "– but it was important to me that, yet again ''after Rainbow'', I could be involved in something that was paving the way for those who are going to come after me.", "\"By 1980, the NWOBHM had broken into the mainstream, as albums by Iron Maiden and Saxon, as well as Motörhead, reached the British top 10.Though less commercially successful, NWOBHM bands such as Venom and Diamond Head would have a significant influence on metal's development.", "In 1981, Motörhead became the first of this new breed of metal bands to top the U.K. charts with the live album ''No Sleep 'til Hammersmith''.The first generation of metal bands was ceding the limelight.", "Deep Purple broke up soon after Blackmore's departure in 1975, and Led Zeppelin split following drummer John Bonham's death in 1980.Black Sabbath were plagued with infighting and substance abuse, while facing fierce competition from their opening band, Van Halen.", "Eddie Van Halen established himself as one of the leading metal guitarists of the era.", "His solo on \"Eruption\", from the band's self-titled 1978 album, is considered a milestone.", "Eddie Van Halen's sound even crossed over into pop music when his guitar solo was featured on the track \"Beat It\" by Michael Jackson, which reached No.", "1 in the U.S. in February 1983.Inspired by Van Halen's success, a metal scene began to develop in Southern California during the late 1970s.", "Based on the clubs of L.A.'s Sunset Strip, bands such as Mötley Crüe, Quiet Riot, Ratt and W.A.S.P.", "were influenced by traditional heavy metal of the 1970s.", "These acts incorporated the theatrics (and sometimes makeup) of glam metal or \"hair metal\" bands such as Alice Cooper and Kiss.", "Glam metal bands were often visually distinguished by long, overworked hairstyles accompanied by wardrobes which were sometimes considered cross-gender.", "The lyrics of these glam metal bands characteristically emphasized hedonism and wild behavior, including lyrics that involved sexual expletives and the use of narcotics.In the wake of the New Wave of British Heavy Metal and Judas Priest's breakthrough with ''British Steel'' (1980), heavy metal became increasingly popular in the early 1980s.", "Many metal artists benefited from the exposure they received on MTV, which began airing in 1981; sales often soared if a band's videos screened on the channel.", "Def Leppard's videos for ''Pyromania'' (1983) made them superstars in America, and Quiet Riot became the first domestic heavy metal band to top the ''Billboard'' chart with ''Metal Health'' (1983).", "One of the seminal events in metal's growing popularity was the 1983 US Festival in California, where the \"heavy metal day\" featuring Ozzy Osbourne, Van Halen, Scorpions, Mötley Crüe, Judas Priest and others drew the largest audiences of the three-day event.Between 1983 and 1984, heavy metal's share of all recordings sold in the U.S. increased from 8% to 20%.", "Several major professional magazines devoted to the genre were launched, including ''Kerrang!''", "in 1981 and ''Metal Hammer'' in 1984, as well as a host of fan journals.", "In 1985, ''Billboard'' declared: \"Metal has broadened its audience base.", "Metal music is no longer the exclusive domain of male teenagers.", "The metal audience has become older (college-aged), younger (pre-teen), and more female.", "\"By the mid-1980s, glam metal was a dominant presence on the U.S. charts, music television and the arena concert circuit.", "New bands such as L.A.'s Warrant and acts from the East Coast like Poison and Cinderella became major draws, while Mötley Crüe and Ratt remained very popular.", "Bridging the stylistic gap between hard rock and glam metal, New Jersey's Bon Jovi became enormously successful with its third album, ''Slippery When Wet'' (1986).", "The similarly styled Swedish band Europe became international stars with ''The Final Countdown'' (1986), whose title track hit No.", "1 in 25 countries.", "In 1987, MTV launched ''Headbangers Ball'', a show devoted exclusively to heavy metal videos.", "However, the metal audience had begun to factionalize, with those in many underground metal scenes favoring more extreme sounds and disparaging the popular style as \"light metal\" or \"hair metal\".One band that reached diverse audiences was Guns N' Roses.", "In contrast to their glam metal contemporaries in L.A., they were seen as much more raw and dangerous.", "With the release of their chart-topping album ''Appetite for Destruction'' in 1987, they \"recharged and almost single-handedly sustained the Sunset Strip sleaze system for several years\".", "The following year, Jane's Addiction emerged from the same L.A. hard-rock club scene with their major-label debut, ''Nothing's Shocking''.", "Reviewing the album, Steve Pond of ''Rolling Stone'' declared, \"As much as any band in existence, Jane's Addiction is the true heir to Led Zeppelin.\"", "The group was one of the first to be identified with the \"alternative metal\" trend that would come to the fore in the next decade.", "Meanwhile, new bands like New York City's Winger and New Jersey's Skid Row sustained the popularity of the glam metal style.===Other heavy metal genres: 1980s, 1990s and 2000s===Eric Moore from crossover thrash band Suicidal TendenciesMany subgenres of heavy metal developed outside of the commercial mainstream during the 1980s, such as crossover thrash.", "Several attempts have been made to map the complex world of underground metal, most notably by the editors of AllMusic, as well as critic Garry Sharpe-Young.", "Sharpe-Young's multivolume metal encyclopedia separates the underground into five major categories: thrash metal, death metal, black metal, power metal and the related subgenres of doom and gothic metal.In 1990, a review in ''Rolling Stone'' suggested retiring the term \"heavy metal\" as the genre was \"ridiculously vague\".", "The article stated that the term only fueled \"misperceptions of rock & roll bigots who still assume that five bands as different as Ratt, Extreme, Anthrax, Danzig and Mother Love Bone\" sound the same.====Thrash metal====Thrash metal band Slayer performing in 2007 in front of a wall of speaker stacksThrash metal emerged in the early 1980s under the influence of hardcore punk and the New Wave of British Heavy Metal, particularly songs in the revved-up style known as speed metal.", "The movement began in the United States, with Bay Area thrash metal being the leading scene.", "The sound developed by thrash groups was faster and more aggressive than that of the original metal bands and their glam metal successors.", "Low-register guitar riffs are typically overlaid with shredding leads.", "Lyrics often express nihilistic views or deal with social issues using visceral, gory language.", "Thrash has been described as a form of \"urban blight music\" and \"a palefaced cousin of rap\".The subgenre was popularized by the \"Big Four of Thrash\": Metallica, Anthrax, Megadeth and Slayer.", "Three German bands, Kreator, Sodom and Destruction, played a central role in bringing the style to Europe.", "Others, including the San Francisco Bay Area's Testament and Exodus, New Jersey's Overkill, and Brazil's Sepultura and Sarcófago, also had a significant impact.", "Although thrash metal began as an underground movement, and remained largely that for almost a decade, the leading bands of the scene began to reach a wider audience.", "Metallica brought the sound into the top 40 of the ''Billboard'' album chart in 1986 with ''Master of Puppets'', the genre's first Platinum record.", "Two years later, the band's album ''...And Justice for All'' hit No.", "6, while Megadeth and Anthrax also had top 40 records on the American charts.Though less commercially successful than the rest of the Big Four, Slayer released one of the genre's definitive records: ''Reign in Blood'' (1986) was credited for incorporating heavier guitar timbres and including explicit depictions of death, suffering, violence and occult into thrash metal's lyricism.", "Slayer attracted a following among far-right skinheads, and accusations of promoting violence and Nazi themes have dogged the band.", "Even though Slayer did not receive substantial media exposure, their music played a key role in the development of extreme metal.In the early 1990s, bands that got their start in thrash metal achieved breakout success, challenging and redefining the metal mainstream.", "Metallica's self-titled 1991 album topped the ''Billboard'' chart, as the band established an international following.", "Megadeth's ''Countdown to Extinction'' (1992) debuted at No.", "2, Anthrax and Slayer cracked the top 10, and albums by regional bands such as Testament and Sepultura entered the top 100.====Death metal====Death's Chuck Schuldiner, \"widely recognized as the father of death metal\"Thrash metal soon began to evolve and split into more extreme metal genres.", "\"Slayer's music was directly responsible for the rise of death metal,\" according to MTV News.", "The NWOBHM band Venom was also an important progenitor.", "The death metal movement in both North America and Europe adopted and emphasized the elements of blasphemy and diabolism employed by such acts.", "Florida's Death, San Francisco Bay Area's Possessed and Ohio's Necrophagia are recognized as seminal bands in the style.", "All three have been credited with inspiring the subgenre's name.", "Possessed in particular did so via their 1984 demo, ''Death Metal'', and their song \"Death Metal\", which came from their 1985 debut album, ''Seven Churches''.", "In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Swedish death metal became notable and melodic forms of death metal were created.Death metal utilizes the speed and aggression of both thrash and hardcore, fused with lyrics preoccupied with Z-grade slasher movie violence and Satanism.", "Death metal vocals are typically bleak, involving guttural \"death growls\", high-pitched screaming, the \"death rasp\" and other uncommon techniques.", "Complementing the deep, aggressive vocal style are down-tuned, heavily distorted guitars and extremely fast percussion, often with rapid double bass drumming and \"wall of sound\"–style blast beats.", "Frequent tempo and time signature changes and syncopation are also typical.Death metal, like thrash metal, generally rejects the theatrics of earlier metal styles, opting instead for an everyday look of ripped jeans and plain leather jackets.", "One major exception to this rule was Deicide's Glen Benton, who branded an inverted cross on his forehead and wore armor on stage.", "Morbid Angel adopted neo-fascist imagery.", "These two bands, along with Death and Obituary, were leaders of the major death metal scene that emerged in Florida in the mid-1980s.", "In the U.K., the related style of grindcore, led by bands such as Napalm Death and Extreme Noise Terror, emerged from the anarcho-punk movement.====Black metal====The first wave of black metal emerged in Europe in the early and mid-1980s, led by the United Kingdom's Venom, Denmark's Mercyful Fate, Switzerland's Hellhammer and Celtic Frost, and Sweden's Bathory.", "By the late 1980s, Norwegian bands such as Mayhem and Burzum were heading a second wave.", "Black metal varies considerably in style and production quality, although most bands emphasize shrieked and growled vocals, highly distorted guitars frequently played with rapid tremolo picking, a dark atmosphere and intentionally lo-fi production, often with ambient noise and background hiss.Satanic themes are common in black metal, though many bands take inspiration from ancient paganism, promoting a return to supposed pre-Christian values.", "Numerous black metal bands also \"experiment with sounds from all possible forms of metal, folk, classical music, electronica and avant-garde\".", "Darkthrone drummer Fenriz explained: \"It had something to do with production, lyrics, the way they dressed and a commitment to making ugly, raw, grim stuff.", "There wasn't a generic sound.", "\"Although bands such as Sarcófago had been donning corpsepaint, by 1990, Mayhem was regularly wearing it; many other black metal acts also adopted the look.", "Bathory inspired the Viking metal and folk metal movements, and Immortal brought blast beats to the fore.", "Some bands in the Scandinavian black metal scene became associated with considerable violence in the early 1990s, with Mayhem and Burzum linked to church burnings.", "Growing commercial hype around death metal generated a backlash; beginning in Norway, much of the Scandinavian metal underground shifted to support a black metal scene that resisted being co-opted by the commercial metal industry.By 1992, black metal scenes had begun to emerge in areas outside Scandinavia, including Germany, France and Poland.", "The 1993 murder of Mayhem's Euronymous by Burzum's Varg Vikernes provoked intensive media coverage.", "Around 1996, when many in the scene felt the genre was stagnating, several key bands, including Burzum and Finland's Beherit, moved toward an ambient style, while symphonic black metal was explored by Sweden's Tiamat and Switzerland's Samael.", "In the late 1990s and early 2000s, Norway's Dimmu Borgir and England's Cradle of Filth brought black metal closer to the mainstream.====Power metal====Italian band Rhapsody of Fire performing in Buenos Aires in 2010During the late 1980s, the power metal scene came together largely in reaction to the harshness of death and black metal.", "Though a relatively underground style in North America, it enjoys wide popularity in Europe, Japan and South America.", "Power metal focuses on upbeat, epic melodies and themes that \"appeal to the listener's sense of valor and loveliness\".", "The prototype for the sound was established in the mid- to late 1980s by Germany's Helloween, who, in their 1987 and 1988 Keeper of the Seven Keys albums, combined the power riffs, melodic approach and a high-pitched, \"clean\" singing style of bands like Judas Priest and Iron Maiden with thrash's speed and energy, \"crystallizing the sonic ingredients of what is now known as power metal\".Traditional power metal bands like Sweden's HammerFall, England's DragonForce and the U.S.'s Iced Earth have a sound clearly indebted to the classic NWOBHM style.", "Many power metal bands such as the U.S.'s Kamelot, Finland's Nightwish, Stratovarius and Sonata Arctica, Italy's Rhapsody of Fire and Russia's Catharsis feature a keyboard-based \"symphonic\" sound, sometimes employing orchestras and opera singers.", "Power metal has built a strong fanbase in Japan and South America, where bands like Brazil's Angra and Argentina's Rata Blanca are popular.Closely related to power metal is progressive metal, which adopts the complex compositional approach of bands like Rush and King Crimson.", "This style emerged in the United States in the early and mid-1980s, with innovators such as Queensrÿche, Fates Warning and Dream Theater.", "The mix of the progressive and power metal sounds is typified by New Jersey's Symphony X, whose guitarist Michael Romeo is among the most recognized of latter-day shredders.====Doom metal====Emerging in the mid-1980s with such bands as California's Saint Vitus, Maryland's The Obsessed, Chicago's Trouble and Sweden's Candlemass, the doom metal movement rejected other metal styles' emphasis on speed, slowing its music to a crawl.", "Doom metal traces its roots to the lyrical themes and musical approach of early Black Sabbath.", "The Melvins have also been a significant influence on doom metal and a number of its subgenres.", "Doom metal emphasizes melody, melancholy tempos and a sepulchral mood relative to many other varieties of metal.The 1991 release of ''Forest of Equilibrium'', the debut album by U.K. band Cathedral, helped spark a new wave of doom metal.", "During the same period, the doom-death fusion style of British bands Paradise Lost, My Dying Bride and Anathema gave rise to European gothic metal.", "with its signature dual-vocalist arrangements, exemplified by Norway's Theatre of Tragedy and Tristania.", "New York's Type O Negative introduced an American take on the style.In the United States, sludge metal, which mixes doom metal and hardcore punk, emerged in the late 1980s; Eyehategod and Crowbar were leaders in a major Louisiana sludge scene.", "Early in the next decade, California's Kyuss and Sleep, inspired by the earlier doom metal bands, spearheaded the rise of stoner metal, while Seattle's Earth helped develop the drone metal subgenre.", "The late 1990s saw new bands form such as the Los Angeles–based Goatsnake, with a classic stoner/doom sound, and Sunn O))), which crosses lines between doom, drone and dark ambient metal; the ''New York Times'' has compared their sound to an \"Indian raga in the middle of an earthquake\".===1990s and early 2000s subgenres and fusions===Layne Staley of Alice in Chains, one of the most popular acts identified with alternative metal, performing in 1992The era of heavy metal's mainstream dominance in North America came to an end in the early 1990s with the emergence of Nirvana and other grunge bands, signaling the popular breakthrough of alternative rock.", "Grunge acts were influenced by the heavy metal sound, but rejected the excesses of the more popular metal bands, such as their \"flashy and virtuosic solos\" and \"appearance-driven\" MTV orientation.Glam metal fell out of favor due not only to the success of grunge, but also because of the growing popularity of the more aggressive sound typified by Metallica and the post-thrash groove metal of Pantera and White Zombie.", "In 1991, Metallica released their album ''Metallica'', also known as ''The Black Album'', which moved the band's sound out of the thrash metal genre and into standard heavy metal.", "The album was certified 16× Platinum by the RIAA.", "A few new, unambiguously metal bands had commercial success during the first half of the decade – Pantera's ''Far Beyond Driven'' topped the ''Billboard'' chart in 1994 – but, \"In the dull eyes of the mainstream, metal was dead.\"", "Some bands tried to adapt to the new musical landscape.", "Metallica revamped its image: the band members cut their hair and, in 1996, headlined the alternative music festival Lollapalooza, which was founded by Jane's Addiction singer Perry Farrell.", "While this prompted a backlash among some longtime fans, Metallica remained one of the most successful bands in the world into the new century.Italian gothic metal band Lacuna Coil performing in 2010Like Jane's Addiction, many of the most popular early 1990s groups with roots in heavy metal fall under the umbrella term \"alternative metal\".", "Bands in Seattle's grunge scene such as Soundgarden are credited for making a \"place for heavy metal in alternative rock\", and Alice in Chains were at the center of the alternative metal movement.", "The label was applied to a wide spectrum of other acts that fused metal with different styles: Faith No More combined their alternative rock sound with punk, funk, metal and hip-hop; Primus joined elements of funk, punk, thrash metal and experimental music; Tool mixed metal and progressive rock; bands such as Fear Factory, Ministry and Nine Inch Nails began incorporating metal into their industrial sound (and vice versa); and Marilyn Manson went down a similar route, while also employing shock effects of the sort popularized by Alice Cooper.", "Alternative metal artists, though they did not represent a cohesive scene, were united by their willingness to experiment with the metal genre and their rejection of glam metal aesthetics (with the stagecraft of Marilyn Manson and White Zombie – also identified with alt metal – significant, if partial, exceptions).", "Alternative metal's mix of styles and sounds represented \"the colorful results of metal opening up to face the outside world\".In the mid- and late 1990s came a new wave of U.S. metal groups inspired by the alternative metal bands and their mix of genres.", "Dubbed \"nu metal\", bands such as Slipknot, Linkin Park, Limp Bizkit, Papa Roach, P.O.D., Korn and Disturbed incorporated elements ranging from death metal to hip-hop, often including DJs and rap-style vocals.", "The mix demonstrated that \"pancultural metal could pay off\".", "Nu metal gained mainstream success through heavy MTV rotation and Ozzy Osbourne's 1996 introduction of Ozzfest, which led the media to talk of a resurgence of heavy metal.", "In 1999, ''Billboard'' noted that there were more than 500 specialty metal radio shows in the U.S., nearly three times as many as 10 years before.", "While nu metal was widely popular, traditional metal fans did not fully embrace the style.", "By early 2003, the movement's popularity was on the wane, though several nu metal acts such as Korn or Limp Bizkit retained substantial followings.===Recent styles: mid- to late 2000s, 2010s and 2020s===Metalcore, a hybrid of extreme metal and hardcore punk, emerged as a commercial force in the mid-2000s, having mostly been an underground phenomenon throughout the 1980s and 1990s; pioneering bands include Earth Crisis, Converge, Hatebreed and Shai Hulud.", "By 2004, melodic metalcore – influenced by melodic death metal as well – was popular enough that Killswitch Engage's ''The End of Heartache'' and Shadows Fall's ''The War Within'' debuted at No.", "21 and No.", "20, respectively, on the ''Billboard'' album chart.Children of Bodom, performing at the 2007 Masters of Rock festivalEvolving even further from metalcore came mathcore, a more rhythmically complicated and progressive style brought to light by bands such as The Dillinger Escape Plan, Converge and Protest the Hero.", "Mathcore's main defining quality is the use of odd time signatures, and has been described to possess rhythmic comparability to free jazz.Heavy metal remained popular in the 2000s, particularly in continental Europe.", "By the new millennium, Scandinavia had emerged as one of the areas producing innovative and successful bands, while Belgium, the Netherlands and especially Germany were the most significant markets.", "Metal music is more favorably embraced in Scandinavia and Northern Europe than other regions due to social and political openness in these regions; Finland in particular has been often called the \"Promised Land of Heavy Metal\", as there are more than 50 metal bands for every 100,000 inhabitants – more than any other nation in the world.", "Established continental metal bands that placed multiple albums in the top 20 of the German charts between 2003 and 2008 include Finland's Children of Bodom, Norway's Dimmu Borgir, Germany's Blind Guardian and Sweden's HammerFall.In the 2000s, an extreme metal fusion genre known as deathcore emerged.", "Deathcore incorporates elements of death metal, hardcore punk and metalcore.", "Deathcore features characteristics such as death metal riffs, hardcore punk breakdowns, death growling, \"pig squeal\"-sounding vocals and screaming.", "Deathcore bands include Whitechapel, Suicide Silence, Despised Icon and Carnifex.The term \"retro-metal\" has been used to describe bands such as Texas-based The Sword, California's High on Fire, Sweden's Witchcraft and Australia's Wolfmother.", "The Sword's ''Age of Winters'' (2006) drew heavily on the work of Black Sabbath and Pentagram, Witchcraft added elements of folk rock and psychedelic rock, and Wolfmother's self-titled 2005 debut album had \"Deep Purple-ish organs\" and \"Jimmy Page-worthy chordal riffing\".", "Mastodon, which plays a progressive/sludge style of metal, has inspired claims of a metal revival in the United States, dubbed by some critics the \"New Wave of American Heavy Metal\".By the early 2010s, metalcore was evolving to more frequently incorporate synthesizers and elements from genres beyond rock and metal.", "The album ''Reckless & Relentless'' by British band Asking Alexandria, which sold 31,000 copies in its first week, and The Devil Wears Prada's 2011 album ''Dead Throne'', which sold 32,400 in its first week, reached No.", "9 and No.", "10, respectively, on the ''Billboard'' 200 chart.", "In 2013, British band Bring Me the Horizon released their fourth studio album, ''Sempiternal'', to critical acclaim.", "The album debuted at No.", "3 on the U.K.", "Album Chart and at No.", "1 in Australia.", "The album sold 27,522 copies in the U.S. and charted at No.", "11 on the ''Billboard'' Chart, making it their highest-charting release in America until their follow-up album, ''That's the Spirit'', which debuted at No.", "2 in 2015.Also in the 2010s, a metal style called \"djent\" developed as a spinoff of standard progressive metal.", "Djent music uses rhythmic and technical complexity, heavily distorted, palm-muted guitar chords, syncopated riffs and polyrhythms alongside virtuoso soloing.", "Another typical characteristic is the use of extended range seven-, eight- and nine-string guitars.", "Djent bands include Periphery, Tesseract and Textures.Fusion of nu metal with electropop by singer-songwriters Poppy, Grimes and Rina Sawayama saw a popular and critical revival of the former genre in the late 2010s and 2020s, particular on their respective albums ''I Disagree,'' ''Miss Anthropocene'' and ''Sawayama''." ], [ "Global reach", "Metal has been recognized as a global music genre, being listened to and performed around the world.", "Laina Dawes explored the multidimensional components of racism in her book ''What Are You Doing Here?", "'', including the perspectives of black women musicians and fans, in the heavy metal scene in North America and the United Kingdom.", "She also grounded her doctorial thesis \"'Freedom Ain't Free': Race and Representation(s) in Extreme Heavy Metal\" on her own experiences, laying out some the nuances of a community that can be both a site of exclusionism and at the same time also a place for greater freedom of expression compared to mainstream genres.", "The band Alien Weaponry from the Māori people of New Zealand promotes heavy metal music as one way of combating racism." ], [ "Women in heavy metal", "All-female heavy metal band Kittie performing in 2008Women's involvement in heavy metal began in the 1960s since its very conception, given the role played by Esther \"Jinx\" Dawson, vocalist and leader of Coven.", "The next relevant milestone took place in the 1970s when Genesis, the forerunner of Vixen, formed in 1973.A hard rock band featuring all-female members, The Runaways, was founded in 1975; Joan Jett and Lita Ford later had successful solo careers.", "In 1978, during the rise of the New Wave of British Heavy Metal, the band Girlschool was founded and, in 1980, collaborated with Motörhead under the pseudonym Headgirl.", "Starting in 1982, Doro Pesch, dubbed \"the Metal Queen\", reached success across Europe (making other woman-fronted metal bands to spawn, such as Spain's Santa in 1983), leading the German band Warlock before starting her solo career.", "In 1983 another pioneering heavy metal singer, Mari Hamada, made her debut, achieving great success in Japan from the 1980s until well into the 21st century.", "In 1986, the German thrash band Holy Moses, fronted by pioneer growler Sabina Classen, issued their first album.In 1994, Liv Kristine joined Norwegian gothic metal band Theatre of Tragedy, providing \"angelic\" female clean vocals to contrast with male death growls.", "In 1996, Finnish band Nightwish was founded and featured Tarja Turunen's vocals.", "This was followed by more women fronting heavy metal bands, such as Halestorm, In This Moment, Within Temptation, Arch Enemy and Epica among others.", "Liv Kristine was featured on the title track of Cradle of Filth's 2004 album, ''Nymphetamine'', which was nominated for the 2004 Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance.", "In 2013, Halestorm won the Grammy in the combined category of Best Hard Rock/Metal Performance for \"Love Bites (So Do I)\".", "In 2021, In This Moment, Code Orange and Poppy were all nominated in the Best Metal Performance category.The most notable of these 1990s/2000s female-fronted groups was the American band Evanescence, headed by vocalist Amy Lee and featuring a musical style usually described as gothic alternative metal and hard rock with classical elements.", "Their first album Fallen, released in 2003, broke into the popular music scene and was a worldwide phenomenon; it earned the band two Grammy Awards and briefly catapulted Lee to a level of fame similar to that of contemporary popstars such as Christina Aguilera, Avril Lavigne, and Beyoncé.", "Although their later albums have not had a similar impact, Evanescence are still one of the most commercially successful metal groups of the 21st century, having sold over 20 million records.In Japan, the 2010s saw a boom of all-female metal bands, including Destrose, Aldious, Mary's Blood, Cyntia and Lovebites, as well as the mainstream success of Babymetal.Women such as Gaby Hoffmann and Sharon Osbourne have held important managerial roles behind the scenes.", "In 1981, Hoffmann helped Don Dokken acquire his first record deal, as well as became the manager of Accept in 1981 and wrote songs under the pseudonym of \"Deaffy\" for many of band's studio albums.", "Vocalist Mark Tornillo stated that Hoffmann still had some influence in songwriting on their later albums.", "Osbourne, the wife and manager of Ozzy Osbourne, founded the Ozzfest music festival and managed several bands, including Motörhead, Coal Chamber, the Smashing Pumpkins, Electric Light Orchestra, Lita Ford and Queen.=== Sexism ===The popular media and academia have long charged heavy metal with sexism and misogyny.", "In the 1980s, American conservative groups like the Parents Music Resource Center (PMRC) and the Parent Teacher Association (PTA) co-opted feminist views on anti-woman violence to form attacks on metal's rhetoric and imagery.", "According to Robert Christgau in 2001, metal, along with hip-hop, have made \"reflexive and violent sexism... current in the music\".In response to such claims, debates in the metal press have centered on defining and contextualizing sexism.", "Hill claims that \"understanding what counts as sexism is complex and requires critical work by fans when sexism is normalised.\"", "Citing her own research, including interviews of British female fans, she found that metal offers them an opportunity to feel liberated and genderless, albeit if assimilated into a culture that is largely neglectful of women.In 2018, ''Metal Hammer'' editor Eleanor Goodman published an article titled \"Does Metal Have a Sexism Problem?\"", "interviewing veteran industry people and artists about the plight of women in metal.", "Some talked about a history of difficulty receiving professional respect from male counterparts.", "Among those interviewed was Wendy Dio, who had worked in label, booking and legal capacities in the music industry before her marriage to and management of metal artist Ronnie James Dio.", "She said that after marrying Dio, her professional reputation became reduced to her marital role as his wife, and her competency was questioned.", "Gloria Cavalera, former manager of Sepultura and wife of the band's former frontman Max Cavalera, said that since 1996, she had received misogynistic hate mail and death threats from fans and that \"women take a lot of crap.", "This whole #MeToo thing, do they think it just started?", "That has gone on since the pictures of the cavemen pulling girls by their hair.\"" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * Arnold, Denis (1983).", "\"Consecutive Intervals\", in ''The New Oxford Companion to Music'', Volume 1: A-J.", "Oxford University Press.", ".", "* Arnett, Jeffrey Jensen (1996).", "''Metalheads: Heavy Metal Music and Adolescent Alienation''.", "Westview Press.", ".", "* Berelian, Essi (2005). 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McCann (2006).", "''Minds on Trial: Great Cases in Law and Psychology''.", "Oxford University Press.", ".", "* Fast, Susan (2001).", "''In the Houses of the Holy: Led Zeppelin and the Power of Rock Music''.", "Oxford University Press.", ".", "* Fast, Susan (2005).", "\"Led Zeppelin and the Construction of Masculinity\", in ''Music Cultures in the United States'', ed.", "Ellen Koskoff.", "Routledge.", ".", "* Guibert, Gérôme, and Fabien Hein (ed.)", "(2007).", "\"Les Scènes Metal.", "Sciences sociales et pratiques culturelles radicales\".", "''Volume!", "La revue des musiques populaires''.", "N°5-2.Bordeaux: Mélanie Seteun.", ".", "* Hainaut, Bérenger (2017).", "''Le Style black metal''.", "Château-Gontier: Aedam musicae.", ".", "* Harrison, Thomas (2011).", "''Music of the 1980s''.", "ABC-CLIO.", "* Hatch, David, and Stephen Millward (1989).", "''From Blues to Rock: An Analytical History of Pop Music''.", "Manchester University Press.", ".", "* Kahn-Harris, Keith and Fabien Hein (2007), \"Metal studies: a bibliography\", ''Volume!", "La revue des musiques populaires'', n°5-2, Bordeaux: Éditions Mélanie Seteun.", ".", "* Kennedy, Michael (1985).", "''The Oxford Dictionary of Music''.", "Oxford University Press.", ".", "* Leguay, Stéphane (2006).", "\"Metal Gothique\", in ''Carnets Noirs'', éditions E-dite, 3rd edition, .", "* Lilja, Esa (2009).", "''Theory and Analysis of Classic Heavy Metal Harmony''.", "Helsinki: IAML Finland.", ".", "* McCleary, John Bassett (2004).", "''The Hippie Dictionary: A Cultural Encyclopedia of the 1960s and 1970s''.", "Ten Speed Press.", ".", "* McMichael, Joe (2004).", "''The Who Concert File''.", "Omnibus Press.", ".", "* Moynihan, Michael, and Dirik Søderlind (1998).", "''Lords of Chaos'' (2nd ed.).", "Feral House.", ".", "* Nicholls, David (1998).", "''The Cambridge History of American Music''.", "Cambridge University Press.", "* O'Neil, Robert M. (2001).", "''The First Amendment and Civil Liability''.", "Indiana University Press.", ".", "* Pareles, Jon, and Patricia Romanowski (eds.)", "(1983).", "''The Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll''.", "Rolling Stone Press/Summit Books.", ".", "* Phillipov, Michelle (2012).", "''Death Metal and Music Criticism: Analysis at the Limits'' Lexington Books.", "* Pillsbury, Glenn T. (2006).", "''Damage Incorporated: Metallica and the Production of Musical Identity''.", "Routledge.", "* * Sadie, Stanley (1980).", "\"Consecutive Fifth, Consecutive Octaves\", in ''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'' (1st ed.).", "MacMillan.", ".", "* Schonbrun, Marc (2006).", "''The Everything Guitar Chords Book''.", "Adams Media.", ".", "* Sharpe-Young, Garry (2007).", "''Metal: The Definitive Guide''.", "Jawbone Press.", ".", "* Strong, Martin C. (2004).", "''The Great Rock Discography''.", "Canongate.", ".", "* Swinford, Dean (2013).", "''Death Metal Epic (Book I: The Inverted Katabasis)''.", "Atlatl Press.", ".", "* Thompson, Graham (2007).", "''American Culture in the 1980s''.", "Edinburgh University Press.", ".", "* Van Zoonen, Liesbet (2005).", "''Entertaining the Citizen: When Politics and Popular Culture Converge''.", "Rowman & Littlefield.", ".", "* Wagner, Jeff (2010).", "''Mean Deviation: Four Decades of Progressive Heavy Metal''.", "Bazillion Points.", ".", "* Walser, Robert (1993).", "''Running with the Devil: Power, Gender, and Madness in Heavy Metal Music''.", "Wesleyan University Press.", ".", "* Waksman, Steve (2001).", "''Instruments of Desire: The Electric Guitar and the Shaping of Musical Experience''.", "Harvard University Press.", ".", "* Weinstein, Deena (1991).", "''Heavy Metal: A Cultural Sociology''.", "Lexington.", ".", "Revised edition: (2000).", "''Heavy Metal: The Music and its Culture''.", "Da Capo.", ".", "* Wilkerson, Mark Ian (2006).", "''Amazing Journey: The Life of Pete Townshend''.", "Bad News Press.", ".", "* Wiederhorn, Jon.", "''Louder Than Hell: The Definitive Oral History of Metal''.", "It Books, 14 May 2013 * * " ], [ "External links", " * * AllMusic entry for heavy metal" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Helvetii" ], [ "Introduction", "Map of the Roman province ''Maxima Sequanorum'' (c. 300 AD), which comprised the territories of a part of the Helvetii, Sequani and several smaller tribes.", "The relative locations of the Helvetian ''pagi'' Tigurini and Verbigeni, though indicated on the map, remain unknown.The '''Helvetii''' ( , Gaulish: ''Heluētī''), anglicized as '''Helvetians''', were a Celtic tribe or tribal confederation occupying most of the Swiss plateau at the time of their contact with the Roman Republic in the 1st century BC.", "According to Julius Caesar, the Helvetians were divided into four subgroups or ''pagi.''", "Of these, Caesar names only the Verbigeni and the Tigurini, while Posidonius mentions the Tigurini and the Tougeni ().", "They feature prominently in the ''Commentaries on the Gallic War,'' with their failed migration attempt to southwestern Gaul (58 BC) serving as a catalyst for Caesar's conquest of Gaul.The Helvetians were subjugated after 52 BC, and under Augustus, Celtic oppida, such as Vindonissa or Basilea, were re-purposed as garrisons.", "In AD 68, a Helvetian uprising was crushed by Aulus Caecina Alienus.The Swiss plateau was at first incorporated into the Roman province of Gallia Belgica (22 BC), later into Germania Superior (AD 83).The Helvetians, like the rest of Gaul, were largely Romanized by the 2nd century.", "In the later 3rd century, Roman control over the region waned, and the Swiss plateau was exposed to the invading Alemanni.", "The Alemanni and Burgundians established permanent settlements in the Swiss plateau in the 5th and 6th centuries, resulting in the early medieval territories of Alemannia (Swabia) and Upper Burgundy.", "The Helvetii were largely assimilated by their new rulers, contributing to the ethnogenesis of modern Swiss people." ], [ "Name", "They are mentioned as ''Helvetii'' by Cicero (mid-1st c. BC), Caesar (mid-1st c. BC) and Tacitus (early 2nd c. AD), as ''Helvetiorum'' by Livy (late 1st c. BC), as ''Helveti'' by Pliny (1st c. AD), and as ''Elouḗtioi'' (Ἐλουήτιοι) by Ptolemy (2nd c. AD).The Gaulish ethnic name ''Helvetii'' is generally interpreted as ''(h)elu-ētioi'' ('rich in land'), from ''elu''- ('numerous', cf.", "OIr.", "''il'') attached to ''etu''- ('grassland'; cf.", "OIr.", "''iath'').", "The presence of the initial ''h''-, remnant of a previous ''p''- (PIE ''pelh1u-'' > Celt.", "''helu-'' > ''elu-''), attests of an archaic formation.The earliest attestation of the name is found in a ''graffito'' on a vessel from Mantua, dated to c. 300 BC.", "The inscription in Etruscan letters reads ''eluveitie,'' which has been interpreted as the Etruscan form of the Celtic ''elu̯eti̯os'' (\"the Helvetian\"), presumably referring to a man of Helvetian descent living in Mantua." ], [ "Tribal organisation", "Of the four Helvetian ''pagi'' or sub-tribes, Caesar names only the Verbigeni (''Bell. Gall.''", "1.27) and the Tigurini (1.12), Posidonius the Tigurini and the Tougeni ().", "There has been substantial debate in Swiss historiography (beginning with Felix Stähelin 1927) on whether the Tougeni may or may not be identified with the Teutones mentioned by Titus Livius.According to Caesar, the territory abandoned by the Helvetii had comprised 400 villages and 12 ''oppida'' (fortified settlements).", "His tally of the total population taken from captured Helvetian records written in Greek is 263,000 people, including fighting men, old men, women and children.", "However, the figures are generally dismissed as too high by modern scholars (see hereafter).Like many other tribes, the Helvetii did not have kings at the time of their clash with Rome but instead seem to have been governed by a class of noblemen (Lat.", "''equites'').", "When Orgetorix, one of their most prominent and ambitious noblemen, was making plans to establish himself as their king, he faced execution by burning if found guilty.", "Caesar does not explicitly name the tribal authorities prosecuting the case and gathering men to apprehend Orgetorix, but he refers to them by the Latin terms ''civitas'' (\"state\" or \"tribe\") and ''magistratus'' (\"officials\")." ], [ "History", "=== Earliest historical sources and settlement ===In his ''Natural History'' (c. 77 AD), Pliny provides a foundation myth for the Celtic settlement of Cisalpine Gaul in which a Helvetian named Helico plays the role of culture hero.", "Helico had worked in Rome as a craftsman and then returned to his home north of the Alps with a dried fig, a grape, and some oil and wine, the desirability of which caused his countrymen to invade northern Italy.The Greek historian Posidonius (c. 135–50 BC), whose work is preserved only in fragments by other writers, offers the earliest historical record of the Helvetii.", "Posidonius described the Helvetians of the late 2nd century BC as \"rich in gold but peaceful,\" without giving clear indication to the location of their territory.", "His reference to gold washing in rivers has been taken as evidence for an early presence of the Helvetii in the Swiss plateau, with the Emme as being one of the gold-yielding rivers mentioned by Posidonius.", "This interpretation is now generally discarded, as Posidonius' narrative makes it more likely that the country some of the Helvetians left in order to join in the raids of the Teutones, Cimbri, and Ambrones was in fact southern Germany and not Switzerland.That the Helvetians originally lived in southern Germany is confirmed by the Alexandrian geographer Claudius Ptolemaios (c. 90–168 AD), who tells us of an Ἐλουητίων ἔρημος (i.e.", "\"Helvetic deserted lands\") north of the Rhine.", "Tacitus knows that the Helvetians once settled in the swath between Rhine, Main, and the Hercynian forest.", "The abandonment of this northern territory is now usually placed in the late 2nd century BC, around the time of the first Germanic incursions into the Roman world, when the Tigurini and Toygenoi/Toutonoi are mentioned as participants in the great raids.At the later Vicus ''Turicum'', probably in the first 1st century BC or even much earlier, the Celts settled at the Lindenhof Oppidium.", "In 1890, so-called ''Potin lumps'' were found, whose largest weights at the Prehistoric pile dwelling settlement ''Alpenquai'' in Zürich, Switzerland.", "The pieces consist of a large number of fused Celtic coins, which are mixed with charcoal remnants.", "Some of the 18,000 coins originate from the ''Eastern Gaul'', others are of the ''Zürich'' type, that were assigned to the local ''Helvetii'', which date to around 100 BC.", "The find is so far unique, and the scientific research assumes that the melting down of the lump was not completed, therefore the aim was to form cultic offerings.", "The site of the find was at that time at least from the lake shore, and probably to three meters deep in the water.", "There's also an island sanctuary of the Helvetii in connection with the settlement at the preceding Oppidi Uetliberg on the former ''Grosser Hafner'' island, as well as the settlement ''Kleiner Hafner'' at the ''Sechseläuten square'' on the effluence of the Limmat on Zürichsee lake shore.=== First contact with the Romans ===«Die Helvetier zwingen die Römer unter dem Joch hindurch» (''\"The Helvetians force the Romans to pass under the yoke\"'').", "Romantic painting by Charles Gleyre (19th century) celebrating the Helvetian victory over the Romans at Agen (107 BC) under Divico's command.The Germanic tribes of the Cimbri and Ambrones probably reached southern Germany around the year 111 BC, where they were joined by the Tigurini, and, probably the Teutoni-Toutonoi-Toygenoi.", "(The precise identity of the latter group is unclear).The tribes began a joint invasion of Gaul, including the Roman Provincia Narbonensis, which led to the Tigurini's victory over a Roman army under L. Cassius Longinus near Agendicum in 107 BC, in which the consul was killed.", "According to Caesar, the captured Roman soldiers were ordered to pass under a yoke set up by the triumphant Gauls, a dishonour that called for both public as well as private vengeance.", "Caesar is the only narrative source for this episode, as the corresponding books of Livy's histories are preserved only in the ''Periochae'', short summarising lists of contents, in which hostages given by the Romans, but no yoke, are mentioned.In 105 BC, the allies defeated another Roman army near Arausio and went on to harry Spain, Gaul, Noricum, and northern Italy.", "They split up in two groups in 103 BC, with the Teutones and Ambrones marching on a western route through the ''Provincia'' and the Cimbri and Tigurini crossing the eastern Alps (probably by the Brenner Pass).", "While the Teutones and Ambrones were slaughtered in 102 BC by Gaius Marius near Aquae Sextiae, the Cimbri and the Tigurini wintered in the Padan plain.", "The following year, Marius virtually destroyed the Cimbri in the battle of Vercellae.", "The Tigurini, who had planned on following the Cimbri, turned back over the Alps with their booty and joined those of the Helvetians who had not participated in the raids.=== Caesar and the Helvetian campaign of 58 BC ===Julius Caesar and Divico parley after the battle at the Saône.", "Historic painting of the 19th century by Karl Jauslin.==== Prelude ====The Helvetii were the first Gallic tribe of the campaign to be confronted by Caesar.", "He narrates the events of the conflict in the opening sections of ''Commentarii de Bello Gallico''.", "Due to the political nature of the ''Commentarii'', Caesar's purpose in publicizing his own achievements may have distorted the significance of events and the motives of those who participated.The nobleman Orgetorix is presented as the instigator of a new Helvetian migration, in which the entire tribe was to leave their territory and, according to Caesar, to establish a supremacy over all of Gaul.", "This exodus was planned over three years, in the course of which Orgetorix conspired with two noblemen from neighbouring tribes, Casticus of the Sequani and Dumnorix of the Aedui, that each should accomplish a coup d'état in his own country, after which the three new kings would collaborate.", "When word of his aspirations to make himself king reached the Helvetii, Orgetorix was summoned to stand trial, facing execution on the pyre should he be found guilty.", "For the time being, he averted a verdict by arriving at the hearing set for him with ten thousand followers and bondsmen; yet before the large force mustered by the authorities could apprehend him, he died under unexplained circumstances, the Helvetii believed by his own hand.Nevertheless, the Helvetii did not give up their planned emigration, but burned their homes in 58 BC.", "They were joined by a number of tribal groups from neighbouring regions: the Raurici, the Latobrigi, the Tulingi and a group of Boii, who had besieged Noreia.", "They abandoned their homes completely with the intention of settling among the Santones (Saintonge).", "The easiest route would take them through the Rhône valley, and thus through the Roman ''Provincia Narbonensis''.==== Battle of the Saône ====When they reached the boundaries of the Allobroges, the northernmost tribe of the ''Provincia'', they found that Caesar had already dismantled the bridge of Geneva to stop their advance.", "The Helvetians sent “the most illustrious men of their state” to negotiate, promising a peaceful passage through the ''Provincia''.", "Caesar stalled them by asking for some time for consideration, which he used to assemble reinforcements and to fortify the southern banks of the Rhône.", "When the embassy returned on the agreed-upon date, he was strong enough to bluntly reject their offer.", "The Helvetii now chose the more difficult northern route through the Sequani territory, which traversed the Jura Mountains via a very narrow pass at the site of the modern Fort l'Écluse, but bypassed the ''Provincia''.", "After ravaging the lands of the Aedui tribe, who called upon Caesar to help them, they began the crossing of the Saône, which took them several days.", "As only a quarter of their forces were left on the eastern banks, Caesar attacked and routed them.", "According to Caesar, those killed had been the Tigurini, on whom he had now taken revenge in the name of the Republic and his family.After the battle, the Romans quickly bridged the river, thereby prompting the Helvetii to once again send an embassy, this time led by Divico, another figure whom Caesar links to the ignominious defeat of 107 BC by calling him ''bello Cassio dux Helvetiorum'' (i.e.", "“leader of the Helvetii in the Cassian campaign”).", "What Divico had to offer was almost a surrender, namely to have the Helvetii settle wherever Caesar wished them to, although it was combined with the threat of an open battle if Caesar should refuse.", "Caesar demanded hostages to be given to him and reparations to the Aedui and Allobroges.", "Divico responded by saying that “they were accustomed to receive, not to give hostages; a fact the Roman people could testify to“, this once again being an allusion to the giving of hostages by the defeated Romans at Agen.==== Battle of Bibracte ====In the cavalry battle that followed, the Helvetii prevailed over Caesar's Aedui allies under Dumnorix’ command, and continued their journey, while Caesar's army was being detained by delays in his grain supplies, caused by the Aedui on the instigations of Dumnorix, who had married Orgetorix’ daughter.", "A few days later, however, near the Aeduan ''oppidum'' Bibracte, Caesar caught up with the Helvetii and faced them in a major battle, which ended in the Helvetii's retreat and the capture of most of their baggage by the Romans.Leaving the largest part of their supplies behind, the Helvetii covered around 60 km in four days, eventually reaching the lands of the Lingones (the modern Langres plateau).", "Caesar did not pursue them until three days after the battle, while still sending messengers to the Lingones warning them not to assist the Helvetii in any way.", "The Helvetii then offered their immediate surrender and agreed both to providing hostages and to giving up their weapons the next day.", "In the course of the night, 6000 of the Verbigeni fled from the camp out of fear of being massacred once they were defenceless.", "Caesar sent riders after them and ordered those who were brought back to be “counted as enemies”, which probably meant being sold into slavery.==== Return of the migrants ====In order for them to defend the Rhine frontier against the Germans, he then allowed the Helvetii, Tulingi and Latobrigi to return to their territories and to rebuild their homes, instructing the Allobroges to supply them with a sufficient supply of grain.", "Caesar does not mention the Raurici, who seem to have built a new ''oppidum'' at Basel-Münsterhügel upon their return.", "The Aedui were granted their wish that the Boii who had accompanied the Helvetii would settle on their own territory as allies in the ''oppidum'' Gorgobina.", "The nature of Caesar's arrangement with the Helvetii and the other tribes is not further specified by the consul himself, but in his speech '' Pro Balbo'' of 56 BC, Cicero mentions the Helvetii as one among several tribes of ''foederati'', i.e.", "allied nations who were neither citizens of the Republic nor her subjects, but obliged by treaty to support the Romans with a certain number of fighting men.==== Caesar's report of the numbers ====According to the victor, tablets with lists in Greek characters were found at the Helvetian camp, listing in detail all men able to bear arms with their names and giving a total number for the women, children and elderly who accompanied them.", "The numbers added up to a total of 263,000 Helvetii, 36,000 Tulingi, 14,000 Latobrigi, 23,000 Rauraci, and 32,000 Boii, all in all 368,000 heads, 92,000 of whom were warriors.", "A census of those who had returned to their homes listed 110,000 survivors, which meant that only about 30 percent of the emigrants had survived the war.Caesar's report has been partly confirmed by excavations near Geneva and Bibracte.", "However, much of his account has not yet been corroborated by archaeology, whilst his narrative must in wide parts be considered as biased and, in some points, unlikely.", "For a start, only one out of the fifteen Celtic ''oppida'' in the Helvetii territory so far has yielded evidence for destruction by fire.", "Many other sites, for example the sanctuary at Mormont, do not exhibit any signs of damage for the period in question, and Celtic life continued seemingly undisturbed for the rest of the 1st century BC up to the beginning of the Roman era, with an accent rather on an increase in prosperity than on a “Helvetic twilight”.", "With the honourable status as ''foederati'' taken into account, it is hard to believe that the Helvetii ever sustained casualties quite as heavy as those given by the Roman military leader.In general, numbers written down by ancient military authors have to be taken as gross exaggerations.", "What Caesar claims to have been 368,000 people is estimated by other sources to be rather around 300,000 (Plutarch), or 200,000 (Appian); in the light of a critical analysis, even these numbers seem far too high.", "Furger-Gunti considers an army of more than 60,000 fighting men extremely unlikely in the view of the tactics described, and assumes the actual numbers to have been around 40,000 warriors out of a total of 160,000 emigrants.", "Delbrück suggests an even lower number of 100,000 people, out of which only 16,000 were fighters, which would make the Celtic force about half the size of the Roman body of c. 30,000 men.", "The real numbers will never be determined exactly.", "Caesar's specifications can at least be doubted by looking at the size of the baggage train that an exodus of 368,000 people would have required: Even for the reduced numbers that Furger-Gunti uses for his calculations, the baggage train would have stretched for at least 40 km, perhaps even as far as 100 km.In spite of the now much more balanced numerical weight we have to assume for the two opposing armies, the battle seems far less glorious a victory than Caesar presented it to be.", "The main body of the Helvetii withdrew from the battle at nightfall, abandoning, as it seemed, most of their wagons, which they had drawn up into a wagon fort; they retreated northwards in a forced night march and reached the territory of the Lingones four days after the battle.", "What Caesar implies to have been a desperate flight without stopping could actually have been an ordered retreat of moderate speed, covering less than 40 km a day.", "Caesar himself does not appear as a triumphant victor in turn, being unable to pursue the Helvetii for three days, “both on account of the wounds of the soldiers and the burial of the slain“.", "However, it is clear that Caesar's warning to the Lingones not to supply his enemies was quite enough to make the Helvetii leaders once again offer peace.", "On what terms this peace was made is debatable, but as said before, the conclusion of a ''foedus'' casts some doubt on the totality of the defeat.==== Questions of motive ====As Caesar's account is heavily influenced by his political agenda, it is difficult to determine the actual motive of the Helvetii movement of 58 BC.", "One might see the movement in the light of a Celtic retreat from areas which were later to become Germanic; it can be debated whether they ever had plans to settle in the Saintonge, as Caesar claims (Bell.", "Gall.", "1,10.).", "It was certainly in the latter's personal interest to emphasise any kind of parallel between the traumatic experience of the Cimbrian and Teutonic incursions and the alleged threat that the Helvetii were to the Roman world.", "The Tigurini's part in the destruction of L. Cassius Longinus and his army was a welcome pretext to engage in an offensive war in Gaul whose proceeds permitted Caesar not only to fulfil his obligations to the numerous creditors he owed money to, but also to further strengthen his position within the late Republic.", "In this sense, even the character of Divico, who makes his appearance in the ''Commentarii'' half a century after his victory over L. Cassius Longinus, seems more like another hackneyed argument stressing Caesar's justification to attack, than like an actual historical figure.", "That the victor of Agen was still alive in 58 BC or, if yes, that he was physically still capable of undertaking such a journey at all, seems more than doubtful.", "Nevertheless, Divico became somewhat of a hero within the Swiss national feeling of the 19th century and in the course of the \"Geistige Landesverteidigung\" of the 20th century.=== The Helvetii as Roman subjects ===Roman provinces in AD 14The Helvetii and Rauraci most likely lost their status as ''foederati'' only six years after the battle of Bibracte, when they supported Vercingetorix in 52 BC with 8,000 and 2,000 men, respectively.", "Sometime between 50 and 45 BC, the Romans founded the ''Colonia Iulia Equestris'' at the site of the Helvetian settlement ''Noviodunum'' (modern Nyon), and around 44 BC the ''Colonia Raurica'' on Rauracan territory.", "These colonies were probably established as a means of controlling the two most important military access routes between the Helvetian territory and the rest of Gaul, blocking the passage through the Rhône valley and Sundgau.In the course of Augustus' reign, Roman dominance became more concrete.", "Some of the traditional Celtic oppida were now used as legionary garrisons, such as Vindonissa or Basilea (modern Basel); others were relocated, such as the hill-fort on the Bois de Châtel, whose inhabitants founded the new “capital” of the civitas at nearby Aventicum.", "First incorporated into the Roman province of Gallia Belgica, later into the Germania Superior and finally into the Diocletian province of Maxima Sequanorum, the former territories of the Helvetii and their inhabitants were as thoroughly romanised as the rest of Gaul.=== The rising of 68/69 AD ===What seems to have been the last action of the Helvetii as a tribal entity happened shortly after the death of emperor Nero in 68 AD.", "Like the other Gallic tribes, the Helvetii were organised as a ''civitas''; they even retained their traditional grouping into four ''pagi'' and enjoyed a certain inner autonomy, including the defence of certain strongholds by their own troops.", "In the civil war which followed Nero's death, the ''civitas Helvetiorum'' supported Galba; unaware of his death, they refused to accept the authority of his rival, Vitellius.", "The Legio XXI Rapax, stationed in Vindonissa and favouring Vitellius, stole the pay of a Helvetian garrison, which prompted the Helvetians to intercept Vitellian messengers and detain a Roman detachment.", "Aulus Caecina Alienus, a former supporter of Galba who was now at the head of a Vitellian invasion of Italy, launched a massive punitive campaign, crushing the Helvetii under their commander Claudius Severus and routing the remnants of their forces at Mount Vocetius, killing and enslaving thousands.", "The capital Aventicum surrendered, and Julius Alpinus, head of what was now seen as a Helvetian uprising, was executed.", "In spite of the extensive damage and devastations the ''civitas'' had already sustained, according to Tacitus the Helvetii were saved from total annihilation owing to the pleas of one Claudius Cossus, a Helvetian envoy to Vitellius, and, as Tacitus puts it, “of well-known eloquence”." ], [ "Legacy", "Roman occupation in the aftermath of the Gallic Wars had pacified the Celtic-Germanic contact zone along the Rhine.", "The Suebi and Marcomanni who under Ariovistus had planned to invade Gaul were pushed back beyond the Black Forest, where they amalgamated into the future Alemanni.The Romans allowed Germanic tribes such as the Ubii, Triboci, Nemetes and Vangiones to settle in the deserted areas left of the Rhine.", "On the right bank of the Upper Rhine, which according to the testimony of Tacitus (''Germania'' 28) had formerly also been occupied by the Helvetians, both the historical and archaeological records are sparse.", "Ptolemy (2.4.11) in the 2nd century uses the term ''Eremus Helvetiorum'' (also rendered ''Heremus Helvetiorum'') \"desolation of the Helvetians\" to refer to this area (largely corresponding to modern Baden).", "The term was adopted by Aegidius Tschudi in the 16th century, and remains in use in modern historiography (German: ''Helvetier-Einöde'').It has been proposed that the area inhabited by the Helvetians had extended beyond the Swiss plateau, far into what is now Baden-Württemberg, but had been displaced in the course of the Cimbrian War, some two generations prior to Caesar's invasion of Gaul.The Swiss plateau was gradually romanized during the 1st to 3rd centuries.The principal Roman settlements were the cities of Iulia Equestris (Nyon), Aventicum (Avenches), Augusta Raurica (Augst) and Vindonissa (Windisch).", "Evidence has also been found of almost twenty Roman villages (''vici'') and hundreds of villas.In the course of Romanization, the Celtic polytheism of the Helvetians was syncretized with Roman religion.", "The Celtic deities came to be worshiped under the names of their Roman counterparts, and Roman gods acquired the names of local gods, such as ''Mars Caturix'', ''Mercurius Cissonius'' and ''Jupiter Poeninus''.A major cultic center of Gallo-Roman religion, consisting of eight chapels or small temples, was found in Allmendingen near Thun.", "Deities worshipped at the site included Mars (presumably in lieu of Caturix) and Rosmerta as well as Mithras.Although the Gaulish language had mostly been ousted by Latin by the 3rd century, many Celtic toponyms have survived in Switzerland.", "Of the ten largest present-day Swiss cities, at least six have Celtic placename etymologies,and most major Swiss rivers have either Celtic or pre-Celtic names.The order and prosperity of the ''Pax Romana'' ended with the Crisis of the Third Century.", "In 260, when the Gallic Empire briefly seceded from Rome, emperor Gallienus withdrew the legions from the Rhine to fight the usurper Ingenuus, allowing the Alemanni to invade the Swiss plateau.", "There, cities, villages and most ''villae'' were raided or sacked by marauding bands.", "The numerous caches of coins recovered from the period between 250 and 280 attest to the severity of the crisis.The Helvetii were re-discovered as the forebears of the Swiss in the early historiography of Switzerland, in the late 15th to early 16th century.", "Their name was adopted as the Latin equivalent of the designation ''Switzer'', and the Swiss Confederacy was given the Latin name of ''Republica Helvetiorum''.", "The name of the national personification of Switzerland, ''Helvetia'', and the country's contemporary Neo-Latin name, ''Confoederatio Helvetica'' (abbreviated CH), are derived from this tradition.In 2015, the star 51 Pegasi, the first main-sequence star found to have an exoplanet, was named Helvetios after the Helvetii as part of the IAU's NameExoWorlds contest." ], [ "Celtic oppida in Switzerland", "Raetic (green) settlements in SwitzerlandThe distribution of La Tène culture burials in Switzerland indicates that the Swiss plateau between Lausanne and Winterthur was relatively densely populated.", "Settlement centres existed in the Aare valley between Thun and Bern, and between Lake Zurich and the river Reuss.", "The Valais and the regions around Bellinzona and Lugano also seem to have been well-populated; however, those lay outside the Helvetian borders.Almost all the Helvetic ''oppida'' were built in the vicinity of the larger rivers of the Swiss midlands.", "Not all of them existed at the same time.", "For most of them, we do not have any idea as to what their Gaulish names might have been, with one or two possible exceptions.", "Where a pre-Roman name is preserved, it is added in brackets.", "Those marked with an asterisk () were most likely occupied by neighbouring tribes (Raurici, Veragri, etc.)", "rather than the Helvetii.", " Altenburg-Rheinau* Basel** Bern-Engehalbinsel (possibly ''Brenodurum'')* Bois de Châtel, Avenches* Eppenberg* Jensberg* Genève (''Genava'')** Lausanne (''Lousonna'')* Martigny (''Octodurus'') Mont Chaibeuf Mont Terri** Mont Vully* Sermuz* Uetliberg, Zürich* Windisch (''Vindonissa'')" ], [ "Notes", "=== Primary sources ====== Bibliography ===*** Andres Furger-Gunti: ''Die Helvetier: Kulturgeschichte eines Keltenvolkes''.", "Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Zürich 1984.", "* Alexander Held: ''Die Helvetier''.", "Verlag Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Zürich 1984.", "* Felix Müller / Geneviève Lüscher: ''Die Kelten in der Schweiz''.", "Theiss, Stuttgart 2004..* Felix Staehelin: ''Die Schweiz in Römischer Zeit.", "3., neu bearb.", "und erw.", "Aufl.", "Schwabe, Basel 1948''* Gerold Walser: ''Bellum Helveticum: Studien zum Beginn der Caesarischen Eroberung von Gallien''.", "(Historia.", "Einzelschriften 118).", "Steiner, Stuttgart 1998.", "* SPM IV ''Eisenzeit - Age du Fer - Età del Ferro'', Basel 1999.." ], [ "External links", "* Celts in Switzerland" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Heretics of Dune" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Heretics of Dune''''' is a 1984 science fiction novel by Frank Herbert, the fifth in his ''Dune'' series of six novels.", "It was ranked as the No.", "13 hardcover fiction best seller of 1984 by ''The New York Times''.", "Fifteen hundred years have passed since the 3,500-year reign of the God Emperor Leto II Atreides ended with his assassination; humanity is firmly on the Golden Path, Leto's plan to save humanity from destruction.", "By crushing the aspirations of humans for over three thousand years, Leto caused the Scattering, an explosion of humanity into the rest of the universe upon his death.", "Now, some of those who went out into the universe are coming back, bent on conquest.", "Only the Bene Gesserit perceive the Golden Path and are therefore faced with a choice: keep to their traditional role of hidden manipulators who quietly ease tensions and guide human progress while struggling for their own survival, or embrace the Golden Path and push humanity onward into a new future where humans are free from the threat of extinction." ], [ "Plot", "Much has changed in the millennium and a half since the death of the God Emperor.", "Sandworms have reappeared on Arrakis (now called Rakis), each containing a fragment of the God Emperor's consciousness, and have renewed the flow of the all-important spice melange to the galaxy.", "With Leto's death, the complex economic system built on spice collapsed, resulting in a period of famine followed by trillions of people leaving known space in a great Scattering.", "A new civilization has risen, with three dominant powers: the Ixians, whose no-ships are capable of piloting between the stars and are invisible to outside detection; the Bene Tleilax, who have learned to manufacture spice in their axlotl tanks and have created a new breed of Face Dancers; and the Bene Gesserit, a matriarchal order of subtle political manipulators who possess superhuman abilities.", "However, people from the Scattering are returning with their own peculiar powers.", "The most powerful of these forces are the Honored Matres, a violent society of women bred and trained for combat and the sexual control of men.On Rakis, a girl who can control the giant worms called Sheeana (later revealed to be a descendant of Siona from the previous novel) has been discovered.", "The Bene Gesserit intends to use a Tleilaxu-provided Duncan Idaho ghola to gain control of this sandrider, and the religious forces of humanity who they know will ultimately worship her.", "The Tleilaxu have altered the ghola to bring its physical reflexes up to modern standards.", "The Bene Gesserit leader, Mother Superior Taraza, brings Miles Teg (also descended from Siona) to guard the new Idaho.", "Taraza also sends Reverend Mother Darwi Odrade to take command of the Bene Gesserit keep on Rakis.", "Odrade is a loose cannon; she does not obey normal Bene Gesserit prohibitions about love, and is also Teg's biological daughter.", "Bene Gesserit Imprinter Lucilla (yet another descendant of Siona's) is also sent by Taraza to bind Idaho's loyalty to the Sisterhood with her sexual talents.", "However, Lucilla must deal with Reverend Mother Schwangyu, head of the ghola project but also the leader of a faction within the Bene Gesserit who feel the gholas are a danger.", "Above the planet Gammu (formerly known as Giedi Prime), Taraza is captured and held hostage by the Honored Matres aboard an Ixian no-ship.", "The Honored Matres insist Taraza invite Teg to the ship, hoping to gain control of the ghola project.", "Teg manages to turn the tables on the Matres, and rescues the Mother Superior and her party.", "An attack is then made on Sheeana on Rakis, which is prevented by the intervention of the Bene Gesserit.", "Odrade starts training Sheeana as a Bene Gesserit.", "At about the same time an attempt is made on the life of Idaho, but Teg is able to defeat it.", "Teg flees with Duncan and Lucilla into the countryside.", "In an ancient Harkonnen no-globe, Teg proceeds to awaken Idaho's original memories, but does so before Lucilla can imprint Duncan and thus tie him to the Sisterhood.", "In the meantime, Taraza has sent her trusted general Burzmali to search for Teg and his party, who finally establishes contact with Teg, his former mentor.", "During the operation, however, Teg and his companions are ambushed.", "Teg is captured while Lucilla and Duncan escape.", "Teg is tortured by a T-Probe, but under pressure discovers new abilities: drastically increased physical capabilities and an uncertain type of prescience, which he uses to easily escape.", "At the same time, Idaho is ambushed and taken hostage.", "Taraza arranges a meeting with the Tleilaxu Master Waff, who is soon forced to tell her what he knows about the Honored Matres.", "When pressed on the issue of Idaho, he also admits that the Bene Tleilax have conditioned their own agenda into him.", "As the meeting draws to a close, Taraza accidentally divines that Waff is a Zensunni, giving the Bene Gesserit a lever to understand their ancient competitor.", "She and Odrade meet Waff again on Rakis.", "He tries to assassinate Taraza but Odrade convinces him that the Sisterhood shares the religious beliefs of the Bene Tleilax.", "Taraza offers full alliance with them against the onslaught of forces out of the Scattering.", "This agreement causes consternation among the Bene Gesserit, but Odrade realizes that Taraza's plan is to destroy Rakis.", "By destroying the planet, the Bene Gesserit would be dependent on the Tleilaxu for the spice, ensuring an alliance.", "Lucilla arrives at a Bene Gesserit safe house to discover it has been taken over by a young Honored Matre named Murbella, who has partially subdued Idaho.", "After being defeated in a quick bout of personal combat, Murbella assumes that Lucilla is the Great Honored Matre, and allows Lucilla and Burzmali to watch through the window of a locked room while she completes the sexual enslavement of the ghola.", "However, hidden Tleilaxu conditioning kicks in, and Duncan responds with an equal technique, one that overwhelms Murbella; the experience restores in him the entire memories from all of the hundreds of previous Idaho gholas.", "Stunned and exhausted, Murbella dimly realizes that the man is the ghola they had been warned to search for, and unlocks the door to the room to gain Lucilla's assistance in killing him.", "But Lucilla says, \"We will kill no one.", "This ghola goes to Rakis.", "\"The Honored Matres attack Rakis, killing Taraza.", "Odrade becomes temporary leader of the Bene Gesserit before escaping with Sheeana into the desert on a worm.", "Teg also goes to a supposed safe house, only to discover the Honored Matres.", "He unleashes himself upon the complex, and finds that his prescient powers allow him to 'see' shielded no-ships; he captures one and locates Duncan and Lucilla.", "They are taken to Rakis with him and the now-hostage Murbella.", "When they arrive, Teg intercepts Odrade and Sheeana and their giant worm, having seen Taraza's master plan with his new vision.", "He loads them all up in his no-ship, finally leading his troops out on a last suicidal defense of Rakis, designed to attract the rage of the Honored Matres.", "The Honored Matres attack Rakis, destroying the planet and the sandworms except for the one the Bene Gesserit escape with.", "They intend to drown the worm in a mixture of water and spice, turning it into sandtrout which will turn the secret Bene Gesserit planet Chapterhouse into another Dune, but with the collective consciousness of the God Emperor diluted into just one sandworm, freeing humanity from the shadow of his prescience forever." ], [ "Publication history", "Frank Herbert wrote much of the initial draft of ''Heretics of Dune'' in Hawaii, using a Compaq word processor.", "According to his son Brian, Herbert's time spent writing the draft would be \"exceedingly arduous and much slower for him Herbert than usual, because of all the time he had to spend out of his study tending to the medical crises of my mother, Beverly Herbert.\"" ], [ "Reception", "''Heretics of Dune'' was ranked as the No.", "13 hardcover fiction best seller of 1984 by ''The New York Times''." ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Halakha" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Halakha''''' ( ; , ), also transliterated as '''''halacha''''', '''''halakhah''''', and '''''halocho''''' ( ), is the collective body of Jewish religious laws that are derived from the Written and Oral Torah.", "Halakha is based on biblical commandments (''mitzvot''), subsequent Talmudic and rabbinic laws, and the customs and traditions which were compiled in the many books such as the ''Shulchan Aruch''.", "''Halakha'' is often translated as \"Jewish law\", although a more literal translation of it might be \"the way to behave\" or \"the way of walking\".", "The word is derived from the root which means \"to behave\" (also \"to go\" or \"to walk\").", "''Halakha'' not only guides religious practices and beliefs, it also guides numerous aspects of day-to-day life.Historically, widespread observance of the laws of the Torah is first in evidence beginning in the second century BCE.", "In the Jewish diaspora, ''halakha'' served many Jewish communities as an enforceable avenue of law – both civil and religious, since no differentiation of them exists in classical Judaism.", "Since the Jewish Enlightenment (''Haskalah'') and Jewish emancipation, some have come to view the ''halakha'' as less binding in day-to-day life, because it relies on rabbinic interpretation, as opposed to the authoritative, canonical text which is recorded in the Hebrew Bible.", "Under contemporary Israeli law, certain areas of Israeli family and personal status law are under the authority of the rabbinic courts, so they are treated according to ''halakha''.", "Some minor differences in ''halakha'' are found among Ashkenazi Jews, Mizrahi Jews, Sephardi Jews, Yemenite, Ethiopian and other Jewish communities which historically lived in isolation." ], [ "Etymology and terminology", "A full set of the Babylonian TalmudThe word ''halakha'' is derived from the Hebrew root ''halakh'' – \"to walk\" or \"to go\".", "Taken literally, therefore, ''halakha'' translates as \"the way to walk\", rather than \"law\".", "The word ''halakha'' refers to the corpus of rabbinic legal texts, or to the overall system of religious law.", "The term may also be related to Akkadian , a property tax, rendered in Aramaic as , designating one or several obligations.", "It may be descended from hypothetical reconstructed Proto-Semitic root ''halak-'' meaning \"to go\", which also has descendants in Akkadian, Arabic, Aramaic, and Ugaritic.", "''Halakha'' is often contrasted with ''aggadah'' (\"the telling\"), the diverse corpus of rabbinic exegetical, narrative, philosophical, mystical, and other \"non-legal\" texts.", "At the same time, since writers of ''halakha'' may draw upon the aggadic and even mystical literature, a dynamic interchange occurs between the genres.", "''Halakha'' also does not include the parts of the Torah not related to commandments.", "''Halakha'' constitutes the practical application of the 613 ''mitzvot'' (\"commandments\") in the Torah, as developed through discussion and debate in the classical rabbinic literature, especially the Mishnah and the Talmud (the \"Oral Torah\"), and as codified in the ''Mishneh Torah'' and ''Shulchan Aruch''.", "Because ''halakha'' is developed and applied by various halakhic authorities rather than one sole \"official voice\", different individuals and communities may well have different answers to halakhic questions.", "With few exceptions, controversies are not settled through authoritative structures because during the Jewish diaspora, Jews lacked a single judicial hierarchy or appellate review process for ''halakha''.According to some scholars, the words ''halakha'' and sharia both mean literally \"the path to follow\".", "The fiqh literature parallels rabbinical law developed in the Talmud, with fatwas being analogous to rabbinic ''responsa''." ], [ "Commandments (mitzvot)", "According to the Talmud (''Tractate Makot''), 613 ''mitzvot'' are in the Torah, 248 positive (\"thou shalt\") ''mitzvot'' and 365 negative (\"thou shalt not\") ''mitzvot'', supplemented by seven ''mitzvot'' legislated by the rabbis of antiquity.", "Currently, many of the 613 commandments cannot be performed until the building of the Temple in Jerusalem and the universal resettlement of the Jewish people in the Land of Israel by the Messiah.", "According to one count, only 369 can be kept, meaning that 40% of mitzvot are not possible to perform.Rabbinic Judaism divides laws into categories:Sefer Torah at Glockengasse Synagogue (museum exhibits), Cologne The Law of Moses which are believed to have been revealed by God to the Israelites at biblical Mount Sinai.", "These laws are composed of the following: The Written Torah, laws written in the Hebrew Bible.", " The Oral Torah, laws believed to have been transmitted orally prior to their later compilation in texts such as the Mishnah, Talmud, and rabbinic codes.", "* Laws of human origin, including rabbinic decrees, interpretations, customs, etc.This division between revealed and rabbinic commandments may influence the importance of a rule, its enforcement and the nature of its ongoing interpretation.", "Halakhic authorities may disagree on which laws fall into which categories or the circumstances (if any) under which prior rabbinic rulings can be re-examined by contemporary rabbis, but all Halakhic Jews hold that both categories exist and that the first category is immutable, with exceptions only for life-saving and similar emergency circumstances.A second classical distinction is between the Written Law, laws written in the Hebrew Bible, and the Oral Law, laws which are believed to have been transmitted orally prior to their later compilation in texts such as the Mishnah, Talmud, and rabbinic codes.Commandments are divided into positive and negative commands, which are treated differently in terms of divine and human punishment.", "Positive commandments ''require'' an action to be performed and are considered to bring the performer closer to God.", "Negative commandments (traditionally 365 in number) ''forbid'' a specific action, and violations create a distance from God.A further division is made between ''chukim'' (\"decrees\" – laws without obvious explanation, such as ''shatnez'', the law prohibiting wearing clothing made of mixtures of linen and wool), ''mishpatim'' (\"judgements\" – laws with obvious social implications) and ''eduyot'' (\"testimonies\" or \"commemorations\", such as the Shabbat and holidays).", "Through the ages, various rabbinical authorities have classified some of the 613 commandments in many ways.A different approach divides the laws into a different set of categories:* Laws in relation to God (''bein adam laMakom'', \"between a person and the Place\"), and* Laws about relations with other people (''bein adam le-chavero'', \"between a person and his friend\")." ], [ "Sources and process", "Eras of Jewish law* Chazal ( \"Our Sages, may their memory be blessed\"): all Jewish sages of the Mishna, Tosefta and Talmud eras ().", " The ''Zugot'' (\"pairs\"), both the 200-year period ( – 30 CE, \"Era of the Pairs\") during the Second Temple period in which the spiritual leadership was in the hands of five successions of \"pairs\" of religious teachers, and to each of these pairs themselves.", " The ''Tannaim'' (\"repeaters\") were rabbis living primarily in Eretz Yisrael who codified the Oral Torah in the form of the Mishnah; 0–200 CE.", " The ''Amoraim'' (\"sayers\") lived in both Eretz Yisrael and Babylonia.", "Their teachings and discussions were compiled into the two versions of the Gemara; 200–500.", " The ''Savoraim'' (\"reasoners\") lived primarily in Sassanid Babylonia due to the suppression of Judaism in the Eastern Roman Empire under Theodosius II; 500–650.", "* The ''Geonim'' (\"greats\" or \"geniuses\") presided over the two major Babylonian Academies of Sura and Pumbedita; 650–1038.", "* The ''Rishonim'' (\"firsts\") are the rabbis of the late medieval period (–1563), preceding the ''Shulchan Aruch''.", "* The ''Acharonim'' (\"lasts\") are the rabbis from to the present.The development of ''halakha'' in the period before the Maccabees, which has been described as the formative period in the history of its development, is shrouded in obscurity.", "Historian Yitzhak Baer argued that there was little pure academic legal activity at this period and that many of the laws originating at this time were produced by a means of neighbourly good conduct rules in a similar way as carried out by Greeks in the age of Solon.", "For example, the first chapter of ''Bava Kamma'', contains a formulation of the law of torts worded in the first person.The boundaries of Jewish law are determined through the Halakhic process, a religious-ethical system of legal reasoning.", "Rabbis generally base their opinions on the primary sources of ''halakha'' as well as on precedent set by previous rabbinic opinions.", "The major sources and genre of ''halakha'' consulted include:* The foundational Talmudic literature (especially the Mishna and the Babylonian Talmud) with commentaries; Talmudic hermeneutics: the science which defines the rules and methods for the investigation and exact determination of the meaning of the Scriptures; also includes the rules from which the Halakhot are derived and which were established by the written law.", "These may be seen as the rules from which early Jewish law is derived.", " ''Gemara'' – the Talmudic process of elucidating the ''halakha''* The post-Talmudic codificatory literature, such as Maimonides's Mishneh Torah and the ''Shulchan Aruch'' with its commentaries (see #Codes of Jewish law below);* Regulations and other \"legislative\" enactments promulgated by rabbis and communal bodies: ''Gezeirah'' (\"declaration\"): \"preventative legislation\" of the rabbis, intended to prevent violations of the commandments ''Takkanah'' (\"repair\" or \"regulation\"): \"positive legislation\", practices instituted by the rabbis not based (directly) on the commandments* ''Minhag'': Customs, community practices, and customary law, as well as the exemplary deeds of prominent (or local) rabbis;* The ''she'eloth u-teshuvoth'' (responsa, \"questions and answers\") literature.", "* ''Dina d'malchuta dina'' (\"the law of the king is law\"): an additional aspect of ''halakha'', being the principle recognizing non-Jewish laws and non-Jewish legal jurisdiction as binding on Jewish citizens, provided that they are not contrary to a law in Judaism.", "This principle applies primarily in areas of commercial, civil and criminal law.In antiquity, the ''Sanhedrin'' functioned essentially as the Supreme Court and legislature (in the US judicial system) for Judaism, and had the power to administer binding law, including both received law and its own rabbinic decrees, on all Jews—rulings of the Sanhedrin became ''halakha''; see Oral law.", "That court ceased to function in its full mode in 40 CE.", "Today, the authoritative application of Jewish law is left to the local rabbi, and the local rabbinical courts, with only local applicability.", "In branches of Judaism that follow ''halakha'', lay individuals make numerous ad-hoc decisions but are regarded as not having authority to decide certain issues definitively.Since the days of the Sanhedrin, however, no body or authority has been generally regarded as having the authority to create universally recognized precedents.", "As a result, ''halakha'' has developed in a somewhat different fashion from Anglo-American legal systems with a Supreme Court able to provide universally accepted precedents.", "Generally, Halakhic arguments are effectively, yet unofficially, peer-reviewed.", "When a rabbinic ''posek'' (\"he who makes a statement\", \"decisor\") proposes an additional interpretation of a law, that interpretation may be considered binding for the posek's questioner or immediate community.", "Depending on the stature of the posek and the quality of the decision, an interpretation may also be gradually accepted by other rabbis and members of other Jewish communities.Under this system there is a tension between the relevance of earlier and later authorities in constraining Halakhic interpretation and innovation.", "On the one hand, there is a principle in ''halakha'' not to overrule a specific law from an earlier era, after it is accepted by the community as a law or vow, unless supported by another, relevant earlier precedent; see list below.", "On the other hand, another principle recognizes the responsibility and authority of later authorities, and especially the ''posek'' handling a then-current question.", "In addition, the ''halakha'' embodies a wide range of principles that permit judicial discretion and deviation (Ben-Menahem).Notwithstanding the potential for innovation, rabbis and Jewish communities differ greatly on how they make changes in ''halakha''.", "Notably, ''poskim'' frequently extend the application of a law to new situations, but do not consider such applications as constituting a \"change\" in ''halakha''.", "For example, many Orthodox rulings concerning electricity are derived from rulings concerning fire, as closing an electrical circuit may cause a spark.", "In contrast, Conservative ''poskim'' consider that switching on electrical equipment is physically and chemically more like turning on a water tap (which is permissible by ''halakha'') than lighting a fire (which is not permissible), and therefore permitted on Shabbat.", "The reformative Judaism in some cases explicitly interprets ''halakha'' to take into account its view of contemporary society.", "For instance, most Conservative rabbis extend the application of certain Jewish obligations and permissible activities to women (see below).Within certain Jewish communities, formal organized bodies do exist.", "Within Modern Orthodox Judaism, there is no one committee or leader, but Modern US-based Orthodox rabbis generally agree with the views set by consensus by the leaders of the Rabbinical Council of America.", "Within Conservative Judaism, the Rabbinical Assembly has an official Committee on Jewish Law and Standards.Note that ''takkanot'' (plural of ''takkanah'') in general do not affect or restrict observance of Torah ''mitzvot''.", "(Sometimes ''takkanah'' refers to either ''gezeirot'' or ''takkanot''.)", "However, the Talmud states that in exceptional cases, the Sages had the authority to \"uproot matters from the Torah\".", "In Talmudic and classical Halakhic literature, this authority refers to the authority to prohibit some things that would otherwise be Biblically sanctioned (''shev v'al ta'aseh'', \"thou shall stay seated and not do\").", "Rabbis may rule that a specific mitzvah from the Torah should not be performed, e. g., blowing the ''shofar'' on Shabbat, or taking the ''lulav and etrog'' on Shabbat.", "These examples of takkanot which may be executed out of caution lest some might otherwise carry the mentioned items between home and the synagogue, thus inadvertently violating a Sabbath ''melakha''.", "Another rare and limited form of takkanah involved overriding Torah prohibitions.", "In some cases, the Sages allowed the temporary violation of a prohibition in order to maintain the Jewish system as a whole.", "This was part of the basis for Esther's relationship with Ahasuerus (Xeres).", "For general usage of takkanaot in Jewish history see the article Takkanah.", "For examples of this being used in Conservative Judaism, see Conservative halakha.=== Historical analysis ===The antiquity of the rules can be determined only by the dates of the authorities who quote them; in general, they cannot safely be declared older than the tanna (\"repeater\") to whom they are first ascribed.", "It is certain, however, that the seven middot (\"measurements\", and referring to good behavior) of Hillel and the thirteen of Ishmael are earlier than the time of Hillel himself, who was the first to transmit them.The Talmud gives no information concerning the origin of the middot, although the Geonim (\"Sages\") regarded them as Sinaitic (Law given to Moses at Sinai).The middot seem to have been first laid down as abstract rules by the teachers of Hillel, though they were not immediately recognized by all as valid and binding.", "Different schools interpreted and modified them, restricted or expanded them, in various ways.", "Rabbi Akiva and rabbi Ishmael and their scholars especially contributed to the development or establishment of these rules.", "\"It must be borne in mind, however, that neither Hillel, Ishmael, nor a contemporary of theirs named Eliezer ben Jose sought to give a complete enumeration of the rules of interpretation current in his day, but that they omitted from their collections many rules which were then followed.", "\"Akiva devoted his attention particularly to the grammatical and exegetical rules, while Ishmael developed the logical.", "The rules laid down by one school were frequently rejected by another because the principles that guided them in their respective formulations were essentially different.", "According to Akiva, the divine language of the Torah is distinguished from the speech of men by the fact that in the former no word or sound is superfluous.Some scholars have observed a similarity between these rabbinic rules of interpretation and the hermeneutics of ancient Hellenistic culture.", "For example, Saul Lieberman argues that the names of rabbi Ishmael's ''middot'' (e. g., ''kal vahomer'', a combination of the archaic form of the word for \"straw\" and the word for \"clay\" – \"straw and clay\", referring to the obvious means of making a mud brick) are Hebrew translations of Greek terms, although the methods of those ''middot'' are not Greek in origin." ], [ "Views today", "Orthodox Judaism holds that ''halakha'' is the divine law as laid out in the Torah (five books of Moses), rabbinical laws, rabbinical decrees, and customs combined.", "The rabbis, who made many additions and interpretations of Jewish Law, did so only in accordance with regulations they believe were given for this purpose to Moses on Mount Sinai, see .", "See Orthodox Judaism, Beliefs about Jewish law and tradition.Conservative Judaism holds that ''halakha'' is normative and binding, and is developed as a partnership between people and God based on Sinaitic Torah.", "While there are a wide variety of Conservative views, a common belief is that ''halakha'' is, and has always been, an evolving process subject to interpretation by rabbis in every time period.", "See Conservative Judaism, Beliefs.Reconstructionist Judaism holds that halakha is normative and binding, while also believing that it is an evolving concept and that the traditional halakhic system is incapable of producing a code of conduct that is meaningful for, and acceptable to, the vast majority of contemporary Jews.", "Reconstructionist founder Mordecai Kaplan believed that \"Jewish life is meaningless without Jewish law.", "\", and one of the planks of the Society for the Jewish Renascence, of which Kaplan was one of the founders, stated: \"We accept the halakha, which is rooted in the Talmud, as the norm of Jewish life, availing ourselves, at the same time, of the method implicit therein to interpret and develop the body of Jewish Law in accordance with the actual conditions and spiritual needs of modern life.", "\"Reform Judaism holds that modern views of how the Torah and rabbinic law developed imply that the body of rabbinic Jewish law is no longer normative (seen as binding) on Jews today.", "Those in the \"traditionalist\" wing believe that the ''halakha'' represents a personal starting-point, holding that each Jew is obligated to interpret the Torah, Talmud and other Jewish works for themselves, and this interpretation will create separate commandments for each person.", "Those in the liberal and classical wings of Reform believe that in this day and era, most Jewish religious rituals are no longer necessary, and many hold that following most Jewish laws is actually counter-productive.", "They propose that Judaism has entered a phase of ethical monotheism, and that the laws of Judaism are only remnants of an earlier stage of religious evolution, and need not be followed.", "This is considered wrong, and even heretical, by Orthodox and Conservative Judaism.Humanistic Jews value the Torah as a historical, political, and sociological text written by their ancestors.", "They do not believe \"that every word of the Torah is true, or even morally correct, just because the Torah is old\".", "The Torah is both disagreed with and questioned.", "Humanistic Jews believe that the entire Jewish experience, and not only the Torah, should be studied as a source for Jewish behavior and ethical values.Some Jews believe that gentiles are bound by a subset of ''halakha'' called the Seven Laws of Noah, also referred to as the Noahide Laws.", "They are a set of imperatives which, according to the Talmud, were given by God to the \"children of Noah\" – that is, all of humanity.=== Flexibility ===Despite its internal rigidity, ''halakha'' has a degree of flexibility in finding solutions to modern problems that are not explicitly mentioned in the Torah.", "From the very beginnings of Rabbinic Judaism, halakhic inquiry allowed for a \"sense of continuity between past and present, a self-evident trust that their pattern of life and belief now conformed to the sacred patterns and beliefs presented by scripture and tradition\".", "According to an analysis by Jewish scholar Jeffrey Rubenstein of Michael Berger's book ''Rabbinic Authority'', the authority that rabbis hold \"derives not from the institutional or personal authority of the sages but from a ''communal'' decision to recognize that authority, much as a community recognizes a certain judicial system to resolve its disputes and interpret its laws.\"", "Given this covenantal relationship, rabbis are charged with connecting their contemporary community with the traditions and precedents of the past.When presented with contemporary issues, rabbis go through a halakhic process to find an answer.", "The classical approach has permitted new rulings regarding modern technology.", "For example, some of these rulings guide Jewish observers about the proper use of electricity on the Sabbath and holidays.", "Often, as to the applicability of the law in any given situation, the proviso is to \"consult your local rabbi or posek\".", "This notion lends rabbis a certain degree of local authority; however, for more complex questions the issue is passed on to higher rabbis who will then issue a ''teshuva'', which is a ''responsa'' that is binding.", "Indeed, rabbis will continuously issue different opinions and will constantly review each other's work so as to maintain the truest sense of ''halakha''.", "Overall, this process allows rabbis to maintain connection of traditional Jewish law to modern life.", "Of course, the degree of flexibility depends on the sect of Judaism, with Reform being the most flexible, Conservative somewhat in the middle, and Orthodox being much more stringent and rigid.", "Modern critics, however, have charged that with the rise of movements that challenge the \"divine\" authority of ''halakha'', traditional Jews have greater reluctance to change, not only the laws themselves but also other customs and habits, than traditional Rabbinical Judaism did prior to the advent of Reform in the 19th century.=== Denominational approaches ======= Orthodox Judaism ====Hasidim walk to the synagogue, Rehovot, Israel.Orthodox Jews believe that ''halakha'' is a religious system whose core represents the revealed will of God.", "Although Orthodox Judaism acknowledges that rabbis have made many decisions and decrees regarding Jewish Law where the written Torah itself is nonspecific, they did so only in accordance with regulations received by Moses on Mount Sinai (see ).", "These regulations were transmitted orally until shortly after the destruction of the Second Temple.", "They were then recorded in the Mishnah, and explained in the Talmud and commentaries throughout history up until the present day.", "Orthodox Judaism believes that subsequent interpretations have been derived with the utmost accuracy and care.", "The most widely accepted codes of Jewish law are known as Mishneh Torah and the ''Shulchan Aruch''.Orthodox Judaism has a range of opinions on the circumstances and extent to which change is permissible.", "Haredi Jews generally hold that even ''minhagim'' (customs) must be retained, and existing precedents cannot be reconsidered.", "Modern Orthodox authorities are more inclined to permit limited changes in customs and some reconsideration of precedent.Despite the Orthodox views that ''halakha'' was given at Sinai, Orthodox thought (and especially modern Orthodox thought) encourages debate, allows for disagreement, and encourages rabbis to enact decisions based on contemporary needs.", "Rabbi Moshe Feinstein says in his introduction to his collection of responsa that a rabbi who studies the texts carefully is required to provide a halakhic decision.", "That decision is considered to be a true teaching, even if it is not the true teaching in according to the heavens.", "For instance, Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik believes that the job of a halakhic decisor is to apply ''halakha'' − which exists in an ideal realm−to people's lived experiences.", "Moshe Shmuel Glasner, the chief rabbi of Cluj (''Klausenberg'' in German or ''קלויזנבורג'' in Yiddish) stated that the Oral Torah was an oral tradition by design, to allow for the creative application of halakha to each time period, and even enabling halakha to evolve.", "He writes:==== Conservative Judaism ====Conservative service at Robinson's Arch, Western WallThe view held by Conservative Judaism is that the Torah is not the word of God in a literal sense.", "However, the Torah is still held as mankind's record of its understanding of God's revelation, and thus still has divine authority.", "Therefore, ''halakha'' is still seen as binding.", "Conservative Jews use modern methods of historical study to learn how Jewish law has changed over time, and are, in some cases, willing to change Jewish law in the present.A key practical difference between Conservative and Orthodox approaches is that Conservative Judaism holds that its rabbinical body's powers are not limited to reconsidering later precedents based on earlier sources, but the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards (CJLS) is empowered to override Biblical and Taanitic prohibitions by ''takkanah'' (decree) when perceived to be inconsistent with modern requirements or views of ethics.", "The CJLS has used this power on a number of occasions, most famously in the \"driving teshuva\", which says that if someone is unable to walk to any synagogue on the Sabbath, and their commitment to observance is so loose that not attending synagogue may lead them to drop it altogether, their rabbi may give them a dispensation to drive there and back; and more recently in its decision prohibiting the taking of evidence on ''mamzer'' status on the grounds that implementing such a status is immoral.", "The CJLS has also held that the Talmudic concept of ''Kavod HaBriyot'' permits lifting rabbinic decrees (as distinct from carving narrow exceptions) on grounds of human dignity, and used this principle in a December 2006 opinion lifting all rabbinic prohibitions on homosexual conduct (the opinion held that only male-male anal sex was forbidden by the Bible and that this remained prohibited).", "Conservative Judaism also made a number of changes to the role of women in Judaism including counting women in a minyan, permitting women to chant from the Torah, and ordaining women as rabbis.The Conservative approach to halakhic interpretation can be seen in the CJLS's acceptance of Rabbi Elie Kaplan Spitz's responsum decreeing the biblical category of ''mamzer'' as \"inoperative.\"", "The CJLS adopted the responsum's view that the \"morality which we learn through the larger, unfolding narrative of our tradition\" informs the application of Mosaic law.", "The responsum cited several examples of how the rabbinic sages declined to enforce punishments explicitly mandated by Torah law.", "The examples include the trial of the accused adulteress (''sotah''), the \"law of breaking the neck of the heifer,\" and the application of the death penalty for the \"rebellious child.\"", "Kaplan Spitz argues that the punishment of the ''mamzer'' has been effectively inoperative for nearly two thousand years due to deliberate rabbinic inaction.", "Further he suggested that the rabbis have long regarded the punishment declared by the Torah as immoral, and came to the conclusion that no court should agree to hear testimony on ''mamzerut''." ], [ "Codes of Jewish law", "Page of ''Shulchan Aruch''; Even Ha'ezer section, laws of KetubotSet of Mishneh TorahShulchan Aruch HaRavThe most important codifications of Jewish law include the following; for complementary discussion, see also History of responsa in Judaism.", "* The Mishnah, composed by Judah haNasi, in 200 CE, as a basic outline of the state of the Oral Law in his time.", "This was the framework upon which the Talmud was based; the Talmud's dialectic analysis of the content of the Mishna (''gemara''; completed c. 500) became the basis for all later halakhic decisions and subsequent codes.", "* Codifications by the Geonim of the halakhic material in the Talmud.", " An early work, ''She'iltot'' (\"Questions\") by Ahai of Shabha (c. 752) discusses over 190 ''mitzvot'' – exploring and addressing various questions on these.", "The ''She'iltot'' was influential on both of the following, subsequent works.", " The first legal codex proper, ''Halakhot Pesukot'' (\"Decided Laws\"), by Yehudai ben Nahman (c. 760), rearranges the Talmud passages in a structure manageable to the layman.", "(It was written in vernacular Aramaic, and subsequently translated into Hebrew as ''Hilkhot Riu''.", ")** ''Halakhot Gedolot'' (\"Great Law Book\"), by Simeon Kayyara, published two generations later (but possibly written c. 743 CE), contains extensive additional material, mainly from Responsa and Monographs of the Geonim, and is presented in a form that is closer to the original Talmud language and structure.", "(Probably since it was distributed, also, amongst the newly established Ashkenazi communities.)", "* The Hilchot HaRif was written by the Rabbi Isaac Alfasi (1013–1103); it has summations of the legal material found in the Talmud.", "Alfasi transcribed the Talmud's halakhic conclusions verbatim, without the surrounding deliberation; he also excluded all aggadic (non-legal, and homiletic) matter.", "The ''Hilchot'' soon superseded the geonic codes, as it contained all the decisions and the laws then relevant, and additionally, served as an accessible Talmudic commentary; it has been printed with almost every subsequent edition of the Talmud.", "* The Mishneh Torah by Maimonides (1135–1204).", "This work encompasses the full range of Talmudic law; it is organized and reformulated in a logical system – in 14 books, 83 sections and 1000 chapters – with each ''halakha'' stated clearly.", "The Mishneh Torah is very influential to this day, and several later works reproduce passages verbatim.", "It also includes a section on Metaphysics and fundamental beliefs.", "(Some claim this section draws heavily on Aristotelian science and metaphysics; others suggest that it is within the tradition of Saadia Gaon.)", "It is the main source of practical ''halakha'' for many Yemenite Jews – mainly Baladi and Dor Daim – as well as for a growing community referred to as ''talmidei haRambam''.", "* The work of ''the Rosh'', Rabbi Asher ben Jehiel (1250?/1259?–1328), an abstract of the Talmud, concisely stating the final halakhic decision and quoting later authorities, notably Alfasi, Maimonides, and the Tosafists.", "This work superseded Rabbi Alfasi's and has been printed with almost every subsequent edition of the Talmud.", "* The ''Sefer Mitzvot Gadol'' (The \"SeMaG\") of Rabbi Moses ben Jacob of Coucy (first half of the 13th century, Coucy, northern France).", "\"SeMaG\" is organised around the 365 negative and the 248 positive commandments, separately discussing each of them according to the Talmud (in light of the commentaries of Rashi and the Tosafot) and the other codes existent at the time.", "''Sefer Mitzvot Katan'' (\"SeMaK\") by Isaac ben Joseph of Corbeil is an abridgement of the ''SeMaG'', including additional practical ''halakha'', as well as aggadic and ethical material.", "* \"The Mordechai\" – by Mordecai ben Hillel (d. Nuremberg 1298) – serves both as a source of analysis, as well as of decided law.", "Mordechai considered about 350 halakhic authorities, and was widely influential, particularly amongst the Ashkenazi and Italian communities.", "Although organised around the ''Hilchot'' of ''the Rif'', it is, in fact, an independent work.", "It has been printed with every edition of the Talmud since 1482.An illuminated manuscript of ''Arba'ah Turim'' from 1435* The Arba'ah Turim (lit.", "\"The Four Columns\"; the ''Tur'') by Rabbi Jacob ben Asher (1270–1343, Toledo, Spain).", "This work traces the ''halakha'' from the Torah text and the Talmud through the Rishonim, with the ''Hilchot'' of Alfasi as its starting point.", "Ben Asher followed Maimonides's precedent in arranging his work in a topical order, however, the ''Tur'' covers only those areas of Jewish law that were in force in the author's time.", "The code is divided into four main sections; almost all codes since this time have followed the ''Tur'''s arrangement of material.", " Orach Chayim (\"The Way of Life\"): worship and ritual observance in the home and synagogue, through the course of the day, the weekly sabbath and the festival cycle.", " Yoreh De'ah (\"Teach Knowledge\"): assorted ritual prohibitions, dietary laws and regulations concerning menstrual impurity.", " Even Ha'ezer (\"The Rock of the Helpmate\"): marriage, divorce and other issues in family law.", " Choshen Mishpat (\"The Breastplate of Judgement\"): The administration and adjudication of civil law.", "* The ''Beit Yosef'' and the ''Shulchan Aruch'' of Rabbi Yosef Karo (1488–1575).", "The ''Beit Yosef'' is a huge commentary on the ''Tur'' in which Rabbi Karo traces the development of each law from the Talmud through later rabbinical literature (examining 32 authorities, beginning with the Talmud and ending with the works of Rabbi Israel Isserlein).", "The ''Shulchan Aruch'' (literally \"set table\") is, in turn, a condensation of the ''Beit Yosef'' – stating each ruling simply; this work follows the chapter divisions of the ''Tur''.", "The ''Shulchan Aruch'', together with its related commentaries, is considered by many to be the most authoritative compilation of ''halakha'' since the Talmud.", "In writing the ''Shulchan Aruch'', Rabbi Karo based his rulings on three authorities – Maimonides, Asher ben Jehiel (Rosh), and Isaac Alfasi (Rif); he considered ''the Mordechai'' in inconclusive cases.", "Sephardic Jews, generally, refer to the ''Shulchan Aruch'' as the basis for their daily practice.", "* The works of Rabbi Moshe Isserles (\"Rema\"; Kraków, Poland, 1525 to 1572).", "Isserles noted that the ''Shulchan Aruch'' was based on the Sephardic tradition, and he created a series of glosses to be appended to the text of the Shulkhan Aruch for cases where Sephardi and Ashkenazi customs differed (based on the works of Yaakov Moelin, Israel Isserlein, and Israel Bruna).", "The glosses are called ''ha-Mapah'' (\"the Tablecloth\").", "His comments are now incorporated into the body of all printed editions of the ''Shulchan Aruch'', typeset in a different script; today, \"Shulchan Aruch\" refers to the combined work of Karo and Isserles.", "Isserles' ''Darkhei Moshe'' is similarly a commentary on the ''Tur'' and the ''Beit Yosef''.", "* The ''Levush Malkhut'' (\"Levush\") of Rabbi Mordecai Yoffe (c. 1530–1612).", "A ten-volume work, five discussing ''halakha'' at a level \"midway between the two extremes: the lengthy ''Beit Yosef'' of Karo on the one hand, and on the other Karo's ''Shulchan Aruch'' together with the ''Mappah'' of Isserles, which is too brief\", that particularly stresses the customs and practices of the Jews of Eastern Europe.", "The Levush was exceptional among the codes, in that it treated certain ''Halakhot'' from a Kabbalistic standpoint.", "* The ''Shulchan Aruch HaRav'' of Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi (c. 1800) was an attempt to re-codify the law as it stood at that time – incorporating commentaries on the ''Shulchan Aruch'', and subsequent responsa – and thus stating the decided ''halakha'', as well as the underlying reasoning.", "The work was written partly so that laymen would be able to study Jewish law.", "Unfortunately, most of the work was lost in a fire prior to publication.", "It is the basis of practice for Chabad-Lubavitch and other Hasidic groups and is quoted as authoritative by many subsequent works, Hasidic and non-Hasidic alike.", "* Works structured directly on the ''Shulchan Aruch'', providing analysis in light of Acharonic material and codes: The Mishnah Berurah of Rabbi Yisroel Meir ha-Kohen, (the \"Chofetz Chaim\", Poland, 1838–1933) is a commentary on the \"Orach Chayim\" section of the ''Shulchan Aruch'', discussing the application of each ''halakha'' in light of all subsequent Acharonic decisions.", "It has become the authoritative halakhic guide for much of Orthodox Ashkenazic Jewry in the postwar period.", " Aruch HaShulchan by Rabbi Yechiel Michel Epstein (1829–1888) is a scholarly analysis of ''halakha'' through the perspective of the major Rishonim.", "The work follows the structure of the ''Tur'' and the ''Shulchan Aruch''; rules dealing with vows, agriculture, and ritual purity, are discussed in a second work known as ''Aruch HaShulchan he'Atid''.", " Kaf HaChaim on Orach Chayim and parts of Yoreh De'ah, by the Sephardi sage Yaakov Chaim Sofer (Baghdad and Jerusalem, 1870–1939) is similar in scope, authority and approach to the Mishnah Berurah.", "This work also surveys the views of many kabbalistic sages (particularly Isaac Luria), when these impact the Halakha.", " Yalkut Yosef, by Rabbi Yitzhak Yosef, is a voluminous, widely cited and contemporary work of ''halakha'', based on the rulings of Rabbi Ovadia Yosef (1920–2013).", "* Layman-oriented works of ''halakha'': Thesouro dos Dinim (\"Treasury of religious rules\") by Menasseh Ben Israel (1604–1657) is a reconstituted version of the Shulkhan Arukh, written in Portuguese with the explicit purpose of helping ''conversos'' from Iberia reintergrate into halakhic Judaism.", "The ''Kitzur Shulchan Aruch'' of Rabbi Shlomo Ganzfried (Hungary 1804–1886), a \"digest\", covering applicable Halakha from all four sections of ''Shulchan Aruch'', and reflecting the very strict Hungarian customs of the 19th century.", "It became immensely popular after its publication due to its simplicity, and is still popular in Orthodox Judaism as a framework for study, if not always for practice.", "This work is not considered binding in the same way as the Mishneh Torah or ''Shulchan Aruch''.", " Chayei Adam and Chochmat Adam by Avraham Danzig (Poland, 1748–1820) are similar Ashkenazi works; the first covers ''Orach Chaim'', the second in large ''Yoreh De'ah'', as well as laws from ''Even Ha'ezer'' and ''Choshen Mishpat'' pertinent to everyday life.", " The Ben Ish Chai by Yosef Chaim (Baghdad, 1832–1909) is a collection of the laws on everyday life – parallel in scope to the ''Kitzur Shulchan Aruch'' – interspersed with mystical insights and customs, addressed to the masses and arranged by the weekly Torah portion.", "Its wide circulation and coverage has seen it become a standard reference work in Sephardi Halakha.", "Contemporary \"series\":* Peninei Halakha by Rabbi Eliezer Melamed.", "15 volumes thus far, covering a wide range of subjects, from Shabbat to organ donations, and in addition to clearly posing the practical law – reflecting the customs of various communities – also discusses the spiritual foundations of the Halakhot.", "It is widely studied in the Religious Zionist community.", "''Tzurba M’Rabanan'' by Rabbi Benzion Algazi.", "Six volumes covering 300 topics from all areas of the ''Shulchan Aruch'', \"from the Talmudic source through modern-day halachic application\", similarly studied in the Religious Zionist community (and outside Israel, through Mizrachi in numerous Modern Orthodox communities; 15 bilingual translated volumes).", "''Nitei Gavriel'' by Rabbi Gavriel Zinner.", "30 volumes on the entire spectrum of topics in ''halachah'', known for addressing situations not commonly brought in other works, and for delineating the varying approaches amongst the ''Hasidic'' branches; for both reasons they are often reprinted.", "* ''Temimei Haderech'' (\"A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice\") by Rabbi Isaac Klein with contributions from the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Rabbinical Assembly.", "This scholarly work is based on the previous traditional law codes, but written from a Conservative Jewish point of view, and not accepted among Orthodox Jews." ], [ "See also", "* Antinomianism* Baraita of Rabbi Ishmael* Jewish ethics* Jewish medical ethics* Mishpat Ivri* Se'if katan* Sharia* Theonomy" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * J. David Bleich, ''Contemporary Halakhic Problems'' (5 vols), Ktav ; Feldheim * Menachem Elon, ''Ha-Mishpat ha-Ivri'' (trans.", "''Jewish Law: History, Sources, Principles'' ); Jewish Publication Society * * Jacob Katz, ''Divine Law in Human Hands – Case Studies in Halakhic Flexibility'', Magnes Press.", "* Moshe Koppel, \"Meta-Halakhah: Logic, Intuition, and the Unfolding of Jewish Law\", * Mendell Lewittes, ''Jewish Law: An Introduction'', Jason Aronson.", "* * Daniel Pollack ed., ''Contrasts in American and Jewish Law'', Ktav.", "* Emanuel Quint, ''A Restatement of Rabbinic Civil Law'' (11 vols), Gefen Publishing.", ", * Emanuel Quint, ''Jewish Jurisprudence: Its Sources & Modern Applications '', Taylor and Francis.", "* Steven H. Resnicoff, ''Understanding Jewish Law'', LexisNexis, 2012.", "* Joel Roth, ''Halakhic Process: A Systemic Analysis'', Jewish Theological Seminary.", "* Joseph Soloveitchik, ''Halakhic Man'', Jewish Publication Society trans.", "Lawrence Kaplan.", "* " ], [ "Further reading", " * Neusner, Jacob (1974–1977).", "''A History of the Mishnaic Law of Purities''.", "Leiden: E. J. Brill.", "Part I–XXII.", "* Neusner, Jacob (1979–1980).", "''A History of the Mishnaic Law of Holy Things''.", "Leiden: E. J. Brill.", "Part I–VI.", "Reprint: Eugene, Or: Wipf and Stock Publ., 2007, * Neusner, Jacob (1979–1980).", "''A History of the Mishnaic Law of Women.''", "Leiden: E. J. Brill.", "Part I–V.", "* Neusner, Jacob (1981–1983).", "''A History of the Mishnaic Law of Appointed Times''.", "Leiden: E. J. Brill.", "Part I–V.", "* Neusner, Jacob (1983–1985).", "''A History of the Mishnaic Law of Damages.''", "Leiden: E. J.Brill.", "Part I–V.", "* Neusner, Jacob (2000).", "''The Halakhah: An Encyclopaedia of the Law of Judaism.''", "The Brill Reference Library of Judaism.", "Leiden: E. J. Brill.", " Vol.", "1: ''Between Israel and God''.", "Part A.''", "Faith, Thanksgiving, Enlandisement: Possession and Partnership.''", " Vol.", "2: ''Between Israel and God''.", "Part B.", "''Transcendent Transactions: Where Heaven and Earth Intersect.", "'' Vol.", "3: ''Within Israel’s Social Order.", "'' Vol.", "4: ''Inside the Walls of the Israelite Household''.", "Part A.", "''At the Meeting of Time and Space.", "Sanctification in the Here and Now: The Table and the Bed.", "Sanctification and the Marital Bond.", "The Desacralization of the Household: The Bed.", "''** Vol.", "5: ''Inside the Walls of the Israelite Household''.", "Part B.", "''The Desacralization of the Household: The Table.", "Foci, Sources, and Dissemination of Uncleanness.", "Purification from the Pollution of Death.", "''* Neusner, Jacob, ed.", "(2005).", "''The Law of Agriculture in the Mishnah and the Tosefta''.", "Leiden: E. J. Brill." ], [ "External links", "=== Full-text resources of major halakhic works ===* ''Mishneh Torah'': Hebrew; English''Arba'ah Turim'': Hebrew''Shulchan Aruch'': Hebrew; English (incomplete)''Shulchan Aruch HaRav'': Hebrew ''Aruch HaShulchan'': Hebrew* ''Kitzur Shulchan Aruch'': Hebrew; English* ''Ben Ish Chai'': Hebrew* ''Kaf HaChaim'': Hebrew (search on site)* ''Mishnah Berurah'': Hebrew; English* ''Chayei Adam'': Hebrew* ''Chochmat Adam'': Hebrew* ''Peninei Halakha'': Hebrew; English* ''Yalkut Yosef'': Hebrew* ''A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice'': Hebrew" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of ancient Israel and Judah" ], [ "Introduction", " Approximate map of the Northern Kingdom of Israel (blue) and the Kingdom of Judah (gold) with their neighbours (tan) during the Iron Age (9th century BCE)The '''history of ancient Israel and Judah''' begins in the Southern Levant during the Late Bronze Age and early Iron Age.", "The earliest known reference to \"Israel\" as a people or tribal confederation is in the Merneptah Stele, an inscription from ancient Egypt that dates to about 1208 BCE, but the people group may be older.", "According to modern archaeology, ancient Israelite culture developed as an outgrowth from the preexisting Canaanite civilization.", "Two related Israelite polities known as the Kingdom of Israel (Samaria) and the Kingdom of Judah had emerged in the region by Iron Age II.According to the Hebrew Bible, a \"United Monarchy\" consisting of Israel and Judah existed as early as the 11th century BCE, under the reigns of Saul, David, and Solomon; the country later split into two kingdoms: Israel, containing the cities of Shechem and Samaria in the north, and Judah (containing Jerusalem and the Jewish Temple) in the south.", "The historicity of the United Monarchy is debated—as there are no archaeological remains of it that are accepted as consensus—but historians and archaeologists agree that Israel and Judah existed as separate kingdoms by and , respectively.The Kingdom of Israel was destroyed around 720 BCE, when it was conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire.", "While the Kingdom of Judah remained intact during this time, it became a client state of first the Neo-Assyrian Empire and then the Neo-Babylonian Empire.", "However, Jewish revolts against the Babylonians led to the destruction of Judah in 586 BCE, under the rule of Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II.", "According to the biblical account, the armies of Nebuchadnezzar II besieged Jerusalem between 589–586 BCE, which led to the destruction of Solomon's Temple and the exile of the Jews to Babylon; this event was also recorded in the Babylonian Chronicles.", "The exilic period saw the development of the Israelite religion towards a monotheistic Judaism.", "The exile ended with the fall of Babylon to the Achaemenid Empire .", "Subsequently, the Achaemenid king Cyrus the Great issued a proclamation known as the Edict of Cyrus, which authorized and encouraged exiled Jews to return to Judah.", "Cyrus' proclamation began the exiles' return to Zion, inaugurating the formative period in which a more distinctive Jewish identity developed in the Persian province of Yehud.", "During this time, the destroyed Solomon's Temple was replaced by the Second Temple, marking the beginning of the Second Temple period." ], [ "Periods", "* Iron Age I: 1150–950 BCE* Iron Age II: 950–586 BCE* Neo-Babylonian: Other academic terms often used are:* ''First Temple'' or ''Israelite period'' ()The return to Zion and the construction of the Second Temple marked the beginning of the Second Temple period (70 CE)." ], [ "Late Bronze Age background (1550–1150 BCE)", "The eastern Mediterranean seaboard stretches 400 miles north to south from the Taurus Mountains to the Sinai Peninsula, and 70 to 100 miles east to west between the sea and the Arabian Desert.", "The coastal plain of the southern Levant, broad in the south and narrowing to the north, is backed in its southernmost portion by a zone of foothills, the Shfela; like the plain this narrows as it goes northwards, ending in the promontory of Mount Carmel.", "East of the plain and the Shfela is a mountainous ridge, the \"hill country of Judea\" in the south, the \"hill country of Ephraim\" north of that, then Galilee and Mount Lebanon.", "To the east again lie the steep-sided valley occupied by the Jordan River, the Dead Sea, and the wadi of the Arabah, which continues down to the eastern arm of the Red Sea.", "Beyond the plateau is the Syrian desert, separating the Levant from Mesopotamia.", "To the southwest is Egypt, to the northeast Mesopotamia.", "The location and geographical characteristics of the narrow Levant made the area a battleground among the powerful entities that surrounded it.Canaan in the Late Bronze Age was a shadow of what it had been centuries earlier: many cities were abandoned, others shrank in size, and the total settled population was probably not much more than a hundred thousand.", "Settlement was concentrated in cities along the coastal plain and along major communication routes; the central and northern hill country which would later become the biblical kingdom of Israel was only sparsely inhabited although letters from the Egyptian archives indicate that Jerusalem was already a Canaanite city-state recognizing Egyptian overlordship.", "Politically and culturally it was dominated by Egypt, each city under its own ruler, constantly at odds with its neighbours, and appealing to the Egyptians to adjudicate their differences.The Merneptah Stele.", "While alternative translations exist, the majority of biblical archaeologists translate a set of hieroglyphs as \"Israel\", representing the first instance of the name ''Israel'' in the historical record.The Canaanite city state system broke down during the Late Bronze Age collapse, and Canaanite culture was then gradually absorbed into those of the Philistines, Phoenicians and Israelites.", "The process was gradual and a strong Egyptian presence continued into the 12th century BCE, and, while some Canaanite cities were destroyed, others continued to exist in Iron Age I.The name \"Israel\" first appears in the Merneptah Stele : \"Israel is laid waste and his seed is no more.\"", "This \"Israel\" was a cultural and probably political entity, well enough established for the Egyptians to perceive it as a possible challenge, but an ethnic group rather than an organized state." ], [ "Iron Age I (1150–950 BCE)", "Archaeologist Paula McNutt says: \"It is probably… during Iron Age I that a population began to identify itself as 'Israelite',\" differentiating itself from its neighbours via prohibitions on intermarriage, an emphasis on family history and genealogy, and religion.In the Late Bronze Age there were no more than about 25 villages in the highlands, but this increased to over 300 by the end of Iron Age I, while the settled population doubled from 20,000 to 40,000.The villages were more numerous and larger in the north, and probably shared the highlands with pastoral nomads, who left no remains.", "Archaeologists and historians attempting to trace the origins of these villagers have found it impossible to identify any distinctive features that could define them as specifically Israelite collared-rim jars and four-room houses have been identified outside the highlands and thus cannot be used to distinguish Israelite sites, and while the pottery of the highland villages is far more limited than that of lowland Canaanite sites, it develops typologically out of Canaanite pottery that came before.", "Israel Finkelstein proposed that the oval or circular layout that distinguishes some of the earliest highland sites, and the notable absence of pig bones from hill sites, could be taken as markers of ethnicity, but others have cautioned that these can be a \"common-sense\" adaptation to highland life and not necessarily revelatory of origins.", "Other Aramaean sites also demonstrate a contemporary absence of pig remains at that time, unlike earlier Canaanite and later Philistine excavations.A reconstructed Israelite house, 10th–7th century BCE.", "Eretz Israel Museum, Tel Aviv.In ''The Bible Unearthed'' (2001), Finkelstein and Silberman summarized recent studies.", "They described how, up until 1967, the Israelite heartland in the highlands of western Palestine was virtually an archaeological terra incognita.", "Since then, intensive surveys have examined the traditional territories of the tribes of Judah, Benjamin, Ephraim, and Manasseh.", "These surveys have revealed the sudden emergence of a new culture contrasting with the Philistine and Canaanite societies existing in Canaan in the Iron Age.", "This new culture is characterized by a lack of pork remains (whereas pork formed 20% of the Philistine diet in places), by an abandonment of the Philistine/Canaanite custom of having highly decorated pottery, and by the practice of circumcision.", "The Israelite ethnic identity had originated, not from the Exodus and a subsequent conquest, but from a transformation of the existing Canaanite-Philistine cultures.Modern scholars therefore see Israel arising peacefully and internally from existing people in the highlands of Canaan.Extensive archaeological excavations have provided a picture of Israelite society during the early Iron Age period.", "The archaeological evidence indicates a society of village-like centres, but with more limited resources and a small population.", "During this period, Israelites lived primarily in small villages, the largest of which had populations of up to 300 or 400.Their villages were built on hilltops.", "Their houses were built in clusters around a common courtyard.", "They built three- or four-room houses out of mudbrick with a stone foundation and sometimes with a second story made of wood.", "The inhabitants lived by farming and herding.", "They built terraces to farm on hillsides, planting various crops and maintaining orchards.", "The villages were largely economically self-sufficient and economic interchange was prevalent.", "According to the Bible, prior to the rise of the Israelite monarchy the early Israelites were led by the Biblical judges, or chieftains who served as military leaders in times of crisis.", "Scholars are divided over the historicity of this account.", "However, it is likely that regional chiefdoms and polities provided security.", "The small villages were unwalled but were likely subjects of the major town in the area.", "Writing was known and available for recording, even at small sites." ], [ "Iron Age II (950–587 BCE)", "According to Israel Finkelstein, after an emergent and large polity was suddenly formed based on the Gibeon-Gibeah plateau and destroyed by Shoshenq I, the biblical Shishak, in the 10th century BCE, a return to small city-states was prevalent in the Southern Levant, but between another large polity emerged in the northern highlands with its capital eventually at Tirzah, that can be considered the precursor of the Kingdom of Israel.", "The Kingdom of Israel was consolidated as an important regional power by the first half of the 9th century BCE, before falling to the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 722 BCE, and the Kingdom of Judah began to flourish in the second half of the 9th century BCE.", "Model of Levantine four-roomed house from Unusually favourable climatic conditions in the first two centuries of Iron Age II brought about an expansion of population, settlements and trade throughout the region.", "In the central highlands this resulted in unification in a kingdom with the city of Samaria as its capital, possibly by the second half of the 10th century BCE when an inscription of the Egyptian pharaoh Shoshenq I records a series of campaigns directed at the area.", "Israel had clearly emerged in the first half of the 9th century BCE, this is attested when the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III names \"Ahab the Israelite\" among his enemies at the battle of Qarqar (853 BCE).", "At this time Israel was apparently engaged in a three-way contest with Damascus and Tyre for control of the Jezreel Valley and Galilee in the north, and with Moab, Ammon and Aram Damascus in the east for control of Gilead; the Mesha Stele (), left by a king of Moab, celebrates his success in throwing off the oppression of the \"House of Omri\" (i.e., Israel).", "It bears what is generally thought to be the earliest extra-biblical reference to the name \"Yahweh\".", "A century later Israel came into increasing conflict with the expanding Neo-Assyrian Empire, which first split its territory into several smaller units and then destroyed its capital, Samaria ().", "Both the biblical and Assyrian sources speak of a massive deportation of people from Israel and their replacement with settlers from other parts of the empire such population exchanges were an established part of Assyrian imperial policy, a means of breaking the old power structure and the former Israel never again became an independent political entity.Depiction of Jehu King of Israel giving tribute to the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III from Nimrud ()Judah emerged as an operational kingdom somewhat later than Israel, during the second half of 9th century BCE, but the subject is one of considerable controversy.", "There are indications that during the 10th and 9th centuries BCE, the southern highlands had been divided between a number of centres, none with clear primacy.", "During the reign of Hezekiah, between , a notable increase in the power of the Judean state can be observed.", "This is reflected in archaeological sites and findings, such as the Broad Wall; a defensive city wall in Jerusalem; and the Siloam tunnel, an aqueduct designed to provide Jerusalem with water during an impending siege by the Neo-Assyrian Empire led by Sennacherib; and the Siloam inscription, a lintel inscription found over the doorway of a tomb, has been ascribed to comptroller Shebna.", "LMLK seals on storage jar handles, excavated from strata in and around that formed by Sennacherib's destruction, appear to have been used throughout Sennacherib's 29-year reign, along with bullae from sealed documents, some that belonged to Hezekiah himself and others that name his servants.", "\"To Hezekiah, son of Ahaz, king of Judah\" – royal seal found at the Ophel excavations in JerusalemArchaeological records indicate that the Kingdom of Israel was fairly prosperous.", "The late Iron Age saw an increase in urban development in Israel.", "Whereas previously the Israelites had lived mainly in small and unfortified settlements, the rise of the Kingdom of Israel saw the growth of cities and the construction of palaces, large royal enclosures, and fortifications with walls and gates.", "Israel initially had to invest significant resources into defence as it was subjected to regular Aramean incursions and attacks, but after the Arameans were subjugated by the Assyrians and Israel could afford to put less resources into defending its territory, its architectural infrastructure grew dramatically.", "Extensive fortifications were built around cities such as Dan, Megiddo, and Hazor, including monumental and multi-towered city walls and multi-gate entry systems.", "Israel's economy was based on multiple industries.", "It had the largest olive oil production centres in the region, using at least two different types of olive oil presses, and also had a significant wine industry, with wine presses constructed next to vineyards.", "By contrast, the Kingdom of Judah was significantly less advanced.", "Some scholars believe it was no more than a small tribal entity limited to Jerusalem and its immediate surroundings.", "In the 10th and early 9th centuries BCE, the territory of Judah appears to have been sparsely populated, limited to small and mostly unfortified settlements.", "The status of Jerusalem in the 10th century BCE is a major subject of debate among scholars.", "Jerusalem does not show evidence of significant Israelite residential activity until the 9th century BCE.", "On the other hand, significant administrative structures such as the Stepped Stone Structure and Large Stone Structure, which originally formed part of one structure, contain material culture from earlier than that.", "The ruins of a significant Judahite military fortress, Tel Arad, have also been found in the Negev, and a collection of military orders found there suggest literacy was present throughout the ranks of the Judahite army.", "This suggests that literacy was not limited to a tiny elite, indicating the presence of a substantial educational infrastructure in Judah.Siloam inscription found in the Siloam tunnel, Jerusalem (c. 700 BCE)In the 7th century Jerusalem grew to contain a population many times greater than earlier and achieved clear dominance over its neighbours.", "This occurred at the same time that Israel was being destroyed by the Neo-Assyrian Empire, and was probably the result of a cooperative arrangement with the Assyrians to establish Judah as an Assyrian vassal state controlling the valuable olive industry.", "Judah prospered as a vassal state (despite a disastrous rebellion against Sennacherib), but in the last half of the 7th century BCE, Assyria suddenly collapsed, and the ensuing competition between Egypt and the Neo-Babylonian Empire for control of the land led to the destruction of Judah in a series of campaigns between 597 and 582." ], [ "Babylonian period", "One of the Al-Yahudu Tablets, written in Akkadian, which documented the condition of the exiled Judean community in BabylonBabylonian Judah suffered a steep decline in both economy and population and lost the Negev, the Shephelah, and part of the Judean hill country, including Hebron, to encroachments from Edom and other neighbours.", "Jerusalem, destroyed but probably not totally abandoned, was much smaller than previously, and the settlements surrounding it, as well as the towns in the former kingdom's western borders, were all devastated as a result of the Babylonian campaign.", "The town of Mizpah in Benjamin in the relatively unscathed northern section of the kingdom became the capital of the new Babylonian province of Yehud.", "This was standard Babylonian practice: when the Philistine city of Ashkalon was conquered in 604, the political, religious and economic elite (but not the bulk of the population) was banished and the administrative centre shifted to a new location.", "There is also a strong probability that for most or all of the period the temple at Bethel in Benjamin replaced that at Jerusalem, boosting the prestige of Bethel's priests (the Aaronites) against those of Jerusalem (the Zadokites), now in exile in Babylon.The Babylonian conquest entailed not just the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple, but the liquidation of the entire infrastructure which had sustained Judah for centuries.", "The most significant casualty was the state ideology of \"Zion theology,\" the idea that the god of Israel had chosen Jerusalem for his dwelling-place and that the Davidic dynasty would reign there forever.", "The fall of the city and the end of Davidic kingship forced the leaders of the exile community kings, priests, scribes and prophets to reformulate the concepts of community, faith and politics.", "The exile community in Babylon thus became the source of significant portions of the Hebrew Bible: Isaiah 40–55; Ezekiel; the final version of Jeremiah; the work of the hypothesized priestly source in the Pentateuch; and the final form of the history of Israel from Deuteronomy to 2 Kings.", "Theologically, the Babylonian exiles were responsible for the doctrines of individual responsibility and universalism (the concept that one god controls the entire world) and for the increased emphasis on purity and holiness.", "Most significantly, the trauma of the exile experience led to the development of a strong sense of Hebrew identity distinct from other peoples, with increased emphasis on symbols such as circumcision and Sabbath-observance to sustain that distinction.Hans M. Barstad writes that the concentration of the biblical literature on the experience of the exiles in Babylon disguises that the great majority of the population remained in Judah; for them, life after the fall of Jerusalem probably went on much as it had before.", "It may even have improved, as they were rewarded with the land and property of the deportees, much to the anger of the community of exiles remaining in Babylon.", "Conversely, Avraham Faust writes that archaeological and demographic surveys show that the population of Judah was significantly reduced to barely 10% of what it had been in the time before the exile.", "The assassination around 582 of the Babylonian governor by a disaffected member of the former royal House of David provoked a Babylonian crackdown, possibly reflected in the Book of Lamentations, but the situation seems to have soon stabilized again.", "Nevertheless, those unwalled cities and towns that remained were subject to slave raids by the Phoenicians and intervention in their internal affairs by Samaritans, Arabs, and Ammonites." ], [ "Religion", "Although the specific process by which the Israelites adopted monotheism is unknown, it is certain that the transition was a gradual one and was not totally accomplished during the First Temple period.", "Yet, over time, the number of gods that the Israelites worshipped decreased, and figurative images vanished from their shrines.", "Yahwism, as some scholars name this belief system, is often described as a form of henotheism or monolatry.", "Over the same time, a folk religion continued to be practised across Israel and Judah.", "These practices were influenced by the polytheistic beliefs of the surrounding ethnicities, and were denounced by the prophets.In addition to the Temple in Jerusalem, there was public worship practised all over Israel and Judah in shrines and sanctuaries, outdoors, and close to city gates.", "In the 8th and 7th centuries BCE, the kings Hezekiah and Josiah of Judah implemented a number of significant religious reforms that aimed to centre worship of the God of Israel in Jerusalem and eliminate foreign customs.===Henotheism===El, the Canaanite creator deity, Megiddo, Stratum VII, Late Bronze II, 1400–1200 BCE, bronze with gold leaf – Oriental Institute Museum, University of Chicago – DSC07734 The Canaanite god El, who may have been the precursor to the Israelite god Yahweh.Henotheism is the act of worshipping a single god, without denying the existence of other deities.", "Many scholars believe that before monotheism in ancient Israel, there came a transitional period; in this transitional period many followers of the Israelite religion worshipped the god Yahweh, but did not deny the existence of other deities accepted throughout the region.", "Henotheistic worship was not uncommon in the Ancient Near East, as many Iron Age nation states worshipped an elevated national god which was nonetheless only part of a wider pantheon; examples include Chemosh in Moab, Qos in Edom, Milkom in Ammon, and Ashur in Assyria.Canaanite religion syncretized elements from neighbouring cultures, largely from Mesopotamian religious traditions.", "Using Canaanite religion as a base was natural due to the fact that the Canaanite culture inhabited the same region prior to the emergence of Israelite culture.", "Israelite religion was no exception, as during the transitional period, Yahweh and El were syncretized in the Israelite pantheon.", "El already occupied a reasonably important place in the Israelite religion.", "Even the name \"Israel\" is based on the name El, rather than Yahweh.", "It was this initial harmonization of Israelite and Canaanite religious thought that lead to Yahweh gradually absorbing several characteristics from Canaanite deities, in turn strengthening his own position as an all-powerful \"One.\"", "Even still, monotheism in the region of ancient Israel and Judah did not take hold overnight, and during the intermediate stages most people are believed to have remained henotheistic.During this intermediate period of henotheism many families worshipped different gods.", "Religion was very much centred around the family, as opposed to the community.", "The region of Israel and Judah was sparsely populated during the time of Moses.", "As such many different areas worshipped different gods, due to social isolation.", "It was not until later on in Israelite history that people started to worship Yahweh alone and fully convert to monotheistic values.", "That switch occurred with the growth of power and influence of the Israelite kingdom and its rulers.", "Further details of this are contained in the Iron Age Yahwism section below.", "Evidence from the Bible suggests that henotheism did exist: \"They the Hebrews went and served alien gods and paid homage to them, gods of whom they had no experience and whom he Yahweh did not allot to them\" (Deut.", "29.26).", "Many believe that this quote demonstrates that the early Israelite kingdom followed traditions similar to ancient Mesopotamia, where each major urban centre had a supreme god.", "Each culture embraced their patron god but did not deny the existence of other cultures' patron gods.", "In Assyria, the patron god was Ashur, and in ancient Israel, it was Yahweh; however, both Israelite and Assyrian cultures recognized each other's deities during this period.", "Some scholars have used the Bible as evidence to argue that most of the people alive during the events recounted in the Hebrew Bible, including Moses, were most likely henotheists.", "There are many quotes from the Hebrew Bible that are used to support this view.", "One such quote from Jewish tradition is the first commandment which in its entirety reads \"I am the LORD your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage: You shall have no other gods before me.\"", "This quote does not deny the existence of other gods; it merely states that Jews should consider Yahweh or God the supreme god, incomparable to other supernatural beings.", "Some scholars attribute the concept of angels and demons found in Judaism and Christianity to the tradition of henotheism.", "Instead of completely getting rid of the concept of other supernatural beings, these religions changed former deities into angels and demons.===Iron Age Yahwism===Canaanite god Baal, 14th–12th century BCE (Louvre museum, Paris)The religion of the Israelites of Iron Age I, like the Ancient Canaanite religion from which it evolved and other religions of the ancient Near East, was based on a cult of ancestors and worship of family gods (the \"gods of the fathers\").", "With the emergence of the monarchy at the beginning of Iron Age II the kings promoted their family god, Yahweh, as the god of the kingdom, but beyond the royal court, religion continued to be both polytheistic and family-centred.", "The major deities were not numerousEl, Asherah, and Yahweh, with Baal as a fourth god, and perhaps Shamash (the sun) in the early period.", "At an early stage El and Yahweh became fused and Asherah did not continue as a separate state cult, although she continued to be popular at a community level until Persian times.Yahweh, the national god of both Israel and Judah, seems to have originated in Edom and Midian in southern Canaan and may have been brought to Israel by the Kenites and Midianites at an early stage.", "There is a general consensus among scholars that the first formative event in the emergence of the distinctive religion described in the Bible was triggered by the destruction of Israel by Assyria in .", "Refugees from the northern kingdom fled to Judah, bringing with them laws and a prophetic tradition of Yahweh.", "This religion was subsequently adopted by the landowners of Judah, who in 640 BCE placed the eight-year-old Josiah on the throne.", "Judah at this time was a vassal state of Assyria, but Assyrian power collapsed in the 630s, and around 622 Josiah and his supporters launched a bid for independence expressed as loyalty to \"Yahweh alone\".===The Babylonian exile and Second Temple Judaism===According to the Deuteronomists, as scholars call these Judean nationalists, the treaty with Yahweh would enable Israel's god to preserve both the city and the king in return for the people's worship and obedience.", "The destruction of Jerusalem, its Temple, and the Davidic dynasty by Babylon in 587/586 BCE was deeply traumatic and led to revisions of the national mythos during the Babylonian exile.", "This revision was expressed in the Deuteronomistic history, the books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings, which interpreted the Babylonian destruction as divinely-ordained punishment for the failure of Israel's kings to worship Yahweh to the exclusion of all other deities.The Second Temple period (520 BCE70 CE) differed in significant ways from what had gone before.", "Strict monotheism emerged among the priests of the Temple establishment during the seventh and sixth centuries BCE, as did beliefs regarding angels and demons.", "At this time, circumcision, dietary laws, and Sabbath-observance gained more significance as symbols of Jewish identity, and the institution of the synagogue became increasingly important, and most of the biblical literature, including the Torah, was substantially revised during this time." ], [ "Administrative and judicial structure", "\"To Hezekiah, son of Ahaz, king of Judah\" – royal seal found at the Ophel excavations in JerusalemAs was customary in the ancient Near East, a king () ruled over the kingdoms of Israel and Judah.", "The national god Yahweh, who selects those to rule his realm and his people, is depicted in the Hebrew Bible as having a hand in the establishment of the royal institution.", "In this sense, the true king is God, and the king serves as his earthly envoy and is tasked with ruling his realm.", "In some Psalms that appear to be related to the coronation of kings, they are referred to as \"sons of Yahweh\".", "The kings actually had to succeed one another according to a dynastic principle, even though the succession was occasionally decided through coups d'état.", "The coronation seemed to take place in a sacred place, and was marked by the anointing of the king who then becomes the \"anointed one (māšîaḥ ,the origin of the word Messiah) of Yahweh\"; the end of the ritual seems marked by an acclamation by the people (or at least their representatives, the Elders), followed by a banquet.The Bible's descriptions of the lists of dignitaries from the reigns of David and Solomon show that the king is supported by a group of high dignitaries.", "Those include the chief of the army (), the great scribe () who was in charge of the management of the royal chancellery, the herald (), as well as the high priest () and the master of the palace (), who has a function of stewardship of the household of the king at the beginning and seems to become a real prime minister of Judah during the later periods.", "The attributions of most of these dignitaries remain debated, as illustrated in particular by the much-discussed case of the “king's friend” mentioned under Solomon." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " Arnold, Bill T.; Hess, Richard S., \"Ancient Israel's History: An Introduction to Issues and Sources\" (Baker, 2014)* Brettler, Marc Z., \"The Creation of History in Ancient Israel\" (Routledge, 1995)* Cook, Stephen L., \"The social roots of biblical Yahwism\" (Society of Biblical Literature, 2004)* Day, John (ed.", "), \"In search of pre-exilic Israel: proceedings of the Oxford Old Testament Seminar\" (T&T Clark International, 2004)* Frevel, Christian, \"History of Ancient Israel\" (SBL Press, 2023)* Hess, Richard S., \"Israelite religions: an archaeological and biblical survey\" (Baker, 2007)* Keimer, Kyle H.; Pierce, George A.", "(eds.", "), \"The Ancient Israelite World\" (Taylor & Francis, 2022)* Kelle, Brad E.; Strawn, Brent A.", "(eds.", "), \"The Oxford Handbook of the Historical Books of the Hebrew Bible\" (Oxford University Press, 2020)* Knauf, Ernst Axel; Niemann, Hermann Michael \"Geschichte Israels und Judas im Altertum\" (Walter de Gruyter, 2021)* Lemche, Neils Peter, \"The Old Testament between theology and history: a critical survey\" (Westminster John Knox Press, 2008)* Levine, Lee I., \"Jerusalem: portrait of the city in the second Temple period (538 B.C.E.–70 C.E.)\"", "(Jewish Publication Society, 2002)* Na'aman, Nadav, \"Ancient Israel and its neighbours\" (Eisenbrauns, 2005)* Niditch, Susan (ed.", "), \"The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Ancient Israel\" (John Wiley & Sons, 2016)* Sparks, Kenton L., \"Ethnicity and identity in ancient Israel\" (Eisenbrauns, 1998)* Vanderkam, James, \"An introduction to early Judaism (2nd edition)\" (Eerdmans, 2022)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "List of monarchs of Persia" ], [ "Introduction", "This article lists the monarchs of Iran (Persia) from the establishment of the Medes around 678 BC until the deposition of the Pahlavi dynasty in 1979." ], [ "Median Dynasty (671–549 BC)", "The Median Kingdom at its greatest extentPortraitNameFamily relationsReignNotesMedian Kingdom (671 BC–549 BC) 80px'''Deioces''' 700–647 BCFirst known ruler of Media'''Phraortes'''Son of Deioces647–625 BCScythian rule (624–597 BC) 100x100px '''Cyaxares''' Son of Phraortes 624–585 BC The dynasty of the Median kings was known as the Cyaxarid dynasty, named after him or a pre-Deicoes king.", "80px'''Astyages''' Son of Cyaxares 585–549 BC Last king of the Medes" ], [ "Teispid Kingdom ({{circa}}705–559 BC)", "PortraitNameFamily relationsReignNotesTeispid dynasty (705–559 BC)'''Teispes'''~640 BC 80px '''Cyrus I''' Son of Teispes 580 BC'''Cambyses I''' Son of Cyrus I and father of Cyrus II ≈550 BC" ], [ "Achaemenid Empire (559–334/327 BC)", " The Achaemenid Empire at its greatest extentPortraitTitlesRegnal namePersonal nameBirthFamily relationsReignDeathNotesAchaemenid dynasty (559–334/327 BC) 94x94px '''The Great King, King of Kings, King of Anshan, King of Media, King of Babylon, King of Sumer and Akkad, King of the Four Corners of the World''' '''Cyrus the Great'''– 600 BC Son of Cambyses I king of Anshan and Mandana daughter of Astyages 559–530 BC 530 BC King of Anshan from 559 BC.", "130x130px '''The Great King, King of Kings, Pharaoh of Egypt''' '''Cambyses II'''– ?", "Son of Cyrus the Great 530–522 BC 522 BC Died while en route to put down a rebellion.", "Pharaonic titulary: Horus: Smatawy, Nswbty: Mesutire 80px '''The Great King, King of Kings, Pharaoh of Egypt''' '''Gaumata''' Gaumata (?)", "?", "Son of Cyrus the Great (possibly an imposter claiming to be Bardiya) 522 BC 522 BC Killed by Persian aristocrats 125x125px '''The Great King, King of Kings, Pharaoh of Egypt''' '''Darius the Great'''– 550 BC Son of Hystaspes 522–486 BC 486 BC Pharaonic titulary: Horus: ''Menkhib''Nswbty: ''Stutre'' 150x150px '''The Great King, King of Kings, Pharaoh of Egypt''' Xerxes the Great– 519 BC Son of Darius I 485–465 BC 465 BC Typically assumed to be the King Ahaseurus of the Book of Esther based on name 138x138px '''The Great King, King of Kings, Pharaoh of Egypt''' '''Artaxerxes I''' Arses ?", "Son of Xerxes I 465–424 BC 424 BC 106x106px '''The Great King, King of Kings, Pharaoh of Egypt''' '''Xerxes II''' Artaxerxes ?", "Son of Artaxerxes I 424 BC 424 BC Only recognised in Persia itself, killed by Sogdianus 100x100px '''The Great King, King of Kings, Pharaoh of Egypt''' '''?'''", "Sogdianus ?", "Son of Artaxerxes I 424–423 BC 423 BC Only recognised in Persia and Elam, killed by Darius II 171x171px '''The Great King, King of Kings, Pharaoh of Egypt''' '''Darius II''' Ochus ?", "Son of Artaxerxes I 424–404 BC 404 BC 121x121px '''The Great King, King of Kings''' '''Artaxerxes II''' Arsaces ?", "Son of Darius II 404–358 BC 358 BC The King Ahasuerus of the Book of Esther according to traditional sources 133x133px '''The Great King, King of Kings, Pharaoh of Egypt''' '''Artaxerxes III''' Ochus ?", "Son of Artaxerxes II 358–338 BC 338 BC Killed 80px '''The Great King, King of Kings, Pharaoh of Egypt''' '''Artaxerxes IV''' Arses ?", "Son of Artaxerxes III 338–336 BC 336 BC Killed '''The Great King, King of Kings, Pharaoh of Egypt''' '''Darius III''' Artashata 380 BC Son of Arsames son of Ostanes son of Darius II 336–330 BC 330 BC Killed by Artaxerxes V 80px '''The Great King, King of Kings''' '''Artaxerxes V''' Bessus ?", "Probably a descendant of Darius II 330–329 BC 329 BC Killed by Alexander III'''''Note: Ancient Persia is generally agreed to have ended with the collapse of the Achaemenid dynasty as a result of the Wars of Alexander the Great.'''''" ], [ "Macedonian Empire (336–306 BC)", "The Macedonian Empire at its greatest extentPortraitTitleNameBirthFamily relationsReignDeathNotes'''Argead dynasty (336–306 BC)''' 106x106px '''King''' '''Alexander the Great''' 356 BC Son of Philip II of Macedonia 336–323 BC13 June 323 BC King of Macedonia from 336 BC as Alexander III.", "One of the greatest conquerors in history.", "Died mysteriously.", "78x78px '''King''' '''Philip III''' 359 BC Son of Philip II of Macedonia June 323– 317 BC317 BC Killed by Olympias 78x78px '''King''' '''Alexander IV''' Sept. 323 BC Son of Alexander III Sept. 323–309 BC309 BC King of Macedonia as Alexander IV until 309 BC.", "Killed by Cassander son of Antipater 80px '''Regent''' '''Perdiccas''' ?", "June 323–321 BC321 BC Regent for Alexander IV & Philip III, Prince of Orestis 80px '''Regent''' '''Antipater''' 398 BC Son of Iollas 321–319 BC319 BC Regent for Alexander IV & Philip III '''Regent''' '''Polyperchon''' 394 BC Son of Simmias 319–316 BC303 BC Regent for Alexander IV & Philip III.", "Exercised no actual power in Persia.", "78x78px '''Regent''' '''Cassander''' c. 350 BC Son of Antipater 316–309 BC297 BC Regent for and murderer of Alexander IV.", "Exercised no actual power in Persia." ], [ "Seleucid Empire (311–129 BC)", "The Seleucid Empire at its greatest extentPortraitTitleRegnal namePersonal nameBirthFamily relationsReignDeathNotes'''Seleucid dynasty (311–129 BC)''' 80px '''King''' '''Seleucus I Nicator'''– 358 BC Son of Antiochus son of Seleucus 311–281 BC281 BC Assumed title of \"King\" from 306 BC.", "80px '''King''' '''Antiochus I Soter'''– ?", "Son of Seleucus I 281–261 BC261 BC Co-ruler from 291 80px '''King''' '''Antiochus II Theos'''– 286 BC Son of Antiochus I 261–246 BC246 BC 80px '''King''' '''Seleucus II Callinicus'''– ?", "Son of Antiochus II 246–225 BC225 BC 80px '''King''' '''Seleucus III Ceraunus''' Alexander 243 BC Son of Seleucus II 225–223 BC223 BC 80px '''Great King''' '''Antiochus III the Great'''– 241 BC Son of Seleucus II 223–187 BC187 BC 80px '''King''' '''Seleucus IV Philopator'''– ?", "Son of Antiochus III 187–175 BC175 BC 80px '''King''' '''Antiochus IV Epiphanes''' Mithridates 215 BC Son of Antiochus III 175–163 BC163 BC Killed in Elymais 80px '''King''' '''Antiochus V Eupator'''– 172 BC Son of Antiochus IV 163–161 BC161 BC 80px '''King''' '''Demetrius I Soter'''– 185 BC Son of Seleucus IV 161–150 BC150 BC 80px '''King''' '''Alexander Balas'''– ?", "Purported son of Antiochus IV 150–146 BC146 BC 80px '''King''' '''Demetrius II Nicator'''– ?", "Son of Demetrius I 146–139 BC139 BCDefeated and captured by Parthians.", "He married Rhodogune daughter of Mithridates I 80px '''King''' '''Antiochus VI Dionysus'''– 148 BC Son of Alexander III.", "145–142 BC138 BC In competition with Demetrius II.", "80px '''King''' '''Antiochus VII Sidetes'''– ?", "Son of Demetrius I 139–129 BC129 BC Killed in battle with Phraates II" ], [ "Fratarakas", "The Fratarakas appear to have been Governors of the Seleucid Empire.", "Name Date Coinage Family Relations Note 1 Bagadates/ Baydād (''bgdt'') 3rd century BC80px Fratarakā dynasty – son of Baykard Governor of the Seleucid Empire.", "Coin legend ''bgdt prtrk' zy 'lhy''' (\"Baydād, fratarakā of the gods\") in Aramaic.", "2 Ardakhshir I (''rtḥštry'') mid-3rd century BC80px Fratarakā dynasty Governor of the Seleucid Empire 3 Vahbarz (''whwbrz'' – called Oborzos in Polyenus 7.40) mid-3rd century BC 80px Fratarakā dynasty Governor of the Seleucid Empire 4 Vādfradād I (''wtprdt'') 3rd century BC80px Fratarakā dynasty – son of Vahbarz Governor of the Seleucid Empire 5 Vadfradad II c. 140 BC80px Fratarakā dynasty Governor of the Seleucid Empire.", "Transition period.", "Eagle emblem on top of stylized kyrbasia.", "Aramaic coin legend ''wtprdt prtrk' zy 'ly''' (\"Vādfradād, frataraka of the gods\").", "6 'Unknown king I' (Syknlt?)", "2nd half of 2nd century BC80px ?", "Transition period.", "No inscription on coinage." ], [ "Kings of Persis", " Name Date Coinage Family Relations Note 7 Darayan I 2nd century BC (end)80px ?", "Darev I and his successors were sub-kings of the Parthian Empire.", "Crescent emblem on top of stylized kyrbasia.", "Aramaic coin legend ''d’ryw mlk'' (𐡃𐡀𐡓𐡉𐡅 𐡌𐡋𐡊, \"King Darius\").", "8 Wadfradad III 1st century BC (1st half)80px ?", "Sub-king of the Parthian Empire.", "Coin legend ''wtprdt mlk'' (𐡅𐡕𐡐𐡓𐡃𐡕 𐡌𐡋𐡊, \"King Vadfradad\") in Aramaic script.", "9 Darev II 1st century BC80px son of Vadfradad III Sub-king of the Parthian Empire.", "Aramaic coin legend ''d’ryw mlk brh wtprdt mlk''' (\"King Darius, son of King Vadfradad\").", "10 Ardakhshir II 1st century BC (2nd half)80px son of Darev II Sub-king of the Parthian Empire.", "Killed by his brother Vahshir I 11 Vahšīr/ Vahshir I (Oxathres) 1st century BC (2nd half)80px son of Darev II Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 12 Pakor I 1st century AD (1st half)80px son of Vahshir I Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 13 Pakor II 1st century AD (1st half)80px ?", "Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 14 Nambed 1st century AD (mid)80px son of Ardashir II Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 15 Napad 1st century AD (2nd half)80px son of Nambed Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 16 'Unknown king II' 1st century AD (end)80px ?", "Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 17 Vadfradad IV 2nd century AD (1st half)80px ?", "Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 18 Manchihr I 2nd century AD (1st half)80px ?", "Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 19 Ardashir III 2nd century AD (1st half)80px son of Manchihr I Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 20 Manchihr II 2nd century AD (mid)80px son of Ardashir III Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 21 'Unknown king III'/tentatively Pakor III 2nd century AD (2nd half)80px ?", "Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 22 Manchihr III 2nd century AD (2nd half)80px son of Manchihr II Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 23 Ardashir IV 2nd century AD (end)80px son of Manchihr III Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 24 Vahshir II (Oxathres) c. 206–210 AD80px ?", "Sub-king of the Parthian Empire.", "The last of Bazarangids.", "25 Shapur 3rd century AD (beg.", ")80px Brother of the first Sasanian, Ardashir I Sub-king of the Parthian Empire26Ardashir V(Sasanian dynasty Ardashir I) 3rd century AD (beg.", ")80pxFirst Sasanian ruler, under the name of Ardashir ISub-king of the Parthian Empire" ], [ "Parthian Empire (247 BC – AD 228)", "The Parthian Empire at its greatest extentThe Seleucid dynasty gradually lost control of Persia.", "In 253, the Arsacid dynasty established itself in Parthia.", "The Parthians gradually expanded their control, until by the mid-2nd century BC, the Seleucids had completely lost control of Persia.", "Control of eastern territories was permanently lost by Antiochus VII in 129 BC.For more comprehensive lists of kings, queens, sub-kings and sub-queens of this Era see:List of Parthian monarchsList of rulers of Parthian sub-kingdomsPortraitTitleRegnal namePersonal nameBirthFamily relationsReignDeathNotes'''Arsacid dynasty (247 BC – 228 AD)''' 80px '''King, Karen, Autocrator''' '''Arsaces I''' Tiridates I ''or'' Arsaces?", "Son of Phriapites descendant of Arsaces son of Phriapatius who was probably son of Artaxerxes II 247–211 BC211 BC 80px'''?'''", "'''Arsaces II''' Artabanus I ''or'' Arsaces?", "Son of Arsaces I 211–185 BC185 BC 80px'''?'''", "'''Arsaces III''' Phriapatius?", "Grandson of Tiridates I 185–170 BC170 BC 80px'''?'''", "'''Arsaces IV''' Phraates I?", "Son of Phriapatius 170–167 BC167 BC 80px '''The Great King, Theos, Theopator, Philhellene''' '''Arsaces V''' Mithridates I?", "Son of Phriapatius 167 −132 BC132 BC 80px '''The Great King, Philopator, Theopator, Nikephoros''' '''Arsaces VI''' Phraates II?", "Son of Mithridates I 132–127 BC127 BC Killed in battle with Scythians 80px '''King''' '''Arsaces VII''' Artabanus II?", "Son of Phriapatius 127–126 BC126 BC Killed in battle with Tocharians '''The Great King, Theopator, Philadelphos, Philhellene, Epiphanes''' '''Arsaces VIII''' Vologases(?)?", "Son of Phriapatius 126–122 BC122 BC He was the first Arsacid king of Media, Arran and Iberia '''The Great King, King of kings, Epiphanes, Philhellene''' '''Arsaces IX''' Artabanus(?)?", "Son of Artabanus II 122–121 BC121 BC Killed in battle with Medians 80px '''The Great King, The Great King of Kings, Epiphanes, Soter''' '''Arsaces X''' Mithridates II?", "Son of Artabanus II 121–91 BC91 BC 80px '''The Great King, Epiphanes, Philhellene, Euergetes, Autocrator''' '''Arsaces XI''' Gotarzes I?", "Son of Mithridates II 91–87 BC87 BC '''The Great King, Theopator, Nicator''' '''Arsaces XII''' Artabanus(?)?", "Probably son of Arsaces VIII Vologases(?)", "91–77?", "BC77?", "BC '''The Great King, The Great King of Kings, Dikaios, Euergetes, Philhellene, Autocrator, Philopator, Epiphanes''' '''Arsaces XIII''' Mithridates?", "Probably son of Mithridates II 88–67 BC67 BC 80px '''The Great King, Euergetes, Epiphanes, Philhellene''' '''Arsaces XIV''' Orodes I?", "Probably son of Mithridates II 80–75 BC75 BC 80px '''The Great King, Theopator, Euergetes, Epiphanes, Philhellene''' '''Arsaces XV''' Sanatruces 157 BC Probably son of Arsaces VIII Vologases(?)", "77–70 BC70 BC '''The Great King, Theopator, Euergetes, Epiphanes, Philhellene, Eusebes''' '''Arsaces XVI''' Arsaces(?)", "or Vardanes(?)", "or Vonones(?)?", "?", "77–66 BC66 BCThe most obscure major monarch of the first millennium BC.", "Nothing about him is currently known.", "80px '''The Great King, Theos, Euergetes, Epiphanes, Philhellene''' '''Arsaces XVII''' Phraates III?", "Son of Sanatruces 70–57 BC57 BC Killed by Orodes II '''The Great King, Philopator, Euergetes, Epiphanes, Philhellene''' '''Arsaces XVIII''' ?", "?", "probably son of Arsaces XVI 66–63 BC63 BCThe second most obscure monarch of the first millennium BC, nothing about him is known.", "80px '''The Great King, The Great King of Kings, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Theos, Eupator, Theopator, Philhellene''' '''Arsaces XIX''' Mithridates III?", "Son of Phraates III 65 −54 BC54 BC Killed by Orodes II 80px '''King of Kings, Philopator, Eupator, Euergetes, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene, Ktistes''' '''Arsaces XX''' Orodes II?", "Son of Phraates III 57–38 BC38 BC Killed by Phraates IV 80px '''King of Kings, Euergetes, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene''' '''Arsaces XXI''' Pacorus I?", "Son of Orodes II 50–38 BC38 BC Killed in battle with Romans 80px '''King of Kings, Euergetes, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene''' '''Arsaces XXII''' Phraates IV?", "Son of Orodes II 38–2 BC2 BC Killed by Musa 80px '''King of Kings, Euergetes, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene, Autocrator, Philoromaeos''' '''Arsaces XXIII''' Tiridates II?", "Probably a descendant of Arsaces XIII Mithridates 30–25 BCafter 23 BC Deposed and went to Rome '''?'''", "'''Arsaces XXIV''' Mithridates?", "Probably a descendant of Arsaces XIII Mithridates 12–9 BC?", "80px '''Queen of Queens, Thea, Urania''' '''Musa''' Musa?", "Queen of Phraates IV 2 BC – 4 AD4?", "AD 80px '''King of Kings, Euergetes, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene''' '''Arsaces XXV''' Phraates V?", "Son of Phraates IV & Musa 2 BC – 4 AD4 AD Deposed and went to Rome 80px '''King of Kings, Euergetes, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene''' '''Arsaces XXVI''' Orodes III?", "Probably a descendant of Arsaces XIII Mithridates 4–66 Killed by Parthian aristocrats 80px '''The Great King, King of Kings, Euergetes, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene, Nikephorus''' '''Arsaces XXVII''' Vonones I?", "Son of Phraates IV 8–1219 Deposed and went to Rome.", "Later, he was killed by Romans.", "80px '''King of Kings, Euergetes, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene''' '''Arsaces XXVIII''' Artabanus III ?", "Probably a descendant of Arsaces XIII Mithridates 10–4040 '''?'''", "'''Arsaces XXIX''' Tiridates III?", "Probably a descendant of Tiridates II 35–36?", "Deposed and went to Rome '''?'''", "'''Arsaces XXX''' Cinnamus?", "Son of Artabanus III 37?", "Abdicated 80px '''King of Kings, Euergetes, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene''' '''Arsaces XXXI''' Gotarzes II 11 Son of Artabanus III 40–5151 80px '''King of Kings, Euergetes, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene''' '''Arsaces XXXII''' Vardanes I?", "Son of Artabanus III40–4646 Killed by Gotarzes II 80px '''King of Kings, Euergetes, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene''' '''Arsaces XXXIII''' Vonones II?", "Probably son of Artabanus III 45–5151 '''?'''", "'''Arsaces XXXIV''' Mithridates?", "Son of Vonones I 49–50?", "Deposed and mutilated by Gotarzes II 80px '''King of Kings, Euergetes, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene, The Lord''' '''Arsaces XXXV''' Vologases I?", "Son of Vonones II 51–7777 80px '''King of Kings, Euergetes, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene''' '''Arsaces XXXVI''' Vardanes II?", "Son of Vologases I 55–58?", "Deposed 80px '''King of Kings, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene''' '''Arsaces XXXVII''' Vologases II?", "Probably the eldest son of Vologases I 77–89/90?", "80px '''King of Kings, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene''' '''Arsaces XXXVIII''' Pacorus II?", "Probably the younger son of Vologases I 77–115115 80px '''King of Kings, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene''' '''Arsaces XXXIX''' Artabanus IV?", "Probably son of Vologases I or Artabanus III 80–81?", "80px '''King of Kings, Euergetes, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene''' '''Arsaces XL''' Osroes I?", "brother of Pacorus II 89/90–130130 80px '''King of Kings, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene''' '''Arsaces XLI''' Vologases III?", "Probably son of Sanatruces I king of Armenia 89–109 who was brother of Osroes I 105–148148 He was also king of Armenia as Vologases I 80px '''King of Kings, Euergetes, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene''' '''Arsaces XLII''' Parthamaspates?", "Son of Osroes I 116–117after 123 Deposed and went to Rome 80px '''King of Kings, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene''' '''Arsaces XLIII''' Mithridates IV?", "Probably son of Osroes I 130 – 145 145 '''King of Kings, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene''' '''Arsaces XLIV''' ?", "?", "?", "140 – 140 140 80px '''King of Kings, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene''' '''Arsaces XLV''' Vologases IV?", "Son of Mithridates IV 148–191191 80px '''King of Kings, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene''' '''Arsaces XLVI''' Vologases V?", "Son of Vologases IV 191–208208 80px '''King of Kings, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene''' '''Arsaces XLVII''' Osroes II?", "Probably son of Vologases IV 190 – 195?", "80px '''King of Kings, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene''' '''Arsaces XLVIII''' Vologases VI 181 Son of Vologases V 208–228228 Killed by Ardashir I 80px '''King of Kings, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene''' '''Arsaces XLIX''' Artabanus V?", "Son of Vologases V 213–226226 Killed by Ardashir I '''King of Kings, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene''' '''Arsaces L''' Tiridates IV?", "Son of Vologases IV 217–222?", "He was also king of Armenia" ], [ "Sasanian Empire (224–651)", "The Sasanian Empire at its greatest extentPortraitTitleRegnal namePersonal nameBirthFamily relationsReignDeathNotes'''House of Sasan''' 80px '''Shahanshah''' '''Ardashir I'''– 180 Son of Papak, who was son of Sasan 28 April 224 – February 242February 242 80px '''Shahanshah''' '''Shapur I'''– 215 Son of Ardashir I 12 April 240 – May 270May 270 80px '''Shahanshah, Wuzurg Armananshah''' '''Hormizd I''' Hormozd-Ardashir ?", "Son of Shapur I May 270 – June 271June 271 80px '''Shahanshah, Gilanshah''' '''Bahram I'''– ?", "Son of Shapur I June 271 – September 274September 274 80px '''Shahanshah''' '''Bahram II'''– ?", "Son of Bahram I September 274 – 293293 80px '''Shahanshah, Sakanshah''' '''Bahram III'''– ?", "Son of Bahram II 293293 Deposed 80px '''Shahanshah, Wuzurg Armananshah''' '''Narseh I'''– ?", "Son of Shapur I 293–302302 80px '''Shahanshah''' '''Hormizd II'''– ?", "Son of Narseh I 302–309309 Killed by Iranian aristocrats '''Shahanshah''' '''Adhur Narseh'''– ?", "Son of Hormizd II 309309 Killed by Iranian aristocrats 80px '''Shahanshah, Dhū al-aktāf''' '''Shapur II'''– 309 Son of Hormizd II 309–379379 80px '''Shahanshah''' '''Ardashir II'''– 309/310 Son of Hormizd II 379–383383 80px '''Shahanshah''' '''Shapur III'''– ?", "Son of Shapur II 383 – December 388December 388 Killed by Iranian aristocrats 80px '''Shahanshah, Kirmanshah''' '''Bahram IV'''– ?", "Son of Shapur II December 388 – 399399 80px '''Shahanshah''' '''Yazdegerd I'''– 363 Son of Shapur III 399 – 21 January 42021 January 420 Killed by Iranian aristocrats 80px '''Shahanshah''' '''Bahram V'''– 406 Son of Yazdegerd I 21 January 420 – 20 June 43820 June 438 80px '''Shahanshah''' '''Yazdegerd II'''– ?", "Son of Bahram V 20 June 438 – 15 December 45715 December 457 80px '''Shahanshah''' '''Hormizd III'''– 399 Son of Yazdegerd II 457–459459 Killed by Peroz I 80px '''Shahanshah''' '''Peroz I'''– 459 Son of Yazdegerd II 459 – January 484January 484 Killed in battle with Hephthalites 80px '''Shahanshah''' '''Balash'''– ?", "Son of Yazdegerd II February 484 – 488488 80px '''Shahanshah''' '''Kavadh I'''– 449 Son of Peroz I 488–49613 September 531 Deposed 80px '''Shahanshah''' '''Djamasp'''– ?", "Son of Peroz I 496–498502 Deposed 80px '''Shahanshah''' '''Kavadh I'''– 449 Son of Peroz I 498 – 13 September 53113 September 531 80px '''Shahanshah, Anushiravan, The Just''' '''Khosrau I'''– 500 Son of Kavadh I 13 September 531 – 31 January 57931 January 579 80px '''Shahanshah''' '''Hormizd IV'''– 540 Son of Khosrau I 31 January 579 – 5 September 5905 September 590 Killed by Vistahm 80px '''Shahanshah, Aparviz''' '''Khosrau II'''– 570 Son of Hormizd IV September 590 – September 59028 February 628 Deposed and went to Byzantine territory'''House of Mihran''' 80px '''Shahanshah, Chubineh''' '''Bahram VI''' Mehrbandak ?", "Son of Bahram Gushnasp from House of Mihran September – 590 January 591591 Assassinated under the order of Khosrau II'''House of Sasan''' 80px '''Shahanshah, Aparviz, The Victorious''' '''Khosrau II'''– 570 Son of Hormizd IV January 591 – 25 February 62828 February 628 Executed by Mihr Hormozd under the orders of Kavadh II'''House of Ispahbudhan''' 80px '''Shahanshah''' '''Vistahm'''– ?", "Son of Shapur from the House of Ispahbudhan.", "He was the uncle of Khosrau II and husband of Gorduya, sister of Bahram VI 591 – 596 ''or'' 600596 or 600 Killed by his wife Gorduya or by his general Pariowk'''House of Sasan''' 80px '''Shahanshah''' '''Kavadh II''' Shiruyah?", "Son of Khosrau II 25 February 628 – 15 September 62815 September 628 Died from plague 80px '''Shahanshah''' '''Ardashir III'''– 621 Son of Kavadh II 15 September 628 – 27 April 62927 April 629 Killed by Shahrbaraz'''House of Mihran''' 80px '''Shahanshah, Shahrvaraz''' '''Shahrbaraz'''–?", "Sasanian general from the House of Mihran 27 April 629 – 17 June 62917 June 629 Killed by Farrokh Hormizd under the orders of Borandukht'''House of Sasan''' 80px '''Shahanshah''' '''Khosrau III'''–?", "Nephew of Khosrau II 630630 Killed after a few days reign 80px '''Shahbanu''' '''Borandukht'''– 590 Daughter of Khosrau II 17 June 629 – 16 June 630 (First reign)631 – 632 (Second reign)632 Deposed by Iranian aristocrats and replaced by Shapur-i ShahrvarazRestored to the Sasanian throne, and later strangled to death by Piruz Khosrow '''Shahanshah''' '''Shapur-i Shahrvaraz'''–?", "Son of Shahrbaraz and an unknown sister of Khosrau II 630?", "Deposed by Iranian aristocrats and replaced by Azarmidokht '''Shahanshah''' '''Peroz II''' Gushnasp-Bandeh?", "Son of Mihran-Goshnasp & Chaharbakht who was daughter of Yazdandad son of Khosrau I.", "630630 Killed by Iranian aristocrats 80px '''Shahbanu''' '''Azarmidokht'''–?", "Daughter of Khosrau II 630–631631 Killed by Iranian aristocrats 80px '''Shahanshah''' '''Khosrau IV''' Khurrazadh?", "Son of Khosrau II 631631 Killed by Iranian aristocrats'''House of Ispahbudhan''' 80px '''Shahanshah''' '''Farrokh Hormizd'''–?", "Son of Sasanian general Vinduyih, the brother of Vistahm 630–631631 Killed by Siyavakhsh under the orders of Azarmidokht'''House of Sasan''' 80px '''Shahanshah''' '''Hormizd VI'''– ?", "Grandson of Khosrau II 630–631631 Killed by Iranian aristocrats 80px '''Shahanshah''' '''Yazdegerd III'''– 624 Son of Shahryar the son of Khosrau II 16 June 632–651651 Killed by a miller'''''Note: Classical Persia is generally agreed to have ended with the collapse of the Sasanian Empire as a result of the Muslim conquest of Persia.'''''" ], [ "Dabuyid Kingdom (642–760)", "Dabuyids ()A Zoroastrian Persian dynasty that held power in the north for over a century before finally falling to the Abbasid Caliphate.PortraitTitleNameBirthFamily relationsReignDeathNotes'''Dabuyid dynasty (642–760)''' 80px '''Ispahbadh''' '''Gil Gavbara''' ?", "Son of Piruz 642–660660 '''Ispahbadh, Gil-Gilan, Padashwargarshah''' '''Dabuya''' ?", "Son of Gil Gavbara 660–676676 80px '''Ispahbadh, Gil-Gilan, Padashwargarshah''' '''Farrukhan the Great''' ?", "Son of Dabuya 712–728728 80px '''Ispahbadh, Gil-Gilan, Padashwargarshah''' '''Dadhburzmihr''' ?", "Son of Farrukhan the Great 728–740/741740/741 '''Ispahbadh, Gil-Gilan, Padashwargarshah''' '''Farrukhan the Little''' ?", "Son of Farrukhan the Great 740/741–747/48747/48 Regent for Khurshid of Tabaristan 80px '''Ispahbadh, Gil-Gilan, Padashwargarshah''' '''Khurshid''' 734 Son of Dadhburzmihr 740/741–760761 Committed suicide" ], [ "Rashidun Caliphate (642–661)", "The Rashidun Empire reached its greatest extent under Caliph Uthman, in 654For more comprehensive lists of kings and sub-kings of this Era see:Muslim dynasties of IranPortraitTitleNameKunyaBirthFamily relationsReignDeathNotes 80px '''Al Farooq, Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin''' '''Umar''' Abu Hafs 583 Son of Khattab ibn Nufayl.", "642–644644 Umar became Caliph in 634 and his forces conquered Persia in 642.Killed by Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz 80px '''Zonnurain, Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin''' '''Uthman''' Abu Amr 579 Son of Affan, of the Umayyad clan.", "644–656656 Killed by Rebels 80px '''Al-Mortaza, Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin, Great Imam, Maula Ali''' '''Ali''' Abul-Hasan 598 Son of Abu Talib, of the Hashemite clan.", "Son-in-law of Muhammad.", "656–661661 Killed by Kharijites 80px '''Al-Mujtaba Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin''' '''Al-Hasan''' Abu Muhammad 624 Son of caliph Ali, of the Hashemite clan.", "Grandson of Muhammad.", "661–661670 Abdicated after six or seven months to Muawiya" ], [ "Umayyad Caliphate (661–750)", "Umayyad Caliphate at its greatest extent ()For more comprehensive lists of kings and sub-kings of this Era see:Islamic dynasties of IranPortrait/CoinTitleNameKunyaBirthFamily relationsReignDeathNotes 80px '''Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin''' '''Muawiyah I''' Abu Abdallah ?", "Son of Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, cousin of Uthman ibn Affan and distant cousin of Muhammad 661–680 680 Reigned until his death '''Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin''' '''Yazid I''' Abu Khalid?", "Son of Muawiyah I 680–683 683 Reigned until his death '''Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin''' '''Muawiya II''' Abu Abd ur-Rahman ?", "Son of Yazid I 683–684 ?", "Reigned until his death '''Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin''' '''Marwan I''' Abu Abd al-Malik ?", "Son of Hakam cousin of Muawiyah I 684–685 685 Reigned until his death 80px '''Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin''' '''Abd al-Malik''' Abu'l-Walid ?", "Son of Marwan I 685–705 705 Reigned until his death 80px '''Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin''' '''Al-Walid I''' Abu'l-Abbas 674 Son of Abd al-Malik 705–715 715 Reigned until his death, built Mosque and great patron of Art.", "80px '''Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin''' '''Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik''' Abu Ayyub 675 Son of Abd al-Malik 715–717 717 Reigned until his death in 717 80px '''Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin''' '''Umar II''' Abu Hafṣ 680 Son of Abd al-Aziz ibn Marwan and Paternal cousin of Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik 717–720 720 Reigned until his death, died of food poisoning.", "80px '''Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin''' '''Yazid II''' Abu Khalid690/91 Son of Abd al-Malik 720–724 724 Reigned until his death in 724 80px '''Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin''' '''Hisham''' Abu'l-Walid 691 Son of Abd al-Malik 724–743 743 Reigned until his death, built many schools and mosques in his Empire.", "80px '''Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin''' '''Al-Walid II''' Abu'l-Abbas 709 Son of Yazid II 743–744 744 Reigned until his death (Assassinated) 80px '''Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin''' '''Yazid III''' Abu Khalid 701 Son of Al-Walid I and Shahfarand daughter of Peroz III 744–744 744 Reigned until his death (Brain tumour) 80px '''Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin''' '''Ibrahim ibn al-Walid''' Abu Ishaq 701/02 Son of Al-Walid I 744–744 744 Abdicated for Marwan II 80px '''Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin''' '''Marwan II''' Abu Abd al-Malik 691 Son of Muhammad ibn Marwan and Paternal cousin of Caliph Hisham.", "744–750 750 Ruled from Harran in the Jazira.", "Killed by Saffah===Notable Governors=== Governor Term'''Governors of Khurasan''' Abdallah ibn Khazim 662–665, 683–84 Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad 673–676 Salm ibn Ziyad 681–684 Umayya ibn Abdallah 694–697 Muhallab ibn Abi Sufra698–702 Yazid ibn al-Muhallab 702–704 Al-Jarrah ibn Abdallah 717–719 Muslim ibn Sa'id 723–724 Asad ibn Abdallah 724–727, 734–38 Nasr ibn Sayyar 738–748" ], [ "Abbasid Caliphate (750–861)", "Anarchy in 861For more comprehensive lists of kings and sub-kings of this Era see:Muslim dynasties of IranPortrait/CoinTitleRegnal namePersonal nameBirthFamily relationsReignDeathNotes 80px '''Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin''' '''As-Saffah''' Abu'l-Abbas Abdallah 721 Son of Muhammad ibn Ali who was a descendant of Muhammad's paternal uncle 750–754 754 Reigned until his death (Smallpox) 80px '''Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin''' '''Al-Mansur''' Abu Ja'far Abdallah 714 Brother of As-Saffah 754–775 775 Reigned until his death, one of the famous Arab caliph.", "80px '''Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin''' '''Al-Mahdi''' Abu Abdallah Muhammad 744/745 Son of Al-Mansur 775–785 785 Reigned until his death, famous Abbasid caliph.", "80px '''Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin''' '''Al-Hadi''' Abu Muhammad Musa 764 Son of Al-Mahdi 785–786 786 Reigned until his death in 786 80px '''Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin''' '''Harun al-Rashid''' Abu Ja'far Harun 763/766 Son of Al-Mahdi 786–809 809 Reigned until his death, the most famous Abbasid caliph 80px '''Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin''' '''Al-Amin''' Abu Musa Muhammad 787 Son of Harun al-Rashid 809–813 813 Dethroned and Killed by al-Ma'mun 80px '''Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin''' '''Al-Ma'mun''' Abu'l-Abbas Abdallah 786 Son of Harun al-Rashid 813–833 833 Reigned until his death, famous Abbasid caliph 80px '''Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin''' '''Al-Mu'tasim''' Abu Ishaq Muhammad 796 Son of Harun al-Rashid 833–842 842 Reigned until his death, famous Abbasid caliph 80px '''Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin''' '''Al-Wathiq''' Abu Ja'far Harun 812 Son of Al-Mu'tasim 842–847 847 Reigned until his death, Abbasid caliph 80px '''Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin''' '''Al-Mutawakkil''' Abu'l-Fadl Ja'far 822 Son of Al-Mu'tasim 847–861 861 Reigned until his assassination, last great Abbasid caliph (for others see Abbasid caliphs).=== Notable Governors === Governor Term'''Governors of Khurasan''' Abu Muslim 750–755 Abu Awn Abd al-Malik 766–767 Humayd ibn Qahtaba 768–776 Mu'adh ibn Muslim 778–780 Al-Fadl ibn Yahya 795–796 Ali ibn Isa ibn Mahan 796–807/8 Mansur ibn Yazid al-Himyari 796–797 Governor Term'''Governors of Khurasan (Tahirids)'''Tahir ibn Husayn 821–822Talha ibn Tahir 822–828Abdallah ibn Tahir al-Khurasani 828–845Tahir ibn Abdallah 845–862Muhammad ibn Tahir 862–873" ], [ "Samanid Empire (819–999)", "Samanid Empire at its greatest extentFor more comprehensive lists of kings and sub-kings of this Era see:Muslim dynasties of IranPortrait TitleRegnal name Personal name Birth Family relations Reign Death NotesSamanid dynasty (819–999) '''Ahmad ibn Assad '''??", "819–864/865 864/5 '''Nasr I'''??", "864/865–892 892 80px '''Adel''' '''Ismail Samani'''??", "892–907 907 '''Shaheed''' '''Ahmad Samani'''??", "907–914 914 80px '''Saeed''' '''Nasr II'''??", "914–942 943 '''Hamid''' '''Nuh I'''??", "942–954 954 80px '''Rashid''' ''''Abd al-Malik I'''??", "954–961 961 '''Mo'ayyed''' '''Mansur I'''??", "961–976 976 '''Radhi''' '''Nuh II'''??", "976–996 997 '''Abol Hareth''' '''Mansur II'''??", "996–999 999 '''Abol Favares''' ''''Abd al-Malik II'''??", "999 999 '''Montaser''' '''Isma'il Muntasir'''??", "1000–1005 1005" ], [ "Saffarid Kingdom (861–1003)", "Saffarid Empire at its greatest extentFor more comprehensive lists of kings and sub-kings of this Era see:Muslim dynasties of IranPortraitTitleNameKunyaBirthFamily relationsReignDeathNoteSaffarid dynasty (861–1003) '''Emir''' '''Ya'qub ibn al-layth al-Saffar'''– 840 Son of al-Layth 861–879 879 Died of sickness '''Emir''' '''Amr ibn al-Layth'''– ?", "Son of al-Layth 879–901 902 Captured by the Samanids, later executed on 20 April 902 in Baghdad '''Emir''' '''Tahir ibn Muhammad ibn Amr''' Abu'l-Hasan ?", "Son of Muhammad, son of Amr 901–908?", "Imprisoned in Baghdad '''Emir''' '''Al-Layth'''– ?", "Son of Ali, son of al-Layth 909–910 928 Dies of natural causes as a prisoner in Baghdad in 928 '''Emir''' '''Muhammad ibn Ali ibn al-Layth'''– ?", "Son of Ali, son of al-Layth 910–911?", "Imprisoned in Baghdad '''Emir''' '''Amr''' Abu Hafs 902 Son of Ya'qub 912–913?", "Overthrown by the Samanids 80px '''Emir''' '''Ahmad Ja’far Ahmad ibn Muhammad''' Abu Ja'far 21 June 906 Son of Muhammad, son of Amr 923–963 31 March 963 Killed by Abu’l-'Abbas and a Turkic Ghilman 80px '''Emir''' '''Khalaf ibn Ahmad''' Abu Ahmad November 937 Son of Ahmad ibn Muhammad 963–1003 March 1009 Overthrown by the Ghaznavids in 1003, died in exile in 1009" ], [ "Ghurid Kingdom (879–1215)", "Map of the Ghurid dynasty at its greatest extent by the year 1202For more comprehensive lists of kings and sub-kings of this Era see:Muslim dynasties of IranPortraitTitleNameBirthFamily relationsReignDeathNoteGhurid dynasty (879–1215)'''Malik''''''Amir Suri'''?Father of Muhammad ibn Suri?–?", "?was the first Malik of the Ghurid dynasty80px'''Malik''''''Muhammad ibn Suri'''?Son of Amir Suri?–10111011Poisoned himself'''Malik''''''Abu Ali ibn Muhammad'''?Son of Muhammad ibn Suri1011–10351035Overthrown and killed by his nephew Abbas ibn Shith'''Malik''''''Abbas ibn Shith'''?1035–10601060Deposed and killed by the Ghaznavids, replaced by his son Muhammad ibn Abbas'''Malik''''''Muhammad ibn Abbas'''?Son of Abbas ibn Shith1060–10801080'''Malik''''''Qutb al-din Hasan'''?Son of Muhammad ibn Abbas1080–11001100'''Malik''''''Izz al-Din Husayn'''?Son of Qutb al-din Hasan1100–11461146'''Malik''''''Sayf al-Din Suri'''?Son of Izz al-Din Husayn1146–11491149'''Malik''''''Baha al-Din Sam I'''?Son of Izz al-Din Husayn11491149'''Malik''''''Ala al-Din Husayn'''?Son of Izz al-Din Husayn1149–11611161'''Malik''''''Sayf al-Din Muhammad'''?Son of Ala al-Din Husayn1161–11631163 80px'''Sultan''''''Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad'''1139Son of Baha al-Din Sam I1163–1202120280px'''Sultan''''''Mu'izz al-Din'''1149Son of Baha al-Din Sam I1173–12061206'''Sultan''''''Ghiyath al-Din Mahmud'''?Son of Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad1206–12121212'''Sultan''''''Baha al-Din Sam III'''?Son of Ghiyath al-Din Mahmud1212–12131213'''Sultan''''''Ala al-Din Atsiz'''1159Son of Ala al-Din Husayn1213–12141214'''Sultan''''''Zia al-Din Ali'''?Son of Shuja al-Din Muhammad1214–12151215" ], [ "Ziyarid Kingdom (928–1043)", "Ziyarid dynasty at its greatest extent Portrait TitleRegnal name Personal Name Birth Family relations Reign Death NotesZiyarid dynasty (928–1043) '''Abolhajjaj, Emir''' '''Mardavij'''?", "son of Ziyar 928–934 934 '''Abutaher''' '''Voshmgir'''?", "son of Ziyar 934–967 967 '''Zahir od-Dowleh''' '''Bisotoon'''?", "son of Voshmgir 967–976 976 '''Shams ol-Ma'ali, Abolhasan''' '''Qabus'''?", "son of Voshmgir 976–1012 1012 '''Falak ol-Ma'ali''' '''Manuchehr'''?", "son of Qabus 1012–1031 1031 '''Sharaf ol-Ma'ali''' '''Anushiravan'''?", "son of Manuchehr 1031–1043 1043 '''Onsor ol-Ma'ali''' '''Keikavus'''?", "son of Eskandar son of Qabus??", "'''Gilanshah'''?", "son of Keykavous?", "?" ], [ "Buyid Kingdom (934–1062)", "Buyid dynasty at its greatest extentThe Buyid Kingdom was divided into a number of separate emirates, of which the most important were Fars, Ray, and Iraq.", "Generally, one of the emirs held a sort of primus inter pares supremacy over the rest, which would be marked by titles like Amir al-umara and Shahanshah.For more comprehensive lists of kings and sub-kings of this Era see:Muslim dynasties of IranPortraitTitleRegnal namePersonal nameBirthFamily relationsReignDeathNote'''Buyids of Fars (933–1062)''' '''Emir, Amir al-umara''' '''Imad al-Dawla''' Abu'l-Hasan Ali 891 Son of Buya 934–949 949 Also Senior Buyid Emir (934–949) 80px '''Emir, Shahanshah''' '''Adud al-Dawla''' Fanna Khusraw 936 Son of Rukn al-Dawla and nephew of Imad al-Dawla 949–983 983 Senior Buyid Emir (976–983) and Emir of Iraq (978–983) '''Emir, Amir al-umara''' '''Sharaf al-Dawla''' Abu'l-Fawaris Shirdil 962 Son of Adud al-Dawla 983–989 989 Also Senior Buyid Emir and Emir of Iraq (987–989) '''Emir, King''' '''Samsam al-Dawla''' Abu Kalijar Marzuban 964 son of Adud al-Dawla 989–998 998 Also Emir of Iraq and self-proclaimed Senior Buyid Emir (983–986) 80px '''Emir, King, Shahanshah''' '''Baha' al-Dawla''' Abu Nasr Firuz 971 Son of Adud al-Dawla 998–1012 1012 Also Emir of Iraq (988–1012) and Senior Buyid Emir (997–1012) '''Emir''' '''Sultan al-Dawla''' Abu Shuja 992 Son of Baha' al-Dawla 1012–1024 1024 Also Emir of Iraq and Senior Buyid Emir (1012–1021) 80px '''Emir, Shahanshah''' '''Abu Kalijar''' Marzuban 1011 Son of Sultan al-Dawla 1024–1048 1048 Also Emir of Kerman (1028–1048), Senior Buyid Emir (1037–1048) and Emir of Iraq (1044–1048) '''Emir''' '''Abu Mansur Fulad Sutun''' ?", "Son of Abu Kalijar 1048–1054 1062 Lost Fars to Abu Sa'd Khusrau Shah '''Emir''' '''Abu Sa'd Khusrau Shah''' ?", "Son of Abu Kalijar 1051–1054 ?", "Lost Fars to Abu Mansur Fulad Sutun '''Emir''' '''Abu Mansur Fulad Sutun''' ?", "Son of Abu Kalijar 1054–1062 1062 Killed by the Shabankara tribal chief Fadluya'''Buyids of Rey, Isfahan, and Hamadan (935–1038)''' 80px '''Emir, Amir al-umara''' '''Rukn al-Dawla''' Abu Ali Hasan 898 Son of Buya 935–976 976 Also Senior Buyid Emir (949–976) '''Emir''' '''Fakhr al-Dawla''' Abu'l-Hasan Ali 952 Son of Rukn al-Dawla 976–980''and''983–997 980 Also Emir of Hamadan & Tabaristan (984–997) and Senior Buyid Emir (991–997) 80px '''Emir''' '''Mu'ayyad al-Dawla''' Abu Mansur 941 Son of Rukn al-Dawla 976–983 983 Also Emir of Hamadan (976–983), Jibal (977–983), Tabaristan (980–983), and Gorgan (981–983) 80px '''Emir''' '''Majd al-Dawla''' Abu Taleb Rostam 993 Son of Fakhr al-Dawla 997–1029 1029 Only in Rey, briefly self-proclaimed Senior Buyid Emir 80px '''Emir''' '''Shams al-Dawla''' Abu Taher ?", "Son of Fakhr al-Dawla 997–1021 1021 Only in Isfahan and Hamaedan, briefly self-proclaimed Senior Buyid Emir '''Emir''' '''Sama' al-Dawla''' Abu'l-Hasan Ali ?", "Son of Shams al-Dawla 1021–1023 1023 Only in Hamadan, Deposed by Kakuyids'''Buyids of Iraq and Khuzistan (945–1055)''' '''Emir, Amir al-umara''' '''Mu'izz al-Dawla''' Abu'l-Husayn Ahmad 915 Son of Buya 945–966 966 '''Emir, Amir al-umara''' '''Izz al-Dawla''' Abu Mansur Bakhtiyar 943 Son of Mu'izz al-Dawla 966–979 979 Self-proclaimed Senior Buyid Emir (976–978) 80px '''Emir, Shahanshah''' '''Adud al-Dawla''' Fanna Khusraw 937 Son of Rukn al-Dawla 977–983 983 Also Emir of Fars (949–983) and Senior Buyid Emir (976–983) '''Emir, King''' '''Samsam al-Dawla''' Abu Kalijar Marzban 964 Son of Adud al-Dawla 983–987 998 Also self-proclaimed Senior Buyid Emir (983–986) and Emir of Fars & Kerman (989–998) '''Emir, Amir al-umara''' '''Sharaf al-Dawla''' Abu'l-Fawaris Shirdil 962 Son of Adud al-Dawla 987–989 989 Also Emir of Fars (983–989) and Senior Buyid Emir (987–989) 80px '''Emir''' '''Baha' al-Dawla''' Abu Nasr Firuz 970 Son of Adud al-Dawla 989–1012 1012 Also Senior Buyid Emir (997–1012) and Emir of Fars (999–1012) '''Emir''' '''Sultan al-Dawla''' Abu Shuja 992 Son of Baha' al-Dawla 1012–1021 1024 Also Senior Buyid Emir (1012–1021) and Emir of Fars (1012–1024) '''Emir, Shahanshah, King''' '''Musharrif al-Dawla''' Abu 'Ali 1002 Son of Baha' al-Dawla 1021–1025 1025 Closest thing to Senior Buyid Emir (1024–1025) '''Emir''' '''Jalal al-Dawla''' Abu Tahir Jalal al-Dawla 994 Son of Baha' al-Dawla 1027–1043 1043 80px '''Emir, Shahanshah''' '''Abu Kalijar''' Marzuban 1011 Son of Sultan al-Dawla 1043–1048 1048 Also Emir of Fars (1024–1048), Emir of Kerman (1028–1048) and Senior Buyid Emir (1037–1048) '''Emir''' '''Al-Malik al-Rahim''' Abu Nasr Khusrau Firuz ?", "Son of Abu Kalijar 1048–1055 1058 Also Senior Buyid Emir (1051–1055).", "Deposed by Tughril of the Seljuqs" ], [ "Ghaznavids Empire (977–1186)", "Map of the Ghaznavid dynasty at its greatest extentFor more comprehensive lists of kings and sub-kings of this Era see:Muslim dynasties of Iran # Laqab Personal Name Reign Succession right Notes 1 Nasir-ud-din Sabuktigin 977–997 2 No title Ismail 997–998 son of Sabuktigin 3 Yamin ad-Dawlah Abu Qasim Mahmud 998–1030 first son of Sabuktigin 4 Jalal ad-Dawlah Muhammad 1030''1st reign'' second son of Mahmud 5 Shihab ad-Dawlah Masud I 1030–1041 first son of Mahmud Was overthrown, imprisoned and executed, following the battle of Dandanaqan — Jalal ad-Dawlah Muhammad 1041''2nd reign'' second son of Mahmud Raised to the throne following the removal of Masud I.", "6 Shihab ad-Dawlah Mawdud 1041–1048 son of Masud I Defeated Muhammad at the battle of Nangrahar and gained the throne.", "7 ?", "Masud II 1048 son of Mawdud 8 Baha ad-Dawlah Ali 1048–1049 son of Masud I 9 Izz ad-Dawlah Abd al-Rashid 1049–1052 fifth son of Mahmud 10 Qiwam ad-Dawlah Toghrul 1052–1053 Turkish mamluk general Usurped the Ghaznavid throne after massacring Abd al-Rashid and eleven other Ghaznavid princes.", "11 Jamal ad-Dawlah Farrukh-Zad 1053–1059 son of Masud I 12 Zahir ad-Dawlah Ibrahim 1059–1099 son of Masud I 13 Ala ad-Dawlah Mas'ūd III 1099–1115 son of Ibrahim 14 Kamal ad-Dawlah Shir-Zad 1115–1116 son of Masud III Murdered by his younger brother Arslan ibn Mas'ud.", "15 Sultan ad-Dawlah Arslan-Shah 1116–1117 son of Masud III Took the throne from his older brother Shirzad, but faced a rebellion from his other brother Bahram Shah, who was supported by the sultan of the Great Seljuq Empire, Ahmad Sanjar.", "16 Yamin ad-Dawlah Bahram Shah 1117–1157 son of Masud III Under Bahram-Shah, the Ghaznavid empire became a tributary of the Great Seljuq Empire.", "Bahram was assisted by Ahmad Sanjar, sultan of the Great Seljuq empire, in securing his throne.", "17 Muizz ad-Dawlah Khusrau Shah 1157–1160 son of Bahram-Shah 18 Taj ad-Dawlah Khusrau Malik 1160–1186 son of Khusrau-Shah" ], [ "Seljuk Empire (1029–1194)", "A map showing the Great Seljuk Empire at its height, upon the death of Malik Shah I in 1092For more comprehensive lists of kings and sub-kings of this Era see:Muslim dynasties of IranPortraitTitleRegnal namePersonal nameBirthFamily relationsReignDeathNotesSeljuqs (1029–1191) 80px '''Shahanshah''', '''Sultan''', '''Beg''' '''Rukn ad-Dunya wa'd-Din''' Tughril I Abu Talib Mohammad 995 Son of Mikha'il son of Seljuq 1029–1063 1063 Reigned until his death 80px '''Shahanshah''', '''Sultan''' '''ʿAdud ad-Dawla''' Alp Arslan Abu Shujaʿ Mohammad 1039 Son of Chaghri Beg Dawud brother of Toğrül I 1063–1072 1072 Reigned until his death 80px '''Sultan''' '''Jalal ad-Dawla wa'd-Din''' Malik Shah I Abu'l-Fath Hasan 1055 Son of Alp Arslan 1072–1092 1092 Killed by Assassins 80px '''Sultan''' '''Nasir ad-Dawla wa'd-Din'''Abu'l-Qasim Mahmud I 1086 Son of Malik Shah I 1092–1094 1094 Reigned until his death, Child ruler 80px '''Sultan''' '''Rukn ad-Dunya wa'd-Din''' Abu'l-Muzaffar Barkiyaruq 1080 Son of Malik Shah I 1094–1105 1105 80px '''Sultan''' '''Ghiyath ad-Dunya wa'd-Din''' Abu Shuja Muhammad I Tapar 1082 Son of Malik Shah I 1105–1118 1118 80px '''Sultan''' '''Muglith ad-Dunya wa'd-Din'''Mahmud II 1104 Son of Muhammad I 1118–1131 1131 Dominated by his uncle Sanjar and killed in a rebellion against him.", "'''Sultan''' '''Rukn ad-Dunya wa'd-Din''' Abu Talib Toghrul II 1109 Son of Muhammad I 1132–1134 1134 Ruled only in Iraq, dominated by his uncle Ahmed Sanjar 80px '''Sultan''' '''As-Salatin Muʿizz ad-Dunyā wa'd-Dīn''' Abu'l-Harith Ahmed Sanjar 1087 Son of Malik Shah I 1097–1157 1157 Ruled in Khorasan, dominating a series of nephews in Iraq.", "'''Sultan''' '''Ghiyath ad-Dawla wa'd-Din''' Abu'l-Fath Mas'ud 1109 Son of Muhammad I 1134–1152 1152 Ruled over the western portion of the empire.", "Preoccupations in the east meant Sanjar was unable to dominate him.", "'''Sultan''' '''Mugith ad-Dunya wa'd-Din'''Malik Shah III 1128 Son of Mahmud II 1152–1153''and''1160 1153 Deposed by Khass BeyRegained throne but then deposed by the people of Isfahan after 16 days.", "'''Sultan''' '''Ghiyath ad-Dunya wa'd-Din''' Abu Shuja Muhammad II 1128 Son of Mahmud II 1153–1160 1160 Rule contested with his uncle Sulayman Shah (1153–1155) '''Sultan''' '''Mu'izz ad-Dunya wa'd-Din''' Abu'l-Harith Sulayman Shah 1118 Son of Muhammad I 1153–1155''and''1160–1161 1162 Rule contested with his nephew Muhammad II Deposed by Inanj, Lord of Reyy and the court officials '''Sultan''' '''Rukn ad-Dunya wa'd-Din''' Arslan 1134 Son of Toghrul II 1161–1176 1176 ''De facto'' power in the hands of Ildeniz (1160–1174) and his son Pahlavan (1174–1176) 80px '''Sultan''' '''Rukn ad-Dunya wa'd-Din''' Abu Talib Toghrul III ?", "Son of Arslan 1176–1194 1194 ''De facto'' power in the hands of Pahlavan (1176–1186) and Qizil Arslan (1186–1188).", "Deposed by Qizil Arslan in 1191.Killed by Khwarazm Shah Tekish '''Sultan''' Sanjar II ?", "Son of Sulayman Shah 1189–1191 1191 ''De facto'' power in the hands of Qizil Arslan (1189–1191).", "Deposed by Qizil Arslan in 1191.", "'''Eldiguzids (1191)''' '''Sultan''' Qizil Arslan ?", "Son of Ildeniz 1191 1191 Held ''de facto'' power (1186–1188).", "Deposed Qizil Arslan in 1191, declared himself Sultan and died an hour before his coronation." ], [ "Khwarazmian Empire (1153–1220)", "Khwarazmian Empire at its greatest extentAn empire built from Khwarezm, covering part of Iran and neighbouring Central Asia.For more comprehensive lists of kings and sub-kings of this Era see:Islamic dynasties of IranPortraitTitleRegnal namePersonal nameBirthFamily RelationsReignDeathNoteAnushtegin dynasty (1153–1220) 80px '''Sultan''' '''Ala ad-Dunya wa ad-Din Abul-Muzaffar''' Atsiz 1097/1105 son of Muhammad I of Khwarazm 1153–1156 1156 Ruling in Khwārazm from 1127 80px '''Sultan''' '''Taj ad-Dunya wa ad-Din Abul-Fath''' Il-Arslan ?", "son of Atsiz 1156–1172 1172 80px '''Sultan''' '''Ala ad-Dunya wa ad-Din Abul-Muzaffar''' Tekish ?", "son of Il-Arslan 1172–1200 1200 With opposition from Sultan shah 80px '''Shah''' '''Ala ad-Dunya wa ad-Din Abul-Fath'''Muhammad Sanjar ?", "son of Tekish 1200–1220 1220 Eliminated by the Mongols '''Sultan''' '''Jalal ad-Dunya wa ad-Din Abul-Muzaffar''' Mingburnu ?", "son of Muhammad 1220–1231 1231 Reign largely guerilla warfare against the Mongol conquerors" ], [ "Mongol Empire (1220–1256)", "Mongol Empire at its greatest extentFor more comprehensive lists of kings and sub-kings of this Era see:Muslim dynasties of IranPortraitTitleRegnal namePersonal nameBirthFamily relationsReignDeathNotes 80px '''Khan''' '''Genghis''' Temujin 1162 Son of Yesugei Baghatur 1220–1227 1227 Ruling in Mongolia from 1206 80px '''Khan''' Tolui 1192 Son of Genghis 25 August 1227 – 13 September 1229 13 September 1229 Regent 80px '''Khan''' Ögedei 1186 Son of Genghis 13 September 1229 – 11 December 12411241 80px '''Khatun''' Töregene ?", "Wife of Ögedei 1242 – March 1246?", "Regent '''Khan''' Güyük 1206 Son of Ögedei and Töregene 1246–1248 1248 '''Khatun''' Oghul Qaimish ?", "Wife of Güyük 1248–1251 1251 Regent '''Khan''' Möngke 10 January 1209 Son of Tolui 1 July 1251 – 11 August 1259 11 August 1259" ], [ "Ilkhanate (1256–1357)", "Ilkhanate at its greatest extent=== Ilkhanate (1256–1335) ===PortraitTitleThrone namePersonal nameBirthFamily relationsReignDeathNotes 80px '''Khan, Ilkhan''' Hulagu 1217 Son of Tolui 1256 – 8 February 1265 8 February 1265 80px '''Khan, Ilkhan''' Abaqa 1234 Son of Hulagu 1265 – 1 April 1282 1 April 1282 80px '''Khan, Ilkhan, Sultan''' '''Ahmad''' Nicholas Tekuder ?", "Son of Hulagu 1282–1284 1284 Killed by Arghun 80px '''Khan, Ilkhan''' Arghun 1258 Son of Abaqa 1284 – 7 March 1291 7 March 1291 80px '''Khan, Ilkhan''' Gaykhatu ?", "Son of Abaqa 1291–1295 1295 Killed by general Taghachar 80px '''Khan, Ilkhan''' Baydu ?", "Son of Taraqai son of Hulagu 1295 1295 Executed by Ghazan 80px '''Khan, Ilkhan, Sultan''' '''Mahmud''' Ghazan 5 November 1271 Son of Arghun 1295–1304 1304 80px '''Khan, Ilkhan, Sultan,''' '''Muhammad Khodabandeh''' Öljaitü 1280 Son of Arghun 1304 – 16 December 1316 16 December 1316 80px '''Khan, Ilkhan, Sultan''' '''Abu Sa'id''' Ala' ad-Din Bahadur 2 June 1305 Son of Öljaitü 1316 – 1 December 1335 1 December 1335 '''Khan, Ilkhan, Sultan''' '''Arpa Ke'un''' Mu'izz ad-Din Mahmud ?", "Son of Suseh son of Munkqan son of Malik-Temur son of Ariq Böke son of Tolui 1335 – 10 April 1336 10 April 1336 Killed in battle by Ali Padshah '''Khan, Ilkhan, Sultan''' '''Nasir ad-Din''' Musa ?", "Son of Ali son of Baydu 12 April 1336 – 1337 1337 Puppet of Ali Padshah, fled after being defeated by the Jalayirid Hasan Buzurg '''Khan, Ilkhan, Sultan''' Togha Temür ?", "Son of Sudi son of Bababahathor son of Abokan son of Amakan son of Tur son of Jujiqisar son of Yesugei Baghatur 1335–1353 1353 In opposition to Jalayirid and Chupanid candidates, killed by the Sarbadar Yahya Karawi '''Khan, Ilkhan, Sultan,''' '''Muzaffar ad-Din''' Muhammad ?", "Son of Yul Qotloq son of Il Temur son of Ambarji son of Mengu Temur son of Hulagu 1336–1338 1338 Puppet of Hasan Buzurg, executed by the Chupanid Hasan Kucek '''Khatun''' Sati beg 1300 Daughter of Öljaitü 1338–1339 After 1345 Puppet of Hasan Kucek, who deposed her.", "'''Khan, Ilkhan, Sultan,''' '''Izz ad-Din''' Jahan Temür ?", "Son of Ala-Fireng son of Gaykhatu 1339–1340?", "Puppet of Hasan Buzurg, who deposed him for Togha Temür.", "'''Khan, Ilkhan, Sultan''' Suleiman ?", "Husband of Sati beg and son of Yusef Shah son of Soga son of Yeshmut son of Hulagu May 1339 – 1345?", "Puppet of Hasan Kucek, fled to Diyarbakr in the disorder after his death.", "80px '''Khan, Ilkhan, Sultan''' Anushirwan ?", "?", "1344–1356?", "Puppet of the Chupanid Malek Ashraf '''Khan, Ilkhan, Sultan''' Luqman ?", "Son of Togha Temür 1353–1388?", "Puppet of Timur '''Khan, Ilkhan, Sultan''' Ghazan II ?", "?", "1356–1357?", "Puppet of Malek Ashraf" ], [ "Sarbadars (1332–1386)", "Sarbadars in 1345PortraitTitleNameBirthFamily relationsReignDeathNotes '''Amir''' '''Abd al-Razzaq ibn Fazlullah'''?", "1337–1338 1338 Revolted against Togha Temür, stabbed to death by his brother '''Amir''' '''Wajih ad-Din Masud ibn Fazlullah'''?", "brother of Abd al-Razzaq 1338–1344 1344 Captured by the Paduspanids and executed.", "'''Amir''' '''Muhammad Aytimur (1343–1346)'''?", "Unrelated to predecessors 1344–1346 1346 Overthrown and executed '''Amir''' '''Kulu Isfendiyar'''?", "Unrelated to predecessors 1346– 1347 1347 '''Amir''' '''Shams al-Din ibn Fazl Allah'''?", "brother of Abd al-Razzaq 1347?", "Forced to abdicate by successor '''Amir''' '''Khwaja Shams al-Din 'Ali'''?", "Unrelated to predecessors 1347–1351/1352 1351/1352 Assassinated by a disgruntled official '''Amir''' '''Yahya Karawi'''?", "Unrelated to predecessors 1351/1352–1355/1356 1355/1356 Eliminated Togha Temür, assassinated.", "'''Amir''' '''Zahir al-Din Karawi'''?", "Nephew of Yahya Karawi 1355/13561355/1356 Deposed by vizier '''Amir''' '''Haidar Qassab'''?", "Unrelated to predecessors 1355/13561356 Assassinated by a Turkish slave '''Amir''' '''Lutf Allah'''?", "Son of Wajih ad-Din Masud 1356–1357/1358 or 1361 1357/1358 or 1361 Deposed and executed by his vizier '''Amir''' '''Hasan al-Damghani'''?", "Unrelated to predecessors 1357/1358 or 1361–1361/1362 1361/1362 Overthrown by Dervish rebels '''Amir''' '''Khwaja 'Ali-yi Mu'ayyad ibn Masud'''?", "Unrelated to predecessors 1361/1362–1376/1377''and''1376/1377–1381?", "Restored, became vassal of Tamerlane in 1381 '''Amir''' '''Rukn ad-Din''' ?", "Unrelated to predecessors 1376/1377?", "Installed by Dervish rebels." ], [ "Chobanids (1335–1357)", "Chupanids at their greatest extentPortraitTitleNameBirthFamily relationsReignDeathNotes '''Amir''' '''Hassan Kuchak''' 1319 Son of Timurtash son of Chupan 16 July 1338 – 15 December 1343 15 December 1343 Ruled on behalf of his Il-Khanate puppets Sati Beg and Suleiman Khan.", "'''Amir''' '''Yagi Basti''' ?", "Son of Chupan 1343–1344 1344 Assassinated by his co-ruler Malek Ashraf.", "'''Amir''' '''Surgan''' 1320 Son of Chupan and Sati Beg 1343–1345 1345 Driven out by his co-ruler Malek Ashraf.", "'''Amir''' '''Malek Ashraf''' ?", "Brother of Hassan Kuchak 1343–1357 1357 Ruled on behalf of his Il-Khanate puppets Anushirwan.", "Hung by Jani Beg of the Golden Horde.", "'''Amir''' '''Temürtas''' ?", "Son of Malek Ashraf 1360 1360 Short-lived puppet of the Golden Horde." ], [ "Jalayirids (1335–1432)", "Jalayirids at their greatest extentPortraitTitleRegnal namePersonal nameBirthFamily relationsReignDeathNotes '''Ulus Beg''' '''Taj-ud-Din''' Hasan Buzurg?", "Son-in-law of Chupan 1336–1356 1356 Ruled through Ilkhanate puppets Muhammad Khan and Jahan Temür.", "'''Bahadur Khan''' '''Mu'izz-ud-dunya wa'd-Din''' Shaikh Uvais 1337–1374 Son of Hasan Buzurg 1356–1374 1374 '''Shaikh''' Hasan ?", "Son of Shaikh Uvais 1374–1374 1374 Killed by the Amirs '''Shaikh''' '''Jalal-ud-Din''' Husain I (1374–1382)?", "Son of Shaikh Uvais 1374–1382 1382 Executed by his rebellious brother Ahmed '''Shaikh''' Bayazid?", "Son of Shaikh Uvais 1382–1384 1384 In opposition to Husain and Ahmed '''Sultan''' '''Ghiyath ud-Din''' Ahmad ?", "Son of Shaikh Uvais 1383–1410 1410 In exile 1393–4, 1400–2, 1403–5.Killed in battle by Qara Yusuf '''Sultan''' '''Ala ud-Dunya''' Shah Walad?", "Son of Ali, son of Uvais 1410–1411 1411 '''Sultan''' Mahmud?", "Son of Shah Walad 1411 1425 Under regency of Tandu Khatun '''Sultan''' Uvais?", "Son of Shah Walad 1415–1421 1421 '''Sultan''' Muhammad?", "Son of Shah Walad 1421 1421 '''Sultan''' Mahmud?", "Son of Shah Walad 1421–1425 1425 Second reign Hussain?", "Son of Ala-ud-Dawlah, son of Ahmed 1425–1432 1432 Defeated by Kara Koyunlu" ], [ "Injuids (1335–1357)", "Injuids at their greatest extentPortraitTitle NameBirthFamily relationsReignDeathNotes '''Sharaf ad-Din Mahmud Shah'''?", "1304–1335 1335 Highly autonomous master of the Ilkhanate royal estates (the ''injü''), removed by Abu Sa'id, executed by Arpa Ke'un.", "'''Amir''''''Ghiyath ad-Din Kai-Khusrau'''?", "Son of Mahmud Shah 1335–1338/9 1338/9 '''Amir''' '''Jalal ad-Din Mas'ud Shah'''?", "Son of Mahmud Shah 1338–1342 1342 In opposition to Kai-Khusrau.", "Jalayirid partisan.", "Assassinated by Chupanids.", "'''Amir''' '''Shams ad-Din Muhammad'''?", "Son of Mahmud Shah 1339/40 1339/40 In opposition to Mas'ud Shah.", "Murdered by his Chupanid supporter.", "'''Amir''' '''Shaikh Abu Ishaq'''?", "Son of Mahmud Shah 1343–1357?", "Defeated & executed by the Muzaffarids" ], [ "Muzaffarids (1314–1393)", "Muzaffarids at its greatest extentPortraitTitle NameBirthFamily relationsReignDeathNotes '''Emir''' '''Mubariz ad-Din Muhammad ibn al-Muzaffar''' 1301 1314–1358 1368 Founder of the Muzaffarid dynasty '''Emir''' '''Shah Shuja'''?", "1358–1384 1384 '''Emir''' '''Zain al-Abidin''' ?", "1384–1387 1387 '''Emir''' '''Shah Yahya''' ?", "1387–1391 1391 Only ruled in Shiraz 80px '''Emir''' '''Shah Mansur''' ?", "1391–1393 1393" ], [ "Timurid Empire (1370–1467)", "Locator map of the Timurid Empire, c. 1400 Portrait Title Regnal name Personal name Birth Family relations Reign Death Notes 80px '''Amir''', '''Beg''', '''Gurkani''', '''Sahib Qiran''', '''Sultan''' '''Timur''' Timur bin Taraghai Barlas, later Timur Gurkani 9 April 1336 Son of Muhammad Taraghai 1370 – 18 February 1405 End of 1453 '''Emir''' '''Pir Muhammad''' Pir Muhammad bin Jahangir 1374 Grandson of Timur 18 February 1405 – 22 February 1407 22 February 1407 80px '''Emir, Sultan, Shah''' '''Khalil Sultan''' Khalil Sultan bin Miran Shah 1384 Grandson of Timur 18 February 1405 – 13 May 1409 13 May 1409 80px '''Mirza''' '''Shah Rukh''' Shah Rukh 30 August 1377 Son of Timur 18 February 1405 – 12 March 1447 12 March 1447 '''Mirza, Sultan''' '''Ulugh Beg''' Mirza Muhammad Tāraghay 22 March 1394 Son of Shahrukh Mirza 12 March 1447 – 27 October 1449 27 October 1449 Deposed and murdered by his successor" ], [ "Qara Qoyunlu and Aq Qoyunlu (1375–1497)", "=== Qara Qoyunlu ===Qara Qoyunlu (greatest extent) Portrait Title Regnal Name Personal Name Birth Reign Death Family relations Notes '''Bey''' '''Qara Muhammad'''''Qara Muhammad'' Turmush ibn Bairam Khwaja?", "1378–1388 1388 First Bey of Kara Koynulu '''Bey''' '''Qara Yusuf''' Abu Nasr Qara Yusuf Nuyan ibn Muhammad?", "1388–1420 1420 Reign ended by Timurid invasion '''Bey''' '''Qara Iskander''' Qara Iskander ibn Yusuf?", "1420–1436 1436 Killed '''Bey،''Padishah-i Iran''''' '''Jahan Shah''' Muzaffar al-Din Jahan Shah ibn Yusuf 1397 1438 – 11 November 1467 11 November 1467 Son of Qara Yusuf Killed by Uzun Hasan of the Ak Koyunlu '''Bey''' '''Hasan Ali''' Hasan Ali ibn Jahan Shah?", "11 November 1467 – 1468 1468 Son of Jahan Shah Killed by Uzun Hasan of the Ak Koyunlu=== Aq Quyunlu ===Ag Qoyunlu (greatest extent) Portrait TitleRegnal Name Personal Name Birth Family relations Reign Death Notes '''Bey''' '''Qara Osman''' Qara Yuluk (Nickname)?", "1378–1435 1435 For aiding Timur, he was given Diyarbakir in 1402 '''Bey''' '''Ali''' Nur al-Din Ali ibn Qara Yülük ?", "Son of Qara Osman 1435–1438 1438 '''Bey''' '''Hamza''' ?", "1403–1435 1444 '''Bey''' '''Jahangir''' M‘uizz al-Din Jahangir ibn Ali ibn Qara Yülük?", "Son of Qara Osman 1444–1453 1453 '''''Shahanshah of Iran Iran، Pādišah-ī Īrān،Bey''''' '''Uzun Hassan''' Uzun Hassan ibn Jahangir?", "Son of Jahangir 1453 – 6 January 1478 6 January 1478 '''Bey''' '''Khalil''' Khalil ibn Uzun Hasan?", "Son of Uzun Hasan 1478–1479 1479 '''Bey''' '''Yaqub''' Yaqub ibn Uzun Hasan?", "Son of Uzun Hasan 1479–1490 1490 '''Bey''' '''Baysongur''' Baysongur ibn Yaqub?", "Son of Yaqub 1490–1491 1491 '''Bey''' '''Rostam''' Rostam ibn Maqsud?", "Son of Maqsud 1491–1497 1497 '''Bey''' '''Ahmad Govde''' Ahmad Govde ibn Muhammad?", "Son of Muhammad 1497 1497 Sources:'''''Note: Medieval Persia is generally agreed to have ended with the rise of the Safavid Empire'''''" ], [ "Safavid Empire (1501–1736)", "The maximum extent of the Safavid Empire under Shah Abbas I Portrait Title Regnal name Personal name Birth Family relations Reign Death NotesSafavid dynasty (1501–1736) 80px '''Shah, Sultan, Kagan-i Suleyman shan, Pādišah-ī Īrān''' '''Ismail I''' 1487 son of Sultan Heidargrandson of Uzun Hasan from mother lineage 7 November 1502 – 23 May 1524 23 May 1524 80px '''Shah, Sahib-i-Qiran, Kagan-i Suleyman shan''' '''Tahmasp I''' 1514 son of Ismail I 23 May 1525 – 25 May 1576 25 May 1576 80px '''Shah''' '''Ismail II''' 1537\t son of Tahmasp I 25 May 1576 – 24 November 1577 24 November 1577 Poisoned (?)", "80px '''Shah, Khodabandeh, Ashraf, Soltan''' '''Mohammad I''' 1532 son of Tahmasp I 25 May 1576 – 1 October 1587 1596 Deposed 80px '''Shahanshah, Sultan, Great''' '''Abbas I the Great''' 1571 son of Mohammad I 1 October 1587 – 19 January 1629 19 January 1629 80px '''Shah, Mirza''' '''Safi''' Sam Mirza 1611 son of Mohammd Baqer (Safi) Mirza son of Abbas I 19 January 1629 – 12 May 1642 12 May 1642 80px '''Shah''' '''Abbas II''' 1632 son of Safi 12 May 1642 – 26 October 1666 26 October 1666 80px '''Shah, Hakem-ol Hokama''' '''Suleiman I''' Safi Mirza 1645 son of Abbas II 26 October 1666 – 29 July 1694 29 July 1694 80px '''Shah, Sultan, Sadr-ol Hakem''' '''Sultan Husayn''' 1668 son of Suleiman I 29 July 1694 – 11 September 1722 11 September 1722 Deposed and killed by Ashraf HotakAfghan Rebellion 80px '''Shah''' '''Mahmud Hotak''' 1697?", "son-in-law of Sultan Husayn son of Mirwais Khan Hotak 23 October 1722 – 22 April 1725 22 April 1725 Recognised as Shah of Persia after the Siege of Isfahan 80px '''Shah''' '''Ashraf Hotak''' ?", "cousin of Mahmud Hotak 22 April 1725 – 5 October 1729 5 October 1729 Ruled in opposition to Tahmasp II and lost control of Persia after the Battle of DamghanSafavid Restoration 80px '''Shah''' '''Tahmasp II''' 1704 son of Sultan Husayn 11 September 1722 – 16 April 1732 1740 Ruled in opposition to Mahmud Hotak, later deposed and killed by Nader 80px '''Shah''' '''Abbas III''' 1730 son of Tahmasp II 16 April 1732 – 22 January 1736 1739 Under control of Nader.", "Deposed and killed by Nader" ], [ "Afsharid Empire (1736–1796)", "Afsharid dynasty at its greatest extent Portrait Title Regnal name Personal name Birth Family relations Reign Death NotesAfsharid dynasty (1736–1796) 80px '''Shahanshah, Sultan, Hakem-ol Hokama, Hazrat-e Ashraf, Zel- ol Allah''' '''Nader Shah''' Nadhar Qoli Khan 1698 son of Imam Qoli Beig Afshar 22 January 1736 – 19 June 1747 19 June 1747 Before crowning his title was Tahmasp Qoli Khan.", "Killed 80px '''Shah''' '''Adil Shah''' Ali Qoli Beig 1719/20 son of Mohammad Ebrahim Khan brother of Nader 19 June 1747 – 29 July 17481749 Deposed, blinded and killed by Ebrahim 80px '''Shah''' '''Ebrahim Afshar''' Mohammd Ali Beig 1724 son of Mohammad Ebrahim Khan brother of Nader 29 July 1748 – 3 September 17481749 Deposed and killed by Shahrukh Afshar 80px '''Shah''' '''Shahrukh Afshar''' 1734 son of Reza Qoli Mirza son of Nader.", "His mother was Fatemeh Soltan Beigom daughter of Sultan Husayn I Safavi 3 September 1748 – 1796 1796 Deposed & blinded by Suleiman II (1749), restored (1750)Brief Safavid control (1749–1750)80px '''Shah''' '''Suleiman II of Persia''' Mir Sayyed Mohammad Marashi ?", "Pretender to the Safavid throne 1749–1750?", "Removed and blindedAfsharid restoration (1750–1796) 80px '''Shah''' '''Shahrukh Afshar''' 1734 son of Reza Qoli Mirza son of Nader.", "His mother was Fatemeh Soltan Beigom daughter of Sultan Husayn I Safavi 3 September 1748 – 1796 1796 Deposed & blinded by Suleiman II (1749), restored (1750)" ], [ "Zand Kingdom (1751–1794)", "Map of the Zand dynasty during the reign of Lotf Ali Khan Portrait Title Regnal name Personal name Birth Reign Death Family relations NotesZand dynasty (1751–1794) 80px '''Khan, Vakil e-Ro'aayaa''' '''Karim Khan Zand''' Mohammad Karim 1705 1751 – 6 March 1779 6 March 1779 son of Inaq Khan & Bay Agha Had Ismail III as a Safavid prince, who reigned as a figurehead under the authority of Ali Mardan Khan Bakhtiari briefly from 1750 to 1751, and then under the Zand ruler Karim Khan Zand from 1751 till his death in 1773.", "'''Khan''' '''Mohammad Ali Khan Zand''' 1760 6 March 1779 – 19 June 1779 19 June 1779 son of Karim '''Khan''' '''Abol-Fath Khan Zand''' 1755 6 March 1779 – 22 August 1779 1787 son of Karim '''Khan''' '''Zaki Khan Zand''' ?", "6 March 1779 – 22 August 1779 22 August 1779 son of Budaq Khan & Bay Agha 80px '''Khan''' '''Sadeq Khan Zand''' Mohammad Sadeq ?", "22 August 1779 – 14 March 1781 1782 son of Inaq Khan & Bay Agha 80px '''Khan''' '''Ali-Morad Khan Zand''' 1720 14 March 1781 – 11 February 1785 11 February 1785 son of Allah Morad (Qeytas) Khan Zand Hazareh 80px '''Khan''' '''Jafar Khan''' ?", "18 February 1785 – 23 January 1789 23 January 1789 son of Sadeq 80px '''Khan''' '''Sayed Morad Khan''' ?", "23 January 1789 – 10 May 1789 10 May 1789 son of Khoda Morad Khan Zand Hazareh 80px '''Khan''' '''Lotf Ali Khan''' 1769 23 January 1789 – 20 March 1794 20 March 1794 son of Ja'far Deposed, blinded and killed by Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar" ], [ "Qajar Empire (1794–1925)", "Map of the Qajar dynasty during the reign of Agha Mohammad Shah" ], [ "Pahlavi Empire (1925–1979)", "Map of the Pahlavi dynasty with modern international borders" ], [ "See also", " Achaemenid Empire* Great Civilization* History of Iran* List of ancient Persians* List of royal consorts of Persia* Monarchism in Iran* 2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire* Iranian National Jewels* List of rulers of the pre-Achaemenid kingdoms of Iran* List of rulers of Parthian sub-kingdoms* Islamic dynasties of Iran" ], [ "Notes and references" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Assar, G.R.F., \"Genealogy & Coinage of the Early Parthian Rulers.", "I\", Parthica, 6, 2004, pp. 69–93.", "* Assar, G.R.F., \"Genealogy & Coinage of the Early Parthian Rulers, II a revised stemma\", Parthica, 7, 2005, pp. 29–63.", "* Assar, G.R.F., \"Moses of Choren & the Early Parthian Chronology\", Electrum, vol.", "11, 2006, pp. 61–86.", "* Assar, G.R.F., \"A Revised Parthian Chronology of the Period 165–91 B.C.", "\", Electrum, vol.", "11, 2006, pp. 87–158.", "* Assar, G.R.F., \"A Revised Parthian Chronology of the Period 91–55 B.C.", "\", Parthica, 8, 2006, pp. 55–104.", "* Briant, Pierre, \"From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire\", 2002.", "* * * Cameron, George, \"History of Early Iran\", Chicago, 1936 (repr., Chicago, 1969; tr.", "E.-J.", "Levin, L’histoire de l’Iran antique, Paris, 1937; tr.", "H. Anusheh, ایران در سپیده دم تاریخ, Tehran, 1993)* D’yakonov, I. M., \"Istoriya Midii ot drevenĭshikh vremen do kontsa IV beka de e.E\" (The history of Media from ancient times to the end of the 4th century BC), Moscow and Leningrad, 1956; tr.", "Karim Kešāvarz as Tāriḵ-e Mād, Tehran, 1966.", "* Dandamaev, Muhammad A., \"Persien unter den ersten Achämeniden (6.Jahrhundert v.", "Chr.", ")\", tr.", "Heinz-Dieter Pohl, Wiesbaden, 1976.", "* Qashqai, H., \"The successors of Mithridates II\", Bulletin of Ancient Iranian History (UCLA), vol.", "5, March 2009.", "(in Persian)* Henkelman, wouter.", "Defining Neo-Elamite History.", "ARTA, 2003.", "* Hinz, W., \"The Lost World of Elam\", London, 1972 (tr.", "F. Firuznia, دنیای گمشده ایلام, Tehran, 1992)* Josephus Flavius, Antiquities of the Jews.", "* Justi, Ferdinand, \"Iranisches Namenbuch\", Tehran, Asatir, 2003.", "* Legrain, Leon, \"Historical Fragments\", Philadelphia, The University of Pennsylvania Museum Publications of the Babylonian Section, vol.", "XIII, 1922.", "* Majidzadeh, Yusef, \"History and civilization of Elam\", Tehran, Iran University Press, 1991.", "* Majidzadeh, Yusef, \"History and civilization of Mesopotamia\", Tehran, Iran University Press, 1997, vol.1.", "* Miroschedji, P. de, 'La fin du royaume de l’Ansˇan et de Suse et la naissance de l’empire perse', 1985, ZA 75, pp. 265–306.", "* Nöldeke, Theodor, \"Geschichte der Perser und Araber zur Zeit der Sasaniden.", "Aus der arabischen Chronik des Tabari übersetzt\" (1879)* Olmstead, A. T., \"History of the Persian Empire\", Chicago, 1948* Plutarch, Lives.", "* Polybius, The Histories.", "* Potts, D. T., The Archaeology of Elam, Cambridge University Press, 1999.", "* Reade, Julian E. Elam after the Assyrian Sack of Susa in 647 B.C.", "NABU, 2000.", "* Tacitus, The Annals.", "* Tavernier, Jan.", "Some Thoughts on Neo-Elamite Chronology.", "ARTA, 2004.", "* * * * * * * * * * Vallat, Francois.", "Elam: The History of Elam.", "''Encyclopædia Iranica'', vol.", "VIII pp.", "301–313.London/New York, 1998.", "* Vallat, Francois.", "Shutruk-Nahunte, Shutur-Nahunte et l'imbroglio neo-elamite.", "NABU, 1995.", "* Vallat, Francois.", "Le royaume elamite de SAMATI.", "NABU, 1996.", "* Vallat, Francois.", "Les pretendus fonctionnaires Unsak des texts neo-elamites et achemenides.", "ARTA, 2002.", "* Vallat, Francois.", "Le royaume elamite de Zamin et les 'Letters de Nineveh'.", "Iranica Antique, 33, 1998.pp.", "95–106." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Homology" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Homology''' may refer to:" ], [ "Sciences", "=== Biology ===Homology (biology), any characteristic of biological organisms that is derived from a common ancestorSequence homology, biological homology between DNA, RNA, or protein sequencesHomologous chromosomes, chromosomes in a biological cell that pair up (synapse) during meiosisHomologous recombination, genetic recombination in which nucleotide sequences are exchanged between molecules of DNAHomologous desensitization, a receptor decreases its response to a signalling molecule when that agonist is in high concentrationHomology modeling, a method of protein structure prediction=== Chemistry ===Homologous series, a series of organic compounds having different quantities of a repeated unitHomologous temperature, the temperature of a material as a fraction of its absolute melting pointHomologation reaction, a chemical reaction which produces the next logical member of a homologous series=== Other sciences ===Homology (anthropology), analogy between human beliefs, practices or artifacts owing to genetic or historical connectionsHomology (psychology), behavioral characteristics that have common origins in either evolution or developmentHomologous behaviors, behaviors typical of species that share a common ancestor that was characterized by that behavior OR behaviors in an individual that share common origins in developmentHomology (sociology), a structural resonance between the different elements making up a socio-cultural whole" ], [ "Mathematics", "Homology (mathematics), a procedure to associate a sequence of abelian groups or modules with a given mathematical objectHomological algebra, a branch of mathematics" ], [ "Other uses", "Homologation, from the ancient Greek \"to agree\", to indicate the approval of a sanctioning bodyHomologation (motorsport), the process in motorsports where the sanctioning body approves a racing model for official useHomological word, a word expressing a property which it possesses itself" ], [ "See also", " Homological dimension (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Henry J. Heinz" ], [ "Introduction", "F.L.", "Brown, S.P.", "Leet, Reverend J.G.", "Holdcroft, Marion Lawrence, Henry John Heinz, and Bishop Joseph Crane Hartzell in 1917'''Henry John Heinz''' (October 11, 1844 – May 14, 1919) was an American entrepreneur who, at the age of 25, co-founded a small horseradish business in Sharpsburg, Pennsylvania.", "This business failed, but his second business expanded into tomato ketchup and other condiments, and ultimately became the internationally known H. J. Heinz Company of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.He was involved in the passage of the 1906 Pure Food and Drug Act.", "Many of his descendants are known for philanthropy and involvement in politics and public affairs.", "His fortune became the basis for the Heinz Foundations." ], [ "Early life", "Henry John Heinz was born in Birmingham, Pennsylvania to John Henry Heinz (1811–1891) and Anna Margaretha Schmidt (1822–1899).", "John Henry was born Johann Heinrich Heinz to parents Johann Georg and Charlotte Louisa (née Trump) Heinz in Kallstadt of the Palatinate, which at that time was part of the Kingdom of Bavaria.", "In 1840, John Henry emigrated to Birmingham, where he got a job making bricks and then met and married Ann in 1843, who herself had recently emigrated from (today a part of Haunetal), Hesse-Kassel.", "Then when Henry was five years old, his parents moved to Sharpsburg where Henry’s father went into the brick making business for himself.", "Anna Schmidt was the daughter of a farmer and church administrator, Johann Adam Schmidt, and his wife Dorothea (Thiel) Schmidt.", "Anna came from Hesse-Kassel, which was a Reformed Protestant (Calvinist) territory, so she was raised in the Calvinist Christian faith.", "Anna's husband, John Heinz, was a Lutheran, and they raised and confirmed their son to that faith." ], [ "H. J. Heinz Company", "Henry John Heinz began packing foodstuffs on a small scale at Sharpsburg, Pennsylvania, in 1869.There, he founded Heinz Noble & Company with a friend, L. Clarence Noble, and started marketing bottled horseradish, soon followed by sauerkraut, vinegar, and pickles.", "The company went bankrupt in 1875.The following year, Heinz founded another company, F & J Heinz, with his brother John Heinz and a cousin, Frederick Heinz.The company continued to grow and, in 1888, Heinz bought out his other two partners and reorganized it as the H. J. Heinz Company, the name carried to the present day.", "The company's slogan, \"57 varieties,\" was introduced by Heinz in 1896; by then, the company was selling more than 60 different products.", "Heinz said he chose \"5\" because it was his lucky number; the number \"7\" was his wife's lucky number.The H. J. Heinz Company was incorporated in 1905 with Heinz serving as its first president, retaining that position for the rest of his life.", "At the time of Heinz's death in Pittsburgh at the age of 74, the H. J. Heinz Company had more than 20 food processing plants and owned seed farms and container factories." ], [ "Later life", "Heinz led a successful lobbying effort in favor of the Pure Food and Drug Act in 1906.During World War I, he worked with the Food Administration.", "He was a director in many financial institutions, and was chairman of a committee to devise ways of protecting Pittsburgh from floods.===Marriage and family===Heinz married Sarah Sloan Young on September 3, 1869.She was of Scots-Irish ancestry and had grown up in the Presbyterian Church.", "They had five children:* Irene Edwilda Heinz-Given (1871–1956)* Clarence Henry Heinz (1873–1920)* Howard Covode Heinz (1877–1941)* Robert Eugene Heinz (1882–1882, lived about 1 month)* Clifford Sloan Heinz (1883–1935)They were raised as Presbyterians.===Religious faith===Henry J. Heinz in 1917Later in life Heinz worshipped as a member of Methodist and Presbyterian churches, and worked closely with Baptists as well.When Heinz visited England, his \"tourist stops\" included the graves of religious leaders John Bunyan, Isaac Watts, and John Wesley.", "He visited a chapel that Wesley founded, later writing that \"I felt I was upon holy ground.\"", "At the beginning of his will Heinz wrote: \"I desire to set forth, at the very beginning of this Will, as the most important item in it, a confession of my faith in Jesus Christ as my Savior.\"" ], [ "Death and legacy", "Heinz died at his home on May 14, 1919, after contracting pneumonia.", "His funeral was at East Liberty Presbyterian Church.", "He was buried at Homewood Cemetery in Pittsburgh, in the Heinz Family Mausoleum.A bronze statue of Heinz by Emil Fuchs was dedicated on October 11, 1924, at the Heinz Company building in Pittsburgh.Heinz is the grandfather of H. J. Heinz II (1908–1987) the great-grandfather of U.S.", "Senator H. John Heinz III (1938–1991) of Pennsylvania (who was later buried in the same family mausoleum), and great-great grandfather of Henry John Heinz IV, André Thierstein Heinz and Christopher Drake Heinz.Through his paternal grandmother, Charlotte Louisa Trump, he was a second cousin of Friedrich Trump, second cousin (once removed) of real estate magnate Fred Trump, and second cousin (twice removed) of 45th President of the United States, Donald Trump." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* \"Henry Heinz and Brand Creation in the Late Nineteenth Century: Making Markets for Processed Food\" by Nancy Koehn.", "''The Business History Review'', Vol.", "73 (Autumn, 1999), pp.", "349–393., reprinted in Koehn, Nancy F. Koehn, ''Brand New : How Entrepreneurs Earned Consumers' Trust from Wedgwood to Dell'' (2001) pp 43–90." ], [ "External links" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Heinz" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''H.", "J. Heinz Company''' () was an American food processing company headquartered at One PPG Place in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.", "The company was founded by Henry J. Heinz in 1869.Heinz manufactures thousands of food products in plants on six continents, and markets these products in more than 200 countries and territories.", "The company claims to have 150 number-one or number-two brands worldwide.", "Heinz ranked first in ketchup in the US with a market share in excess of 50%; the Ore-Ida label held 46% of the frozen potato sector in 2003.Since 1896, the company used its \"57 Varieties\" slogan; it was inspired by a sign advertising 21 styles of shoes, and Henry Heinz chose the number 57 even though the company manufactured more than 60 products at the time, because \"5\" was his lucky number and \"7\" was his wife's.In February 2013, Heinz agreed to be purchased by Berkshire Hathaway and the Brazilian investment firm 3G Capital for $23billion.", "On March 25, 2015, Kraft announced its merger with Heinz, arranged by Berkshire Hathaway and 3G Capital.", "The resulting Kraft Heinz Company is the fifth largest food company in the world.", "Berkshire Hathaway became a majority owner of Heinz on June 18, 2015.After exercising a warrant to acquire 46 million shares of common stock for a total price of over $461million, Berkshire increased its stake to 52.5%.", "The merger to form Kraft Heinz was completed on July 2, 2015." ], [ "History", "===Foundation===Henry J. Heinz, founderHeinz was founded by and is named for Henry J. Heinz, who was born in the United States to German immigrants.", "His father was originally from Kallstadt (then part of the Bavarian Rhenish Palatinate, now part of Rhineland-Palatinate).", "His mother Anna was from Haunetal, Hesse-Kassel, and they met in Pittsburgh.Heinz trade card from the 19th century, promoting various products.", "Features the Heinz pickle.", "Display of canned products of Heinz Company in the window of the store Tousignant & Frère, Wellington Street, Verdun, Quebec, 1944Henry J. Heinz began packing foodstuffs on a small scale at Sharpsburg, Pennsylvania, in 1869.There he founded Heinz Noble & Company with a friend, L. Clarence Noble, and began marketing horseradish.", "The first product in Heinz and Noble's new Anchor Brand (a name selected for its biblical meaning of hope) was his mother Anna Heinz's recipe for horseradish.", "The young Heinz manufactured it in the basement of his father's former house.The company went bankrupt in 1875.The following year Heinz founded another company, F & J Heinz, with his brother John Heinz and a cousin, Frederick Heinz.", "One of this company's first products was Heinz Tomato Ketchup.", "The company continued to grow.In 1888, Heinz bought out his two partners and reorganized the company as the H. J. Heinz Company.", "Its slogan, \"57 varieties\", was introduced by Heinz in 1896.Inspired by an advertisement he saw while riding an elevated train in New York City (a shoe store boasting \"21 styles\"), Heinz picked the number more or less at random because he liked the sound of it, selecting \"7\" specifically because, as he put it, of the \"psychological influence of that figure and of its enduring significance to people of all ages\".===20th century===In 1905, H. J. Heinz was incorporated, and Heinz served as its first president, holding that position for the rest of his life.", "Under his leadership, the company pioneered processes for sanitary food preparation, and led a successful lobbying effort in favor of the Pure Food and Drug Act in 1906.In 1908 he established a processing plant in Leamington, Ontario, Canada for tomatoes and other products.", "Heinz operated it until 2014, when it was sold.Heinz was a pioneer in both scientific and \"technological innovations to solve problems like bacterial contamination\".", "He personally worked to control the \"purity of his products by managing his employees\", offering hot showers and weekly manicures for the women handling food.", "During World War I, he worked with the Food Administration.In 1914, Heinz Salad Cream was invented in England.In 1930, Howard Heinz, son of Henry Heinz, helped to fight the downturn of the Great Depression by selling ready-to-serve soups and baby food.", "They became top sellers.The Pittsburgh plant included a large \"Heinz service building\", which included three dining rooms and a 3,000-seat auditorium.", "The auditorium included a pipe organ, and Heinz employed an organist to give recitals and musical programs.", "The original organ was severely damaged in the 1936 Pittsburgh floods, it was replaced with a new Kimball organ that had four manuals and 57 sets of pipes.", "The original organ was restored and installed in Grace Methodist Church in Sharpsburg.During World War II, \"Jack\" Heinz led the company as president and CEO to aid the United Kingdom and offset food shortages.", "Its plant in Pittsburgh was converted for a time to manufacture gliders for the War Department.In the postwar years, Jack Heinz expanded the company to develop plants in several nations overseas, greatly expanding its international presence.", "He also acquired Ore-Ida and Starkist Tuna.In 1959, long-time Heinz employee Frank Armour Jr. was elected president and COO of H. J. Heinz Co., succeeding H. J. Heinz II.", "He was the first non-family member to hold the job since the company started in 1869.He became vice chairman in 1966, and later became chairman and CEO of Heinz subsidiary, Ore-Ida Foods Inc.In 1969, Tony O'Reilly joined the company's UK subsidiary, soon becoming its managing director.", "He moved to Pittsburgh in 1971 when he was promoted to senior vice president for the North America and Pacific region.", "By 1973, Heinz selected him as president.", "He became CEO in 1979 and chairman in 1987.Heinz Oven-Baked Beans newspaper ad from 1919Between 1981 and 1991, Heinz returned 28% annually, doubling the Standard & Poor's average annual return for those years.", "By 2000, the consolidation of grocery store chains, the spread of retailers such as Walmart, and growth of private-label brands caused competition for shelf space, and put price pressure on the company's products.", "The decline was also attributed to an inadequate response to broad demographic changes in the United States, particularly the growth in population among Hispanic and increased spending power of African Americans.Secondary logo since 1989In 1998, Tony O'Reilly left Heinz after issues with the company's performance.", "He faced challenges from corporate governance groups and pension funds including CalPERS.", "He was succeeded by his deputy, William R. Johnson.===21st century===In 2001, Heinz acquired the pasta sauce, dry bouillon and soup business of Borden Foods.", "CEO William R. Johnson stated that \"They fit very well with our tomato-based expertise\".On August 22, 2001, Heinz announced that it would acquire the Anchor Food Products' branded products, which included the Poppers line of appetizers, as well as the licensing rights to the TGI Fridays brand of frozen foods and appetizers.", "The acquisition was completed on September 25.Billionaire Nelson Peltz initiated a proxy battle during 2006, culminating in a vote to place five of Peltz's nominees on the Board.", "After the final vote, two of the five nominees joined the Heinz Board.", "The new members of the board were Nelson Peltz and Matthew Craig Walsh.In 2002, Heinz announced that it had sold the StarKist and 9Lives brands to Del Monte Foods.In June 2008, Heinz began an advertising campaign in the UK for their new \"New York Deli Mayo\" products.", "The advertisement featured two men kissing in a family setting, which drew 200 complaints to the Advertising Standards Authority.", "On June 24, 2008, Heinz withdrew the advertisement, which had been planned for a five-week run.", "The company said that some of its customers had expressed concerns.", "Withdrawing the advert was also controversial, with critics accusing Heinz of homophobia.", "The gay rights group Stonewall called for a boycott of Heinz products.", "Some expressed surprise that it had responded to what they said was a relatively small number of complaints, compared to the UK's estimated 3.6 million gay and lesbian consumers.", "MP Diane Abbott called the decision to withdraw the advert \"ill-considered\" and \"likely to offend the gay community\".On February 14, 2013, it was announced that Heinz would be purchased by Berkshire Hathaway and 3G Capital for $23billion.", "Including debt assumption the transaction was valued at $28billion.", "According to Heinz, the deal was the largest in food industry history.", "Berkshire Hathaway and 3G would each own half of Heinz, with 3G running the company.", "Berkshire and 3G paid $72.50 a share.", "The acquisition was completed in June of that year.", "Berkshire and 3G immediately named Bernardo Hees, former chief executive of Burger King Worldwide Inc, as the CEO.On August 13, 2013, Heinz announced it was cutting 600 jobs in North America.On October 25, 2013, fast-food chain McDonald's announced it would end its 40-year relationship with Heinz, after the former Burger King, McDonald's competitor, chief Hees became CEO of Heinz.====Heinz and Kraft merger====On March 25, 2015, Kraft Foods Group Inc. announced that it would merge with the H. J. Heinz Company, owned by 3G Capital and Berkshire Hathaway Inc., to form the world's fifth-largest food and beverage company.", "The companies completed the merger on July 2, 2015." ], [ "Brands", "* ABC* Bull's-Eye* Classico* McDonald's Chicken Nuggets 6 box pack* Complan* Daddies* Devour* * Delimex* Diana Sauce* Farex* Greenseas* Heinz* HP Sauce* Jack Daniel's sauces (under license)* Lea & Perrins* Ore-Ida* Bagel Bites* T.G.I.", "Friday's (under license)* Wattie's* Weight Watchers (under license)* Wyler's" ], [ "Products", "* Beanz* Italian Beanz* Lentil Curry* Mexican Beanz* No Added Sugar Beanz* No Added Sugar Beanz Snap Pots* Organic Beanz* Peri Peri Beanz* Pork Sausage Beanz* Smokey Bacon Beanz* Spanish Beanz* Tikka Beanz (Limited Edition)* Jalfrezi Beanz (Limited Edition)* Vindaloo Beanz (Limited Edition)===Dressings===* Balsamic With a hint of Garlic* Chilli & Lime* Raspberry Balsamic* Zesty Lemon===Pastas===* Alphabetti* Beef Ravioli* Hoops* Hoops Snap Pots* Macaroni Cheese * Micro Spaghetti Snap Pots* No Added Sugar Hoops* Numberetti* Peppa Pig Pasta Shapes* Spaghetti* Spaghetti Bolognese* Spaghetti With Sausages===Sauces===* Mayonnaise* Light Mayonnaise* Garlic & Caramelized Onion Mayonnaise * Truffle Mayonnaise * Lemon & Black Pepper Mayonnaise * Salad Cream* Salad Cream 30% Less Fat* Salad Cream 70% Less Fat* Classic Barbecue Sauce* Sticky Barbecue Sauce* Sweet & Spicy Barbecue Sauce* American Style Smokey Baconnaise Sauce* Korean Style Sticky Barbecue Sauce* American Style Burger Sauce* Thai Style Sweet Chilli Sauce * Thai Style Coconut Lime Sauce* Turkish Style Garlic Sauce* Mild Yellow Mustard* Honey Yellow Mustard * Piccalilli Pickle * Ploughman's Pickle* Original Sandwich Spread* Light Sandwich Spread * Saucy Sauce (Mayo & Ketchup Sauce)* Tomato Ketchup* Aromatic Herbs Ketchup * Balsamic Vinegar Ketchup * Fiery Chilli Tomato Ketchup* Jalapeño Chilli Tomato Ketchup* Organic Tomato Ketchup* Roasted Garlic Ketchup* Sweet Chilli Tomato Ketchup* Firecracker===Soups===* Cream of Tomato* Cream of Chicken* Vegetable* Cream of Mushroom * Cream of Tomato with a Kick of Chilli* Lentil* Oxtail* Organic Cream of Tomato * Beef Broth * Carrot and Coriander * Cream of Chicken and Mushroom * Chicken and Sweetcorn* Chicken Noodle Soup* Lentil & Bacon* Minestrone * Mulligatawny * No Added Sugar Cream of Tomato * No Added Sugar Vegetable* Pea & Ham* Potato & Leek* Scotch Broth* Spring Vegetable * Cream of Tomato with Basil* Cream of Tomato Cup Soup* Vegetable Cup Soup* Cream of Tomato with a Kick of Chilli Cup Soup* Cream of Chicken Cup Soup * Cream of Mushroom Cup Soup* Cream of Tomato with Basil Cup Soup* Minestrone Cup Soup* Oxtail Cup Soup* Spiced Butternut Squash & Chickpea Eatwell Soup * Tomato & Cannellini Eatwell Soup* Tomato Spinach & Lentil Eatwell Soup* Cream of Chicken Pot Soup* Cream of Mushroom Pot Soup* Cream of Tomato Pot Soup* Smooth Vegetable Pot Soup* Cauliflower, Onion & Potato Soup of the Day* Chicken, Parsnip & Rosemary Soup of the Day* Green Garden Vegetables Soup of the Day* Mushroom & Toasted Garlic Soup of the Day* Potato & Leek with chives Soup of the Day* Spice Pumpkin, Sweet Potato & Carrot Soup of the Day* Tomato, Roasted Garlic & Black Pepper Soup of the Day" ], [ "International presence", "===United States===The company's world headquarters were in Chicago, Illinois, with the H. J. Heinz division located in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, where the company was founded.", "The company's \"keystone\" logo was based on that of Pennsylvania, the \"keystone state\".", "Heinz Field was named after the Heinz company in 2001.A majority of its ketchup was produced in Fremont, Ohio, and the rest made in Muscatine, Iowa.Heinz opened a pickle factory in Holland, Michigan, in 1897, and it is the largest such facility in the world.", "The Heinz Portion Control subsidiary is located in Jacksonville, Florida, and produces single-serving containers of ketchup, mustard, salad dressings, jams, jellies and syrups.Heinz also had factories in the following locations: Arizona (Phoenix); California (Chatsworth, Escalon, Irvine, San Diego); Florida (Fort Myers); Idaho (Pocatello); Iowa (Cedar Rapids, Muscatine); Massachusetts (Newburyport); Ohio (Mason, Massillon); Oregon (Ontario), and South Carolina (Florence).In 2000, seven retailers, including Walmart, Albertsons, and Safeway, comprised half of the company's sales by volume.===Australia===Heinz-Watties factory in Wagga Wagga, New South WalesHeinz Australia's head office is located in Melbourne.", "Products include canned baked beans in tomato sauce (popularized in the \"beanz meanz Heinz\" advertising campaign), spaghetti in a similar sauce, and canned soup, condensed soup, and \"ready to eat\" soups.Heinz manufactures \"Big Red\" tomato sauce, and a number of flavored baked bean varieties, as well as canned meals.", "Heinz also markets the Wattie's brand of canned foods, which are made in New Zealand.On October 6, 2008, Heinz announced plans to acquire the Australian company Golden Circle which \"manufactures more than 500 products, including canned fruit and vegetables, fruit juices, drinks, cordials and jams\".On May 27, 2011, Heinz announced it would close its factory in Girgarre, Victoria, and downsize its factories in Northgate (Brisbane), and Wagga Wagga, with loss of more than 300 jobs.", "Heinz has other factories in Echuca and Mill Park.On January 6, 2012, Heinz closed its tomato sauce factory in Girgarre as announced in the previous May.", "146 workers lost their jobs.", "A local group was seeking to purchase the factory and start its own production, with offers of financial assistance from investors.", "The group's first offer for the site was rejected by Heinz.", "Girgarre was the second to last tomato sauce factory in Australia, and its closing brought an end to Heinz's 70 years of tomato processing operations in Australia.As of May 2020 Kraft Heinz is said to potentially be in discussions with Graeme Hart to sell off the brands of Wattie's in New Zealand and Golden Circle in Australia.===Canada===The former Heinz plant, Leamington, OntarioHeinz was established in Canada in 1908 in a former tobacco factory in Leamington, Ontario (known as the Tomato Capital of Canada).", "Most products shipped from Leamington have bilingual English and French labels for distribution throughout Canada, but a substantial amount of product is sent from there to the US.", "Ketchup is the main product produced there, and the city has been a center of tomato production.", "The factory also produces Canada Fancy (Grade A) tomato juice, mustard, vinegar, baby food, barbecue sauces, canned pastas, beans, pasta sauces, gravies and soups.", "Heinz Canada is the major supplier of single-serving and flexible-packaging condiments for most fast food chains in Canada.", "Leamington is the largest tomato-processing region per acreage in the world.", "The Leamington plant usually processes more than 250,000 tons of tomatoes per year.", "Heinz Canada's head office is in North York, Ontario; it also has operations in St. Marys, Ontario; Montreal, Quebec; and Calgary, Alberta.On November 14, 2013, Heinz announced that the Leamington facility, the second-largest in the company, would close sometime in May 2014.Ketchup processing operations were to be consolidated at the company's US locations.", "Over 800 local jobs were lost due to the town's largest employer ending operations there.", "A local effort began in an attempt to save the 105-year-old Leamington plant, and it included creating a Facebook page to gather support.", "On February 27, 2014, the Highbury Canco Corporation signed a letter of intent to acquire and operate the facility.", "In April it was reported that Highbury Canco Corporation had received a one-year license to process tomatoes at the facility, saving some 250 jobs.As a result of this corporate restructuring and the angry Canadian response, a rival food company, French's, began producing their own ketchup brand using Leamington produce.", "It marketed the brand with an appeal to Canadian patriotism.", "This successful campaign, combined with a Canadian grassroots effort on Facebook encouraging purchasing of the French's product, resulted in Heinz's market share in Canada dropping from 84 to 76%, a significant shift in a mature market.", "This undesirable development was exacerbated in 2018 when Canadian tariffs were erected against specific American exports, which includes ketchup produced in the United States, in retaliation to the US President Trump's tariffs on Canadian steel and aluminum exports.", "Heinz conducted a belated public relations campaign in Canada to try to counter the public anger against them, a task made more difficult by public sentiment rising to encourage a boycott of American goods in reaction of US President Trump's rhetoric against Canada.===India===Heinz Ketchup is available in India in two varieties, the standard Tomato Ketchup and Tomato Chili Sauce.", "As Indian taste preferences vary among the regions, Western brands such as Heinz must work on Indian interpretations of ketchups for sale in the country.", "Heinz acquired the former foods division of Glaxo India, gaining the Complan, Glucon D, Glucon C, Sampriti Ghee, and Nycil products and brands.", "In 2019, Heinz sold a portion of the business, including Complan and Glucon-D, for $627.18 million to Zydus Wellness.===Indonesia===Sambal Asli ABC, a Heinz ABC productH.", "J. Heinz Company entered Indonesia in 1999, when it acquired 65 percent share of PT.", "ABC Central Food, for US$70 million, and formed PT.", "Heinz ABC Indonesia.", "The company is based in Jakarta, and manufactures sauces, condiments, juices and syrups.Serving demand from Indonesia's large population and growing economy, in the early 21st century PT.", "Heinz ABC Indonesia is the largest Heinz's business in Asia, and one of the largest in the world.", "It employs 3000 employees, has 3 production facilities, 8 packing facilities, and an extensive distribution network in Java and other parts of Indonesia.", "Their leading products are Syrup ABC (fruit syrup), Kecap ABC (sweet soy sauce), and Sambal ABC (hot chili sauce).===Netherlands===Heinz sells many products in the Netherlands; the Elst factory in Gelderland is the primary production facility for Heinz sauces for Western Europe.", "In 2006, production of both HP Sauce and Daddies was transferred from Birmingham, West Midlands to Elst as a result of the acquisition of HP Foods and the subsequent closure of the Aston factory.", "Subsequently, Heinz suffered severe supply issues for the ex-HP Foods brands as the Elst factory struggled to integrate production, resulting in significant negative coverage from UK retailers.", "Heinz was forced to begin bottling sauce in Spain, shipping ready-made sauce from Elst, to get product back into supply.===United Kingdom===The Heinz Monument (the 1864 chimney of the former Cape Cornwall Mine, visible in the centre) commemorates the purchase of Cape Cornwall for the nation by H. J. Heinz Company.", "The ruins of St. Helens Oratory can be seen on the left, with the two offshore rocks called.", "The Brisons in the distance.After opening its first overseas office in London in 1896, the company opened its first UK factory in Peckham, south London in 1905.This was followed by a factory at Harlesden, north-west London in 1919.Bombed twice in World War II, this factory remained in production until 2000.Production was started at a former munitions factory at Standish near Wigan in 1946, before the new factory at Kitt Green, near Wigan, opened in 1959.Heinz also had an infant food factory in Kendal, Cumbria.", "The site specialized in baby milks, previously under the brand of Farley's, but then manufactured under the name Heinz Nurture.Heinz produces oriental foods sold under the Amoy brand, once used under license from Ajinomoto Co. Inc., Tokyo, Japan.", "In 2018, Amoy Food was sold to the new owners, CITIC Capital Asian Foods Holdings Ltd.In July 2001, the Food Standards Agency of the Government of the United Kingdom found Heinz canned baked beans products to be contaminated with the hormone disruptor bisphenol.In 2013, the Kitt Green facility was listed as one among the world's five largest manufacturing units by the Discovery Channel (the list comprised Reliance's Jamnagar Refinery, Volkswagen's car plant, Kitt Green Foods plant, NASA's Kennedy Space Center and POSCO's steel plant).", "It was Europe's largest food factory and turns over more than 1 billion cans every year.===China===On February 22, 2013, Sanquan Food, a Chinese frozen food company, signed a contract to purchase LongFong Food, a subsidiary of Heinz Company in China.", "With this sale, Heinz (China) will focus on infant foods and sauces in emerging markets such as China.", "Heinz Hong Kong Limited is the regional office serving for operations in Hong Kong, China and Taiwan.===New Zealand===Heinz produces frozen vegetables for export for the New Zealand and Australian market.", "They also produce mayonnaise and other sauces for the New Zealand and Australian market.", "Most products sold in New Zealand are sold under the brand name \"Watties\"." ], [ "See also", "* Heinz Sandwich Spread* Heinz pickle pin" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Condon, Richard (1959).", "''The Manchurian Candidate''.", "McGraw-Hill.", "(The Berkeley Publishing Group paperback edition).", "* Dienstag, Eleanor Foa (1994).", "''In Good Company: 125 Years at the Heinz Table''.", "Warner Books." ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Huffman coding" ], [ "Introduction", "}In computer science and information theory, a '''Huffman code''' is a particular type of optimal prefix code that is commonly used for lossless data compression.", "The process of finding or using such a code is '''Huffman coding''', an algorithm developed by David A. Huffman while he was a Sc.D.", "student at MIT, and published in the 1952 paper \"A Method for the Construction of Minimum-Redundancy Codes\".The output from Huffman's algorithm can be viewed as a variable-length code table for encoding a source symbol (such as a character in a file).", "The algorithm derives this table from the estimated probability or frequency of occurrence (''weight'') for each possible value of the source symbol.", "As in other entropy encoding methods, more common symbols are generally represented using fewer bits than less common symbols.", "Huffman's method can be efficiently implemented, finding a code in time linear to the number of input weights if these weights are sorted.", "However, although optimal among methods encoding symbols separately, Huffman coding is not always optimal among all compression methods - it is replaced with arithmetic coding or asymmetric numeral systems if a better compression ratio is required." ], [ "History", "In 1951, David A. Huffman and his MIT information theory classmates were given the choice of a term paper or a final exam.", "The professor, Robert M. Fano, assigned a term paper on the problem of finding the most efficient binary code.", "Huffman, unable to prove any codes were the most efficient, was about to give up and start studying for the final when he hit upon the idea of using a frequency-sorted binary tree and quickly proved this method the most efficient.In doing so, Huffman outdid Fano, who had worked with Claude Shannon to develop a similar code.", "Building the tree from the bottom up guaranteed optimality, unlike the top-down approach of Shannon–Fano coding." ], [ "Terminology", "Huffman coding uses a specific method for choosing the representation for each symbol, resulting in a prefix code (sometimes called \"prefix-free codes\", that is, the bit string representing some particular symbol is never a prefix of the bit string representing any other symbol).", "Huffman coding is such a widespread method for creating prefix codes that the term \"Huffman code\" is widely used as a synonym for \"prefix code\" even when such a code is not produced by Huffman's algorithm." ], [ "Problem definition", "Constructing a Huffman Tree=== Informal description ===;Given: A set of symbols and their weights (usually proportional to probabilities).", ";Find: A prefix-free binary code (a set of codewords) with minimum expected codeword length (equivalently, a tree with minimum weighted path length from the root).=== Formalized description ==='''Input'''.Alphabet , which is the symbol alphabet of size .", "Tuple , which is the tuple of the (positive) symbol weights (usually proportional to probabilities), i.e.", ".", "'''Output'''.Code , which is the tuple of (binary) codewords, where is the codeword for .", "'''Goal'''.Let be the weighted path length of code .", "Condition: for any code .=== Example ===We give an example of the result of Huffman coding for a code with five characters and given weights.", "We will not verify that it minimizes ''L'' over all codes, but we will compute ''L'' and compare it to the Shannon entropy ''H'' of the given set of weights; the result is nearly optimal.", "Input (''A'', ''W'') Symbol () a b c d e Sum Weights () 0.10 0.15 0.30 0.16 0.29 = 1 Output ''C'' Codewords () 010 011 11 00 10 Codeword length (in bits)() 3 3 2 2 2 Contribution to weighted path length( ) 0.30 0.45 0.60 0.32 0.58 ''L''(''C'') = 2.25 Optimality Probability budget() 1/8 1/8 1/4 1/4 1/4 = 1.00 Information content (in bits)() ≈ 3.32 2.74 1.74 2.64 1.79 Contribution to entropy() 0.332 0.411 0.521 0.423 0.518 ''H''(''A'') = 2.205For any code that is ''biunique'', meaning that the code is ''uniquely decodeable'', the sum of the probability budgets across all symbols is always less than or equal to one.", "In this example, the sum is strictly equal to one; as a result, the code is termed a ''complete'' code.", "If this is not the case, one can always derive an equivalent code by adding extra symbols (with associated null probabilities), to make the code complete while keeping it ''biunique''.As defined by Shannon (1948), the information content ''h'' (in bits) of each symbol ''a''i with non-null probability is:The entropy ''H'' (in bits) is the weighted sum, across all symbols with non-zero probability , of the information content of each symbol::(Note: A symbol with zero probability has zero contribution to the entropy, since .", "So for simplicity, symbols with zero probability can be left out of the formula above.", ")As a consequence of Shannon's source coding theorem, the entropy is a measure of the smallest codeword length that is theoretically possible for the given alphabet with associated weights.", "In this example, the weighted average codeword length is 2.25 bits per symbol, only slightly larger than the calculated entropy of 2.205 bits per symbol.", "So not only is this code optimal in the sense that no other feasible code performs better, but it is very close to the theoretical limit established by Shannon.In general, a Huffman code need not be unique.", "Thus the set of Huffman codes for a given probability distribution is a non-empty subset of the codes minimizing for that probability distribution.", "(However, for each minimizing codeword length assignment, there exists at least one Huffman code with those lengths.)" ], [ "Basic technique", "===Compression===Visualisation of the use of Huffman coding to encode the message \"A_DEAD_DAD_CEDED_A_BAD_BABE_A_BEADED_ABACA_BED\".", "In steps 2 to 6, the letters are sorted by increasing frequency, and the least frequent two at each step are combined and reinserted into the list, and a partial tree is constructed.", "The final tree in step 6 is traversed to generate the dictionary in step 7.Step 8 uses it to encode the message.entropy of the source is 1.74 bits/symbol.", "If this Huffman code is used to represent the signal, then the average length is lowered to 1.85 bits/symbol; it is still far from the theoretical limit because the probabilities of the symbols are different from negative powers of two.The technique works by creating a binary tree of nodes.", "These can be stored in a regular array, the size of which depends on the number of symbols, .", "A node can be either a leaf node or an internal node.", "Initially, all nodes are leaf nodes, which contain the '''symbol''' itself, the '''weight''' (frequency of appearance) of the symbol and optionally, a link to a '''parent''' node which makes it easy to read the code (in reverse) starting from a leaf node.", "Internal nodes contain a '''weight''', links to '''two child nodes''' and an optional link to a '''parent''' node.", "As a common convention, bit '0' represents following the left child and bit '1' represents following the right child.", "A finished tree has up to leaf nodes and internal nodes.", "A Huffman tree that omits unused symbols produces the most optimal code lengths.The process begins with the leaf nodes containing the probabilities of the symbol they represent.", "Then, the process takes the two nodes with smallest probability, and creates a new internal node having these two nodes as children.", "The weight of the new node is set to the sum of the weight of the children.", "We then apply the process again, on the new internal node and on the remaining nodes (i.e., we exclude the two leaf nodes), we repeat this process until only one node remains, which is the root of the Huffman tree.The simplest construction algorithm uses a priority queue where the node with lowest probability is given highest priority:# Create a leaf node for each symbol and add it to the priority queue.# While there is more than one node in the queue:## Remove the two nodes of highest priority (lowest probability) from the queue## Create a new internal node with these two nodes as children and with probability equal to the sum of the two nodes' probabilities.## Add the new node to the queue.# The remaining node is the root node and the tree is complete.Since efficient priority queue data structures require O(log ''n'') time per insertion, and a tree with ''n'' leaves has 2''n''−1 nodes, this algorithm operates in O(''n'' log ''n'') time, where ''n'' is the number of symbols.If the symbols are sorted by probability, there is a linear-time (O(''n'')) method to create a Huffman tree using two queues, the first one containing the initial weights (along with pointers to the associated leaves), and combined weights (along with pointers to the trees) being put in the back of the second queue.", "This assures that the lowest weight is always kept at the front of one of the two queues:#Start with as many leaves as there are symbols.#Enqueue all leaf nodes into the first queue (by probability in increasing order so that the least likely item is in the head of the queue).#While there is more than one node in the queues:##Dequeue the two nodes with the lowest weight by examining the fronts of both queues.##Create a new internal node, with the two just-removed nodes as children (either node can be either child) and the sum of their weights as the new weight.##Enqueue the new node into the rear of the second queue.#The remaining node is the root node; the tree has now been generated.Once the Huffman tree has been generated, it is traversed to generate a dictionary which maps the symbols to binary codes as follows:#Start with current node set to the root.#If node is not a leaf node, label the edge to the left child as ''0'' and the edge to the right child as ''1''.", "Repeat the process at both the left child and the right child.The final encoding of any symbol is then read by a concatenation of the labels on the edges along the path from the root node to the symbol.In many cases, time complexity is not very important in the choice of algorithm here, since ''n'' here is the number of symbols in the alphabet, which is typically a very small number (compared to the length of the message to be encoded); whereas complexity analysis concerns the behavior when ''n'' grows to be very large.It is generally beneficial to minimize the variance of codeword length.", "For example, a communication buffer receiving Huffman-encoded data may need to be larger to deal with especially long symbols if the tree is especially unbalanced.", "To minimize variance, simply break ties between queues by choosing the item in the first queue.", "This modification will retain the mathematical optimality of the Huffman coding while both minimizing variance and minimizing the length of the longest character code.===Decompression===Generally speaking, the process of decompression is simply a matter of translating the stream of prefix codes to individual byte values, usually by traversing the Huffman tree node by node as each bit is read from the input stream (reaching a leaf node necessarily terminates the search for that particular byte value).", "Before this can take place, however, the Huffman tree must be somehow reconstructed.", "In the simplest case, where character frequencies are fairly predictable, the tree can be preconstructed (and even statistically adjusted on each compression cycle) and thus reused every time, at the expense of at least some measure of compression efficiency.", "Otherwise, the information to reconstruct the tree must be sent a priori.", "A naive approach might be to prepend the frequency count of each character to the compression stream.", "Unfortunately, the overhead in such a case could amount to several kilobytes, so this method has little practical use.", "If the data is compressed using canonical encoding, the compression model can be precisely reconstructed with just bits of information (where is the number of bits per symbol).", "Another method is to simply prepend the Huffman tree, bit by bit, to the output stream.", "For example, assuming that the value of 0 represents a parent node and 1 a leaf node, whenever the latter is encountered the tree building routine simply reads the next 8 bits to determine the character value of that particular leaf.", "The process continues recursively until the last leaf node is reached; at that point, the Huffman tree will thus be faithfully reconstructed.", "The overhead using such a method ranges from roughly 2 to 320 bytes (assuming an 8-bit alphabet).", "Many other techniques are possible as well.", "In any case, since the compressed data can include unused \"trailing bits\" the decompressor must be able to determine when to stop producing output.", "This can be accomplished by either transmitting the length of the decompressed data along with the compression model or by defining a special code symbol to signify the end of input (the latter method can adversely affect code length optimality, however)." ], [ "Main properties", "The probabilities used can be generic ones for the application domain that are based on average experience, or they can be the actual frequencies found in the text being compressed.This requires that a frequency table must be stored with the compressed text.", "See the Decompression section above for more information about the various techniques employed for this purpose.=== Optimality ===Huffman's original algorithm is optimal for a symbol-by-symbol coding with a known input probability distribution, i.e., separately encoding unrelated symbols in such a data stream.", "However, it is not optimal when the symbol-by-symbol restriction is dropped, or when the probability mass functions are unknown.", "Also, if symbols are not independent and identically distributed, a single code may be insufficient for optimality.", "Other methods such as arithmetic coding often have better compression capability.Although both aforementioned methods can combine an arbitrary number of symbols for more efficient coding and generally adapt to the actual input statistics, arithmetic coding does so without significantly increasing its computational or algorithmic complexities (though the simplest version is slower and more complex than Huffman coding).", "Such flexibility is especially useful when input probabilities are not precisely known or vary significantly within the stream.", "However, Huffman coding is usually faster and arithmetic coding was historically a subject of some concern over patent issues.", "Thus many technologies have historically avoided arithmetic coding in favor of Huffman and other prefix coding techniques.", "As of mid-2010, the most commonly used techniques for this alternative to Huffman coding have passed into the public domain as the early patents have expired.For a set of symbols with a uniform probability distribution and a number of members which is a power of two, Huffman coding is equivalent to simple binary block encoding, e.g., ASCII coding.", "This reflects the fact that compression is not possible with such an input, no matter what the compression method, i.e., doing nothing to the data is the optimal thing to do.Huffman coding is optimal among all methods in any case where each input symbol is a known independent and identically distributed random variable having a probability that is dyadic.", "Prefix codes, and thus Huffman coding in particular, tend to have inefficiency on small alphabets, where probabilities often fall between these optimal (dyadic) points.", "The worst case for Huffman coding can happen when the probability of the most likely symbol far exceeds 2−1 = 0.5, making the upper limit of inefficiency unbounded.There are two related approaches for getting around this particular inefficiency while still using Huffman coding.", "Combining a fixed number of symbols together (\"blocking\") often increases (and never decreases) compression.", "As the size of the block approaches infinity, Huffman coding theoretically approaches the entropy limit, i.e., optimal compression.", "However, blocking arbitrarily large groups of symbols is impractical, as the complexity of a Huffman code is linear in the number of possibilities to be encoded, a number that is exponential in the size of a block.", "This limits the amount of blocking that is done in practice.A practical alternative, in widespread use, is run-length encoding.", "This technique adds one step in advance of entropy coding, specifically counting (runs) of repeated symbols, which are then encoded.", "For the simple case of Bernoulli processes, Golomb coding is optimal among prefix codes for coding run length, a fact proved via the techniques of Huffman coding.", "A similar approach is taken by fax machines using modified Huffman coding.", "However, run-length coding is not as adaptable to as many input types as other compression technologies." ], [ "Variations", "Many variations of Huffman coding exist, some of which use a Huffman-like algorithm, and others of which find optimal prefix codes (while, for example, putting different restrictions on the output).", "Note that, in the latter case, the method need not be Huffman-like, and, indeed, need not even be polynomial time.=== ''n''-ary Huffman coding ===The '''''n''-ary Huffman''' algorithm uses the {0, 1,..., ''n'' − 1} alphabet to encode message and build an ''n''-ary tree.", "This approach was considered by Huffman in his original paper.", "The same algorithm applies as for binary () codes, except that the ''n'' least probable symbols are taken together, instead of just the 2 least probable.", "Note that for ''n'' greater than 2, not all sets of source words can properly form an ''n''-ary tree for Huffman coding.", "In these cases, additional 0-probability place holders must be added.", "This is because the tree must form an ''n'' to 1 contractor; for binary coding, this is a 2 to 1 contractor, and any sized set can form such a contractor.", "If the number of source words is congruent to 1 modulo ''n''−1, then the set of source words will form a proper Huffman tree.=== Adaptive Huffman coding ===A variation called '''adaptive Huffman coding''' involves calculating the probabilities dynamically based on recent actual frequencies in the sequence of source symbols, and changing the coding tree structure to match the updated probability estimates.", "It is used rarely in practice, since the cost of updating the tree makes it slower than optimized adaptive arithmetic coding, which is more flexible and has better compression.=== Huffman template algorithm ===Most often, the weights used in implementations of Huffman coding represent numeric probabilities, but the algorithm given above does not require this; it requires only that the weights form a totally ordered commutative monoid, meaning a way to order weights and to add them.", "The '''Huffman template algorithm''' enables one to use any kind of weights (costs, frequencies, pairs of weights, non-numerical weights) and one of many combining methods (not just addition).", "Such algorithms can solve other minimization problems, such as minimizing , a problem first applied to circuit design.=== Length-limited Huffman coding/minimum variance Huffman coding ==='''Length-limited Huffman coding''' is a variant where the goal is still to achieve a minimum weighted path length, but there is an additional restriction that the length of each codeword must be less than a given constant.", "The package-merge algorithm solves this problem with a simple greedy approach very similar to that used by Huffman's algorithm.", "Its time complexity is , where is the maximum length of a codeword.", "No algorithm is known to solve this problem in or time, unlike the presorted and unsorted conventional Huffman problems, respectively.=== Huffman coding with unequal letter costs ===In the standard Huffman coding problem, it is assumed that each symbol in the set that the code words are constructed from has an equal cost to transmit: a code word whose length is ''N'' digits will always have a cost of ''N'', no matter how many of those digits are 0s, how many are 1s, etc.", "When working under this assumption, minimizing the total cost of the message and minimizing the total number of digits are the same thing.", "''Huffman coding with unequal letter costs'' is the generalization without this assumption: the letters of the encoding alphabet may have non-uniform lengths, due to characteristics of the transmission medium.", "An example is the encoding alphabet of Morse code, where a 'dash' takes longer to send than a 'dot', and therefore the cost of a dash in transmission time is higher.", "The goal is still to minimize the weighted average codeword length, but it is no longer sufficient just to minimize the number of symbols used by the message.", "No algorithm is known to solve this in the same manner or with the same efficiency as conventional Huffman coding, though it has been solved by Karp whose solution has been refined for the case of integer costs by Golin.=== Optimal alphabetic binary trees (Hu–Tucker coding) ===In the standard Huffman coding problem, it is assumed that any codeword can correspond to any input symbol.", "In the alphabetic version, the alphabetic order of inputs and outputs must be identical.", "Thus, for example, could not be assigned code , but instead should be assigned either or .", "This is also known as the '''Hu–Tucker''' problem, after T. C. Hu and Alan Tucker, the authors of the paper presenting the first -time solution to this optimal binary alphabetic problem, which has some similarities to Huffman algorithm, but is not a variation of this algorithm.", "A later method, the Garsia–Wachs algorithm of Adriano Garsia and Michelle L. Wachs (1977), uses simpler logic to perform the same comparisons in the same total time bound.", "These optimal alphabetic binary trees are often used as binary search trees.=== The canonical Huffman code ===If weights corresponding to the alphabetically ordered inputs are in numerical order, the Huffman code has the same lengths as the optimal alphabetic code, which can be found from calculating these lengths, rendering Hu–Tucker coding unnecessary.", "The code resulting from numerically (re-)ordered input is sometimes called the ''canonical Huffman code'' and is often the code used in practice, due to ease of encoding/decoding.", "The technique for finding this code is sometimes called '''Huffman–Shannon–Fano coding''', since it is optimal like Huffman coding, but alphabetic in weight probability, like Shannon–Fano coding.", "The Huffman–Shannon–Fano code corresponding to the example is , which, having the same codeword lengths as the original solution, is also optimal.", "But in ''canonical Huffman code'', the result is ." ], [ "Applications", "Arithmetic coding and Huffman coding produce equivalent results — achieving entropy — when every symbol has a probability of the form 1/2''k''.", "In other circumstances, arithmetic coding can offer better compression than Huffman coding because — intuitively — its \"code words\" can have effectively non-integer bit lengths, whereas code words in prefix codes such as Huffman codes can only have an integer number of bits.", "Therefore, a code word of length ''k'' only optimally matches a symbol of probability 1/2''k'' and other probabilities are not represented optimally; whereas the code word length in arithmetic coding can be made to exactly match the true probability of the symbol.", "This difference is especially striking for small alphabet sizes.Prefix codes nevertheless remain in wide use because of their simplicity, high speed, and lack of patent coverage.", "They are often used as a \"back-end\" to other compression methods.", "Deflate (PKZIP's algorithm) and multimedia codecs such as JPEG and MP3 have a front-end model and quantization followed by the use of prefix codes; these are often called \"Huffman codes\" even though most applications use pre-defined variable-length codes rather than codes designed using Huffman's algorithm." ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Thomas H. Cormen, Charles E. Leiserson, Ronald L. Rivest, and Clifford Stein.", "''Introduction to Algorithms'', Second Edition.", "MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001..", "Section 16.3, pp.", "385–392." ], [ "External links", "* Huffman coding in various languages on Rosetta Code* Huffman codes (python implementation)* A visualization of Huffman coding" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "High-density lipoprotein" ], [ "Introduction", "''' High-density lipoprotein '''('''HDL''') is one of the five major groups of lipoproteins.", "Lipoproteins are complex particles composed of multiple proteins which transport all fat molecules (lipids) around the body within the water outside cells.", "They are typically composed of 80–100 proteins per particle (organized by one, two or three ApoA).", "HDL particles enlarge while circulating in the blood, aggregating more fat molecules and transporting up to hundreds of fat molecules per particle." ], [ "Overview", "Lipoproteins are divided into five subgroups, by density/size (an inverse relationship), which also correlates with function and incidence of cardiovascular events.", "Unlike the larger lipoprotein particles, which deliver fat molecules to cells, HDL particles remove fat molecules from cells.", "The lipids carried include cholesterol, phospholipids, and triglycerides, amounts of each are variable.Increasing concentrations of HDL particles are associated with decreasing accumulation of atherosclerosis within the walls of arteries, reducing the risk of sudden plaque ruptures, cardiovascular disease, stroke and other vascular diseases.", "HDL particles are commonly referred to as \"good cholesterol\", because they transport fat molecules out of artery walls, reduce macrophage accumulation, and thus help prevent or even regress atherosclerosis.", "However, recent investigations have shown that very high concentrations of HDL particles can be associated with an increased mortality risk and an increased cardiovascular risk, especially in hypertensive patients." ], [ "Testing", "Because of the high cost of directly measuring HDL and LDL (low-density lipoprotein) protein particles, blood tests are commonly performed for the surrogate value, HDL-C, i.e.", "the cholesterol associated with ApoA-1/HDL particles.", "In healthy individuals, about 30% of blood cholesterol, along with other fats, is carried by HDL.", "This is often contrasted with the amount of cholesterol estimated to be carried within low-density lipoprotein particles, LDL, and called LDL-C. HDL particles remove fats and cholesterol from cells, including within artery wall atheroma, and transport it back to the liver for excretion or re-utilization; thus the cholesterol carried within HDL particles (HDL-C) is sometimes called \"good cholesterol\" (despite being the same as cholesterol in LDL particles).", "Those with higher levels of HDL-C tend to have fewer problems with cardiovascular diseases, while those with low HDL-C cholesterol levels (especially less than 40 mg/dL or about 1 mmol/L) have increased rates for heart disease.", "Higher native HDL levels are correlated with lowered risk of cardiovascular disease in healthy people.The remainder of the serum cholesterol after subtracting the HDL is the '''non-HDL cholesterol'''.", "The concentration of these other components, which may cause atheroma, is known as the '''non-HDL-C'''.", "This is now preferred to LDL-C as a secondary marker as it has been shown to be a better predictor and it is more easily calculated." ], [ "Structure and function", "With a size ranging from 5 to 17 nm, HDL is the smallest of the lipoprotein particles.", "It is the densest because it contains the highest proportion of protein to lipids.", "Its most abundant apolipoproteins are apo A-I and apo A-II.", "A rare genetic variant, ApoA-1 Milano, has been documented to be far more effective in both protecting against and regressing arterial disease, atherosclerosis.The liver synthesizes these lipoproteins as complexes of apolipoproteins and phospholipid, which resemble cholesterol-free flattened spherical lipoprotein particles, whose NMR structure was recently published; the complexes are capable of picking up cholesterol, carried internally, from cells by interaction with the ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1).", "A plasma enzyme called lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT) converts the free cholesterol into cholesteryl ester (a more hydrophobic form of cholesterol), which is then sequestered into the core of the lipoprotein particle, eventually causing the newly synthesized HDL to assume a spherical shape.", "HDL particles increase in size as they circulate through the blood and incorporate more cholesterol and phospholipid molecules from cells and other lipoproteins, such as by interaction with the ABCG1 transporter and the phospholipid transport protein (PLTP).HDL transports cholesterol mostly to the liver or steroidogenic organs such as adrenals, ovary, and testes by both direct and indirect pathways.", "HDL is removed by HDL receptors such as scavenger receptor BI (SR-BI), which mediate the selective uptake of cholesterol from HDL.", "In humans, probably the most relevant pathway is the indirect one, which is mediated by cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP).", "This protein exchanges triglycerides of VLDL against cholesteryl esters of HDL.", "As the result, VLDLs are processed to LDL, which are removed from the circulation by the LDL receptor pathway.", "The triglycerides are not stable in HDL, but are degraded by hepatic lipase so that, finally, small HDL particles are left, which restart the uptake of cholesterol from cells.The cholesterol delivered to the liver is excreted into the bile and, hence, intestine either directly or indirectly after conversion into bile acids.", "Delivery of HDL cholesterol to adrenals, ovaries, and testes is important for the synthesis of steroid hormones.400pxSeveral steps in the metabolism of HDL can participate in the transport of cholesterol from lipid-laden macrophages of atherosclerotic arteries, termed foam cells, to the liver for secretion into the bile.", "This pathway has been termed ''reverse cholesterol transport'' and is considered as the classical protective function of HDL toward atherosclerosis.HDL carries many lipid and protein species, several of which have very low concentrations but are biologically very active.", "For example, HDL and its protein and lipid constituents help to inhibit oxidation, inflammation, activation of the endothelium, coagulation, and platelet aggregation.", "All these properties may contribute to the ability of HDL to protect from atherosclerosis, and it is not yet known which are the most important.", "In addition, a small subfraction of HDL lends protection against the protozoan parasite ''Trypanosoma brucei brucei''.", "This HDL subfraction, termed trypanosome lytic factor (TLF), contains specialized proteins that, while very active, are unique to the TLF molecule.In the stress response, serum amyloid A, which is one of the acute-phase proteins and an apolipoprotein, is under the stimulation of cytokines (interleukin 1, interleukin 6), and cortisol produced in the adrenal cortex and carried to the damaged tissue incorporated into HDL particles.", "At the inflammation site, it attracts and activates leukocytes.", "In chronic inflammations, its deposition in the tissues manifests itself as amyloidosis.It has been postulated that the concentration of large HDL particles more accurately reflects protective action, as opposed to the concentration of total HDL particles.", "This ratio of large HDL to total HDL particles varies widely and is measured only by more sophisticated lipoprotein assays using either electrophoresis (the original method developed in the 1970s) or newer NMR spectroscopy methods (See also nuclear magnetic resonance and spectroscopy), developed in the 1990s.=== Subfractions ===Five subfractions of HDL have been identified.", "From largest (and most effective in cholesterol removal) to smallest (and least effective), the types are 2a, 2b, 3a, 3b, and 3c." ], [ "Epidemiology", "Men tend to have noticeably lower HDL concentrations, with smaller size and lower cholesterol content, than women.", "Men also have a greater incidence of atherosclerotic heart disease.", "Recent studies confirm the fact that HDL has a buffering role in balancing the effects of the hypercoagulable state in type 2 diabetics and decreases the high risk of cardiovascular complications in these patients.", "Also, the results obtained in this study revealed that there was a significant negative correlation between HDL and activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT).Epidemiological studies have shown that high concentrations of HDL (over 60 mg/dL) have protective value against cardiovascular diseases such as ischemic stroke and myocardial infarction.", "Low concentrations of HDL (below 40 mg/dL for men, below 50 mg/dL for women) increase the risk for atherosclerotic diseases.Data from the landmark Framingham Heart Study showed that, for a given level of LDL, the risk of heart disease increases 10-fold as the HDL varies from high to low.", "On the converse, however, for a fixed level of HDL, the risk increases 3-fold as LDL varies from low to high.", "Even people with very low LDL levels under statins treatment are exposed to increased risk if their HDL levels are not high enough." ], [ "Estimating HDL via associated cholesterol", "Clinical laboratories formerly measured HDL cholesterol by separating other lipoprotein fractions using either ultracentrifugation or chemical precipitation with divalent ions such as Mg2+, then coupling the products of a cholesterol oxidase reaction to an indicator reaction.", "The reference method still uses a combination of these techniques.", "Most laboratories now use automated homogeneous analytical methods in which lipoproteins containing apo B are blocked using antibodies to apo B, then a colorimetric enzyme reaction measures cholesterol in the non-blocked HDL particles.", "HPLC can also be used.", "Subfractions (HDL-2C, HDL-3C) can be measured, but clinical significance of these subfractions has not been determined.", "The measurement of apo-A reactive capacity can be used to measure HDL cholesterol but is thought to be less accurate.=== Recommended ranges ===The American Heart Association, NIH and NCEP provide a set of guidelines for fasting HDL levels and risk for heart disease.", "Level mg/dL Level mmol/L Interpretation 59 >1.55 High HDL level, optimal condition considered correlated against heart diseaseHigh LDL with low HDL level is an additional risk factor for cardiovascular disease." ], [ "Measuring HDL concentration and sizes", "As technology has reduced costs and clinical trials have continued to demonstrate the importance of HDL, methods for directly measuring HDL concentrations and size (which indicates function) at lower costs have become more widely available and increasingly regarded as important for assessing individual risk for progressive arterial disease and treatment methods.=== Electrophoresis measurements ===Since the HDL particles have a net negative charge and vary by density & size, ultracentrifugation combined with electrophoresis have been utilized since before 1950 to enumerate the concentration of HDL particles and sort them by size with a specific volume of blood plasma.", "Larger HDL particles are carrying more cholesterol.=== NMR measurements ===Concentration and sizes of lipoprotein particles can be estimated using nuclear magnetic resonance fingerprinting.==== Optimal total and large HDL concentrations ====The HDL particle concentrations are typically categorized by event rate percentiles based on the people participating and being tracked in the MESA trial, a medical research study sponsored by the United States National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute.+ Total HDL particle Table MESA Percentile Total HDL particles μmol/L Interpretation >75% >34.9 Those with highest (Optimal) total HDL particle concentrations & lowest rates of cardiovascular disease events 50–75% 30.5–34.5 Those with moderately high total HDL particle concentrations & moderate rates of cardiovascular disease events 25–50% 26.7–30.5 Those with lower total HDL particle concentrations & Borderline-High rates of cardiovascular disease 0–25% 75% >7.3 Those with highest (Optimal) Large HDL particle concentrations & lowest rates of cardiovascular disease events 50–75% 4.8–7.3 Those with moderately high Large HDL particle concentrations & moderate rates of cardiovascular disease events 25–50% 3.1–4.8 Those with lower Large HDL particle concentrations & Borderline-High rates of cardiovascular disease 0–25% 75%) and the highest concentrations of large HDL particles.", "Multiple additional measures, including LDL particle concentrations, small LDL particle concentrations, VLDL concentrations, estimations of insulin resistance and standard cholesterol lipid measurements (for comparison of the plasma data with the estimation methods discussed above) are routinely provided in clinical testing." ], [ "Increasing HDL levels", "While higher HDL levels are correlated with lower risk of cardiovascular diseases, no medication used to increase HDL has been proven to improve health.", "As of 2017, numerous lifestyle changes and drugs to increase HDL levels were under study.HDL lipoprotein particles that bear apolipoprotein C3 are associated with increased, rather than decreased, risk for coronary heart disease.=== Diet and exercise ===Certain changes in diet and exercise may have a positive impact on raising HDL levels:* Decreased intake of simple carbohydrates.", "* Aerobic exercise* Weight loss* Avocado consumption* Magnesium supplements raise HDL-C.* Addition of soluble fiber to diet* Consumption of omega-3 fatty acids such as fish oil or flax oil* Increased intake of unsaturated fats* Removal of trans fatty acids from the dietMost saturated fats increase HDL cholesterol to varying degrees but also raise total and LDL cholesterol.=== Recreational drugs ===HDL levels can be increased by smoking cessation, or mild to moderate alcohol intake.Cannabis in unadjusted analyses, past and current cannabis use was not associated with higher HDL-C levels.", "A study performed in 4635 patients demonstrated no effect on the HDL-C levels (P=0.78) the mean (standard error) HDL-C values in control subjects (never used), past users and current users were 53.4 (0.4), 53.9 (0.6) and 53.9 (0.7) mg/dL, respectively.Exogenous anabolic androgenic steroids, particularly 17α-alkylated anabolic steroids and others administered orally, can reduce HDL-C by 50 percent or more.", "Other androgen receptor agonists such as selective androgen receptor modulators can also lower HDL.", "As there is some evidence that the HDL reduction is caused by increased reverse cholesterol transport, it is unknown if AR agonists' HDL-lowering effect is pro- or anti-atherogenic.=== Pharmaceutical drugs and niacin ===Pharmacological therapy to increase the level of HDL cholesterol includes use of fibrates and niacin.", "Fibrates have not been proven to have an effect on overall deaths from all causes, despite their effects on lipids.Niacin (nicotinic acid, a form of vitamin B3) increases HDL by selectively inhibiting hepatic diacylglycerol acyltransferase 2, reducing triglyceride synthesis and VLDL secretion through a receptor HM74 otherwise known as niacin receptor 2 and HM74A / GPR109A, niacin receptor 1.Pharmacologic (1- to 3-gram/day) niacin doses increase HDL levels by 10–30%, making it the most powerful agent to increase HDL-cholesterol.", "A randomized clinical trial demonstrated that treatment with niacin can significantly reduce atherosclerosis progression and cardiovascular events.", "Niacin products sold as \"no-flush\", ''i.e.''", "not having side-effects such as \"niacin flush\", do not, however, contain free nicotinic acid and are therefore ineffective at raising HDL, while products sold as \"sustained-release\" may contain free nicotinic acid, but \"some brands are hepatotoxic\"; therefore the recommended form of niacin for raising HDL is the cheapest, immediate-release preparation.", "Both fibrates and niacin increase artery toxic homocysteine, an effect that can be counteracted by also consuming a multivitamin with relatively high amounts of the B-vitamins, but multiple European trials of the most popular B-vitamin cocktails, trial showing 30% average reduction in homocysteine, while not showing problems have also not shown any benefit in reducing cardiovascular event rates.", "A 2011 extended-release niacin (Niaspan) study was halted early because patients adding niacin to their statin treatment showed no increase in heart health, but did experience an increase in the risk of stroke.In contrast, while the use of statins is effective against high levels of LDL cholesterol, most have little or no effect in raising HDL cholesterol.", "Rosuvastatin and pitavastatin, however, have been demonstrated to significantly raise HDL levels.Lovaza has been shown to increase HDL-C.", "However, the best evidence to date suggests it has no benefit for primary or secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease.The PPAR modulator GW501516 has shown a positive effect on HDL-C and an antiatherogenic where LDL is an issue.", "However, research on the drug has been discontinued after it was discovered to cause rapid cancer development in several organs in rats." ], [ "See also", "* Asymmetric dimethylarginine* Cardiovascular disease* Cholesteryl ester storage disease* Endothelium* Lipid profile* Lysosomal acid lipase deficiency" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Honolulu" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Honolulu''' ( ; ) is the capital and most populous city of the U.S. state of Hawaii, which is in the Pacific Ocean.", "An unincorporated city, it is the county seat of the consolidated City and County of Honolulu, situated along the southeast coast of the island of Oʻahu, and is the westernmost and southernmost major U.S. city.", "Honolulu is Hawaii's main gateway to the world.", "It is also a major hub for business, finance, hospitality, and military defense in both the state and Oceania.", "The city is characterized by a mix of various Asian, Western, and Pacific cultures, reflected in its diverse demography, cuisine, and traditions.", "''Honolulu'' means \"sheltered harbor\" or \"calm port\" in Hawaiian; its old name, '''''Kou''''', roughly encompasses the area from Nuʻuanu Avenue to Alakea Street and from Hotel Street to Queen Street, which is the heart of the present downtown district.", "The city's desirability as a port accounts for its historical growth and importance in the Hawaiian archipelago and the broader Pacific region.", "Honolulu has been the capital of the Hawaiian Islands since 1845, firstly of the independent Hawaiian Kingdom, and since 1898 of the U.S. territory and state of Hawaii.", "The city gained worldwide recognition following the Empire of Japan's attack on nearby Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, which prompted the entry of the U.S. into World War II; the harbor remains a major U.S. Navy base, hosting the United States Pacific Fleet, the world's largest naval command.Hawaii is the only state with no incorporated places below the county level.", "The U.S. Census Bureau recognizes the approximate area commonly referred to as the \"City of Honolulu\" as a census county division (CCD).", "As of the 2020 U.S. Census, the population of Honolulu was 350,964, while that of the urban Honolulu census-designated place (CDP) was 802,459.The Urban Honolulu Metropolitan Statistical Area had 1,016,508 residents in 2020.With over 300,000 residents, Honolulu is the most populous Oceanian city outside Australasia.Honolulu's favorable tropical climate, rich natural scenery, and extensive beaches make it a popular global destination for tourists.", "With over 2.7 million visitors as of 2019, Honolulu is the seventh-most visited city in the United States after New York City, Miami, Los Angeles, Orlando, San Francisco, and Las Vegas." ], [ "History", "Evidence of the first settlement of Honolulu by the original Polynesian migrants to the archipelago comes from oral histories and artifacts.", "These indicate that there was a settlement where Honolulu now stands in the 11th century.", "After Kamehameha I conquered Oʻahu in the Battle of Nuuanu at Nuuanu Pali, he moved his royal court from the Island of Hawaiʻi to Waikīkī in 1804.His court relocated in 1809 to what is now downtown Honolulu.", "The capital was moved back to Kailua-Kona in 1812.In November 1794, Captain William Brown of Great Britain was the first foreigner to sail into what is now Honolulu Harbor.", "More foreign ships followed, making the port of Honolulu a focal point for merchant ships traveling between North America and Asia.", "The settlement grew from a handful of homes to a city in the early 19th century after Kamehameha I chose it as a replacement for his residence at Waikiki in 1810.In 1850, Kamehameha III moved the permanent capital of the Hawaiian Kingdom from Lahaina on Maui to Honolulu.", "He and the kings who followed him transformed Honolulu into a modern capital, erecting buildings such as St. Andrew's Cathedral, Iolani Palace, and Aliiōlani Hale.", "At the same time, Honolulu became the islands' center of commerce, with descendants of American missionaries establishing major businesses downtown.Despite the turbulent history of the late 19th century and early 20th century—such as the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy in 1893, Hawaiʻi's annexation by the U.S. in 1898, a large fire in 1900, and the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941—Honolulu remained the Hawaiian Islands' capital, largest city, and main airport and seaport.A view of the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 from Japanese planes.", "The torpedo explosion in the center is on the USS ''West Virginia''.An economic and tourism boom following statehood brought rapid economic growth to Honolulu and Hawaiʻi.", "Modern air travel brings, , 7.6 million visitors annually to the islands, with 62.3% entering at Honolulu International Airport.", "Today, Honolulu is a modern city with numerous high-rise buildings, and Waikīkī is the center of the tourism industry in Hawaiʻi, with thousands of hotel rooms." ], [ "Geography", "HNL Airport, and Pearl Harbor taken from the International Space StationAccording to the United States Census Bureau, the Urban Honolulu CDP has an area of , of which , or 11.56%, is water.Honolulu is the remotest major U.S. city and one of the remotest in the world.", "The closest location in mainland U.S. is the Point Arena Lighthouse in northern California, at .", "(Nautical vessels require some additional distance to circumnavigate Makapuu Point.)", "The closest major city is San Francisco, California, at .", "Some islands off the Mexican coast and part of the Aleutian Islands of Alaska are slightly closer to Honolulu than the mainland.The volcanic field of the Honolulu Volcanics is partially inside the city.===Neighborhoods, boroughs, and districts===Honolulu as seen from the International Space StationDowntown at Bishop and King streets, with First Hawaiian Center (left) and Bank of Hawaii Center (right)* Downtown Honolulu is Hawaii's financial, commercial, and governmental center.", "On the waterfront is Aloha Tower, for many years Hawaiʻi's tallest building.", "The tallest building is now the First Hawaiian Center, on King and Bishop Streets.", "The downtown campus of Hawaiʻi Pacific University is also there.", "* The Arts District Honolulu, both downtown and in Chinatown, is on Chinatown's eastern edge.", "It is a 12-block area bounded by Bethel & Smith Streets and Nimitz Highway and Beretania Street—home to numerous arts and cultural institutions.", "It is within the Chinatown Historic District, which includes the former Hotel Street Vice District.", "The Capitol District is the eastern part of Downtown Honolulu.", "It is the current and historic center of Hawaiʻi's state government, incorporating the State Capitol, Iolani Palace, Honolulu Hale (City Hall), State Library, and the statue of King Kamehameha I, along with numerous government buildings.", "Kakaʻako is a light-industrial district between Downtown and Waikīkī that has seen a large-scale redevelopment effort in the past decade.", "It is home to two major shopping areas, Ward Warehouse and Ward Center.", "The Howard Hughes Corporation plans to transform Ward Centers into Ward Village over the next decade.", "The John A. Burns School of Medicine, part of the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa, is also there.", "A memorial to the ''Ehime Maru'' Incident victims is at the Kakaʻako Waterfront Park.", "Ala Moana is a district between Kakaʻako and Waikīkī and the home of Ala Moana Center, the \"world's largest open-air shopping center\" and Hawaiʻi's largest shopping mall.", "Ala Moana Center has over 300 tenants and is very popular with tourists.", "Also in Ala Moana is the Honolulu Design Center and Ala Moana Beach Park, Honolulu's second-largest park.", "Waikīkī is Honolulu's tourist district, between the Ala Wai Canal and the Pacific Ocean next to Diamond Head.", "Numerous hotels, shops, and nightlife opportunities are along Kalākaua and Kūhiō Avenues.", "It is a popular location for visitors and locals alike and attracts millions of visitors every year.", "Most of Oʻahu's hotel rooms are in Waikīkī.", "Mānoa, Mōʻiliʻili, and Makiki are residential neighborhoods in adjacent areas just inland of downtown and Waikīkī.", "Mānoa Valley is home to the main campus of the University of Hawaiʻi.", "Nuʻuanu and Pauoa are upper-middle-class residential districts inland of downtown Honolulu.", "The National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific is in Punchbowl Crater, fronting Pauoa Valley.", "Pālolo and Kaimukī are neighborhoods east of Mānoa and Makiki, inland from Diamond Head.", "Pālolo Valley parallels Mānoa and is a residential neighborhood.", "Kaimukī is primarily a residential neighborhood with a commercial strip centered on Waiʻalae Avenue running behind Diamond Head.", "Chaminade University is in Kaimukī.", "Waiʻalae and Kāhala are upper-class districts of Honolulu directly east of Diamond Head, with many high-priced homes.", "Also in these neighborhoods are the Waialae Country Club and the five-star Kahala Hotel & Resort.", "East Honolulu includes the residential communities of ʻĀina Haina, Niu Valley, and Hawaiʻi Kai.", "These are considered upper-middle-class neighborhoods.", "The upscale gated communities of Waiʻalae ʻIki and Hawaiʻi Loa Ridge are also there.", "Kalihi and Pālama are working-class neighborhoods with a number of government housing developments.", "Lower Kalihi, toward the ocean, is a light-industrial district.", "Salt Lake and Āliamanu are (mostly) residential areas built in extinct tuff cones along the western end of the Honolulu District, not far from Honolulu International Airport.", "Moanalua is two neighborhoods and a valley at the western end of Honolulu, and home to Tripler Army Medical Center.", "Kamehameha Heights is a northern suburb.", "McCully is an eastern suburb." ], [ "Climate", "Honolulu experiences a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen classification ''BSh''), with a mostly dry summer season, due to a rain shadow effect.", "Despite temperatures that meet the tropical threshold of all months having a mean temperature of 64.4 °F (18.0 °C) or higher, the city receives too little precipitation to be classified as tropical.Temperatures vary little throughout the year, with average high temperatures of and average lows of .", "Nevertheless, there are slight seasons.", "The \"winter\" months from December to March can occasionally see lows fall below , whereas the \"summer\" from June to September can get a limited number of hot days achieving or higher.", "This occurs on an average of only 32 days annually, with lows in the upper 50s °F (14–15 °C) once or twice a year.", "The highest recorded temperature was on September 19, 1994, and August 31, 2019.The lowest recorded temperature was on February 16, 1902, and January 20, 1969.The annual average rainfall is , which mainly occurs from October through early April, with very little rainfall in the summer.", "However, both seasons experience a similar number of rainy days.", "Light showers occur in summer, while heavier rain falls during winter.", "Honolulu has an average of 278 sunny days and 89.2 rainy days per year.Although the city is in the tropics, hurricanes are quite rare.", "The last recorded hurricane that hit near Honolulu was Category 4 Hurricane Iniki in 1992.Tornadoes are also uncommon and occur about every 15 years.", "Waterspouts off the coast are also uncommon, hitting about every five years.Honolulu falls under the USDA 12b Plant Hardiness zone.The average temperature of the sea ranges from in March to in September.Climate data for HonoluluMonthJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYearAverage sea temperature °F (°C)76.5(24.7)75.9(24.4)75.7(24.3)76.9(25.0)77.9(25.5)78.7(25.9)78.9(26.0)79.5(26.4)80.4(26.9)79.8(26.5)78.5(25.9)77.0(25.0)78.0(25.5)Mean daily daylight hours11.011.012.013.013.013.013.013.012.012.011.011.012.1Average Ultraviolet index7911111111+11+11+119769.6Source #1: seatemperature.orgSource #2: Weather Atlas" ], [ "Demographics", "The Hawaii State CapitolMap of racial distribution in Honolulu, 2010 U.S. Census.", "Each dot is 25 people: The population of Honolulu is 350,964 as of the 2020 U.S. Census, making it the 55th largest city in the U.S.", "The city's population was 337,256 at the 2010 U.S. Census.The residential neighborhood of East Honolulu is considered a separate census-designated place by the Census Bureau but is generally considered part of Honolulu's urban core.", "The population of East Honolulu was 50,922 as of 2020, increasing Honolulu's core population to over 400,000.In terms of race and ethnicity, 54.8% were Asian, 17.9% were White, 1.5% were Black or African American, 0.2% were Native American or Alaska Native, 8.4% were Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, 0.8% were from \"some other race\", and 16.3% were from two or more races.", "Hispanic and Latino residents of any race made up 5.4% of the population.", "In 1970, the Census Bureau reported Honolulu's population as 33.9% white and 53.7% Asian and Pacific Islander.Asian Americans are the majority of Honolulu's population.", "The Asian ethnic groups are Japanese (19.9%), Filipinos (13.2%), Chinese (10.4%), Koreans (4.3%), Vietnamese (2.0%), Indians (0.3%), Laotians (0.3%), Thais (0.2%), Cambodians (0.1%), and Indonesians (0.1%).Pacific Islander Americans are 8.4% of Honolulu's population.", "The Pacific Islander ethnic groups are people solely of Native Hawaiian ancestry (3.2%), Samoan Americans made up 1.5% of the population, Marshallese people make up 0.5%, and Tongan people comprise 0.3%.", "People of Guamanian or Chamorro descent made up 0.2% of the population and numbered 841.Metropolitan Honolulu, which encompasses all of Oahu island, had a population of 953,207 as of the 2010 U.S. Census and 1,016,508 in the 2020 U.S. Census, making it the 54th-largest metropolitan area in the United States." ], [ "Economy", "Diamond Head craterThe largest city and airport in the Hawaiian Islands, Honolulu acts as a natural gateway to the islands' large tourism industry, which brings millions of visitors and contributes $10 billion annually to the local economy.", "Honolulu's location in the Pacific also makes it a large business and trading hub, particularly between the East and the West.", "Other important aspects of the city's economy include military defense, research and development, and manufacturing.Among the companies based in Honolulu are:* Alexander & Baldwin* Bank of Hawaii* Central Pacific Bank* First Hawaiian Bank* Hawaii Medical Service Association* Hawaii Pacific Health* Hawaiian Electric Industries* Matson Navigation Company* The Queen's Health SystemsHawaiian Airlines, Island Air, and Aloha Air Cargo are headquartered in the city.", "Until it dissolved, Aloha Airlines was headquartered in the city.", "At one time Mid-Pacific Airlines had its headquarters on the property of Honolulu International Airport.In 2009, Honolulu had a 4.5% increase in average rent, maintaining it in the second most expensive rental market among 210 U.S. metropolitan areas.", "Similarly, the general cost of living, including gasoline, electricity, and most foodstuffs, is much higher than on the U.S. mainland, because the city and state have to import most goods.", "One 2014 report found that cost of living expenses were 69% higher than the U.S. average.Since the only national banks in Hawaiʻi are all local, many visitors and new residents must get accustomed to different banks.", "First Hawaiian Bank is Hawaii's largest and oldest bank, headquartered at the First Hawaiian Center, the state's tallest office building." ], [ "Cultural institutions", "With symbolic native-styled architectural features, First Hawaiian Center is the tallest office building in Hawaiʻi and home to a Honolulu Museum of Art Spalding House gallery.===Natural museums===The Bishop Museum is Honolulu's largest museum.", "It has the state's largest collection of natural history specimens and the world's largest collection of Hawaiiana and Pacific culture artifacts.", "The Honolulu Zoo is Hawaii's main zoological institution, while the Waikīkī Aquarium is a working marine biology laboratory.", "The Waikīkī Aquarium partners with the University of Hawaiʻi and other universities worldwide.", "Established for appreciation and botany, Honolulu is home to several gardens: Foster Botanical Garden, Liliuokalani Botanical Garden, Walker Estate, among others.===Performing arts===Established in 1900, the Honolulu Symphony is the second-oldest U.S. symphony orchestra west of the Rocky Mountains.", "Other classical music ensembles include the Hawaii Opera Theatre.", "Honolulu is also a center for Hawaiian music.", "The main music venues include the Hawaii Theatre, the Neal Blaisdell Center Concert Hall and Arena, and the Waikīkī Shell.Honolulu also includes several venues for live theater, including the Diamond Head Theatre and Kumu Kahua Theatre.===Visual arts===The Honolulu Museum of Art has Hawaiʻi's largest collection of Asian and Western art.", "It also has the largest collection of Islamic art, housed at the Shangri La estate.", "Since the merger of the Honolulu Academy of Arts and The Contemporary Museum, Honolulu (now called the Honolulu Museum of Art Spalding House) in 2011, the museum is also the state's only contemporary art museum.", "The contemporary collections are housed at main campus (Spalding House) in Makiki and a multi-level gallery in downtown Honolulu at the First Hawaiian Center.", "The museum hosts a film and video program dedicated to arthouse and world cinema in the museum's Doris Duke Theatre, named for the museum's historic patroness Doris Duke.The Hawaii State Art Museum (also downtown) has pieces by local artists as well as traditional Hawaiian art.", "The museum is administered by the Hawaii State Foundation on Culture and the Arts.Diamond HeadHonolulu also annually holds the Hawaii International Film Festival (HIFF).", "It showcases some of the best films from producers all across the Pacific Rim and is the largest \"East meets West\" style film festival of its sort in the United States.===Tourist attractions===Diamond Head and Honolulu viewed from Round Top Drive* Ala Moana Center* Aloha Tower* Bishop Museum* Diamond Head* Hanauma Bay* Honolulu Museum of Art* Honolulu Zoo* Iolani Palace* Lyon Arboretum* National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific* USS Arizona Memorial* Waikīkī Aquarium* Waikiki Beach* Waikiki Trolley* International Market Place* Kapi'olani Park" ], [ "Sports", "Honolulu's tropical climate lends itself to year-round activities.", "In 2004, ''Men's Fitness'' magazine named Honolulu the fittest city in the United States.", "Honolulu has three large road races:* The Great Aloha Run is held annually on Presidents' Day.", "* The Honolulu Marathon, held annually on the second Sunday in December, draws more than 20,000 participants each year, about half to two thirds of them from Japan.", "* The Honolulu Triathlon is an Olympic distance triathlon event governed by USA Triathlon and partly by the Japanese.", "Held annually in May since 2004, there is an absence of a sprint course.Ironman Hawaii was first held in Honolulu.", "It was the first ever Ironman triathlon event and is also the world championship.The Waikiki Roughwater Swim race is held annually off the beach of Waikiki.", "Founded by Jim Cotton in 1970, the course is and spans from the New Otani Hotel to the Hilton Rainbow Tower.Fans of spectator sports in Honolulu generally support the football, volleyball, basketball, rugby union, rugby league, and baseball programs of the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa.", "High school sporting events, especially football, are especially popular.Honolulu has no professional sports teams, with any prospective teams being forced to conduct extremely long travels for away games in the continental states.", "It was the home of the Hawaii Islanders (Pacific Coast League, 1961–87), The Hawaiians (World Football League, 1974–75), Team Hawaii (North American Soccer League, 1977), and the Hawaiian Islanders (af2, 2002–04).The NCAA football Hawaii Bowl is played in Honolulu.", "Honolulu also hosted the NFL's annual Pro Bowl each February from 1980 to 2009.After the 2010 and 2015 games were played in Miami Gardens and Glendale, respectively, the Pro Bowl was once again in Honolulu from 2011 to 2014, with 2016 the most recent.", "From 1993 to 2008, Honolulu hosted Hawaii Winter Baseball, featuring minor-league players from Major League Baseball, Nippon Professional Baseball, Korea Baseball Organization, and independent leagues.In 2018, the Honolulu Little League team qualified for that year's Little League World Series tournament.", "The team went undefeated en route to the United States championship game, where it bested Georgia's Peachtree City American Little League team 3–0.In the world championship game, the team faced off against South Korea's South Seoul Little League team.", "Hawaii pitcher Ka'olu Holt threw a complete-game shutout while striking out 8, and Honolulu Little League, again by a score of 3–0, secured the victory, capturing the 2018 Little League World Series championship and Hawaii's third overall title at the Little League World Series.===Venues===Venues for spectator sports in Honolulu include:Les Murakami Stadium at University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa (baseball)Neal S. Blaisdell Center Arena (basketball)Stan Sheriff Center at University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa (basketball and volleyball)Aloha Stadium was a venue for American football and soccer located in Halawa near Pearl Harbor, just outside Honolulu.", "The stadium was closed in 2020.Plans for a new stadium at the site were announced in 2022." ], [ "Government", "Completed in 1928, Honolulu Hale is the city and county seat.Rick Blangiardi was elected mayor of Honolulu County on August 8, 2020, and began serving as the county's 15th mayor on January 2, 2021.The municipal offices of the City and County of Honolulu, including Honolulu Hale, the seat of the city and county, are in the Capitol District, as are the Hawaii state government buildings.The Capitol District is in the Honolulu census county division (CCD), the urban area commonly regarded as the \"City\" of Honolulu.", "The Honolulu CCD is on the southeast coast of Oʻahu between Makapuu and Halawa.", "The division boundary follows the Koʻolau crestline, so Makapuʻu Beach is in the Ko'olaupoko District.", "On the west, the division boundary follows Halawa Stream, then crosses Red Hill and runs just west of Aliamanu Crater, so that Aloha Stadium, Pearl Harbor (with the USS Arizona Memorial), and Hickam Air Force Base are all in the island's Ewa CCD.The Hawaii Department of Public Safety operates the Oʻahu Community Correctional Center, the jail for the island of Oʻahu, in Honolulu CCD.The United States Postal Service operates post offices in Honolulu.", "The main Honolulu Post Office is by the international airport, at 3600 Aolele Street.", "Federal Detention Center, Honolulu, operated by the Federal Bureau of Prisons, is in the CDP.===Foreign missions on the island===Several countries have consular facilities in Honolulu.", "They include consulates of Japan, South Korea, Philippines, Taiwan, Federated States of Micronesia, Australia, New Zealand and the Marshall Islands." ], [ "Education and research", "===Colleges and universities===Colleges and universities in Honolulu include Honolulu Community College, Kapiolani Community College, the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa, Chaminade University, and Hawaii Pacific University.", "University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa houses the main offices of the University of Hawaiʻi System.===Research institutions===Pacific Forum, one of the world's leading Asia-Pacific policy research institutes, is on Bishop Street.Honolulu is home to three renowned international affairs research institutions.", "The Pacific Forum, one of the world's leading Asia-Pacific policy research institutes and one of the first U.S. organizations to focus exclusively on Asia, has its main office on Bishop Street in downtown Honolulu.", "The East–West Center (EWC), an education and research organization established by Congress in 1960 to strengthen relations and understanding among the peoples and nations of Asia, the Pacific, and the U.S., is headquartered in Mānoa, Honolulu.", "The Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies (APCSS), a U.S. Department of Defense institute, is based in Waikīkī, Honolulu.", "APCSS addresses regional and global security issues and supports the U.S. Pacific Command by developing and sustaining relationships among security practitioners and national security establishments throughout the region.===Public primary and secondary schools===Queen Liliuokalani Building, Hawaii Department of Education headquarters in Honolulu CDPHawaii Department of Education operates Honolulu's public schools.", "Public high schools in the CDP area include Wallace Rider Farrington, Kaiser, Kaimuki, Kalani, Moanalua, William McKinley, and Theodore Roosevelt.", "It also includes the Hawaii School for the Deaf and the Blind, the statewide school for blind and deaf children.", "There is a charter school, University Laboratory School.===Private primary and secondary schools=== almost 38% of K-12 students in the Honolulu area attend private schools.Private schools include Academy of the Pacific, Damien Memorial School, Hawaii Baptist Academy, Iolani School, Lutheran High School of Hawaii, Kamehameha Schools, Maryknoll School, Mid-Pacific Institute, La Pietra, Punahou School, Sacred Hearts Academy, St. Andrew's Priory School, Saint Francis School, Saint Louis School, the Education Laboratory School, Saint Patrick School, Trinity Christian School, and Varsity International School.", "Hawaii has one of the nation's highest rate of private school attendance.===Public libraries===Hawaii State LibraryHawaii State Public Library System operates public libraries.", "The Hawaii State Library in the CDP serves as the system's main library, while the Library for the Blind and Physically Handicapped, also in the CDP area, serves handicapped and blind people.Branches in the CDP area include Aiea, Aina Haina, Ewa Beach, Hawaiʻi Kai, Kahuku, Kailua, Kaimuki, Kalihi-Palama, Kaneohe, Kapolei, Liliha, Mānoa, McCully-Moiliili, Mililani, Moanalua, Wahiawa, Waialua, Waianae, Waikīkī-Kapahulu, Waimanalo, and Waipahu.===Weekend educational programs===The Hawaiʻi Japanese School – Rainbow Gakuen (ハワイレインボー学園 ''Hawai Reinbō Gakuen''), a supplementary weekend Japanese school, holds its classes in Kaimuki Middle School in Honolulu and has its offices in another building in Honolulu.", "The school serves overseas Japanese nationals.", "Honolulu has other weekend programs for the Japanese, Chinese, and Spanish languages." ], [ "Media", "Honolulu is served by one daily newspaper, the ''Honolulu Star-Advertiser,'' along with a magazine, ''Honolulu Magazine'', several radio stations and television stations, among other media.", "Local news agency and CNN-affiliate Hawaii News Now broadcasts and is headquartered out of Honolulu.Honolulu and the island of Oʻahu has also been the location for many film and television projects, including ''Hawaii Five-O (1968 TV series)'', ''Magnum, P.I.''", "and ''Lost''." ], [ "Transportation", "===Air===Honolulu International Airport old control tower8R \"Reef Runway\" of Honolulu International AirportAerial view of H-1 (looking east) from Honolulu Airport heading into downtown HonoluluAt the western end of the CDP, Daniel K. Inouye International Airport (HNL) is the principal aviation gateway to the state of Hawaii.", "Kalaeloa Airport is primarily a commuter facility used by unscheduled air taxis, general aviation and transient and locally based military aircraft.===Highways===Honolulu has been ranked as having the nation's worst traffic congestion, beating former record holder Los Angeles.", "Drivers waste on average over 58 hours per year on congested roadways.", "The following freeways, part of the Interstate Highway System serve Honolulu:26px Interstate H-1, western terminous is at Kapolei where you can connect to the Farrington Highway.", "The H-1 passes Hickam Air Force Base and Honolulu International Airport, runs through pearl city before heading downtown into Honolulu continues eastward through Makiki and Kaimuki, ending at Waialae/Kahala and start of the Kalanianole Highway.", "26px Interstate H-201—also known as the Moanalua Freeway and sometimes numbered as its former number, Hawaiʻi State Route 78—connects two points along H-1: at Aloha Stadium and Fort Shafter.", "Close to H-1 and Aloha Stadium, H-201 has an exchange with the western terminus of Interstate H-3 to the windward side of Oahu (Kaneohe).", "This complex of connecting ramps, some directly between H-1 and H-3, is in Halawa.", "26px Interstate H-2 Connects at a junction near Waipau and Pearl City with the H-1 freeway.", "The H-2 freeway will take you up to Schofield barracks before ending at Wahiawa where it connect to the north shore.", "26px Interstate H-3 Connects at a junction near Halawa Heights.", "This interstate highway will take you from Halawa heights through the Ko'olau Range to Kaneohe.", "Its final termination is at Marine Corps Base Hawaii.", "Exit 15 is the last exit before entering Marine Corps Base Hawaii.Other major highways that link Honolulu CCD with other parts of the Island of Oahu are:26px Pali Highway, State Route 61, crosses north over the Koʻolau range via the Pali Tunnels to connect to Kailua and Kaneohe on the windward side of the Island.", "26px Likelike Highway, State Route 63, also crosses the Koʻolau to Kaneohe via the Wilson Tunnels.", "26px Kalanianaole Highway, State Route 72, runs eastward from Waialae/Kahala to Hawaii Kai and around the east end of the island to Waimanalo Beach.", "Kamehameha Highway, State Route 80, 83, 99 and 830, runs westward from near Hickam Air Force Base to Aiea and beyond, eventually running through the center of the island and ending in Kaneohe.", "Farrington Highway, State Route 93 runs western leeward Oahu from Kaena Point through Waianae and Makaha before the start of the H-1.State Rte 930 starts east to west in the north shore connecting you from Wailua to Kaena PointLike most major American cities, the Honolulu metropolitan area experiences heavy traffic congestion during rush hours, especially to and from the western suburbs of Kapolei, Ewa Beach, Aiea, Pearl City, Waipahu, and Mililani.There is a Hawaiʻi Electric Vehicle Demonstration Project (HEVDP).===Public transport=======Honolulu Authority for Rapid Transportation====In November 2010, voters approved a charter amendment to create a public transit authority to oversee the planning, construction, operation and future extensions to Honolulu's rail system, now known as Skyline.", "The Honolulu Authority for Rapid Transportation (HART) has a 10-member board of directors, with three members appointed by the mayor, three selected by the Honolulu City Council, and the city and state transportation directors.The opening of the first phase of the Skyline was delayed until 2023, as HART canceled the initial bids for the first nine stations, rebid the work as three packages of three stations each, and allowed more time for construction in the hope that increased competition on smaller contracts would drive down costs; initial bids ranged from $294.5 million to $320.8 million, far surpassing HART's budget of $184 million.====Bus====Established by former Mayor Frank F. Fasi as the replacement for the Honolulu Rapid Transit Company (HRT), Honolulu's TheBus system was honored in 1994–95 and 2000–01 by the American Public Transportation Association as \"America's Best Transit System\".", "TheBus operates 107 routes serving Honolulu and most major cities and towns on Oʻahu.", "TheBus comprises a fleet of 531 buses, and is run by the nonprofit corporation Oʻahu Transit Services in conjunction with the city Department of Transportation Services.", ", Honolulu was ranked fourth for highest per-capita use of mass transit in the United States.", "'''Para-transit Options'''The island also features TheHandi-Van, for riders who require para-transit operations.", "To be eligible for this service, riders must meet the requirements of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA).", "TheHandi-Van has a fare of $2 and is available from 4am to 1am.", "There is a 24-hour service within 3/4 of a mile of TheBus route 2 and route 40.TheHandi-Van comprises a fleet of 160 buses.", "The parantransit branch also runs Human Services Transportation Coordination (HSTCP), which mainly provides transportation for people with disabilities, older adults, and people with limited incomes, assisted by the Committee for Accessible Transportation (CAT).", "Both organizations work together to provide transportation for elderly and persons with disabilities.====Rail====Honolulu has no urban rail transit system, though electric street railways were operated in Honolulu by the now-defunct Honolulu Rapid Transit Company before World War II.", "Predecessors to the Honolulu Rapid Transit Company were the Honolulu Rapid Transit and Land Company (began 1903) and Hawaiian Tramways (began 1888).The City and County of Honolulu is constructing a rail transit line that will connect Honolulu with cities and suburban areas near Pearl Harbor and in the Leeward and West Oahu regions.", "Skyline aims to alleviate traffic congestion for West Oʻahu commuters while being integral in the westward expansion of the metropolitan area.", "The project has been criticized for its cost, delays, and potential environmental impacts, but the line is expected to have large ridership.", "The line's first segment connects East Kapolei and Aloha Stadium and opened on June 30, 2023.====Bicycle sharing====Since June 28, 2017, Bikeshare Hawaii administers the bicycle sharing program in Oʻahu while Secure Bike Share operates the '' Biki'' system.", "Most ''Biki'' stations are between Chinatown/Downtown and Diamond Head, but a 2018 expansion added stations toward the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa Campus, Kapiolani Community College, Makiki, and Kalihi area.===Modal characteristics===According to the 2016 American Community Survey (five-year average), 56% of Urban Honolulu residents commuted to work by driving alone, 13.8% carpooled, 11.7% used public transportation, and 8.7% walked.", "About 5.7% commuted by bike, taxi, motorcycle or other forms of transportation, while 4.1% worked at home.The city of Honolulu has a high percentage of households without a motor vehicle.", "In 2015, 16.6% of Honolulu households were car-free, which increased slightly to 17.2% in 2016; by comparison, the United States national average was 8.7% in 2016.Honolulu averaged 1.4 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8." ], [ "Public safety", "The Honolulu Police Department is the primary law enforcement agency for the city and county of Honolulu and serves the entire Oahu Island.", "Honolulu Police Department has a mixed fleet of marked patrol cars and unmarked along with a subsidized vehicle program in place.", "Marked vehicles are white with blue stripes and white lettering HONOLULU POLICE.", "The Honolulu Police Departments lets officers of a certain rank purchase a private vehicle for police use.", "Subsidized vehicles are unmarked but have a small blue roof light.", "Subsidized vehicles can be any make, model, or color, but must follow department rules and guidelines.", "Honolulu Police and Hawaii County Police on the Big Island are the only departments in the state of Hawaii and the U.S. with subsidized vehicles.", "Honolulu Police along with other city, county law enforcement in Hawaii uses blue lights for their vehicles.", "They also keep their cruise blue lights on while on patrol.The Honolulu Fire Department provides firefighting services and emergency medical services on Oahu.", "Fire trucks are yellow." ], [ "Notable people" ], [ "Sister cities", "Honolulu's sister cities are:* Baguio, Philippines, 1991* Baku, Azerbaijan, 1998* Bruyères, France, 1960* Cali, Colombia, 2012* Candon, Philippines, 2015* Caracas, Venezuela, 1990* Cebu City, Philippines, 1990* Chengdu, China, 2011* Chigasaki, Japan, 2014* Fengxian (Shanghai), China, 2012* Funchal, Portugal, 1979* Fuzhou, China, 2021* Haikou, China, 1985* Noreña, Spain, 1960* Hiroshima, Japan, 1959* Huế, Vietnam, 1995* Incheon, South Korea, 2003* Kaohsiung, Taiwan, 1962* Kyzyl, Russia, 2004* Laoag, Philippines, 1969* Majuro, Marshall Islands, 2001* Mandaluyong, Philippines, 2005* Manila, Philippines, 1980* Mombasa, Kenya, 2000* Mumbai, India, 1970* Nagaoka, Japan, 2012* Naha, Japan, 1960* Qinhuangdao, China, 2010* Rabat, Morocco, 2007* San Juan, Puerto Rico, 1985* Seoul, South Korea, 1973* Sintra, Portugal, 1998* Uwajima, Japan, 2004* Vigan, Philippines, 2003* Yamaguchi, Japan, 2022* Zhangzhou, China, 2012* Zhongshan, China, 1997" ], [ "See also", "List of tallest buildings in HonoluluUSS ''Honolulu'', 3 ships" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography" ], [ "External links", "* City and County of Honolulu official site* Hawaii Visitors and Convention Bureau* Guide to Honolulu: Famous People" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Percolozoa" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Percolozoa''' are a group of colourless, non-photosynthetic Excavata, including many that can transform between amoeboid, flagellate, and cyst stages." ], [ "Characteristics", "Most Percolozoa are found as bacterivores in soil, fresh water and occasionally in the ocean.", "The only member of this group that is infectious to humans is ''Naegleria fowleri'', the causative agent of the often fatal disease amoebic meningitis.", "The group is closely related to the Euglenozoa, and share with them the unusual characteristic of having mitochondria with discoid cristae.", "The presence of a ventral feeding groove in the flagellate stage, as well as other features, suggests that they are part of the Excavata group.The amoeboid stage is roughly cylindrical, typically around 20–40 μm in length.", "They are traditionally considered lobose amoebae, but are not related to the others, and unlike them, do not form true lobose pseudopods.", "Instead, they advance by eruptive waves, where hemispherical bulges appear from the front margin of the cell, which is clear.", "The flagellate stage is slightly smaller, with two or four anterior flagella anterior to the feeding groove.Usually, the amoeboid form is taken when food is plentiful, and the flagellate form is used for rapid locomotion.", "However, not all members are able to assume both forms.", "The genera ''Percolomonas'', ''Lyromonas'', and ''Psalteriomonas'' are known only as flagellates, while ''Vahlkampfia'', ''Pseudovahlkampfia'', and most acrasids do not have flagellate stages.", "As mentioned above, under unfavourable conditions, the acrasids aggregate to form sporangia.", "These are superficially similar to the sporangia of the dictyostelids, but the amoebae only aggregate as individuals or in small groups and do not die to form the stalk." ], [ "Terminology and classification", "These are collectively referred to as schizopyrenids, amoeboflagellates, or vahlkampfids.", "They also include the acrasids, a group of social amoebae that aggregate to form sporangia.", "The entire group is usually called the '''Heterolobosea''', but this may be restricted to members with amoeboid stages.One Heterolobosea classification system is:* Order Schizopyrenida Family Vahlkampfiidae Family Gruberellidae* Order Acrasida** Family Acrasidae''Pleurostomum flabellatum'' has recently been added to Heterolobosea.===Phylogeny===Based on the cladogram from Tolweb and updated by Pánek and Čepička 2014.===Taxonomy===Phylum Percolozoa Cavalier-Smith 1991* Subphylum Pharyngomonada Cavalier-Smith 1991 Class Pharyngomonadea Cavalier-Smith 2008 Macropharyngomonadidea* Order Pharyngomonadida Cavalier-Smith 2008 Macropharyngomonadida** Family Pharyngomonadidae Cavalier-Smith 2008 Macropharyngomonadidae Cavalier-Smith 2008*** Genus ''Pharyngomonas'' Cavalier-Smith 2008 ''Macropharyngomonas'' nomen nudum* Subphylum Tetramitia Cavalier-Smith 1993 em.", "Cavalier-Smith 2008 Genus ?", "''Costiopsis'' Senn 1900 Genus ?", "''Hoehnmastix'' Skvortzov 1974 Genus ?", "''Planiosculum'' Szabados 1948 Genus ?", "''Protomyxomyces'' Cunningham 1881 Genus ?", "''Protonaegleria'' Michel & Raether 1985 Genus ?", "''Pseudovahlkampfia'' Sawyer 1980 Genus ?", "''Schizamoeba'' Davis 1926 Genus ?", "''Tetramastigamoeba'' Singh & Hanumaiah 1977 Genus ?", "''Trimastigamoeba'' Whitmore 1911 Genus ?", "''Wasielewskia'' Hartmann & Schuessler 1913 Family Euhyperamoebidae Goodkov & Seravin 1984 Hyperamoebidae Goodkov, Seravin & Railkin 1982* Genus ''Euhyperamoeba'' Goodkov & Seravin 1984 ''Hyperamoeba'' Goodkov, Seravin & Railkin 1982 non Alexeieff 1923 Class Lunosea Cavalier-Smith 2021* Order Selenaionida Hanousková, Táborský & Čepička 2018** Family Selenaionidae Hanousková, Táborský & Čepička 2018* Genus ''Selenaion'' Park, De Jonckheere & Simpson 2012* Genus ''Dactylomonas'' Hanousková, Táborský & Čepička 2018 Class Neovahlkampfiea Cavalier-Smith 2021* Order Neovahlkampfiida Cavalier-Smith 2021 Family Neovahlkampfiidae Hanousková, Táborský & Čepička 2018* Genus ''Neovahlkampfia'' Brown & de Jonckheere 1999 Class Lyromonadea Cavalier-Smith 1993* Order Lyromonadida Cavalier-Smith 1993 Family Gruberellidae Page & Blanton 1985* Genus ''Gruberella'' Page 1984 non Gruber 1889 non Corliss 1960* Genus ''Oramoeba'' de Jonckheere et al.", "2011* Genus ''Stachyamoeba'' Page 1975* Genus ''Vrihiamoeba'' Murase, Kawasak & Jonckheere 2010 Family Paravahlkampfiidae* Genus ''Fumarolamoeba'' De Jonckheere, Murase & Opperdoes 2011* Genus ''Parafumarolamoeba'' Geisen et al.", "2015* Genus ''Paravahlkampfia'' Brown & de Jonckheere 1999 Family Plaesiobystridae* Genus ''Euplaesiobystra'' Park et al.", "2009* Genus ''Heteramoeba'' Droop 1962* Genus ''Pernina'' El Kadiri, Joyon & Pussard 1992 Family Psalteriomonadidae Cavalier-Smith 1993 Lyromonadidae Cavalier-Smith 1993* Genus ''Harpagon'' Panek et al.", "2012* Genus ''Monopylocystis'' O'Kelly et al.", "2003* Genus ''Psalteriomonas'' Broers et al.", "1990 ''Lyromonas'' Cavalier-Smith 1993* Genus ''Pseudoharpagon'' Panek et al.", "2012* Genus ''Pseudomastigamoeba''* Genus ''Sawyeria'' O'Kelly et al.", "2003 Class Heterolobosea Page & Blanton 1985* Order Acrasida Schröter 1886 Family Acrasidae van Tieghem 1880 ex Hartog 1906* Genus ''Acrasis'' van Tieghem 1880* Genus ''Allovahlkampfia'' Walochnik & Mulec 2009* Genus ''Pocheina'' Loeblich & Tappan 1961 ''Guttulina'' Cienkowski 1873 non D'Orbigny 1839* Genus ''Solumitrus'' Wang et al.", "2011* Order Naegleriida Starobogatov 1980** Genus ''Marinamoeba'' De Jonckheere et al.", "2009 Family Tulamoebidae Kirby et al.", "2015* Genus ''Aurem'' Jhin & Park 2018* Genus ''Pleurostomum'' Namyslowski 1913* Genus ''Tulamoeba'' Park et al.", "2009 Family Naegleriidae Kudo 1954 Schizopyrenidae Singh 1951 ex Singh 1952; Bistadiidae Doflein 1916* Genus ''Naegleria'' Aléxéieff 1912 ''Adelphamoeba'' Napolitano, Wall & Ganz 1970; ''Didascalus'' Singh 1952; ''Schizopyrenus'' Singh 1951 ex Singh 1952* Genus ''Willaertia'' de Jonckheere et al.", "1984* Order Tetramitida Doweld 2001** Family Vahlkampfiidae Jollos 1917 s.s.* Genus ''Tetramitus'' Perty 1852 ''Copromastix'' Aragao 1916; ''Learamoeba'' Sawyer et al.", "1998, ''Paratetramitus'' Darbyshire, Page & Goodfellow 1976, ''Singhamoeba'' Sawyer, Nerad & Munson 1992* Genus ''Vahlkampfia'' Chatton & LaLung-Bonnaire 1912 ''Guttulidium'' Frenzel 1892* Order Creneida Cavalier-Smith 2021** Family Creneidae Pánek et al.", "2014* Genus ''Creneis'' Pánek et al.", "2014* Order Percolomonadida Cavalier-Smith 1993** Family Barbeliidae Arndt 2023* Genus ''Barbelia'' Arndt 2021 * Genus ''Nonamonas'' Hohlfeld, Meyer & Arndt 2023 Family Lulidae Hohlfeld & Arndt 2023* Genus ''Lula'' Arndt, Nitsche & Carduck 2021 Family Percolomonadidae Cavalier-Smith 1993 Choanogasteraceae* Genus ''Percolomonas'' Fenchel & Patterson 1986 ''Choanogaster'' Pochmann 1959 Family Stephanopogonidae Corliss 1961* Genus ''Nakurumonas'' Carduck, Nitsche & Arndt 2021*** Genus ''Stephanopogon'' Entz 1884" ], [ "History", "The Heterolobosea were first defined by Page and Blanton in 1985 as a class of amoebae, and so only included those forms with amoeboid stages.", "Cavalier-Smith created the phylum Percolozoa for the extended group, together with the enigmatic flagellate ''Stephanopogon''.Cavalier-Smith maintained the Heterolobosea as a class for amoeboid forms.", "He has defined Percolozoa as \"Heterolobosea plus Percolatea classis nov.\"" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Tree of Life Heterolobosea" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of India" ], [ "Introduction", "Indus Valley Civilisation, mature phase (2600–1900 BCE)Anatomically modern humans first arrived on the Indian subcontinent between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago.", "The earliest known human remains in South Asia date to 30,000 years ago.", "Sedentariness began in South Asia around 7000 BCE; by 4500 BCE, settled life had spread, and gradually evolved into the Indus Valley Civilisation, which flourished between 2500 BCE and 1900 BCE in present-day Pakistan and north-western India.", "Early in the second millennium BCE, persistent drought caused the population of the Indus Valley to scatter from large urban centres to villages.", "Indo-Aryan tribes moved into the Punjab from Central Asia in several waves of migration.", "The Vedic Period (1500–500 BCE) was marked by the composition of their large collections of hymns (Vedas).", "The social structure was stratified via the varna system, which persists till this day though highly evolved.", "The pastoral and nomadic Indo-Aryans spread from the Punjab into the Gangetic plain.", "Around 600 BCE, a new, interregional culture arose; then, small chieftaincies (janapadas) were consolidated into larger states (mahajanapadas).", "A second urbanisation took place, which came with the rise of new ascetic movements and religious concepts, including the rise of Jainism and Buddhism.", "The latter was synthesised with the preexisting religious cultures of the subcontinent, giving rise to Hinduism.Indian cultural influence (Greater India)Timeline of Indian historyChandragupta Maurya overthrew the Nanda Empire and established the first great empire in ancient India, the Maurya Empire.", "The Maurya Empire would collapse in 185 BCE, on the assassination of the then-emperor Brihadratha by his general Pushyamitra Shunga.", "Shunga would go on to form the Shunga Empire in the north and northeast of the subcontinent, while the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom would claim the northwest and found the Indo-Greek Kingdom.", "Various parts of India were ruled by numerous dynasties, including the Gupta Empire, in the 4th to 6th centuries CE.", "This period, witnessing a Hindu religious and intellectual resurgence, is known as the Classical or Golden Age of India.", "Aspects of Indian civilisation, administration, culture, and religion spread to much of Asia, which led to the establishment of Indianised kingdoms in the region, forming Greater India.", "The most significant event between the 7th and 11th century was the Tripartite struggle centred on Kannauj.", "Southern India saw the rise of multiple imperial powers from the middle of the fifth century.", "The Chola dynasty conquered southern India in the 11th century.", "In the early medieval period Indian mathematics, including Hindu numerals, influenced the development of mathematics and astronomy in the Arab world, including the creation of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system.Islamic conquests made limited inroads into modern Afghanistan and Sindh as early as the 8th century, followed by the invasions of Mahmud Ghazni.The Delhi Sultanate was founded in 1206 CE by Central Asian Turks who ruled a major part of the northern Indian subcontinent in the early 14th century, but declined in the late 14th century, and saw the advent of the Deccan sultanates.", "The wealthy Bengal Sultanate also emerged as a major power, lasting over three centuries.", "This period also saw the emergence of several powerful Hindu states, notably the Vijayanagara Empire and Rajput states.", "The 15th century saw the advent of Sikhism.The early modern period began in the 16th century, when the Mughal Empire conquered most of the Indian subcontinent, signaling the proto-industrialization, becoming the biggest global economy and manufacturing power.", "The Mughals suffered a gradual decline in the early 18th century, which provided opportunities for the Marathas, Sikhs, Mysoreans, Nizams, and Nawabs of Bengal to control large regions of the Indian subcontinent.", "From the mid-18th to the mid-19th century, large regions of India were gradually annexed by the East India Company, acting as a sovereign power on behalf of the British government.", "Dissatisfaction with company rule in India led to the Indian Rebellion of 1857.India was afterwards ruled directly by the British Crown, in the British Raj.", "After World War I, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the Indian National Congress, led by Mahatma Gandhi.", "Later, the All-India Muslim League would advocate for a separate Muslim-majority nation state.", "The British Indian Empire was partitioned in August 1947 into the Dominion of India and Dominion of Pakistan, each gaining its independence." ], [ "{{anchor\|Prehistory}} Prehistoric era (until c. 3300 BCE)", "=== Paleolithic ===Hominin expansion from Africa is estimated to have reached the Indian subcontinent approximately two million years ago, and possibly as early as 2.2 million years ago.", "This dating is based on the known presence of ''Homo erectus'' in Indonesia by 1.8 million years ago and in East Asia by 1.36 million years ago, as well as the discovery of stone tools at Riwat in Pakistan.", "Although some older discoveries have been claimed, the suggested dates, based on the dating of fluvial sediments, have not been independently verified.The oldest hominin fossil remains in the Indian subcontinent are those of ''Homo erectus'' or ''Homo heidelbergensis'', from the Narmada Valley in central India, and are dated to approximately half a million years ago.", "Older fossil finds have been claimed, but are considered unreliable.", "Reviews of archaeological evidence have suggested that occupation of the Indian subcontinent by hominins was sporadic until approximately 700,000 years ago, and was geographically widespread by approximately 250,000 years ago.According to a historical demographer of South Asia, Tim Dyson:Modern human beings—''Homo sapiens''—originated in Africa.", "Then, intermittently, sometime between 60,000 and 80,000 years ago, tiny groups of them began to enter the north-west of the Indian subcontinent.", "It seems likely that initially they came by way of the coast.", "... it is virtually certain that there were ''Homo sapiens'' in the subcontinent 55,000 years ago, even though the earliest fossils that have been found of them date to only about 30,000 years before the present.According to Michael D. Petraglia and Bridget Allchin: Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonization of South Asia by modern humans originating in Africa.", "... Coalescence dates for most non-European populations average to between 73–55 ka.Historian of South Asia, Michael H. Fisher, states: Scholars estimate that the first successful expansion of the Homo sapiens range beyond Africa and across the Arabian Peninsula occurred from as early as 80,000 years ago to as late as 40,000 years ago, although there may have been prior unsuccessful emigrations.", "Some of their descendants extended the human range ever further in each generation, spreading into each habitable land they encountered.", "One human channel was along the warm and productive coastal lands of the Persian Gulf and northern Indian Ocean.", "Eventually, various bands entered India between 75,000 years ago and 35,000 years ago.Archaeological evidence has been interpreted to suggest the presence of anatomically modern humans in the Indian subcontinent 78,000–74,000 years ago, although this interpretation is disputed.", "The occupation of South Asia by modern humans, initially in varying forms of isolation as hunter-gatherers, has turned it into a highly diverse one, second only to Africa in human genetic diversity.According to Tim Dyson: Genetic research has contributed to knowledge of the prehistory of the subcontinent's people in other respects.", "In particular, the level of genetic diversity in the region is extremely high.", "Indeed, only Africa's population is genetically more diverse.", "Related to this, there is strong evidence of 'founder' events in the subcontinent.", "By this is meant circumstances where a subgroup—such as a tribe—derives from a tiny number of 'original' individuals.", "Further, compared to most world regions, the subcontinent's people are relatively distinct in having practised comparatively high levels of endogamy.=== Neolithic ===Mehrgarh site, in Beluchistan, PakistanSettled life emerged on the subcontinent in the western margins of the Indus River alluvium approximately 9,000 years ago, evolving gradually into the Indus Valley Civilisation of the third millennium BCE.", "According to Tim Dyson: \"By 7,000 years ago agriculture was firmly established in Baluchistan... and slowly spread eastwards into the Indus valley.\"", "Michael Fisher adds: The earliest discovered instance ... of well-established, settled agricultural society is at Mehrgarh in the hills between the Bolan Pass and the Indus plain (today in Pakistan) (see Map 3.1).", "From as early as 7000 BCE, communities there started investing increased labor in preparing the land and selecting, planting, tending, and harvesting particular grain-producing plants.", "They also domesticated animals, including sheep, goats, pigs, and oxen (both humped zebu ''Bos indicus'' and unhumped ''Bos taurus'').", "Castrating oxen, for instance, turned them from mainly meat sources into domesticated draft-animals as well." ], [ "Bronze Age (c. 3300 – c. 1800 BCE)", "=== Indus Valley Civilisation ===Mature Harappan Period, c. 2600 - 1900 BCEThe Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent began around 3300 BCE.", "The Indus Valley region was one of three early cradles of civilization in the Old World; the Indus Valley civilisation was the most expansive, and at its peak, may have had a population of over five million.The civilisation was primarily centered in modern-day Pakistan, in the Indus river basin, and secondarily in the Ghaggar-Hakra River basin.", "The mature Indus civilisation flourished from about 2600 to 1900 BCE, marking the beginning of urban civilisation on the Indian subcontinent.", "It included cities such as Harappa, Ganweriwal, and Mohenjo-daro in modern-day Pakistan, and Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, and Lothal in modern-day India.Mohenjo-daro, one of the largest Indus cities.", "View of the site's Great Bath, showing the surrounding urban layout.Dholavira, a city of the Indus Valley civilisation, with stepwell steps to reach the water level in artificially constructed reservoirs.Archaeological remains of washroom drainage system at LothalInhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft, and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin.", "The civilisation is noted for its cities built of brick, and its roadside drainage system, and is thought to have had some kind of municipal organisation.", "Civilization also developed a Indus script, which is presently undeciphered.", "This is the reason why Harappan language is not directly attested, and its affiliation uncertain.Three stamp seals and their impressions bearing Indus script characters alongside animals: \"unicorn\" (left), bull (center), and elephant (right); Guimet MuseumAfter the collapse of Indus Valley civilisation, the inhabitants migrated from the river valleys of Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra, towards the Himalayan foothills of Ganga-Yamuna basin.=== Ochre Coloured Pottery culture ===Sinauli \"''chariot\"'', photograph of the Archaeological Survey of India.During 2nd millennium BCE, Ochre Coloured Pottery culture was in Ganga Yamuna Doab region.", "These were rural settlement with agriculture and hunting.", "They were using copper tools such as axes, spears, arrows, and swords, and had domesticated animals." ], [ "Iron Age (c. 1800 – 200 BCE)", "=== Vedic period (c. 1500 – 600 BCE) ===Starting ca.", "1900 BCE, Indo-Aryan tribes moved into the Punjab from Central Asia in several waves of migration.", "The Vedic period is the period when the Vedas were composed, the liturgical hymns from the Indo-Aryan people.", "The Vedic culture was located in part of north-west India, while other parts of India had a distinct cultural identity.", "Many regions of the Indian subcontinent transitioned from the Chalcolithic to the Iron Age in this period.The Vedic culture is described in the texts of Vedas, still sacred to Hindus, which were orally composed and transmitted in Vedic Sanskrit.", "The Vedas are some of the oldest extant texts in India.", "The Vedic period, lasting from about 1500 to 500 BCE, contributed the foundations of several cultural aspects of the Indian subcontinent.==== Vedic society ====An early 19th century manuscript in the Devanagari script of the Rigveda, originally transmitted orally with fidelityHistorians have analysed the Vedas to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab region and the upper Gangetic Plain.", "The peepal tree and cow were sanctified by the time of the Atharva Veda.", "Many of the concepts of Indian philosophy espoused later, like dharma, trace their roots to Vedic antecedents.Early Vedic society is described in the Rigveda, the oldest Vedic text, believed to have been compiled during 2nd millennium BCE, in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent.", "At this time, Aryan society consisted of largely tribal and pastoral groups, distinct from the Harappan urbanisation which had been abandoned.", "The early Indo-Aryan presence probably corresponds, in part, to the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture in archaeological contexts.At the end of the Rigvedic period, the Aryan society began to expand from the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent, into the western Ganges plain.", "It became increasingly agricultural and was socially organised around the hierarchy of the four ''varnas'', or social classes.", "This social structure was characterized both by syncretising with the native cultures of northern India, but also eventually by the excluding of some indigenous peoples by labeling their occupations impure.", "During this period, many of the previous small tribal units and chiefdoms began to coalesce into Janapadas (monarchical, state-level polities).==== Janapadas ====Late Vedic era map showing the boundaries of Āryāvarta with Janapadas in northern India, beginning of Iron Age kingdoms in India – Kuru, Panchala, Kosala, VidehaThe Iron Age in the Indian subcontinent from about 1200 BCE to the 6th century BCE is defined by the rise of Janapadas, which are realms, republics and kingdoms—notably the Iron Age Kingdoms of Kuru, Panchala, Kosala, Videha.The Kuru Kingdom (c. 1200–450 BCE) was the first state-level society of the Vedic period, corresponding to the beginning of the Iron Age in northwestern India, around 1200–800 BCE, as well as with the composition of the Atharvaveda.", "The Kuru state organised the Vedic hymns into collections, and developed the srauta ritual to uphold the social order.", "Two key figures of the Kuru state were king Parikshit and his successor Janamejaya, transforming this realm into the dominant political, social, and cultural power of northern India.", "When the Kuru kingdom declined, the centre of Vedic culture shifted to their eastern neighbours, the Panchala kingdom.", "The archaeological PGW (Painted Grey Ware) culture, which flourished in the Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh regions of northern India from about 1100 to 600 BCE, is believed to correspond to the Kuru and Panchala kingdoms.During the Late Vedic Period, the kingdom of Videha emerged as a new centre of Vedic culture, situated even farther to the East (in what is today Nepal and Bihar state); reaching its prominence under the king Janaka, whose court provided patronage for Brahmin sages and philosophers such as Yajnavalkya, Aruni, and Gārgī Vāchaknavī.", "The later part of this period corresponds with a consolidation of increasingly large states and kingdoms, called ''Mahajanapadas'', across Northern India.=== Second urbanisation (c. 600 – 200 BCE) ===City of Kushinagar in the 5th century BCE according to a 1st-century BCE frieze in Sanchi Stupa 1 Southern Gate.The period between 800 and 200 BCE saw the formation of the ''Śramaṇa'' movement, from which Jainism and Buddhism originated.", "The first Upanishads were written during this period.", "After 500 BCE, the so-called \"second urbanisation\" started, with new urban settlements arising at the Ganges plain.", "The foundations for the \"second urbanisation\" were laid prior to 600 BCE, in the Painted Grey Ware culture of the Ghaggar-Hakra and Upper Ganges Plain; although most PGW sites were small farming villages, \"several dozen\" PGW sites eventually emerged as relatively large settlements that can be characterized as towns, the largest of which were fortified by ditches or moats and embankments made of piled earth with wooden palisades.The Central Ganges Plain, where Magadha gained prominence, forming the base of the Maurya Empire, was a distinct cultural area, with new states arising after 500 BCE.", "It was influenced by the Vedic culture, but differed markedly from the Kuru-Panchala region.", "It \"was the area of the earliest known cultivation of rice in South Asia and by 1800 BCE was the location of an advanced Neolithic population associated with the sites of Chirand and Chechar\".", "In this region, the Śramaṇic movements flourished, and Jainism and Buddhism originated.==== Buddhism and Jainism ====The time between 800 BCE and 400 BCE witnessed the composition of the earliest Upanishads, which form the theoretical basis of classical Hinduism, and are also known as the ''Vedanta'' (conclusion of the Vedas).The increasing urbanisation of India in the 7th and 6th centuries BCE led to the rise of new ascetic or \"Śramaṇa movements\" which challenged the orthodoxy of rituals.", "Mahavira (c. 599–527 BCE), proponent of Jainism, and Gautama Buddha (c. 563–483 BCE), founder of Buddhism, were the most prominent icons of this movement.", "Śramaṇa gave rise to the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of samsara, and the concept of liberation.", "Buddha found a Middle Way that ameliorated the extreme asceticism found in the ''Śramaṇa'' religions.Around the same time, Mahavira (the 24th ''Tirthankara'' in Jainism) propagated a theology that was to later become Jainism.", "However, Jain orthodoxy believes the teachings of the ''Tirthankaras'' predates all known time and scholars believe Parshvanatha (c. 872 – c. 772 BCE), accorded status as the 23rd ''Tirthankara'', was a historical figure.", "The Vedas are believed to have documented a few ''Tirthankaras'' and an ascetic order similar to the ''Śramaṇa'' movement.==== Sanskrit epics ====Manuscript illustration of the Battle of Kurukshetra.The Sanskrit epics ''Ramayana'' and ''Mahabharata'' were composed during this period.", "The ''Mahabharata'' remains the longest single poem in the world.", "Historians formerly postulated an \"epic age\" as the milieu of these two epic poems, but now recognize that the texts went through multiple stages of development over centuries.", "The existing texts of these epics are believed to belong to the post-Vedic age, between c. 400 BCE and 400 CE.==== Mahajanapadas ====The Mahajanapadas were the sixteen most powerful and vast kingdoms and republics of the era, located mainly across the Indo-Gangetic plains.The period from c. 600 BCE to c. 300 BCE witnessed the rise of the Mahajanapadas, sixteen powerful and vast kingdoms and oligarchic republics.", "These Mahajanapadas evolved and flourished in a belt stretching from Gandhara in the northwest to Bengal in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent and included parts of the trans-Vindhyan region.", "Ancient Buddhist texts, like the ''Aṅguttara Nikāya'', make frequent reference to these sixteen great kingdoms and republics—Anga, Assaka, Avanti, Chedi, Gandhara, Kashi, Kamboja, Kosala, Kuru, Magadha, Malla, Matsya (or Machcha), Panchala, Surasena, Vṛji, and Vatsa.", "This period saw the second major rise of urbanism in India after the Indus Valley Civilisation.Early \"republics\" or , such as Shakyas, Koliyas, Mallakas, and Licchavis had republican governments.", "s, such as the Mallakas, centered in the city of Kusinagara, and the Vajjika League, centered in the city of Vaishali, existed as early as the 6th century BCE and persisted in some areas until the 4th century CE.", "The most famous clan amongst the ruling confederate clans of the Vajji Mahajanapada were the Licchavis.This period corresponds in an archaeological context to the Northern Black Polished Ware culture.", "Especially focused in the Central Ganges plain but also spreading across vast areas of the northern and central Indian subcontinent, this culture is characterized by the emergence of large cities with massive fortifications, significant population growth, increased social stratification, wide-ranging trade networks, construction of public architecture and water channels, specialized craft industries, a system of weights, punch-marked coins, and the introduction of writing in the form of Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts.", "The language of the gentry at that time was Sanskrit, while the languages of the general population of northern India are referred to as Prakrits.Many of the sixteen kingdoms had coalesced into four major ones by 500/400 BCE, by the time of Gautama Buddha.", "These four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala, and Magadha.==== Early Magadha dynasties ====Magadha formed one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas (Sanskrit: \"Great Realms\") or kingdoms in ancient India.", "The core of the kingdom was the area of Bihar south of the Ganges; its first capital was Rajagriha (modern Rajgir) then Pataliputra (modern Patna).", "Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar and Bengal with the conquest of Licchavi and Anga respectively, followed by much of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Orissa.", "The ancient kingdom of Magadha is heavily mentioned in Jain and Buddhist texts.", "It is also mentioned in the Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas.", "The earliest reference to the Magadha people occurs in the Atharva-Veda where they are found listed along with the Angas, Gandharis, and Mujavats.", "Magadha played an important role in the development of Jainism and Buddhism.", "The Magadha kingdom included republican communities such as the community of Rajakumara.", "Villages had their own assemblies under their local chiefs called Gramakas.", "Their administrations were divided into executive, judicial, and military functions.Early sources, from the Buddhist Pāli Canon, the Jain Agamas and the Hindu Puranas, mention Magadha being ruled by the Pradyota dynasty and Haryanka dynasty (c. 544–413 BCE) for some 200 years, c. 600–413 BCE.", "King Bimbisara of the Haryanka dynasty led an active and expansive policy, conquering Anga in what is now eastern Bihar and West Bengal.", "King Bimbisara was overthrown and killed by his son, Prince Ajatashatru, who continued the expansionist policy of Magadha.", "During this period, Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, lived much of his life in the Magadha kingdom.", "He attained enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, gave his first sermon in Sarnath and the first Buddhist council was held in Rajgriha.", "The Haryanka dynasty was overthrown by the Shaishunaga dynasty (c. 413–345 BCE).", "The last Shishunaga ruler, Kalasoka, was assassinated by Mahapadma Nanda in 345 BCE, the first of the so-called Nine Nandas (Mahapadma and his eight sons).==== Nanda Empire and Alexander's campaign ====The Nanda Empire (c. 345–322 BCE), at its greatest extent, extended from Bengal in the east, to the Punjab region in the west and as far south as the Vindhya Range.", "The Nanda dynasty was famed for their great wealth.", "The Nanda dynasty built on the foundations laid by their Haryanka and Shishunaga predecessors to create the first great empire of north India.", "To achieve this objective they built a vast army, consisting of 200,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalry, 2,000 war chariots and 3,000 war elephants (at the lowest estimates).==== Maurya Empire ====The Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE) unified most of the Indian subcontinent into one state, and was the largest empire ever to exist on the Indian subcontinent.", "At its greatest extent, the Mauryan Empire stretched to the north up to the natural boundaries of the Himalayas and to the east into what is now Assam.", "To the west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan, to the Hindu Kush mountains in what is now Afghanistan.", "The empire was established by Chandragupta Maurya assisted by Chanakya (Kautilya) in Magadha (in modern Bihar) when he overthrew the Nanda Empire.Chandragupta rapidly expanded his power westwards across central and western India, and by 317 BCE the empire had fully occupied Northwestern India.", "The Mauryan Empire defeated Seleucus I, founder of the Seleucid Empire, during the Seleucid–Mauryan war, thus gained additional territory west of the Indus River.", "Chandragupta's son Bindusara succeeded to the throne around 297 BCE.", "By the time he died in c. 272 BCE, a large part of the Indian subcontinent was under Mauryan suzerainty.", "However, the region of Kalinga (around modern day Odisha) remained outside Mauryan control, perhaps interfering with trade with the south.Lomas Rishi, one of the Barabar Caves, c. 250 BCE.Bindusara was succeeded by Ashoka, whose reign lasted until his death in about 232 BCE.", "His campaign against the Kalingans in about 260 BCE, though successful, led to immense loss of life and misery.", "This led Ashoka to shun violence, and subsequently to embrace Buddhism.", "The empire began to decline after his death and the last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha, was assassinated by Pushyamitra Shunga to establish the Shunga Empire.Under Chandragupta Maurya and his successors, internal and external trade, agriculture, and economic activities all thrived and expanded across India thanks to the creation of a single efficient system of finance, administration, and security.", "The Mauryans built the Grand Trunk Road, one of Asia's oldest and longest major roads connecting the Indian subcontinent with Central Asia.", "After the Kalinga War, the Empire experienced nearly half a century of peace and security under Ashoka.", "Mauryan India also enjoyed an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and expansion of scientific knowledge.", "Chandragupta Maurya's embrace of Jainism increased social and religious renewal and reform across his society, while Ashoka's embrace of Buddhism has been said to have been the foundation of the reign of social and political peace and non-violence across India.", "Ashoka sponsored Buddhist missions into Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, West Asia, North Africa, and Mediterranean Europe.The ''Arthashastra'' written by Chanakya and the Edicts of Ashoka are the primary written records of the Mauryan times.", "Archaeologically, this period falls in the era of Northern Black Polished Ware.", "The Mauryan Empire was based on a modern and efficient economy and society.", "However, the sale of merchandise was closely regulated by the government.", "Although there was no banking in the Mauryan society, usury was customary.", "A significant amount of written records on slavery are found, suggesting a prevalence thereof.", "During this period, a high-quality steel called Wootz steel was developed in south India and was later exported to China and Arabia.==== Sangam period ====During the Sangam period Tamil literature flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 4th century CE.", "Three Tamil dynasties, collectively known as the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam: Chera dynasty, Chola dynasty, and the Pandya dynasty ruled parts of southern India.The Sangam literature deals with the history, politics, wars, and culture of the Tamil people of this period.", "Unlike Sanskrit writers who were mostly Brahmins, Sangam writers came from diverse classes and social backgrounds and were mostly non-Brahmins.Around c. 300 BCE – c. 200 CE, Pathupattu, an anthology of ten mid-length book collections, which is considered part of Sangam Literature, were composed; the composition of eight anthologies of poetic works Ettuthogai as well as the composition of eighteen minor poetic works Patiṉeṇkīḻkaṇakku; while Tolkāppiyam, the earliest grammarian work in the Tamil language was developed.", "Also, during Sangam period, two of the Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature were composed.", "Ilango Adigal composed ''Silappatikaram'', which is a non-religious work, that revolves around Kannagi, and ''Manimekalai'', composed by Chithalai Chathanar, is a sequel to ''Silappatikaram'', and tells the story of the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi, who became a Buddhist Bikkuni." ], [ "Classical period (c. 200 BCE – c. 650 CE)", "The time between the Maurya Empire in the 3rd century BCE and the end of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century CE is referred to as the \"Classical\" period of India.", "The Gupta Empire (4th–6th century) is regarded as the \"Golden Age\" of Hinduism, although a host of kingdoms ruled over India in these centuries.", "Also, the Sangam literature flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE in southern India.", "During this period, India's economy is estimated to have been the largest in the world, having between one-third and one-quarter of the world's wealth, from 1 CE to 1000 CE.=== Early classical period (c. 200 BCE – c. 320 CE) ======= Shunga Empire ====The Shungas originated from Magadha, and controlled large areas of the central and eastern Indian subcontinent from around 187 to 78 BCE.", "The dynasty was established by Pushyamitra Shunga, who overthrew the last Maurya emperor.", "Its capital was Pataliputra, but later emperors, such as Bhagabhadra, also held court at Vidisha, modern Besnagar.Pushyamitra Shunga ruled for 36 years and was succeeded by his son Agnimitra.", "There were ten Shunga rulers.", "However, after the death of Agnimitra, the empire rapidly disintegrated; inscriptions and coins indicate that much of northern and central India consisted of small kingdoms and city-states that were independent of any Shunga hegemony.", "The empire is noted for its numerous wars with both foreign and indigenous powers.", "They fought with the Mahameghavahana dynasty of Kalinga, Satavahana dynasty of Deccan, the Indo-Greeks, and possibly the Panchalas and Mitras of Mathura.Art, education, philosophy, and other forms of learning flowered during this period including architectural monuments such as the Stupa at Bharhut and the renowned Great Stupa at Sanchi.", "The Shunga rulers helped to establish the tradition of royal sponsorship of learning and art.", "The script used by the empire was a variant of Brahmi and was used to write the Sanskrit language.", "The Shunga Empire played an imperative role in patronising Indian culture at a time when some of the most important developments in Hindu thought were taking place.==== Satavahana Empire ====The Śātavāhanas were based from Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh as well as Junnar (Pune) and Prathisthan (Paithan) in Maharashtra.", "The territory of the empire covered large parts of India from the 1st century BCE onward.", "The Sātavāhanas started out as feudatories to the Mauryan dynasty, but declared independence with its decline.The Sātavāhanas are known for their patronage of Hinduism and Buddhism, which resulted in Buddhist monuments from Ellora (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) to Amaravati.", "They were one of the first Indian states to issue coins with their rulers embossed.", "They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade as well as the transfer of ideas and culture to and from the Indo-Gangetic Plain to the southern tip of India.They had to compete with the Shunga Empire and then the Kanva dynasty of Magadha to establish their rule.", "Later, they played a crucial role to protect large part of India against foreign invaders like the Sakas, Yavanas and Pahlavas.", "In particular, their struggles with the Western Kshatrapas went on for a long time.", "The notable rulers of the Satavahana Dynasty Gautamiputra Satakarni and Sri Yajna Sātakarni were able to defeat the foreign invaders like the Western Kshatrapas and to stop their expansion.", "In the 3rd century CE the empire was split into smaller states.==== Trade and travels to India ====Silk Road and Spice trade, ancient trade routes that linked India with the Old World; carried goods and ideas between the ancient civilisations of the Old World and India.", "The land routes are red, and the water routes are blue.The spice trade in Kerala attracted traders from all over the Old World to India.", "India's Southwest coastal port Muziris had established itself as a major spice trade centre from as early as 3,000 BCE, according to Sumerian records.", "Jewish traders arrived in Kochi, Kerala, India as early as 562 BCE.", "The Greco-Roman world followed by trading along the incense route and the Roman-India routes.", "During the 2nd century BCE Greek and Indian ships met to trade at Arabian ports such as Aden.", "During the first millennium, the sea routes to India were controlled by the Indians and Ethiopians that became the maritime trading power of the Red Sea.Indian merchants involved in spice trade took Indian cuisine to Southeast Asia, where spice mixtures and curries became popular with the native inhabitants.", "Buddhism entered China through the Silk Road in the 1st or 2nd century CE.", "Hindu and Buddhist religious establishments of South and Southeast Asia came to be centres of production and commerce as they accumulated capital donated by patrons.", "They engaged in estate management, craftsmanship, and trade.", "Buddhism in particular travelled alongside the maritime trade, promoting literacy, art, and the use of coinage.==== Kushan Empire ====The Kushan Empire expanded out of what is now Afghanistan into the northwest of the Indian subcontinent under the leadership of their first emperor, Kujula Kadphises, about the middle of the 1st century CE.", "The Kushans were possibly a Tocharian speaking tribe, one of five branches of the Yuezhi confederation.", "By the time of his grandson, Kanishka the Great, the empire spread to encompass much of Afghanistan, and then the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent.Emperor Kanishka was a great patron of Buddhism; however, as Kushans expanded southward, the deities of their later coinage came to reflect its new Hindu majority.", "Historian Vincent Smith said about Kanishka:The empire linked the Indian Ocean maritime trade with the commerce of the Silk Road through the Indus valley, encouraging long-distance trade, particularly between China and Rome.", "The Kushans brought new trends to the budding and blossoming Gandhara art and Mathura art, which reached its peak during Kushan rule.", "The period of peace under Kushan rule is known as ''Pax Kushana''.By the 3rd century, their empire in India was disintegrating and their last known great emperor was Vasudeva I.=== Classical period (c. 320 – 650 CE) ======= Gupta Empire ====The Gupta period was noted for cultural creativity, especially in literature, architecture, sculpture, and painting.", "The Gupta period produced scholars such as Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma, and Vatsyayana.", "The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimise their rule, but they also patronised Buddhism, an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy.", "The military exploits of the first three rulers – Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II – brought much of India under their leadership.", "Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era.", "Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural centre and established it as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions.", "The period of peace under Gupta rule is known as ''Pax Gupta''.The latter Guptas successfully resisted the northwestern kingdoms until the arrival of the Alchon Huns, who established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century CE, with their capital at Bamiyan.", "However, much of the southern India including Deccan were largely unaffected by these events.==== Vakataka Empire ====The Vākāṭaka Empire originated from the Deccan in the mid-third century CE.", "Their state is believed to have extended from the southern edges of Malwa and Gujarat in the north to the Tungabhadra River in the south as well as from the Arabian Sea in the western to the edges of Chhattisgarh in the east.", "They were the most important successors of the Satavahanas in the Deccan, contemporaneous with the Guptas in northern India and succeeded by the Vishnukundina dynasty.The Vakatakas are noted for having been patrons of the arts, architecture and literature.", "The rock-cut Buddhist viharas and chaityas of Ajanta Caves (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) were built under the patronage of Vakataka emperor, Harishena.==== Kamarupa Kingdom ====Copper Plate Seal of Kamarupa Kings at alt=Samudragupta's 4th-century Allahabad pillar inscription mentions Kamarupa (Western Assam) and Davaka (Central Assam) as frontier kingdoms of the Gupta Empire.", "Davaka was later absorbed by Kamarupa, which grew into a large kingdom that spanned from Karatoya river to near present Sadiya and covered the entire Brahmaputra valley, North Bengal, parts of Bangladesh and, at times Purnea and parts of West Bengal.Ruled by three dynasties Varmanas (c. 350–650 CE), Mlechchha dynasty (c. 655–900 CE) and Kamarupa-Palas (c. 900–1100 CE), from their capitals in present-day Guwahati (Pragjyotishpura), Tezpur (Haruppeswara) and North Gauhati (Durjaya) respectively.", "All three dynasties claimed their descent from Narakasura.", "In the reign of the Varman king, Bhaskar Varman (c. 600–650 CE), the Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited the region and recorded his travels.", "Later, after weakening and disintegration (after the Kamarupa-Palas), the Kamarupa tradition was somewhat extended until c. 1255 CE by the Lunar I (c. 1120–1185 CE) and Lunar II (c. 1155–1255 CE) dynasties.", "The Kamarupa kingdom came to an end in the middle of the 13th century when the Khen dynasty under Sandhya of Kamarupanagara (North Guwahati), moved his capital to Kamatapur (North Bengal) after the invasion of Muslim Turks, and established the Kamata kingdom.==== Pallava Empire ====The Shore Temple (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) at Mahabalipuram built by Narasimhavarman II.\|alt=The Pallavas, during the 4th to 9th centuries were, alongside the Guptas of the North, great patronisers of Sanskrit development in the South of the Indian subcontinent.", "The Pallava reign saw the first Sanskrit inscriptions in a script called Grantha.", "Early Pallavas had different connexions to Southeast Asian countries.", "The Pallavas used Dravidian architecture to build some very important Hindu temples and academies in Mamallapuram, Kanchipuram and other places; their rule saw the rise of great poets.", "The practice of dedicating temples to different deities came into vogue followed by fine artistic temple architecture and sculpture style of Vastu Shastra.Pallavas reached the height of power during the reign of Mahendravarman I (571–630 CE) and Narasimhavarman I (630–668 CE) and dominated the Telugu and northern parts of the Tamil region until the end of the 9th century.==== Kadamba Empire ====Kadamba ''shikara'' (tower) with ''Kalasa'' (pinnacle) on top, alt=Kadambas originated from Karnataka, was founded by Mayurasharma in 345 CE which at later times showed the potential of developing into imperial proportions.", "King Mayurasharma defeated the armies of Pallavas of Kanchi possibly with help of some native tribes.", "The Kadamba fame reached its peak during the rule of Kakusthavarma, a notable ruler with whom the kings of Gupta Dynasty of northern India cultivated marital alliances.", "The Kadambas were contemporaries of the Western Ganga Dynasty and together they formed the earliest native kingdoms to rule the land with absolute autonomy.", "The dynasty later continued to rule as a feudatory of larger Kannada empires, the Chalukya and the Rashtrakuta empires, for over five hundred years during which time they branched into minor dynasties (Kadambas of Goa, Kadambas of Halasi and Kadambas of Hangal).==== Empire of Harsha ====Harsha ruled northern India from 606 to 647 CE.", "He was the son of Prabhakarvardhana and the younger brother of Rajyavardhana, who were members of the Vardhana dynasty and ruled Thanesar, in present-day Haryana.Emperor Harsha, c. 606–647 CE.\|alt=After the downfall of the prior Gupta Empire in the middle of the 6th century, North India reverted to smaller republics and monarchical states.", "The power vacuum resulted in the rise of the Vardhanas of Thanesar, who began uniting the republics and monarchies from the Punjab to central India.", "After the death of Harsha's father and brother, representatives of the empire crowned Harsha emperor in April 606 CE, giving him the title of Maharaja.", "At the height of his power, his Empire covered much of North and Northwestern India, extended East until Kamarupa, and South until Narmada River; and eventually made Kannauj (in present Uttar Pradesh) his capital, and ruled until 647 CE.The peace and prosperity that prevailed made his court a centre of cosmopolitanism, attracting scholars, artists and religious visitors.", "During this time, Harsha converted to Buddhism from Surya worship.", "The Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited the court of Harsha and wrote a very favourable account of him, praising his justice and generosity.", "His biography ''Harshacharita'' (\"Deeds of Harsha\") written by Sanskrit poet Banabhatta, describes his association with Thanesar and the palace with a two-storied ''Dhavalagriha'' (White Mansion)." ], [ "Early medieval period (mid 6th c.–1200 CE)", "Early medieval India began after the end of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century CE.", "This period also covers the \"Late Classical Age\" of Hinduism, which began after the collapse of the Empire of Harsha in the 7th century CE, and ended in the 13th century with the rise of the Delhi Sultanate in Northern India; the beginning of Imperial Kannauj, leading to the Tripartite struggle; and the end of the Later Cholas with the death of Rajendra Chola III in 1279 in Southern India; however some aspects of the Classical period continued until the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire in the south around the 17th century.From the fifth century to the thirteenth, Śrauta sacrifices declined, and initiatory traditions of Buddhism, Jainism or more commonly Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism expanded in royal courts.", "This period produced some of India's finest art, considered the epitome of classical development, and the development of the main spiritual and philosophical systems which continued to be in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.In the 7th century CE, Kumārila Bhaṭṭa formulated his school of Mimamsa philosophy and defended the position on Vedic rituals against Buddhist attacks.", "Scholars note Bhaṭṭa's contribution to the decline of Buddhism in India.", "In the 8th century, Adi Shankara travelled across the Indian subcontinent to propagate and spread the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta, which he consolidated; and is credited with unifying the main characteristics of the current thoughts in Hinduism.David Crystal (2004), The Penguin Encyclopedia, Penguin Books, p. 1353, Quote: \"Shankara is the most famous exponent of Advaita Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy and the source of the main currents of modern Hindu thought.\"", "He was a critic of both Buddhism and Minamsa school of Hinduism;Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, , p. 64; Quote: \"Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of ātman is central to Brahmanical thought).", "Put very briefly, this is the Buddhist doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence.", "\";Edward Roer (Translator), Katie Javanaud (2013), Is The Buddhist 'No-Self' Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?, Philosophy Now;John C. Plott et al.", "(2000), ''Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, , p. 63, Quote: \"The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept.", "As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism\".", "and founded mathas (monasteries) for the spread and development of Advaita Vedanta.", "Muhammad bin Qasim's invasion of Sindh (modern Pakistan) in 711 CE witnessed further decline of Buddhism.From the 8th to the 10th century, three dynasties contested for control of northern India: the Gurjara Pratiharas of Malwa, the Palas of Bengal, and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan.", "The Sena dynasty would later assume control of the Pala Empire; the Gurjara Pratiharas fragmented into various states, notably the Paramaras of Malwa, the Chandelas of Bundelkhand, the Kalachuris of Mahakoshal, the Tomaras of Haryana, and the Chauhans of Rajputana, these states were some of the earliest Rajput kingdoms; while the Rashtrakutas were annexed by the Western Chalukyas.", "During this period, the Chaulukya dynasty emerged; the Chaulukyas constructed the Dilwara Temples, Modhera Sun Temple, Rani ki vav in the style of Māru-Gurjara architecture, and their capital Anhilwara (modern Patan, Gujarat) was one of the largest cities in the Indian subcontinent, with the population estimated at 100,000 in 1000 CE.The Chola Empire emerged as a major power during the reign of Raja Raja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I who successfully invaded parts of Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka in the 11th century.", "Lalitaditya Muktapida (r. 724–760 CE) was an emperor of the Kashmiri Karkoṭa dynasty, which exercised influence in northwestern India from 625 CE until 1003, and was followed by Lohara dynasty.", "Kalhana in his Rajatarangini credits king Lalitaditya with leading an aggressive military campaign in Northern India and Central Asia.The Hindu Shahi dynasty ruled portions of eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and Kashmir from the mid-7th century to the early 11th century.", "While in Odisha, the Eastern Ganga Empire rose to power; noted for the advancement of Hindu architecture, most notable being Jagannath Temple and Konark Sun Temple, as well as being patrons of art and literature.=== Chalukya Empire ===The Chalukya Empire ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries, as three related yet individual dynasties.", "The earliest dynasty, known as the \"Badami Chalukyas\", ruled from Vatapi (modern Badami) from the middle of the 6th century.", "The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of the Kadamba kingdom of Banavasi and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of Pulakeshin II.", "The rule of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of South India and a golden age in the history of Karnataka.", "The political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas.", "A Southern India-based kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between the Kaveri and the Narmada rivers.", "The rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture called \"Chalukyan architecture\".", "The Chalukya dynasty ruled parts of southern and central India from Badami in Karnataka between 550 and 750, and then again from Kalyani between 970 and 1190.=== Rashtrakuta Empire ===Founded by Dantidurga around 753, the Rashtrakuta Empire ruled from its capital at Manyakheta for almost two centuries.", "At its peak, the Rashtrakutas ruled from the Ganges-Yamuna Doab in the north to Cape Comorin in the south, a fruitful time of architectural and literary achievements.The early rulers of this dynasty were Hindu, but the later rulers were strongly influenced by Jainism.", "Govinda III and Amoghavarsha were the most famous of the long line of able administrators produced by the dynasty.", "Amoghavarsha was also an author and wrote Kavirajamarga, the earliest known Kannada work on poetics.", "Architecture reached a milestone in the Dravidian style, the finest example of which is seen in the Kailasanath Temple at Ellora.", "Other important contributions are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal in Karnataka.The Arab traveller Suleiman described the Rashtrakuta Empire as one of the four great Empires of the world.", "The Rashtrakuta period marked the beginning of the golden age of southern Indian mathematics.", "The great south Indian mathematician Mahāvīra had a huge impact on medieval south Indian mathematicians.", "The Rashtrakuta rulers also patronised men of letters in a variety of languages.=== Gurjara-Pratihara Empire ===The Gurjara-Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving east of the Indus River.", "Nagabhata I defeated the Arab army under Junaid and Tamin during the Umayyad campaigns in India.", "Under Nagabhata II, the Gurjara-Pratiharas became the most powerful dynasty in northern India.", "He was succeeded by his son Ramabhadra, who ruled briefly before being succeeded by his son, Mihira Bhoja.", "Under Bhoja and his successor Mahendrapala I, the Pratihara Empire reached its peak of prosperity and power.", "By the time of Mahendrapala, its territory stretched from the border of Sindh in the west to Bihar in the east and from the Himalayas in the north to around the Narmada River in the south.", "The expansion triggered a tripartite power struggle with the Rashtrakuta and Pala empires for control of the Indian subcontinent.By the end of the 10th century, several feudatories of the empire took advantage of the temporary weakness of the Gurjara-Pratiharas to declare their independence, notably the Paramaras of Malwa, the Chandelas of Bundelkhand, the Tomaras of Haryana, the Chauhans of Rajputana, and the Kalachuris of Mahakoshal.=== Gahadavala dynasty ===Gahadavala dynasty ruled parts of the present-day Indian states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, during 11th and 12th centuries.", "Their capital was located at Varanasi.=== Khayaravala dynasty ===The Khayaravala dynasty, ruled parts of the present-day Indian states of Bihar and Jharkhand, during 11th and 12th centuries.", "Their capital was located at Khayaragarh in Shahabad district.", "Pratapdhavala and Shri Pratapa were king of the dynasty.Rohtasgarh Fort === Pala Empire ===Excavated ruins of Nalanda, a centre of Buddhist learning from 450 to 1193 CE.The Pala Empire was founded by Gopala I.", "It was ruled by a Buddhist dynasty from Bengal.", "The Palas reunified Bengal after the fall of Shashanka's Gauda Kingdom.The Palas were followers of the Mahayana and Tantric schools of Buddhism, they also patronised Shaivism and Vaishnavism.", "The empire reached its peak under Dharmapala and Devapala.", "Dharmapala is believed to have conquered Kanauj and extended his sway up to the farthest limits of India in the northwest.The Pala Empire can be considered as the golden era of Bengal.", "Dharmapala founded the Vikramashila and revived Nalanda, considered one of the first great universities in recorded history.", "Nalanda reached its height under the patronage of the Pala Empire.", "The Palas also built many viharas.", "They maintained close cultural and commercial ties with countries of Southeast Asia and Tibet.", "Sea trade added greatly to the prosperity of the Pala Empire.=== Cholas ===Chola Empire under Rajendra Chola, c. 1030 CE.Medieval Cholas rose to prominence during the middle of the 9th century CE and established the greatest empire South India had seen.", "They successfully united the South India under their rule and through their naval strength extended their influence in the Southeast Asian countries such as Srivijaya.", "Under Rajaraja Chola I and his successors Rajendra Chola I, Rajadhiraja Chola, Virarajendra Chola and Kulothunga Chola I the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in South Asia and South-East Asia.", "Rajendra Chola I's navies occupied the sea coasts from Burma to Vietnam, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Lakshadweep (Laccadive) islands, Sumatra, and the Malay Peninsula.", "The power of the new empire was proclaimed to the eastern world by the expedition to the Ganges which Rajendra Chola I undertook and by the occupation of cities of the maritime empire of Srivijaya in Southeast Asia, as well as by the repeated embassies to China.They dominated the political affairs of Sri Lanka for over two centuries through repeated invasions and occupation.", "They also had continuing trade contacts with the Arabs and the Chinese empire.", "Rajaraja Chola I and his son Rajendra Chola I gave political unity to the whole of Southern India and established the Chola Empire as a respected sea power.", "Under the Cholas, the South India reached new heights of excellence in art, religion and literature.", "In all of these spheres, the Chola period marked the culmination of movements that had begun in an earlier age under the Pallavas.", "Monumental architecture in the form of majestic temples and sculpture in stone and bronze reached a finesse never before achieved in India.Srirangam Ranganathaswamy Temple is the world's largest functioning Hindu temple.", "present in Tamil Nadu, India.", "The temple is a significant archaeological and epigraphical site, providing a historic window into the early and mid medieval South Indian society and culture.", "The temple is mentioned in the Ramayana, Mahabharatha, Sangam literature(500 BCE to the 300 CE)and Various books.", "Beyond the ancient textual history, archaeological evidence such as inscriptions refer to this temple, and these stone inscriptions are from late '''100 BCE to 100 CE'''.", "Hence, making it one of the oldest surviving active temple complexes in South India.=== Western Chalukya Empire ===The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the western Deccan, South India, between the 10th and 12th centuries.", "Vast areas between the Narmada River in the north and Kaveri River in the south came under Chalukya control.", "During this period the other major ruling families of the Deccan, the Hoysalas, the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, the Kakatiya dynasty and the Southern Kalachuris, were subordinates of the Western Chalukyas and gained their independence only when the power of the Chalukya waned during the latter half of the 12th century.The Western Chalukyas developed an architectural style known today as a transitional style, an architectural link between the style of the early Chalukya dynasty and that of the later Hoysala empire.", "Most of its monuments are in the districts bordering the Tungabhadra River in central Karnataka.", "Well known examples are the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi, the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti, the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali, Siddhesvara Temple at Haveri, and the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi.", "This was an important period in the development of fine arts in Southern India, especially in literature as the Western Chalukya kings encouraged writers in the native language of Kannada, and Sanskrit like the philosopher and statesman Basava and the great mathematician Bhāskara II." ], [ "Late medieval period (c. 1200–1526 CE)", "The late medieval period is marked by repeated invasions of the Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans, the rule of the Delhi sultanate, and by the growth of other dynasties and empires, built upon military technology of the Sultanate.=== Delhi Sultanate ===The Delhi Sultanate reached its zenith under the Turko-Indian Tughlaq dynasty.The Delhi Sultanate was a series of successive Islamic states based in Delhi, ruled by several dynasties of Turkic, Turko-Indian and Pashtun origins.", "It ruled large parts of the Indian subcontinent from the 13th to the early 16th century.", "In the 12th and 13th centuries, Central Asian Turks invaded parts of northern India and established the Delhi Sultanate in the former Hindu holdings.", "The subsequent Mamluk dynasty of Delhi managed to conquer large areas of northern India, while the Khalji dynasty conquered most of central India while forcing the principal Hindu kingdoms of South India to become vassal states.The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance.", "The resulting \"Indo-Muslim\" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature, religion, and clothing.", "It is surmised that the language of Urdu was born during the Delhi Sultanate period.", "The Delhi Sultanate is the only Indo-Islamic empire to enthrone one of the few female rulers in India, Razia Sultana (1236–1240).While initially disruptive due to the passing of power from native Indian elites to Turkic Muslim elites, the Delhi Sultanate was responsible for integrating the Indian subcontinent into a growing world system, drawing India into a wider international network, which had a significant impact on Indian culture and society.", "However, the Delhi Sultanate also caused large-scale destruction and desecration of temples in the Indian subcontinent.The Mongol invasions of India were successfully repelled by the Delhi Sultanate during the rule of Alauddin Khalji.", "A major factor in their success was their Turkic Mamluk slave army, who were highly skilled in the same style of nomadic cavalry warfare as the Mongols.", "It is possible that the Mongol Empire may have expanded into India were it not for the Delhi Sultanate's role in repelling them.", "By repeatedly repulsing the Mongol raiders, the sultanate saved India from the devastation visited on West and Central Asia, setting the scene for centuries of migration of fleeing soldiers, learned men, mystics, traders, artists, and artisans from that region into the subcontinent, thereby creating a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture in the north.A Turco-Mongol conqueror in Central Asia, Timur (Tamerlane), attacked the reigning Sultan Nasir-u Din Mehmud of the Tughlaq dynasty in the north Indian city of Delhi.", "The Sultan's army was defeated on 17 December 1398.Timur entered Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins after Timur's army had killed and plundered for three days and nights.", "He ordered the whole city to be sacked except for the sayyids, scholars, and the \"other Muslims\" (artists); 100,000 war prisoners were put to death in one day.", "The Sultanate suffered significantly from the sacking of Delhi.", "Though revived briefly under the Lodi dynasty, it was but a shadow of the former.=== Vijayanagara Empire ===Map of the Sangama dynasty of the Vijayanagara EmpireThe Vijayanagara Empire was established in 1336 by Harihara I and his brother Bukka Raya I of Sangama Dynasty, which originated as a political heir of the Hoysala Empire, Kakatiya Empire, and the Pandyan Empire.", "The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the south Indian powers to ward off Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century.", "It lasted until 1646, although its power declined after a major military defeat in 1565 by the combined armies of the Deccan sultanates.", "The empire is named after its capital city of Vijayanagara, whose ruins surround present day Hampi, now a World Heritage Site in Karnataka, India.In the first two decades after the founding of the empire, Harihara I gained control over most of the area south of the Tungabhadra river and earned the title of ''Purvapaschima Samudradhishavara'' (\"master of the eastern and western seas\").", "By 1374 Bukka Raya I, successor to Harihara I, had defeated the chiefdom of Arcot, the Reddys of Kondavidu, and the Sultan of Madurai and had gained control over Goa in the west and the Tungabhadra-Krishna doab in the north.Harihara II, the second son of Bukka Raya I, further consolidated the kingdom beyond the Krishna River and brought the whole of South India under the Vijayanagara umbrella.", "The next ruler, Deva Raya I, emerged successful against the Gajapatis of Odisha and undertook important works of fortification and irrigation.", "Italian traveler Niccolo de Conti wrote of him as the most powerful ruler of India.", "Deva Raya II succeeded to the throne in 1424 and was possibly the most capable of the Sangama Dynasty rulers.", "He quelled rebelling feudal lords as well as the Zamorin of Calicut and Quilon in the south.", "He invaded the island of Sri Lanka and became overlord of the kings of Burma at Pegu and Tanasserim.The Vijayanagara Emperors were tolerant of all religions and sects, as writings by foreign visitors show.", "The kings used titles such as ''Gobrahamana Pratipalanacharya'' (''literally'', \"protector of cows and Brahmins\") and ''Hindurayasuratrana'' (''lit'', \"upholder of Hindu faith\") that testified to their intention of protecting Hinduism and yet were at the same time staunchly Islamicate in their court ceremonials and dress.", "The empire's founders, Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, were devout Shaivas (worshippers of Shiva), but made grants to the Vaishnava order of Sringeri with Vidyaranya as their patron saint, and designated ''Varaha'' (an avatar of Vishnu) as their emblem.", "Nobles from Central Asia's Timurid kingdoms also came to Vijayanagara.", "The later Saluva and Tuluva kings were Vaishnava by faith, but worshipped at the feet of Lord Virupaksha (Shiva) at Hampi as well as Lord Venkateshwara (Vishnu) at Tirupati.", "A Sanskrit work, ''Jambavati Kalyanam'' by King Krishnadevaraya, called Lord Virupaksha ''Karnata Rajya Raksha Mani'' (\"protective jewel of Karnata Empire\").", "The kings patronised the saints of the dvaita order (philosophy of dualism) of Madhvacharya at Udupi.The empire's legacy includes many monuments spread over South India, the best known of which is the group at Hampi.", "The previous temple building traditions in South India came together in the Vijayanagara Architecture style.", "The mingling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired architectural innovation of Hindu temple construction.", "South Indian mathematics flourished under the protection of the Vijayanagara Empire in Kerala.", "The south Indian mathematician Madhava of Sangamagrama founded the famous Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics in the 14th century which produced a lot of great south Indian mathematicians like Parameshvara, Nilakantha Somayaji and Jyeṣṭhadeva.", "Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies such as water management systems for irrigation.", "The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, and Sanskrit, while Carnatic music evolved into its current form.Vijayanagara went into decline after the defeat in the Battle of Talikota (1565).", "After the death of Aliya Rama Raya in the Battle of Talikota, Tirumala Deva Raya started the Aravidu dynasty, moved and founded a new capital of Penukonda to replace the destroyed Hampi, and attempted to reconstitute the remains of Vijayanagara Empire.", "Tirumala abdicated in 1572, dividing the remains of his kingdom to his three sons, and pursued a religious life until his death in 1578.The Aravidu dynasty successors ruled the region but the empire collapsed in 1614, and the final remains ended in 1646, from continued wars with the Bijapur sultanate and others.", "During this period, more kingdoms in South India became independent and separate from Vijayanagara.", "These include the Mysore Kingdom, Keladi Nayaka, Nayaks of Madurai, Nayaks of Tanjore, Nayakas of Chitradurga and Nayak Kingdom of Gingee – all of which declared independence and went on to have a significant impact on the history of South India in the coming centuries.=== Other kingdoms ===For two and a half centuries from the mid-13th century, politics in Northern India was dominated by the Delhi Sultanate, and in Southern India by the Vijayanagar Empire.", "However, there were other regional powers present as well.", "After fall of Pala Empire, the Chero dynasty ruled much of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Jharkhand from 12th CE to 18th CE.", "The Reddy dynasty successfully defeated the Delhi Sultanate and extended their rule from Cuttack in the north to Kanchi in the south, eventually being absorbed into the expanding Vijayanagara Empire.In the north, the Rajput kingdoms remained the dominant force in Western and Central India.", "The Mewar dynasty under Maharana Hammir defeated and captured Muhammad Tughlaq with the Bargujars as his main allies.", "Tughlaq had to pay a huge ransom and relinquish all of Mewar's lands.", "After this event, the Delhi Sultanate did not attack Chittor for a few hundred years.", "The Rajputs re-established their independence, and Rajput states were established as far east as Bengal and north into the Punjab.", "The Tomaras established themselves at Gwalior, and Man Singh Tomar reconstructed the Gwalior Fort.", "During this period, Mewar emerged as the leading Rajput state; and Rana Kumbha expanded his kingdom at the expense of the Sultanates of Malwa and Gujarat.", "The next great Rajput ruler, Rana Sanga of Mewar, became the principal player in Northern India.", "His objectives grew in scope – he planned to conquer Delhi.", "But, his defeat in the Battle of Khanwa consolidated the new Mughal dynasty in India.", "The Mewar dynasty under Maharana Udai Singh II faced further defeat by Mughal emperor Akbar, with their capital Chittor being captured.", "Due to this event, Udai Singh II founded Udaipur, which became the new capital of the Mewar kingdom.", "His son, Maharana Pratap of Mewar, firmly resisted the Mughals.", "Akbar sent many missions against him.", "He survived to ultimately gain control of all of Mewar, excluding the Chittor Fort.In the south, the Bahmani Sultanate was the chief rival of the Vijayanagara, and frequently created difficulties for the Vijayanagara.", "In the early 16th century Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagar Empire defeated the last remnant of Bahmani Sultanate power, resulting it being split into five small Deccan sultanates.", "In 1490, Ahmadnagar declared independence, followed by Bijapur and Berar in the same year; Golkonda became independent in 1518 and Bidar in 1528.Although generally rivals, they did ally against the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565, permanently weakening Vijayanagar in the Battle of Talikota.In the East, the Gajapati Kingdom remained a strong regional power to reckon with, associated with a high point in the growth of regional culture and architecture.", "Under Kapilendradeva, Gajapatis became an empire stretching from the lower Ganga in the north to the Kaveri in the south.", "In Northeast India, the Ahom Kingdom was a major power for six centuries; led by Lachit Borphukan, the Ahoms decisively defeated the Mughal army at the Battle of Saraighat during the Ahom-Mughal conflicts.", "Further east in Northeastern India was the Kingdom of Manipur, which ruled from their seat of power at Kangla Fort and developed a sophisticated Hindu Gaudiya Vaishnavite culture.The Sultanate of Bengal was the dominant power of the Ganges–Brahmaputra Delta, with a network of mint towns spread across the region.", "It was a Sunni Muslim monarchy with Indo-Turkic, Arab, Abyssinian and Bengali Muslim elites.", "The sultanate was known for its religious pluralism where non-Muslim communities co-existed peacefully.", "The Bengal Sultanate had a circle of vassal states, including Odisha in the southwest, Arakan in the southeast, and Tripura in the east.", "In the early 16th century, the Bengal Sultanate reached the peak of its territorial growth with control over Kamrup and Kamata in the northeast and Jaunpur and Bihar in the west.", "It was reputed as a thriving trading nation and one of Asia's strongest states.", "The Bengal Sultanate was described by contemporary European and Chinese visitors as a relatively prosperous kingdom and the \"richest country to trade with\".", "The Bengal Sultanate left a strong architectural legacy.", "Buildings from the period show foreign influences merged into a distinct Bengali style.", "The Bengal Sultanate was also the largest and most prestigious authority among the independent medieval Muslim-ruled states in the history of Bengal.", "Its decline began with an interregnum by the Suri Empire, followed by Mughal conquest and disintegration into petty kingdoms.=== Bhakti movement and Sikhism ===The Dasam Granth (above) was composed by Sikh Guru Gobind Singh.The Bhakti movement refers to the theistic devotional trend that emerged in medieval Hinduism and later revolutionised in Sikhism.", "It originated in the seventh-century south India (now parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and spread northwards.", "It swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards, reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century CE.", "* The Bhakti movement regionally developed around different gods and goddesses, such as Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva), Shaktism (Shakti goddesses), and Smartism.", "The movement was inspired by many poet-saints, who championed a wide range of philosophical positions ranging from theistic dualism of Dvaita to absolute monism of Advaita Vedanta.", "* Sikhism is a monotheistic and panentheistic religion based on the spiritual teachings of Guru Nanak, the first Guru, and the ten successive Sikh gurus.", "After the death of the tenth Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, the Sikh scripture, Guru Granth Sahib, became the literal embodiment of the eternal, impersonal Guru, where the scripture's word serves as the spiritual guide for Sikhs.", "* Buddhism in India flourished in the Himalayan kingdoms of Namgyal Kingdom in Ladakh, Sikkim Kingdom in Sikkim, and Chutia Kingdom in Arunachal Pradesh of the Late medieval period." ], [ "Early modern period (c. 1526–1858 CE)", "The early modern period of Indian history is dated from 1526 CE to 1858 CE, corresponding to the rise and fall of the Mughal Empire, which inherited from the Timurid Renaissance.", "During this age India's economy expanded, relative peace was maintained and arts were patronized.", "This period witnessed the further development of Indo-Islamic architecture; the growth of Marathas and Sikhs enabled them to rule significant regions of India in the waning days of the Mughal empire.", "With the discovery of the Cape route in the 1500s, the first Europeans to arrive by sea and establish themselves, were the Portuguese in Goa and Bombay.=== Mughal Empire ===In 1526, Babur swept across the Khyber Pass and established the Mughal Empire, which at its zenith covered much of South Asia.", "However, his son Humayun was defeated by the Afghan warrior Sher Shah Suri in 1540, and Humayun was forced to retreat to Kabul.", "After Sher Shah's death, his son Islam Shah Suri and his Hindu general Hemu Vikramaditya established secular rule in North India from Delhi until 1556, when Akbar (), grandson of Babur, defeated Hemu in the Second Battle of Panipat on 6 November 1556 after winning Battle of Delhi.", "Akbar tried to establish a good relationship with the Hindus.", "Akbar declared \"Amari\" or non-killing of animals in the holy days of Jainism.", "He rolled back the ''jizya'' tax for non-Muslims.", "The Mughal emperors married local royalty, allied themselves with local ''maharajas'', and attempted to fuse their Turko-Persian culture with ancient Indian styles, creating a unique Indo-Persian culture and Indo-Saracenic architecture.Akbar married a Rajput princess, Mariam-uz-Zamani, and they had a son, Jahangir ().", "Jahangir followed his father's policy.", "The Mughal dynasty ruled most of the Indian subcontinent by 1600.The reign of Shah Jahan () was the golden age of Mughal architecture.", "He erected several large monuments, the most famous of which is the Taj Mahal at Agra.It was one of the largest empires to have existed in the Indian subcontinent, and surpassed China to become the world's largest economic power, controlling 24.4% of the world economy, and the world leader in manufacturing, producing 25% of global industrial output.", "The economic and demographic upsurge was stimulated by Mughal agrarian reforms that intensified agricultural production, and a relatively high degree of urbanisation.The Mughal Empire reached the zenith of its territorial expanse during the reign of Aurangzeb (), under whose reign India surpassed Qing China as the world's largest economy.", "Aurangzeb was less tolerant than his predecessors, reintroducing the ''jizya'' tax and destroying several historical temples, while at the same time building more Hindu temples than he destroyed, employing significantly more Hindus in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors, and advancing administrators based on ability rather than religion.", "However, he is often blamed for the erosion of the tolerant syncretic tradition of his predecessors, as well as increasing religious controversy and centralisation.", "The English East India Company suffered a defeat in the Anglo-Mughal War.18th-century political formation in IndiaThe Mughals suffered several blows due to invasions from Marathas, Rajputs, Jats and Afghans.", "In 1737, the Maratha general Bajirao of the Maratha Empire invaded and plundered Delhi.", "Under the general Amir Khan Umrao Al Udat, the Mughal Emperor sent 8,000 troops to drive away the 5,000 Maratha cavalry soldiers.", "Baji Rao easily routed the novice Mughal general.", "In 1737, in the final defeat of Mughal Empire, the commander-in-chief of the Mughal Army, Nizam-ul-mulk, was routed at Bhopal by the Maratha army.", "This essentially brought an end to the Mughal Empire.", "While Bharatpur State under Jat ruler Suraj Mal, overran the Mughal garrison at Agra and plundered the city.", "In 1739, Nader Shah, emperor of Iran, defeated the Mughal army at the Battle of Karnal.", "After this victory, Nader captured and sacked Delhi, carrying away treasures including the Peacock Throne.", "Mughal rule was further weakened by constant native Indian resistance; Banda Singh Bahadur led the Sikh Khalsa against Mughal religious oppression; Hindu Rajas of Bengal, Pratapaditya and Raja Sitaram Ray revolted; and Maharaja Chhatrasal, of Bundela Rajputs, fought the Mughals and established the Panna State.", "The Mughal dynasty was reduced to puppet rulers by 1757.Vadda Ghalughara took place under the Muslim provincial government based at Lahore to wipe out the Sikhs, with 30,000 Sikhs being killed, an offensive that had begun with the Mughals, with the Chhota Ghallughara, and lasted several decades under its Muslim successor states.=== Maratha Empire ===The Maratha kingdom was founded and consolidated by Chatrapati Shivaji.", "However, the credit for making the Marathas formidable power nationally goes to ''Peshwa'' (chief minister) Bajirao I.", "Historian K.K.", "Datta wrote that Bajirao I \"may very well be regarded as the second founder of the Maratha Empire\".In the early 18th century, under the Peshwas, the Marathas consolidated and ruled over much of South Asia.", "The Marathas are credited to a large extent for ending Mughal rule in India.", "In 1737, the Marathas defeated a Mughal army in their capital, in the Battle of Delhi.", "The Marathas continued their military campaigns against the Mughals, Nizam, Nawab of Bengal and the Durrani Empire to further extend their boundaries.", "At its peak, the domain of the Marathas encompassed most of the Indian subcontinent.", "The Marathas even attempted to capture Delhi and discussed putting Vishwasrao Peshwa on the throne there in place of the Mughal emperor.The Maratha empire at its peak stretched from Tamil Nadu in the south, to Peshawar (modern-day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan ) in the north, and Bengal in the east.", "The Northwestern expansion of the Marathas was stopped after the Third Battle of Panipat (1761).", "However, the Maratha authority in the north was re-established within a decade under Peshwa Madhavrao I.Under Madhavrao I, the strongest knights were granted semi-autonomy, creating a confederacy of United Maratha states under the Gaekwads of Baroda, the Holkars of Indore and Malwa, the Scindias of Gwalior and Ujjain, the Bhonsales of Nagpur and the Puars of Dhar and Dewas.", "In 1775, the East India Company intervened in a Peshwa family succession struggle in Pune, which led to the First Anglo-Maratha War, resulting in a Maratha victory.", "The Marathas remained a major power in India until their defeat in the Second and Third Anglo-Maratha Wars (1805–1818).=== Sikh Empire ===The Sikh Empire was a political entity that governed the Northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent, based around the Punjab region, from 1799 to 1849.It was forged, on the foundations of the Khalsa, under the leadership of Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1780–1839).Maharaja Ranjit Singh consolidated much of northern India into an empire using his Sikh Khalsa Army, trained in European military techniques and equipped with modern military technologies.", "Ranjit Singh proved himself to be a master strategist and selected well-qualified generals for his army.", "He successfully ended the Afghan-Sikh Wars.", "In stages, he added central Punjab, the provinces of Multan and Kashmir, and the Peshawar Valley to his empire.At its peak in the 19th century, the empire extended from the Khyber Pass in the west, to Kashmir in the north, to Sindh in the south, running along Sutlej river to Himachal in the east.", "After the death of Ranjit Singh, the empire weakened, leading to conflict with the British East India Company.", "The First Anglo-Sikh War and Second Anglo-Sikh War marked the downfall of the Sikh Empire, making it among the last areas of the Indian subcontinent to be conquered by the British.=== Other kingdoms ===Territories of India in 1763The Kingdom of Mysore in southern India expanded to its greatest extent under Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan in the later half of the 18th century.", "Under their rule, Mysore fought series of wars against the Marathas and British or their combined forces.", "The Maratha–Mysore War ended in April 1787, following the finalizing of ''treaty of Gajendragad'', in which Tipu Sultan was obligated to pay tribute to the Marathas.", "Concurrently, the Anglo-Mysore Wars took place, where the Mysoreans used the Mysorean rockets.", "The Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1798–1799) saw the death of Tipu.", "Mysore's alliance with the French was seen as a threat to the British East India Company, and Mysore was attacked from all four sides.", "The Nizam of Hyderabad and the Marathas launched an invasion from the north.", "The British won a decisive victory at the Siege of Seringapatam (1799).Hyderabad was founded by the Qutb Shahi dynasty of Golconda in 1591.Following a brief Mughal rule, Asif Jah, a Mughal official, seized control of Hyderabad and declared himself Nizam-al-Mulk of Hyderabad in 1724.The Nizams lost considerable territory and paid tribute to the Maratha Empire after being routed in multiple battles, such as the Battle of Palkhed.", "However, the Nizams maintained their sovereignty from 1724 until 1948 through paying tributes to the Marathas, and later, being vassels of the British.", "Hyderabad State became a princely state in British India in 1798.The Nawabs of Bengal had become the de facto rulers of Bengal following the decline of Mughal Empire.", "However, their rule was interrupted by Marathas who carried out six expeditions in Bengal from 1741 to 1748, as a result of which Bengal became a tributary state of Marathas.", "On 23 June 1757, Siraj ud-Daulah, the last independent Nawab of Bengal was betrayed in the Battle of Plassey by Mir Jafar.", "He lost to the British, who took over the charge of Bengal in 1757, installed Mir Jafar on the ''Masnad'' (throne) and established itself to a political power in Bengal.", "In 1765 the system of Dual Government was established, in which the Nawabs ruled on behalf of the British and were mere puppets to the British.", "In 1772 the system was abolished and Bengal was brought under the direct control of the British.", "In 1793, when the ''Nizamat'' (governorship) of the Nawab was also taken away, they remained as mere pensioners of the British East India Company.In the 18th century, the whole of Rajputana was virtually subdued by the Marathas.", "The Second Anglo-Maratha War distracted the Marathas from 1807 to 1809, but afterward Maratha domination of Rajputana resumed.", "In 1817, the British went to war with the Pindaris, raiders who were fled in Maratha territory, which quickly became the Third Anglo-Maratha War, and the British government offered its protection to the Rajput rulers from the Pindaris and the Marathas.", "By the end of 1818 similar treaties had been executed between the other Rajput states and Britain.", "The Maratha Sindhia ruler of Gwalior gave up the district of Ajmer-Merwara to the British, and Maratha influence in Rajasthan came to an end.", "Most of the Rajput princes remained loyal to Britain in the Revolt of 1857, and few political changes were made in Rajputana until Indian independence in 1947.The Rajputana Agency contained more than 20 princely states, most notable being Udaipur State, Jaipur State, Bikaner State and Jodhpur State.After the fall of the Maratha Empire, many Maratha dynasties and states became vassals in a subsidiary alliance with the British.", "With the decline of the Sikh Empire, after the First Anglo-Sikh War in 1846, under the terms of the Treaty of Amritsar, the British government sold Kashmir to Maharaja Gulab Singh and the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, the second-largest princely state in British India, was created by the Dogra dynasty.", "While in Eastern and Northeastern India, the Hindu and Buddhist states of Cooch Behar Kingdom, Twipra Kingdom and Kingdom of Sikkim were annexed by the British and made vassal princely state.After the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire, Polygar states emerged in Southern India; and managed to weather invasions and flourished until the Polygar Wars, where they were defeated by the British East India Company forces.", "Around the 18th century, the Kingdom of Nepal was formed by Rajput rulers.=== European exploration ===The route followed in Vasco da Gama's first voyage (1497–1499).In 1498, a Portuguese fleet under Vasco da Gama discovered a new sea route from Europe to India, which paved the way for direct Indo-European commerce.", "The Portuguese soon set up trading posts in Velha Goa, Damaon, Dio island, and Bombay.", "The Portuguese instituted the Goa Inquisition, where new Indian converts were punished for suspected heresy against Christianity and non-Christians were condemned.", "Goa remained the main Portuguese territory until it was annexed by India in 1961.The next to arrive were the Dutch, with their main base in Ceylon.", "They established ports in Malabar.", "However, their expansion into India was halted after their defeat in the Battle of Colachel by the Kingdom of Travancore during the Travancore-Dutch War.", "The Dutch never recovered from the defeat and no longer posed a large colonial threat to India.The internal conflicts among Indian kingdoms gave opportunities to the European traders to gradually establish political influence and appropriate lands.", "Following the Dutch, the British—who set up in the west coast port of Surat in 1619—and the French both established trading outposts in India.", "Although continental European powers controlled various coastal regions of southern and eastern India during the ensuing century, they eventually lost all their territories in India to the British, with the exception of the French outposts of Pondichéry and Chandernagore, and the Portuguese colonies of Goa, Daman and Diu.=== East India Company rule in India ===The English East India Company was founded in 1600.It gained a foothold in India with the establishment of a factory in Masulipatnam on the Eastern coast of India in 1611 and a grant of rights by the Mughal emperor Jahangir to establish a factory in Surat in 1612.In 1640, after receiving similar permission from the Vijayanagara ruler farther south, a second factory was established in Madras on the southeastern coast.", "The islet of ''Bom Bahia'' in present-day Mumbai (Bombay), was a Portuguese outpost not far from Surat, it was presented to Charles II of England as dowry, in his marriage to Catherine of Braganza; Charles in turn leased Bombay to the Company in 1668.Two decades later, the company established a trade post in the River Ganges delta.", "During this time other companies established by the Portuguese, Dutch, French, and Danish were similarly expanding in the subcontinent.The company's victory under Robert Clive in the 1757 Battle of Plassey and another victory in the 1764 Battle of Buxar (in Bihar), consolidated the company's power, and forced emperor Shah Alam II to appoint it the ''diwan'', or revenue collector, of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.", "The company thus became the ''de facto'' ruler of large areas of the lower Gangetic plain by 1773.It also proceeded by degrees to expand its dominions around Bombay and Madras.", "The Anglo-Mysore Wars (1766–99) and the Anglo-Maratha Wars (1772–1818) left it in control of large areas of India south of the Sutlej River.", "With the defeat of the Marathas, no native power represented a threat for the company any longer.The expansion of the company's power chiefly took two forms.", "The first of these was the outright annexation of Indian states and subsequent direct governance of the underlying regions that collectively came to comprise British India.", "The annexed regions included the North-Western Provinces (comprising Rohilkhand, Gorakhpur, and the Doab) (1801), Delhi (1803), Assam (Ahom Kingdom 1828) and Sindh (1843).", "Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, and Kashmir were annexed after the Anglo-Sikh Wars in 1849–56 (Period of tenure of Marquess of Dalhousie Governor General).", "However, Kashmir was immediately sold under the Treaty of Amritsar (1850) to the Dogra Dynasty of Jammu and thereby became a princely state.", "In 1854, Berar was annexed along with the state of Oudh two years later.The second form of asserting power involved treaties in which Indian rulers acknowledged the company's hegemony in return for limited internal autonomy.", "Since the company operated under financial constraints, it had to set up ''political'' underpinnings for its rule.", "The most important such support came from the ''subsidiary alliances'' with Indian princes.", "In the early 19th century, the territories of these princes accounted for two-thirds of India.", "When an Indian ruler who was able to secure his territory wanted to enter such an alliance, the company welcomed it as an economical method of indirect rule that did not involve the economic costs of direct administration or the political costs of gaining the support of alien subjects.In return, the company undertook the \"defense of these subordinate allies and treated them with traditional respect and marks of honor.\"", "Subsidiary alliances created the Princely States of the Hindu maharajas and the Muslim nawabs.", "Prominent among the princely states were Cochin (1791), Jaipur (1794), Travancore (1795), Hyderabad (1798), Mysore (1799), Cis-Sutlej Hill States (1815), Central India Agency (1819), Cutch and Gujarat Gaikwad territories (1819), Rajputana (1818) and Bahawalpur (1833).==== Indian indenture system ====The Indian indenture system was an ongoing system of indenture, a form of debt bondage, by which 3.5 million Indians were transported to colonies of European powers to provide labor for the (mainly sugar) plantations.", "It started from the end of slavery in 1833 and continued until 1920.This resulted in the development of a large Indian diaspora that spread from the Caribbean to the Pacific Ocean and the growth of large Indo-Caribbean and Indo-African populations." ], [ "Late modern and contemporary period (c. 1857 CE – 1947 CE)", "=== Rebellion of 1857 and its consequences ===The Indian rebellion of 1857 was a large-scale rebellion by soldiers employed by the British East India Company in northern and central India against the company's rule.", "The spark that led to the mutiny was the issue of new gunpowder cartridges for the Enfield rifle, which was insensitive to local religious prohibition.", "The key mutineer was Mangal Pandey.", "In addition, the underlying grievances over British taxation, the ethnic gulf between the British officers and their Indian troops and land annexations played a significant role in the rebellion.", "Within weeks after Pandey's mutiny, dozens of units of the Indian army joined peasant armies in widespread rebellion.", "The rebel soldiers were later joined by Indian nobility, many of whom had lost titles and domains under the Doctrine of Lapse and felt that the company had interfered with a traditional system of inheritance.", "Rebel leaders such as Nana Sahib and the Rani of Jhansi belonged to this group.After the outbreak of the mutiny in Meerut, the rebels very quickly reached Delhi.", "The rebels had also captured large tracts of the North-Western Provinces and Awadh (Oudh).", "Most notably, in Awadh, the rebellion took on the attributes of a patriotic revolt against British presence.", "However, the British East India Company mobilised rapidly with the assistance of friendly Princely states, but it took the British the better part of 1858 to suppress the rebellion.", "Due to the rebels being poorly equipped and having no outside support or funding, they were brutally subdued.In the aftermath, all power was transferred from the British East India Company to the British Crown, which began to administer most of India as provinces.", "The Crown controlled the company's lands directly and had considerable indirect influence over the rest of India, which consisted of the Princely states ruled by local royal families.", "There were officially 565 princely states in 1947, but only 21 had actual state governments, and only three were large (Mysore, Hyderabad, and Kashmir).", "They were absorbed into the independent nation in 1947–48.=== British Raj (1858–1947) ===After 1857, the colonial government strengthened and expanded its infrastructure via the court system, legal procedures, and statutes.", "The Indian Penal Code came into being.", "In education, Thomas Babington Macaulay had made schooling a priority for the Raj in 1835 and succeeded in implementing the use of English for instruction.", "By 1890 some 60,000 Indians had matriculated.", "The Indian economy grew at about 1% per year from 1880 to 1920, and the population also grew at 1%.", "However, from 1910s Indian private industry began to grow significantly.", "India built a modern railway system in the late 19th century which was the fourth largest in the world.", "Historians have been bitterly divided on issues of economic history, with the Nationalist school arguing that India was poorer due to British rule.In 1905, Lord Curzon split the large province of Bengal into a largely Hindu western half and \"Eastern Bengal and Assam\", a largely Muslim eastern half.", "The British goal was said to be efficient administration but the people of Bengal were outraged at the apparent \"divide and rule\" strategy.", "It also marked the beginning of the organised anti-colonial movement.", "When the Liberal party in Britain came to power in 1906, he was removed.", "Bengal was reunified in 1911.The new Viceroy Gilbert Minto and the new Secretary of State for India John Morley consulted with Congress leaders on political reforms.", "The Morley-Minto reforms of 1909 provided for Indian membership of the provincial executive councils as well as the Viceroy's executive council.", "The Imperial Legislative Council was enlarged from 25 to 60 members and separate communal representation for Muslims was established in a dramatic step towards representative and responsible government.", "Several socio-religious organisations came into being at that time.", "Muslims set up the All India Muslim League in 1906 to protect the interests of the aristocratic Muslims.", "The Hindu Mahasabha and Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) sought to represent Hindu interests though the latter always claimed it to be a \"cultural\" organisation.", "Sikhs founded the Shiromani Akali Dal in 1920.However, the largest and oldest political party Indian National Congress, founded in 1885, attempted to keep a distance from the socio-religious movements and identity politics.==== Indian Renaissance ====The Bengali Renaissance refers to a social reform movement, dominated by Bengali Hindus, in the Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, a period of British rule.", "Historian Nitish Sengupta describes the renaissance as having started with reformer and humanitarian Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1775–1833), and ended with Asia's first Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941).", "This flowering of religious and social reformers, scholars, and writers is described by historian David Kopf as \"one of the most creative periods in Indian history.", "\"During this period, Bengal witnessed an intellectual awakening that is in some way similar to the Renaissance.", "This movement questioned existing orthodoxies, particularly with respect to women, marriage, the dowry system, the caste system, and religion.", "One of the earliest social movements that emerged during this time was the Young Bengal movement, which espoused rationalism and atheism as the common denominators of civil conduct among upper caste educated Hindus.", "It played an important role in reawakening Indian minds and intellect across the Indian subcontinent.==== Famines ====During British East India Company and British Crown rule, India experienced some of deadliest ever recorded famines.", "These famines, usually resulting from crop failures and often exacerbated by policies of the colonial government, included the Great Famine of 1876–1878 in which 6.1 million to 10.3 million people died, the Great Bengal famine of 1770 where between 1 and 10 million people died, the Indian famine of 1899–1900 in which 1.25 to 10 million people died, and the Bengal famine of 1943 where between 2.1 and 3.8 million people died.", "The Third plague pandemic in the mid-19th century killed 10 million people in India.", "Despite persistent diseases and famines, the population of the Indian subcontinent, which stood at up to 200 million in 1750, had reached 389 million by 1941.==== World War I ====During World War I, over 800,000 volunteered for the army, and more than 400,000 volunteered for non-combat roles, compared with the pre-war annual recruitment of about 15,000 men.", "The Army saw early action on the Western Front at the First Battle of Ypres.", "After a year of front-line duty, sickness and casualties had reduced the Indian Corps to the point where it had to be withdrawn.", "Nearly 700,000 Indians fought the Turks in the Mesopotamian campaign.", "Indian formations were also sent to East Africa, Egypt, and Gallipoli.Indian Army and Imperial Service Troops fought during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign's defence of the Suez Canal in 1915, at Romani in 1916 and to Jerusalem in 1917.India units occupied the Jordan Valley and after the German spring offensive they became the major force in the Egyptian Expeditionary Force during the Battle of Megiddo and in the Desert Mounted Corps' advance to Damascus and on to Aleppo.", "Other divisions remained in India guarding the North-West Frontier and fulfilling internal security obligations.One million Indian troops served abroad during the war.", "In total, 74,187 died, and another 67,000 were wounded.", "The roughly 90,000 soldiers who died fighting in World War I and the Afghan Wars are commemorated by the India Gate.==== World War II ====British India officially declared war on Nazi Germany in September 1939.The British Raj, as part of the Allied Nations, sent over two and a half million volunteer soldiers to fight under British command against the Axis powers.", "Additionally, several Princely States provided large donations to support the Allied campaign.", "India also provided the base for American operations in support of China in the China Burma India Theatre.Indians fought with distinction throughout the world, including in the European theatre against Germany, in North Africa against Germany and Italy, against the Italians in East Africa, in the Middle East against the Vichy French, in the South Asian region defending India against the Japanese and fighting the Japanese in Burma.", "Indians also aided in liberating British colonies such as Singapore and Hong Kong after the Japanese surrender in August 1945.Over 87,000 soldiers from the subcontinent died in World War II.The Indian National Congress denounced Nazi Germany but would not fight it or anyone else until India was independent.", "Congress launched the Quit India Movement in August 1942, refusing to co-operate in any way with the government until independence was granted.", "The government immediately arrested over 60,000 national and local Congress leaders.", "The Muslim League rejected the Quit India movement and worked closely with the Raj authorities.Subhas Chandra Bose (also called ''Netaji'') broke with Congress and tried to form a military alliance with Germany or Japan to gain independence.", "The Germans assisted Bose in the formation of the Indian Legion; however, it was Japan that helped him revamp the Indian National Army (INA), after the First Indian National Army under Mohan Singh was dissolved.", "The INA fought under Japanese direction, mostly in Burma.", "Bose also headed the Provisional Government of Free India (or Azad Hind), a government-in-exile based in Singapore.By 1942, neighbouring Burma was invaded by Japan, which by then had already captured the Indian territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands.", "Japan gave nominal control of the islands to the Provisional Government of Free India on 21 October 1943, and in the following March, the Indian National Army with the help of Japan crossed into India and advanced as far as Kohima in Nagaland.", "This advance on the mainland of the Indian subcontinent reached its farthest point on Indian territory, retreating from the Battle of Kohima in June and from that of Imphal on 3 July 1944.The region of Bengal in British India suffered a devastating famine during 1940–1943.An estimated 2.1–3 million died from the famine, frequently characterised as \"man-made\", with most sources asserting that wartime colonial policies exacerbated the crisis.=== Indian independence movement (1885–1947) ===The numbers of British in India were small, yet they were able to rule 52% of the Indian subcontinent directly and exercise considerable leverage over the princely states that accounted for 48% of the area.One of the most important events of the 19th century was the rise of Indian nationalism, leading Indians to seek first \"self-rule\" and later \"complete independence\".", "However, historians are divided over the causes of its rise.", "Probable reasons include a \"clash of interests of the Indian people with British interests\", \"racial discriminations\", and \"the revelation of India's past\".The first step toward Indian self-rule was the appointment of councillors to advise the British viceroy in 1861 and the first Indian was appointed in 1909.Provincial Councils with Indian members were also set up.", "The councillors' participation was subsequently widened into legislative councils.", "The British built a large British Indian Army, with the senior officers all British and many of the troops from small minority groups such as Gurkhas from Nepal and Sikhs.", "The civil service was increasingly filled with natives at the lower levels, with the British holding the more senior positions.Bal Gangadhar Tilak, an Indian nationalist leader, declared Swaraj (home rule) as the destiny of the nation.", "His popular sentence \"Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it\" became the source of inspiration.", "Tilak was backed by rising public leaders like Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai, who held the same point of view, notably they advocated the Swadeshi movement involving the boycott of imported items and the use of Indian-made goods; the triumvirate were popularly known as Lal Bal Pal.", "In 1907, the Congress was split into two factions: The radicals, led by Tilak, advocated civil agitation and direct revolution to overthrow the British Empire and the abandonment of all things British.", "The moderates, led by leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji and Gopal Krishna Gokhale, on the other hand, wanted reform within the framework of British rule.The partition of Bengal in 1905 further increased the revolutionary movement for Indian independence.", "The disenfranchisement lead some to take violent action.The British themselves adopted a \"carrot and stick\" approach in response to renewed nationalist demands.", "The means of achieving the proposed measure were later enshrined in the Government of India Act 1919, which introduced the principle of a dual mode of administration, or diarchy, in which elected Indian legislators and appointed British officials shared power.", "In 1919, Colonel Reginald Dyer ordered his troops to fire their weapons on peaceful protestors, including unarmed women and children, resulting in the Jallianwala Bagh massacre; which led to the Non-cooperation Movement of 1920–1922.The massacre was a decisive episode towards the end of British rule in India.From 1920 leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi began highly popular mass movements to campaign against the British Raj using largely peaceful methods.", "The Gandhi-led independence movement opposed the British rule using non-violent methods like non-co-operation, civil disobedience and economic resistance.", "However, revolutionary activities against the British rule took place throughout the Indian subcontinent and some others adopted a militant approach like the Hindustan Republican Association, that sought to overthrow British rule by armed struggle.The All India Azad Muslim Conference gathered in Delhi in April 1940 to voice its support for an independent and united India.", "Its members included several Islamic organisations in India, as well as 1400 nationalist Muslim delegates.", "The pro-separatist All-India Muslim League worked to try to silence those nationalist Muslims who stood against the partition of India, often using \"intimidation and coercion\".", "The murder of the All India Azad Muslim Conference leader Allah Bakhsh Soomro also made it easier for the pro-separatist All-India Muslim League to demand the creation of a Pakistan.==== After World War II (c. 1946–1947) ====In January 1946, several mutinies broke out in the armed services, starting with that of RAF servicemen frustrated with their slow repatriation.", "The mutinies came to a head with mutiny of the Royal Indian Navy in Bombay in February 1946, followed by others in Calcutta, Madras, and Karachi.", "The mutinies were rapidly suppressed.", "In early 1946, new elections were called and Congress candidates won in eight of the eleven provinces.Late in 1946, the Labour government decided to end British rule of India, and in early 1947 it announced its intention of transferring power no later than June 1948 and participating in the formation of an interim government.Along with the desire for independence, tensions between Hindus and Muslims had also been developing over the years.", "Muslim League leader Muhammad Ali Jinnah proclaimed 16 August 1946 as Direct Action Day, with the stated goal of highlighting, peacefully, the demand for a Muslim homeland in British India, which resulted in the outbreak of the cycle of violence that would be later called the \"Great Calcutta Killing of August 1946\".", "The communal violence spread to Bihar, Noakhali in Bengal, Garhmukteshwar in the United Provinces, and on to Rawalpindi in March 1947 in which Sikhs and Hindus were attacked or driven out by Muslims.Literacy in India grew very slowly until independence in 1947.An acceleration in the rate of literacy growth occurred in the 1991–2001 period." ], [ "Independence and partition (c. 1947–present)", "In August 1947, the British Indian Empire was partitioned into the Union of India and Dominion of Pakistan.", "In particular, the partition of Punjab and Bengal led to rioting between Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs in these provinces and spread to other nearby regions, leaving some 500,000 dead.", "The police and army units were largely ineffective.", "The British officers were gone, and the units were beginning to tolerate if not actually indulge in violence against their religious enemies.", "Also, this period saw one of the largest mass migrations anywhere in modern history, with a total of 12 million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims moving between the newly created nations of India and Pakistan (which gained independence on 15 and 14 August 1947 respectively).", "In 1971, Bangladesh, formerly East Pakistan and East Bengal, seceded from Pakistan." ], [ "See also", "* Adivasi* ''Early Indians''* List of Indian periods* Economic history of IndiaHistoriography of India History of India (1947–present)* Foreign relations of India* Indian maritime history* Linguistic history of India* Military history of India* Outline of ancient India* Taxation in medieval India* ''The Cambridge History of India''* Timeline of Indian history* Traditional games of India" ], [ "References", "=== Notes ====== Citations ====== Sources ======= Printed sources ====* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", "=== General === Basham, A.L., ed.", "''The Illustrated Cultural History of India'' (Oxford University Press, 2007)* Buckland, C.E.", "''Dictionary of Indian Biography'' (1906) 495pp full text* Chakrabarti D.K.", "2009.India, an archaeological history : palaeolithic beginnings to early historic foundations.", "* * Dharma Kumar and Meghnad Desai, eds.", "''The Cambridge Economic History of India: Volume 2, c. 1751–1970'' (2nd ed.", "2010), 1114pp of scholarly articles* Fisher, Michael.", "''An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century'' (Cambridge UP, 2018)* Guha, Ramachandra.", "''India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy'' (2007), 890pp; since 1947* James, Lawrence.", "''Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India'' (2000) online* Khan, Yasmin.", "''The Raj At War: A People's History Of India's Second World War'' (2015); also published as ''India At War: The Subcontinent and the Second World War'' India At War: The Subcontinent and the Second World War.", "* Khan, Yasmin.", "''The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan'' (2n d ed.", "Yale UP 2017) excerpt* Mcleod, John.", "''The History of India'' (2002) excerpt and text search* Majumdar, R.C.", ": ''An Advanced History of India''.", "London, 1960.", "* Majumdar, R.C.", "(ed.)", ": ''The History and Culture of the Indian People'', Bombay, 1977 (in eleven volumes).", "* Mansingh, Surjit ''The A to Z of India'' (2010), a concise historical encyclopedia* Markovits, Claude, ed.", "''A History of Modern India, 1480–1950'' (2002) by a team of French scholars* Metcalf, Barbara D. and Thomas R. Metcalf.", "''A Concise History of Modern India'' (2006)* Peers, Douglas M. ''India under Colonial Rule: 1700–1885'' (2006), 192pp* Riddick, John F. ''The History of British India: A Chronology'' (2006) excerpt* Riddick, John F. ''Who Was Who in British India'' (1998); 5000 entries excerpt* Rothermund, Dietmar. ''", "An Economic History of India: From Pre-Colonial Times to 1991'' (1993)* Sharma, R.S., ''India's Ancient Past'', (Oxford University Press, 2005)* Sarkar, Sumit.", "''Modern India, 1885–1947'' (2002)* * Singhal, D.P.", "''A History of the Indian People'' (1983)* Smith, Vincent.", "''The Oxford History of India'' (3rd ed.", "1958), old-fashioned* Spear, Percival.", "''A History of India''.", "Volume 2.Penguin Books.", "(1990) First published 1965* Stein, Burton.", "''A History of India'' (1998)* Thapar, Romila.", "''Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300'' (2004) excerpt and text search* Thompson, Edward, and G.T.", "Garratt.", "''Rise and Fulfilment of British Rule in India'' (1934) 690 pages; scholarly survey, 1599–1933 excerpt and text search* Tomlinson, B.R.", "''The Economy of Modern India, 1860–1970'' (The New Cambridge History of India) (1996)* Tomlinson, B.R.", "''The political economy of the Raj, 1914–1947'' (1979) online* Wolpert, Stanley.", "''A New History of India'' (8th ed.", "2008) online 7th edition=== Historiography ===* * * Bose, Mihir.", "\"India's Missing Historians: Mihir Bose Discusses the Paradox That India, a Land of History, Has a Surprisingly Weak Tradition of Historiography\", ''History Today'' 57#9 (2007) pp. 34–.", "online * * * * * * * * === Primary ===* Highly detailed description of all of India in 1901.=== Online resources ===*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Highlander (franchise)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Highlander''''' is a British film and television franchise created by American screenwriter Gregory Widen.", "The series began with ''Highlander'', a 1986 fantasy film starring Christopher Lambert, who played Connor MacLeod, the titular Highlander.", "There have been four theatrical ''Highlander'' films, one made-for-TV film, two live-action television series, an animated television series, an anime film, a flash animation series, original novels, comic books, and various licensed merchandise.The main character of the series, Connor MacLeod, was born in Glenfinnan in the Scottish Highlands in the 16th century, MacLeod is one of a number of immortals empowered by an energy called the Quickening and only able to die if beheaded.", "Other immortal protagonists from the MacLeod clan were introduced over time, including Duncan MacLeod, Quentin MacLeod and Colin MacLeod, each of whom exists in their own timelines.On television, ''Highlander: The Series'' aired for six seasons from 1992–1998, starring Adrian Paul as Connor's kinsman Duncan MacLeod, another immortal Highlander born decades later.", "Recurring characters in the series included the immortal thief Amanda (Elizabeth Gracen) and oldest immortal Methos (Peter Wingfield) who each had spin-off shows, ''Highlander: The Raven'' and ''The Methos Chronicles'' respectively, which each lasted one season.", "''Highlander'' story chronology" ], [ "Films", "===''Highlander'' (1986)===The original film ''Highlander'', directed by Russell Mulcahy, was released on March 7, 1986, with the tagline \"There Can Be Only One\".", "The film features a number of flashback scenes establishing the early history of Connor MacLeod (Christopher Lambert) of the Clan MacLeod.", "After dying on the battlefield in 1536 and returning to life fully healed, Connor is mentored by an Egyptian swordsman calling himself Juan Sánchez-Villalobos Ramírez (Sean Connery).", "The young Highlander learns he and others are among a rare number of humans born throughout history in different parts of the world who possess the \"Quickening\", a power that connects them to nature, leaves them unable to have children, and makes them ageless and unable to die unless beheaded.", "Immortals can absorb the Quickening of another by taking their head, and so many battle one another in mortal combat to increase their power.", "Ramírez says that one day when only a few remain they will be pulled to a \"faraway land\" and fight in the Gathering, where the final survivor will take the Prize: the collected power of all immortals who ever lived, enough power to enslave humanity.In the film's present-day story, the Gathering is now occurring in 1985 in New York City where MacLeod lives as an antique dealer, working alongside his adopted daughter Rachel.", "The Highlander still lives and must ensure the Prize is not won by The Kurgan (Clancy Brown), the same ruthless immortal who once hunted him and killed Ramírez centuries before.", "As the final battle draws near, MacLeod reflects on his life with his adopted daughter Rachel Ellenstein (Sheila Gish) and meets a new love, forensics scientist Brenda Wyatt (Roxanne Hart).The movie was titled ''Shadow Clan'' and ''Princes of the Universe'' in the earliest drafts.", "Upon its release, the film was not a financial success and was poorly reviewed by critics.", "However, it gained a strong cult following, was a hit internationally, and is regarded by many as the best movie in the series.The original orchestral score was composed by Michael Kamen.", "Queen produced and performed the soundtrack, released as the album ''A Kind of Magic'' (a reference to a line used by Connor in the movie to explain his ability to survive death).", "Sounds from the soundtrack were also used in ''Highlander: The Series'', and the track, \"Princes of the Universe\" became the theme song for the show's opening title introduction.The film grossed $12.9 million worldwide, with $5.9 million in the United States and Canada.===''Highlander II: The Quickening'' (1991)===''Highlander II: The Quickening'' was initially directed by Russell Mulcahy.", "Filming was done almost entirely in Argentina.", "After the country's economy crashed, the film's investors took direct control of the film, removing Mulcahy and his creative influence while altering the story.", "Released on November 1, 1991, the film mainly takes place in 2024, with flashbacks to events on Earth in the 1990s and also the planet Zeist \"500 years ago\".", "The film offers an origin story for immortals, depicting Ramírez and MacLeod as alien revolutionaries of Zeist who oppose the corrupt rulers and General Katana (Michael Ironside).", "Ramírez and MacLeod, who share a bond due to a magic called \"the Quickening\", are then exiled to Earth along with others.", "On Earth they become immortal and are forced to kill each other until only one is left alive.", "The winner will have a choice: to become mortal and live out their life on Earth or return to Zeist now pardoned of all crimes.", "This origin story contradicts the age and history of Ramírez in the first film, Connor's childhood growing up in Scotland, and the circumstances of how the two first met, but no explanation is offered for these contradictions.", "''Highlander II'' also does not explain why MacLeod no longer seems to have access to the power he won at the end of the previous film, which allowed him to know the thoughts and dreams of all living people.", "Only the mortality he earned is mentioned.In the film's main story, the ozone layer deteriorates and many are killed by solar radiation by 1994, including Brenda Wyatt (now said to be Connor's wife).", "In 1999, MacLeod supervises a team that creates an energy Shield across the planet.", "Earth is protected but can no longer see the sky or natural sunlight.", "By 2024, humanity is now largely in despair as society is overwhelmed by violence and crime.", "The Shield is now under control of The Shield Corporation (TSC), which charges countries heavily for its protection.", "Having won the Prize in 1985, MacLeod became mortal and has physically aged into a frail old man.", "Worried the Highlander may still return to Zeist, Katana sends immortal henchmen after him.", "MacLeod defends himself and his attackers die, their immortal energies restoring his youth.", "He allies with Louise Marcus (Virginia Madsen), a political radical who knows the ozone has healed and that TSC is covering up the truth in order to continue profits.", "Joining them is Ramírez, whom MacLeod summons back to life through their magical bond.", "They fight Katana and finally free Earth from the Shield.When ''Highlander II'' was released in 1991, it was poorly reviewed by critics worldwide, and is now considered to be one of the worst movies ever made.", "Russell Mulcahy was disappointed with the film and later made his own '''''Renegade Version''''' director's cut by re-editing the footage and removing all verbal reference to the immortals being aliens from a planet called Zeist.", "The Zeist footage was repurposed as a flashback to an ancient, technologically advanced civilization that existed on Earth before recorded history (the name and location of this civilization is not said).", "MacLeod and Ramírez were now said to have been members of this ancient society and it is stated that they, along with Katana and others, are once again rare human beings born with their immortality.", "While the movie still shows Ramírez wielding a form of magic, it is no longer called the Quickening.", "The rulers of this ancient society then banished the immortal revolutionaries and criminals to different points in the future, allowing Ramírez to be sent to ancient Egypt while MacLeod becomes a Highlander in 16th century Scotland, the two of them reuniting later.", "It is said the winner of the Prize can either become mortal and live out their life \"in the future\" or choose to return to their original civilization in the distant past.In 2004, a ''Special Edition'' was released, featuring several distinct alterations, including new computer-generated visual effects throughout the film (and changing the Shield from red to dark blue as originally intended).", "Though many fans regarded the ''Renegade Version'' and ''Special Edition'' as being better than the original film, the general reception was still somewhat mixed.===''Highlander III: The Sorcerer'' (1994)===''Highlander III: The Sorcerer'' (alternatively titled ''Highlander: The Final Dimension'') was released in late 1994 in the Philippines and the United Kingdom and on January 27, 1995 in the United States.", "It is a direct sequel to the original film, ignoring and contradicting the story of ''Highlander II''.", "Following Brenda Wyatt's death in a car crash in 1987, MacLeod is living in Marakesh with his adopted son John.", "In 1994, he is hunted by the warrior Kane (Mario Van Peebles) who missed the original Gathering because he was buried deep in a Japanese cave by magic, isolating him from the Game.", "Having killed and absorbed the power of MacLeod's second teacher, the sorcerer Nakano (Mako), Kane is a master of illusion.", "Realizing there are other immortals again, Connor returns to New York to ensure Kane does not win the Prize.", "Along the way, he finds a new love, archaeologist Dr. Alex Johnson (Deborah Unger) who resembles a woman MacLeod loved during the French Revolution.", "Kane kidnaps John and lures MacLeod to a final battle in New Jersey.", "McLeod wins and leaves to start a new life with John and Alex.The film grossed $36.7 million worldwide, with $13.7 million in the United States and Canada.", "Critics claim that it was little more than rehash of the first film.===''Highlander: Endgame'' (2000)===''Highlander: Endgame'', released to theaters on September 1, 2000.Rather than a direct sequel in the ''Highlander'' film franchise, it followed the continuity of the recently ended ''Highlander: The Series'', acting as a franchise bridge by starring both previous film protagonist Connor MacLeod and TV series protagonist Duncan MacLeod.", "In the canon of the TV series, the events of the original ''Highlander'' film still took place but the Prize was not won because many immortals still lived on Earth in 1985.The series protagonist Duncan is introduced in the first episode as another immortal of the Clan MacLeod who was born decades after Connor left the clan.", "Christopher Lambert appeared as Connor in the first episode, revealed to have been Duncan's teacher in the ways of immortals.Taking place in the present day, the film's antagonist is Jacob Kell (Bruce Payne), an evil immortal who ignores the rules of the Game.", "Kell holds a centuries-old grudge against Connor MacLeod and kills his adopted daughter Rachel Ellenstein when he bombs their old antique shop in New York City.", "Following Rachel's death, Connor is disillusioned with life and spends a decade in a hidden fortress known as the Sanctuary.", "When Kell discovers the Sanctuary ten years later, Connor and Duncan join forces against him.", "Believing neither of them can defeat Kell alone, Connor, tired of his immortal life, insists he be killed by Duncan so the younger MacLeod may possess their combined power.", "Duncan reluctantly does so and defeats Kell.Critical reaction to ''Highlander: Endgame'' was negative.", "It holds a 12% \"rotten\" rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 52 reviews, higher than ''Highlander II'' and ''Highlander III'', both of which hold ratings of 5% or lower, and a score of 21 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on 16 reviews.The film was a box office bomb, managing to garner $15m of its $25m budget.", "The film opened at #3, grossing $5,067,331 in the opening weekend.", "It went on to gross $12,811,858 domestically and gather $3,031,750 from foreign markets for a worldwide total of $15,843,608.However, it sold better when it was released on DVD.", "This prompted the producers to release the director's cut version of the film, adding new footage along with better special effects and audio tracks, and re-editing certain parts of the story.", "The reception to the director's cut was mixed but better than the overall fan reception to the theatrical release.===''Highlander: The Source'' (2007)===''Highlander: The Source'' premiered on the Sci Fi Channel on September 15, 2007 and continues the canon of ''Highlander: The Series'', taking place several years after ''Endgame''.", "The film takes place in a future version of Earth where human society has descended into violence and chaos.", "Duncan MacLeod and a group of allies seek an energy well in Eastern Europe that may be the legendary Source of immortality, all while fighting the Guardian (Cristian Solimeno), an immortal empowered with superhuman abilities.", "The story and the mythology of the ''Source'' were meant to be expanded on with future films, but reception to ''The Source'' was largely negative and plans for follow-up stories were canceled.", "A 2008 short film called \"Reunion\", written by TV series producer David Abramowitz and directed by Don Paonessa, featured the series characters but did not acknowledge the events of ''Highlander: The Source''.", "At the Highlander Worldwide Convention the next year, Abramowitz and others from the TV series referred to ''Highlander: The Source'' as a \"bad dream\" Duncan had.", "The same year, Big Finish Productions released officially licensed ''Highlander: The Series'' audio plays that contradicted the events of ''The Source''.===Future===In 2008, Summit Entertainment bought the franchise's rights, with the intention to remake the original 1986 film.", "The writers Art Marcum and Matt Holloway and producer Peter Davis were attached to the project at one point.", "Justin Lin signed on to direct the remake.", "The film's reported title is ''Highlander: The Reckoning''.Producer Neal H. Moritz said in an interview that they want to stay true to the mythologies as a whole of the ''Highlander'' series, acknowledging that there are certain things between all the different ''Highlanders'', but to stay faithful in what the original film delivered, while presenting the new version for old and new fans of the franchise.", "''Twilight'' series writer Melissa Rosenberg was attached to write ''Highlander'' script in 2011.Justin Lin was still attached to direct, but in August, Lin dropped out of the film due to commitments to other projects.In 2012, director Juan Carlos Fresnadillo later signed on to direct the remake.", "Vinnie Jones and Ray Stevenson were rumored to be considered for the role of The Kurgan.", "Ryan Reynolds was confirmed to play Connor MacLeod.", "Later in December, Fresnadillo left the project due to creative differences and Reynolds also dropped out of the film.", "''Highlander: The Series'' writer and executive producer David Abramowitz was reported to polish the film's script in 2013.Cedric Nicolas-Troyan was hired to direct in October.", "The following year in November, the studio wanted actor Tom Cruise in the role of Ramírez, but Cruise was busy shooting ''Mission: Impossible – Rogue Nation'' and was reportedly not considering future projects at that time.", "James Jaysen Bryhan has since been rumored to play Ramírez.Wrestler turned actor Dave Bautista was cast as The Kurgan in February 2015.Nicolas-Troyan said that he was still involved with the reboot, but later in November of 2016, Chad Stahelski was confirmed to direct, and Ryan J. Condal was brought for the script.", "Stahelski revealed that the reboot was in \"heavy development mode\" in June 2020.Henry Cavill was in talks to have a lead role in the reboot as of May 2021, although his exact character is unknown.By October 2023, Lionsgate, owner of Summit Entertainment, was moving forward with the reboot, with Cavill starring as MacLeod and Stahelski still attached to direct from a screenplay by Mike Finch.", "The budget of the film is reportedly over $100 million and producers on the project include Joshua Davis, Moritz, Stahelski and Louise Rosner.", "Lionsgate intends to sell the film to international distributors at the 2023 American Film Market, with filming expected to begin in early 2024." ], [ "Animated film", "===''Highlander: The Search for Vengeance'' (2007)===In 2007, an anime film, ''Highlander: The Search for Vengeance'' was released, featuring the immortal '''Colin MacLeod''' in the year 2187.The film exists in its own continuity, separate from the live-action films and TV shows.", "The story largely takes place in a post-apocalyptic version of Earth and implies immortals can use their power to achieve superhuman speed and strength." ], [ "Television", "===''Highlander: The Series'' (1992–1998)===In 1992, a television spin-off was developed, entitled ''Highlander: The Series''.", "It was shown in syndication from October 3, 1992, to May 16, 1998.The series was an offshoot of the 1986 feature film but with one major difference: immortals still exist post-1985.The first episode of season 2 confirmed the events of the original ''Highlander'' film still happened in the TV series continuity but that Connor's battle with the Kurgan was not the Gathering and he did not win the Prize, since in this version there were many other immortals still alive on Earth in 1985.The series introduced the Watchers, an organization of mortals who observe and record the lives of immortals.Adrian Paul starred as '''Duncan MacLeod''', another immortal from the same clan as Connor, born decades later.", "Soon after Duncan realizes he is immortal, Connor finds him and trains him for years before they both part ways.", "Christopher Lambert reprised his role as Connor Macleod for the first episode and was mentioned again in several subsequent episodes.", "The series originally featured Alexandra Vandernoot as Duncan's love Tessa Noël and Stan Kirsch as his young friend Richie Ryan.", "Other series regulars included Philip Akin as Charlie DeSalvo, Jim Byrnes as Joe Dawson, Lisa Howard as Anne Lindsey, Michel Modo as the comedic character Maurice, and Peter Wingfield as the immortal Methos.", "Roger Daltrey of The Who made recurring appearances as Duncan's immortal friend Hugh Fitzcairn, while Elizabeth Gracen made frequent appearances as Duncan's old friend and occasional love interest '''Amanda Darieux''', an immortal thief whose popularity led to her being the star of the spin-off series ''Highlander: The Raven''.Over its six-year run, the series had many notable guest stars including Joan Jett, Vanity, Richard Moll, Traci Lords, Sheena Easton, \"Rowdy\" Roddy Piper, Nia Peeples, Rae Dawn Chong, Eric McCormack, Sandra Bernhard, Claudia Christian and Ron Perlman.", "The show was co-produced in syndication by international partners including Gaumont, RTL Plus (Germany), Rysher Distribution (United States), Reteitalia Productions (Italy), Amuse Video (Japan) and TF1 (France).", "The series had high ratings internationally.", "However, the ratings fell during the show's last two seasons and it ended in 1998 after six years.In 2008, a 17-minute reunion special simply titled \"Reunion\" was filmed starring Peter Wingfield, Elizabeth Gracen, and Jim Byrnes reprising their roles for a short story taking place roughly ten years after the end of the series.", "Filming took place at producer Peter Davis's beach home with the actors volunteering in their roles.", "The plot involved Methos planning to marry a mortal woman, while Amanda reflects on her life and ambitions, and Joe Dawson adjusts to being retired from active Watcher duty.===''Highlander: The Animated Series'' (1994–1996)===A 1994 animated series, ''Highlander: The Animated Series'', was set in the 27th century on a post-apocalyptic Earth now ruled by an immortal named Kortan.", "The series hero is a young immortal named '''Quentin MacLeod''', voiced by Miklos Perlus, who is the last of the Clan MacLeod and mentored by an immortal named Don Vincente Marino Ramírez.", "Connor MacLeod appeared in one episode during a flashback scene to the late 20th century, where he dies at Kortan's hand after prophesying the villain will one day be defeated by Quentin.", "To curb the violence, the show creates a way for immortals to willingly transfer their Quickening energy to another, allowing Quentin to rise in power without killing.===''Highlander: The Raven'' (1998–1999)===A spin-off of ''Highlander: The Series'', this show starred Elizabeth Gracen as the popular character Amanda Darieux, a recurring role she played in the original TV show.", "Previously known as a thief who often avoided confrontation and responsibility, the series showed Amanda now trying to become a better person alongside a new supporting cast of characters.", "''Highlander: The Raven'' lasted one season due to low ratings and changes in how syndicated shows are marketed." ], [ "Web series", "===''The Methos Chronicles'' (2001)===''The Methos Chronicles'' is an animated Internet Flash-series based on Methos (Peter Wingfield), a 5000 year-old immortal introduced in ''Highlander: The Series''.", "Wingfield voiced the character for the series, which lasted only one eight-episode season.", "There were talks about developing a live-action series in the early 2000s with Wingfield but the series never went into production.", "Eight more episodes of ''The Methos Chronicles'' were produced by fans and released on Youtube." ], [ "Other media", "===Books===A number of ''Highlander'' novels were released, including a novelization of the first film by Garry Kilworth and a line of books based on the television series by various authors.", "The 9 published Warner Books Highlander novels are:''The Element of Fire'' by Jason Henderson (October 1995)''Scimitar'' by Ashley McConnell (February 1996)''Scotland the Brave'' by Jennifer Roberson (September 1996)''Measure of a Man'' by Nancy Holder (May 1997)''The Path'' by Rebecca Neason (August 1997)''Zealot'' by Donna Lettow (November 1997)''Shadow of Obsession'' by Rebecca Neason (June 1998)''The Captive Soul'' by Josepha Sherman (August 1998)''White Silence'' by Ginjer Buchanan (March 1999)There was a 10th novel in the works entitled ''Barricades'' that was to be published in July 1999, but the author Donna Lettow fell ill before she could complete it, and by the time she had recovered, the books were no longer being published.", "Non-fiction ''Highlander'' books include ''The Best of Highlander: The Book'' by Maureen Russell and ''Fearful Symmetry: The Essential Guide to All Things Highlander''—a guide to the ''Highlander'' films and television series, with explorations of the movies and series, interviews with many of the key players in front and behind the camera.===Comics===The ''Highlander'' comic book series from Dynamite Entertainment, featuring the creative team of Brandon Jerwa, Michael Avon Oeming (''Red Sonja'') and artist Lee Moder followed Connor MacLeod after his battle with the Kurgan in New York, adopting the TV-series idea that this wasn't the final battle for the Prize because many immortals still existed on Earth.", "It was followed by two mini-series acting as prequels to the original film and a mini-series explaining the Kurgan's past before meeting Connor MacLeod.In 2015, Emerald Star Comics released ''Highlander 3030'', written by Lennit Williams and Matt Kelly.", "The comic was an officially licensed story following the adventures of Connor MacLeod in a far-off dystopian future, and even received social media support from the official Highlander account on Facebook.", "''Highlander 3030'' only had one issue digitally released and was poorly received by critics.", "In an interview on the podcast Ten Cent Takes, Kelly confirmed the comic had production problems, including the initial artist having to drop out due to health issues and Davis-Panzer Productions demanding replacement artist Dan Goodfellow draw the book in a style that wasn't his own.", "As such, the book was a financial failure and Emerald Star Comics went out of business soon after.===Audio===''Highlander: The Original Scores'', an album featuring music from the first three films, was released in 1995.Big Finish Productions temporarily held the license to produce original ''Highlander'' audio stories.", "While many Big Finish products are full cast audio dramas, some involve one actor narrating the story and several parts while another actor narrates one or two other important roles.", "This format was followed for the ''Highlander'' audios.", "The first four audios star Adrian Paul as Duncan MacLeod and were released monthly starting in June 2009.The stories are set after ''Highlander: Endgame''.", "In the audio ''Kurgan Rising'', both the Kurgan and Connor MacLeod seem to return from the dead.Big Finish released a second series of four ''Highlander'' audio stories, each based around one of the Four Horsemen: ''Kronos'' read by Valentine Pelka, ''Silas'' read by Richard Ridings, ''Caspian'' read by Marcus Testory, and ''Methos'' read by Peter Wingfield.===Video games===''Highlander'', a video game tie-in to the first film, was released for home computers in 1986.The player faced a few opponents from the film, each of whom had to be struck three times to be beaten.", "It was poorly received.1995 saw the release of ''Highlander: The Last of the MacLeods'', a video game based on ''Highlander: The Animated Series'', for the Atari Jaguar CD.A ''Highlander'' massively multiplayer online role-playing game video game was planned by Kalisto Entertainment.", "Following the developer's closure, rights to the ''Highlander'' video game franchise went to SCi Entertainment in 2004.The new developer decided not to release a ''Highlander'' video game.", "Trailers showed the game title would have been ''Highlander: The Gathering''.", "''Highlander: The Game'' and a PC version of ''Highlander: The Last of the MacLeods'' were likewise cancelled.===Collectible card games===''Highlander: The Card Game'' is a collectible card game produced by La Montagnard Inc., intended to simulate a sword fight between two Immortals." ], [ "See also", "* List of ''Highlander'' characters" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* ''Highlander'' official website (no longer maintained)* ''Highlander'' comics/comic publisher Dynamite Entertainment" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "List of ships called HMS Hood" ], [ "Introduction", "Three ships of the Royal Navy have been named '''HMS ''Hood''''' after several members of the Hood family, who were notable naval officers:* , a 91-gun second-rate ship of the line, originally laid down as HMS ''Edgar'', but renamed in 1848 and launched in 1859.She was used for harbour service from 1872 and was sold in 1888.", "* , a modified launched in 1891 and sunk as a blockship in 1914* , an launched in 1918 and sunk in 1941 by the and the heavy cruiser in the Battle of the Denmark Strait" ], [ "Battle honours", "Ships named ''Hood'' have earned the following battle honours:*''Bismarck'', 1941" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Houston Astros" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Houston Astros''' are an American professional baseball team based in Houston.", "The Astros compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the American League (AL) West division, having moved to the division in 2013 after spending their first 51 seasons in the National League (NL).The Astros were established as the '''Houston Colt .45s''' and entered the National League as an expansion team in along with the New York Mets.", "The current name, reflecting Houston's role as the host of the Johnson Space Center, was adopted three years later, when they moved into the Astrodome, the first-ever domed sports stadium and the so-called \"Eighth Wonder of the World\".", "The Astros moved to a new stadium called Minute Maid Park in 2000.The Astros played in the NL West division from 1969 to 1993, then the NL Central division from 1994 to 2012, before being moved to the AL West as part of an MLB realignment in 2013.The Astros posted their first winning record in 1972 and made the playoffs for the first time in 1980, before winning a total of three division titles throughout the 1980s.", "Spearheaded by the Killer B's, a collection of prominent hitters that included the Astros' only Hall of Fame members Craig Biggio and Jeff Bagwell, the Astros began reaching major prominence in the late 1990s and early 2000s with four further division titles and two Wild Card appearances, culminating in their first World Series appearance in 2005 where they were swept by the AL's Chicago White Sox.", "After a major slump throughout the next decade, the team was purchased by business owner Jim Crane in 2011 for $680 million.", "Under Crane's ownership, the Astros embraced sabermetrics and pioneered new analytical technologies in their transition to the American League, and by the mid-2010s transformed from a historically middling franchise into one of MLB's most dominant and successful clubs, as headlined by stars such as José Altuve.", "Since then, the Astros have won over 100 games in four seasons, and have appeared in a record seven consecutive American League Championship Series, winning four of the last seven American League pennants.", "During this era, the Astros won the 2017 World Series, their first championship, against the Los Angeles Dodgers; however, this win drew controversy after the Astros were implicated in a sign stealing scandal.", "They made later World Series appearances in 2019 against the Washington Nationals, 2021 against the Atlanta Braves, and 2022 against the Philadelphia Phillies, winning their second title in the latter series.", "This sustained run of success has led commentators to declare the Astros, since 2015, as the top team in the American League and a dynasty.", "They are the only team to win a postseason series in seven straight seasons.", "Their fifth pennant in 2022 made them the second team created in the expansion era to win five league pennants (after the Mets) and the fifth expansion team to have won two World Series championships.The Astros maintain an ardent fanbase and strong global recognition, in part due to their penchant for scouting and signing international players, but have also attracted enmity in the wake of the sign stealing scandal.", "While in the National League, the Astros held rivalries with the Braves and the St. Louis Cardinals, but since their transition to the American League, have come to hold divisional rivalries with the Seattle Mariners and Texas Rangers (known as the Lone Star Series), as well as a recurring postseason rivalry with the New York Yankees.From 1962 through the end of the 2023 season, the Astros' all-time record is ().", "In addition to having the most postseason appearances by an expansion team, they are the only expansion era team with an all-time winning record." ], [ "Franchise history", "===Major League Baseball comes to Texas===1905 Houston Buffaloes team photoFrom 1888 until 1961, Houston's professional baseball club was the minor league Houston Buffaloes.", "Although expansion from the National League eventually brought an MLB team to Texas in 1962, Houston officials had been making efforts to do so for years prior, with a group effort led in 1952 to buy the St. Louis Cardinals for $4.25 million, but local owners were instead chosen.", "There were four men chiefly responsible for bringing Major League Baseball to Houston: journalist/promoter George Kirksey, Craig Cullinan Jr., R.E.", "\"Bob\" Smith, a prominent oilman and real estate magnate in Houston who like Cullinan was brought in for his financial resources, and Judge Roy Hofheinz, a former Mayor of Houston and Harris County Judge who was recruited for his salesmanship and political style.", "They founded the Houston Sports Association (HSA) as their vehicle for attaining a big league franchise for the city of Houston.Given MLB's refusal to consider expansion, Kirksey, Cullinan, Smith, and Hofheinz joined forces with would-be owners from other cities and announced the formation of a new league to compete with the established National and American Leagues.", "They called the new league the Continental League.", "Wanting to protect potential new markets, both existing leagues chose to expand from eight teams to ten.", "However, plans eventually fell through for the Houston franchise after the Houston Buffaloes owner, Marty Marion, could not come to an agreement with the HSA to sell the team.", "To make matters worse, the Continental League as a whole folded in August 1960.However, on October 17, 1960, the National League granted an expansion franchise to the Houston Sports Association for them to begin play in the 1962 season.", "According to the Major League Baseball Constitution, the Houston Sports Association was required to obtain territorial rights from the Houston Buffaloes in order to play in the Houston area, resulting in the HSA revisiting negotiations.", "Eventually, the Houston Sports Association succeeded in purchasing the Houston Buffaloes, which were at this point majority-owned by William Hopkins, on January 17, 1961.The Buffs played one last minor league season as the top farm team of the Chicago Cubs in 1961 before being succeeded by the city's NL club.The new Houston team was named the Colt .45s after a \"Name the Team\" contest was won by William Irving Neder.", "The Colt .45 was well known as \"the gun that won the west\".The colors selected were navy and orange.", "The first team was formed mostly through an expansion draft after the 1961 season.", "The Colt .45s and their expansion cousins, the New York Mets, took turns choosing players left unprotected by the other National League franchises.Many players and staff associated with the Houston Buffaloes organization continued in the major leagues.", "Manager Harry Craft, who had joined Houston in 1961, remained in the same position for the team until the end of the 1964 season.", "General manager Spec Richardson also continued with the organization as business manager but was later promoted back to GM for the Astros from 1967 until 1975.Although most players for the major league franchise were obtained through the 1961 Major League Baseball expansion draft, Buffs players J.C. Hartman, Pidge Browne, Jim Campbell, Ron Davis, Dave Giusti, and Dave Roberts were chosen to continue as major league ball players.Similarly, the radio broadcasting team remained with the new Houston major league franchise.", "Loel Passe worked alongside Gene Elston as a color commentator until he retired from broadcasting in 1976.Elston continued with the Astros until 1986.The Colt .45s began their existence playing at Colt Stadium, a temporary venue built just north of the construction site of their permanent home, a domed stadium.", "Hofheinz and his partners believed a domed stadium was a must for MLB to be viable in Houston, given the area's oppressive humidity.===1962–1964: The Colt .45s===Al Spangler, pictured in the first uniform of the Colt .45s in 1963The Colt .45s started their inaugural season on April 10, 1962, against the Chicago Cubs with Harry Craft as the Colt .45s' manager.", "Bob Aspromonte scored the first run for the Colt .45s on an Al Spangler triple in the first inning.", "They started the season with a three-game sweep of the Cubs but eventually finished eighth among the National League's ten teams.", "The team's best pitcher, Richard \"Turk\" Farrell, lost 20 games despite an ERA of 3.02.A starter for the Colt .45s, Farrell was primarily a relief pitcher prior to playing for Houston.", "He was selected to both All-Star Games in 1962.The 1963 season saw more young talent mixed with seasoned veterans.", "Jimmy Wynn, Rusty Staub, and Joe Morgan all made their major league debuts in the 1963 season.", "However, Houston's position in the standings did not improve, as the Colt .45s finished in ninth place with a 66–96 record.", "The team was still building, trying to find that perfect mix to compete.", "The 1964 campaign began on a sad note, as relief pitcher Jim Umbricht died of cancer at the age of 33 on April 8, just before Opening Day.", "Umbricht was the only Colt .45s pitcher to post a winning record in Houston's first two seasons.", "He was so well liked by players and fans that the team retired his jersey number, 32, in 1965.Just on the horizon, the structure of the new domed stadium was more prevalent and it would soon change the way that baseball was watched in Houston and around the league.", "On December 1, 1964, the team announced the name change from the Colt .45s to the \"Astros\".===1965–1970: The Great Indoors===With Judge Roy Hofheinz now the sole owner of the franchise and the new venue complete, the renamed Astros moved into their new domed stadium, the Astrodome, in 1965.The name honored Houston's position as the center of the nation's space program—NASA's new Manned Spacecraft Center had recently opened southeast of the city.", "The Astrodome, called the \"Eighth Wonder of the World\", did little to improve the home team's results on the field.", "While several \"indoor\" firsts were accomplished, the team still finished ninth in the standings.", "The attendance was high not because of the team's accomplishments, but because people came from miles around to see the Astrodome.Houston Astrodome Scoreboard pictured during a June 7, 1969 game between the Astros and CardinalsThe Astrodome in 1965Just as the excitement was settling down over the Astrodome, the 1966 season found something new to put the domed stadium in the spotlight once again – the field.", "Grass would not grow in the new park, since the roof panels had been painted to reduce the glare that was causing players on both the Astros and the visiting teams to miss routine pop flies.", "A new artificial turf was created called \"AstroTurf\" and Houston would be involved in yet another change in the way the game was played.With new manager Grady Hatton, the Astros started the 1966 season strong.", "By May they were in second place in the National League and looked like a team that could contend.", "Joe Morgan was named as a starter on the All-Star Team.", "The success did not last as they lost Jimmy Wynn for the season after he crashed into an outfield fence in Philadelphia and Morgan had broken his knee cap.", "The 1967 season saw first baseman Eddie Mathews join the Astros.", "The slugger hit his 500th home run while in Houston.", "He would be traded late in the season and Doug Rader would be promoted to the big leagues.", "Rookie Don Wilson pitched a no-hitter on June 18.Wynn also provided some enthusiasm in 1967.The 5 ft 9 in Wynn was becoming known not only for how often he hit home runs, but also for how far he hit them.", "Wynn set club records with 37 home runs, and 107 RBIs.", "It was also in 1967 that Wynn hit his famous home run onto Interstate 75 in Cincinnati.", "As the season came to a close, the Astros found themselves again in ninth place and with a winning percentage below .500.The team looked good on paper, but could not make it work on the field.April 15, 1968, saw a pitching duel for the ages.", "The Astros' Don Wilson and the Mets' Tom Seaver faced each other in a battle that lasted six hours.", "Seaver went ten innings, allowing no walks and just two hits.", "Wilson went nine innings, allowing five hits and three walks.", "After the starters exited, eleven relievers (seven for the Mets and four for the Astros) tried to end the game.", "The game finally ended in the 24th inning when Aspromonte hit a shot toward Mets shortstop Al Weis.", "Weis had been perfect all night at short, but he was not quick enough to make the play.", "The ball zipped into left field, allowing Norm Miller to score.With baseball expansion and trades, the Astros had dramatically changed in 1969.Aspromonte was sent to the Braves and Staub was traded to the expansion Montreal Expos, in exchange for outfielder Jesús Alou and first baseman Donn Clendenon.", "However, Clendenon refused to report to Houston, electing to retire and take job with a pen manufacturing company.", "The Astros asked Commissioner Bowie Kuhn to void the trade, but he refused.", "Instead, he awarded Jack Billingham and a left-handed relief pitcher to the Astros to complete the trade.", "Cuellar was traded to the Baltimore Orioles for Curt Blefary.", "Other new players included catcher Johnny Edwards, infielder Denis Menke and pitcher Denny Lemaster.", "Wilson continued to pitch brilliantly and on May 1 threw the second no-hitter of his career.", "In that game, he struck out 18 batters, tying what was then the all-time single-game mark.", "He was just 24 years of age and was second to only Sandy Koufax for career no-hit wins.", "Wilson's no-hitter lit the Astros' fire after a miserable month of April, and six days later the team tied a major league record by turning seven double plays in a game.", "By May's end, the Astros had put together a ten-game winning streak.", "The Houston infield tandem of Menke and Joe Morgan continued to improve, providing power at the plate and great defense.", "Morgan had 15 homers and stole 49 bases while Menke led the Astros with 90 RBIs.", "The Menke/Morgan punch was beginning to come alive, and the team was responding to Walker's management style.", "The Astros dominated the season series against their expansion twins, the New York Mets.", "In one game at New York, Denis Menke and Jimmy Wynn hit grand slams in the same inning, against a Mets team that would go on to win the World Series that same year.", "The Astros finished the 1969 season with a record of 81 wins, 81 losses, marking their first season of .500 ball.In 1970, the Astros were expected to be a serious threat in the National League West.", "In June, 19-year-old César Cedeño was called up and immediately showed signs of being a superstar.", "The Dominican outfielder batted .310 after being called up.", "Not to be outdone, Menke batted .304 and Jesús Alou batted .306.The Astros' batting average was up by 19 points compared to the season before.", "The team looked good, but the Astros' ERA was up.", "Larry Dierker and Wilson had winning records, but the pitching staff as a whole had an off season.", "Houston finished in fourth place in 1970.===1971–1974: The boys in orange===The fashion trends of the 1970s had started taking root in baseball.", "Long hair and loud colors were starting to appear on team uniforms, including the Astros'.", "In 1971 the Astros made some changes to their uniform: they kept the same style they had in previous seasons, but inverted the colors.", "What was navy was now orange and what was orange was now a lighter shade of blue.", "The players' last names were added to the back of the jerseys.", "In 1972, the uniform fabric was also changed to what was at the time revolutionizing the industry – polyester.", "Belts were replaced by elastic waistbands, and jerseys zipped up instead of having buttons.", "The uniforms became popular with fans, but would last only until 1975, when the Astros would shock baseball and the fashion world.The uniforms were about the only thing that did change in 1971.The acquisition of Roger Metzger from the Chicago Cubs in the off-season moved Menke to first base and Bob Watson to the outfield.", "The Astros got off to a slow start and the pitching and hitting averages were down.", "Larry Dierker was selected to the All-Star Game in 1971, but due to an arm injury he could not make it.", "César Cedeño led the club with 81 RBIs and the league with 40 doubles, but batted just .264 and had 102 strikeouts in his second season with the Astros.", "Pitcher J. R. Richard made his debut in September of the 1971 season against the Giants.====The Big Trade====Hall of Famer Joe Morgan (1963–1971, 1980) was traded to Cincinnati following the 1971 seasonIn November 1971 the Astros and Cincinnati Reds made one of the biggest blockbuster trades in the history of the sport, and helped create The Big Red Machine of the 1970s, with the Reds getting the better end of the deal.", "Houston sent second baseman Joe Morgan, infielder Denis Menke, pitcher Jack Billingham, outfielder César Gerónimo and prospect Ed Armbrister to Cincinnati for first baseman Lee May, second baseman Tommy Helms and infielder Jimmy Stewart.", "The trade left Astros fans and the baseball world scratching their heads as to why general manager Spec Richardson would give up so much for so little.", "The Reds, on the other hand, would shore up many problems.", "They had an off year in 1971, but were the National League Pennant winner in 1972.The Astros' acquisition of Lee May added more power to the lineup in 1972.May, Wynn, Rader and Cedeño all had 20 or more home runs and Watson hit 16.Cedeño also led the Astros with a .320 batting average, 55 stolen bases and made spectacular plays on the field.", "Cedeño made his first All-Star game in 1972 and became the first Astros player in team history to hit for the cycle in August versus the Reds.", "The Astros finished the strike-shortened season at 84–69, their first winning season.Astros fans had hoped for more of the same in 1973, but it was not to be.", "The Astros run production was down, even though the same five sluggers the year before were still punching the ball out of the park.", "Lee May led the Astros with 28 home runs and Cesar Cedeño batted .320 with 25 home runs.", "Bob Watson hit the .312 mark and drove in 94 runs.", "Doug Rader and Jimmy Wynn both had 20 or more home runs.", "However, injuries to their pitching staff limited the Astros to an 82–80 fourth-place finish.", "The Astros again finished in fourth place the next year under new manager Preston Gómez.===1975–1979: Cautious corporate ownership===With the $38 million deficit of the Astrodome, control of the Astrodomain (including the Astros) was passed from Roy Hofheinz to GE Credit and Ford Motor Credit.", "The creditors were just interested in preserving asset value of the team, so any money spent had to be found or saved somewhere else.", "Tal Smith returned to the Astros from the New York Yankees to find a team that needed a lot of work and did not have a lot of money.", "However, there would be some bright spots that would prove to be good investments in the near future.The year started on a sad note.", "Pitcher Don Wilson was found dead in the passenger seat of his car on January 5, 1975; the cause of death was asphyxiation by carbon monoxide.", "Wilson was 29 years old.", "Wilson's number 40 was retired on April 13, 1975.The 1975 season saw the introduction of the Astros' new uniforms.", "Many teams were going away from the traditional uniform and the Astros were no exception.", "From the chest down, the uniform was a solid block of yellow, orange, and red stripes.", "There was also a large dark blue star over the midsection.", "The same multi-colored stripes ran down the pant legs.", "Players' numbers not only appeared on the back of the jersey, but also on the pant leg.", "The bright stripes were meant to appear as a fiery trail like a rocket sweeping across the heavens.", "The uniforms were panned by critics, but the public liked them and versions started appearing at the high school and little league level.", "The uniform was so different from what other teams wore that the Astros wore it both at home and on the road until 1980.César Cedeño (1970–1981) is the franchise's all-time leader with 487 stealsBesides the bright new uniforms there were some other changes.", "Lee May was traded to Baltimore for much talked about rookie second baseman Rob Andrews and utility player Enos Cabell.", "In Baltimore, Cabell was stuck behind third baseman Brooks Robinson, but he took advantage of his opportunity in Houston and became their everyday third baseman.", "Cabell would go on to become a big part of the team's success in later years.", "With May gone, Bob Watson was able to move to first base and was a bright spot in the line up, batting .324 with 85 RBI.The two biggest moves the Astros made in the offseason were the acquisitions of Joe Niekro and José Cruz.", "The Astros bought Niekro from the Braves for almost nothing.", "Niekro had bounced around the big leagues with minimal success.", "His older brother Phil Niekro had started teaching Joe how to throw his knuckleball and Joe was just starting to use it when he came to the Astros.", "Niekro won six games, saved four games and had an ERA of 3.07.Acquiring José Cruz from the Cardinals was another big win.", "Cruz became a fixture in the Astros' outfield for several years and would eventually have his number 25 retired.Despite high expectations, 1975 was among the Astros' worst in franchise history.", "Their record of 64–97 was far worse than even the expansion Colt .45's and would remain the worst record in franchise history until 2011.It was the worst record in baseball and manager Preston Gómez was fired late in the season and replaced by Bill Virdon.", "The Astros played .500 ball under Virdon in the last 34 games of the season.", "With Virdon as the manager the Astros improved greatly in 1976 finishing in third place with an 80–82 record.", "A healthy César Cedeño was a key reason for the Astros' success in 1976.Bob Watson continued to show consistency and led the club with a .313 average and 102 RBI.", "José Cruz became Houston's everyday left fielder and hit .303 with 28 stolen bases.", "1976 saw the end of Larry Dierker's playing career as an Astro, but before it was all over he would throw a no-hitter and win the 1,000th game in the Astrodome.", "The Astros finished in third place again in 1977 with a record of 81–81.One of the big problems the Astros had in the late 1970s was that they were unable to compete in the free-agent market.", "Ford Motor Credit Company was still in control of the team and was looking to sell the Astros, but would not spend money on better players.", "Most of the talent was either farm grown or bought cheaply.The 1979 season would prove to be a big turnaround in Astros history.", "During the offseason, the Astros attempted to fix some of their problem areas.", "They traded Floyd Bannister to Seattle for shortstop Craig Reynolds and acquired catcher Alan Ashby from Toronto for pitcher Mark Lemongello.", "Reynolds and Ashby were both solid in their positions and gave Houston some much-needed consistency.", "The season started with a boost from pitcher Ken Forsch, who threw a no-hitter against the Braves the second game of the season.", "In May 1979, New Jersey shipping tycoon John McMullen had agreed to buy the Astros.", "Now with an investor in charge, the Astros would be more likely to compete in the free-agent market.The Astros were playing great baseball throughout the season.", "José Cruz and Enos Cabell both stole 30 bases.", "Joe Niekro had a great year with 21 wins and 3.00 ERA.", "J. R. Richard won 18 games and set a new personal strikeout record at 313.Joe Sambito came into his own with 22 saves as the Astros closer.", "Things were going as they should for a team that could win the west.", "The Astros and Reds battled the final month of the season.", "The Reds pulled ahead of the Astros by a game and a half.", "Later that month they split a pair and the Reds kept the lead.", "The Astros finished with their best record to that point at 89–73 and games behind the NL winner Reds.With Dr. McMullen as sole owner of the Astros, the team would now benefit in ways a corporation could not give them.", "The rumors of the Astros moving out of Houston started to crumble and the Astros were now able to compete in the free-agent market.", "McMullen showed the city of Houston that he too wanted a winning team, signing nearby Alvin, Texas native Nolan Ryan to the first million-dollar-a-year deal.", "Ryan had four career no-hitters already and had struck out 383 in one season.===1980–1985: More rainbow, and seasons on the brink===José Cruz (1975–1987), his #25 was retired by HoustonJoe Morgan returned in 1980.The 1980 pitching staff was one of the best Houston ever had, with the fastball of Ryan, the knuckleball of Joe Niekro and the terrifying 6 ft 8 in frame of J. R. Richard.", "Teams felt lucky to face Ken Forsch, who was a double-digit winner in the previous two seasons.", "Richard became the first Astros pitcher to start an All-Star game.", "Three days later, Richard was told to rest his arm after a medical examination and on July 30 he collapsed during a workout.", "He had suffered a stroke after a blood clot in the arm apparently moved to his neck and cut off blood flow to the brain.", "Surgery was done to save his life, but the Astros had lost their ace pitcher after a 10–4 start with a stingy 1.89 ERA.", "Richard attempted a comeback, but would never again pitch a big league game.After the loss of Richard and some offensive struggles, the Astros slipped to third place in the division behind the Dodgers and the Reds.", "They bounced back to first with a ten-game winning streak, but the Dodgers regained a two-game lead before arriving in Houston on September 9.The Astros won the first two games of the series to tie the Dodgers for the division lead.", "The Astros went on to win a third game and take the lead- with three games against the Dodgers left.", "The Dodgers swept the next series, forcing a one-game playoff the next day.", "The Astros won the playoff game 7–1, and advanced to their first post-season.The team would face the Philadelphia Phillies in the 1980 National League Championship Series.", "The Phillies sent out Steve Carlton in game one of the NLCS.", "The Phillies would win the opener after the Astros got out to a 1–0 third-inning lead.", "Ken Forsch pitched particularly strong fourth and fifth innings, but Greg Luzinski hit a sixth-inning two-run bomb to the 300 level seats of Veterans Stadium.", "The Phillies added an insurance run on the way to a 3–1 win.", "Houston bounced back to win games two and three.", "Game four went into extra innings, with the Phillies taking the lead and the win in the tenth inning.", "Pete Rose started a rally with a one-out single, then Luzinski doubled off the left-field wall and Rose bowled over catcher Bruce Bochy to score the go-ahead run.", "The Phillies got an insurance run on the way to tying the series.Rookie Phillies pitcher Marty Bystrom was sent out by Philadelphia manager Dallas Green to face veteran Nolan Ryan in Game Five.", "The rookie gave up a run in the first inning, then held the Astros at bay until the sixth inning.", "An Astros lead was lost when Bob Boone hit a two-out single in the second, but the Astros tied the game in the sixth with an Alan Ashby single scoring Denny Walling.", "Houston took a 5–2 lead in the seventh; however, the Phillies came back with five runs in the inning.", "The Astros came back against Tug McGraw with four singles and two two-out runs.", "Now in extra innings, Garry Maddox doubled in Del Unser with one out to give the Phillies an 8–7 lead.", "The Astros failed to score in the bottom of the tenth.Astros starting pitcher Nolan Ryan in 1983A 1981 player strike ran between June 12 and August 10.Ultimately, the strike would help the Astros get into the playoffs.", "Nolan Ryan and Bob Knepper picked up steam in the second half of the season.", "Ryan threw his fifth no-hitter on September 26 and finished the season with a 1.69 ERA.", "Knepper finished with an ERA of 2.18.In the wake of the strike, Major League Baseball took the winners of each \"half\" season and set up a best-of-five divisional playoff.", "The Reds won more games than any other team in the National League, but they won neither half of the strike-divided season.", "The Astros finished 61–49 overall, which would have been third in the division behind the Reds and the Dodgers.", "Advancing to the playoffs as winners of the second half, Houston beat Los Angeles in their first two playoff games at home, but the Dodgers took the next three in Los Angeles to advance to the NLCS.By 1982, only four players and three starting pitchers remained from the 1980 squad.", "The Astros were out of pennant contention by August and began rebuilding for the near future.", "Bill Virdon was fired as manager and replaced by original Colt .45 Bob Lillis.", "Don Sutton asked to be traded and was sent to the Milwaukee Brewers for cash and the team gained three new prospects, including Kevin Bass.", "Minor league player Bill Doran was called up in September.", "The Astros finished fourth in the west, but new talent was starting to appear.Before the 1983 season, the Astros traded Danny Heep to the Mets for pitcher Mike Scott, a 28-year-old who had struggled with New York.", "Art Howe sat out the 1983 season with an injury, forcing Phil Garner to third and Ray Knight to first.", "Doran took over at second, becoming the everyday second baseman for the next seven seasons.", "The Astros finished third in the National League West.", "The 1984 season started off badly when shortstop Dickie Thon was hit in the head by a pitch and was lost for the season.", "In September, the Astros called up rookie Glenn Davis after he posted impressive numbers in AAA.", "The Astros finished in second place.", "In 1985, Mike Scott learned a new pitch, the split-finger fastball.", "Scott, who was coming off of a 5–11 season, had found his new pitch and would become one of Houston's most celebrated hurlers.", "In June, Davis made the starting lineup at first base, adding power to the team.", "In September, Joe Niekro was traded to the Yankees for two minor league pitchers and lefty Jim Deshaies.", "The Astros finished in fourth place in 1985.===1986–1990: A deep run, and building for the future===After finishing fourth in 1985, the Astros fired general manager Al Rosen and manager Bob Lillis.", "The former was supplanted by Dick Wagner, the man whose Reds defeated the Astros to win the 1979 NL West title.", "The latter was replaced by Hal Lanier who, like his manager mentor in St. Louis, Whitey Herzog, had a hard-nosed approach to managing and espoused a playing style that focused on pitching, defense, and speed rather than home runs to win games.", "This style of baseball, known as Whiteyball, took advantage of stadiums with deep fences and artificial turf, both of which were characteristics of the Astrodome.", "Lanier's style of baseball took Houston by storm.", "Before Lanier took over, fans were accustomed to Houston's occasional slow starts, but with Lanier leading the way, Houston got off to a hot start, winning 13 of their first 19 contests.Prior to the start of the season the Astros acquired outfielder Billy Hatcher from the Cubs for Jerry Mumphrey.", "Lainer also made a change in the pitching staff, going with a three-man rotation to start the season.", "This allowed Lanier to keep his three starters (Nolan Ryan, Bob Knepper, and Mike Scott) sharp and to slowly work in rookie hurler Jim Deshaies.", "Bill Doran and Glenn Davis held down the right side of the field but Lainer rotated the left side.", "Denny Walling and Craig Reynolds faced the right-handed pitchers while Phil Garner and Dickie Thon batted against left-handers.", "Lainer knew the Astros had talent and he put it to work.Mike Scott won the 1986 NL Cy Young Award and NLCS MVPThe Astrodome was host to the 1986 All-Star Game in which Astros Mike Scott, Kevin Bass, Glenn Davis, and Dave Smith represented the host field.", "The Astros kept pace with the NL West after the All-Star break.", "They went on a streak of five straight come-from-behind wins.", "Houston swept a key 3-game series over the San Francisco Giants in late September to clinch the division title.", "Mike Scott took the mound in the final game of the series and pitched a no-hitter – the only time in MLB history that any division was clinched via a no-hitter.", "Scott would finish the season with an 18–10 record and a Cy Young Award.The 1986 National League Championship Series against the New York Mets was noted for its drama and is considered to be one of the greatest postseason series.", "In Game 3, the Astros were ahead at Shea Stadium, 5–4, in the bottom of the 9th when closer Dave Smith gave up a two-run home run to Lenny Dykstra, giving the Mets a dramatic 6–5 win.However, the signature game of the series was Game 6.Needing a win to get to Mike Scott (who had been dominant in the series) in Game 7, the Astros jumped off to a 3–0 lead in the first inning but neither team would score again until the 9th inning.", "In the 9th, starting pitcher Bob Knepper would give up two runs, and once again the Astros would look to Dave Smith to close it out.", "However, Smith would walk Gary Carter and Darryl Strawberry, giving up a sacrifice fly to Ray Knight, tying the game.", "Despite having the go-ahead runs on base, Smith was able to escape the inning without any further damage.There was no scoring until the 14th inning when the Mets would take the lead on a Wally Backman single and an error by left fielder Billy Hatcher.", "The Astros would get the run back in the bottom of the 14th when Hatcher (in a classic goat-to-hero-conversion-moment) hit one of the most dramatic home runs in NLCS history, off the left-field foul pole.", "In the 16th inning, Darryl Strawberry doubled to lead off the inning and Ray Knight drove him home in the next at-bat.", "The Mets would score a total of three runs in the inning to take what appeared an insurmountable 7–4 lead.", "With their season on the line, the Astros would nonetheless rally for two runs to come to within 7–6.Kevin Bass came up with the tying and winning runs on base; however Jesse Orosco would strike him out, ending the game.", "At the time the 16-inning game held the record for the longest in MLB postseason history.", "The Mets won the series, 4–2.After the 1986 season, the team had difficulty finding success again.", "Several changes occurred.", "The \"rainbow\" uniforms were phased out, the team electing to keep a five-stripe \"rainbow\" design on the sleeves.", "Team favorites Nolan Ryan and José Cruz moved on and the team entered a rebuilding phase.", "Craig Biggio debuted in June 1988, joining new prospects Ken Caminiti and Gerald Young.", "Biggio would become the everyday catcher by 1990.A trade acquiring Jeff Bagwell in exchange for Larry Andersen would become one of the biggest deals in Astros history.", "Glenn Davis was traded to Baltimore for Curt Schilling, Pete Harnisch and Steve Finley in 1990.===1991–1999: Fine tuning and first rebranding===The early 1990s were marked by the Astros' growing discontent with their home, the Astrodome.", "After the Astrodome was renovated for the primary benefit of the NFL's Houston Oilers (who shared the Astrodome with the Astros since the 1960s), the Astros began to grow increasingly disenchanted with the facility.", "Faced with declining attendance at the Astrodome and the inability of management to obtain a new stadium, in the off-season Astros management announced its intention to sell the team and move the franchise to the Washington, D.C. area.", "However, the move was not approved by other National League owners, thus compelling the Astros to remain in Houston.", "Shortly thereafter, McMullen (who also owned the NHL's New Jersey Devils) sold the team to Texas businessman Drayton McLane in 1993, who committed to keeping the team in Houston.Shortly after McLane's arrival, which coincided with the maturation of Bagwell and Biggio, the Astros began to show signs of consistent success.", "After finishing second in their division in 1994 (in a strike year), 1995, and 1996, the Astros won consecutive division titles in 1997, 1998, and 1999.In the 1998 season, the Astros set a team record with 102 victories.", "However, each of these titles was followed by a first-round playoff elimination, in 1998 by the San Diego Padres and in 1997 and 1999 against the Atlanta Braves.", "The manager of these title teams was Larry Dierker, who had previously been a broadcaster and pitcher for the Astros.", "During this period, Bagwell, Biggio, Derek Bell, and Sean Berry earned the collective nickname \"The Killer Bs\".", "In later seasons, the name came to include other Astros, especially Lance Berkman.Coinciding with the change in ownership, the team switched uniforms and team colors after the season in order to go for a new, more serious image.", "The team's trademark rainbow uniforms were retired, and the team's colors changed to midnight blue and metallic gold.", "The \"Astros\" font on the team logo was changed to a more aggressive one, and the team's traditional star logo was changed to a stylized, \"flying\" star with an open left end.", "It marked the first time since the team's inception that orange was not part of the team's colors.", "Despite general agreement that the rainbow uniforms identified with the team had become tired (and looked too much like a minor league team according to the new owners), the new uniforms and caps were never especially popular with many Astros fans.Final Astros regular season game in the Astrodome on October 3, 1999Off the field, in 1994, the Astros hired one of the first African American general managers, former franchise player Bob Watson.", "Watson would leave the Astros after the 1995 season to become general manager of the New York Yankees and helped to lead the Yankees to a World Series championship in 1996.He would be replaced by Gerry Hunsicker, who until 2004 would continue to oversee the building of the Astros into one of the better and most consistent organizations in the Major Leagues.However, in 1996, the Astros again nearly left Houston.", "By the mid-1990s, McLane (like McMullen before him) wanted his team out of the Astrodome and was asking the city to build the Astros a new stadium.", "When things did not progress quickly toward that end, he put the team up for sale.", "He had nearly finalized a deal to sell the team to businessman William Collins, who planned to move them to Northern Virginia.", "However, Collins was having difficulty finding a site for a stadium himself, so Major League owners stepped in and forced McLane to give Houston another chance to grant his stadium wish.", "Houston voters, having already lost the Houston Oilers in a similar situation, responded positively via a stadium referendum and the Astros stayed put.===2000–2004: New ballpark and second rebranding===The 2000 season saw a move to a new stadium.", "Originally to be named ''The Ballpark at Union Station'' due to being located on the site of Union Station, it was renamed ''Enron Field'' by the season opening after the naming rights were sold to energy corporation Enron.", "The stadium was to feature a retractable roof, a particularly useful feature with unpredictable Houston weather.", "The ballpark also featured more intimate surroundings than the Astrodome.", "In 2002, naming rights were purchased by Houston-based Minute Maid, after Enron went bankrupt.", "The park was built on the grounds of the old Union Station.", "A locomotive moves across the outfield and whistles after home runs, paying homage to a Houston history which had 11 railroad company lines running through the city by 1860.The ballpark previously contained quirks such as \"Tal's Hill\", which was a hill in deep center field on which a flagpole stood, all in fair territory.", "Over the years, many highlight reel catches have been made by center fielders running up the hill to make catches.", "Tal's Hill was removed in the 2016–2017 offseason and the center field wall was moved in to , which the team hoped would generate more home runs.With the change in location also came a change in attire.", "Gone were the blue and gold uniforms of the 1990s in favor of a more \"retro\" look with pinstripes, a traditional baseball font, and the colors of brick red, sand and black.", "These colors were chosen because ownership originally wanted to rename the team the '''Houston Diesels'''.", "The \"shooting star\" logo was modified but still retained its definitive look.The Astros moved into Minute Maid Park in 2000After two fairly successful seasons without a playoff appearance, the Astros were early favorites to win the 2004 NL pennant.", "They added star pitcher Andy Pettitte to a roster that already included standouts like Lance Berkman and Jeff Kent as well as veterans Bagwell and Biggio.", "Roger Clemens, who had retired after the season with the New York Yankees, agreed to join former teammate Pettitte on the Astros for 2004.The one-year deal included unique conditions, such as the option for Clemens to stay home in Houston on select road trips when he wasn't scheduled to pitch.", "Despite the early predictions for success, the Astros had a mediocre 44–44 record at the All-Star break.", "A lack of run production and a poor record in close games were major issues.", "After being booed at the 2004 All-Star Game held in Houston, manager Jimy Williams was fired and replaced by Phil Garner, a star on the division-winning 1986 Astros.", "The Astros enjoyed a 46–26 record in the second half of the season under Garner and earned the NL wild-card spot.", "The Astros defeated the Braves 3–2 in the Division Series, but would lose the National League Championship Series to the St. Louis Cardinals in seven games.", "Clemens earned a record seventh Cy Young Award in 2004.Additionally, the mid-season addition of Carlos Beltrán in a trade with the Kansas City Royals helped the Astros tremendously in their playoff run.", "Despite midseason trade rumors, Beltrán would prove instrumental to the team's hopes, hitting eight home runs in the postseason.", "Though he had asserted a desire to remain with the Astros, Beltrán signed a long-term contract with the New York Mets on January 9, 2005.===2005: First World Series played in Texas===In 2005, the Astros started poorly and found themselves with a 15–30 record in late May.", "The ''Houston Chronicle'' had written them off with a tombstone emblazoned with \"RIP 2005 Astros\".", "However, from that low point until the end of July, Houston went 42–17 and found themselves in the lead for an NL wild card spot.", "July saw the best single-month record in the club's history at 22–7.Offensive production had increased greatly after a slow start in the first two months.", "The Astros had also developed an excellent pitching staff, anchored by Roy Oswalt (20–12, 2.94), Andy Pettitte (17–9, 2.39), and Roger Clemens (13–8 with a league-low ERA of only 1.87).", "The contributions of the other starters—Brandon Backe (10–8, 4.76) and rookie starters Ezequiel Astacio (3–6, 5.67) and Wandy Rodríguez (10–10, 5.53)—were less remarkable, but enough to push the Astros into position for a playoff run.", "The Astros won a wild card berth on the final day of the regular season, becoming the first team since the World Series champion 1914 Boston Braves to qualify for the postseason after being 15 games under .500.2005 National League championship banner at Minute Maid ParkThe Astros won the National League Division Series against the Atlanta Braves, 3–1, with a game four that set postseason records for most innings (18), most players used by a single team (23), and longest game time (5 hours and 50 minutes).", "Trailing by a score of 6–1, Lance Berkman hit an eighth-inning grand slam to narrow the score to 6–5.In the bottom of the ninth, catcher Brad Ausmus hit a game-tying home run that allowed the game to continue in extra innings.", "In the bottom of the tenth inning, Luke Scott hit a blast to left field that had home run distance, but was inches foul.", "This game remained scoreless for the next eight innings.", "In the top of the 15th inning, Roger Clemens made only his second career relief appearance, pitching three shutout innings, notably striking out Julio Franco, at the time the oldest player in MLB at 47 years old; Clemens was himself 43.In the bottom of the eighteenth inning, Clemens came to bat again, indicating that he would be pitching in the nineteenth inning, if it came to that.", "Clemens struck out, but the next batter, Chris Burke, hit a home run to left field to send the Astros to a 7–6 victory.", "The National League Championship Series featured a rematch of the 2004 NLCS.", "The Astros lost the first game in St. Louis, but would win the next three games.", "Though the Astros were poised to close out the series in Game Five in Houston, Brad Lidge gave up a monstrous two-out three-run home run to Albert Pujols, forcing the series to a sixth game in St. Louis, where the Astros clinched a World Series appearance.", "Roy Oswalt was named NLCS MVP, having gone 2–0 with a 1.29 ERA in the series.", "Honorary National League President Bill Giles presented the league champion Astros with the Warren C. Giles Trophy (named for his father) for winning the series; the younger Giles had been one of the founders of the original Colt 45 team in 1962, while his father Warren had been president of the National League from to .The Astros faced the Chicago White Sox in the World Series.", "Chicago had been considered the slight favorite but would win all four games, the first two at U.S. Cellular Field in Chicago and the final two in Houston.", "Game 3 marked the first World Series game held in the state of Texas, and was the longest game in World Series history, lasting 5 hours and 41 minutes.This World Series was marked by a controversy involving the Minute Maid Park roof.", "MLB and Commissioner Bud Selig insisted that the Astros must play with the roof open, which mitigated the intensity and enthusiasm of the cheering Astros fans.===2006–2009: The decline===In the 2006 offseason, the team signed Preston Wilson and moved Berkman to first base, ending the long tenure of Jeff Bagwell.", "The Astros renewed the contract with Clemens and traded two minor league prospects to the Tampa Bay Devil Rays for left-handed hitter Aubrey Huff.", "By August, Preston Wilson complained about his playing time after the return of Luke Scott from AAA Round Rock.", "The Astros released Wilson and he was signed by St. Louis.", "A dramatic season end included wins in 10 of their last 12 games, but the Astros missed a playoff appearance when they lost the final game of the season to the Atlanta Braves.On October 31, the Astros declined a contract option on Jeff Bagwell for 2007, ending his 15-year Astros career and leading to his retirement.", "Roger Clemens and Andy Pettitte filed for free agency.", "On December 12, the Astros traded Willy Taveras, Taylor Buchholz, and Jason Hirsh to the Colorado Rockies for Rockies pitchers Jason Jennings and Miguel Asencio.", "A trade with the White Sox, involving the same three Astros in exchange for Jon Garland, had been nixed a few days earlier when Buchholz reportedly failed a physical.", "In the end, Taveras continued to develop and Hirsh had a strong 2007 rookie campaign, while Jennings was often injured and generally ineffective.Astros' outfielder Orlando Palmeiro, 2007On April 28, 2007, the Astros purchased the contract of top minor league prospect Hunter Pence.", "He debuted that night, getting a hit and scoring a run.", "By May 2007, the Astros had suffered one of their worst losing streaks (10 games).", "On June 28, second baseman Craig Biggio became the 27th MLB player to accrue 3,000 career hits.", "Biggio needed three hits to reach 3,000 and ended the night with a total of five hits.", "That night, Carlos Lee hit a towering walk-off grand slam in the 11th inning.", "Lee later quipped to the media that \"he had hit a walk-off grand slam and he got second billing\", considering Biggio's achievement.", "On July 24, Biggio announced that he would retire at the end of the season.", "He hit a grand slam in that night's game which broke a 3–3 tie and led to an Astros win.", "In Biggio's last at bat, he grounded out to Chipper Jones of the Atlanta Braves.On September 20, Ed Wade was named general manager.", "In his first move, he traded Jason Lane to the Padres on September 24.On September 30, Craig Biggio retired after twenty years with the team.", "In November, the Astros traded RHP Brad Lidge and SS Eric Bruntlett to the Philadelphia Phillies for OF Michael Bourn, RHP Geoff Geary, and minor leaguer Mike Costanzo.", "Utility player Mark Loretta accepted Houston's salary arbitration and Kazuo Matsui finalized a $16.5 million, three-year contract with the team.", "In December, the Astros traded OF Luke Scott, RHP Matt Albers, RHP Dennis Sarfate, LHP Troy Patton, and minor-league 3B Mike Costanzo, to the Baltimore Orioles for SS Miguel Tejada.", "On December 14, they sent infielder Chris Burke, RHP Juan Gutiérrez, and RHP Chad Qualls to the Arizona Diamondbacks for RHP José Valverde.", "On December 27, the Astros came to terms on a deal with All-Star, Gold Glove winner Darin Erstad.In January and February 2008, the Astros signed Brandon Backe, Ty Wigginton, Dave Borkowski and Shawn Chacón to one-year deals.", "The starting rotation would feature Roy Oswalt and Brandon Backe as numbers one and two.", "Wandy Rodríguez, Chacón and Chris Sampson rounded out the bottom three slots in the rotation.", "Woody Williams had retired after a 0–4 spring training and Jason Jennings was now with Texas.", "On the other side of the roster, the Astros would start without Kazuo Matsui, who was on a minor league rehab assignment after a spring training injury.The Astros regressed in 2008 and 2009, finishing with records of 86–75 and 74–88, respectively.", "Manager Cecil Cooper was fired after the 2009 season.", "At the lowest point of the regression, child admission was free.===2010–2014: Last years in the NL and move to the AL West===The 2010 season was the first season as Astros manager for Brad Mills, who was previously the bench coach of the Boston Red Sox.", "The Astros struggled throughout a season that was marked by trade-deadline deals that sent longtime Astros to other teams.", "On July 29, the Astros' ace starting pitcher, Roy Oswalt, was dealt to the Philadelphia Phillies for J.", "A. Happ and two minor league players.", "On July 31, outfielder Lance Berkman was traded to the New York Yankees for minor leaguers Jimmy Paredes and Mark Melancon.", "The Astros finished with a record of 76–86.On July 30, 2011, the Astros traded OF Hunter Pence, the team's 2010 leader in home runs, to the Philadelphia Phillies.", "On July 31, they traded OF Michael Bourn to the Atlanta Braves.", "On September 17, the Astros recorded their first 100-loss season in franchise history, ending the season eleven days later with an 8–0 home loss to the St. Louis Cardinals.", "Cardinals pitcher Chris Carpenter pitched a two-hit complete game shutout.", "The Cardinals would go on to win the National League Wild Card, before beating the Texas Rangers in the World Series.", "Lance Berkman, who was now a Cardinal, was a key player in their championship victory.", "The Astros finished with a record of 56–106, the worst single-season record in franchise history (a record which would be broken the following season).In November 2010, Drayton McLane announced that the Astros were being put up for sale.", "McLane stated that because the Astros were one of the few franchises in Major League Baseball with only one family as the owners, he was planning his estate.", "McLane was 75 years old as of November 2011.In March 2011, local Houston businessman Jim Crane emerged as the front-runner to purchase the franchise.", "In the 1980s, Crane founded an air freight business which later merged with CEVA Logistics, and later founded Crane Capital Group.", "McLane and Crane had a previous handshake agreement for the franchise in 2008, but Crane abruptly changed his mind and broke off discussions.", "Crane also attempted to buy the Chicago Cubs in 2008 and the Texas Rangers during their 2010 bankruptcy auction.", "Crane came under scrutiny because of previous allegations of discriminatory hiring practices regarding women and minorities, among other issues.", "This delayed MLB's approval process.", "In the summer of 2011, Crane claimed those issues had been resolved, and suggested that the delays were baseball's attempt to move the Astros to the American League.", "In October later that year, Crane met personally with MLB Commissioner Bud Selig, in a meeting that was described as \"constructive\".On November 15, 2011, it was announced that Crane had agreed to move the franchise to the American League for the 2013 season.", "The move was part of an overall divisional realignment of MLB, with the National and American leagues each having 15 teams in three geographically balanced divisions.", "Crane was given a $70 million concession by MLB for agreeing to the switch; the move was a condition for the sale to the new ownership group.", "Two days later, the Astros were officially sold to Crane for $615 million after the other owners unanimously voted in favor of the sale.", "It was also announced that 2012 would be the last season for the Astros in the NL.", "After over fifty years of the Astros being a part of the National League, this move was unpopular with many Astros fans.", "In December 2011, Jeff Luhnow was named general manager.Astros second baseman José Altuve in 2014In 2012, the Astros were eliminated from the playoffs before September 5.On September 27, the Astros named Bo Porter to be the manager for the 2013 season.On October 3, the Astros ended over 50 years of NL play with a 5–4 loss to the Chicago Cubs and began to look ahead to join the American League.", "Winning only 20 road games during the entire season, the Astros finished with a 55–107 record, the worst record in all of Major League Baseball for the 2012 season, and surpassing the 2011 season for the worst record in Astros history.On November 2, 2012, the Astros unveiled their new look in preparation for their move to the American League for the 2013 season.", "The navy and orange uniform returned to the original 1960s team colors, and debuted a new version of the classic navy hat with a white \"H\" over an orange star.On November 6, 2012, the Astros hired former Cleveland Indians director of baseball operations David Stearns as the team's new assistant general manager.The Houston Astros played their first game as an American League team on March 31, 2013, where they were victorious over their in-state division competitor, the Texas Rangers, with a score of 8–2.On May 17, Reid Ryan, son of Nolan Ryan was introduced as president of operations.On September 29, the Astros completed their first year in the American League, losing 5–1 in a 14-inning game to the New York Yankees.", "The Astros finished the season with a 51–111 record (a franchise-worst) with a season-ending 15-game losing streak, again surpassing their worst record from the previous season.", "The team finished 45 games behind the division winner Oakland Athletics, further adding to their futility.", "This marked three consecutive years that the Astros had lost more than 100 games in a single season.", "They also became the first team to have the first overall pick in the draft three years in a row.In February 2014, Nolan Ryan rejoined the Astros front office as assistant to owner Jim Crane, GM Jeff Luhnow and president of business operations Reid Ryan.", "From 2004 through 2008 he worked as a special assistant to the GM.For the 2014 season the team went 70–92, finishing 28 games back of the division winner Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim, and placing fourth in the AL West over the Texas Rangers.A.", "J. Hinch was named manager on September 29, replacing Bo Porter, who was fired on September 1.===2015–2019: Return to success, first World Series title and scandal===In 2015, Dallas Keuchel led the AL with 20 victories, going 15–0 at home, an MLB record.", "Key additions to the team included Scott Kazmir and SS Carlos Correa who hit 22 home runs after being called up in June 2015.Second baseman José Altuve remained the star of the Astros' offense.", "On July 30, the Astros picked up Mike Fiers and Carlos Gómez from the Milwaukee Brewers.", "Fiers threw the 11th no-hitter in Astros history on August 21 against the Los Angeles Dodgers.", "Houston got the final AL playoff spot and faced the Yankees in the Wild Card Game on October 6 at New York.", "They defeated the Yankees 3–0, but lost to the Kansas City Royals in the American League Division Series.The Astros split the first two games of the ALDS best-of-five series in Kansas City.", "The Astros won the first game at Minute Maid to take a 2–1 lead in the ALDS.", "In Game 4, after 7 innings, the Astros had a 6–2 lead.", "In the top half of the eighth inning, which took about 45 minutes to end, the Royals had taken a 7–6 lead with a series of consecutive base hits.", "The Astros suffered a 9–6 loss and the ALDS was tied at 2–2.Then the series went back to Kansas City, where the Royals clinched the series in the fifth game, 7–2.The Astros entered the 2016 season as the favorites to win the AL West after a promising 2015 season.", "After a bad start to their season, going just 7–17 in April, the Astros bounced back and went on to have a winning record in their next four months, including an 18–8 record in June.", "But after going 12–15 in September, the Astros were eliminated from playoff contention.", "They finished in third place in the American League West Division with a final record of 84–78.The season was marked by the Astros 4–15 record against their in-state division rival (and eventual division winner) Texas Rangers.", "The Astros finished the 2016 season 11 games behind the Rangers.Many buildings in the skyline of Downtown Houston participated in cheering for the Astros during the 2017 World Series.\|thumbIn 2014, ''Sports Illustrated'' predicted the Astros would win the 2017 World Series through their strategic rebuilding process.", "As of June 9, 2017 the Astros were 41–16, which gave them a 13.5-game lead over the rest of their division and comfortable possession of the best record in the entire league.", "This was the best start in the Astros' 55-year history.", "The Astros entered the All-Star Break with an American League-best 60–29 record, a 16-game lead in the division, and one game shy of the best record in MLB, which had just barely slipped to the Dodgers right before the All-Star Break.The Houston Astros began wearing this patch during the 2017 season as the Houston area recovered from the destruction caused by Hurricane Harvey.With Hurricane Harvey causing massive flooding throughout Houston and southeast Texas, the Astros' three-game series against the Texas Rangers for August 29–31, was relocated to Tropicana Field (home of the Tampa Bay Rays), in St. Petersburg, Florida.", "As the area recovered from the hurricane, many residents rallied around the Astros, who adopted the mantra \"Houston Strong\".", "They wore a patch on their jerseys with the mantra for the remainder of the season.2017 World Series MVP - George SpringerAt the August 31 waiver-trade deadline GM Jeff Luhnow acquired veteran starting pitcher and Cy Young Award winner Justin Verlander to bolster the starting rotation.", "Verlander won each of his 5 regular season starts with the Astros, yielding only 4 runs over this stretch.", "He carried his success into the playoffs, posting a record of 4–1 in his 6 starts, and throwing a complete game in Game 2 of the ALCS.", "Verlander was named the 2017 ALCS MVP.The Astros clinched their first division title as a member of the American League West division, and first division title overall since 2001.They also became the first team in Major League history to win three different divisions: National League West in 1980 and 1986, National League Central from 1997 to 1999 and 2001, and American League West in 2017.On September 29, the Astros won their 100th game of the season, the second time the Astros finished a season with over 100 wins, the first being in 1998.They finished 101–61, with a 21-game lead in the division, and faced the Red Sox in the first round of the AL playoffs.", "The Astros defeated the Red Sox three games to one, and advanced to the American League Championship Series against the New York Yankees.", "The Astros won the ALCS four games to three, and advanced to the World Series to play against the Los Angeles Dodgers.", "The Astros defeated the Dodgers in the deciding seventh game of the World Series, winning the first championship in franchise history.The victory was especially meaningful for the Houston area, which was rebuilding after Hurricane Harvey.", "The city of Houston celebrated the team's accomplishment with a parade on the afternoon of November 3, 2017.Houston police chief Art Acevedo estimated at least 750,000 people attended the parade.On November 16, 2017, José Altuve was named the American League Most Valuable Player, capping off a season in which he accumulated 200 hits for the fourth consecutive season, led the majors with a .346 BA, and was the unquestioned clubhouse leader of the World Series champions.The 2017 team at the White House with President Donald Trump, March 2018On September 26, 2018, the Astros' second consecutive AL West division championship was clinched with a victory by the Seattle Mariners over the Oakland A's.", "For the third time in franchise history, and second consecutive season, the team won over 100 games; they finished the regular season 103–59 (a new franchise record) by sweeping a double-header against the Baltimore Orioles on September 29, 2018.The Astros swept the Cleveland Indians in the ALDS to advance to the ALCS to face the league-leading Boston Red Sox (who finished the season 108–54.)", "After a 7–2 victory in Game 1 of the ALCS, the Astros dropped the next four games, and Boston advanced to the World Series.Justin Verlander, 2019 and 2022 AL Cy Young Award winnerIn the offseason, the Astros signed veteran outfielder Michael Brantley, and catcher Robinson Chirinos.", "At the trade deadline on July 31, 2019, Houston acquired another veteran starting pitcher and Cy Young award winner Zack Greinke to bolster the starting rotation.", "On September 22, the Astros clinched their third consecutive AL West division title.", "They finished the season with a record of 107–55, the best in franchise history, and the best record in MLB.", "They became the first team since the 2002–2004 New York Yankees to have 3 consecutive 100-win seasons.", "They also became the first team in MLB history to have three consecutive 100-loss seasons and three consecutive 100-win seasons in the same decade.Entering the playoffs as the top-seeded team in both leagues, they defeated the AL Wild Card winner Tampa Bay Rays in five games in the ALDS, advancing to the ALCS for the third year in a row to face the New York Yankees.", "In Game 6 at Minute Maid Park, Jose Altuve hit a walk-off home run to win the pennant and send the team to its third World Series appearance.", "However, they lost the 2019 World Series to the Washington Nationals in seven games, taking three games in Washington but losing all four of their games at home.On November 12, 2019, Ken Rosenthal and Evan Drellich wrote an article in ''The Athletic'' detailing allegations that the Astros had used cameras to engage in potentially illicit sign stealing against opponents, relying on allegations from former Astros pitcher Mike Fiers as a public source and other allegations from unnamed sources.", "The Astros were alleged to have used scouts watching catchers' signs in real time behind the dugout at Minute Maid Park to crack the signs and banging a trash can loudly to indicate what kind of pitch was coming.", "The scandal rippled through the baseball world as videos that appeared to clearly show the scheme were published.", "Further allegations regarding other means of relaying signs, such as whistling, surfaced in subsequent weeks.", "MLB and Commissioner Rob Manfred announced a sweeping investigation into the allegations.On January 13, 2020, MLB announced that its investigation found that the Astros did use cameras and video monitors to steal signs of opposing catchers and signal to hitters throughout the 2017 regular season and postseason, and at least part of the 2018 season.", "The investigation found no evidence of sign stealing in their pennant-winning 2019 season.", "The report said that Alex Cora, then the Astros bench coach, Carlos Beltrán, and other unnamed players were involved in developing the scheme.", "It said Hinch \"neither devised the banging scheme nor participated in it,\" but did not stop it or tell Cora he disapproved of it.Manfred announced that manager A. J. Hinch and general manager Jeff Luhnow were suspended for one year, the team would be fined $5 million (the maximum allowed under MLB rules), and the team would lose its top two draft picks in both the 2020 and 2021 MLB Drafts.", "About an hour after MLB's announcement, Astros owner Jim Crane announced he had terminated both Hinch and Luhnow, saying he was unaware of the scheme and \"extraordinarily troubled and upset\", and concluded, \"We need to move forward with a clean slate.", "We will not have this happen again on my watch.\"", "In a statement, Luhnow denied knowledge of the scheme.", "Hinch issued a statement saying, \"While the evidence consistently showed I didn't endorse or participate in the sign stealing practices, I failed to stop them and I am deeply sorry.", "\"The scandal had repercussions around baseball.", "Cora was implicated in the report but Manfred withheld a decision on his punishment until the completion of a separate investigation into electronic sign stealing in 2018, when Cora was manager of the Red Sox.", "However, the report led the Red Sox to dismiss Cora two days after it was published, and the Mets did the same with Beltran, who had been hired as manager shortly before the original story.===2020–present: Second World Series title===On January 29, 2020, the Astros announced they hired Dusty Baker as their new manager to replace Hinch.", "James Click was hired to replace Lunhow as general manager on February 2.Expectations for a full 2020 season were dashed by the COVID-19 pandemic, which forced Major League Baseball to play a 60 game season that would take place from July to September with no fans in attendance (which was later changed for the NLCS and World Series).", "The Astros were hampered by injuries to players such as Justin Verlander, Yordan Alvarez, and Roberto Osuna, who each suffered season-ending injuries.", "As such, the Astros had to rely a plethora of young arms such as Cristian Javier to go alongside veterans in Lance McCullers Jr. and Zack Greinke to accompany an offense that had just one .300 batter in Michael Brantley.", "The Astros went 29–31, but finished second place in the AL West to qualify for the postseason as part of the decision by MLB to have eight postseason teams in each league for 2020 to accompany a shortened season.", "The Astros defeated two division champions in the Minnesota Twins and Oakland Athletics to become the first team since the 1998–2001 New York Yankees to advance to the American League Championship Series four times in a row, as well as the first team with a losing regular season record to win a postseason series.", "In the ALCS, the Astros lost to the Tampa Bay Rays despite forcing a Game 7 after losing the first three games.The 2021 season was the first to be played with fans in the stands for the regular season since the scandal broke.", "Rabid opposition for a number of fanbases went hand in hand with the challenge of replacing departed players George Springer and Josh Reddick.", "By the time of the break for the 2021 MLB All-Star Game, the Astros were 55–36 and contending for a top spot in the postseason, complete with four All-Star selections in Jose Altuve, Carlos Correa, Michael Brantley, and Ryan Pressly.", "On September 30, the Astros clinched their fourth AL West title in the span of five seasons (which was the first time they had won four division titles in five seasons since the 1998–2001 teams); the six playoff appearances in seven seasons is the best span in franchise history.", "Yuli Gurriel became the second Astro to win the batting title, doing so at the age of 37 with a batting average of .319.The Astros beat the Chicago White Sox in the American League Division Series to advance to their fifth consecutive ALCS, a feat matched by only two teams in LCS history and the first since the Atlanta Braves of the 1990s (having made all eight contested NLCS from 1991 to 1999).", "Upon playing together in Game 3 of the 2021 American League Championship Series, Altuve, Correa, Gurriel, and Bregman set a new record for most games played together by four teammates at any position in MLB history, with that game being the 64th between the core four.", "On October 22, the Astros prevailed 5–0 in Game 6 over the Boston Red Sox to win their third pennant in the last five seasons.", "They went on to lose the 2021 World Series to the Atlanta Braves in six games.The 2022 season opened without Carlos Correa at shortstop for the first time since 2016 as he left for the Minnesota Twins in free agency.", "Rookie shortstop Jeremy Peña made the Opening Day start and manned the position for the entire season.", "The Astros clinched the division on September 19, their second consecutive division title and their fifth in six seasons.", "Justin Verlander had a resurgent and historic season, leading the league with a 1.75 ERA en route to his third career Cy Young Award.", "Upon entering the postseason, the Astros swept the Mariners in three tightly contested ALDS games to advance to their American League record sixth consecutive ALCS.", "The Astros swept the Yankees to advance to the World Series for the second year in a row and fourth in six seasons.", "On November 2, 2022, in Game 4 of the 2022 World Series against the Philadelphia Phillies at the Citizens Bank Park, the Astros became the first team to throw a combined no-hitter in postseason history, and the second team to throw a no-hitter in World Series history after Don Larsen's perfect game with the New York Yankees in 1956.The Astros went on to defeat the Phillies in six games, earning their second World Series title.", "Jeremy Peña won the Series MVP Award; the first rookie position player in MLB history to do so, and the first rookie shortstop in history to hit a home run in the World Series.", "The Astros became the first team to have a winning percentage of .622 (or better) in a six-season span (2017-2022) with multiple World Series titles since the 1953-1958 New York Yankees, and they became the sixth team since 1960 to win the World Series after losing it the previous year.During the 2022-23 offseason, Baker's contract was renewed for another year, while Click parted ways with the team following a breakdown of contractual negotiations.", "In February 2023, Dana Brown was hired as the new general manager for the Astros.On October 25, 2023, Baker announced his retirement." ], [ "Uniforms", "===1962–1964: The Colt .45's===Houston's MLB franchise debuted as the Colt .45s in 1962, and the original home uniforms featured a navy pistol with orange smoke coming out of the barrel to form the \"C\" in \"Colts\".", "The road uniforms featured the city name written in navy block letters with orange trim, and the flag of Texas patch was placed on the left sleeve.", "Caps were all-navy featuring \".45s\" in orange letters in front.===1965–1974: Shooting stars===Renamed the Astros and moving to the Astrodome in 1965, they took to the field in home uniforms featuring the \"shooting star\" design.", "The uniforms initially featured \"Astros\" in navy with orange trim, and the cap now sported an orange star with \"H\" in block serif letters.", "The road uniforms remained the same save for the Astros logo replacing the Texas flag (the same logo was also applied on the home uniforms).In 1971 the Astros made some changes to their uniform: they kept the same style they had in previous seasons, but inverted the colors.", "What was navy was now orange and what was orange was now a lighter shade of blue.", "The players' last names were added to the back of the jerseys.", "In 1972, the uniform fabric was also changed to what was at the time revolutionizing the industry – polyester.", "Belts were replaced by elastic waistbands, and jerseys zipped up instead of having buttons.", "The uniforms became popular with fans, but would last only until 1975, when the Astros would shock baseball and the fashion world.===1975–1986: Tequila sunrise/Orange rainbows===The 1975 season saw the introduction of the Astros' new uniforms.", "Many teams were going away from the traditional uniform and the Astros were no exception.", "From the chest down, the uniform was a solid block of yellow, orange, and red stripes.", "There was also a large dark blue star over the midsection.", "The same multi-colored stripes ran down the pant legs.", "Players' numbers not only appeared on the back of the jersey, but also on the pant leg.", "The bright stripes were meant to appear as a fiery trail like a rocket sweeping across the heavens.", "The uniforms were panned by critics, but the public liked them and versions started appearing at the high school and little league level.", "The uniform was so different from what other teams wore that the Astros wore it both at home and on the road until 1980, though it underwent a few minor modifications with the navy star and number style.===1980–1993: Rainbow shoulders===Also in 1980, the Astros debuted a significantly cleaner uniform, relegating the rainbows to the sleeves.", "The design was initially worn on the road (with the original rainbow uniform relegated to home games), but in 1982 the rainbow shoulder look began appearing on select home games as well.", "In addition, the navy cap returned with this uniform and the orange cap was eventually retired in 1983.By 1987, this uniform became the Astros' primary look, retiring the original rainbow uniforms.", "When it first unveiled, the rainbow shoulder uniform was light grey, but by 1982, the fabric was changed to cream.", "A white version was added for home games that same year.", "Prior to the 1989 season, the pullover design was retired and buttons and belts returned to this uniform.===1994–1999: Midnight blue and gold===Coinciding with the change in ownership, the team switched uniforms and team colors after the season in order to go for a new, more serious image.", "The team's trademark rainbow uniforms were retired, and the team's colors changed to midnight blue and metallic gold.", "The \"Astros\" font on the team logo was changed to a more aggressive one, and the team's traditional star logo was changed to a stylized, \"flying\" star with an open left end.Both the home and road uniforms featured a star substituting for the penultimate letter \"O\" in both \"Astros\" (home) and \"Houston\" (road); the road uniform was later tweaked in 1997 with the star now affixed next to the word \"Houston\".", "The letters were written in a more futuristic manner.", "The Astros also wore midnight blue alternates with \"Astros\" in white with gold trim, changed in 1997 to only feature the flying star logo.", "The midnight blue cap featured the flying star logo.", "It also marked the first time since 1982 that the Astros wore grey uniforms on the road.===2000–2012: Railroad design===Moving to Minute Maid Park (originally Enron Field) in 2000, the Astros took to the field wearing vintage-inspired uniforms.", "For the first time, navy was not part of the team's palette, and the Astros uniforms featured brick red, sand and black colors.", "The colors were inspired by the location of their new ballpark which formerly housed a railroad depot.Primary home uniforms featured black pinstripes with \"Astros\" in black script letters and numbers in red.", "The road uniforms sported \"Houston\" in red script letters and black numbers.", "Alternate white uniforms without pinstripes featured all letters in brick red with sand trim, initially with the brick red star logo on the left chest before switching to the \"Astros\" wordmark by 2002.The Astros also wore black alternate home and road uniforms, with \"Houston\" (road) and \"Astros\" (home) emblazoned in front, but switched to brick red alternates by 2002.The letters on both uniforms are in sand with brick red trim.", "Black caps with the updated star in red became the primary cap while a red cap with the sand star was used as an alternate.===2013–present: Return to navy and orange===In 2013, the Astros returned to the classic navy and orange look of previous eras.", "Both uniforms featured the city name (road) and team name (home) in block navy letters with orange trim, along with numbers on the left chest.", "Piping was also added in front.", "The orange alternate contained the team name and numbers in navy with white trim.", "The Astros also wore navy uniforms with the orange rainbow stripes along the side; the front originally featured the \"H\" star before replacing it with \"Astros\" in orange in 2016.Navy caps with the \"H\" and orange star returned as the team's primary cap, while a navy cap with orange brim was used on select games.", "Until 2015, the Astros also wore all-orange caps with the home uniforms, and from 2016 to 2018, the navy alternates were paired occasionally with an orange cap with navy brim.", "While the navy alternates are usually worn on Sunday home games, in recent years, it became the preferred uniform during Framber Valdez's starts regardless of it being a home or road game.In 2022, the Astros were one of seven additional teams to wear Nike's \"City Connect\" uniforms.", "The predominantly navy uniform incorporated the \"Space City\" wordmark in homage to NASA's \"worm\" logo; the lettering and numbers also incorporated said style.", "The uniform also added various elements from the \"Tequila sunrise\" uniforms of the 1970s, including numerals on the right leg and red/orange/yellow gradients on the piping and socks.", "The left sleeve patch has the modified Texas flag recolored to the Astros' navy and orange motif, with the \"H-star\" logo replacing the white star.", "All-navy caps feature the modified \"H-star\" logo incorporating a planet in orbit.", "This uniform is usually worn on Monday home games." ], [ "Achievements", "===Franchise record===Team name Games Wins Losses Ties W-L% Colt .45s (1962–1964) 486 196 288 2 NL Astros (1965–2012) 7652 3803 3846 3 AL Astros (2013–present) 1680 922 758 – Overall total 9813 4921 4892 5 Playoff record 143 76 67 – Source:===Awards===;Darryl Kile AwardTwo awards are presented each year, one to a Houston Astro and one to a St. Louis Cardinal, each of whom exemplifies Kile's virtues of being \"a good teammate, a great friend, a fine father and a humble man.\"", "The winner is selected by each local chapter of the Baseball Writers' Association of America.===Team captains===23 Enos Cabell, 3B/1B, 1984–1985===Team records======Retired numbers==='''Source:'''While not officially retired, the Astros have not reissued number 57 since 2002, when former Astros pitcher Darryl Kile died as an active player with the St. Louis Cardinals.", "The number 42 is retired by Major League Baseball in honor of Jackie Robinson." ], [ "Hall of Fame", "===Baseball Hall of Fame members======Ford C. Frick Award recipients======Astros Hall of Fame===On January 26, 2019, the team announced plans for a team Hall of Fame along with an inaugural class of inductees (including all retired numbers and members of the 2012 Walk of Fame), complete with an orange jacket and renderings for each of the inductees.", "The Astros Hall of Fame (with sponsorship by Houston Methodist) is currently located in the former Home Run Alley area of the ballpark under the new name of Hall of Fame Alley, beginning in March that revealed a series of plaques on Hall of Fame weekend on August 2 and induction the next day.", "A display was installed in the Union Station lobby on January 31 that included the jerseys and hats of the first class of inductees.", "The 2020 season belayed induction of the second group of Hall of Fame members until August 7 of the 2021 season.", "While there was no class of 2021, the committee dedicated to electing a broad representation of Astros did elect a class of 2022 for August of the impending season, selecting Terry Puhl and Tal Smith as the next inductees into the Astros Hall.Jeff Bagwell (1991–2005), Hall of FamerCraig Biggio (1988–2007), Hall of Famer+Key '''Bold''' Member of the Baseball Hall of Fame Member of the Baseball Hall of Fame as an Astro '''Bold''' Recipient of the Hall of Fame's Ford C. Frick Award'''Houston Astros Hall of Fame'''YearNo.PlayerPositionTenure2019 14 Bob Aspromonte 3B 1962–1968 5 '''Jeff Bagwell''' 1B 1991–2005 4, 7 '''Craig Biggio''' 2B / C / OF 1988–2007 25 José Cruz OF 1975–1987 49 Larry Dierker PBroadcasterManager 1964–19761979–19961997–2001 — '''Gene Elston''' Broadcaster 1962–1986 — '''Milo Hamilton''' Broadcaster 1985–2012 12, 35, 18, 8 '''Joe Morgan''' 2B 1963–1971, 1980 36 Joe Niekro P 1975–198538, 37 Shane Reynolds P 1992–2002 50 J.R. Richard P 1971–1980 34 '''Nolan Ryan''' P 1980–1988 33 Mike Scott P 1983–1991 45, 32 Jim Umbricht P 1962–1963 23, 40 Don Wilson P 1966–1974 18, 24 Jimmy Wynn OF 1963–19732020 22, 17 Lance Berkman OF/1B 1999–2010 28 César Cedeño CF 1970–1981 — Roy Hofheinz Owner 1960–1975 44 Roy Oswalt P 2001–2010 13 Billy Wagner P 1995–2003 38, 11, 26, 27 Bob Watson 1B/LF GM 1966–1979 1993–19952022 21 Terry Puhl OF 1977–1990 — Tal Smith Executive 1960–1973 1975–1980 1994–20112023 — Bill Brown Broadcaster 1987–2016 19 Bill Doran 2B 1982–19902024 — René Cárdenas Broadcaster 1961–1975 2007 11 Ken Caminiti 3B 1987–1994 1999–2000===Texas Sports Hall of Fame===Lance Berkman (1999–2010)'''Astros in the Texas Sports Hall of Fame'''No.NamePositionTenureNotes — Lee Ballanfant Scout 1961–1970 Born in Waco 3 Pete Runnels IF 1963–1964 Born in Lufkin 5 Jeff Bagwell 1BCoach 1991–20052010 7 Craig Biggio 2B/C 1988–2007 8, 12, 18, 35 Joe Morgan 2B 1963–19711980 Played mainly with the Cincinnati Reds; born in Bonham 11 Eddie Mathews 3B 1967 Played mainly with the Boston/Milwaukee/Atlanta Braves; born in Texarkana 12, 77 Iván Rodríguez C 2009 Played mainly with the Texas Rangers 17 Lance Berkman OF/1B 1999–2010 Born in Waco, raised in New Braunfels, attended Rice University 21 Andy Pettitte P 2004–2006 Played mainly with the New York Yankees; grew up in Houston 22 Roger Clemens P 2004–2006 Played mainly with the Boston Red Sox; grew up in Houston, attended the University of Texas at Austin 34 Nolan Ryan P 1980–1988 Born in Refugio, grew up in Alvin 38 Robin Roberts P 1965–1966 Played mainly with the Philadelphia Phillies 49 Larry Dierker PManager 1964–19771997–2001" ], [ "Roster" ], [ "Spring training", "The Astros have held their spring training at The Ballpark of the Palm Beaches in West Palm Beach, Florida since 2017.They share the stadium with the Washington Nationals.From 1985 to 2016, the Astros held spring training at Osceola Heritage Park in Kissimmee, Florida." ], [ "Minor league affiliations", "The Houston Astros farm system consists of seven minor league affiliates.ClassTeamLeagueLocationBallparkAffiliated Triple-A Sugar Land Space Cowboys Pacific Coast League Sugar Land, Texas Constellation Field 2021 Double-A Corpus Christi Hooks Texas League Corpus Christi, Texas Whataburger Field 2005 High-A Asheville Tourists South Atlantic League Asheville, North Carolina McCormick Field 2021 Single-A Fayetteville Woodpeckers Carolina League Fayetteville, North Carolina Segra Stadium 2017 Rookie FCL Astros Florida Complex League West Palm Beach, Florida The Ballpark of the Palm Beaches 2023 DSL Astros Blue Dominican Summer League Boca Chica, Santo Domingo Houston Astros Complex 2022 DSL Astros Orange" ], [ "Rivalries", "===Lone Star Series: Texas Rangers===The Silver Boot is awarded annually to the winner of the Lone Star SeriesThe '''Lone Star Series''' (also, '''Silver Boot Series''') is a Major League Baseball rivalry featuring Texas' two major league franchises, the Texas Rangers and Astros.", "It is an outgrowth of the \"natural rivalry\" established by MLB as part of interleague play as the Rangers are a member of the American League and the Astros were a member of the National League until .During interleague play, the winner of the 6-game series was awarded the Silver Boot.", "A tall display of a size-15 cowboy boot cast in silver, complete with a custom, handmade spur.", "If the series was split (3–3), the winner was the club which scored the most runs over the course of the series.In , the Astros joined the American League West with the Rangers and changed their rivalry from an interleague to an intra-division rivalry, the Astros played their first game in the American League against the Rangers on Sunday Night Baseball that season.", "In 2015, both teams made the playoffs and were in a tight division race during most of the season.", "Both teams qualified for the postseason again in 2023.While the teams had identical regular season records of 90—72, the Astros won the division title for their better head-to-head record (9—4), whilst the Rangers clinched the wild card berth.", "The Astros and Rangers had their first postseason matchup in the 2023 ALCS, with the Rangers ultimately winning in seven games.===Los Angeles Dodgers===The series between the Astros and the Los Angeles Dodgers had initially begun as a divisional matchup but following Houston's realignment to the American League, the rivalry regained intensity as the two teams played one another in the 2017 World Series in which the Astros controversially won the championship in 7 games.", "Animosity was quick to grow further after the Astros' widely publicized sign stealing scandal had drawn negative attention to the organization after it was revealed the team had utilized a complex system to steal pitch signs, particularly during the 2017 World Series.", "As a result of the scandal, hostility grew immensely between the two teams and their fans.", "The Dodgers lead the all time series 400-334, both teams are tied in postseason wins 6-6.===New York Yankees===The rivalry between the Astros and the New York Yankees emerged in the mid-2010s after the Astros moved to the American League and eventually ascended to title contenders.", "The two teams have met in four postseason rounds, all of which were won by Houston.", "However, like the Astros' rivalry with the Dodgers, animosity grew immediately after the Astros were revealed to have stolen signs during their 2017 championship season, as well as the Yankees' inability to overcome Houston in the playoffs despite fielding equally strong rosters.", "Both teams are tied all-time with 43 wins apiece, but the Astros own a 13–5 postseason record.===Seattle Mariners===Fairly recently, the Astros have grown an increasingly competitive rivalry with the Seattle Mariners as both teams have fought handily for control of the division.", "The resurgence of the Mariners to playoff contention in the early 2020s has fueled the rivalry in competition as the Mariners have often finished within 5 games of the Astros in the division for the past three seasons.", "The 2022 season saw the Mariners return to playoff success, winning their first series since 2001.The Mariners and Astros were set to face off in the ALDS, but Houston would go on to win the series in a 0-3 sweep.", "Despite the lone playoff meeting, both teams have grown a recent history of hitting one another with pitches, and even instigating multiple brawls between players.", "The series was very lopsided in favor of the Astros for multiple decades as Houston leads the all-time regular season series 119-73, including a 3-0 lead in the postseason." ], [ "Radio and television", "Since 2013, the Astros' flagship radio station is KBME, Sportstalk 790 AM (a Fox Sports Radio affiliate).", "Previously, the team had a partnership with KTRH (740 AM) which went from 1999 to 2012 (both stations are owned by iHeartMedia).", "This change suddenly made it difficult for listeners outside of Houston itself to hear the Astros, as KTRH runs 50 kilowatts of power day and night, and KBME runs only five kilowatts.", "As a result, KTRH is audible across much of Central, East, and South Texas, whereas KBME can only be heard in Houston, especially after dark.", "Milo Hamilton, a veteran voice who was on the call for Hank Aaron's 715th career home run in 1974, retired at the end of the 2012 season, after broadcasting play-by-play for the Astros since 1985.Dave Raymond and Brett Dolan shared play-by-play duty for road games, while Raymond additionally worked as Hamilton's color analyst (while Hamilton called home games only for the past few seasons before his retirement); they were not retained and instead brought in Robert Ford and Steve Sparks to begin broadcasting for the 2013 season.Spanish language radio play-by-play is handled by Francisco Romero, and his play-by-play partner is Alex Treviño, a former backup catcher for the club.During the 2012 season Astros games on television were announced by Bill Brown and Jim Deshaies.", "In the seven seasons before then, Astros games were broadcast on television by Fox Sports Houston, with select games shown on broadcast TV by KTXH.", "As part of a ten-year, $1 billion deal with Comcast that includes a majority stake jointly held by the Astros and the Houston Rockets, Houston Astros games moved to the new Comcast SportsNet Houston at the beginning of the 2013 season.", "On September 27, 2013 CSN Houston filed for Chapter 11 Bankruptcy and surprising the Astros who own the largest stake.", "After being brought out of bankruptcy by DirecTV Sports Networks and AT&T, the channel's name was changed to Root Sports Southwest then later AT&T SportsNet Southwest.The current television team consists of Todd Kalas and Geoff Blum." ], [ "Mascots", "In April 1977, the Houston Astros introduced their first mascot, Chester Charge.", "Created by Ed Henderson, Chester Charge was a Texas cavalry soldier on a horse.", "Chester appeared on the field at the beginning of each home game, during the seventh-inning stretch and then ran around the bases at the conclusion of each win.", "At the blast of a bugle, the scoreboard would light up and the audience would yell, \"Charge!\"", "Orbit, Houston Astros mascot from 1990 to 1999, 2013–presentThe Astros' current mascot is Orbit, a lime-green outer-space creature wearing an Astros jersey with antennae extending into baseballs.", "Orbit was the team's official mascot from the 1990 through the 1999 seasons.", "For the 2000 season, a rabbit named Junction Jack was introduced as the team's mascot with the move from the Astrodome to then Enron Field.", "(Junction Jack had two \"relatives\", Junction Julie and Junction Jesse, who were not official mascots).", "Orbit returned after a 13-year hiatus on November 2, 2012, at the unveiling of the Astros' new look for their 2013 debut in the American League.", "The name Orbit pays homage to Houston's association with NASA and nickname Space City." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Sources=== ''A Six-Gun Salute: An Illustrated History of the Houston Colt .45s'', by Robert Reed (Rowman-Littlefield Publishing, Boston, 1999)." ], [ "External links", "* * Houston Astros news from the Houston Chronicle* Astros team page on Baseball-Reference.com* Houston Astros Video on ESPN Video Archive* Houston Astros history" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hal Clement" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Harry Clement Stubbs''' (May 30, 1922 – October 29, 2003), better known by the pen name '''Hal Clement''', was an American science fiction writer and a leader of the hard science fiction subgenre.", "He also painted astronomically oriented artworks under the name '''George Richard'''.In 1998 Clement was inducted by the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame and named the 17th SFWA Grand Master by the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America (presented in 1999)." ], [ "Biography", "Harry Clement Stubbs was born in Somerville, Massachusetts, on May 30, 1922.He went to Harvard, graduating with a B.S.", "in astronomy in 1943.While there he wrote his first published story, \"Proof\", which appeared in the June 1942 issue of ''Astounding Science Fiction'', edited by John W. Campbell; three more appeared in later 1942 numbers.", "His further educational background includes an M.Ed.", "(Boston University 1946) and M.S.", "in chemistry (Simmons College 1963).During World War II Clement was a pilot and copilot of a B-24 Liberator and flew 35 combat missions over Europe with the 68th Bomb Squadron, 44th Bomb Group, based in England with 8th Air Force.", "After the war, he served in the United States Air Force Reserve, and retired with the rank of colonel.", "He taught chemistry and astronomy for many years at Milton Academy in Milton, Massachusetts.From 1949 to 1953, Clement's first three novels were two-, three-, and four-part ''Astounding'' serials under Campbell: ''Needle'' (Doubleday, 1950), ''Iceworld'' (Gnome Press, 1953), and ''Mission of Gravity'' (1954), his best-known novel, published by Doubleday's Science Fiction Book Club (established 1953).", "The latter novel features a land and sea expedition across the superjovian planet Mesklin to recover a stranded scientific probe.", "The natives of Mesklin are centipede-like intelligent beings about 50 centimeters long.", "Various episodes hinge on the fact that Mesklin's fast rotational speed causes it to be considerably deformed from the spherical, with effective surface gravity that varies from approximately 3 ''''g''''n at the equator to approximately 700 ''g''n at the poles.Clement's article \"Whirligig World\" describes his approach to writing a science fiction story:Writing a science fiction story is fun, not work.", "... the fun ... lies in treating the whole thing as a game....", "The rules must be quite simple.", "They are; for the reader of a science-fiction story, they consist of finding as many as possible of the author's statements or implications which conflict with the facts as science currently understands them.", "For the author, the rule is to make as few such slips as he possibly can... Certain exceptions are made e.g., to allow travel faster than the speed of light, but fair play demands that all such matters be mentioned as early as possible in the story...Clement was a frequent guest at science fiction conventions, especially in the eastern United States, where he usually presented talks and slide shows about writing and astronomy.Clement died in his sleep in Massachusetts at the Milton Hospital on October 29, 2003, at age 81." ], [ "Awards and honors", "Clement has been honored several times for his cumulative contributions including 1998 Hall of Fame induction, when Clement and Frederik Pohl were the fifth and sixth living persons honored, and the 1999 SFWA Grand Master Award.For the 1945 short story \"Uncommon Sense\" he received a 50-year Retro Hugo Award at the 1996 World Science Fiction Convention.", "''Mission of Gravity'', first published as a serial during 1953, was named best foreign novel by the Spanish Science Fiction Association in 1994 and it was a finalist for a 50-year Retro Hugo Award in 2004.The Hal Clement Award for Young Adults for Excellence in Children's Science Fiction Literature was presented in Clement's name from 1992 to 2016.Wayne Barlowe illustrated two of Clement's fictional species, the Abyormenites and the Mesklinites, in his ''Barlowe's Guide to Extraterrestrials''.==Planets==Planets created by Clement typically feature unique astronomical or physical aspects.", "They include:Abyormen – A planet circling a dwarf star (Theer), which in turn circles a blue giant.", "This produces a hot and a cold season, each of 65 years' duration.", "The native intelligent life forms undergo a seasonal mass death.", "From ''Cycle of Fire''.", " Dhrawn – A high-gravity world settled by Mesklinites in ''Star Light''.", "* Habranha - A planet that is tidally locked with its sun, such that the dark side is a mix of solid CO2, solid methane, and ice, and the sunlit side completely ocean, in ''Fossil''.", "* Hekla – An ice-age planet in \"Cold Front\" (a short story in ''Astounding'' July 1946).", "* Kaihapa – An uninhabited ocean planet, twin of Kainui, in ''Noise''.", "* Kainui – An inhabited ocean planet in ''Noise''.", "* Mesklin – A planet with ultra-high gravity (up to 700 ''g'') in ''Mission of Gravity''.", "Clement later corrected his model of Mesklin and determined that the maximum surface gravity would be \"only 250 gravities\".", "* Sarr – An extremely hot planet with an atmosphere of gaseous sulfur, and little liquid (the natives occasionally need to drink a bit of molten copper chloride), in ''Iceworld''* Tenebra – A high-gravity world with a highly corrosive atmosphere consisting mostly of water vapor near its critical point, in ''Close to Critical''.", "* Enigma 88 – A small planet near η Carinae in ''Still River''.", "The interior of the object is honeycombed with caves, due to evaporation of accreted ice-rich planetoids.", "Unusually for Clement, Enigma's structure is not fully consistent with the laws of physics." ], [ "Short stories, novelettes and novellas", "Editor Sam Merwin Jr. added 10,000 words to Clement's novella \"Planetfall\" for its publication in the February 1957 issue of ''Satellite Science Fiction'' as \"Planet for Plunder\".Clement's short story \"Hot Planet\" took the cover of the August 1963 issue of ''Galaxy Science Fiction''.", "\"Proof\" (June 1942).", "Short story.", "Published in ''Astounding''.", "Collected in ''The Essential Hal Clement Volume 2'', ''Possible Worlds of Science Fiction'' (1951), ''SF: Author's Choice 2'' (1970), ''Where Do We Go From Here?''", "(1971), ''The Great SF Stories 4 (1942)'' (1980), ''First Voyages'' (1981), ''The Golden Years of Science Fiction (Second Series)'' (1983), '' Encounters'' (1988), '' Ascent of Wonder'' (1994) and '' Wondrous Beginnings'' (2003).", "''Impediment'' (August 1942).", "Novelette.", "Published in ''Astounding''.", "Collected in ''Natives of Space'', ''The Best of Hal Clement'' and ''The Essential Hal Clement Volume 2''.", "''Avenue of Escape'' (November 1942).", "Published in ''Astounding's'' series Probability Zero.", "Collected in ''The Essential Hal Clement Volume 2''.", "\"Attitude\" (September 1943).", "Novella.", "Published in ''Astounding''.", "Collected in ''The Essential Hal Clement Volume 2'' and ''Travellers of Space'' (1951).", "Technical Error\" (January 1944).", "Novelette.", "Published in ''Astounding''.", "Collected in ''Natives of Space'', ''The Best of Hal Clement'' and ''The Essential Hal Clement Volume 2''.", "\"Trojan Fall\" (June 1944).", "Short story.", "Published in ''Astounding''.", "Collected in ''Small Changes''.", "\"Uncommon Sense\" (September 1945).", "His most famous short story.", "Part of the Laird Cunningham Series.", "Hugo Award for Best Short Story of 1945.Published in ''Astounding''.", "Collected in ''Small Changes'', ''The Best of Hal Clement'', ''Intuit'', ''The Essential Hal Clement Volume 2'', '' The Old Masters'' (1970), '' Out of This World 10'' (1973) and ''Nebula Awards Showcase 2000'' (2000).", "\"Cold Front\" (July 1946).", "Novelette.", "Published in ''Astounding''.", "Collected in ''The Essential Hal Clement Volume 2'', ''Men Against the Stars'' (1950, 1956) and '' Astounding Stories: The 60th Anniversary Collection, Vol.", "2'' (1990).", "''Assumption Unjustified'' (October 1946).", "Novelette.", "Published in ''Astounding''.", "Collected in ''Natives of Space'', ''The Best of Hal Clement'' and '' Crossroads in Time'' (1953).", "\"Answer\" (April 1947).", "Short story.", "Published in ''Astounding SF''.", "Collected in ''The Best of Hal Clement'' and ''Science Fiction Thinking Machines'' (1954).", "\"Fireproof\" (March 1949).", "Short story.", "Published in ''Astounding''.", "Collected in ''Small Changes'', ''Decade of the 1940s'' (1975) and ''Combat SF'' (1981).", "\"Halo\" (October 1952).", "Novelette.", "Published in ''Galaxy''.", "Collected in ''Small Changes'', ''The Essential Hal Clement Volume 2'' and '' Shadow of Tomorrow'' (1953).", "\"Critical Factor\" (1953).", "Short story not included in any of the Hal Clement's compilations.", "Published in '' Star Science Fiction Stories #2'' (1953).", "Collected in '' Titan 4'' (1977) and ''The Road to Science Fiction #3: From Heinlein to here'' (1979).", "\"Ground\" (December 1953).", "Short story not included in any of the Hal Clement's compilations.", "Published in ''Science Fiction Adventures''.", "\"Dust Rag\" (September 1956).", "Short story.", "Published in ''Astounding''.", "Collected in ''Small Changes'', ''The Best of Hal Clement'', ''Where Do We Go From Here?''", "(1971) and '' The Prentice Hall Anthology of Science Fiction and Fantasy'' (2001).", "\"Planet for Plunder\" (February 1957).", "Published in ''Satellite SF'' jointly with Sam Merwin, Jr. A previous version of \"Planetfall\".", "Collected in ''Men of the Morning Star/Planet for Plunder''.", "\"The Lunar Lichen\" (February 1960).", "Novelette not included in any of the Hal Clement's compilations.", "Published in ''Future Science Fiction''.", "Collected in ''The Time Trap/The Lunar Lichen''.", "\"Sun Spot\" (November 1960).", "Short story.", "Published in ''Analog''.", "Collected in ''Small Changes'', ''The Essential Hal Clement Volume 2'', '' Isaac Asimov’s Wonderful Worlds of Science Fiction # 4: Comets'' (1986) and '' Analog’s Expanding Universe''\" The Green World\" (May 1963).", "Novella not included in any of the Hal Clement's compilations.", "Published in ''If''.", "Collected in ''The Moon is Hell!/The Green World''.", "\" Hot Planet\" (August 1963).", "Novelette not included in any of the Hal Clement's compilations to date.", "Published in ''Galaxy''.", "Collected in ''The 9th Annual of the Year's Best SF'' (1964), ''Spectrum 4'' (1965), '' The Eighth Galaxy Reader'' (1965), '' Isaac Asimov Presents the Great SF Stories #25 (1963)'' (1992) and '' Science Fiction Century'' (1997).", "\"Raindrop\" (May 1965).", "Novelette.", "Published in ''If''.", "Collected in ''Small Changes'', ''The Essential Hal Clement Volume 2'' and '' Isaac Asimov’s Wonderful Worlds of Science Fiction # 4: Comets''.", "\"The Foundling Stars\" (August 1966).", "Short story.", "Published in ''If''.", "Collected in ''Small Changes'' and ''The Second If Reader of Science Fiction'' (1968).", "\"The Mechanic\" (September 1966).", "Novelette.", "Published in ''Analog''.", "Collected in ''Small Changes'', ''The Essential Hal Clement Volume 2'' and '' Analog: Writers’ Choice, Volume II'' (1984).", "\"Bulge\" (September 1968).", "Novelette.", "Published in ''If''.", "Collected in ''Small Changes'' and ''The Essential Hal Clement Volume 2''.", "'\"Planetfall\" (1972).", "Original version of \"Planet for Plunder\" (1957).", "Published in ''Strange Tomorrows'' (1972).", "Collected in ''The Essential Hal Clement Volume 2''.", "\"Lecture Demonstration\" (1973).", "Short story from the Mesklin Series (of ''Mission of Gravity'' fame).", "Published in the book ''Astounding'' (1973).", "Collected in ''The Essential Hal Clement Volume 3'', ''Heavy Planet'' and '' Mission of Gravity'' (1978).", "\"Mistaken for Granted\" (January/February 1974).", "Novella.", "Published in ''Worlds of If''.", "Collected in ''The Best of Hal Clement''.", "\"The Logical Life\" (1974).", "Second short story in the Laird Cunningham Series.", "Published in ''Stellar #1'' (1974).", "Collected in ''Intuit'' and ''The Essential Hal Clement Volume 2''.", "\"Question of Guilt\" (1976).", "Novelette.", "Published in ''The Year's Best Horror Stories: Series IV'' (1976).", "Collected in ''The Best of Hal Clement''.", "\"Stuck with It\" (1976).", "Novelette innthe Laird Cunningham Series.", "Published in '' Stellar #2 '' (1976).", "Collected in ''The Best of Hal Clement'', ''Intuit'' and ''The Essential Hal Clement Volume 2''.", "\"Longline\" (1976).", "Novelette.", "Published in ''Faster than Light'' (1976).", "Collected in ''The Essential Hal Clement Volume 2''.", "\"Seasoning\" (September/October 1978).", "Novelette set in Harlan Ellison's ''Medea'' world.", "Not included in any of Hal Clement's compilations.", "Published in ''IASFM''.", "Collected in '' Medea: Harlan's World'' (1985) and '' Aliens and UFO's'' (1993).", "\"Status Symbol\" (1987).", "Novelette, the last story in the Laird Cunningham Series.", "Published in ''Intuit''.", "Collected in ''The Essential Hal Clement Volume 2''.", "\"Blot\" (1989).", "Novelette about Asimov's positronic robots.", "Not included in any of Hal Clement's compilations to date.", "Published in '' Foundation's Friends'' (1989).", "\"Phases in Chaos'\" (1991).", "Novella not included in any of Hal Clement's compilations.", "Published in '' Isaac’s Universe Volume Two: Phases in Chaos''.", "\"Eyeball Vectors\" (1992).", "Novella not included in any of Clement's compilations to date.", "Published in '' Isaac's Universe Volume 3: Unnatural Diplomacy''.", "\"Sortie\" (spring/summer 1994).", "First part of the Sortie series.", "Novella not included in any of Hal Clement's compilations to date.", "Published in ''Harsh Mistress''.", "\"Settlement\" (fall/winter 1994).", "Second part of the Sortie series.", "Novella not included in any of Clement's compilations.", "Published in ''Absolute Magnitude''.", "\"Seismic Sidetrack\" (spring 1995).", "Third part of the Sortie series.", "Novella not included in any of Hal Clement's compilations to date.", "Published in ''Absolute Magnitude''.", "\"Simile\" (summer 1995).", "Fourth and last part of the Sortie series.", "Novella not included in any of Hal Clement's compilations.", "Published in ''Absolute Magnitude''.", "\"Oh, Natural\" (spring 1998).", "Novelette not included in any of Hal Clement's compilations.", "Published in ''Absolute Magnitude''.", "Collected in '' Hal's Worlds: Stories and Essays in Memory of Hal Clement''.", "Options\" (1998).", "Short story not included in any of Clement's compilations to date.", "Published as Harry C. Stubbs in '' Lamps on the Brow''.", "\"Exchange Rate\" (winter 1999).", "Novella not included in any of Hal Clement's compilations to date.", "Published in ''Absolute Magnitude''.", "Collected in '' The Year’s Best Science Fiction: Seventeenth Annual Collection'' and '' The Hard SF Renaissance'' (2002).", "\"Under\" (January 2000).", "Short story, last story in the 'Mesklin series.", "Published in ''Analog''.", "Collected in ''The Essential Hal Clement Volume 3'' and ''Heavy Planet''.", "\"Office politics\" (2003).", "Short story not included in any of Clement's compilations.", "Published in '' Readercon 15 Souvenir Book'' (This may be an article and not a fiction story)" ], [ "Books", " ''Needle'' (1950), (The first novel in the Needle series.", "Also published as ''From Outer Space''.", "Published as young adult fiction although it includes abstract hard science fiction.", ")* ''Iceworld'' (1953), * ''Mission of Gravity'' (1954), (first book in the Mesklin series).", "* ''The Ranger Boys in Space'' (1956) (for children)* ''Cycle of Fire'' (1957), * ''Close to Critical'' (1958), (part of the Mesklin series.", "Magazine publication in 1958, book in 1964)* ''Natives of Space'' (1965), (three novelettes)* ''Small Changes'' (1969), (collection of 9 short stories)* ''Space Lash'' (1969), ISBN (reprint in paperback of ''Small Changes'')* ''First Flights to the Moon'' (1970), ASIN B000BCHC4Y (anthology of short stories from others, edited by Hal Clement)* ''Star Light'' (1971), (part of the Mesklin series, sequel to ''Mission of Gravity''.", "It also shares some characters with ''Close to Critical'')* ''Ocean on Top'' (1973), (magazine publications in 1967)* ''Left of Africa'' (1976), (historical novel for young adults, apparently limited to 750 copies)* ''Through the Eye of a Needle'' (1978), (the second and last novel in the Needle series)* ''The Best of Hal Clement'' (1979), (collection of 10 short stories, including all of ''Natives of Space'' and two from ''Small Changes'': \"Uncommon Sense\" and \"Dust Rag\")* ''The Nitrogen Fix'' (1980), * ''Intuit'' (1987), (complete collection of the 4 Laird Cunningham stories, edition limited to 820 copies)* ''Still River'' (1987), * ''Fossil'' (1993), (set in Isaac Asimov's Universe)* ''Half Life'' (1999), (Humanity is going extinct due to disease, scientists are sent to Titan in the faint hope of finding biochemical clues to a cure)* '' The Essential Hal Clement, Volume 1: Trio for Slide Rule and Typewriter '' (1999), (collection of the novels ''Needle'', ''Iceworld'' and ''Close to Critical'')* '' The Essential Hal Clement, Volume 2: Music of Many Spheres '' (2000), (collection of 17 short stories, including most from ''Small Changes'' and from ''The Best of Hal Clement'')* '' The Essential Hal Clement, Volume 3: Variations on a Theme by Sir Isaac Newton '' (2000), (collection of all Mesklin stories except ''Close to Critical'': ''Mission of Gravity'', ''Star Light'', \"Lecture Demonstration\" and \"Under\"; also the how-to-write-science-fiction article \"Whirligig World\")* ''Heavy Planet'' (2002), (reprint of ''The Essential Hal Clement, Volume 3'')* ''Noise'' (2003), (set on an ocean planet)* ''Men of the Morning Star/Planet for Plunder'' (2011), (two novellas, the first by Edmond Hamilton and the second by Hal Clement and Sam Merwin Jr.)* ''The Moon is Hell!/The Green World'' (2012), (two novellas, the first by John W. Campbell Jr. and the second by Hal Clement)* ''The Time Trap/The Lunar Lichen'' (2013), (two novellas, the first by Henry Kuttner and the second by Hal Clement)* ''Hal Clement SF Gateway Omnibus'' (2014), (collection of the novels ''Iceworld'', ''Cycle of Fire'' and ''Close to Critical'')===About Hal Clement===* ''Starmont Readers Guide 11: Hal Clement'' (1982), .", "Donald M.", "Hassler.", "* ''Hal Clement, Scientist with a Mission: a Working Bibliography'' (1989), ASIN B0006OUUAU.", "Gordon Benson Jr.* '' Hal's Worlds: Stories and Essays in Memory of Hal Clement'' (2005), .", "Several authors." ], [ "Articles and introductions", "* ''Probability Zero!''", "(nov 1942).", "Published jointly with Malcolm Jameson, Harry Warner Jr., Dennis Tucker and P. Schuyler Miller in ''Astounding''.", "About ''Probability Zero'', Harry Harrison said in the John Campbell Memorial Anthology:\"In the early 1940s, in Astounding, there was a small department called Probability Zero!", "that ran short-short stories.", "Or items.", "Or lies.", "Things.", "These things were usually funny and always impossible - echoing the description of the title.", "\"* ''Whirligig World'' (jun 1953).", "About how to write science fiction, and specifically, about how he wrote ''Mission of Gravity''.", "Published in ''Astounding''.", "Collected in ''The Essential Hal Clement Volume 3'', ''Heavy Planet'' and ''Mission of Gravity'' (1978).", "* ''Some Notes on Xi Bootis''.", "Published by Advent Publishers.", "* ''Gravity insufficient'' (nov 1961).", "Published in ''Analog Science Fact''.", "* ''Chips on Distant Shoulders'' (1980).", "Published in ''The Future at War Vol.", "3''.", "* ''Basic Concepts: Astrophysics, Geology'' (1985).", "About Harlan Ellison's world ''Medea''.", "Published in '' Medea: Harlan's World''.", "* ''Second Thoughts'' (1985).", "About Harlan Ellison's world ''Medea'', jointly written with Poul Anderson, Thomas M. Disch, Larry Niven & Frederik Pohl.", "Published in '' Medea: Harlan's World''.", "* ''The Home System'' (oct 1986).", "Published in ''Aboriginal''.", "* ''Intuition: The Guide Who Needs Steering'' (1987).", "Published in ''Intuit''.", "* ''The Magic Picture'' (1989).", "Published in '' L. Ron Hubbard Presents Writers of the Future v5''.", "* ''Whatever Happened to the Science in Science Fiction?''", "(sep 1993).", "Published in '' Science Fiction Age''.", "* ''Ardent Thuria, Chilly Cluros: Seeing, and Seeing From, Low Orbiting Satellites'' (1994).", "Published in '' Mindsparks''.", "* ''Only Once'' (1994).", "Published in '' Fractal''.", "* ''Will'' (1998).", "Introduction to '' First Contacts: The Essential Murray Leinster''.", "* ''Jack Williamson, especulator'' (1999).", "Introduction to '' The Collected Stories of Jack Williamson, Volume One: The Metal Man and Others''.", "* ''Alfred E. van Vogt'' (2003).", "Introduction to '' Transfinite: The Essential A.E.", "van Vogt''.", "* ''About Proof, of Course'' (2003).", "Introduction to ''Proof'' in '' Wondrous Beginnings''." ], [ "See also", "* " ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " * A Logic Named Clement* Past Masters: A Logic Named Clement (or Open the Pod Bay Doors, Hal) by Bud Webster at Galactic Central* * (under 'Clement, Hal' and 'Clement, Hal, 1922–' without '2003', previous page of browse report)* Hal Clement at the Encyclopedia of Science Fiction* The Locus Magazine Index" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Halldór Laxness" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Halldór Kiljan Laxness''' (; born '''Halldór Guðjónsson'''; 23 April 1902 – 8 February 1998) was an Icelandic writer and winner of the 1955 Nobel Prize in Literature.", "He wrote novels, poetry, newspaper articles, essays, plays, travelogues and short stories.", "Writers who influenced Laxness included August Strindberg, Sigmund Freud, Knut Hamsun, Sinclair Lewis, Upton Sinclair, Bertolt Brecht and Ernest Hemingway." ], [ "Life", "===Early life===Halldór Guðjónsson was born in Reykjavík in 1902.When he was three his family moved to the Laxnes farm in Mosfellssveit parish.", "He was brought up and enormously influenced by his grandmother who \"... sang me ancient songs before I could talk, told me stories from heathen times and sang me cradle songs from the Catholic era... \" He started to read books and write stories at an early age and attended the technical school in Reykjavík from 1915 to 1916.His earliest published writings appeared in 1916 in ''Morgunblaðið'' and in the children's periodical ''Æskan.''", "The same year, two letters-to-the-editor Halldór wrote also appeared in the North American-Icelandic children's newspapers ''Sólskin'', which was published in Winnipeg, Manitoba.", "Laxness then attended and graduated from the Reykjavík Lyceum in the spring of 1918.By the time his first novel, ''Barn náttúrunnar'' (''Child of Nature''), was published in 1919, he had already begun his travels on the European continent.===1920s===In 1922, Halldór moved into and considered joining the Abbaye Saint-Maurice et Saint-Maur in Clervaux, Luxembourg, where the monks followed the rules of Saint Benedict of Nursia.", "In 1923 he was baptized and confirmed in the Catholic Church, adopting the surname Laxness after the homestead on which he was raised and adding the name Kiljan (the Icelandic name of Irish martyr Saint Killian); Laxness practiced self-study, read books, and studied French, Latin, theology and philosophy.", "He became a member of a group that prayed for reversion of the Nordic countries to Catholicism.", "Laxness wrote of his experiences in the essay ''Kaþólsk viðhorf'' (1925), and the novels ''Undir Helgahnúk'' (1924) and ''Vefarinn mikli frá Kasmír'' (1927), the latter book hailed by noted Icelandic critic Kristján Albertsson: \"Finally, finally, a grand novel which towers like a cliff above the flatland of contemporary Icelandic poetry and fiction!", "Iceland has gained a new literary giant - it is our duty to celebrate the fact with joy!\"", "Laxness's religious period did not last long.", "He lived in the United States from 1927 to 1929, giving lectures on Iceland and attempting to write screenplays for Hollywood films.", "During this time he became attracted to socialism:\"…(Laxness) did not become a socialist in America from studying manuals of socialism but from watching the starving unemployed in the parks.", "\"\"… Laxness joined the socialist bandwagon… with a book ''Alþýðubókin'' (''The Book of the People'', 1929) of brilliant burlesque and satirical essays… \"\"Beside the fundamental idea of socialism, the strong sense of Icelandic individuality is also the sustaining element in ''Alþýðubókin''.", "The two elements are entwined together in characteristic fashion and in their very union give the work its individual character.", "\"In 1929 Laxness published an article critical of the United States in ''Heimskringla'', a Canadian newspaper.", "This resulted in charges being filed against him, his detention and the forfeiture of his passport.", "With the aid of Upton Sinclair and the ACLU, the charges were dropped and Laxness returned to Iceland.===1930s===By the 1930s Laxness \"had become the apostle of the younger generation\" of Icelandic writers.", "\"… ''Salka Valka'' (1931–32) began the great series of sociological novels, often coloured with socialist ideas, continuing almost without a break for nearly twenty years.", "This was probably the most brilliant period of his career, and it is the one which produced those of his works that have become most famous.", "But Laxness never attached himself permanently to a particular dogma.\"", "In addition to the two parts of ''Salka Valka'', Laxness published ''Fótatak manna'' (''Steps of Men'') in 1933, a collection of short stories, as well as other essays, notably ''Dagleið á fjöllum'' (''A Day's Journey in the Mountains'') in 1937.Laxness's next novel was ''Sjálfstætt fólk (Independent People'' (1934 and 1935), which has been described as \"… one of the best books of the twentieth century.", "\"When ''Salka Valka'' was published in English in 1936 a reviewer on the ''Evening Standard'' stated: \"No beauty is allowed to exist as ornamentation in its own right in these pages; but the work is replete from cover to cover with the beauty of its perfection.", "\"In 1937 Laxness wrote the poem ''Maístjarnan'' (''The May Star''), which was set to music by Jón Ásgeirsson and has become a socialist anthem.This was followed by the four-part novel ''Heimsljós'' (''World Light'', 1937, 1938, 1939 and 1940), which is loosely based on the life of Magnús Hjaltason Magnusson, a minor Icelandic poet of the late 19th century.", "It has been \"… consistently regarded by many critics as his most important work.", "\"Laxness also traveled to the Soviet Union in 1938 and wrote approvingly of the Soviet system and culture.", "He was present at the \"Trial of the Twenty-one\" and wrote about it in detail in his book ''Gerska æfintýrið'' (''The Russian Adventure'').", "In the late 1930s Laxness developed a unique spelling system that was closer to pronunciation than standard Icelandic.", "This characteristic of his writing is lost in translation.===1940s===In 1941 Laxness translated Ernest Hemingway's ''A Farewell to Arms'' into Icelandic, which caused controversy because of his use of neologisms.", "He continued to court controversy over the next few years through the publication of new editions of several Icelandic sagas using modern Icelandic rather than the normalized Old Norse orthography, which had become customary.", "Laxness and his publishing partners were taken to court following the publication of his edition of ''Hrafnkels saga'' in 1942.They were found guilty of violating a recent copyright law, but eventually they were acquitted of the charge when the copyright law was deemed a violation to the freedom of the press.Laxness's \"epic\" three-part work of historical fiction, ''Íslandsklukkan'' (''Iceland's Bell''), was published between 1943 and 1946.It has been described as a novel of broad \"… geographical and political scope… expressly concerned with national identity and the role literature plays in forming it… a tale of colonial exploitation and the obdurate will of a suffering people.\"", "\"Halldór Kiljan Laxness’s three-volume ''Íslandsklukkan'' … is probably the most significant (Icelandic) novel of the 1940s.", "\"In 1946 the English translation of ''Independent People'' was published as a Book of the Month Club selection in the United States, selling over 450,000 copies.In 1945 Halldór and his second wife, Auður Sveinsdóttir, moved into Gljúfrasteinn, a new house built in the countryside near Mosfellsbær, where they began a new family.", "Auður, in addition to her domestic duties, also assumed the roles of personal secretary and business manager.In response to the establishment of a permanent U.S. military base in Keflavík, he wrote the satire ''Atómstöðin'' (''The Atom Station''), which may have contributed to a blacklisting of his novels in the United States.", "\"The demoralization of the occupation period is described ... nowhere as dramatically as in Halldór Kiljan Laxness' ''Atómstöðin'' (1948)... where he portrays postwar society in Reykjavík, completely torn from its moorings by the avalanche of foreign gold.", "\"Due to its examination of modern Reykjavík, ''Atómstöðin'' caused many critics and readers to consider it as the exemplary \"Reykjavík Novel.", "\"===1950s===Halldór Laxness by Einar Hákonarson, 1984In 1952 Halldór was awarded the Soviet-sponsored World Peace Council literary Prize.A Swedish film adaptation of his novel ''Salka Valka'', directed by Arne Mattsson and filmed by Sven Nykvist, was released in 1954.In 1955 Laxness was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, \"… for his vivid epic power, which has renewed the great narrative art of Iceland\".", "\"His chief literary works belong to the genre… of narrative prose fiction.", "In the history of our literature Laxness is mentioned beside Snorri Sturluson, the author of \"Njals saga\", and his place in world literature is among writers such as Cervantes, Zola, Tolstoy, and Hamsun… He is the most prolific and skillful essayist in Icelandic literature both old and new…\"In the presentation address for the Nobel prize Elias Wessén stated:\"He is an excellent painter of Icelandic scenery and settings.", "Yet this is not what he has conceived of as his chief mission.", "'Compassion is the source of the highest poetry.", "Compassion with Asta Sollilja on earth,' he says in one of his best books… And a social passion underlies everything Halldór Laxness has written.", "His personal championship of contemporary social and political questions is always very strong, sometimes so strong that it threatens to hamper the artistic side of his work.", "His safeguard then is the astringent humour which enables him to see even people he dislikes in a redeeming light, and which also permits him to gaze far down into the labyrinths of the human soul.", "\"In his acceptance speech for the Nobel Prize Laxness spoke of:\"… the moral principles she his grandmother instilled in me: never to harm a living creature; throughout my life, to place the poor, the humble, the meek of this world above all others; never to forget those who were slighted or neglected or who had suffered injustice, because it was they who, above all others, deserved our love and respect…\"Laxness grew increasingly disenchanted with the Soviet bloc after the suppression of the Hungarian Revolution of 1956.In 1957 Halldór and his wife went on a world tour, stopping in New York City, Washington, DC, Chicago, Madison, Salt Lake City, San Francisco, Peking (Beijing), Bombay (Mumbai), Cairo and Rome.Major works in this decade were ''Gerpla'', (''The Happy Warriors''/''Wayward Heroes'', 1952), ''Brekkukotsannáll'', (''The Fish Can Sing'', 1957), and ''Paradísarheimt'', (''Paradise Reclaimed'', 1960).===Later years===In the 1960s Laxness was very active in Icelandic theater.", "He wrote and produced plays, the most successful of which was ''The Pigeon Banquet'' (''Dúfnaveislan'', 1966.", ")In 1968 Laxness published the \"visionary novel\" ''Kristnihald undir Jökli'' (''Under the Glacier / Christianity at the Glacier'').", "In the 1970s he published what he called \"essay novels\": ''Innansveitarkronika'' (''A Parish Chronicle'', 1970) and ''Guðsgjafaþula'' (''A Narration of God's Gifts'', 1972).", "Neither has been translated into English.Laxness was awarded the Sonning Prize in 1969.In 1970 Laxness published an influential ecological essay, ''Hernaðurinn gegn landinu'' (''The War Against the Land'').He continued to write essays and memoirs throughout the 1970s and into the 1980s.", "As he grew older he began to suffer from Alzheimer's disease and eventually moved into a nursing home, where he died on 8 February 1998, at the age of 95." ], [ "Family and legacy", "In 1922 he met his girlfriend Málfríður Jónsdóttir (29 August 1896 - 7 November 2003) who gave birth to his first daughter, María, on 10 April 1923.In 1930 he married Ingibjörg Einarsdóttir (3 May 1908 - 22 January 1994) who gave birth to his son Einar on 9 August 1931.In 1940 they divorced.", "In 1939 he met Auður Sveinsdóttir (30 June 1918 - 29 October 2012) at Laugavatn.", "Ingibjörg waited for Laxness and was willing to make sacrifices for him so he could focus on his writing.", "They married in 1945.In 1945 they moved into Gljúfrasteinn in Mosfellsbær.", "They got the architect Ágúst Pálsson to design the building and got a contractor to build it.", "Auður and Halldór had two daughters: Sigríður, born 26 May 1951, and Guðný, born 23 May 1954.His daughter, Guðný Halldórsdóttir, is a filmmaker whose first work was the 1989 adaptation of ''Kristnihald undir jōkli'' (''Under the Glacier'').", "In 1999 her adaptation of her father's story ''Úngfrúin góða og Húsið'' (''The Honour of the House'') was submitted for consideration for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Film.", "Guðný's son, Halldór Laxness Halldórsson, is a writer, actor and poet.Another grandchild, Auður Jónsdóttir, is an author and playwright.Gljúfrasteinn (Laxness's house, grounds and personal effects) is now a museum operated by the Icelandic government.In the 21st century, interest in Laxness in English-speaking countries has increased following the reissue of several of his novels and the first English-language publications of ''Iceland's Bell'' (2003) and ''The Great Weaver from Kashmir'' (2008).", "In 2016 a new English-language translation of the novel ''Gerpla'' was published as ''Wayward Heroes''.", "A new English-language translation of ''Salka Valka'' was released in 2022 to widespread acclaim.Halldór Guðmundsson's book ''The Islander: A Biography of Halldór Laxness'' won the Icelandic Literary Prize for best work of non-fiction in 2004.Numerous dramatic adaptations of Laxness's work have been staged in Iceland.", "In 2005 the Icelandic National Theatre premiered a play by Ólafur Haukur Símonarson, titled ''Halldór í Hollywood'' (''Halldór in Hollywood'') about the author's time spent in the United States in the 1920s.A biennial Halldór Laxness International Literary Prize is awarded at the Reykjavík International Literary Festival." ], [ "Bibliography", "===Novels===* 1919: ''Barn náttúrunnar'' (''Child of Nature'')* 1924: ''Undir Helgahnúk'' (''Under the Holy Mountain'')* 1927: ''Vefarinn mikli frá Kasmír'' (''The Great Weaver from Kashmir'')* 1931: ''Þú vínviður hreini'' (''O Thou Pure Vine'') – Part I of ''Salka Valka''* 1932: ''Fuglinn í fjörunni'' (''The Bird on the Beach'') – Part II of ''Salka Valka''* 1933: ''Úngfrúin góða og Húsið'' (''The Honour of the House''), as part of ''Fótatak manna: sjö þættir''* 1934: ''Sjálfstætt fólk'' — Part I, ''Landnámsmaður Íslands'' (''Icelandic Pioneers''), ''Independent People''* 1935: ''Sjálfstætt fólk'' – Part II, ''Erfiðir tímar'' (''Hard Times''), ''Independent People'' * 1937: ''Ljós heimsins'' (''The Light of the World'') – Part I of ''Heimsljós'' (''World Light'')* 1938: ''Höll sumarlandsins'' (''The Palace of the Summerland'') – Part II of ''Heimsljós'' (''World Light'')* 1939: ''Hús skáldsins'' (''The Poet's House'') – Part III of ''Heimsljós'' (''World Light'')* 1940: ''Fegurð himinsins'' (''The Beauty of the Skies'') – Part IV of ''Heimsljós'' (''World Light'')* 1943: ''Íslandsklukkan'' ''(Iceland's Bell)'' – Part I of ''Íslandsklukkan'' (''Iceland's Bell'')* 1944: ''Hið ljósa man'' (''The Bright Maiden'') – Part II of ''Íslandsklukkan'' (''Iceland's Bell'')* 1946: ''Eldur í Kaupinhafn'' (''Fire in Copenhagen'') – Part III of ''Íslandsklukkan'' (''Iceland's Bell'')* 1948: ''Atómstöðin'' (''The Atom Station'')* 1952: ''Gerpla'' (''The Happy Warriors'' (1958) / ''Wayward Heroes'' (2016))* 1957: ''Brekkukotsannáll'' (''The Fish Can Sing'')* 1960: ''Paradísarheimt'' (''Paradise Reclaimed'')* 1968: ''Kristnihald undir Jökli'' (''Under the Glacier / Christianity at the Glacier'')* 1970: ''Innansveitarkronika'' (''A Parish Chronicle'')* 1972: ''Guðsgjafaþula'' (''A Narration of God's Gifts'')===Stories===* 1923: ''Nokkrar sögur''* 1933: ''Fótatak manna''* 1935: ''Þórður gamli halti''* 1942: ''Sjö töframenn''* 1954: ''Þættir'' (collection)* 1964: ''Sjöstafakverið''* 1981: ''Við Heygarðshornið''* 1987: ''Sagan af brauðinu dýra''* 1992: ''Jón í Brauðhúsum''* 1996: ''Fugl á garðstaurnum og fleiri smásögur''* 1999: ''Úngfrúin góða og Húsið''* 2000: ''Smásögur''* 2001: ''Kórvilla á Vestfjörðum og fleiri sögur''===Plays===* 1934: ''Straumrof''* 1950: ''Snæfríður Íslandssól'' (from the novel ''Íslandsklukkan'')* 1954: ''Silfurtúnglið''* 1961: ''Strompleikurinn''* 1962: ''Prjónastofan Sólin''* 1966: ''Dúfnaveislan''* 1970: ''Úa'' (from the novel ''Kristnihald undir Jökli'')* 1972: ''Norðanstúlkan'' (from the novel ''Atómstöðin'')===Poetry===* 1925: ''Únglíngurinn í skóginum''* 1930: ''Kvæðakver''===Travelogues and essays===* 1925: ''Kaþólsk viðhorf'' (''Catholic View'')* 1929: ''Alþýðubókin'' (''The Book of the People'')* 1933: ''Í Austurvegi'' (''In the Baltic'')* 1938: ''Gerska æfintýrið'' (''The Russian Adventure'')===Memoirs===* 1952: ''Heiman eg fór'' (subtitle: sjálfsmynd æskumanns)* 1963: ''Skáldtími''* 1975: ''Í túninu heima'', part I* 1976: ''Úngur eg var'', part II* 1978: ''Sjömeistarasagan'', part III* 1980: ''Grikklandsárið'', part IV* 1987: ''Dagar hjá múnkum''===Translations===* 1941: ''Vopnin kvödd'' (''A Farewell to Arms''), Ernest Hemingway* 1943: ''Kirkjan á fjallinu'' (''Kirken på bjerget''), Gunnar Gunnarsson* 1945: ''Birtingur'' (''Candide''), Voltaire* 1966: ''Veisla í Farángrinum'' (''A Moveable Feast''), Ernest Hemingway===Other===* 1941: ''Laxdaela Saga'', edited with preface * 1942: ''Hrafnkatla,'' edited with preface* 1945: ''Brennunjal's Saga,'' edited with afterword* 1945: ''Alexander's Saga,'' edited with preface* 1946: ''Grettis Saga'', edited with preface* 1952: ''Kvaedi og ritgerdir'' by Johann Jonsson, edited with preface" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "Halldór Guðmundsson.", "2004.Halldór Laxness.", "(Reykjavík: JPV)" ], [ "External links", " Gljúfrasteinn, the Halldór Laxness Museum website* including the prize motivation* * Dennis Haarsager's biography * ''Laxness in Translation'' website" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Harmonic oscillator" ], [ "Introduction", "In classical mechanics, a '''harmonic oscillator''' is a system that, when displaced from its equilibrium position, experiences a restoring force ''F'' proportional to the displacement ''x'':where ''k'' is a positive constant.If ''F'' is the only force acting on the system, the system is called a '''simple harmonic oscillator''', and it undergoes simple harmonic motion: sinusoidal oscillations about the equilibrium point, with a constant amplitude and a constant frequency (which does not depend on the amplitude).If a frictional force (damping) proportional to the velocity is also present, the harmonic oscillator is described as a '''damped oscillator'''.", "Depending on the friction coefficient, the system can:* Oscillate with a frequency lower than in the undamped case, and an amplitude decreasing with time (underdamped oscillator).", "* Decay to the equilibrium position, without oscillations (overdamped oscillator).The boundary solution between an underdamped oscillator and an overdamped oscillator occurs at a particular value of the friction coefficient and is called critically damped.If an external time-dependent force is present, the harmonic oscillator is described as a ''driven oscillator''.Mechanical examples include pendulums (with small angles of displacement), masses connected to springs, and acoustical systems.", "Other analogous systems include electrical harmonic oscillators such as RLC circuits.", "The harmonic oscillator model is very important in physics, because any mass subject to a force in stable equilibrium acts as a harmonic oscillator for small vibrations.", "Harmonic oscillators occur widely in nature and are exploited in many manmade devices, such as clocks and radio circuits.", "They are the source of virtually all sinusoidal vibrations and waves." ], [ "Simple harmonic oscillator", "A simple harmonic oscillator is an oscillator that is neither driven nor damped.", "It consists of a mass ''m'', which experiences a single force ''F'', which pulls the mass in the direction of the point and depends only on the position ''x'' of the mass and a constant ''k''.", "Balance of forces (Newton's second law) for the system isSolving this differential equation, we find that the motion is described by the functionwhereThe motion is periodic, repeating itself in a sinusoidal fashion with constant amplitude ''A''.", "In addition to its amplitude, the motion of a simple harmonic oscillator is characterized by its period , the time for a single oscillation or its frequency , the number of cycles per unit time.", "The position at a given time ''t'' also depends on the phase ''φ'', which determines the starting point on the sine wave.", "The period and frequency are determined by the size of the mass ''m'' and the force constant ''k'', while the amplitude and phase are determined by the starting position and velocity.The velocity and acceleration of a simple harmonic oscillator oscillate with the same frequency as the position, but with shifted phases.", "The velocity is maximal for zero displacement, while the acceleration is in the direction opposite to the displacement.The potential energy stored in a simple harmonic oscillator at position ''x'' is" ], [ "Damped harmonic oscillator", "Dependence of the system behavior on the value of the damping ratio ''ζ''Phase portrait of damped oscillator, with increasing damping strength.Video clip demonstrating a damped harmonic oscillator consisting of a dynamics cart between two springs.", "An accelerometer on top of the cart shows the magnitude and direction of the acceleration.In real oscillators, friction, or damping, slows the motion of the system.", "Due to frictional force, the velocity decreases in proportion to the acting frictional force.", "While in a simple undriven harmonic oscillator the only force acting on the mass is the restoring force, in a damped harmonic oscillator there is in addition a frictional force which is always in a direction to oppose the motion.", "In many vibrating systems the frictional force ''F''f can be modeled as being proportional to the velocity ''v'' of the object: , where ''c'' is called the ''viscous damping coefficient''.The balance of forces (Newton's second law) for damped harmonic oscillators is thenwhich can be rewritten into the formwhere* is called the \"undamped angular frequency of the oscillator\",* is called the \"damping ratio\".Step response of a damped harmonic oscillator; curves are plotted for three values of .", "Time is in units of the decay time .The value of the damping ratio ''ζ'' critically determines the behavior of the system.", "A damped harmonic oscillator can be:* ''Overdamped'' (''ζ'' > 1): The system returns (exponentially decays) to steady state without oscillating.", "Larger values of the damping ratio ''ζ'' return to equilibrium more slowly.", "* ''Critically damped'' (''ζ'' = 1): The system returns to steady state as quickly as possible without oscillating (although overshoot can occur if the initial velocity is nonzero).", "This is often desired for the damping of systems such as doors.", "* ''Underdamped'' (''ζ'' < 1): The system oscillates (with a slightly different frequency than the undamped case) with the amplitude gradually decreasing to zero.", "The angular frequency of the underdamped harmonic oscillator is given by the exponential decay of the underdamped harmonic oscillator is given by The Q factor of a damped oscillator is defined as ''Q'' is related to the damping ratio by" ], [ "Driven harmonic oscillators", "Driven harmonic oscillators are damped oscillators further affected by an externally applied force ''F''(''t'').Newton's second law takes the formIt is usually rewritten into the formThis equation can be solved exactly for any driving force, using the solutions ''z''(''t'') that satisfy the unforced equationand which can be expressed as damped sinusoidal oscillations:in the case where .", "The amplitude ''A'' and phase ''φ'' determine the behavior needed to match the initial conditions.===Step input===In the case and a unit step input with :the solution iswith phase ''φ'' given byThe time an oscillator needs to adapt to changed external conditions is of the order .", "In physics, the adaptation is called relaxation, and ''τ'' is called the relaxation time.In electrical engineering, a multiple of ''τ'' is called the ''settling time'', i.e.", "the time necessary to ensure the signal is within a fixed departure from final value, typically within 10%.", "The term ''overshoot'' refers to the extent the response maximum exceeds final value, and ''undershoot'' refers to the extent the response falls below final value for times following the response maximum.===Sinusoidal driving force===Steady-state variation of amplitude with relative frequency and damping of a driven harmonic oscillator.", "This plot is also called the harmonic oscillator spectrum or motional spectrum.In the case of a sinusoidal driving force:where is the driving amplitude, and is the driving frequency for a sinusoidal driving mechanism.", "This type of system appears in AC-driven RLC circuits (resistor–inductor–capacitor) and driven spring systems having internal mechanical resistance or external air resistance.The general solution is a sum of a transient solution that depends on initial conditions, and a steady state that is independent of initial conditions and depends only on the driving amplitude , driving frequency , undamped angular frequency , and the damping ratio .The steady-state solution is proportional to the driving force with an induced phase change :whereis the absolute value of the impedance or linear response function, andis the phase of the oscillation relative to the driving force.", "The phase value is usually taken to be between −180° and 0 (that is, it represents a phase lag, for both positive and negative values of the arctan argument).For a particular driving frequency called the resonance, or resonant frequency , the amplitude (for a given ) is maximal.", "This resonance effect only occurs when , i.e.", "for significantly underdamped systems.", "For strongly underdamped systems the value of the amplitude can become quite large near the resonant frequency.The transient solutions are the same as the unforced () damped harmonic oscillator and represent the systems response to other events that occurred previously.", "The transient solutions typically die out rapidly enough that they can be ignored." ], [ "Parametric oscillators", "A parametric oscillator is a driven harmonic oscillator in which the drive energy is provided by varying the parameters of the oscillator, such as the damping or restoring force.A familiar example of parametric oscillation is \"pumping\" on a playground swing.A person on a moving swing can increase the amplitude of the swing's oscillations without any external drive force (pushes) being applied, by changing the moment of inertia of the swing by rocking back and forth (\"pumping\") or alternately standing and squatting, in rhythm with the swing's oscillations.", "The varying of the parameters drives the system.", "Examples of parameters that may be varied are its resonance frequency and damping .Parametric oscillators are used in many applications.", "The classical varactor parametric oscillator oscillates when the diode's capacitance is varied periodically.", "The circuit that varies the diode's capacitance is called the \"pump\" or \"driver\".", "In microwave electronics, waveguide/YAG based parametric oscillators operate in the same fashion.", "The designer varies a parameter periodically to induce oscillations.Parametric oscillators have been developed as low-noise amplifiers, especially in the radio and microwave frequency range.", "Thermal noise is minimal, since a reactance (not a resistance) is varied.", "Another common use is frequency conversion, e.g., conversion from audio to radio frequencies.", "For example, the Optical parametric oscillator converts an input laser wave into two output waves of lower frequency ().Parametric resonance occurs in a mechanical system when a system is parametrically excited and oscillates at one of its resonant frequencies.", "Parametric excitation differs from forcing, since the action appears as a time varying modification on a system parameter.", "This effect is different from regular resonance because it exhibits the instability phenomenon." ], [ "Universal oscillator equation", "The equation is known as the '''universal oscillator equation''', since all second-order linear oscillatory systems can be reduced to this form.", "This is done through nondimensionalization.If the forcing function is , where , the equation becomesThe solution to this differential equation contains two parts: the \"transient\" and the \"steady-state\".=== Transient solution ===The solution based on solving the ordinary differential equation is for arbitrary constants ''c''1 and ''c''2The transient solution is independent of the forcing function.=== Steady-state solution ===Apply the \"complex variables method\" by solving the auxiliary equation below and then finding the real part of its solution:Supposing the solution is of the formIts derivatives from zeroth to second order areSubstituting these quantities into the differential equation givesDividing by the exponential term on the left results inEquating the real and imaginary parts results in two independent equations==== Amplitude part ====Bode plot of the frequency response of an ideal harmonic oscillatorSquaring both equations and adding them together givesTherefore,Compare this result with the theory section on resonance, as well as the \"magnitude part\" of the RLC circuit.", "This amplitude function is particularly important in the analysis and understanding of the frequency response of second-order systems.==== Phase part ====To solve for , divide both equations to getThis phase function is particularly important in the analysis and understanding of the frequency response of second-order systems.=== Full solution ===Combining the amplitude and phase portions results in the steady-state solutionThe solution of original universal oscillator equation is a superposition (sum) of the transient and steady-state solutions:" ], [ "Equivalent systems", "Harmonic oscillators occurring in a number of areas of engineering are equivalent in the sense that their mathematical models are identical (see universal oscillator equation above).", "Below is a table showing analogous quantities in four harmonic oscillator systems in mechanics and electronics.", "If analogous parameters on the same line in the table are given numerically equal values, the behavior of the oscillatorstheir output waveform, resonant frequency, damping factor, etc.are the same.", "Translational mechanical Rotational mechanicalSeries RLC circuitParallel RLC circuit Position Angle Charge Flux linkage Velocity Angular velocity Current Voltage Mass Moment of inertia Inductance Capacitance Momentum Angular momentum Flux linkage Charge Spring constant Torsion constant Elastance Magnetic reluctance Damping Rotational friction Resistance Conductance Drive force Drive torque Voltage Current Undamped resonant frequency : Damping ratio : Differential equation:" ], [ "Application to a conservative force", "The problem of the simple harmonic oscillator occurs frequently in physics, because a mass at equilibrium under the influence of any conservative force, in the limit of small motions, behaves as a simple harmonic oscillator.A conservative force is one that is associated with a potential energy.", "The potential-energy function of a harmonic oscillator isGiven an arbitrary potential-energy function , one can do a Taylor expansion in terms of around an energy minimum () to model the behavior of small perturbations from equilibrium.Because is a minimum, the first derivative evaluated at must be zero, so the linear term drops out:The constant term is arbitrary and thus may be dropped, and a coordinate transformation allows the form of the simple harmonic oscillator to be retrieved:Thus, given an arbitrary potential-energy function with a non-vanishing second derivative, one can use the solution to the simple harmonic oscillator to provide an approximate solution for small perturbations around the equilibrium point." ], [ "Examples", "===Simple pendulum===A simple pendulum exhibits approximately simple harmonic motion under the conditions of no damping and small amplitude.Assuming no damping, the differential equation governing a simple pendulum of length , where is the local acceleration of gravity, isIf the maximal displacement of the pendulum is small, we can use the approximation and instead consider the equationThe general solution to this differential equation iswhere and are constants that depend on the initial conditions.Using as initial conditions and , the solution is given bywhere is the largest angle attained by the pendulum (that is, is the amplitude of the pendulum).", "The period, the time for one complete oscillation, is given by the expressionwhich is a good approximation of the actual period when is small.", "Notice that in this approximation the period is independent of the amplitude .", "In the above equation, represents the angular frequency.===Spring/mass system===Spring–mass system in equilibrium (A), compressed (B) and stretched (C) statesWhen a spring is stretched or compressed by a mass, the spring develops a restoring force.", "Hooke's law gives the relationship of the force exerted by the spring when the spring is compressed or stretched a certain length:where ''F'' is the force, ''k'' is the spring constant, and ''x'' is the displacement of the mass with respect to the equilibrium position.", "The minus sign in the equation indicates that the force exerted by the spring always acts in a direction that is opposite to the displacement (i.e.", "the force always acts towards the zero position), and so prevents the mass from flying off to infinity.By using either force balance or an energy method, it can be readily shown that the motion of this system is given by the following differential equation:the latter being Newton's second law of motion.If the initial displacement is ''A'', and there is no initial velocity, the solution of this equation is given byGiven an ideal massless spring, is the mass on the end of the spring.", "If the spring itself has mass, its effective mass must be included in .====Energy variation in the spring–damping system====In terms of energy, all systems have two types of energy: potential energy and kinetic energy.", "When a spring is stretched or compressed, it stores elastic potential energy, which is then transferred into kinetic energy.", "The potential energy within a spring is determined by the equation When the spring is stretched or compressed, kinetic energy of the mass gets converted into potential energy of the spring.", "By conservation of energy, assuming the datum is defined at the equilibrium position, when the spring reaches its maximal potential energy, the kinetic energy of the mass is zero.", "When the spring is released, it tries to return to equilibrium, and all its potential energy converts to kinetic energy of the mass." ], [ "Definition of terms", " Symbol Definition Dimensions SI units m/s2 m N·s/m Hz N m/s2 Imaginary unit, — — N/m Nm/rad kgQuality factor—— s s J mDamping ratio— — Phase shift — rad rad/s rad/s" ], [ "See also", "AnharmonicityCritical speedEffective mass (spring–mass system)Normal modeParametric oscillatorPhasorQ factorQuantum harmonic oscillatorRadial harmonic oscillatorElastic pendulum" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * " ], [ "External links", " The Harmonic Oscillator from The Feynman Lectures on Physics" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Heathers" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Heathers''''' is a 1989 American teen black comedy film written by Daniel Waters and directed by Michael Lehmann, in both of their respective film debuts.", "The film stars Winona Ryder, Christian Slater, Shannen Doherty, Lisanne Falk, Kim Walker, and Penelope Milford.", "Its plot portrays four teenage girls—three of whom are named Heather—in a clique at an Ohio high school, one of whose lives is disrupted by the arrival of a misanthrope intent on murdering the popular students and staging their deaths as suicides.Waters wrote ''Heathers'' as a spec script and originally wanted Stanley Kubrick to direct the film, out of admiration for Kubrick's own black comedy film ''Dr.", "Strangelove''.", "Waters intended the film to contrast the optimistic teen movies of the era, particularly those written by John Hughes, by presenting a cynical depiction of high school imbued with dark satire.Filmed in Los Angeles from February to March of 1988, Heathers premiered in Milan, Italy, in the fall of 1988 before making its way to the Sundance Film Festival on January 21, 1989, then New World Pictures theatrically released the film in the United States on March 31, 1989.It went on to win the Independent Spirit Award for Best First Feature, and for his screenplay, Waters received the Edgar Award for Best Motion Picture Screenplay.", "It has since become popular and is regarded in polls as one of the greatest coming-of-age films of all time.", "''Heathers'' has since been adapted into a musical and a television reboot." ], [ "Plot", "At Westerburg High School in Sherwood, Ohio, Veronica Sawyer becomes part of a popular-but-feared clique that includes three wealthy and beautiful girls with the same first name: Heather Duke, Heather McNamara, and the ruthless queen bee, Heather Chandler.", "Tired of the clique abusing its power, Veronica longs for her old life with her kinder but less popular friends.", "She becomes fascinated with Jason \"J.D.\"", "Dean, a new student and rebellious outsider, whose mother committed suicide, and whose wealthy father abuses people, after he pulls out a gun and fires blanks to scare football-player bullies, Kurt and Ram.Veronica goes with Chandler to a frat party, where she refuses to have sex with one member, unlike Chandler, who was coerced to perform oral sex.", "When Veronica drunkenly vomits on Chandler, Chandler vows to destroy Veronica's reputation as retaliation.", "Later, J.D.", "shows up at Veronica's house, and they have sex outside.", "They express to each other their mutual hatred of Chandler's tyranny.The next morning, Veronica and J.D.", "break into Chandler's house, planning revenge by using a fake hangover cure to make Chandler vomit.", "J.D.", "pours drain cleaner into a mug, but Veronica dismisses him, thinking he is making a mean joke.", "She mixes orange juice and milk together.", "Veronica accidentally brings the wrong mug to Chandler's room.", "J.D.", "notices this but says nothing.", "He serves Chandler the drain cleaner, killing her.", "Veronica panics, and J.D.", "urges her to forge a dramatic suicide note in Chandler's handwriting.", "The community regards Chandler's apparent suicide as a tragic decision made by a troubled teenager, making her even more worshipped in death than in life.", "Duke uses the attention surrounding Chandler's death to gain popularity, becoming the clique's new leader.McNamara convinces Veronica to go with her, Kurt, and Ram on a double date.", "J.D.", "finds the four teens that evening in a field, and Veronica leaves with him as Kurt passes out, while Ram rapes McNamara.", "The boys spread a false rumor about Veronica performing oral sex on them, ruining her reputation.", "J.D.", "proposes that he and Veronica lure the boys into the woods, shoot them with tranquilizers, and humiliate them by staging the scene to look like they were lovers participating in a suicide pact.", "In the forest, J.D.", "shoots Ram, but Veronica's shot misses Kurt, who runs away.", "J.D.", "chases Kurt back toward Veronica, who, realizing that the bullets are in fact lethal, fatally shoots him in a panic.", "At their funeral, the boys are made into martyrs to homophobia.", "Disturbed by J.D.", "'s behavior, Veronica breaks up with him.J.D.", "blackmails Duke into getting every student to sign a petition that, unbeknownst to her, is intended to act as a mass suicide note.", "He then gives her a red scrunchie that Chandler wore, symbolizing her power over the school.", "Martha, a large girl who is a frequent target of bullying, attempts to kill herself by walking into traffic.", "She survives but is badly injured and mocked by her peers for attempting to copy the popular kids.", "McNamara calls a radio show to discuss her depression.", "Duke tells the entire school about the radio call, and McNamara is bullied.", "McNamara attempts suicide by overdosing in the girls' bathroom, but Veronica intervenes.Veronica returns home, and her parents say that J.D.", "stopped by to tell them that he is worried she will attempt suicide.", "Realizing that J.D.", "plans to kill her, she fakes her own suicide by hanging.", "J.D.", "finds her and, assuming she is dead, gives a monologue revealing his plan to blow up the school pep rally and make it look like a mass suicide.Veronica confronts J.D.", "in the school's boiler room as he plants dynamite.", "She shoots him, and his switchblade cuts the wires to the detonator.", "Veronica goes outside, and J.D.", "follows her with a bomb strapped to his chest.", "He offers a personal eulogy and detonates the bomb, killing himself.", "As students and faculty rush to see what happened, Veronica walks back inside, disheveled from the explosion.", "She approaches Duke, takes the red scrunchie, and asserts that Duke is no longer in charge.", "Veronica invites Martha to spend prom night watching movies together." ], [ "Cast", "Source:" ], [ "Production", "===Development===Daniel Waters began writing the screenplay in spring of 1986, while he was working at a video store.", "Waters wanted the film to be directed by Stanley Kubrick, not only out of admiration for him, but also from a perception that \"Kubrick was the only person that could get away with a three-hour film\".", "The cafeteria scene near the start of ''Heathers'' was written as a homage to the barracks scene which opens Kubrick's ''Full Metal Jacket''.", "After a number of failed attempts to get the script to Kubrick, Waters approached director Michael Lehmann, who he met through a mutual friend.", "Lehmann agreed to helm the film with producer Denise Di Novi.In the original version of the script, J.D.", "successfully blows up Westerburg High, and the final scene features a surreal prom gathering of all the students in heaven.", "Executives at New World Pictures agreed to finance the film, but they disliked the dark ending and insisted that it be changed.Some reviewers have discussed similarities between ''Heathers'' and ''Massacre at Central High'', a low-budget 1976 film.", "Daniel Waters has stated that he had not seen ''Massacre at Central High'' at the time he wrote ''Heathers'' but that he had read a review of it in a Danny Peary book about cult movies and that the earlier film may have been \"rattling around somewhere in my subconscious\".===Casting===Many actors and actresses turned down the project because of its dark subject matter.", "Early choices for Veronica were Justine Bateman and Jennifer Connelly.", "Winona Ryder, who was 16 at the time of filming and badly wanted the part, begged Waters to cast her as Veronica, even offering to work for free.", "Waters at first did not think Ryder was pretty enough, and Ryder herself commented that \"at the time, I didn't look that different from my character in ''Beetlejuice''.", "I was very pale.", "I had blue-black dyed hair.", "I went to Macy's at the Beverly Center and had them do a makeover on me.\"", "Ryder's agent was so opposed to her pursuing the role that she got down on her hands and knees to beg Ryder not to take it, warning her that it would ruin her career.", "Eventually, she was given the role.", "Brad Pitt read for the role of J.D.", "but was rejected.", "Christian Slater reports throwing a \"big tantrum\" and tossing his script in the trash after assuming he'd bombed his audition.", "He was signed to play J.D.", "shortly after Ryder was cast, stating later that he channeled Jack Nicholson in the film.Heather Graham, then 17, was offered the part of Heather Chandler but turned it down due to her parents' disapproval of the film.", "Kim Walker, who was dating Slater at the time, was offered the role instead.", "Lisanne Falk, 23 years old at the time, lied and said she was in her late teens during the audition.", "It was only after she was cast that she revealed her true age.", "17-year-old Shannen Doherty wanted the role of Veronica, but Ryder had been cast, so the producers asked her to audition for Heather Chandler.", "Doherty was more interested in playing Heather Duke and ended up giving an \"amazing\" reading as Duke, which secured her the part.", "The producers wanted her to dye her hair blonde to match the other \"Heathers\", but Doherty refused, so they compromised on her having red hair.===Filming===Principal photography took place over 33 days beginning in July 1988, on a budget of $3 million.", "Although set in Ohio, filming was done entirely in Los Angeles.", "\"Westerburg High School\" is an amalgam of Corvallis High School, now Bridges Academy, in Studio City, Verdugo Hills High School in Tujunga, and John Adams Middle School in Santa Monica.", "The gymnasium scenes were shot at Verdugo Hills High, and the climactic scene on the stairs was filmed outside John Adams Middle School.", "The funeral scenes were filmed at Church of the Angels in Pasadena, California, a location used in other media including ''Buffy the Vampire Slayer'' and ''Just Married''.Michael Lehmann has called Doherty \"a bit of a handful\" on set, in part because she objected to the swearing in the script and refused to say some of the more explicit lines.", "Falk stated that Doherty \"didn't have much of a sense of humor, and she took herself a little seriously\", and Di Novi said: \"I don't think Shannen really got what ''Heathers'' was.", "And that worked for us.", "She made that character real.\"", "When the cast first viewed the film, Doherty ran out crying because she realized the film was a dark comedy and not the drama she was expecting." ], [ "Soundtrack", "The film uses two versions of the song \"Que Sera, Sera\", the first by singer Syd Straw and another over the end credits by Sly and the Family Stone.", "On the film's DVD commentary, Di Novi mentions that the filmmakers wanted to use the original Doris Day version of the song, but Day would not lend her name to any project using profanity.The song \"Teenage Suicide (Don't Do It)\" by the fictional band Big Fun was written and produced for the film by musician Don Dixon, and performed by the ad hoc group \"Big Fun\", which consisted of Dixon, Mitch Easter, Angie Carlson, and Marti Jones.", "The song is included on Dixon's 1992 greatest hits album ''(If) I'm a Ham, Well You're a Sausage''.The film's electronic score was composed and performed by David Newman, and a soundtrack CD was subsequently released." ], [ "Release", "===Box office===''Heathers'' was screened at the Sundance Film Festival on January 21, 1989, and was released to the U.S. public in March 1989, at which time New World Pictures was going bankrupt.", "The film was considered a flop when it was released, earning $177,247 in its opening weekend and ultimately grossing $1.1 million in the United States over five weeks.===Home media===New World Video released ''Heathers'' on VHS and LaserDisc in 1989.It developed a cult following after being unsuccessful at the box office.", "It was released again on LaserDisc in September 1996, as a widescreen edition digitally transferred from Trans Atlantic Entertainment's interpositive print under the supervision of cinematographer Francis Kenny.", "The sound was mastered from the magnetic sound elements.", "The film was released on DVD in March 1999, in a barebones edition.", "In 2001, a multi-region special edition THX-certified DVD was released from Anchor Bay Entertainment in Dolby Digital 5.1.The DVD contained an audio commentary with director Michael Lehmann, producer Denise Di Novi and writer Daniel Waters, as well as a 30-minute documentary titled ''Swatch Dogs and Diet Cokeheads'', featuring interviews with Ryder, Slater, Doherty, Falk, Lehmann, Waters, Di Novi, director of photography Francis Kenny, and editor Norman Hollyn.", "The DVD was released in the United States, Canada, Australia, and Europe, and achieved high sales.", "Each release included a different front cover featuring Veronica, J.D., Chandler, Duke, and McNamara.The Anchor Bay DVD was also released in a \"Limited Edition Tin Set\" of 15,000 copies.", "The Tin Set included a theatrical trailer, screenplay excerpt, original ending, biographies, 10-page full-color fold-out with photos and liner notes, an 8-inch \"Heathers Rules!\"", "ruler, and a 48-page full-color yearbook style booklet with rare photos.", "The film was then re-released on Blu-ray by Image Entertainment in 2011 as a barebones edition, two years after Anchor Bay.In July 2008, a new 20th anniversary special edition DVD set was released by Anchor Bay to coincide with the DVD of writer Waters' new film ''Sex and Death 101''.", "The DVD features a new documentary, ''Return to Westerburg High''.", "In November 2008, Anchor Bay released a Blu-ray with all the special features from the 20th anniversary DVD and a soundtrack in Dolby TrueHD 5.1.In June 2018, Arrow Films reported that ''Heathers'' would be re-released on August 8, 2018, in cinemas and on September 10 on Blu-ray, in a new 4K restoration.", "In November 2019, Image Entertainment released a 30th Anniversary steelbook edition on Blu-ray.", "This release did not utilize Arrow Films' 4K restoration and featured new and previous special features." ], [ "Critical reception", "=== Initial reviews ===Writing in April 1989 for ''The Washington Post'', journalist Desson Thomson wrote that it \"may be the nastiest, cruelest fun you can have without actually having to study law or gird leather products.", "If movies were food, ''Heathers'' would be a cynic's chocolate binge.\"", "''Chicago Sun-Times'' film critic Roger Ebert gave the film 2.5 stars out of 4 and wrote that ''Heathers'' \"is a morbid comedy about peer pressure in high school, about teenage suicide and about the deadliness of cliques that not only exclude but also maim and kill.\"", "While conceding its ability to provoke thought and shock, Ebert questioned how the mixed sensibility as a dark murder comedy and \"cynical morality play\" led to difficulty in understanding its point of view, while remarking that, \"Adulthood could be defined as the process of learning to be shocked by things that do not shock teenagers, but that is not a notion that has occurred to Lehmann.", "\"=== Retrospective responses ===On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 93% based on contemporary and retrospective reviews from 56 critics and an average rating of 7.80/10.The site's critical consensus reads: \"Dark, cynical, and subversive, ''Heathers'' gently applies a chainsaw to the conventions of the high school movie—changing the game for teen comedies to follow.\"", "On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 72/100 based on 20 reviews by mainstream critics.", "Academics have likened ''Heathers'' to other films popular during the 1980s and early 1990s which characterized domestic youth narratives as part and parcel of the \"culture war\".Waters created a specific set of slang and style of speech for the film, wanting to ensure that the language in the film would have \"timeless\" quality instead of just reflecting teen slang at the time.", "The film is among the most cited in the ''Oxford English Dictionary''." ], [ "Related projects", "===Possible film sequel===On June 2, 2009, ''Entertainment Weekly'' reported that Ryder had claimed that there would be a sequel to the film, titled ''Heathers 2'', with Slater coming back \"as a kind of Obi-Wan character\".", "However, Lehmann denied development of a sequel, saying, \"Winona's been talking about this for years—she brings it up every once in a while and Dan Waters and I will joke about it, but as far as I know there's no script and no plans to do the sequel.", "\"===Musical===In 2010, ''Heathers'' was adapted into a stage musical directed by Andy Fickman.", "Fickman also worked on the musical ''Reefer Madness'', a parody of the anti-cannabis movie of the same name which was turned into a feature film.", "''Heathers: The Musical'', which opens with a number depicting Veronica's acceptance into the Heathers' clique, received several readings in workshops in Los Angeles and a three-show concert presentation at Joe's Pub in New York City on September 13–14, 2010.The cast of the Joe's Pub concert included Annaleigh Ashford as Veronica, Jenna Leigh Green as Heather Chandler, and Jeremy Jordan as J.D.The musical played at Off-Broadway's New World Stages with performances beginning March 15, 2014, and an opening night on March 31.The original cast of the Off-Broadway production included Barrett Wilbert Weed as Veronica Sawyer, Jessica Keenan Wynn as Heather Chandler, Ryan McCartan as J.D., Alice Lee as Heather Duke, and Elle McLemore as Heather McNamara.", "It closed on August 4, 2014.An Off West End production of ''Heathers'', directed by Andy Fickman, played at the Other Palace in London with performances between June 19 and August 4, 2018.Its cast included Carrie Hope Fletcher as Veronica Sawyer, Jodie Steele as Heather Chandler, Jamie Muscato as J.D., T'Shan Williams as Heather Duke, and Sophie Isaacs as Heather McNamara.", "It transferred to the West End in September 2018, playing in Theatre Royal Haymarket, London.", "A high school production of the musical is the focus of the \"Chapter Fifty-One: Big Fun\" episode of ''Riverdale''.In 2021, ''Heathers'' returned for a limited run at the Haymarket with Christina Bennington playing Veronica Sawyer and Jordan Luke Gage as J.D.", "The three Heathers were played by Jodie Steele (Heather Chandler), Bobbi Little (Heather Duke), and Frances Mayli McCann (Heather McNamara).", "It then went on to play at The Other Palace where it remains.===Television adaptation===In March 2016, TV Land ordered a pilot script for an anthology dark comedy series, set in the present day, with a very different Veronica Sawyer dealing with a very different but equally vicious group of Heathers.", "The series was written by Jason Micallef and Tom Rosenberg, and Gary Lucchesi was the executive producer In January 2017, the ''Heathers'' TV show was ordered to Series at TV Land.", "Shannen Doherty, the movie's Heather Duke, makes a cameo appearance in the pilot.In March 2017, it was reported that the series was moved to the then upcoming Paramount Network.", "Selma Blair has a recurring role in the series.", "A trailer for the rebooted series was released in August 2017.The series stars Grace Victoria Cox as Veronica Sawyer, James Scully as J.D., Melanie Field as Heather Chandler, Brendan Scannell as Heather Duke, Jasmine Mathews as Heather McNamara, Birgundi Baker as Lizzy, and Cameron Gellman as Kurt.", "The series was set to premiere on March 7, 2018.On February 28, 2018, it was announced that the premiere would be delayed in light of the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Federation of Expellees" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Federation of Expellees''' (; '''BdV''') is a non-profit organization formed in West Germany on 27 October 1957 to represent the interests of German nationals of all ethnicities and foreign ethnic Germans and their families (usually naturalised as German nationals after 1949) who either fled their homes in parts of Central and Eastern Europe, or were forcibly expelled following World War II.Since 2014 the president of the Federation has been Bernd Fabritius, who arrived in West Germany in 1984 as a Transylvanian Saxon refugee from Agnita, Socialist Republic of Romania, and who has since been elected as a Christian Social Union in Bavaria Member of the Bundestag." ], [ "History", "It is estimated that in the aftermath of World War II between 13 and 16 million ethnic Germans fled or were expelled from parts of Central and Eastern Europe, including the former eastern territories of Germany (parts of present-day Poland), the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Hungary, Croatia, Serbia (mostly from the Vojvodina region), the Kaliningrad Oblast of (now) Russia, hitherto USSR (in the immediate aftermath of the Second World War) and prior to this, the northern part of East Prussia, Lithuania, Romania and other East European countries.===Charter of the German Expellees===The Charter of the German Expellees () of 5 August 1950, announced their belief in requiring that \"the right to the homeland is recognized and carried out as one of the fundamental rights of mankind given by God\", while renouncing revenge and retaliation in the face of the \"unending suffering\" (''unendliche Leid'') of the previous decade, and supporting the unified effort to rebuild Germany and Europe.The charter has been criticised for avoiding mentioning Nazi atrocities of Second World War and Germans who were forced to emigrate due to Nazi repressions.", "Critics argue that the Charter presents the history of German people as starting from the expulsions, while ignoring events like the Holocaust.Professor Micha Brumlik pointed out that one third of signatories were former devoted Nazis and many actively helped in realisation of Hitler's goals.Ralph Giordano wrote in ''Hamburger Abendblatt'' \"the Charter doesn't contain a word about Hitler, Auschwitz and Buchenwald.", "Not to mention any sign of apologies for the suffering of the murdered people\", \"avoids mentioning the reasons for expulsions\" and called the document \"example of German art of crowding out the truth (...) The fact that the charter completely ignores the reasons for the expulsions deprives it of any value\".===German laws concerning the expellees===Between 1953, when the Federal Expellee Law was passed, and 1991, the West German government passed several laws dealing with German expellees.", "The most notable of these is the \"Law of Return\" which granted German citizenship to any ethnic German.", "Several additions were later made to these laws.The German Law of Return declared refugee status to be inheritable.", "According to the Federal Expellee Law, \"the spouse and the descendants\" of an expellee are to be treated as if they were expellees themselves, regardless of whether they had been personally displaced.", "The Federation of Expellees has steadily lobbied to preserve the inheritability clause.===Formation of the Federation===The Federation of Expellees was formed on 27 October 1957 in West Germany.", "Before its founding, the ''Bund der Heimatvertriebenen'' (League of Expellees and Deprived of Rights), formed in 1950, represented the interests of displaced German expellees.", "Intriguingly, in its first few years, the league was more successful in West Germany than in East Germany.===German reunification===Previous West German governments, especially those led by the Christian Democratic Union, had shown more rhetorical support for the territorial claims made on behalf of German refugees and expellees.", "Although the Social Democrats showed strong support for the expellees, especially under Kurt Schumacher and Erich Ollenhauer, Social Democrats in more recent decades have generally been less supportive – and it was under Willy Brandt that West Germany recognized the Oder-Neisse line as the eastern German border with Poland under his policy of Ostpolitik.", "In reality, accepting the internationally recognized boundary made it more possible for eastern Germans to visit their lost homelands.In 1989–1990 the West German government realized they had an opportunity to reunify the Federal Republic of Germany and the Soviet created German Democratic Republic.", "But they believed that if this were to be achieved, it had to be done quickly.", "One of the potential complications was the claim to the historical eastern territories of Germany; unless this was renounced, some foreign governments might not agree to German reunification.", "The West German government under the CDU accepted the 1990 Treaty on the Final Settlement With Respect to Germany (Two Plus Four Agreement), which officially re-established the sovereignty of both German states.", "A condition of this agreement was that Germany accept the post-World War II frontiers.", "Upon reunification in 1990, the constitution was amended to state that Germany's territory had reached its full extent.", "Article 146 was amended so that Article 23 of the current constitution could be used for reunification.", "Once the five \"reestablished federal states\" in the east had been united with the west, the Basic Law was amended again to show that ''there were no other parts of Germany, which existed outside of the unified territory'', that had not acceded.===2000s===In 2000 the Federation of Expellees also initiated the formation of the Center Against Expulsions ().", "Chairwoman of this Center is Erika Steinbach, who headed it together with former SPD politician Prof. Dr. Peter Glotz (died 2005).Recently Erika Steinbach, the chair of the Federation of Expellees, has rejected any compensation claims.", "The vice president of the Federation Rudi Pawelka is however a chairman of the supervisory board of the Prussian Trust.A European organisation for expellees has been formed: EUFV.", "Headquarters is Trieste, Italy." ], [ "Organization", "The expellees are organized in 21 regional associations ''(Landsmannschaften)'', according to the areas of origin of its members, 16 state organizations ''(Landesverbände)'' according to their current residence, and 5 associate member organizations.", "It is the single representative federation for the approximately 15 million Germans who after fleeing, being expelled, evacuated or emigrating, found refuge in the Federal Republic of Germany.", "The Federation claims to have 1.3 million members (including non-displaced persons), and to be a political force of some influence in Germany.", "This figure was disputed in January 2010 by the German news service DDP, which reported an actual membership of 550,000.According to Erika Steinbach only 100,000 of the members contribute financially.The federation helps its members to integrate into German society.", "Many of the members assist the societies of their place of birth.===Presidents===From 1959 to 1964, the first president of the Federation was Hans Krüger, a former Nazi judge and activist.", "After the war Krüger was a West German politician of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), was a member of parliament from 1957 to 1965, served as Federal Minister for Displaced Persons, Refugees and War Victims for 4 months in 1963–64 in the First Cabinet of Ludwig Erhard.", "He stepped down from cabinet and other positions in 1964 amid controversy about his war-time background.", "Krüger was succeeded as president by Wenzel Jaksch in 1964 who held the position until his untimely death in 1966.", "Hans Krüger (1959–1963) BdV - Der BdV - Geschichte des BdV (resigned from his post due to his Nazi past)Wenzel Jaksch (1964–1966)Reinhold Rehs (1967–1970)Herbert Czaja (1970–1994)Fritz Wittmann (1994–1998)Erika Steinbach (1998–2014)Bernd Fabritius (2014–)===Member organizations=======Regional==== Landsmannschaft Ostpreußen* Landsmannschaft Schlesien* Deutsch-Baltische Gesellschaft* Landsmannschaft der Banater Schwaben e.V.", "* Landsmannschaft Berlin-Mark Brandenburg* Landsmannschaft der Bessarabiendeutschen e.V.", "* Landsmannschaft der Buchenlanddeutschen (Bukowina) e.V.", "* Bund der Danziger e.V.", "* Landsmannschaft der Dobrudscha und Bulgariendeutschen* Landsmannschaft der Donauschwaben, Bundesverband e.V.", "* Karpatendeutsche Landsmannschaft Slowakei e.V.", "* Landsmannschaft der Deutschen aus Litauen e.V.", "* Landsmannschaft der Oberschlesier e.V.", "– Bundesverband –* Pommersche Landsmannschaft – Zentralverband – e.V.", "* Landsmannschaft der Deutschen aus Russland e.V.", "* Landsmannschaft der Sathmarer Schwaben in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland e.V.", "* Landsmannschaft der Siebenbürger Sachsen in Deutschland e.V.", "* Sudetendeutsche Landsmannschaft Bundesverband e.V.", "* Landsmannschaft der Deutschen aus Ungarn* Landsmannschaft Weichsel-Warthe Bundesverband e.V.", "* Landsmannschaft Westpreußen e.V.====State====* Landesverband Baden-Württemberg* Landesverband Bayern* Landesverband Berlin* Landesverband Brandenburg* Landesverband Bremen* Landesverband Hamburg* Landesverband Hessen* Landesverband Mecklenburg-Vorpommern* Landesverband Niedersachsen* Landesverband Nordrhein-Westfalen* Landesverband Rheinland-Pfalz* Landesverband Saar* Landesverband Sachsen / Schlesische Lausitz* Landesverband Sachsen-Anhalt* Landesverband Schleswig-Holstein* Landesverband Thüringen" ], [ "Criticism", "When in government, both CDU and SPD have tended to favor improved relations with Central and Eastern Europe, even when this conflicts with the interests of the displaced people.", "The issue of the eastern border and the return of the ''Heimatvertriebene'' to their ancestral homes are matters which the current German government, German constitutional arrangements and German treaty obligations have virtually closed.The refugees' claims were unanimously rejected by the affected countries and became a source of mistrust between Germany, Poland and the Czech Republic.", "These governments argue that the expulsion of Germans and related border changes were not enacted by the Polish or Czech governments, but rather were ordered by the Potsdam Conference.", "Furthermore, the nationalization of private property by Poland's former communist government did not apply only to Germans but was enforced on all people, regardless of ethnic background.", "A further complication is that many of the current Polish population in historical eastern Germany are themselves expellees (or descendants of expellees) who, totaling 1.6 million, were driven from Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union and were forced to leave their homes and property behind as well.Some German-speakers had been settled in occupied Poland after 1939 by the Nazis.", "Treating these ex-colonists as expellees under German law, Erika Steinbach included, adds to the controversy.", "However, the vast majority of expelled Germans were descended from families who had lived in Eastern Europe for many centuries, while the majority of German colonists in Nazi-occupied Poland were Baltic and other East European Germans themselves displaced by the Nazi-Soviet population transfers.===Alleged Nazi background===During the Cold War, the Federation was accused by the GDR and Poland of continuing Nazi ideology.", "A recent study confirmed that 13 members of the first council of the Federation had Nazi pasts.The Polish daily newspaper ''Rzeczpospolita'' reported that during BdV meetings in 2003, publications expressing anti-Polish sentiment and accusing Poles of ethnic cleansing towards ethnic Germans were available for sale, as were recordings of Waffen SS marches on compact discs, including songs glorifying the Invasion of Poland.", "Also, far right organizations openly distributed their materials at BdV meetings.", "While the BdV officially denied involvement in this, no steps were taken to address the concerns raised.In February 2009, the Polish newspaper ''Polska'' alleged that over one third of the Federation top officials were former Nazi activists, and based this on a 2006 article published by the German magazine ''Der Spiegel''.", "The German paper Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, later revealed that ''Der Spiegel'' had written this not in respect to the Federation of Expellees, but instead about a previous organization that was dissolved in 1957." ], [ "Notable people", " Heinz Neumeyer, German amateur historian" ], [ "See also", "All-German Bloc/League of Expellees and Deprived of RightsOrganised persecution of ethnic GermansPursuit of Nazi collaboratorsGerman eastward settlementNazi–Soviet population transfersHistory of PolandHistory of PomeraniaHistory of SilesiaHistory of PrussiaHistory of the Czech landsEthnic cleansingDeutsch-Baltische Gesellschaft" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " Bund der Vertriebenen – Official homepage* For latest developments: Spätaussiedler und Heimatvertriebene* Jose Ayala Lasso '' Speech to the German expellees, Day of the Homeland, Berlin'' 6 August 2005 Lasso was the first United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (1994–1997)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of Albania" ], [ "Introduction", "During classical antiquity, Albania was home to several Illyrian tribes such as the Albanoi, Ardiaei, Bylliones, Dassaretii, Enchele, Labeatae, Taulantii, Parthini, Penestae, Amantes, and many others, but also Bryges and Epirote tribes, as well as several Greek colonies established on the Illyrian coast in cooperation with the local Illyrians, notably Epidamnos-Dyrrhachium and Apollonia.The Enchele's polity was the earliest to emerge and centered in Albania.", "Also the earliest known Illyrian king, Bardylis, emerged in what is now Albania around 400 BC, aiming to make Illyria a regional power interfering with Macedon.", "He united many southern Illyrian tribes under his realm and defeated the Macedonians and Molossians several times, expanding his dominion over Upper Macedonia and Lynkestis.", "Before the Rise of Macedon Illyrians were the dominant power in the region.", "The kingdom of the Taulantii under Glaukias' rule was based in central Albania and dominated southern Illyrian affairs in the late 4th century BC, exerting great influence on the Epirote state through the close ties with the Molossian king Pyrrhus.", "Under the Ardiaei the greatest known Illyrian kingdom emerged in the 3rd century BC encompassing also northern Albania in its core territory.", "It became a formidable power both on land and sea by assembling a great army and fleet, and directly ruling over a large area made up of different Illyrian tribes and cities that stretched from the Neretva River in the north to the borders of Epirus in the south, while its influence extended throughout Epirus and down into Acarnania.", "The dominant power of the Illyrian kingdom in the region ceased after the Illyrian defeat in the Illyro-Roman Wars (229–168 BC).", "The last known \"King of the Illyrians\" was Gentius, of the Labeatae tribe.In the early 2nd century BC, the area was annexed by Rome and became part of the Roman provinces of Dalmatia, Macedonia and Moesia Superior.", "Afterwards, the territory remained under Roman and Byzantine control until the Slavic migrations of the 7th century.", "It was integrated into the Bulgarian Empire in the 9th century.In the Middle Ages, the Principality of Arbër and a Sicilian union known as the medieval Kingdom of Albania were established.", "Some areas became part of the Venetian and later Serbian Empire.", "Between the mid-14th and the late 15th centuries, most of modern-day Albania was dominated by Albanian principalities, when the Albanian principalities fell to the rapid invasion of the Ottoman Empire.", "Albania remained under Ottoman control as part of the province of Rumelia until 1912; with some interruptions during the 18th and 19th century with the establishment of autonomy minded Albanian lords.", "The first independent Albanian state was founded by the Albanian Declaration of Independence following a short occupation by the Kingdom of Serbia.", "The formation of an Albanian national consciousness dates to the later 19th century and is part of the larger phenomenon of the rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire.A short-lived monarchical state known as the Principality of Albania (1914–1925) was succeeded by an even shorter-lived first Albanian Republic (1925–1928).", "Another monarchy, the Kingdom of Albania (1928–1939), replaced the republic.", "The country endured occupation by Italy just prior to World War II (1939–1945).", "After the Armistice of Cassibile between Italy and the Allies, Albania was occupied by Nazi Germany.", "Following the collapse of the Axis powers, Albania became a one-party communist state, the People's Socialist Republic of Albania, which for most of its duration was dominated by dictator Enver Hoxha (died 1985).", "Hoxha's political heir Ramiz Alia oversaw the disintegration of the \"Hoxhaist\" state during the wider collapse of the Eastern Bloc in the later 1980s.The communist regime collapsed in 1990, and the former communist Party of Labour of Albania was routed in elections in March 1992, amid economic collapse and social unrest.", "The unstable economic situation led to an Albanian diaspora, mostly to Italy, Greece, Switzerland, Germany and North America during the 1990s.", "The crisis peaked in the Albanian Turmoil of 1997.An amelioration of the economic and political conditions in the early years of the 21st century enabled Albania to become a full member of NATO in 2009.The country is applying to join the European Union." ], [ "Prehistory", "=== Mesolithic & Neolithic ===The Cave of Pellumbas near Tirana, used as a settlement for ancient humans during the Middle Paleolithic period.The first traces of human presence in Albania, dating to the Middle Paleolithic and Upper Paleolithic eras, were found in the village of Xarrë, near Sarandë and Dajti near Tirana.", "The objects found in a cave near Xarrë include flint and jasper objects and fossilized animal bones, while those found at Mount Dajt comprise bone and stone tools similar to those of the Aurignacian culture.", "The Paleolithic finds of Albania show great similarities with objects of the same era found at Crvena Stijena in Montenegro and north-western Greece.", "There are several archaeological sites in Albania that carry artifacts dating from the Neolithic era, and they are dated between 6,000 and the end of the EBA.", "The most important are found in Maliq, Gruemirë, Dushman (Dukagjin), on the Erzen river (close to Shijak), near Durrës, Ziçisht, Nepravishtë, Finiq, and Butrint.=== Bronze Age ===The next period in the prehistory of Albania coincides with the Indo-Europeanization of the Balkans, which involved Pontic steppe migrations which brought the Indo-European languages in the region and the formation of the Paleo-Balkan peoples as the result of fusion between the Indo-European-speaking population and the Neolithic population.", "In Albania, consecutive movements from the northern parts of the region which became known as ''Illyria'' in the Iron Age had a significant impact in the formation of the new post-Indo-European migration population.", "The ancestral groups to Iron Age Illyrians are usually identified in Albania towards the end of the EBA with movements from north of Albania and are linked to the construction of tumuli burial grounds of patrilineally organized clans.", "Some of the first tumuli date to 26th century BCE.", "These burial mounds belong to the southern expression of the Adriatic-Ljubljana culture (related to Cetina culture) which moved southwards along the Adriatic from the northern Balkans.", "The same community built similar mounds in Montenegro (Rakića Kuće) and northern Albania (Shtoj).", "In the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age a number of possible population movements occurred in the territories of modern Albania, for example the settlement of the Bryges in areas of southern Albania-northwestern Greece and Illyrian tribes into central Albania.", "The latter derived from early an Indo-European presence in the western Balkan Peninsula.", "The movement of the Byrgian tribes can be assumed to coincide with the beginning Iron Age in the Balkans during the early 1st millennium BC." ], [ "Antiquity", "=== Illyrians ===King Gentius, The last ruler of the Ardiaean dynasty.The Illyrians were a group of tribes who inhabited the western Balkans during the classical times.", "The territory the tribes covered came to be known as Illyria to Greek and Roman authors, corresponding roughly to the area between the Adriatic Sea in the west, the Drava river in the north, the Morava river in the east and the mouth of Vjosë river in the south.", "The first account of the Illyrian peoples comes from the Coastal Passage contained in a periplus, an ancient Greek text of the middle of the 4th century BC.Several Illyrian tribes that resided in the region of Albania were the Ardiaei, Taulantii and Albanoi in central Albania, the Parthini, the Abri and the Caviii in the north, the Enchelei in the east, the Bylliones in the south and several others.", "In the westernmost parts of the territory of Albania, along with the Illyrian tribes, lived the Bryges, a Phrygian people, and in the south lived the Greek tribe of the Chaonians.Queen Teuta of the Ardieai orders the Roman ambassadors to be killed.In the 4th century BC, the Illyrian king Bardylis united several Illyrian tribes and engaged in conflicts with Macedon to the south-east, but was defeated.", "Bardyllis was succeeded by Grabos II, then by Bardylis II, and then by Cleitus the Illyrian, who was defeated by Alexander the Great.Around 230 BC, the Ardiaei briefly attained military might under the reign of king Agron.", "Agron extended his rule over other neighbouring tribes as well.", "He raided parts of Epirus, Epidamnus, and the islands of Corcyra and Pharos.", "His state stretched from Narona in Dalmatia south to the river Aoos and Corcyra.", "During his reign, the Ardiaean Kingdom reached the height of its power.", "The army and fleet made it a major regional power in the Balkans and the southern Adriatic.", "The king regained control of the Adriatic with his warships (''lembi''), a domination once enjoyed by the Liburnians.", "None of his neighbours were nearly as powerful.", "Agron divorced his (first) wife.Agron suddenly died, , after his triumph over the Aetolians.", "Agron's (second) wife was Queen Teuta, who acted as regent after Agron's death.", "According to Polybius, she ruled \"by women's reasoning\".", "Teuta started to address the neighbouring states malevolently, supporting the piratical raids of her subjects.", "After capturing Dyrrhachium and Phoenice, Teuta's forces extended their operations further southward into the Ionian Sea, defeating the combined Achaean and Aetolian fleet in the Battle of Paxos and capturing the island of Corcyra.", "Later on, in 229 BC, she clashed with the Romans and initiated the Illyrian Wars.", "These wars, which were spread out over 60 years, eventually resulted in defeat for the Illyrians by 168 BC and the end of Illyrian independence when King Gentius was defeated by a Roman army after heavy clashes with Rome and Roman allied cities such as Apollonia and Dyrrhachium under Anicius Gallus.", "After his defeat, the Romans split the region into three administrative divisions, called ''meris''.=== Greeks and Romans ===Ancient Greek coin of Dyrrachium.Beginning in the 7th century BC, Greek colonies were established on the Illyrian coast.", "The most important were Apollonia, Aulon (modern-day Vlorë), Epidamnos (modern-day Durrës), and Lissus (modern-day Lezhë).", "The city of Buthrotum (modern-day Butrint), a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is probably more significant today than it was when Julius Caesar used it as a provisions depot for his troops during his campaigns in the 1st century BC.", "At that time, it was considered an unimportant outpost, overshadowed by Apollonia and Epidamnos.The Durrës Amphitheatre is one of the largest amphitheatres in the Balkan peninsula, once having a capacity of 20,000 people.The lands comprising modern-day Albania were incorporated into the Roman Empire as part of the province of Illyricum above the river Drin, and Roman Macedonia (specifically as Epirus Nova) below it.", "The western part of the Via Egnatia ran inside modern Albania, ending at Dyrrachium.", "Illyricum was later divided into the provinces of Dalmatia and Pannonia.The Roman province of ''Illyricum'' or ''Illyris Romana'' or ''Illyris Barbara'' or ''Illyria Barbara'' replaced most of the region of Illyria.", "It stretched from the Drilon River in modern Albania to Istria (Croatia) in the west and to the Sava River (Bosnia and Herzegovina) in the north.", "Salona (near modern Split in Croatia) functioned as its capital.", "The regions which it included changed through the centuries though a great part of ancient Illyria remained part of Illyricum.South Illyria became Epirus Nova, part of the Roman province of Macedonia.", "In 357 AD the region was part of the Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum one of four large praetorian prefectures into which the Late Roman Empire was divided.", "By 395 AD dioceses in which the region was divided were the Diocese of Dacia (as Pravealitana), and the Diocese of Macedonia (as Epirus Nova).", "Most of the region of modern Albania corresponds to the Epirus Nova.=== Christianization ===Church of the Dormition of the Theotokos in Labovë e Kryqit.", "The foundation of the Church dates back to the 6th century at the reign of Byzantine Emperor Justinian from 527 to 565 AD.", "Justinian erected the church in memory of his mother.\|210pxChristianity came to Epirus nova, then part of the Roman province of Macedonia.", "Since the 3rd and 4th century AD, Christianity had become the established religion in Byzantium, supplanting pagan polytheism and eclipsing for the most part the humanistic world outlook and institutions inherited from the Greek and Roman civilizations.", "The Durrës Amphitheatre ''(Albanian: Amfiteatri i Durrësit)'' is a historic monument from the time period located in Durrës, Albania, that was used to preach Christianity to civilians during that time.When the Roman Empire was divided into eastern and western halves in AD 395, Illyria east of the Drinus River (Drina between Bosnia and Serbia), including the lands form Albania, were administered by the Eastern Empire but were ecclesiastically dependent on Rome.", "Though the country was in the fold of Byzantium, Christians in the region remained under the jurisdiction of the Pope until 732.In that year the iconoclast Byzantine emperor Leo III, angered by archbishops of the region because they had supported Rome in the Iconoclastic Controversy, detached the church of the province from the Roman pope and placed it under the patriarch of Constantinople.When the Christian church split in 1054 between Eastern Orthodoxy and Catholicism, the region of southern Albania retained its ties to Constantinople, while the north reverted to the jurisdiction of Rome.", "This split marked the first significant religious fragmentation of the country.", "After the formation of the Slav principality of Dioclia (modern Montenegro), the metropolitan see of Bar was created in 1089, and dioceses in northern Albania (Shkodër, Ulcinj) became its suffragans.", "Starting in 1019, Albanian dioceses of the Byzantine rite were suffragans of the independent Archdiocese of Ohrid until Dyrrachion and Nicopolis, were re-established as metropolitan sees.", "Thereafter, only the dioceses in inner Albania (Elbasan, Krujë) remained attached to Ohrid.", "In the 13th century during the Venetian occupation, the Latin Archdiocese of Durrës was founded." ], [ "Middle Ages", "=== Early Middle Ages ===After the region was annexed by Romans, it became part of the province of Macedonia.", "The central portion of modern Albania was later split off as Epirus Nova, while the south remained under Epirus Vetus and the northern parts belonged to Praevalitana.Berat became part of the unstable frontier of the Byzantine Empire following the fall of the Roman Empire and along with much of the rest of the Balkan peninsula.After the region fell to the Romans in 168 BC it became part of Epirus nova that was, in turn, part of the Roman province of Macedonia.", "When the Roman Empire was divided into East and West in 395, the territories of modern Albania became part of the Byzantine Empire.", "Beginning in the first decades of Byzantine rule (until 461), the region suffered devastating raids by Visigoths, Huns, and Ostrogoths.", "In the 6th and 7th centuries, the Slavic migrations to Southeastern Europe forced Albanians and Vlachs to pull back into the mountainous regions and adopt nomadic lifestyle, or flee into Byzantine Greece.In general, the invaders destroyed or weakened Roman and Byzantine cultural centres in the lands that would become Albania.In the late 11th and 12th centuries, the region played a crucial part in the Byzantine–Norman wars; Dyrrhachium was the westernmost terminus of the ''Via Egnatia'', the main overland route to Constantinople, and was one of the main targets of the Normans (cf.", "Battle of Dyrrhachium (1081)).", "Towards the end of the 12th century, as Byzantine central authority weakened and rebellions and regionalist secessionism became more common, the region of Arbanon became an autonomous principality ruled by its own hereditary princes.", "In 1258, the Sicilians took possession of the island of Corfu and the Albanian coast, from Dyrrhachium to Valona and Buthrotum and as far inland as Berat.", "This foothold, reformed in 1272 as the \"Kingdom of Albania\", was intended by the dynamic Sicilian ruler, Charles of Anjou, to become the launchpad for an overland invasion of the Byzantine Empire.", "The Byzantines, however, managed to recover most of Albania by 1274, leaving only Valona and Dyrrhachium in Charles' hands.", "Finally, when Charles launched his much-delayed advance, it was stopped at the Siege of Berat in 1280–1281.Albania would remain largely part of the Byzantine empire until the Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347 when it fell shortly to the hands of the Serbian ruler Stephen Dushan.", "During this time, the territory became Albanian majority as the Black Death wiped out much of its Greek population.In the mid-9th century, most of eastern Albania became part of the Bulgarian Empire.", "The area, known as Kutmichevitsa, became an important Bulgarian cultural center in the 10th century with many thriving towns such as Devol, Glavinitsa (Ballsh) and Belgrad (Berat).", "When the Byzantines managed to conquer the First Bulgarian Empire the fortresses in eastern Albania were some of the last Bulgarian strongholds to submit to the Byzantines.", "Later the region was recovered by the Second Bulgarian Empire.In the Middle Ages, the name Arberia began to be increasingly applied to the region now comprising the nation of Albania.", "The first undisputed mention of Albanians in the historical record is attested in a Byzantine source for the first time in 1079–1080, in a work titled ''History'' by Byzantine historian Michael Attaliates, who referred to the ''Albanoi'' as having taken part in a revolt against Constantinople in 1043 and to the ''Arbanitai'' as subjects of the duke of Dyrrhachium.", "A later reference to Albanians from the same Attaliates, regarding the participation of Albanians in a rebellion around 1078, is undisputed.=== Principality of Arbër ===Map of the Principality of ArbanonIn 1190, the Principality of Arbër (Arbanon) was founded by archon Progon in the region of Krujë.", "Progon was succeeded by Gjin Progoni and then Dhimitër Progoni.", "Arbanon extended over the modern districts of central Albania, with its capital located at Krujë.The principality of Arbanon was established in 1190 by the native ''archon'' Progon in the region surrounding Kruja, to the east and northeast of Venetian territories.", "Progon was succeeded by his sons Gjin and then Demetrius (Dhimitër), who managed to retain a considerable degree of autonomy from the Byzantine Empire.", "In 1204, Arbanon attained full, though temporary, political independence, taking advantage of the weakening of Constantinople following its pillage during the Fourth Crusade.", "However, Arbanon lost its large autonomy ca.", "1216, when the ruler of Epirus, Michael I Komnenos Doukas, started an invasion northward into Albania and Macedonia, taking Kruja and ending the independence of the principality of Arbanon following the death of Dhimitër.", "After the death of Demetrius, the last ruler of the Progon family, the same year, Arbanon was successively controlled subsequently by the Despotate of Epirus, the Bulgarian Empire and, from 1235, by the Empire of Nicaea.During the conflicts between Michael II Komnenos Doukas of Epirus and Emperor John III Doukas Vatatzes, Golem (ruler of Arbanon at the time) and Theodore Petraliphas, who were initially Michael's allies, defected to John III in 1252.He is last mentioned in the sources among other local leaders, in a meeting with George Akropolites in Durrës in 1256.Arbanon was a beneficiary of the Via Egnatia trade road, which brought wealth and benefits from the more developed Byzantine civilization.=== High Middle Ages ===Charles I of Naples established '''Regnum Albaniae''' (Kingdom of Albania) after he conquered a part the Despotate of Epirus.", "Kingdom of Albania at its maximum extent (1272–1274).After the fall of the Principality of Arber in territories captured by the Despotate of Epirus, the Kingdom of Albania was established by Charles of Anjou.", "He took the title of King of Albania in February 1272.The kingdom extended from the region of Durrës (then known as Dyrrhachium) south along the coast to Butrint.", "After the failure of the Eighth Crusade, Charles of Anjou returned his attention to Albania.", "He began contacting local Albanian leaders through local catholic clergy.", "Two local Catholic priests, namely John from Durrës and Nicola from Arbanon, acted as negotiators between Charles of Anjou and the local noblemen.", "During 1271 they made several trips between Albania and Italy eventually succeeding in their mission.On 21 February 1272, a delegation of Albanian noblemen and citizens from Durrës made their way to Charles' court.", "Charles signed a treaty with them and was proclaimed King of Albania \"by common consent of the bishops, counts, barons, soldiers and citizens\" promising to protect them and to honor the privileges they had from Byzantine Empire.", "The treaty declared the union between the Kingdom of Albania (Latin: ''Regnum Albanie'') with the Kingdom of Sicily under King Charles of Anjou (''Carolus I, dei gratia rex Siciliae et Albaniae'').", "He appointed Gazzo Chinardo as his Vicar-General and hoped to take up his expedition against Constantinople again.", "Throughout 1272 and 1273 he sent huge provisions to the towns of Durrës and Vlorë.", "This alarmed the Byzantine Emperor, Michael VIII Palaiologos, who began sending letters to local Albanian nobles, trying to convince them to stop their support for Charles of Anjou and to switch sides.", "However, the Albanian nobles placed their trust on Charles, who praised them for their loyalty.Throughout its existence the Kingdom saw armed conflict with the Byzantine empire.", "The kingdom was reduced to a small area in Durrës.", "Even before the city of Durrës was captured, it was landlocked by Karl Thopia's principality.", "Declaring himself as Angevin descendant, with the capture of Durrës in 1368 Karl Thopia created the Princedom of Albania.", "During its existence Catholicism saw rapid spread among the population which affected the society as well as the architecture of the Kingdom.", "A Western type of feudalism was introduced and it replaced the Byzantine Pronoia.=== Principalities and League of Lezhë ===Castle of Rozafa in Shkodër, was the focal point of the Siege of Shkodra.In 1371, the Serbian Empire was dissolved and several Albanian principalities were formed including the Principality of Kastrioti, Principality of Albania and Despotate of Arta as the major ones.In the late 14th and the early 15th century the Ottoman Empire conquered parts of south and central Albania.", "The Albanians regained control of their territories in 1444 when the League of Lezhë was established, under the rule of George Kastrioti Skanderbeg, the Albanian national hero.", "The League was a military alliance of feudal lords in Albania forged in Lezhë on 2 March 1444, initiated and organised under Venetian patronage with Skanderbeg as leader of the regional Albanian and Serbian chieftains united against the Ottoman Empire.", "The main members of the league were the Arianiti, Balšić, Dukagjini, Muzaka, Spani, Thopia and Crnojevići.", "For 25 years, from 1443 to 1468, Skanderbeg's 10,000-man army marched through Ottoman territory winning against consistently larger and better supplied Ottoman forces.", "Threatened by Ottoman advances in their homeland, Hungary, and later Naples and Venice – their former enemies – provided the financial backbone and support for Skanderbeg's army.", "By 1450 it had certainly ceased to function as originally intended, and only the core of the alliance under Skanderbeg and Araniti Comino continued to fight on.", "After Skanderbeg's death in 1468, the sultan \"easily subdued Albania,\" but Skanderbeg's death did not end the struggle for independence, and fighting continued until the Ottoman siege of Shkodra in 1478–79, a siege ending when the Republic of Venice ceded Shkodra to the Ottomans in the peace treaty of 1479." ], [ "Ottoman Era", "=== Early Ottoman period ===Ottoman supremacy in the west Balkan region began in 1385 with their success in the Battle of Savra.", "Following that battle, the Ottoman Empire in 1415 established the Sanjak of Albania covering the conquered parts of Albania, which included territory stretching from the Mat River in the north to Chameria in the south.", "In 1419, Gjirokastra became the administrative centre of the Sanjak of Albania.The northern Albanian nobility, although tributary of the Ottoman Empire they still had autonomy to rule over their lands, but the southern part which was put under the direct rule of the Ottoman Empire, prompted by the replacement of large parts of the local nobility with Ottoman landowners, centralized governance and the Ottoman taxation system, the population and the nobles, led principally by Gjergj Arianiti, revolted against the Ottomans.During the early phases of the revolt, many land (timar) holders were killed or expelled.", "As the revolt spread, the nobles, whose holdings had been annexed by the Ottomans, returned to join the revolt and attempted to form alliances with the Holy Roman Empire.", "While the leaders of the revolt were successful in defeating successive Ottoman campaigns, they failed to capture many of the important towns in the Sanjak of Albania.", "Major combatants included members of the Dukagjini, Zenebishi, Thopia, Kastrioti and Arianiti families.", "In the initial phase, the rebels were successful in capturing some major towns such as Dagnum.", "Protracted sieges such as that of Gjirokastër, the capital of the Sanjak, gave the Ottoman army time to assemble large forces from other parts of the empire and to subdue the main revolt by the end of 1436.Because the rebel leaders acted autonomously without a central leadership, their lack of coordination of the revolt contributed greatly to their final defeat.", "Ottoman forces conducted a number of massacres in the aftermath of the revolt.=== Ottoman-Albanian Wars ===Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg, the National Hero of the Albanians successfully rebelled against the Ottomans for 25 years.Many Albanians had been recruited into the Janissary corps, including the feudal heir George Kastrioti who was renamed Skanderbeg (Iskandar Bey) by his Turkish officers at Edirne.", "After the Ottoman defeat in the Battle of Niš at the hands of the Hungarians, Skanderbeg deserted in November 1443 and began a rebellion against the Ottoman Empire.Castle of Krujë was the center of Skanderbeg's battle against the Ottomans.League of Lezhë, between 1448 and 1468 in the Albanian-Ottoman warsAfter his desertion, Skanderbeg re-converted to Christianity and declared war against the Ottoman Empire, which he led from 1443 to 1468.Skanderbeg summoned the Albanian princes to the Venetian-controlled town of Lezhë where they formed the League of Lezhë.", "Gibbon reports that the \"Albanians, a martial race, were unanimous to live and die with their hereditary prince\", and that \"in the assembly of the states of Epirus, Skanderbeg was elected general of the Turkish war and each of the allies engaged to furnish his respective proportion of men and money\".", "Under a red flag bearing Skanderbeg's heraldic emblem, an Albanian force held off Ottoman campaigns for twenty-five years and overcame a number of the major sieges: Siege of Krujë (1450), Second Siege of Krujë (1466–67), Third Siege of Krujë (1467) against forces led by the Ottoman sultans Murad II and Mehmed II.", "For 25 years Skanderbeg's army of around 10,000 men marched through Ottoman territory winning against consistently larger and better supplied Ottoman forces.Throughout his rebellion, Skanderbeg defeated the Ottomans in a number of battles, including Torvioll, Oranik, Otonetë, Modric, Ohrid and Mokra; with his most brilliant being in Albulena.", "However, Skanderbeg did not receive any of the help which had been promised to him by the popes or the Italian states, Venice, Naples and Milan.", "He died in 1468, leaving no clear successor.", "After his death the rebellion continued, but without its former success.", "The loyalties and alliances created and nurtured by Skanderbeg faltered and fell apart and the Ottomans reconquered the territory of Albania, culminating with the siege of Shkodra in 1479.However, some territories in Northern Albania remained under Venetian control.", "Shortly after the fall of the castles of northern Albania, many Albanians fled to neighbouring Italy, giving rise to the Arbëreshë communities still living in that country.Skanderbeg's long struggle to keep Albania free became highly significant to the Albanian people, as it strengthened their solidarity, made them more conscious of their national identity, and served later as a great source of inspiration in their struggle for national unity, freedom and independence.=== Late Ottoman period ===Upon the Ottomans return in 1479, a large number of Albanians fled to Italy, Egypt and other parts of the Ottoman Empire and Europe and maintained their Arbëresh identity.", "Many Albanians won fame and fortune as soldiers, administrators, and merchants in far-flung parts of the Empire.", "As the centuries passed, however, Ottoman rulers lost the capacity to command the loyalty of local pashas, which threatened stability in the region.", "The Ottoman rulers of the 19th century struggled to shore up central authority, introducing reforms aimed at harnessing unruly pashas and checking the spread of nationalist ideas.", "Albania would be a part of the Ottoman Empire until the early 20th century.The Ottoman period that followed was characterized by a change in the landscape through a gradual modification of the settlements with the introduction of bazaars, military garrisons and mosques in many Albanian regions.", "Part of the Albanian population gradually converted to Islam, with many joining the Sufi Order of the Bektashi.", "Converting from Christianity to Islam brought considerable advantages, including access to Ottoman trade networks, bureaucratic positions and the army.", "As a result, many Albanians came to serve in the elite Janissary and the administrative Devşirme system.", "Among these were important historical figures, including Iljaz Hoxha, Hamza Kastrioti, Koca Davud Pasha, Zağanos Pasha, Köprülü Mehmed Pasha (head of the Köprülü family of Grand Viziers), the Bushati family, Sulejman Pasha, Edhem Pasha, Nezim Frakulla, Haxhi Shekreti, Hasan Zyko Kamberi, Ali Pasha of Gucia, Muhammad Ali ruler of Egypt, Ali Pasha of Tepelena rose to become one of the most powerful Muslim Albanian rulers in western Rumelia.", "His diplomatic and administrative skills, his interest in modernist ideas and concepts, his popular religiousness, his religious neutrality, his win over the bands terrorizing the area, his ferocity and harshness in imposing law and order, and his looting practices towards persons and communities in order to increase his proceeds cause both the admiration and the criticism of his contemporaries.", "His court was in Ioannina, but the territory he governed incorporated most of Epirus and the western parts of Thessaly and Greek Macedonia in Northern Greece.Many Albanians gained prominent positions in the Ottoman government, Albanians highly active during the Ottoman era and leaders such as Ali Pasha of Tepelena might have aided Husein Gradaščević.", "The Albanians proved generally faithful to Ottoman rule following the end of the resistance led by Skanderbeg, and accepted Islam more easily than their neighbors.=== Semi-independent Albanian Pashaliks ===A period of semi-independence started during the mid 18th century.", "As Ottoman power began to decline in the 18th century, the central authority of the empire in Albania gave way to the local authority of autonomy-minded lords.", "The most successful of those lords were three generations of pashas of the Bushati family, who dominated most of northern Albania from 1757 to 1831, and Ali Pasha Tepelena of Janina (now Ioánnina, Greece), a brigand-turned-despot who ruled over southern Albania and northern Greece from 1788 to 1822.Those pashas created separate states within the Ottoman state until they were overthrown by the sultan." ], [ "Modern", "=== National Renaissance ===In the 1870s, the Sublime Porte's reforms aimed at checking the Ottoman Empire's disintegration had failed.", "The image of the \"Turkish yoke\" had become fixed in the nationalist mythologies and psyches of the empire's Balkan peoples and their march toward independence quickened.", "The Albanians, because of the higher degree of Islamic influence, their internal social divisions, and the fear that they would lose their Albanian-speaking territories to the emerging Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, and Greece, were the last of the Balkan peoples to desire division from the Ottoman Empire.", "With the rise of the Albanian National Awakening, Albanians regained a sense of statehood and engaged in military resistance against the Ottoman Empire as well as instigating a massive literary revival.", "Albanian émigrés in Bulgaria, Egypt, Italy, Romania and the United States supported the writing and distribution of Albanian textbooks and writings.=== League of Prizren ===The League of Prizren building in Prizren from inside the courtyard.In the second quarter of the 19th century, after the fall of the Albanian pashaliks and the Massacre of the Albanian Beys, an Albanian National Awakening took place and many revolts against the Ottoman Empire were organized.", "These revolts included the Albanian Revolts of 1833–1839, the Revolt of 1843–44, and the Revolt of 1847.A culmination of the Albanian National Awakening was the League of Prizren.", "The league was formed at a meeting of 47 Ottoman beys in Prizren on 18 June 1878.An initial position of the league was presented in a document known as Kararname.", "Through this document Albanian leaders emphasized their intention to preserve and maintain the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans by supporting the porte, and \"to struggle in arms to defend the wholeness of the territories of Albania\".", "In this early period, the League participated in battles against Montenegro and successfully wrestled control over Plav and Gusinje after brutal warfare with Montenegrin troops.", "In August 1878, the Congress of Berlin ordered a commission to determine the border between the Ottoman Empire and Montenegro.", "Finally, the Great Powers blockaded Ulcinj by sea and pressured the Ottoman authorities to bring the Albanians under control.", "Albanian diplomatic and military efforts were successful in wresting control of Epirus, however some lands were still ceded to Greece by 1881.The League's founding figure Abdyl Frashëri influenced the League to demand autonomy and wage open war against the Ottomans.", "Faced with growing international pressure \"to pacify\" the refractory Albanians, the sultan dispatched a large army under Dervish Turgut Pasha to suppress the League of Prizren and deliver Ulcinj to Montenegro.", "The League of Prizren's leaders and their families were arrested and deported.", "Frashëri, who originally received a death sentence, was imprisoned until 1885 and exiled until his death seven years later.", "A similar league was established in 1899 in Peja by former League member Haxhi Zeka.", "The league ended its activity in 1900 after an armed conflict with the Ottoman forces.", "Zeka was assassinated by a Serbian agent Adem Zajmi in 1902.=== Independence ===On 28 November 1913, Ismail Qemali and his cabinet during the celebration of the first anniversary of independence in Vlorë on 28 November 1912.\|210pxAlbania as proposed by Ismail QemaliThe initial sparks of the First Balkan war in 1912 were ignited by the Albanian uprising between 1908 and 1910, which had the aim of opposing the Young Turk policies of consolidation of the Ottoman Empire.", "Following the eventual weakening of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans, Serbia, Greece, and Bulgaria declared war, seizing the remaining Ottoman territory in Europe.", "The territory of Albania was occupied by Serbia in the north and Greece in the south, leaving only a patch of land around the southern coastal city of Vlora.", "The unsuccessful uprising of 1910, 1911 and the successful and final Albanian revolt in 1912, as well as the Serbian and Greek occupation and attempts to incorporate the land into their respective countries, led to a proclamation of independence by Ismail Qemali in Vlorë on 28 November 1912.The same day, Ismail Qemali waved the national flag of Albania, from the balcony of the Assembly of Vlorë, in the presence of hundreds of Albanians.", "This flag was sewn after Skanderbeg's principality flag, which had been used more than 500 years earlier.Albanian independence was recognized by the Conference of London on 29 July 1913.The Conference of London then delineated the border between Albania and its neighbors, leaving more than half of ethnic Albanians outside Albania.", "This population was largely divided between Montenegro and Serbia in the north and east (including what is now Kosovo and North Macedonia), and Greece in the south.", "A substantial number of Albanians thus came under Serbian rule.At the same time, an uprising in the country's south by local Greeks led to the formation of the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus in the southern provinces (1914).", "The republic proved short-lived as Albania collapsed with the onset of World War I. Greece held the area between 1914 and 1916, and unsuccessfully tried to annex it in March 1916; however in 1917 the Greeks were driven from the area by Italy, which took over most of Albania.", "The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 awarded the area to Greece.", "However the area definitively reverted to Albanian control in November 1921, following Greece's defeat in the Greco-Turkish War." ], [ "Principality of Albania", "Flag of Albania from 1914 to 1920.In supporting the independence of Albania, the Great Powers were assisted by Aubrey Herbert, a British MP who passionately advocated the Albanian cause in London.", "As a result, Herbert was offered the crown of Albania, but was dissuaded by the British Prime Minister, H. H. Asquith, from accepting.", "Instead the offer went to William of Wied, a German prince who accepted and became sovereign of the new Principality of Albania.The Principality was established on 21 February 1914.The Great Powers selected Prince William of Wied, a nephew of Queen Elisabeth of Romania to become the sovereign of the newly independent Albania.", "A formal offer was made by 18 Albanian delegates representing the 18 districts of Albania on 21 February 1914, an offer which he accepted.", "Outside of Albania William was styled prince, but in Albania he was referred to as Mbret (King) so as not to seem inferior to the King of Montenegro.", "This is the period when Albanian religions gained independence.", "The ecumenical patriarch of Constantinople recognized the autocephaly of the Albanian Orthodox Church after a meeting of the country's Albanian Orthodox congregations in Berat in August 1922.The most energetic reformers in Albania came from the Orthodox population who wanted to see Albania move quickly away from its Turkish-ruled past, during which Christians made up the underclass.", "Albania's conservative Sunni Muslim community broke its last ties with Constantinople in 1923, formally declaring that there had been no caliph since Muhammad himself and that Muslim Albanians pledged primary allegiance to their native country.", "The Muslims also banned polygamy and allowed women to choose whether or not they wanted to wear a veil.", "Upon termination of Albania from Turkey in 1912, as in all other fields, the customs administration continued its operation under legislation approved specifically for the procedure.", "After the new laws were issued for the operation of customs, its duty was 11% of the value of goods imported and 1% on the value of those exported.The security was to be provided by a Gendarmerie commanded by Dutch officers.", "William left Albania on 3 September 1914 following a pan-Islamic revolt initiated by Essad Pasha Toptani and later headed by Haxhi Qamili, the latter the military commander of the \"Muslim State of Central Albania\" centered in Tirana.", "William never renounced his claim to the throne.=== World War I ===Albania in 1916.World War I interrupted all government activities in Albania, while the country was split in a number of regional governments.", "Political chaos engulfed Albania after the outbreak of World War I.", "The Albanian people split along religious and tribal lines after the prince's departure.", "Muslims demanded a Muslim prince and looked to Turkey as the protector of the privileges they had enjoyed.", "Other Albanians looked to Italy for support.", "Still others, including many beys and clan chiefs, recognized no superior authority.Prince William left Albania on 3 September 1914, as a result of the Peasant Revolt initiated by Essad Pasha and later taken over by Haxhi Qamili.", "William subsequently joined the German army and served on the Eastern Front, but never renounced his claim to the throne.In the country's south, the local Greek population revolted against the incorporation of the area into the new Albanian state and declared the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus at 28 February.In late 1914, Greece occupied the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus, including Korçë and Gjirokastër.", "Italy occupied Vlorë, and Serbia and Montenegro occupied parts of northern Albania until a Central Powers offensive scattered the Serbian army, which was evacuated by the French to Thessaloniki.", "Austro-Hungarian and Bulgarian forces then occupied about two-thirds of the country (Bulgarian occupation of Albania).Under the secret Treaty of London signed in April 1915, Triple Entente powers promised Italy that it would gain Vlorë (''Valona'') and nearby lands and a protectorate over Albania in exchange for entering the war against Austria-Hungary.", "Serbia and Montenegro were promised much of northern Albania, and Greece was promised much of the country's southern half.", "The treaty left a tiny Albanian state that would be represented by Italy in its relations with the other major powers.In September 1918, Entente forces broke through the Central Powers' lines north of Thessaloniki and within days Austro-Hungarian forces began to withdraw from Albania.", "On 2 October 1918 the city of Durrës was shelled on the orders of Louis Franchet d'Espèrey, during the Battle of Durazzo: according to d'Espèrey, the Port of Durrës, if not destroyed, would have served the evacuation of the Bulgarian and German armies, involved in World War I.When the war ended on 11 November 1918, Italy's army had occupied most of Albania; Serbia held much of the country's northern mountains; Greece occupied a sliver of land within Albania's 1913 borders; and French forces occupied Korçë and Shkodër as well as other regions with sizable Albanian populations.=== Projects of partition in 1919–1920 ===Albanian soldiers during the Vlora war,1920.After World War I, Albania was still under the occupation of Serbian and Italian forces.", "It was a rebellion of the respective populations of Northern and Southern Albania that pushed back the Serbs and Italians behind the recognized borders of Albania.Albania's political confusion continued in the wake of World War I.", "The country lacked a single recognized government, and Albanians feared, with justification, that Italy, Yugoslavia, and Greece would succeed in extinguishing Albania's independence and carve up the country.", "Italian forces controlled Albanian political activity in the areas they occupied.", "The Serbs, who largely dictated Yugoslavia's foreign policy after World War I, strove to take over northern Albania, and the Greeks sought to control southern Albania.A delegation sent by a postwar Albanian National Assembly that met at Durrës in December 1918 defended Albanian interests at the Paris Peace Conference, but the conference denied Albania official representation.", "The National Assembly, anxious to keep Albania intact, expressed willingness to accept Italian protection and even an Italian prince as a ruler so long as it would mean Albania did not lose territory.", "Serbian troops conducted actions in Albanian-populated border areas, while Albanian guerrillas operated in both Serbia and Montenegro.In January 1920, at the Paris Peace Conference, negotiators from France, Britain, and Greece agreed to allow Albania to fall under Yugoslav, Italian, and Greek spheres of influence as a diplomatic expedient aimed at finding a compromising solution to the territorial conflicts between Italy and Yugoslavia.Members of a second Albanian National Assembly held at Lushnjë in January 1920 rejected the partition plan and warned that Albanians would take up arms to defend their country's independence and territorial integrity.", "The Lushnjë National Assembly appointed a four-man regency to rule the country.", "A bicameral parliament was also created, in which an elected lower chamber, the Chamber of Deputies (with one deputy for every 12,000 people in Albania and one for the Albanian community in the United States), appointed members of its own ranks to an upper chamber, the Senate.", "In February 1920, the government moved to Tirana, which became Albania's capital.One month later, in March 1920, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson intervened to block the Paris agreement.", "The United States underscored its support for Albania's independence by recognizing an official Albanian representative to Washington, and in December the League of Nations recognized Albania's sovereignty by admitting it as a full member.", "The country's borders, however, remained unsettled following the Vlora War in which all territory (except Saseno island) under Italian control in Albania was relinquished to the Albanian state.Albania achieved a degree of statehood after the First World War, in part because of the diplomatic intercession of the United States government.", "The country suffered from a debilitating lack of economic and social development, however, and its first years of independence were fraught with political instability.", "Unable to survive a predatory environment without a foreign protector, Albania became the object of tensions between Italy and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, which both sought to dominate the country.=== Zogu Government ===Interwar Albanian governments appeared and disappeared in rapid succession.", "Between July and December 1921 alone, the premiership changed hands five times.The Popular Party's head, Xhafer Ypi, formed a government in December 1921 with Fan S. Noli as foreign minister and Ahmed Bey Zogu as internal affairs minister, but Noli resigned soon after Zogu resorted to repression in an attempt to disarm the lowland Albanians despite the fact that bearing arms was a traditional custom.When the government's enemies attacked Tirana in early 1922, Zogu stayed in the capital and, with the support of the British ambassador, repulsed the assault.", "He took over the premiership later in the year and turned his back on the Popular Party by announcing his engagement to the daughter of Shefqet Verlaci, the Progressive Party leader.Zogu's protégés organized themselves into the Government Party.", "Noli and other Western-oriented leaders formed the Opposition Party of Democrats, which attracted all of Zogu's many personal enemies, ideological opponents, and people left unrewarded by his political machine.", "Ideologically, the Democrats included a broad sweep of people who advocated everything from conservative Islam to Noli's dreams of rapid modernization.Opposition to Zogu was formidable.", "Orthodox peasants in Albania's southern lowlands loathed him because he supported Muslim landowners' efforts to block land reform; Shkodër's citizens felt shortchanged because their city did not become Albania's capital, while nationalists were dissatisfied because Zogu's government did not press Albania's claims to Kosovo or speak more energetically for the rights of ethnic Albanian minorities in the Balkans.Despite that, Zogu's party won the elections for a National Assembly in early 1924.He soon stepped aside, however, handing over the premiership to Verlaci in the wake of a financial scandal and an assassination attempt by a young radical which left him wounded.", "The opposition withdrew from the assembly after the leader of a nationalist youth organization, Avni Rustemi, was murdered in the street outside the parliament building.=== June Revolution ===160pxAlbanian cabinet in January 1922.The individuals in the photograph from left to right are: Mehmet Konica, Albanian delegate to the League of Nations; Spiro J. Koleka, Minister of Public Works; Fan S. Noli, Minister of Foreign Affairs; Ismail H. Tatzati, Minister of War; Xhafer Ypi, Prime Minister; Ahmed Zogu, Minister of the Interior; Hysen Vrioni, Minister of Justice; Kole Thaci, Minister of Finance.", "Courtesy of the General Directorate of the Albanian Archives, Tirana, Albania.Fan Noli and Avni Rustemi taking a photo in RomeNoli's supporters blamed the Rustemi murder on Zogu's Mati clansmen, who continued to practice blood vengeance.", "After the walkout, discontent mounted, and in June 1924 a peasant-backed insurgency had won control of Tirana.", "Because few people were willing to risk their lives in its defense, the government's fall was remarkably simple and entailed practically little violence.", "According to US estimates, 20 people were killed and 35 were injured in the northern theatre, while 6 people were killed and 15 were injured in the southern theater.", "In fact, only Zogu and his meagre group put up any resistance at all.", "However, fundamental concerns remained unanswered, and Noli's power grab was unstable to say the least.", "A far more unified group than Noli's was required to execute a new order; it also required crucial political and financial backing from overseas, as well as talented lawmakers prepared to make the necessary sacrifices and concessions.", "Noli formed his own administration, a small cabinet, on 16 June 1924, with representatives from all factions involved in the June rebellion, including the army, beys, liberals, progressives, and the Shkodra lobby.", "The Kosovo Committee was not a part of the government.", "The government cabinet consisted of:Fan Noli – Prime MinisterSulejman Delvina- Minister of Foreign AffairsLuigj Gurakuqi – Minister of FinanceStavro Vinjau – Minister of EducationKasëm Qafëzezi – Minister of WarRexhep Shala – Minister of InteriorQazim Koculi – Minister of AgricultureXhemal Bushati – Minister without portfolioFan Noli, an idealist, rejected demands for new elections on the grounds that Albania needed a \"paternal\" government.", "On 19 June, Noli's coalition administration proposed a twenty-point reform program that, if completed, would have resulted in a country-wide revolution.", "Jacques calls the program \"too radical,\" Austin calls it \"a really ambitious program, ....had it been implemented, it would have led to a revolutionary change of country,\" and Fischer writes, \"Every Western Democrat would be proud of Noli's program, but the Prime Minister lacked two crucial elements, without which no one could carry out such a long series of radical reforms: financial support and support from the governmental cabinet.", "\"Noli went on to say that once normalcy was restored, a national election would be held with secret and direct voting to decide the people's support.", "Noli planned to rule by decree for ten to twelve months, believing that the country's past elections did not reflect the desires of the Albanian people.", "Noli subsequently stated that his party \"had the majority when we put the agrarian reforms on our programme.", "When it came to putting them in place, we were in the minority.\"", "The takeover of wealthy owners' property, particularly in central Albania, would be the principal source of additional land for the peasants.", "Each farmer was to receive 4–6 hectares of land for a household of up to 10 individuals.", "Families with more than 10 members would receive eight hectares of land.Scaling back the bureaucracy, strengthening local government, assisting peasants, throwing Albania open to foreign investment, and improving the country's bleak transportation, public health, and education facilities filled out the Noli government's overly ambitious agenda.", "Noli encountered resistance to his program from people who had helped him oust Zogu, and he never attracted the foreign aid necessary to carry out his reform plans.", "Noli criticized the League of Nations for failing to settle the threat facing Albania on its land borders.Under Fan Noli, the government set up a special tribunal that passed death sentences, in absentia, on Zogu, Verlaci, and others and confiscated their property.In Yugoslavia Zogu recruited a mercenary army, and Belgrade furnished the Albanian leader with weapons, about 1,000 Yugoslav army regulars, and Russian White Emigres to mount an invasion that the Serbs hoped would bring them disputed areas along the border.", "After Noli decided to establish diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union, a bitter enemy of the Serbian ruling family, Belgrade began making wild allegations that Albania was about to embrace Bolshevism.On 13 December 1924, Zogu's Yugoslav-backed army crossed into Albanian territory.", "By Christmas Eve, Zogu had reclaimed the capital, and Noli and his government had fled to Italy.", "The Noli government lasted just 6 months and a week." ], [ "First Republic", "7th President Zog of Albania.After defeating Fan Noli's government, Ahmet Zogu recalled the parliament, in order to find a solution for the uncrowned principality of Albania.", "The parliament quickly adopted a new constitution, proclaimed the first republic, and granted Zogu dictatorial powers that allowed him to appoint and dismiss ministers, veto legislation, and name all major administrative personnel and a third of the Senate.The Constitution provided for a parliamentary republic with a powerful president serving as head of state and government.On 31 January, Zogu was elected president for a seven-year term.", "Opposition parties and civil liberties disappeared; opponents of the regime were murdered; and the press suffered strict censorship.", "Zogu ruled Albania using four military governors responsible to him alone.", "He appointed clan chieftains as reserve army officers who were kept on call to protect the regime against domestic or foreign threats.Zogu, however, quickly turned his back on Belgrade and looked instead to Benito Mussolini's Italy for patronage.", "Under Zogu, Albania joined the Italian coalition against Yugoslavia of Kingdom of Italy, Hungary, and Bulgaria in 1924–1927.After the United Kingdom's and France's political intervention in 1927 with the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, the alliance crumbled.Zogu maintained good relations with Benito Mussolini's fascist regime in Italy and supported Italy's foreign policy.", "He would be the first and only Albanian to hold the title of president until 1991." ], [ "Kingdom of Albania", "In 1928, Zogu I secured the Parliament's consent to its own dissolution.", "Afterwards, Albania was declared a monarchy with Zogu I first as the Prime Minister, then as the President and at last as the King of Albania.", "International recognition arrived forthwith.", "The new formed constitution abolished the Albanian Senate and created a unicameral parliament, but King Zog retained the dictatorial powers he had enjoyed as president.", "Zogu I remained a conservative, but initiated reforms.", "For example, in an attempt at social modernisation the custom of adding one's region to one's name was dropped.", "He also made donations of land to international organisations for the building of schools and hospitals.Soon after his incoronation, Zog broke off his engagement to Shefqet Verlaci's daughter, and Verlaci withdrew his support for the king and began plotting against him.", "Zog had accumulated a great number of enemies over the years, and the Albanian tradition of blood vengeance required them to try to kill him.", "Zog surrounded himself with guards and rarely appeared in public.", "The king's loyalists disarmed all of Albania's tribes except for his own Mati tribesmen and their allies, the Dibra.", "Nevertheless, on a visit to Vienna in 1931, Zog and his bodyguards fought a gun battle with would-be assassins Aziz Çami and Ndok Gjeloshi on the Opera House steps.Zog remained sensitive to steadily mounting disillusion with Italy's domination of Albania.", "The Albanian army, though always less than 15,000-strong, sapped the country's funds, and the Italians' monopoly on training the armed forces rankled public opinion.", "As a counterweight, Zog kept British officers in the Gendarmerie despite strong Italian pressure to remove them.", "In 1931, Zog openly stood up to the Italians, refusing to renew the 1926 First Treaty of Tirana.=== Financial crisis ===In 1932 and 1933, Albania could not make the interest payments on its loans from the Society for the Economic Development of Albania.", "In response, Rome turned up the pressure, demanding that Tirana name Italians to direct the Gendarmerie; join Italy in a customs union; grant Italy control of the country's sugar, telegraph, and electrical monopolies; teach the Italian language in all Albanian schools; and admit Italian colonists.", "Zog refused.", "Instead, he ordered the national budget slashed by 30 percent, dismissed the Italian military advisers, and nationalized Italian-run Roman Catholic schools in the northern part of the country.", "In 1934, Albania had signed trade agreements with Yugoslavia and Greece, and Mussolini had suspended all payments to Tirana.", "An Italian attempt to intimidate the Albanians by sending a fleet of warships to Albania failed because the Albanians only allowed the forces to land unarmed.", "Mussolini then attempted to buy off the Albanians.", "In 1935 he presented the Albanian government 3 million gold francs as a gift.Zog's success in defeating two local rebellions convinced Mussolini that the Italians had to reach a new agreement with the Albanian king.", "A government of young men led by Mehdi Frasheri, an enlightened Bektashi administrator, won a commitment from Italy to fulfill financial promises that Mussolini had made to Albania and to grant new loans for harbor improvements at Durrës and other projects that kept the Albanian government afloat.", "Soon Italians began taking positions in Albania's civil service, and Italian settlers were allowed into the country.", "Mussolini's forces overthrew King Zog when Italy invaded Albania in 1939." ], [ "World War II", " Starting in 1928, but especially during the Great Depression, the government of King Zog, which brought law and order to the country, began to increase the Italian influence more and more.", "Despite some significant resistance, especially at Durrës, Italy invaded Albania on 7 April 1939 and took control of the country, with the Italian Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini proclaiming Italy's figurehead King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy as King of Albania.", "The nation thus became one of the first to be occupied by the Axis Powers in World War II.As Hitler began his aggression against other European countries, Mussolini decided to occupy Albania as a means of competing with Hitler's territorial gains.", "Mussolini and the Italian Fascists saw Albania as a historical part of the Roman Empire, and the occupation was intended to fulfill Mussolini's dream of creating an Italian Empire.", "During the Italian occupation, Albania's population was subject to a policy of forced Italianization by the kingdom's Italian governors, in which the use of the Albanian language was discouraged in schools while the Italian language was promoted.", "At the same time, the colonization of Albania by Italians was encouraged.Mussolini, in October 1940, used his Albanian base to launch an attack on Greece, which led to the defeat of the Italian forces and the Greek occupation of Southern Albania in what was seen by the Greeks as the liberation of Northern Epirus.", "While preparing for the Invasion of Russia, Hitler decided to attack Greece in December 1940 to prevent a British attack on his southern flank.=== Italian penetration ===The Italian invasion of Albania in April 1939 was the conclusion of centuries of Italian interest in the country and twenty years of direct, if unsuccessful, economic and political participation in Albania, primarily under Benito Mussolini.", "The Straits of Otranto, which cross the Adriatic Sea and connect Albania and southern Italy by forty miles, have always operated as a bridge rather than a barrier, offering escape, cultural exchange, and an easy invasion path.", "Before World War I Italy and Austria-Hungary had been instrumental in the creation of an independent Albanian state.", "At the outbreak of war, Italy had seized the chance to occupy the southern half of Albania, to avoid it being captured by the Austro-Hungarians.", "That success did not last long, as post-war domestic problems, Albanian resistance, and pressure from United States President Woodrow Wilson, forced Italy to pull out in 1920.When Mussolini took power in Italy he turned with renewed interest to Albania.", "Italy began penetration of Albania's economy in 1925, when Albania agreed to allow it to exploit its mineral resources.", "That was followed by the First Treaty of Tirana in 1926 and the Second Treaty of Tirana in 1927, whereby Italy and Albania entered into a defensive alliance.", "The Albanian government and economy were subsidised by Italian loans, the Albanian army was trained by Italian military instructors, and Italian colonial settlement was encouraged.", "Despite strong Italian influence, Zog refused to completely give in to Italian pressure.", "In 1931 he openly stood up to the Italians, refusing to renew the 1926 Treaty of Tirana.", "After Albania signed trade agreements with Yugoslavia and Greece in 1934, Mussolini made a failed attempt to intimidate the Albanians by sending a fleet of warships to Albania.As Nazi Germany annexed Austria and moved against Czechoslovakia, Italy saw itself becoming a second-rate member of the Axis.", "The imminent birth of an Albanian royal child meanwhile threatened to give Zog a lasting dynasty.", "After Hitler invaded Czechoslovakia (15 March 1939) without notifying Mussolini in advance, the Italian dictator decided to proceed with his own annexation of Albania.", "Italy's King Victor Emmanuel III criticized the plan to take Albania as an unnecessary risk.", "Rome, however, delivered Tirana an ultimatum on 25 March 1939, demanding that it accede to Italy's occupation of Albania.", "Zog refused to accept money in exchange for countenancing a full Italian takeover and colonization of Albania.=== Italian invasion ===A map of Albania during WWII.On 7 April Mussolini's troops invaded Albania.", "The operation was led by General Alfredo Guzzoni.", "The invasion force was divided into three groups, which were to land successively.", "The most important was the first group, which was divided in four columns, each assigned to a landing area at a harbor and an inland target on which to advance.", "Despite some stubborn resistance by some patriots, especially at Durrës, the Italians made short work of the Albanians.", "Durrës was captured on 7 April, Tirana the following day, Shkodër and Gjirokastër on 9 April, and almost the entire country by 10 April.Unwilling to become an Italian puppet, King Zog, his wife, Queen Geraldine Apponyi, and their infant son Leka fled to Greece and eventually to London.", "On 12 April, the Albanian parliament voted to depose Zog and unite the nation with Italy \"in personal union\" by offering the Albanian crown to Victor Emmanuel III.The parliament elected Albania's largest landowner, Shefqet Bej Verlaci, as Prime Minister.", "Verlaci additionally served as head of state for five days until Victor Emmanuel III formally accepted the Albanian crown in a ceremony at the Quirinale palace in Rome.", "Victor Emmanuel III appointed Francesco Jacomoni di San Savino, a former ambassador to Albania, to represent him in Albania as \"Lieutenant-General of the King\" (effectively a viceroy).=== Albania under Italy ===Albanian Kingdom (1939–1943) Shefqet Bej VërlaciWhile Victor Emmanuel ruled as king, Shefqet Bej Verlaci served as the Prime Minister.", "Shefqet Verlaci controlled the day-to-day activities of the new Italian protectorate.", "On 3 December 1941, Shefqet Bej Verlaci was replaced as Prime Minister and Head of State by Mustafa Merlika Kruja.From the start, Albanian foreign affairs, customs, as well as natural resources came under direct control of Italy.", "The puppet Albanian Fascist Party became the ruling party of the country and the Fascists allowed Italian citizens to settle in Albania and to own land so that they could gradually transform it into Italian soil.In October 1940, during the Greco-Italian War, Albania served as a staging-area for Italian dictator Benito Mussolini's unsuccessful invasion of Greece.", "Mussolini planned to invade Greece and other countries like Yugoslavia in the area to give Italy territorial control of most of the Mediterranean Sea coastline, as part of the Fascists objective of creating the objective of ''Mare Nostrum'' (\"Our Sea\") in which Italy would dominate the Mediterranean.But, soon after the Italian invasion, the Greeks counter-attacked and a sizeable portion of Albania was in Greek hands (including the cities of Gjirokastër and Korçë).", "In April 1941, after Greece capitulated to the German forces, the Greek territorial gains in southern Albania returned to Italian command.", "Under Italian command came also large areas of Greece after the successful German invasion of Greece.After the fall of Yugoslavia and Greece in April 1941, the Italian Fascists added to the territory of the Kingdom of Albania most of the Albanian-inhabited areas that had been previously given to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.", "The Albanian fascists claimed in May 1941 that nearly all the Albanian populated territories were united to Albania ( see map).", "Even areas of northern Greece (Chameria) were administered by Albanians.", "But this was even a consequence of borders that Italy and Germany agreed on when dividing their spheres of influence.", "Some small portions of territories with Albanian majority remained outside the new borders and contact between the two parts was practically impossible: the Albanian population under the Bulgarian rule was heavily oppressed.=== Albania under Germany ===German soldiers in Albania.After the surrender of the Italian Army in September 1943, Albania was occupied by the Germans.With the collapse of the Mussolini government in line with the Allied invasion of Italy, Germany occupied Albania in September 1943, dropping paratroopers into Tirana before the Albanian guerrillas could take the capital.", "The German Army soon drove the guerrillas into the hills and to the south.", "The Nazi German government subsequently announced it would recognize the independence of a neutral Albania and set about organizing a new government, police and armed forces.The Germans did not exert heavy-handed control over Albania's administration.", "Rather, they sought to gain popular support by backing causes popular with Albanians, especially the annexation of Kosovo.", "Many Balli Kombëtar units cooperated with the Germans against the communists and several Balli Kombëtar leaders held positions in the German-sponsored regime.", "Albanian collaborators, especially the Skanderbeg SS Division, also expelled and killed Serbs living in Kosovo.", "In December 1943, a third resistance organization, an anticommunist, anti-German royalist group known as Legaliteti, took shape in Albania's northern mountains.", "Led by Abaz Kupi, it largely consisted of Geg guerrillas, supplied mainly with weapons from the allies, who withdrew their support for the NLM after the communists renounced Albania's claims on Kosovo.The capital Tirana was liberated by the partisans on 17 November 1944 after a 20-day battle.", "The communist partizans entirely liberated Albania from German occupation on 29 November 1944, pursuing the German army until Višegrad, Bosnia (then Yugoslavia) in collaboration with the Yugoslav communist forces.The Albanian partisans also liberated Kosovo, part of Montenegro, and southern Bosnia and Herzegovina.By November 1944, they had thrown out the Germans, being with Yugoslavia the only European nations to do so without any assistance from the allies.", "Enver Hoxha became the leader of the country by virtue of his position as Secretary General of the Albanian Communist Party.After having taken over power of the country, the Albanian communists launched a tremendous terror campaign, shooting intellectuals and arresting thousands of innocent people.", "Some died due to suffering torture.Albania was one of the only European country occupied by the Axis powers that ended World War II with a larger Jewish population than before the war.", "Some 1,200 Jewish residents and refugees from other Balkan countries were hidden by Albanian families during World War II, according to official records.=== Albanian resistance in World War II ===The National Liberation War of the Albanian people started with the Italian invasion in Albania on 7 April 1939 and ended on 28 November 1944.During the antifascist national liberation war, the Albanian people fought against Italy and Germany, which occupied the country.", "In the 1939–1941 period, the antifascist resistance was led by the National Front nationalist groups and later by the Communist Party.=== Communist resistance ===Male and female Albanian partisans fighting in Tirana 1944In October 1941, the small Albanian communist groups established in Tirana an Albanian Communist Party of 130 members under the leadership of Hoxha and an eleven-man Central Committee.", "The Albanian communists supported the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, and did not participate in the antifascist struggle until Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941.The party at first had little mass appeal, and even its youth organization netted recruits.", "In mid-1942, however, party leaders increased their popularity by calling the young peoples to fight for the liberation of their country, that was occupied by Fascist Italy.This propaganda increased the number of new recruits by many young peoples eager for freedom.", "In September 1942, the party organized a popular front organization, the National Liberation Movement (NLM), from a number of resistance groups, including several that were strongly anticommunist.", "During the war, the NLM's communist-dominated partisans, in the form of the National Liberation Army, did not heed warnings from the Italian occupiers that there would be reprisals for guerrilla attacks.", "Partisan leaders, on the contrary, counted on using the lust for revenge such reprisals would elicit to win recruits.The communists turned the so-called war of liberation into a civil war, especially after the discovery of the Dalmazzo-Kelcyra protocol, signed by the Balli Kombëtar.With the intention of organizing a partisan resistance, they called a general conference in Pezë on 16 September 1942 where the Albanian National Liberation Front was set up.", "The Front included nationalist groups, but it was dominated by communist partisans.In December 1942, more Albanian nationalist groups were organized.", "Albanians fought against the Italians while, during Nazi German occupation, Balli Kombëtar allied itself with the Germans and clashed with Albanian communists, which continued their fight against Germans and Balli Kombëtar at the same time.=== Nationalist resistance ===A nationalist resistance to the Italian occupiers emerged in November 1942.Ali Këlcyra and Midhat Frashëri formed the Western-oriented Balli Kombëtar (National Front).", "Balli Kombëtar was a movement that recruited supporters from both the large landowners and peasantry.", "It opposed King Zog's return and called for the creation of a republic and the introduction of some economic and social reforms.", "The Balli Kombëtar's leaders acted conservatively, however, fearing that the occupiers would carry out reprisals against them or confiscate the landowners' estates.=== Communist revolution in Albania (1944) ===Albanian partisans marching in Tirana, 29 November 1944.The communist partisans regrouped and gained control of southern Albania in January 1944.In May they called a congress of members of the National Liberation Front (NLF), as the movement was by then called, at Përmet, which chose an Anti-Fascist Council of National Liberation to act as Albania's administration and legislature.", "Hoxha became the chairman of the council's executive committee and the National Liberation Army's supreme commander.The communist partisans defeated the last Balli Kombëtar forces in southern Albania by mid-summer 1944 and encountered only scattered resistance from the Balli Kombëtar and Legality when they entered central and northern Albania by the end of July.", "The British military mission urged the remnants of the nationalists not to oppose the communists' advance, and the Allies evacuated Kupi to Italy.", "Before the end of November, the main German troops had withdrawn from Tirana, and the communists took control of the capital by fighting what was left of the German army.", "A provisional government the communists had formed at Berat in October administered Albania with Enver Hoxha as prime minister.=== Consequences of the war ===The NLF's strong links with Yugoslavia's communists, who also enjoyed British military and diplomatic support, guaranteed that Belgrade would play a key role in Albania's postwar order.", "The Allies never recognized an Albanian government in exile or King Zog, nor did they ever raise the question of Albania or its borders at any of the major wartime conferences.No reliable statistics on Albania's wartime losses exist, but the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration reported about 30,000 Albanian war dead, 200 destroyed villages, 18,000 destroyed houses, and about 100,000 people left homeless.", "Albanian official statistics claim somewhat higher losses.", "Furthermore, thousands of Chams (Tsams, Albanians living in Northern Greece) were driven out of Greece with the justification that they had collaborated with the Nazis." ], [ "Second Republic", "=== Communism ===Dictator and leader of the Socialist People's Republic, Enver Hoxha.A collection of communists moved quickly after the Second World War to subdue all potential political enemies in Albania, break the country's landowners and minuscule middle class, and isolate Albania from western powers in order to establish the People's Republic of Albania.", "In 1945, the communists had liquidated, discredited, or driven into exile most of the country's interwar elite.", "The Internal Affairs Minister, Koçi Xoxe, a pro-Yugoslav erstwhile tinsmith, presided over the trial and the execution of thousands of opposition politicians, clan chiefs, and members of former Albanian governments who were condemned as \"war criminals.", "\"Thousands of their family members were imprisoned for years in work camps and jails and later exiled for decades to miserable state farms built on reclaimed marshlands.", "The communists' consolidation of control also produced a shift in political power in Albania from the northern Ghegs to the southern Tosks.", "Most communist leaders were middle-class Tosks, Vlachs and Orthodox, and the party drew most of its recruits from Tosk-inhabited areas, while the Ghegs, with their centuries-old tradition of opposing authority, distrusted the new Albanian rulers and their alien Marxist doctrines.In December 1945, Albanians elected a new People's Assembly, but only candidates from the Democratic Front (previously the National Liberation Movement then the National Liberation Front) appeared on the electoral lists, and the communists used propaganda and terror tactics to gag the opposition.", "Official ballot tallies showed that 92% of the electorate voted and that 93% of the voters chose the Democratic Front ticket.", "The assembly convened in January 1946, annulled the monarchy, and transformed Albania into a \"people's republic.", "\"The new leaders inherited an Albania plagued by many evils: widespread poverty, overwhelming illiteracy, gjakmarrje (\"blood feuds\"), epidemics of disease and blatant subjugation of women.", "In an attempt to eradicate these ills, the Communists have devised a programme of radical modernization.", "The first important measure was a rapid and uncompromising agrarian reform, which dismantled the large estates and distributed the plots to the peasants.", "This reform destroyed the powerful bey class.", "The government has also decided to nationalize industry, banks and all commercial and foreign properties.", "Shortly after the agrarian reform, the Albanian government began to collectivise agriculture, a process that will continue until 1967.In rural areas, the communist regime suppressed the centuries-old blood feud and patriarchal structure of the family and clans, thus destroying the semi-feudal Bajraktars class.", "The traditional role of women, confinement to the home and farm, changed dramatically when they achieved legal equality with men and became active participants in all areas of society.Uneasy foreign relations resulted in a decline in the rate of income increase during the 1961 to 1965 period.Enver Hoxha and Mehmet Shehu emerged as communist leaders in Albania, and are recognized by most western nations.", "They began to concentrate primarily on securing and maintaining their power base by killing all their political adversaries, and secondarily on preserving Albania's independence and reshaping the country according to the precepts of Stalinism so they could remain in power and develop the nation's economy.", "A total of 43,000 people have been imprisoned or executed in forty-five years by the Stalinist regime.", "According to the Albanian Association of Former Political Prisoners, 6,000 people were executed by the Stalinist regime from 1945 to 1991.Albania became an ally of the Soviet Union, but this came to an end after 1956 over the advent of de-Stalinization, causing the Soviet-Albanian split.", "A strong political alliance with China followed, leading to several billion dollars in aid, which was curtailed after 1974, causing the Sino-Albanian split.", "China cut off aid in 1978 when Albania attacked its policies after the death of Chinese leader Mao Zedong.", "Large-scale purges of officials occurred during the 1970s.During the period of socialist construction of Albania, the country saw rapid economic growth.", "For the first time, Albania was beginning to produce the major part of its own commodities domestically, which in some areas were able to compete in foreign markets.", "During the period of 1960 to 1970, the average annual rate of increase of Albania's national income was 29 percent higher than the world average and 56 percent higher than the European average.", "Also during this period, because of the monopolised socialist economy, Albania was the only country in the world that imposed no imposts or taxes on its people whatsoever.Enver Hoxha, who ruled Albania for four decades, died on 11 April 1985.Soon after Hoxha's death, voices for change emerged in the Albanian society and the government began to seek closer ties with the West in order to improve economic conditions.Eventually the new regime of Ramiz Alia introduced some liberalisation, and granting the freedom to travel abroad in 1990.The new government made efforts to improve ties with the outside world.", "The elections of March 1991 kept the former Communists in power, but a general strike and urban opposition led to the formation of a coalition cabinet that included non-Communists.In 1967, the authorities conducted a violent campaign to extinguish religious practice in Albania, claiming that religion had divided the Albanian nation and kept it mired in backwardness.", "Student agitators combed the countryside, forcing Albanians to quit practicing their faith.", "Despite complaints, even by APL members, all churches, mosques, monasteries, and other religious institutions had been closed or converted into warehouses, gymnasiums, and workshops by year's end.", "A special decree abrogated the charters by which the country's main religious communities had operated.=== Albania and Yugoslavia === Both countries were members of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon).Until Yugoslavia's expulsion from the Cominform in 1948, Albania acted like a Yugoslav satellite and the President of Yugoslavia, Josip Broz Tito aimed to use his choke hold on the Albanian party to incorporate the entire country into Yugoslavia.", "After Germany's withdrawal from Kosovo in late 1944, Yugoslavia's communist partisans took possession of the province and committed retaliatory massacres against Albanians.", "Before the second World War, the Communist Party of Yugoslavia had supported transferring Kosovo to Albania, but Yugoslavia's postwar communist regime insisted on preserving the country's prewar borders.In repudiating the 1943 Mukaj agreement under pressure from the Yugoslavs, Albania's communists had consented to restore Kosovo to Yugoslavia after the war.", "In January 1945, the two governments signed a treaty reincorporating Kosovo into Yugoslavia as an autonomous province.", "Shortly thereafter, Yugoslavia became the first country to recognize Albania's provisional government.Relations between Albania and Yugoslavia declined, however, when the Albanians began complaining that the Yugoslavs were paying too little for Albanian raw materials and exploiting Albania through the joint stock companies.", "In addition, the Albanians sought investment funds to develop light industries and an oil refinery, while the Yugoslavs wanted the Albanians to concentrate on agriculture and raw-material extraction.", "The head of Albania's Economic Planning Commission and one of Hoxha's allies, Nako Spiru, became the leading critic of Yugoslavia's efforts to exert economic control over Albania.", "Tito distrusted Hoxha and the other intellectuals in the Albanian party and, through Xoxe and his loyalists, attempted to unseat them.In 1947, Yugoslavia's leaders engineered an all-out offensive against anti-Yugoslav Albanian communists, including Hoxha and Spiru.", "In May, Tirana announced the arrest, trial, and conviction of nine People's Assembly members, all known for opposing Yugoslavia, on charges of antistate activities.", "A month later, the Communist Party of Yugoslavia's Central Committee accused Hoxha of following \"independent\" policies and turning the Albanian people against Yugoslavia.=== Albania and the Soviet Union ===The Pasha Liman Base was the only Soviet base in the Mediterranean during the Cold War.Albania became dependent on Soviet aid and know-how after the break with Yugoslavia in 1948.In February 1949, Albania gained membership in the communist bloc's organization for coordinating economic planning, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance.", "Tirana soon entered into trade agreements with Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, and the Soviet Union.", "Soviet and central European technical advisers took up residence in Albania, and the Soviet Union also sent Albania military advisers and built a submarine installation on Sazan Island.After the Soviet-Yugoslav split, Albania and Bulgaria were the only countries the Soviet Union could use to funnel war material to the communists fighting in Greece.", "What little strategic value Albania offered the Soviet Union, however, gradually shrank as nuclear arms technology developed.Anxious to pay homage to Stalin, Albania's rulers implemented new elements of the Stalinist economic system.", "In 1949, Albania adopted the basic elements of the Soviet fiscal system, under which state enterprises paid direct contributions to the treasury from their profits and kept only a share authorized for self-financed investments and other purposes.", "In 1951, the Albanian government launched its first five-year plan, which emphasized exploiting the country's oil, chromite, copper, nickel, asphalt, and coal resources; expanding electricity production and the power grid; increasing agricultural output; and improving transportation.", "The government began a program of rapid industrialization after the APL's Second Party Congress and a campaign of forced collectivization of farmland in 1955.At the time, private farms still produced about 87% of Albania's agricultural output, but by 1960 the same percentage came from collective or state farms.Stalin died in March 1953, and apparently fearing that the Soviet ruler's demise might encourage rivals within the Albanian party's ranks, neither Hoxha nor Shehu risked traveling to Moscow to attend his funeral.", "The Soviet Union's subsequent movement toward rapprochement with the hated Yugoslavs rankled the two Albanian leaders.", "Tirana soon came under pressure from Moscow to copy, at least formally, the new Soviet model for a collective leadership.", "In July 1953, Hoxha handed over the foreign affairs and defense portfolios to loyal followers, but he kept both the top party post and the premiership until 1954, when Shehu became Albania's prime minister.", "The Soviet Union, responding with an effort to raise the Albanian leaders' morale, elevated diplomatic relations between the two countries to the ambassadorial level.Despite some initial expressions of enthusiasm, Hoxha and Shehu mistrusted Nikita Khrushchev's programs of \"peaceful coexistence\" and \"different roads to socialism\" because they appeared to pose the threat that Yugoslavia might again try to take control of Albania.", "Hoxha and Shehu were also alarmed at the prospect that Moscow might prefer less dogmatic rulers in Albania.", "Tirana and Belgrade renewed diplomatic relations in December 1953, but Hoxha refused Khrushchev's repeated appeals to rehabilitate posthumously the pro-Yugoslav Xoxe as a gesture to Tito.", "The Albanian duo instead tightened their grip on their country's domestic life and let the propaganda war with the Yugoslavs grind on.=== Albania and China ===The People's Republic of Albania played a role in the Sino-Soviet split far outweighing either its size or its importance in the communist world.", "In 1958, the nation stood with the People's Republic of China in opposing Moscow on issues of peaceful coexistence, de-Stalinization, and Yugoslavia's separate road to socialism through decentralization of economic life.", "The Soviet Union, central European countries, and China, all offered Albania large amounts of aid.", "Soviet leaders also promised to build a large Palace of Culture in Tirana as a symbol of the Soviet people's \"love and friendship\" for the Albanian people.Despite these gestures, Tirana was dissatisfied with Moscow's economic policy toward Albania.", "Hoxha and Shehu apparently decided in May or June 1960 that Albania was assured of Chinese support, and they openly sided with the People's Republic of China when sharp polemics erupted between the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union.", "Ramiz Alia, at the time a candidate-member of the Politburo and Hoxha's adviser on ideological questions, played a prominent role in the rhetoric.Hoxha and Shehu continued their harangue against the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia at the APL's Fourth Party Congress in February 1961.During the congress, the Albanian government announced the broad outlines of the country's Third Five-Year Plan from 1961 to 65, which allocated 54% of all investment to industry, thereby rejecting Khrushchev's wish to make Albania primarily an agricultural producer.", "Moscow responded by canceling aid programs and lines of credit for Albania, but the Chinese again came to the rescue.The Albanian-Chinese relations had stagnated by 1970, and when the Asian giant began to reemerge from isolation in the early 1970s, Mao Zedong and the other communist Chinese leaders reassessed their commitment to tiny Albania, starting the Sino-Albanian split.", "In response, Tirana began broadening its contacts with the outside world.", "Albania opened trade negotiations with France, Italy, and the recently independent Asian and African states, and in 1971 it normalized relations with Yugoslavia and Greece.", "Albania's leaders abhorred the People's Republic of China's contacts with the United States in the early 1970s, and its press and radio ignored President Richard Nixon's trip to Beijing in 1972." ], [ "Third Republic", "As Hoxha's health declined, the first secretary of the People's Socialist Republic began planning for an orderly succession.", "In 1976, the People's Parliament adopted its second communist Constitution of the post-war era.", "The constitution guaranteed the people of Albania the freedom of speech, press, organization, association, and parliament but subordinated these rights to the individual's duties to society as a whole.", "The constitution enshrined in law the idea of autarky and prohibited the government from seeking financial aid or credits or from forming joint companies with partners from capitalist or communist countries perceived to be \"revisionist\".", "The constitution's preamble also boasted that the foundations of religious belief in Albania had been abolished.In 1980, Hoxha turned to Ramiz Alia to succeed him as Albania's communist patriarch, overlooking his long-standing comrade-in-arms, Mehmet Shehu.", "Hoxha first tried to convince Shehu to step aside voluntarily, but when this move failed, Hoxha arranged for all the members of the Politburo to rebuke him for allowing his son to become engaged to the daughter of a former bourgeois family.", "Hoxha purged the members of Shehu's family and his supporters within the police and military.", "In November 1982, Hoxha announced that Shehu had been a foreign spy working simultaneously for the United States, British, Soviet, and Yugoslav intelligence agencies in planning the assassination of Hoxha himself.", "\"He was buried like a dog\", the dictator wrote in the Albanian edition of his book, 'The Titoites'.", "Hoxha went into semi-retirement in early 1983, and Alia assumed responsibility for Albania's administration.", "Alia traveled extensively around Albania, standing in for Hoxha at major events and delivering addresses laying down new policies and intoning litanies to the enfeebled president.", "Alia succeeded to the presidency and became legal secretary of the APL two days later.", "In due course, he became a dominant figure in the Albanian media, and his slogans appeared painted in crimson letters on signboards across the country." ], [ "Fourth Republic", "=== Transition ===Sali Berisha of the Democratic Party became the second President of the Republic.In 1985, Ramiz Alia became the first President of Albania.", "Alia tried to follow in Enver Hoxha's footsteps, but the changes had already started and the collapse of communism throughout Europe led to widespread changes within the society of Albania.", "Mikhail Gorbachev had appeared in the Soviet Union with new rules and policies (glasnost and perestroika).", "However, Alia took similar steps, signing the Helsinki Agreement and allowing pluralism under pressure from students and workers.", "Afterwards, the first multi-party elections took place since the communists assumed power in Albania.", "The Socialist Party led by Ramiz Alia won the 1991 elections.", "Nevertheless, it was clear that the change would not be stopped.", "Pursuant to a 29 April 1991 interim basic law, Albanians ratified a constitution on 28 November 1998, establishing a democratic system of government based upon the rule of law and guaranteeing the protection of fundamental human rights.Furthermore, the Communists retained support and governmental control in the first round of elections under the interim law, but fell two months later during a general strike.", "A committee of \"national salvation\" took over but also collapsed in half a year.", "On 22 March 1992, the Communists were trumped by the Democratic Party after winning the 1992 parliamentary elections.", "The transition from the socialist state to a parliamentary system had many challenges.", "The Democratic Party had to implement the reforms it had promised, but they were either too slow or did not solve the problems, so the people were disappointed when their hopes for fast prosperity went unfulfilled.=== Democratization ===After the fall of communism in Albania, a dramatic growth of new developments has taken place in Tirana, with many new exclusive flats and apartments.The Democratic Party took control after winning the second multi-party elections, deposing the Communist Party.", "Afterwards, Sali Berisha became the second President.", "Today, Berisha is the longest-serving and the only President of Albania elected to a second term.", "In 1995, Albania became the 35th member of the Council of Europe and requested membership in North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).", "The people of Albania have continued to emigrate to western European countries, especially to Greece and Italy but also to the United States.", "Deliberate programmes of economic and democratic reforms were put in place, but Albanian inexperience with capitalism led to the proliferation of pyramid schemes, which were not banned due to the corruption of the government.", "Anarchy in late 1996 to early 1997 alarmed the world and prompted international mediation.In the early spring 1997, Italy led a multinational military and humanitarian intervention (Operation Alba), authorized by the United Nations Security Council, to help stabilize the country.", "The government of Berisha collapsed in 1997 in the wake of the additional collapse of pyramid schemes and widespread corruption, which caused anarchy and rebellion throughout the country.", "The government attempted to suppress the rebellion by military force but the attempt failed, due to long-term corrosion of the Military of Albania due to political and social factors.", "Few months later, after the 1997 parliamentary elections the Democratic Party was defeated by the Socialist Party, winning just 25 seats out of a total of 156.Sali Berisha resigned and the Socialists elected Rexhep Meidani as President.", "Including to that, the leader of the Socialists Fatos Nano was elected as Prime Minister, a post which he held until October 1998, when he resigned as a result of the tense situation created in the country after the assassination of Azem Hajdari, a prominent leader of the Democratic Party.", "Due to that, Pandeli Majko was then elected Prime Minister until November 1999, when he was replaced by Ilir Meta.", "The Parliament adopted the current Constitution on 29 November 1998.Albania approved its constitution through a popular referendum which was held in November 1998, but which was boycotted by the opposition.", "The general local elections of October 2000 marked the loss of control of the Democrats over the local governments and a victory for the Socialists.In 2001, Albania made strides toward democratic reform and the rule of law, serious deficiencies in the electoral code remain to be addressed, as demonstrated in the elections.", "International observers judged the elections to be acceptable, but the Union for Victory Coalition, the second-largest vote recipient, disputed the results and boycotted parliament until 31 January 2002.In June 2005, the democratic coalition formed a government with the Sali Berisha.", "His return to power in the elections of 3 July 2005 ended eight years of Socialist Party rule.", "After Alfred Moisiu, in 2006 Bamir Topi was elected President of Albania until 2010.Despite the political situation, the economy of Albania grew at an estimated 5% in 2007.The Albanian lek has strengthened from 143 lekë to the US dollar in 2000 to 92 lekë in 2007.=== Present ===Albania joined the 2010 NATO summit in Brussels.On 23 June 2013, the seventh parliamentary elections took place, won by Edi Rama of the Socialist Party.", "During his tenure as 33rd Prime Minister, Albania has implemented numerous reforms focused on the modernizing the economy and democratizing of state institutions like the judiciary and law enforcement.", "Additionally, unemployment has been steadily reduced to the 4th lowest unemployment rate in the Balkans.After the collapse of the Eastern Bloc, Albania started to develop closer ties with Western Europe.", "At the 2008 Bucharest summit, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) invited Albania to join the alliance.", "In April 2014 Albania became a full member of the NATO.", "Albania was among the first southeastern European countries to join the Partnership for peace programme.", "Albania applied to join the European Union, becoming an official candidate for accession to the European Union in June 2014.In 2017, the eighth parliamentary elections took place, simultaneously with the presidential elections.", "The presidential elections were held on 19, 20, 27 and 28 April 2017.In the fourth round, the incumbent Chairman and then-Prime Minister, Ilir Meta was elected as the eighth President of Albania with 87 votes.", "However, the result of the parliamentary elections held on 25 June 2017 was a victory for the Socialist Party led by Edi Rama, that received 48.33% of the votes of the elections, ahead of 5 other candidates.", "Lulzim Basha, the Democratic Party candidate and runner-up in the election, received only 28.81% of the votes.In April 2021 parliamentary election, ruling Socialist Party, led by Prime Minister Edi Rama, secured its third consecutive victory, winning nearly half of votes and enough seats in parliament to govern alone.", "In February 2022, Albania's Constitutional Court overturned parliament's impeachment of President Ilir Meta, opponent of the ruling Socialist Party.", "In June 2022, Albanian parliament elected Bajram Begaj, the candidate of the ruling Socialist Party (PS), as the new President of Albania.", "On 24 July 2022, Bajram Begaj was sworn in as Albania's ninth president.", "On 19 July 2022, Albania started the negotiations with the European Union.", "Also in 6 December, in Tirana was held the EU-Western Balkans Summit.", "It was the first EU Summit hold in Tirana." ], [ "See also", "* Albanians* Albanian nationalism * Politics of Albania* Timeline of Albanian history* Epitaph of Gllavenica* Gjergj Arianiti* Greater Albania * Illyrians" ], [ "References", "===Sources===***** *" ], [ "Bibliography", " Abrahams, Fred C ''Modern Albania : From Dictatorship to Democracy in Europe'' (2015)* Bernd Jürgen Fischer.", "''Albania at war, 1939-1945'' (Purdue UP, 1999)* Elsie, Robert.", "''Historical Dictionary of Albania'' (2010) online* Elsie, Robert.", "''The Tribes of Albania: History, Society and Culture'' (I.B.", "Tauris, 2015)* Fischer, Bernd J., and Oliver Jens Schmitt.", "''A Concise History of Albania'' (Cambridge University Press, 2022).", "* Hall, Richard C. ''War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia'' (2014) excerpt* Najbor, Patrice.", "''Histoire de l'Albanie et de sa maison royale'' (5 volumes), JePublie, Paris, 2008, ().", "* Rama, Shinasi A.", "''The end of communist rule in Albania : political change and the role of the student movement'' (Routledge, 2019)* Reci, Senada, and Luljeta Zefi.", "\"Albania-Greece sea issue through the history facts and the future of conflict resolution.\"", "''Journal of Liberty and International Affairs'' 7.3 (2021): 299–309.", "* Sette, Alessandro.", "''From Paris to Vlorë.", "Italy and the Settlement of the Albanian Question (1919–1920)'', in ''The Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920) and Its Aftermath: Settlements, Problems and Perceptions'', eds.", "S. Arhire, T. Rosu, (2020).", "* 2003 U.S. Department of State Background Note of Albania* Vickers, Miranda.", "''The Albanians: A Modern History'' (I.B.", "Tauris, 2001)* Winnifrith, Tom, ed.", "''Perspectives on Albania''.", "(Palgrave Macmillan, 1992).", "* Winnifrith, T. J.", "''Nobody's Kingdom: A History of Northern Albania'' (2021)." ], [ "External links", "* History of Albania: Primary Documents* Library of Congress Country Study of Albania* Famille royale d'Albanie, site officiel en langue anglaise English version* L'Albanie et le sauvetage des Juifs* Books about Albania and the Albanian people ''(scribd.com)'' Reference of books (and some journal articles) about Albania and the Albanian people; their history, language, origin, culture, literature, etc.", "Public domain books, fully accessible online." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Handfasting" ], [ "Introduction", "''Betrothed'' by Richard Dudensing (1833–1899)'''Handfasting''' is a traditional practice that, depending on the term's usage, may define an unofficiated wedding (in which a couple marries without an officiant, usually with the intent of later undergoing a second wedding with an officiant), a betrothal (an engagement in which a couple has formally promised to wed, and which can be broken only through divorce), or a temporary wedding (in which a couple makes an intentionally temporary marriage commitment).", "The phrase refers to the making fast of a pledge by the shaking or joining of hands.The terminology and practice are especially associated with Celtic peoples, as well as later being adopted by the Anglo-Saxons.", "As a form of betrothal or unofficiated wedding, handfasting was common up through Tudor England; as a form of temporary marriage, it was practiced in 17th-century Scotland and has been revived in Neopaganism.Sometimes the term is also used synonymously with \"wedding\" or \"marriage\" among Neopagans to avoid perceived non-Pagan religious connotations associated with those terms.", "It is also used, apparently ahistorically, to refer to an alleged pre-Christian practice of symbolically fastening or wrapping the hands of a couple together during the wedding ceremony." ], [ "Etymology", "The verb ''to handfast'' in the sense of \"to formally promise, to make a contract\" is recorded for Late Old English, especially in the context of a contract of marriage.", "The derived ''handfasting'' is for a ceremony of engagement or betrothal is recorded in Early Modern English.", "The term was presumably loaned into English from Old Norse '' handfesta'' \"to strike a bargain by joining hands\"; there are also comparanda from the Ingvaeonic languages: Old Frisian ''hondfestinge'' and Middle Low German ''hantvestinge''.", "The term is derived from the verb ''to handfast'', used in Middle to Early Modern English for the making of a contract.", "In modern Dutch, \"handvest\" is the term for \"pact\" or \"charter\" (e.g., \"Atlantisch handvest\", \"Handvest der Verenigde Naties\"); cf.", "also the Italian loan word manifesto in English." ], [ "Medieval and Tudor England", "The Fourth Lateran Council (1215) forbade clandestine marriage, and required marriages to be publicly announced in churches by priests.", "In the sixteenth century, the Council of Trent legislated more specific requirements, such as the presence of a priest and two witnesses, as well as promulgation of the marriage announcement thirty days prior to the ceremony.", "These laws did not extend to the regions affected by the Protestant Reformation.", "In England, clergy performed many clandestine marriages, such as so-called Fleet Marriage, which were held legally valid; and in Scotland, unsolemnised common-law marriage was still valid.From about the 12th to the 17th century, \"handfasting\" in England was simply a term for \"engagement to be married\", or a ceremony held on the occasion of such a contract, usually about a month prior to a church wedding, at which the marrying couple formally declared that each accepted the other as spouse.", "Handfasting was legally binding: as soon as the couple made their vows to each other they were validly married.", "It was not a temporary arrangement.", "Just as with church weddings of the period, the union which handfasting created could only be dissolved by death.", "English legal authorities held that even if not followed by intercourse, handfasting was as binding as any vow taken in church before a priest.During handfasting, the man and woman, in turn, would take the other by the right hand and declare aloud that they there and then accepted each other as husband and wife.", "The words might vary but traditionally consisted of a simple formula such as \"I (Name) take thee (Name) to my wedded husband/wife, till death us depart, and thereto I plight thee my troth\".", "Because of this, handfasting was also known in England as \"troth-plight\".", "Gifts were often exchanged, especially rings: a gold coin broken in half between the couple was also common.", "Other tokens recorded include gloves, a crimson ribbon tied in a knot, and even a silver toothpick.", "Handfasting might take place anywhere, indoors or out.", "It was frequently in the home of the bride, but according to records handfastings also took place in taverns, in an orchard and even on horseback.", "The presence of a credible witness or witnesses was usual.For much of the relevant period, church courts dealt with marital matters.", "Ecclesiastical law recognised two forms of handfasting, ''sponsalia per verba de praesenti'' and ''sponsalia per verba de futuro''.", "In ''sponsalia de praesenti'', the most usual form, the couple declared they there and then accepted each other as man and wife.", "The ''sponsalia de futuro'' form was less binding, as the couple took hands only to declare their intention to marry each other at some future date.", "The latter was closer to a modern engagement and could, in theory, be ended with the consent of both parties – but only providing intercourse had not occurred.", "If intercourse did take place, then the ''sponsalia de futuro'' \"was automatically converted into ''de iure'' marriage\".Despite the validity of handfasting, it was expected to be solemnised by a church wedding fairly soon afterwards.", "Penalties might follow for those who did not comply.", "Ideally the couple were also supposed to refrain from intercourse until then.", "Complaints by preachers suggest that they often did not wait, but at least until the early 1600s the common attitude to this kind of anticipatory behaviour seems to have been lenient.Handfasting remained an acceptable way of marrying in England throughout the Middle Ages but declined in the early modern period.", "In some circumstances handfasting was open to abuse, with persons who had undergone \"troth-plight\" occasionally refusing to proceed to a church wedding, creating ambiguity about their former betrothed's marital status.", "Shakespeare negotiated and witnessed a handfasting in 1604, and was called as a witness in the suit ''Bellott v Mountjoy'' about the dowry in 1612.Historians speculate that his own marriage to Anne Hathaway was so conducted when he was a young man in 1582, as the practice still had credence in Warwickshire at the time.After the beginning of the 17th century, gradual changes in English law meant the presence of an officiating priest or magistrate became necessary for a marriage to be legal.", "Finally the 1753 Marriage Act, aimed at suppressing clandestine marriages by introducing more stringent conditions for validity, effectively ended the handfasting custom in England." ], [ "Early modern Scotland", "In February 1539 Marie Pieris, a French lady-in-waiting to Mary of Guise, the consort of James V of Scotland, was married by handfasting to Lord Seton at Falkland Palace.", "This ceremony was recorded in the royal accounts for the payment to an apothecary for his work on the day of \"Lord Seytounis handfasting\".The Scottish Hebrides, particularly in the Isle of Skye, show some records of a 'Handfast\" or \"left-handed\" marriage taking in the late 1600s, when the Gaelic scholar Martin Martin noted, \"It was an ancient custom in the Isles that a man take a maid as his wife and keep her for the space of a year without marrying her; and if she pleased him all the while, he married her at the end of the year and legitimatised her children; but if he did not love her, he returned her to her parents.", "\"The most disastrous war fought between the MacLeods and MacDonalds of Skye, culminating in the Battle of Coire Na Creiche, \"when Donald Gorm Mor who handfasted for a year and a day with Margaret MacLeod, a sister of Rory Mor of Dunvegan, expelled his mistress so ignominiously from Duntulm.", "It is, indeed, not improbable that it was as a result of this war that Lord Ochiltree's Committee, that formed the Statutes of Iona in 1609 and the Regulations for the Chiefs in 1616, was induced to insert a clause in the Statutes of Iona by which 'marriages contracted for several archaic definition \"single\" years' were prohibited; and any who might disregard this regulation were to be 'punished as fornicators'\".By the 18th century, the Kirk of Scotland no longer recognised marriages formed by mutual consent and subsequent sexual intercourse, even though the Scottish civil authorities did.", "To minimise any resulting legal actions, the ceremony was to be performed in public.", "This situation persisted until 1939, when Scottish marriage laws were reformed by the Marriage (Scotland) Act 1939 and handfasting was no longer recognised.The existence of handfasting as a distinct form of \"trial marriage\" was doubted by A. E. Anton, in ''Handfasting in Scotland'' (1958).", "In the article, he asserted that the first reference to such a practice is by Thomas Pennant in his 1790 ''Tour in Scotland'', that this report had been taken at face value throughout the 19th century, and was perpetuated in Walter Scott's 1820 novel ''The Monastery''.", "However, the Pennant claim in 1790 was not the first time this had been discussed or put to print, as the Martin Martin texts predate Pennant by almost 100 years." ], [ "Neopaganism", "Neopagan handfasting ceremonyThe term \"handfasting\" or \"hand-fasting\" has been in use in Celtic neopaganism and Wicca for wedding ceremonies from at least the late 1960s, apparently first used in print by Hans Holzer.Handfasting was mentioned in the 1980 Jim Morrison biography ''No One Here Gets Out Alive'' and again in the 1991 film ''The Doors'', where a version of the real 1970 handfasting ceremony of Morrison and Patricia Kennealy was depicted (with the actual Kennealy-Morrison portraying the Celtic neopagan priestess).=== Handfasting ribbon ===The term has entered the English-speaking mainstream, most likely from neopagan wedding ceremonies during the early 2000s, often erroneously being described as \"pre-Christian\" by wedding planners.", "Evidence that the term \"handfasting\" had been re-interpreted as describing this ceremony specifically is found in the later 2000s, e.g.", "\"handfasting—the blessed marriage rite in which the hands of you and your beloved are wrapped in ribbon as you 'tie the knot'.", "\"By the 2010s, \"handfasting ceremonies\" were on offer by commercial wedding organizers and had mostly lost their neopagan association (apart from occasional claims that attributes the ceremony to the \"ancient Celts\").", "The term \"handfasting ribbon\" appears from about 2005." ], [ "See also", "* Betrothal* Broomstick marriage* Civil marriage* Common-law marriage* Elopement* Self-uniting marriage* Temporary marriage* Marriage law* Black wedding* White wedding" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "** * * Stearns, Peter N. Encyclopedia of European Social History: from 1350 to 2000.Scribner, 2001.", "* Dolan, Frances E. Renaissance Quarterly, vol.", "50, no.", "2, 1997, pp.", "653–655.JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3039244." ], [ "External links", "* Historical handfasting* Handfasting Information – facts and beliefs * The History of Handfasting* 'Cohabitation in Scotland: Lessons from history'" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of the Pacific Islands" ], [ "Introduction", "Map of the Pacific Ocean.The '''history of the Pacific Islands''' covers the history of the islands in the Pacific Ocean." ], [ "Histories", "===Cook Islands===In Cook Islands Māori pre-history, Chieftains from present day French Polynesia and their tribes, along with navigators, took their ships in search of unknown or newly found lands, first arriving in the southern island groups around 800 AD or earlier.", "Many other tribal migrations from French Polynesia, notably Tahiti would continue for centuries forming a unique Māori society.Similarly, the northern islands were also settled from the east, with some of the northern islands possibly having had later interactions with Western Polynesia.", "The capital Rarotonga, is known, from various oral histories to have been the launching site of seven waka ship voyagers who settled in New Zealand, becoming the major tribes of the New Zealand Māori.", "Up until relatively recently there was continuous contact between both lands where back and forth migration and trade took place.", "The Cook Islands Te Reo Māori language is closely related to the Te Reo Maori indigenous language of New Zealand.", "Spanish ships visited the islands in the 16th century; the first written record of contact with the islands came with the sighting of Pukapuka by Spanish sailor Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira in 1595 who called it ''San Bernardo'' (Saint Bernard).", "A few years later, a Spanish expedition led by Pedro Fernandes de Queirós made the first recorded European landing in the islands when he set foot on Rakahanga in 1606, calling it ''Gente Hermosa'' (Beautiful People).", "The country is named after British captain Captain James Cook who surveyed and landed on some of the islands between 1774 and 1777.===Easter Island===Easter Island is one of the youngest inhabited territories on earth, and for most of the history of Easter Island it was the most isolated inhabited territory on Earth.", "Its inhabitants, the Rapa Nui, have endured famines, epidemics, civil war, slave raids, and colonialism; have seen their population crash on more than one occasion.===Fiji===The history of Fiji dates back to ancient times.", "There are many theories as to how the Fijian race came into existence.", "Around 1500 BC Fiji was settled by Austronesian seafarers.", "Around 900–600 BC Moturiki Island was settled.", "By 500 BC, Melanesian seafarers had reached Fiji and intermarried with the Austronesian inhabitants, giving rise to the modern Fijian people.", "In 1643 AD, Abel Tasman sighted Vanua Levu Island and northern Taveuni.", "According to native oral legends Fijians were also descendants of a nomadic tribe from Tanganika (Tanzania).===Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands===The history of Guam involves phases including the early arrival of people known today as the ancient Chamorros, the development of \"pre-contact\" society, Spanish colonization, and the present American rule of the island.", "Archaeologists using carbon-dating have broken Pre-Contact Guam (i.e.", "Chamorro) history into three periods: \"Pre-Latte\" (BC 2000?", "to AD 1) \"Transitional Pre-Latte\" (AD 1 to AD 1000), and \"Latte\" (AD 1000 to AD 1521).", "Archaeological evidence also suggests that Chamorro society was on the verge of another transition phase by 1521, when Ferdinand Magellan's expedition arrived, as latte stones became bigger.", "The original inhabitants of Guam are believed to be descendants of Taiwanese indigenous peoples originating from the high mountains of Taiwan as early as 4,000 BC, having linguistic and cultural similarities to Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines.", "Guam's history of colonialism is the longest among the Pacific islands and Chamorros are considered one of the oldest mixed race in the Pacific.", "In 1668 the Spanish formally incorporated the islands to the Spanish East Indies and founded a colony on Guam as a resting place for the west-bound Manila galleons.", "The territory was ceded by Spain more than two centuries later, when in 1898 the United States took over the islands following the Spanish–American War.", "The chamorro culture has evolved much since European contact and has been much influenced by Spanish and American colonization.", "Although the original culture no longer exists, it is now being revived with contemporary alternatives and similarities in styles with all the other pacific islands.", "Not one unique, but all combined to form a uniqueness in style, to today's modern interpretation of what their culture might have been.", "It should also be mentioned that the Chamorros on Guam view their culture & language differently than the Chamorros on the Northern Mariana Islands.===Hawaii===Hawaiian history is inextricably tied into a larger Polynesian phenomenon.", "Hawaii is the northernmost vertex of the Polynesian Triangle, a region of the Pacific Ocean anchored by three island groups: Hawaii, Rapa Nui (Easter Island), and Aotearoa (New Zealand).", "The many island cultures within the Polynesian Triangle share similar languages derived from a proto-Malayo-Polynesian language used in Southeast Asia 5,000 years ago.", "Polynesians also share cultural traditions, such as religion, social organization, myths, and material culture.", "Anthropologists believe that all Polynesians have descended from a South Pacific proto-culture created by an Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) people that had migrated from Southeast Asia.", "The seven main Polynesian cultures are Aotearoa, Hawaii, Rapa Nui, Marquesas, Samoa, Tahiti, and Tonga.The early settlement history of Hawaii is a topic of continuing debate.", "Estimates for the date of first settlement of the Hawai'ian islands range from the 3rd century C.E.", "to between 940 and 1130 C.E.===Kiribati===In the history of Kiribati, the islands which now form the Republic of Kiribati have been inhabited for at least seven hundred years, and possibly much longer.", "The initial Micronesian population, which remains the overwhelming majority today, was visited by Polynesian and Melanesian invaders before the first European sailors \"discovered\" the islands in the 16th century.", "For much of the subsequent period, the main island chain, the Gilbert Islands, was ruled as part of the British Empire.", "The country gained its independence in 1979 and has since been known as Kiribati.===New Caledonia===In the history of New Caledonia, the diverse group of people that settled over the Melanesian archipelagos are known as the Lapita.", "They arrived in the archipelago now commonly known as New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands around 1500 BC.", "The Lapita were highly skilled navigators and agriculturists with influence over a large area of the Pacific.", "From about the 11th century Polynesians also arrived and mixed with the populations of the archipelago.", "Europeans first sighted New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands in the late 18th century.", "The British explorer James Cook sighted Grande Terre in 1774 and named it ''New Caledonia'', Caledonia being the Latin name for Scotland.", "During the same voyage he also named the islands to the north of New Caledonia the New Hebrides (now Vanuatu), after the islands north of Scotland.===New Zealand===The History of New Zealand dates back to at least 700 years to when it was discovered and settled by Polynesians, who developed a distinct Māori culture centred on kinship links and land.", "The first European explorer, the Dutch Abel Tasman, came to New Zealand in 1642.From the late 18th century, the country was regularly visited by explorers and other sailors, missionaries, traders and adventurers.", "In 1840 the Treaty of Waitangi was signed between the British Crown and various Māori chiefs, bringing New Zealand into the British Empire and giving Māori equal rights with British citizens.", "There was extensive European and some Asian settlement throughout the rest of the century.", "War and the imposition of a European economic and legal system led to most of New Zealand's land passing from Māori to European ownership, and most Māori subsequently became impoverished.From the 1890s the New Zealand parliament enacted a number of progressive initiatives, including women's suffrage and old age pensions.", "From the 1930s the economy was highly regulated and an extensive welfare state was developed.", "Meanwhile, Māori culture underwent a renaissance, and from the 1950s Māori began moving to the cities in large numbers.", "This led to the development of a Māori protest movement which in turn led to greater recognition of the Treaty of Waitangi in the late 20th century.", "In the 1980s the economy was largely deregulated and a number of socially liberal policies, such as decriminalisation of homosexuality, were put in place.", "Foreign policy, which had previously consisted mostly of following Britain or the United States, became more independent.", "Subsequent governments have generally maintained these policies, although tempering the free market ethos somewhat.===Niue===The history of Niue can be traced back to a 1,000 years when the Polynesian settles came here.", "Traces of Pukapulan dialect are still there in the native language which is based on the Samoan and Tongan language.", "The Polynesian settlers were rather isolated as there was very little inter island trade and the existence of the limestone island was in itself very difficult due to lack of rivers and cultivable soil.The modern history of Niue can be traced back to 1774 with the arrival of Captain James Cook.", "Cook described the island as \"Savage Island\" in his records as the natives were not very welcoming to strangers.", "This was in complete contrast to the Tongans he described as \"The Friendly Islands\".", "Captain Cook tried to set his foot thrice on the island but was repulsed each of the three times.", "The natives at that time were quite hostile to strangers.", "Christianity was brought to the island by Peniamina in the year 1846 when he got converted during his stay at Samoa.", "The islanders were completely converted to Christianity by the end of the 19th century.", "Colonization took place thereafter and the island was declared as a part of the British Empire.The island country became independent in 1974 but still have a free association agreement with New Zealand and many of its citizens have become citizens of New Zealand.", "Now the Island country has a democracy and is governed by a legislative assembly consisting of 20 members.", "Niue is the smallest democracy in the world.===Papua New Guinea===The History of Papua New Guinea can be traced back to about 60,000 years ago when people first migrated towards the Australian continent.", "The written history began when European navigators first sighted New Guinea in the early part of the 16th century.", "Portuguese explorers first arrived from the west and later Spanish navigators from the east, after crossing the Pacific.", "The island was given its name \"New Guinea\" by Spanish explorer Yñigo Ortiz de Retez who sailed its coast in 1545.Archaeological evidence indicates that humans arrived on New Guinea at least 60,000 years ago, probably by sea from Southeast Asia during an ice age period when the sea was lower and distances between islands shorter.", "For an overview of the geological history of the continent of which New Guinea is a part, see Australia – New Guinea.", "Although the first arrivals were hunter-gatherers, early evidence shows that people managed the forest environment to provide food.", "The gardens of the New Guinea highlands are ancient, intensive permacultures, adapted to high population densities, very high rainfalls (as high as 10,000mm/yr (400in/yr)), earthquakes, hilly land, and occasional frost.", "There are indications that gardening was being practised at the same time that agriculture was developing in Mesopotamia and Egypt.===Samoa===In the history of Samoa, contact with Europeans began in the early 18th century but did not intensify until the arrival of the English.", "In 1722, Dutchman Jacob Roggeveen was the first European to sight the islands.", "Missionaries and traders arrived in the 1830s.", "Halfway through the 19th century, the United Kingdom, Germany, and the United States all claimed parts of the kingdom of Samoa, and established trading posts.", "King Malietoa Leaupepe died in 1898 and was succeeded by Malietoa Tooa Mataafa.", "The US and British consuls supported Malietoa Tanu, Leaupepe's son.", "US and British warships, including the USS ''Philadelphia'' shelled Apia on 15 March 1899.After World War I, the League of Nations carved up Samoa.", "Britain and New Zealand took over the western islands which became 'Western Samoa' and USA claimed the eastern half of the country which became American Samoa.", "In 1962, Western Samoa became the first Pacific Island nation to gain political independence.", "In 1997, Samoa officially dropped the 'Western' from its name as it was an appendage from its colonial era.===Solomon Islands===The human history of the Solomon Islands begins with the first settlement at least 30,000 years ago from New Guinea.", "They represented the furthest expansion of humans into the Pacific Ocean until the expansion of Austronesian-language speakers through the area around 4000 BCE, bringing new agricultural and maritime technology.", "Most of the languages spoken today in the Solomon Islands derive from this era, but some thirty languages of the pre-Austronesian settlers survive ''(see East Papuan languages).''", "The first European contact was that of Spanish explorer Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira whose expedition first sighted Santa Isabel island on 7 February 1568.Finding signs of alluvial gold on Guadalcanal, Mendaña believed he had found the source of King Solomon's wealth, and consequently named the islands \"The Islands of Solomon\".", "Many of the islands were also named by these explorers, including Guadalcanal, the Santa Cruz Islands, San Cristobal, Santa Ana and Santa Isabel.", "In 1595 and 1605 Spain again sent several expeditions to find the islands and establish a colony, though these were unsuccessful.", "In 1767 Captain Philip Carteret rediscovered Santa Cruz and Malaita.", "Later, Dutch, French and British navigators visited the islands; their reception was often hostile.===Tahiti===In the history of Tahiti, Tahiti is estimated to have been settled by Polynesians between CE 300 and 800 coming from Tonga and Samoa, although some estimates place the date earlier.", "The fertile island soil combined with fishing provided ample food for the population.", "Although the first European sighting of the islands was by a Spanish ship in 1606, Spain made no effort to trade with or colonize the island.", "Samuel Wallis, an English sea captain, sighted Tahiti on 18 June 1767, and is considered the first European visitor to the island.", "The perceived relaxation and contented nature of the local people and the characterization of the island as a paradise much impressed early European visitors, planting the seed for a romanticization by the West that endures to this day.===Tokelau===Archaeological evidence indicates that history of Tokelau's atol—Atafu, Nukunonu, and Fakaofo—were settled about 1,000 years ago, probably by voyages from Samoa, the Cook Islands and Tuvalu.", "Oral history traces local traditions and genealogies back several hundred years.", "Inhabitants followed Polynesian mythology with the local god Tui Tokelau; and developed forms of music (see Music of Tokelau) and art.", "The three atolls functioned largely independently while maintaining social and linguistic cohesion.", "Tokelauan society was governed by chiefly clans, and there were occasional inter-atoll skirmishes and wars as well as inter-marriage.", "Fakaofo, the \"chiefly island,\" held some dominance over Atafu and Nukunonu.", "Life on the atolls was subsistence-based, with reliance on fish and coconut.", "Commodore John Byron discovered Atafu on 24 June 1765 and named it \"Duke of York's Island.\"", "Parties onshore reported that there were no signs of current or previous inhabitants.===Tonga===The history of Tonga stretches back to around roughly 1000 AD, when the Polynesians arrived.", "Tonga became known as the Tongan Empire through extensive trading and its influence and show of strength and domination over parts of the Pacific (e.g.", "Samoa, Fiji).", "The Europeans arrived in the 17th century which was followed after a couple hundred years by a single unified Tongan kingdom.", "Archaeological evidence shows that the first settlers in Tonga sailed from the Santa Cruz Islands, as part of the original Austronesian-speakers' (Lapita) migration which originated out of southeast Asia some 6,000 years before present.", "Archaeological dating places Tonga as the oldest known site in Polynesia for the distinctive Lapita ceramic ware, at 2800–2750 years before present.===Tuvalu===Tuvaluan man in traditional costume drawn by Alfred Agate in 1841 during the United States Exploring Expedition.The history of Tuvalu dates back to at least 1,000 years to when it was discovered and settled by Polynesians.", "the origins of the people of Tuvalu is addressed in the theories regarding the spread of humans out of Southeast Asia, from Taiwan, via Melanesia and across the Pacific islands to create Polynesia.During pre-European-contact times there was frequent canoe voyaging between the islands as Polynesian navigation skills are recognised to have allowed deliberate journeys on double-hull sailing canoes or outrigger canoes.", "Eight of the nine islands of Tuvalu were inhabited; thus the name, Tuvalu, means \"eight standing together\" in Tuvaluan.", "The pattern of settlement that is believed to have occurred is that the Polynesians spread out from the Samoan Islands into the Tuvaluan atolls, with Tuvalu providing a stepping stone to migration into the Polynesian Outlier communities in Melanesia and Micronesia.In 1568, Spanish navigator Álvaro de Mendaña was the first European to sail through the islands and sighted Nui during his expedition in search of Terra Australis.", "European explorers did not return until two centuries later.", "In 1819 the island of Funafuti was named Ellice's Island; the name Ellice was applied to all nine islands after the work of English hydrographer Alexander George Findlay (1812–1876).", "The islands came under Britain's sphere of influence in the late 19th century, when each of the Ellice Islands was declared a British protectorate by Captain Gibson R.N., of HMS ''Curacoa'', between 9 and 16 October 1892.The Ellice Islands were administered as British protectorate by a Resident Commissioner from 1892 to 1916 as part of the British Western Pacific Territories (BWPT), and later as part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands colony from 1916 to 1974.A referendum was held in December 1974 to determine whether the Gilbert Islands and Ellice Islands should each have their own administration.", "As a consequence of the referendum, the Gilbert and Ellice Islands colony ceased to exist on 1 January 1976 and the separate British colonies of Kiribati and Tuvalu came into existence.", "Tuvalu became fully independent within the Commonwealth on 1 October 1978.On 17 September 2000 Tuvalu became the 189th member of the United Nations.===Vanuatu===In the history of Vanuatu, the commonly held theory of Vanuatu's prehistory from archaeological evidence supports that peoples speaking Austronesian languages first came to the islands some 4,000 to 6,000 years ago.", "Pottery fragments have been found dating back to 1300 BC What little is known of the pre-European contact history of Vanuatu has been gleaned from oral histories and legends.", "One important early king was Roy Mata, who united several tribes, and was buried in a large mound with several retainers.", "The first European contact with Vanuatu came in 1606, when a Spanish expedition led by the Portuguese explorer Pedro Fernández de Quirós discovered Espiritu Santo, naming it ''Australia del Espiritu Santo'', believing he had arrived in the southern continent.", "Europeans did not return until 1768, when Louis Antoine de Bougainville rediscovered the islands.===Other islands===The history of American Samoa begins with inhabitation as early as 1000 BC, Samoa was not reached by European explorers until the 18th century.The history of Baker Island began when the United States of America took possession of the island in 1857, and its guano deposits were mined by U.S. and British companies during the second half of the 19th century.", "In 1935, a short-lived attempt at colonization was begun on this island – as well as on nearby Howland Island – but was disrupted by World War II and thereafter abandoned.", "Presently the island is a National Wildlife Refuge run by the U.S. Department of the Interior; a day beacon is situated near the middle of the west coast.Westerners arrived in Caroline Islands in 1525, by the Portuguese Diogo da Rocha and his pilot Gomes de Sequeira, naming them the ''Sequeira Islands''.", "At about the same time, in 1526, they were sighted by the Spanish Toribio Alonso de Salazar, he called them \"Carolinas\" after Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. Though early Spanish navigators in the area (from 1543) called them the ''Nuevas Filipinas'' (\"New Philippines\"), Admiral Francisco Lazeano named them the ''Carolinas'' after King Charles II of Spain in 1686.In the history of French Polynesia, the French Polynesian island groups do not share a common history before the establishment of the French protectorate in 1889.The first French Polynesian islands to be settled by Polynesians were the Marquesas Islands in AD 300 and the Society Islands in AD 800.The Polynesians were organized in petty chieftainships.Historical evidence suggests that Howland Island was the site of prehistoric settlement, which may have extended down to Rawaki, Canton, Manra, and Orona of the Phoenix Islands 500 to 700 km southeast.", "This settlement might have taken the form of a single community utilising several adjacent islands, but the hard life on these isolated islands, together with the uncertainty of fresh water supplies, led to an extinction of or dereliction by the settled peoples, in such a way that other islands in the area (such as Kiritimati and Pitcairn) were abandoned.", "Such settlements probably began around 1000 BC, when eastern Melanesians traveled north.The history of Jarvis Island begins with the island's first known sighting by Europeans was on 21 August 1821 by the British ship ''Eliza Francis'' (or ''Eliza Frances'') owned by Edward, Thomas, and William Jarvis and commanded by Captain Brown.", "In March 1857 the uninhabited island was claimed for the United States under the Guano Islands Act and formally annexed on 27 February 1858.In the history of Marquesas Islands, the first recorded settlers of the Marquesas were Polynesians, who, from archеological evidence, are believed to have arrived before 100 AD.", "Ethnological and linguistic evidence suggests that they likely arrived from the region of Tonga and Samoa.", "The islands were given their name by the Spanish explorer Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira who reached them on 21 July 1595.He named them after his patron, García Hurtado de Mendoza, 5th Marquis of Cañete, who was Viceroy of Peru at the time.", "Mendaña visited first Fatu Hiva and then Tahuata before continuing on to the Solomon Islands.In the history of Melanesia, the original inhabitants of the islands now named Melanesia were likely the ancestors of the present day Papuan-speaking people.", "These people are thought to have occupied New Guinea tens of millennia ago and reached the islands 35,000 years ago (according to radiocarbon dating).", "They appear to have occupied these islands as far east as the main islands in the Solomon Islands (i.e., including San Cristobal) and perhaps even to the smaller islands farther to the east.The ancestors of the so-called \"Micronesians\" in the history of Micronesia settled there over 4,000 years ago.", "A decentralized chieftain-based system eventually evolved into a more centralized economic and religious empire centred on Yap.", "European explorers – first the Portuguese in search of the Spice Islands (Indonesia) and then the Spaniards – reached the Carolines in the 16th century, with Spain establishing sovereignty.Researchers of the history of the Marshall Islands agree on little more than that successive waves of migratory peoples from Southeast Asia spread across the Western Pacific about 3,000 years ago, and that some of them landed on and remained on these islands.", "The Spanish explorer Alonso de Salazar landed there in 1529.They were named for English explorer John Marshall, who visited them in 1799.The Marshall Islands were claimed by Spain in 1874.Following papal mediation and German compensation of $4.5 million, Spain recognised Germany's claim in 1885, which established a protectorate and set up trading stations on the islands of Jaluit and Ebon to carry out the flourishing copra (dried coconut meat) trade.", "Marshallese Iroij (high chiefs) continued to rule under indirect colonial German administration.In the history of the Society Islands, the archipelago is generally believed to have been named by Captain James Cook in honour of the Royal Society, sponsor of the first British scientific survey of the islands; however, Cook states in his journal that he called the islands Society \"as they lay contiguous to one another\".In the history of Tuamotu, the Tuamotus were first discovered by a Spanish expedition led by Ferdinand Magellan in 1521.From the Inca Empire, Tupac Inca Yupanqui is also credited with leading a nearly 10-month voyage of exploration into the Pacific around 1480.None of these visits were of political consequence, the islands being in the sphere of influence of the Pomare dynasty of Tahiti.", "At the beginning 18th century, the first Christian missionaries arrived.", "The islands' pearls penetrated the European market in the late 19th century, making them a coveted possession.", "Following the forced abdication of King Pomare V of Tahiti, the islands were annexed as an overseas territory of France." ], [ "See also", "* Europeans in Oceania* Exploration of the Pacific* List of countries and islands by first human settlement* Pacific Islands" ], [ "References", "27.", "\"Reconstructing History: Literature, History, and Anthropology in the Pacific\".", "Ed.", "Cynthia Klekar.", "Special Issue of ''The Eighteenth Century: Theory and Interpretation'' 49, no.", "3 (Fall, 2008).", "Introduction, 193-96." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Harp" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''harp''' is a stringed musical instrument that has individual strings running at an angle to its soundboard; the strings are plucked with the fingers.", "Harps can be made and played in various ways, standing or sitting, and in orchestras or concerts.", "Its most common form is triangular in shape and made of wood.", "Some have multiple rows of strings and pedal attachments.Ancient depictions of harps were recorded in Mesopotamia (now Iraq), Persia (now Iran) and Egypt, and later in India and China.", "By medieval times harps had spread across Europe.", "Harps were found across the Americas where it was a popular folk tradition in some areas.", "Distinct designs also emerged from the African continent.", "Harps have symbolic political traditions and are often used in logos, including in Ireland.Historically, strings were made of sinew (animal tendons).", "Other materials have included gut (animal intestines), plant fiber, braided hemp, cotton cord, silk, nylon, and wire." ], [ "History", "The Harps of Chogha Mish Iran are considered to be the world's oldest surviving stringed instruments, 3300-3100 B.C.E Harps have been known since antiquity in Asia, Africa, and Europe, dating back at least as early as 3000 BCE.", "The instrument had great popularity in Europe during the Middle Ages and Renaissance, where it evolved into a wide range of variants with new technologies, and was disseminated to Europe's colonies, finding particular popularity in Latin America.Although some ancient members of the harp family died out in the Near East and South Asia, descendants of early harps are still played in Myanmar and parts of Africa; other variants defunct in Europe and Asia have been used by folk musicians in the modern era.The Queen's gold lyre from the Royal Cemetery at Ur; Iraq Museum, Baghdad===Origin=======Africa and West Asia====Lyres of UrThe earliest harps and lyres were found in Sumer, 3500 BCE, and several harps were excavated from burial pits and royal tombs in Ur.", "The oldest depictions of harps without a forepillar can be seen in North East Africa on the wall paintings of ancient Egyptian tombs in the Nile Valley, which date from as early as 3000 BCE.", "These murals show an arched harp, an instrument that closely resembles the hunter's bow, without the pillar that we find in modern harps.The ''Chang'' flourished in Persia in many forms from its introduction, about 4000 BCE, until the 17th century.1A Sassanid era mosaic excavated at BishapurAround 1900 BCE, arched harps in the Iraq-Iran region were replaced by angular harps with vertical or horizontal sound boxes.By the start of the Common Era, \"robust, vertical, angular harps\", which had become predominant in the Hellenistic world, were cherished in the Sasanian court.", "In the last century of the Sasanian period, angular harps were redesigned to make them as light as possible (\"light, vertical, angular harps\"); while they became more elegant, they lost their structural rigidity.", "At the height of the Persian tradition of illustrated book production (1300–1600 CE), such light harps were still frequently depicted, although their use as musical instruments was reaching its end.====South Asia====Mesolithic era paintings from Bhimbetka show harp playing.", "An arched harp made of wooden brackets and metal strings is depicted on an Indus seal.", "The works of the Tamil Sangam literature describe the harp and its variants, as early as 200 BCE.", "Variants were described ranging from 14 to 17 strings, and the instrument used by wandering minstrels for accompaniment.", "Iconographic evidence of the yaal appears in temple statues dated as early as 600 BCE.", "One of the Sangam works, the ''Kallaadam'' recounts how the first ''yaaḻ'' harp was inspired by an archer's bow, when he heard the musical sound of its twang.Another early South Asian harp was the ancient veena, not to be confused with the modern Indian veena which is a type of lute.", "Some Samudragupta gold coins show of the mid-4th century CE show (presumably) the king Samudragupta himself playing the instrument.", "The ancient veena survives today in Burma, in the form of the ''saung'' harp still played there.====East Asia====The harp was popular in ancient China and neighboring regions, though harps are largely extinct in East Asia in the modern day.", "The Chinese ''konghou'' harp is documented as early as the Spring and Autumn period (770–476 BCE), and became extinct during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644 CE).", "A similar harp, the ''Gonghu'' was played in ancient Korea, documented as early as the Goguryeo period (37 BCE – 686 CE).===Development=======Europe====The harper on the Dupplin Cross, Scotland, Individual sheet music for a seventeenth century baroque harpWhile the angle and bow harps held popularity elsewhere, European harps favored the \"pillar\", a third structural member to support the far ends of the arch and soundbox.", "A harp with a triangular three-part frame is depicted on 8th-century Pictish stones in Scotland and in manuscripts (e.g.", "the Utrecht Psalter) from early 9th-century France.", "The curve of the harp's neck is a result of the proportional shortening of the basic triangular form to keep the strings equidistant; if the strings were proportionately distant they would be farther apart.A medieval European harp (the Wartburg harp) with buzzing bray pinsAs European harps evolved to play more complex music, a key consideration was some way to facilitate the quick changing of a string's pitch to be able to play more chromatic notes.", "By the Baroque period in Italy and Spain, more strings were added to allow for chromatic notes in more complex harps.", "In Germany in the second half of the 17th century, diatonic single-row harps were fitted with manually turned hooks that fretted individual strings to raise their pitch by a half step.", "In the 18th century, a link mechanism was developed connecting these hooks with pedals, leading to the invention of the single-action pedal harp.The first primitive form of pedal harps was developed in the Tyrol region of Austria.", "Jacob Hochbrucker was the next to design an improved pedal mechanism around 1720, followed in succession by Krumpholtz, Naderman, and the Erard company, who came up with the double mechanism, in which a second row of hooks was installed along the neck, capable of raising the pitch of a string by either one or two half steps.", "While one course of European harps led to greater complexity, resulting largely in the modern pedal harp, other harping traditions maintained simpler diatonic instruments which survived and evolved into modern traditions.====Americas====In the Americas, harps are widely but sparsely distributed, except in certain regions where the harp traditions are very strong.", "Such important centeres include Mexico, the Andean region, Venezuela, and Paraguay.", "They are derived from the Baroque harps that were brought from Spain during the colonial period.", "Detailed features vary from place to place.Paraguayan harpThe Paraguayan harp is that country's national instrument, and has gained a worldwide reputation, with international influences alongside folk traditions.", "They have around 36 strings, are played with fingernails, and with a narrowing spacing and lower tension than modern Western harps, and have a wide and deep soundbox that tapers to the top.The harp is also found in Argentina, though in Uruguay it was largely displaced in religious music by the organ by the end of the 18th century.", "The harp is historically found in Brazil, but mostly in the south of the country.Andean harpThe Andean harp (Spanish/), also known as the Peruvian harp, or indigenous harp, is widespread among peoples living in the highlands of the Andes: Quechua and Aymara, mainly in Peru, and also in Bolivia and Ecuador.", "It is relatively large, with a significantly increased volume of the resonator box, which gives basses a special richness.", "It usually accompanies love dances and songs, such as huayno.", "One of the most famous performers on the Andean harp was Juan Cayambe (Pimampiro Canton, Imbabura Province, Ecuador)Mexican harp music of Veracruz has also gained some international recognition, evident in the popularity of \"La Bamba\".", "The is typically played while standing.", "In southern Mexico (Chiapas), there is a very different indigenous style of harp music.", "The harp arrived in Venezuela with Spanish colonists.", "There are two distinct traditions: the ('harp of the Llanos’, or plains) and the ('of the central area').", "By the 2020s, three types of harps are typically found:* the traditional '''llanera harp''', made of Cedar wood and has 32 strings, originally of the gut, but in modern times are of nylon.", "It is used to accompany both dancers and singers playing joropo music, a traditional form of Venezuelan music, also known as llanera music.", "* the (also known as 'of Miranda State’, and 'of the Tuy Valleys’) is strung with wire in the higher register.", "* the Venezuelan electric harp====Africa====Mangbetu man playing a bow harpA number of types of harps are found in Africa, predominantly not of the three-sided frame-harp type found in Europe.", "A number of these, referred to generically as African harps, are bow or angle harps, which lack forepillars joining the neck to the body.A number of harp-like instruments in Africa are not easily classified with European categories.", "Instruments like the West African ''kora'' and Mauritanian ''ardin'' are sometimes labeled as \"spike harp\", \"bridge harp\", or harp lute since their construction includes a bridge which holds the strings laterally, vice vertically entering the soundboard.==== Armenia ====In Armenia, the harp has been used since the fourth century BC.", "Common usages included weddings and funerals.", "The \"Antler Cup with a Feast Scene\", found inside a vessel in Nor Aresh and now preserved in the Erebuni Fortress, depicts a harp.", "Information about early medieval Armenian musical instruments has been found in Armenian translations of the Bible.", "In the past, the harp was played in the royal residences, in the royal recreation rooms.", "Sometimes not only the royal musicians, but the kings themselves played the instrument.", "Of course, in the past, harps did not have the sound capabilities that they have today, but the fact that the Armenian people had the harp is a fact.Տավիղ եղջերեգավաթի վրա, Էրեբունու թանգարան.jpg\|Armenia, harp on an antler cup, Erebuni MuseumԱրքայական ծագում ունեցող տավղահար.jpg\|Armenia, a harpist of royal birthՏավիղ միջնադարյան արծաթե գավաթի վրա.jpg\|Armenia, harp on a medieval silver cupՏավիղ, Էրեբունու թանգարան.jpg\|Lyre, Erebuni Museum====South Asia====In India, the B''in-Baia'' harp survives about the Padhar people of Madhya Pradesh.", "The Kafir harp has been part of Nuristani musical tradition for many years.====East Asia====Saung musician in 1900The harp largely became extinct in East Asia by the 17th century; around the year 1000, harps like the ''vajra'' began to replace prior harps.", "A few examples survived to the modern era, particularly Myanmar's ''saung-gauk'', which is considered the national instrument in that country.", "Though the ancient Chinese ''konghou'' has not been directly resurrected, the name has been revived and applied to a modern newly invented instrument based on the Western classical harp, but with the strings doubled back to form two notes per string, allowing advanced techniques such as note-bending.A woman playing a harp on the street in Yokohama, Japan" ], [ "Modern European and American harps", "===Concert harp===Lavinia Meijer playing the harpThe ''concert'' harp is a technologically advanced instrument, particularly distinguished by its use of \"pedals\", foot-controlled devices which can alter the pitch of given strings, making it fully chromatic and thus able to play a wide body of classical repertoire.", "The pedal harp contains seven pedals that each affect the tuning of all strings of one pitch-class.", "The pedals, from left to right, are D, C, B on the left side and E, F, G, A on the right.", "Pedals were first introduced in 1697 by Jakob Hochbrucker of Bavaria.", "In 1811 these were upgraded to the \"double action\" pedal system patented by Sébastien Erard.Harpo Marx would run around performing zany slapstick pantomime comedy with his brothers, then sit down to play beautiful music on the concert harp.The addition of pedals broadened the harp's abilities, allowing its gradual entry into the classical orchestra, largely beginning in the 19th century.", "The harp played little or no role in early classical music (being used only a handful of times by major composers such as Mozart and Beethoven), and its usage by Cesar Franck in his Symphony in D minor (1888) was described as \"revolutionary\" despite some body of prior classical usage.", "In the 20th century, the pedal harp found use outside of classical music, entering musical comedy films in 1929 with Arthur \"Harpo\" Marx, jazz with Casper Reardon in 1934, the Beatles 1967 single \"She's Leaving Home\", and several works by Björk which featured harpist Zeena Parkins.", "In the early 1980s, Swiss harpist Andreas Vollenweider exposed the concert harp to large new audiences with his popular new age/jazz albums and concert performances.===Folk, lever, and Celtic instruments===New Salem Village re-enactor playing a Celtic harpThe medieval \"Queen Mary Harp\" (''Clàrsach na Banrìgh Màiri'') preserved in the National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh.", "It is one of three surviving Insular Celtic medieval harps, which serve as protypes for \"celtic harps\".In the modern era, there is a family of mid-size harps, generally with nylon strings, and optionally with partial or full levers but without pedals.", "They range from two to six octaves, and are plucked with the fingers using a similar technique to the pedal harp.", "Though these harps evoke ties to historical European harps, their specifics are modern, and they are frequently referred to broadly as \"''Celtic harps''\" due to their region of revival and popular association, or more generically as \"''folk harps''\" due to their use in non-classical music, or as \"''lever harps''\" to contrast their modifying mechanism with the larger pedal harp.Welsh harpists at Caerwys Eisteddfod c.1892The modern Celtic harp began to appear in the early 19th century in Ireland, contemporary with the dying-out of earlier forms of Gaelic harp.", "Dublin pedal harp maker John Egan developed a new type of harp which had gut strings and semitone mechanisms like an orchestral pedal harp; it was small and curved like the historical ''cláirseach'' or Irish harp, but its strings were of gut and the soundbox was much lighter.", "In the 1890s a similar new harp was also developed in Scotland as part of a Gaelic cultural revival.", "In the mid-20th century Jord Cochevelou developed a variant of the modern Celtic harp which he referred to as the \"Breton Celtic harp\"; his son Alan Stivell was to become the most influential Breton harper, and a strong influence in the broader world of the Celtic harp.===Multi-course harps===A multi-course harp is a harp with more than one row of strings, as opposed to the more common \"single course\" harp.", "On a double-harp, the two rows generally run parallel to each other, one on either side of the neck, and are usually both diatonic (sometimes with levers) with identical notes.The triple harp originated in Italy in the 16th century, and arrived in Wales in the late 17th century where it established itself in the local tradition as the Welsh harp (''telyn deires'', \"three-row harp\").", "The triple consists of two outer rows of identical diatonic strings with a third set of chromatic strings between them.", "These strings are off set to permit the harpist to reach past the outer row and pluck an inner string if a chromatic note is needed.===Chromatic-strung harps===Some harps, rather than using pedal or lever devices, achieve chromaticity by simply adding additional strings to cover the notes outside their diatonic home scale.", "The Welsh triple harp is one such instrument, and two other instruments employing this technique are the cross-strung harp and the inline chromatic harp.Cross-strung chromatic harpThe cross-strung harp has one row of diatonic strings, and a separate row of chromatic notes, angled in an \"X\" shape so that the row which can be played by the right hand at the top may be played by the left hand at the bottom, and vice versa.", "This variant was first attested as the ''arpa de dos órdenes'' (\"two-row harp\") in Spain and Portugal, in the 17th century.The inline chromatic harp is generally a single-course harp with all 12 notes of the chromatic scale appearing in a single row.", "Single course inline chromatic harps have been produced at least since 1902, when Karl Weigel of Hanover patented a model of inline chromatic harp.===Electric harps===Amplified (electro-acoustic) hollow body and solid body electric lever harps are produced by many harp makers, including Lyon & Healy, Salvi, and Camac.", "They generally use individual piezo-electric sensors for each string, often in combination with small internal microphones to produce a mixed electrical signal.", "Hollow body instruments can also be played acoustically, while solid body instruments must be amplified.A gravikordThe late-20th century Gravikord is a modern purpose-built electric double harp made of stainless steel based on the traditional West African kora." ], [ "Variations", "Harps vary globally in many ways.", "In terms of size, many smaller harps can be played on the lap, whereas larger harps are quite heavy and rest on the floor.", "Different harps may use strings of catgut, nylon, metal, or some combination.All harps have a neck, resonator, and strings, '''frame harps''' or '''triangular harps''' have a pillar at their long end to support the strings, while '''open harps''', such as '''arch harps''' and '''bow harps''', do not.Modern harps also vary in techniques used to extend the range and chromaticism of the strings (e.g., adding sharps and flats).", "On '''lever harps''' one adjusts a string's note mid-performance by flipping a lever, which shortens the string enough to raise the pitch by a chromatic sharp.", "On '''pedal harps''' depressing the pedal one step turns geared levers on the strings for all octaves of a single pitch; most allow a second step that turns a second set of levers.", "The pedal harp is a standard instrument in the orchestra of the Romantic music era (ca.", "1800–1910 CE) and the 20th and 21st century music era." ], [ "Structure and mechanism", "Basic structural elements and terminology of a modern concert harpHarps are essentially triangular and made primarily of wood.", "''Strings'' are made of gut or wire, often replaced in the modern day by nylon or metal.", "The top end of each string is secured on the ''crossbar'' or ''neck'', where each will have a ''tuning peg'' or similar device to adjust the pitch.", "From the crossbar, the string runs down to the ''sounding board'' on the resonating ''body'', where it is secured with a knot; on modern harps the string's hole is protected with an eyelet to limit wear on the wood.", "The distance between the tuning peg and the soundboard, as well as tension and weight of the string, determine the pitch of the string.", "The body is hollow, and when a taut string is plucked, the body resonates, projecting sound.The longest side of the harp is called the ''column'' or ''pillar'' (though some earlier harps, such as a \"bow harp\", lack a pillar).", "On most harps the sole purpose of the pillar is to hold up the neck against the great strain of the strings.", "On harps which have pedals (largely the modern concert harp), the pillar is a hollow column and encloses the rods which adjust the pitches, which are levered by pressing pedals at the base of the instrument.On harps of earlier design, a single string produces only a single pitch unless it is retuned.", "In many cases this means such a harp can only play in one key at a time and must be retuned to play in another key.", "Harpers and luthiers have developed various remedies to this limitation:* the addition of extra strings to cover chromatic notes (sometimes in separate or angled rows distinct from the main row of strings),* addition of small levers on the crossbar which when actuated raise the pitch of a string by a set interval (usually a semitone), or* use of pedals at the base of the instrument, pressed with the foot, which move additional small pegs on the crossbar.", "The small pegs gently contact the string near the tuning peg, changing the vibrating length, but not the tension, and hence the pitch of the string.These solutions increase the versatility of a harp at the cost of adding complexity, weight, and expense." ], [ "Terminology and etymology", "The modern English word harp comes from the Old English ''hearpe''; akin to Old High German ''harpha''.", "A person who plays a pedal harp is called a \"harpist\"; a person who plays a folk-harp is called a \"harper\" or sometimes a \"harpist\"; either may be called a \"harp-player\", and the distinctions are not strict.A number of instruments that are not harps are none-the-less colloquially referred to as \"harps\".", "Chordophones like the aeolian harp (wind harp), the autoharp, the psaltery, as well as the piano and harpsichord, are not harps, but zithers, because their strings are parallel to their soundboard.", "Harps' strings rise approximately perpendicularly from the soundboard.", "Similarly, the many varieties of harp guitar and harp lute, while chordophones, belong to the lute family and are not true harps.", "All forms of the lyre and kithara are also not harps, but belong to the fourth family of ancient instruments under the chordophones, the ''lyres'', closely related to the ''zither'' family.The term \"harp\" has also been applied to many instruments which are not even chordophones.", "The vibraphone was (and is still) sometimes referred to as the \"vibraharp\", though it has no strings and its sound is produced by striking metal bars.", "In blues music, the harmonica is often casually referred to as a \"blues harp\" or \"harp\", but it is a free reed wind instrument, not a stringed instrument, and is therefore not a true harp.", "The Jew's harp is neither Jewish nor a harp; it is a plucked idiophone and likewise not a stringed instrument.", "The laser harp is not a stringed instrument at all, but is a harp-shaped electronic instrument controller that has laser beams where harps have strings." ], [ "As a symbol", "===Political=======Ireland====Coat of arms of IrelandThe harp is used as the official emblem of the Government of Ireland.The harp has been used as a political symbol of Ireland for centuries.", "Its origin is unknown but from the evidence of the ancient oral and written literature, it has been present in one form or another since at least the 6th century or before.", "According to tradition, Brian Boru, High King of Ireland (died at the Battle of Clontarf, 1014) played the harp, as did many of the gentry in the country during the period of the Gaelic Lordship of Ireland (ended with the Flight of the Earls following the Elizabethan Wars).In traditional Gaelic society every clan and chief of any consequence would have a resident harp player who would compose eulogies and elegies (later known as \"planxties\") in honour of the leader and chief men of the clan.", "The harp was adopted as a symbol of the Kingdom of Ireland on the coinage from 1542, and in the Royal Standard of King James VI and I in 1603 and continued to feature on all English and United Kingdom Royal Standards ever since, though the styles of the harps depicted differed in some respects.", "It was also used on the Commonwealth Jack of Oliver Cromwell issued in 1649 and on the Protectorate Jack issued in 1658 as well as on the Lord Protector's Standard issued on the succession of Richard Cromwell in 1658.The harp is also traditionally used on the flag of Leinster.Since 1922, the government of Ireland has used a similar left-facing harp, based on the Trinity College Harp in the Library of Trinity College Dublin as its state symbol.", "This design first appeared on the Great Seal of the Irish Free State, which in turn was replaced by the coat of arms, the Irish Presidential Standard and the Presidential Seal in the 1937 Constitution of Ireland.", "The harp emblem is used on official state seals and documents including the Irish passport and has appeared on Irish coinage from the Middle Ages to the current Irish imprints of euro coins.====Elsewhere====A red eagle-headed harp in the coat of arms of KangasalaThe South Asian Tamil harp ''yaal'' is the symbol of City of Jaffna, Sri Lanka, whose legendary root originates from a harp player.The arms of the Finnish city of Kangasala features a red, eagle-headed harp.===Religious===St.", "Maria (Weingarten/Württemberg)In the context of Christianity, heaven is sometimes symbolically depicted as populated by angels playing harps, giving the instrument associations of the sacred and heavenly.", "In the Bible, Genesis 4:21 says that Jubal, the first musician and son of Lamech, was 'the father of all who play' the harp and flute.Many depictions of King David in Jewish art have him holding or playing a harp, such as a sculpture outside King David's tomb in Jerusalem.===Corporate===Pub advertising sign for the Irish beer brand GuinnessThe harp is also used extensively as a corporate logo, predominantly by companies that have, or wish to suggest, a connection with Ireland.", "The Irish brewer Guinness has used a right-facing harp (in contrast to the Irish State emblem's left-facing version) as its emblem since 1759, the Harp Lager brand has done so since 1960.The Irish Independent newspaper has used a harp in its masthead since 1961.The Irish airline Ryanair, founded in 1985, also features a stylised harp in its logo.Other organisations in Ireland use the harp in their corporate identity, but not always prominently; these include the National University of Ireland and the associated University College Dublin, and the Gaelic Athletic Association.", "In Northern Ireland, the Police Service of Northern Ireland and the Queen's University of Belfast use the harp as part of their identity.===Sporting===In sport, the harp is used in the emblems of the League of Ireland football team Finn Harps F.C., Donegal's senior soccer club.", "Outside of Ireland, it appears in the badge of the Scottish Premiership team Hibernian F.C.", "– a team originally founded by Irish emigrants.Not all sporting uses of the harp are references to Ireland, however: the Iraqi football club Al-Shorta has used a harp as its emblem since the early 1990s, after they gained the nickname ''Al-Qithara'' () when their style of play was likened to fine harp-playing by a television presenter." ], [ "See also", "* List of compositions for harp* List of harpists* :Category:Harpists===Types of harp===* Celtic harp, or Clàrsach, a modern replica of Medieval north European harps* Claviharp, a 19th century instrument that combined a harp with a keyboard* Epigonion, a 40 stringed instrument in ancient Greece thought to have been a harp* Kantele, a traditional Finnish and Karelian zyther-like instrument* Konghou, name shared by an ancient Chinese harp and a modern re-adaption* Kora, a west-African folk-instrument, intermediate between a harp and a lute* Lyre, kithara, zyther-like instruments used in Greek classical antiquity and later* Pedal harp, the modern, chromatic concert harp* Psaltery, a small, flat, lap instrument in the zither family* Triple harp, a chromatic multi-course harp traditional in Wales" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hollow Earth" ], [ "Introduction", "A cross-sectional drawing of the planet Earth showing the \"Interior World\" of Atvatabar, from William R. Bradshaw's 1892 science-fiction novel ''The Goddess of Atvatabar''The '''Hollow Earth''' is a concept proposing that the planet Earth is entirely hollow or contains a substantial interior space.", "Notably suggested by Edmond Halley in the late 17th century, the notion was disproven, first tentatively by Pierre Bouguer in 1740, then definitively by Charles Hutton in his Schiehallion experiment around 1774.It was still occasionally defended through the mid-19th century, notably by John Cleves Symmes Jr. and Jeremiah N. Reynolds, but by this time it was part of popular pseudoscience and no longer a scientifically viable hypothesis.The concept of a hollow Earth still recurs in folklore and as a premise for subterranean fiction, a subgenre of adventure fiction.", "Hollow Earth also recurs in conspiracy theories such as the underground kingdom of Agartha and the Cryptoterrestrial hypothesis and is often said to be inhabited by mythological figures or political leaders." ], [ "History", "===Ancient times===In ancient times, the concept of a subterranean land inside the Earth appeared in mythology, folklore and legends.", "The idea of subterranean realms seemed arguable, and became intertwined with the concept of \"places\" of origin or afterlife, such as the Greek underworld, the Nordic Svartálfaheimr, the Christian Hell, and the Jewish Sheol (with details describing inner Earth in Kabalistic literature, such as the Zohar and Hesed L'Avraham).", "The idea of a subterranean realm is also mentioned in Tibetan Buddhist belief.", "According to one story from Tibetan Buddhist tradition, there is an ancient city called Shamballa which is located inside the Earth.According to the Ancient Greeks, there were caverns under the surface which were entrances leading to the underworld, some of which were the caverns at Tainaron in Lakonia, at Troezen in Argolis, at Ephya in Thesprotia, at Herakleia in Pontos, and in Ermioni.", "In Thracian and Dacian legends, it is said that there are caverns occupied by an ancient god called Zalmoxis.", "In Mesopotamian religion there is a story of a man who, after traveling through the darkness of a tunnel in the mountain of \"Mashu\", entered a subterranean garden.Chapel, bell tower and penitential beds on Station Island.", "The bell tower stands on a mound that is the site of a cave which, according to various myths, is an entrance to a place of purgatory inside the Earth.", "The cave has been closed since October 25, 1632.In Celtic mythology there is a legend of a cave called \"Cruachan\", also known as \"Ireland's gate to Hell\", a mythical and ancient cave from which strange creatures would emerge and be seen on the surface of the Earth.", "There are also stories of medieval knights and saints who went on pilgrimages to a cave located in Station Island, County Donegal in Ireland, where they made journeys inside the Earth into a place of purgatory.", "In County Down, Northern Ireland there is a myth which says tunnels lead to the land of the subterranean Tuatha Dé Danann, a group of people who are believed to have introduced Druidism to Ireland, and then went back underground.In Hindu mythology, the underworld is referred to as Patala.", "In the Bengali version of the Hindu epic Ramayana, it has been depicted how Rama and Lakshmana were taken by the king of the underworld Ahiravan, brother of the demon king Ravana.", "Later on they were rescued by Hanuman.", "The Angami Naga tribes of India claim that their ancestors emerged in ancient times from a subterranean land inside the Earth.", "The Taino from Cuba believe their ancestors emerged in ancient times from two caves in a mountain underground.Natives of the Trobriand Islands believe that their ancestors had come from a subterranean land through a cavern hole called \"Obukula\".", "Mexican folklore also tells of a cave in a mountain five miles south of Ojinaga, and that Mexico is possessed by devilish creatures who came from inside the Earth.In the middle ages, an ancient German myth held that some mountains located between Eisenach and Gotha hold a portal to the inner Earth.", "A Russian legend says the Samoyeds, an ancient Siberian tribe, traveled to a cavern city to live inside the Earth.", "The Italian writer Dante describes a hollow earth in his well-known 14th-century work ''Inferno'', in which the fall of Lucifer from heaven caused an enormous funnel to appear in previously solid and spherical earth, as well as an enormous mountain opposite it, \"Purgatory\".In Native American mythology, it is said that the ancestors of the Mandan people in ancient times emerged from a subterranean land through a cave on the north side of the Missouri River.", "There is also a tale about a tunnel in the San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation in Arizona near Cedar Creek which is said to lead inside the Earth to a land inhabited by a mysterious tribe.", "It is also the belief of the tribes of the Iroquois that their ancient ancestors emerged from a subterranean world inside the Earth.", "The elders of the Hopi people believe that a Sipapu entrance in the Grand Canyon exists which leads to the underworld.Brazilian Indians, who live alongside the Parima River in Brazil, claim that their forefathers emerged in ancient times from an underground land, and that many of their ancestors still remained inside the Earth.", "Ancestors of the Inca supposedly came from caves which are located east of Cuzco, Peru.=== 16th to 18th centuries ===Edmond Halley's hypothesisThe notion was proposed by Athanasius Kircher's non-fiction ''Mundus Subterraneus'' (1665), which speculated that there is an \"intricate system of cavities and a channel of water connecting the poles\".Edmond Halley in 1692 conjectured that the Earth might consist of a hollow shell about thick, two inner concentric shells and an innermost core.", "Atmospheres separate these shells, and each shell has its own magnetic poles.", "The spheres rotate at different speeds.", "Halley proposed this scheme in order to explain anomalous compass readings.", "He envisaged the atmosphere inside as luminous (and possibly inhabited) and speculated that escaping gas caused the Aurora Borealis.Le Clerc Milfort in 1781 led a journey with hundreds of Muscogee Peoples to a series of caverns near the Red River above the junction of the Mississippi River.", "According to Milfort the original Muscogee Peoples' ancestors are believed to have emerged out to the surface of the Earth in ancient times from the caverns.", "Milfort also claimed the caverns they saw \"could easily contain 15,000 – 20,000 families\".It is often claimed that mathematician Leonhard Euler proposed a single-shell hollow Earth with a small sun (1,000 kilometres across) at the center, providing light and warmth for an inner-Earth civilization, but that is not true.", "Instead, he did a thought experiment of an object dropped into a hole drilled through the center, unrelated to a hollow Earth.=== 19th century ===In 1818, John Cleves Symmes, Jr. suggested that the Earth consisted of a hollow shell about thick, with openings about across at both poles with 4 inner shells each open at the poles.", "Symmes became the most famous of the early Hollow Earth proponents, and Hamilton, Ohio even has a monument to him and his ideas.", "He proposed making an expedition to the North Pole hole, thanks to efforts of one of his followers, James McBride.Jeremiah Reynolds also delivered lectures on the \"Hollow Earth\" and argued for an expedition.", "Reynolds went on an expedition to Antarctica himself but missed joining the Great U.S.", "Exploring Expedition of 1838–1842, even though that venture was a result of his agitation.Though Symmes himself never wrote a book on the subject, several authors published works discussing his ideas.", "McBride wrote ''Symmes' Theory of Concentric Spheres'' in 1826.It appears that Reynolds has an article that appeared as a separate booklet in 1827: ''Remarks of Symmes' Theory Which Appeared in the American Quarterly Review.''", "In 1868, professor W.F.", "Lyons published ''The Hollow Globe'' which put forth a Symmes-like Hollow Earth hypothesis, but failed to mention Symmes himself.", "Symmes's son Americus then published ''The Symmes' Theory of Concentric Spheres'' in 1878 to set the record straight.Sir John Leslie proposed a hollow Earth in his 1829 ''Elements of Natural Philosophy'' (pp.", "449–53).In 1864, in ''Journey to the Center of the Earth'' Jules Verne describes an expedition into the Earth's interior via the fictional Icelandic volcano Scartaris.", "The protagonists do not actually reach the centre, but nevertheless discover a subterranean ocean inhabited by creatures believed extinct.", "They escape through another volcano on the Italian island of Stromboli.William Fairfield Warren, in his book ''Paradise Found – The Cradle of the Human Race at the North Pole'' (1885), presented his belief that humanity originated on a continent in the Arctic called Hyperborea.", "This influenced some early Hollow Earth proponents.", "According to Marshall Gardner, both the Eskimo and Mongolian peoples had come from the interior of the Earth through an entrance at the North Pole.=== 20th century ===''NEQUA or The Problem of the Ages'', first serialized in a newspaper printed in Topeka, Kansas in 1900 and considered an early feminist utopian novel, mentions John Cleves Symmes' theory to explain its setting in a hollow Earth.An early 20th-century proponent of hollow Earth, William Reed, wrote ''Phantom of the Poles'' in 1906.He supported the idea of a hollow Earth, but without interior shells or the inner sun.The spiritualist writer Walburga, Lady Paget in her book ''Colloquies with an unseen friend'' (1907) was an early writer to mention the hollow Earth hypothesis.", "She claimed that cities exist beneath a desert, which is where the people of Atlantis moved.", "She said an entrance to the subterranean kingdom will be discovered in the 21st century.Marshall Gardner wrote ''A Journey to the Earth's Interior'' in 1913 and published an expanded edition in 1920.He placed an interior sun in the Earth and built a working model of the Hollow Earth which he patented ().", "Gardner made no mention of Reed, but did criticize Symmes for his ideas.", "Around the same time, Vladimir Obruchev wrote a novel titled ''Plutonia'', in which the Hollow Earth possessed an inner Sun and was inhabited by prehistoric species.", "The interior was connected with the surface by an opening in the Arctic.The explorer Ferdynand Ossendowski wrote a book in 1922 titled ''Beasts, Men and Gods''.", "Ossendowski said he was told about a subterranean kingdom that exists inside the Earth.", "It was known to Buddhists as Agharti.George Papashvily in his ''Anything Can Happen'' (1940) claimed the discovery in the Caucasus mountains of a cavern containing human skeletons \"with heads as big as bushel baskets\" and an ancient tunnel leading to the center of the Earth.", "One man entered the tunnel and never returned.Novelist Lobsang Rampa in his book ''The Cave of the Ancients'' said an underground chamber system exists beneath the Himalayas of Tibet, filled with ancient machinery, records and treasure.", "Michael Grumley, a cryptozoologist, has linked Bigfoot and other hominid cryptids to ancient tunnel systems underground.According to the ancient astronaut writer Peter Kolosimo a robot was seen entering a tunnel below a monastery in Mongolia.", "Kolosimo also claimed a light was seen from underground in Azerbaijan.", "Kolosimo and other ancient astronaut writers such as Robert Charroux linked these activities to UFOs.A book by \"Dr. Raymond Bernard\" which appeared in 1964, ''The Hollow Earth'', exemplifies the idea of UFOs coming from inside the Earth, and adds the idea that the Ring Nebula proves the existence of hollow worlds, as well as speculation on the fate of Atlantis and the origin of flying saucers.", "An article by Martin Gardner revealed that Walter Siegmeister used the pseudonym \"Bernard\", but not until the 1989 publishing of Walter Kafton-Minkel's ''Subterranean Worlds: 100,000 Years of Dragons, Dwarfs, the Dead, Lost Races & UFOs from Inside the Earth'' did the full story of Bernard/Siegmeister become well-known.The science fiction pulp magazine ''Amazing Stories'' promoted one such idea from 1945 to 1949 as \"The Shaver Mystery\".", "The magazine's editor, Ray Palmer, ran a series of stories by Richard Sharpe Shaver, claiming that a superior pre-historic race had built a honeycomb of caves in the Earth, and that their degenerate descendants, known as \"Dero\", live there still, using the fantastic machines abandoned by the ancient races to torment those of us living on the surface.", "As one characteristic of this torment, Shaver described \"voices\" that purportedly came from no explainable source.", "Thousands of readers wrote to affirm that they, too, had heard the fiendish voices from inside the Earth.", "The writer David Hatcher Childress authored ''Lost Continents and the Hollow Earth'' (1998) in which he reprinted the stories of Palmer and defended the Hollow Earth idea based on alleged tunnel systems beneath South America and Central Asia.Hollow Earth proponents have claimed a number of different locations for the entrances which lead inside the Earth.", "Other than the North and South poles, entrances in locations which have been cited include: Paris in France, Staffordshire in England, Montreal in Canada, Hangchow in China, and the Amazon rainforest.=== Variations ===In \"A Culture of Conspiracy\", Political scientist Michael Barkun draws a distinction between the terms ''hollow earth'' and ''inner earth'', to differentiate materials that conceive the majority of the interior of the planet to be hollow, from those that view it as solid but honeycombed with interconnected spaces.==== Concave Hollow Earths ====An example of a concave hollow Earth.", "Humans live on the interior, with the universe in the center.Instead of saying that humans live on the exterior surface of a hollow planet, sometimes called a \"convex\" Hollow Earth hypothesis, it is hypothesized humans live on the ''interior'' surface.", "This has been called the \"concave\" Hollow Earth hypothesis or skycentrism.Cyrus Teed, a doctor from upstate New York, proposed such a concave Hollow Earth in 1869, calling his scheme \"Cellular Cosmogony\".", "Teed founded a group called the Koreshan Unity based on this notion, which he called Koreshanity.", "The main colony survives as a preserved Florida state historic site, at Estero, Florida, but all of Teed's followers have now died.", "Teed's followers claimed to have experimentally verified the concavity of the Earth's curvature, through surveys of the Florida coastline making use of \"rectilineator\" equipment.Several 20th-century German writers, including Peter Bender, Johannes Lang, Karl Neupert, and Fritz Braut, published works advocating the Hollow Earth hypothesis, or ''Hohlweltlehre''.", "It has even been reported, although apparently without historical documentation, that Adolf Hitler was influenced by concave Hollow Earth ideas and sent an expedition in an unsuccessful attempt to spy on the British fleet by pointing infrared cameras up at the sky.The Egyptian mathematician Mostafa Abdelkader wrote several scholarly papers working out a detailed mapping of the Concave Earth model.", "In his book ''On the Wild Side'' (1992), Martin Gardner discusses the Hollow Earth model articulated by Abdelkader.", "According to Gardner, this hypothesis posits that light rays travel in circular paths, and slow as they approach the center of the spherical star-filled cavern.", "No energy can reach the center of the cavern.", "A drill, Gardner says, would lengthen as it traveled away from the cavern and eventually pass through the \"point at infinity\" corresponding to the center of the Earth.", "Gardner notes that \"most mathematicians believe that an inside-out universe, with properly adjusted physical laws, is empirically irrefutable\".", "Gardner rejects the concave Hollow Earth hypothesis on the basis of Occam's razor.Purportedly verifiable hypotheses of a Concave Hollow Earth need to be distinguished from a thought experiment which defines a coordinate transformation such that the interior of the Earth becomes \"exterior\" and the exterior becomes \"interior\".", "(For example, in spherical coordinates, let radius ''r'' go to ''R''2/''r'' where ''R'' is the Earth's radius; see inversive geometry.)", "The transformation entails corresponding changes to the forms of physical laws.", "This is not a hypothesis but an illustration of the fact that any description of the physical world can be equivalently expressed in more than one way." ], [ "Contrary evidence", "=== Schiehallion experiment ===In 1735, Pierre Bouguer and Charles Marie de La Condamine chartered an expedition from France to the Chimborazo volcano in Ecuador.", "Arriving and climbing the volcano in 1738, they conducted a vertical deflection experiment at two different altitudes to determine how local mass anomalies affected gravitational pull.", "In a paper written a little over ten years later, Bouguer commented that his results had at least falsified the Hollow Earth Theory.", "In 1772, Nevil Maskelyne proposed to repeat the same experiment to the Royal Society.", "Within the same year, the Committee of Attraction was formed and they sent Charles Mason to find the perfect candidate for the vertical deflection experiment.", "Mason found the Schiehallion mountain, where the experiment took place and not only supported the earlier Chimborazo Experiment but yielded far greater results.=== Seismic ===The picture of the structure of the Earth that has been arrived at through the study of seismic waves is quite different from a fully hollow Earth.", "The time it takes for seismic waves to travel through and around the Earth directly contradicts a fully hollow sphere.", "The evidence indicates the Earth is mostly filled with solid rock (mantle and crust), liquid nickel-iron alloy (outer core), and solid nickel-iron (inner core).=== Gravity ===Another set of scientific arguments against a Hollow Earth or any hollow planet comes from gravity.", "Massive objects tend to clump together gravitationally, creating non-hollow spherical objects such as stars and planets.", "The solid spheroid is the best way to minimize the gravitational potential energy of a rotating physical object; having hollowness is unfavorable in the energetic sense.", "In addition, ordinary matter is not strong enough to support a hollow shape of planetary size against the force of gravity; a planet-sized hollow shell with the known, observed thickness of the Earth's crust would not be able to achieve hydrostatic equilibrium with its own mass and would collapse.Based upon the size of the Earth and the force of gravity on its surface, the average density of the planet Earth is 5.515 g/cm3, and typical densities of surface rocks are only half that (about 2.75 g/cm3).", "If any significant portion of the Earth were hollow, the average density would be much lower than that of surface rocks.", "The only way for Earth to have the force of gravity that it does is for much more dense material to make up a large part of the interior.", "Nickel-iron alloy under the conditions expected in a non-hollow Earth would have densities ranging from about 10 to 13 g/cm3, which brings the average density of Earth to its observed value.=== Direct observation ===Drilling holes does not provide direct evidence against the hypothesis.", "The deepest hole drilled to date is the Kola Superdeep Borehole, with a true vertical drill-depth of more than 7.5 miles (12 kilometers).", "However, the distance to the center of the Earth is nearly 4,000 miles (6,400 kilometers)." ], [ "In fiction", "The idea of a hollow Earth is a common element of fiction, appearing as early as Ludvig Holberg's 1741 novel ''Nicolai Klimii iter subterraneum'' («''Niels Klim's Underground Travels''»), in which Nicolai Klim falls through a cave while spelunking and spends several years living on a smaller globe both within and the inside of the outer shell.Other notable early examples include Giacomo Casanova's 1788 ''Icosaméron'', a 5-volume, 1,800-page story of a brother and sister who fall into the Earth and discover the subterranean utopia of the Mégamicres, a race of multicolored, hermaphroditic dwarves; ''Vril'' published anonymously in 1819; ''Symzonia: A Voyage of Discovery'' by a \"Captain Adam Seaborn\" (1820) which reflected the ideas of John Cleves Symmes, Jr.; Edgar Allan Poe's 1838 novel ''The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket;'' Jules Verne's 1864 novel ''Journey to the Center of the Earth,'' which showed a subterranean world teeming with prehistoric life; George Sand's 1864 novel ''Laura, Voyage dans le Cristal'' where giant crystals could be found in the interior of the Earth; ''Etidorhpa'', an 1895 science-fiction allegory with major subterranean themes; and ''The Smoky God'', a 1908 novel that included the idea that the North Pole was the entrance to the hollow planet.In William Henry Hudson's 1887 romance, ''A Crystal Age'', the protagonist falls down a hill into a Utopian paradise; since he falls into this world, it is sometimes classified as a hollow Earth story; although the hero himself thinks he may have traveled forward in time by millennia.The idea was used by Edgar Rice Burroughs in the seven-novel \"Pellucidar\" series, beginning with ''At the Earth's Core'' (1914).", "Using a mechanical drill, called the Iron Mole, his heroes David Innes and Professor Abner Perry discover a prehistoric world called Pellucidar, 500 miles below the surface, that is lit by a constant noonday inner sun.", "They find prehistoric people, dinosaurs, prehistoric mammals and the Mahar, who evolved from pterosaurs.", "The series ran for six more books, ending with ''Savage Pellucidar'' (1963).", "The 1915 novel ''Plutonia ''by Vladimir Obruchev uses the concept of the Hollow Earth to take the reader through various geological epochs.In recent decades, the idea has become a staple of the science fiction and adventure genres across films (''Children Who Chase Lost Voices'', ''Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs'', ''Aquaman'' and the MonsterVerse), television programs (''Inside Job'', ''Slugterra'', and the third and fourth seasons of ''Sanctuary''), role-playing games (e.g., the Hollow World Campaign Set for ''Dungeons & Dragons'', ''Hollow Earth Expedition''), and video games (''Torin's Passage'' and ''Gears of War'').", "The idea is also partially used in the Marvel Comics universe, where there exists a subterranean realm beneath the Earth known as Subterranea.", "The Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES) video game ''Terranigma'' features this concept in the opening and closing acts of the game.The Hollow Earth is a key location in Legendary Pictures's MonsterVerse films, being the point of origin of the Titans and the strange animals of Skull Island.", "Initially being teased in ''Kong Skull Island'' and ''Godzilla: King of the Monsters'', a full expedition into the Hollow Earth is a primary focus of ''Godzilla vs. Kong''." ], [ "In popular art", "In 1975, Japanese artist Tadanori Yokoo used elements of the Agartha legend, along with other Eastern subterranean myths, to depict an advanced civilization in the cover art for jazz musician Miles Davis's album ''Agharta''.", "Tadanori said he was partly inspired by his reading of Raymond W. Bernard's 1969 book ''The Hollow Earth''." ], [ "See also", "* Dyson sphere* Earth's inner core* Expanding Earth* Flat Earth* Hades* Hollow Moon* List of topics characterized as pseudoscience* Scientific skepticism* Shellworld* Travel to the Earth's center* Xibalba* List of Hollow Earth proponents" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General and cited references", "* Kafton-Minkel, Walter.", "''Subterranean Worlds''.", "Loompanics Unlimited, 1989.", "* Lamprecht, Jan. ''Hollow Planets: A Feasibility Study of Possible Hollow Worlds'' Grave Distraction Publications, 2014.", "* Lewis, David.", "''The Incredible Cities of Inner Earth''.", "Science Research Publishing House, 1979.", "* Seaborn, Captain Adam.", "''Symzonia; Voyage of Discovery''.", "J. Seymour, 1820.", "* Standish, David.", "''Hollow Earth: The Long and Curious History of Imagining Strange Lands, Fantastical Creatures, Advanced Civilizations, and Marvelous Machines Below the Earth's Surface''.", "Da Capo Press, 2006." ], [ "External links", "* '' What Curiosity in the Structure: The Hollow Earth in Science''* '' Library of Congress References''* '' Stories of a Hollow Earth'' Public Domain Review* '' Skeptic Dictionary: Hollow Earth''* \" Is Our Globe Hollow?", "\", ''Scientific American'', 13 July 1878, p. 20* Marshall Gardner" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hamas" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Hamas''', an acronym of its official name, '''Harakat al-Muqawama al-Islamiya''' ('''Islamic Resistance Movement'''), is a Palestinian Sunni Islamist political and military movement governing parts of the occupied Gaza Strip.Hamas was founded by Palestinian imam and activist Ahmed Yassin in 1987, after the outbreak of the First Intifada against the Israeli occupation.", "It emerged from his 1973 Mujama al-Islamiya Islamic charity affiliated with the Muslim Brotherhood.", "In 2006, Hamas won the Palestinian legislative election by campaigning on Palestinian armed resistance against the Israeli occupation, thus securing a majority in the Palestinian Legislative Council.", "In 2007, Hamas took control of the Gaza Strip from rival Palestinian faction Fatah, which it has governed since separately from the Palestinian National Authority.", "This was followed by an Israeli blockade of the Gaza Strip with Egyptian support, and multiple wars with Israel, including in 2008–09, 2012, 2014, and 2021.The ongoing 2023 war began after Hamas launched an attack, killing both civilians and soldiers, and taking hostages back to Gaza.", "The attack has been described as the biggest military setback for Israel since the 1973 Arab–Israeli War, which Israel has responded to in an ongoing ground invasion of Gaza.Hamas promotes Palestinian nationalism in an Islamic context.", "While initially seeking a state in all of Mandatory Palestine, Hamas began acquiescing to 1967 borders in the agreements it signed with Fatah in 2005, 2006 and 2007* \"Khaled Meshal, as chief of Hamas's Political Bureau in Damascus, as well as Hamas prime minister Ismail Haniyeh similarly confirmed the organization's willingness to accept the June 4, 1967, borders and a two-state solution should Israel withdraw from the occupied territories, a reality reaffirmed in the 2006 Palestinian Prisoners' Document, in which most major Palestinian factions had reached a consensus on a two-state solution, that is, a Palestinian state within 1967 borders including East Jerusalem and the refugee right of return.\"", "In 2017, Hamas released a new charter that supported a Palestinian state within the 1967 borders without recognizing Israel.", "Hamas's repeated offers of a truce (for a period of 10–100 years) based on the 1967 borders are seen by many as consistent with a two-state solution, while others say that Hamas retains the long-term objective of establishing one state in former Mandatory Palestine.", "The 1988 Hamas charter was widely described as antisemitic.", "The revised 2017 Hamas Charter maintained that Hamas's struggle was with Zionists, not Jews.", "Hamas is widely popular in Palestinian society largely due to its anti-Israeli stance.", "Hamas has carried out attacks against Israeli soldiers and civilians, including suicide bombings and indiscriminate rocket attacks.", "These actions have led human rights groups to accuse it of war crimes, and Argentina, Australia, Canada, Israel, Japan, Paraguay, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, the United States and the European Union to designate Hamas as a terrorist organization.", "In 2018, a motion at the United Nations to condemn Hamas was rejected." ], [ "Etymology", "''Hamas'' is an acronym of the Arabic phrase or , meaning \"Islamic Resistance Movement\".", "This acronym, HMS, was later glossed in the 1988 Hamas Covenant by the Arabic word () which itself means \"zeal\", \"strength\", or \"bravery\"." ], [ "History", "=== Origins ===When Israel occupied the Palestinian territories in 1967, the Muslim Brotherhood members there did not take active part in the resistance, preferring to focus on social-religious reform and on restoring Islamic values.", "This outlook changed in the early 1980s, and Islamic organizations became more involved in Palestinian politics.", "The driving force behind this transformation was Sheikh Ahmed Yassin, a Palestinian refugee from Al-Jura.", "Of humble origins and quadriplegic, he became one of the Muslim Brotherhood's leaders in Gaza.", "His charisma and conviction brought him a loyal group of followers, upon whom he depended for everything from feeding him and transporting him to and from events to communicating his strategy to the public.", "In 1973, Yassin founded the social-religious charity Mujama al-Islamiya (\"Islamic center\") in Gaza as an offshoot of the Muslim Brotherhood.Israeli authorities in the 1970s and 1980s showed indifference to ''al-Mujama al-Islamiya''.", "They viewed it as a religious cause that was significantly less militant against Israel than Fatah and the Palestine Liberation Organization; many also believed that the infighting between Islamist organizations and the PLO would lead to the latter's weakening.", "Thus, the Israeli government did not intervene in fights between PLO and Islamist forces.", "Israeli officials disagree on how much governmental indifference (or even support) of these disputes led to the rise of Islamism in Palestine.", "Some, such as Arieh Spitzen, have argued that \"even if Israel had tried to stop the Islamists sooner, he doubts it could have done much to curb political Islam, a movement that was spreading across the Muslim world.\"", "Others, including Israel's religious affairs official in Gaza, Avner Cohen, believed that the indifference to the situation fueled Islamism's rise, stating it was \"Israel's creation\" and failure.", "Others attribute the rise of the group to state sponsors, including Iran.", "In 2018, The Intercept published an article claiming that \"Israeli officials admit they helped start the group\".In 1984, Yassin was arrested after the Israelis found out that his group collected arms, but released in May 1985 as part of a prisoner exchange.", "He continued to expand the reach of his charity in Gaza.", "Following his release, he set up ''al-Majd'' (an acronym for Munazamat al-Jihad wa al-Da'wa), headed by former student leader Yahya Sinwar and Rawhi Mushtaha, tasked with handling internal security and hunting local informants for the Israeli intelligence services.", "At about the same time, he ordered former student leader Salah Shehade to set up ''al-Mujahidun al-Filastiniun'' (Palestinian fighters), but its militants were quickly rounded up by Israeli authorities and had their arms confiscated.The idea of Hamas began to take form on December 10, 1987, when several members of the Brotherhood convened the day after an incident in which an Israeli army truck crashed into a car at a Gaza checkpoint, killing four Palestinian day-workers, the impetus of the First Intifada.", "The group met at Yassin's house to strategize on how to maximize the incident's impact in spreading nationalist sentiments and sparking public demonstrations.", "A leaflet issued on December 14 calling for resistance is considered its first public intervention, though the name Hamas itself was not used until January 1988.Hamas was formally recognized by the Jordanian Muslim Brotherhood after a key meeting in Amman in February 1988.Yassin was not directly connected to the organization but he gave it his blessing.Creating Hamas as an entity distinct from the Muslim Brotherhood was a matter of practicality; the Muslim Brotherhood refused to engage in violence against Israel, but without participating in the intifada, the Islamists tied to it feared they would lose support to their rivals the Palestinian Islamic Jihad and the PLO.", "They also hoped that by keeping the militant activities of Hamas separate, Israel would not interfere with the Muslim Brotherhood's social work.To many Palestinians, Hamas represented a more authentic engagement with their national aspirations.", "This perception arose because Hamas offered an Islamic interpretation of the original goals of the secular PLO, focusing on armed struggle to liberate all of Palestine.", "This approach contrasted with the PLO's eventual acceptance of territorial compromise, which involved settling for a smaller portion of Mandatory Palestine.", "Hamas's formal establishment came a month after the PLO and other intifada leaders issued a 14-point declaration in January 1988 advocating for the coexistence of a Palestinian state alongside Israel.In August 1988, Hamas published the Hamas Charter, wherein it defined itself as a chapter of the Muslim Brotherhood and stated its desire to establish \"an Islamic state throughout Palestine\".=== First Intifada ===Hamas's first combat operation against Israel came in spring 1989 as it abducted and killed Avi Sasportas and Ilan Saadon, two Israeli soldiers.", "At the time, Shehade and Sinwar were incarcerated in Israeli prisons and Hamas had set up a new group, Unit 101, headed by Mahmoud al-Mabhouh, whose ''modus operandi'' was to abduct soldiers.", "The discovery of Sasportas's body triggered, in the words of Jean-Pierre Filiu, \"an extremely violent Israeli response\"; hundreds of Hamas leaders and activists, including Yassin, were arrested.", "Hamas was outlawed on September 28, 1989.This mass detention of activists, together with a further wave of arrests in 1990, effectively dismantled Hamas and, devastated, it was forced to adapt; its command system became regionalized to make its operative structure more diffuse, and to minimize the chances of being detected.Anger following the Temple Mount killings in October 1990, in which Muslim worshippers had tried to prevent Jewish extremists from placing a foundation stone for the Third Temple on the Temple Mount and Israeli police used live fire against Palestinians in the Al-Aqsa compound, killing 17, caused Hamas to intensify its campaign of abductions.", "Hamas declared every Israeli soldier a target and called for a \"jihad against the Zionist enemy everywhere, in all fronts and every means.", "\"Hamas reorganized its units from ''al-Majd'' and ''al-Mujahidun al-Filastiniun'' into a military wing called the ''Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades'' led by Yahya Ayyash in 1991 or 1992.The name comes from the militant Palestinian nationalist leader Sheikh Izz ad-Din al-Qassam who fought against the British and whose death in 1935 sparked the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine.", "Its members sometimes called themselves \"Students of Ayyash\", \"Students of the Engineer\", \"Yahya Ayyash Units\", or \"Yahyia Ayyash's Disciples\".Ayyash, an engineering graduate from Birzeit University, was a skillful bomb maker and greatly improved Hamas's striking capability, earning him the nickname ''al-Muhandis'' (\"the Engineer\").", "He is thought to have been one of the driving forces in Hamas's use of suicide bombings, reportedly arguing: \"We paid a high price when we used only slingshots and stones.", "We need to exert more pressure, make the cost of the occupation that much more expensive in human lives, that much more unbearable.\"", "Until his assassination by Shin Bet in 1996, almost all bombs used on suicide missions were constructed by him.In December 1992, Israel responded to the abduction and killing of Nissim Toledano, a border policeman, by exiling 415 members of Hamas and Islamic Jihad to Southern Lebanon, at the time occupied by Israel.", "There, Hamas established contacts with Hezbollah, Palestinians living in refugee camps, and learned how to construct suicide and car bombs.", "In addition to the deportations, Israel imposed a two-week curfew on the Gaza Strip, which cost the economy approximately $1,810,000 per day.", "The deportees were allowed to return nine months later.", "The deportation provoked international condemnation and a unanimous UN Security Council resolution condemning the action.", "Hamas ordered two car bombs in retaliation for the deportation.In April 1993, Hamas launched its first suicide attack, the Mehola Junction bombing, near the Mehola settlement in the West Bank.", "The attacker drove his car between two buses–one military and one civilian.", "Only the driver and an Arab worker were killed in the attack.", "The bomb design was flawed, but Hamas soon learned how to manufacture more lethal bombs.In the first years of the Intifada, Hamas violence was restricted to Palestinians; collaborators with Israel, and people it defined as \"moral deviants,\" that is, drug dealers and prostitutes known to enjoy ties with Israeli criminal networks, or for engaging in loose behavior, such as seducing women in hairdressing salons with alcohol, behavior Hamas considered was encouraged by Israeli agents.", "Hamas leaders likened their rooting out of collaborators to what the French resistance did with Nazi collaborators in World War II.", "In 1992 alone they executed more than 150.In Western media this was reported as typical \"intercommunal strife\" among Arabs.Hamas's actions in the First Intifada expanded its popularity.", "In 1989, fewer than 3% of the Palestinians in Gaza, where Hamas was most popular, supported Hamas.", "In the days leading up to the signing of the Oslo Accords in 1993, 16.6% of Gazans and 10% of West Bank Palestinians identified politically with Hamasa number that still paled in comparison to Fatah, which enjoyed the support of 45% of the Palestinians in the occupied territories.=== Oslo years ===The Oslo process began in September 1993, when Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and Yasir Arafat signed the Declaration of Principles, known as the Oslo I Accord.", "This led to the creation of the Palestinian National Authority (PA), which was backed by Arafat but strongly opposed by Hamas.", "The PA was staffed mainly by members of Fatah and the Palestinian Liberation Organization.", "The peaceful posture adopted by Hamas's rivals created an opportunity to set itself apart as the representative of the resistance movement.Hamas first began suicide attacks specifically targeting civilians in response to the Cave of the Patriarchs massacre carried out by the American-Israeli settler Baruch Goldstein, who on 25 February 1994, during Ramadan, killed 29 unarmed civilians by throwing hand grenades and firing at a group of worshippers during prayer at the Ibrahimi Mosque in Hebron.", "There was a strong sense that the Israeli military was complicit in the massacre because Goldstein wore military fatigues during his attack and carried an assault rifle issued by the IDF, the nearby IDF forces failed to intervene to stop the attack, and indeed an additional 19 Palestinians were killed by Israeli forces in the riots that ensued in protest of the massacre.", "Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin condemned the massacre, but refused to withdraw Jewish settlers from Hebron, fearing a violent confrontation with the settler community.", "Hamas announced that if Israel did not discriminate between \"fighters and civilians\", then it would be \"forced ... to treat the Zionists in the same manner.", "Treating like with like is a universal principle.", "\"Prior to the Hebron massacre, Hamas did not deliberately attack civilian targets.", "But following the massacre, it felt that it no longer had to distinguish between military and civilian targets.", "The leader of the Muslim Brotherhood in the West Bank, Sheikh Ahmed Haj Ali, later argued that \"had there not been the 1994 Ibrahimi Mosque massacre, there would have been no suicide bombings.\"", "Al-Rantisi in an interview in 1998 stated that the suicide attacks \"began after the massacre committed by the terrorist Baruch Goldstein and intensified after the assassination of Yahya Ayyash.\"", "Musa Abu Marzouk put the blame for the escalation on the Israelis: \"We were against targeting civilians ... After the Hebron massacre we determined that it was time to kill Israel's civilians ... we offered to stop if Israel would, but they rejected that offer.", "\"According to Matti Steinberg, former advisor to Shin Bet and one of Israel's leading experts on Hamas, the massacre laid to rest an internal debate within Hamas on the usefulness of indiscriminate violence: \"In the Hamas writings there is an explicit prohibition against indiscriminate harm to helpless people.", "The massacre at the mosque released them from this taboo and introduced a dimension of measure for measure, based on citations from the Koran.", "\"The aftermath of the 1994 Dizengoff Street bus bombing in Tel AvivOn April 6, a suicide bomber blew up his car at a crowded bus stop in Afula, killing eight Israelis and injuring 34.An additional five Israelis were killed and 30 injured as a Palestinian detonated himself on a bus in Hadera a week later.", "Hamas claimed responsibility for both attacks.", "The attacks may have been timed to disrupt negotiations between Israel and PLO on the implementation of the Oslo I Accord.", "A bomb on a bus in downtown Tel Aviv in October 1994, killed 22 and injured 45.In late December 1995, Hamas promised the Palestinian Authority (PA) to cease military operations.", "But it was not to be as Shin Bet assassinated Ayyash, the 29-year-old leader of the al-Qassam Brigades on January 5, 1996, using a booby-trapped cellphone given to Ayyash by his uncle who worked as an informer.", "Nearly 100,000 Gazans, about 11% of the total population, marched in his funeral.", "Hamas resumed its campaign of suicide bombings which had been dormant for a good part of 1995 to retaliate the assassination.In September 1997, Israel's Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu ordered the assassination of Hamas leader Khaled Mashal who lived in Jordan.", "Two Mossad agents entered Jordan on false Canadian passports and sprayed Mashal with a nerve agent on a street in Amman.", "They were caught however and King Hussein threatened to put the agents on trial unless Israel provided Mashal with an antidote and released Yassin.", "Israel obliged and the antidote saved Mashal's life.", "Yassin was returned to Gaza where he was given a hero's welcome with banners calling him the \"sheikh of the Intifada\".", "Yassin's release temporarily boosted Hamas' popularity and at a press conference Yassin declared: \"There will be no halt to armed operations until the end of the occupation ... we are peace-seekers.", "We love peace.", "And we call on them the Israelis to maintain peace with us and to help us in order to restore our rights by peace.", "\"Although the suicide attacks by the al-Qassam Brigades and other groups violated the 1993 Oslo accords (which Hamas opposed), Arafat was reluctant to pursue the attackers and may have had inadequate means to do so.While the Palestinians were used to the idea that their young were willing to die for the struggle, the idea that they would strap explosives to their bodies and blow themselves up was a new and not well-supported development.", "A poll taken in 1996 after the wave of suicide bombings Hamas carried out to retaliate Israel's assassination of Ayyash showed that most 70% opposed the tactic and 59% called for Arafat to take action to prevent further attacks.", "In the political arena Hamas continued to trail far behind its rival Fatah; 41% trusted Arafat in 1996 but only 3% trusted Yassin.In 1999, Hamas was banned in Jordan, reportedly in part at the request of the United States, Israel, and the Palestinian Authority.", "Jordan's King Abdullah feared the activities of Hamas and its Jordanian allies would jeopardize peace negotiations between the Palestinian Authority and Israel, and accused Hamas of engaging in illegitimate activities within Jordan.", "In mid-September 1999, authorities arrested Hamas leaders Khaled Mashal and Ibrahim Ghosheh on their return from a visit to Iran, and charged them with being members of an illegal organization, storing weapons, conducting military exercises, and using Jordan as a training base.", "The Hamas leaders denied the charges.", "Mashal was exiled and eventually settled in Damascus in Syria in 2001.As a result of the Syrian civil war he distanced himself from Bashar al-Assad's regime in 2012 and moved to Qatar.===Second Intifada===Yagur Junction bombing was a suicide attack on the Egged 960 bus in 2002.Hamas was responsible for about 40% of the 135 suicide attacks during the Second Intifiada.In contrast to the preceding uprising, the Al-Aqsa or Second Intifada began violently, with mass demonstrations and lethal Israeli counter-insurgency tactics.", "Prior to the incidents surrounding Ariel Sharon's visit to the Temple Mount (September 2000), Palestinian support for violence against Israelis and for Hamas had been gauged to be 52% and 10%, respectively.", "By July of the following year, after almost a year of savage conflict, polling indicated that 86% of Palestinians endorsed violence against Israelis and support for Hamas had risen to 17%.The al-Qassam Brigades were among the many militant groups that launched both military-style attacks and suicide bombings against Israeli civilian and military targets in this period.", "In the ensuing years almost 5000 Palestinians and over 1100 Israelis were killed.", "While there was a large number of Palestinian attacks against Israelis, the Palestinians' most effective form of violence were suicide attacks; in the first five years of the intifada a little more than half of all Israeli deaths were victims of suicide attacks.", "Hamas performed about 40% of the 135 suicide attacks during the period.Whatever the immediate circumstances triggering the uprising, a more general cause, writes US political science professor Jeremy Pressman, was \"popular Palestinian discontent that grew during the Oslo peace process because the reality on the ground did not match the expectations created by the peace agreements\".", "Hamas would be the beneficiary of this growing discontent in the 2006 Palestinian Authority legislative elections.According to Tristan Dunning, Israel has never responded to repeated offers by Hamas over subsequent years for a ''quid pro quo'' moratorium on attacks against civilians.", "It has engaged in several ''tadi'a'' (periods of calm), and proposed a number of ceasefires.", "In January 2004, Hamas leader Ahmed Yassin, prior to his assassination, said that the group would end armed resistance against Israel for a 10-year ''hudna'' in exchange for a Palestinian state in the West Bank, Gaza Strip, and East Jerusalem, and that restoring Palestinians' \"historical rights\" (relating to the 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight) \"would be left for future generations\".", "His views were quickly echoed by senior Hamas official Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi, who added that Hamas envisaged a \"phased liberation\".", "Israel's response was to assassinate Yassin in March in a targeted Israeli air strike, and then al-Rantisi in a similar air strike in April.In 2005, Hamas signed the Palestinian Cairo Declaration, which confirms \"the right of the Palestinian people to resistance in order to end the occupation, establish a Palestinian state with full sovereignty with Jerusalem as its capital, and the guaranteeing of the right of return of refugees to their homes and property.", "\"===2006 legislative elections===Ismail Haniyeh became the prime minister of the Palestinian National Authority in 2006.Hamas had boycotted the 1996 Palestinian general election and the January 2005 Palestinian presidential election (won by Mahmoud Abbas), but decided to participate in the 25 January 2006 Palestinian legislative election, the first to take place after the death of Yasser Arafat (11 November 2004).", "The EU figured prominently in the proposal that democratic elections be held in the Palestinian territories.", "In the run-up to the polling day, the US administration's Condoleezza Rice, Israel's Tzipi Livni and British Prime Minister Tony Blair all expressed reservations about allowing Hamas to compete in a democratic process.", "Hamas ran on a platform of clean government, a thorough overhaul of the corrupt administrative system, and the issue of rampant lawlessness.", "The Palestinian Authority (PA), notoriously accused of corruption, chose to run Marwan Barghouti as its leading candidate, who was serving five life sentences in Israel.", "The US donated two million dollars to the PA to improve its media image.", "Israel also assisted the PA by allowing Barghouti to be interviewed in prison by Arab television and by permitting 100,000 Palestinians in East Jerusalem to vote.Crucially, the elections took place shortly after Israel had evacuated its settlements in Gaza.", "The evacuation, executed without consulting Fatah, gave currency to Hamas' view that resistance had compelled Israel to leave Gaza.", "In a statement Hamas portrayed it as a vindication of their strategy of armed resistance (\"Four years of resistance surpassed 10 years of bargaining\") and Mohammed Deif attributed \"the Liberation of Gaza\" to his comrades' \"love of martyrdom\".Hamas, intent on reaching power by political means rather than by violence, announced that it would refrain from attacks on Israel if Israel were to cease its offensives against Palestinian towns and villages.", "Its election manifesto dropped the Islamic agenda, spoke of sovereignty for the Palestinian territories, including Jerusalem (an implicit endorsement of the two-state solution), while making no mention about its claims to all of Palestine.", "It mentioned \"armed resistance\" twice and affirmed in article 3.6 that there existed a right to resist the \"terrorism of occupation\".", "A Palestinian Christian figured on its candidate list.In the 25 January 2006 Palestinian legislative election, Hamas won 74 or 76 seats of the 132 seats in the Palestinian Legislative Council, an absolute majority.", "Fatah only won 43, four seats went to independents supporting Hamas.", "The elections were judged by international observers to have been \"competitive and genuinely democratic\".", "The EU said that they had been run better than elections in some member countries of the EU, and promised to maintain its financial support.", "Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates urged the US to give Hamas a chance, and that it was inadvisable to punish Palestinians for their choice, a position also endorsed by the Arab League a month later.After these elections, the Hamas leader sent a letter to U.S. President George W. Bush, declaring, among other things, that Hamas would accept a state on the 1967 borders including \"a truce for many years.\"", "However, the Bush administration did not reply.", "Early February 2006, Hamas also offered Israel a ten-year truce \"in return for a complete Israeli withdrawal from the occupied Palestinian territories: the West Bank, Gaza Strip and East Jerusalem,\" and recognition of Palestinian rights including the \"right of return\".", "But Hamas leader Mashal added that Hamas was not calling for a final end to armed operations against Israel, and it would not impede other Palestinian groups from carrying out such operations.Also after these elections, the Quartet on the Middle East (the United States, Russia, the European Union (EU), and the United Nations) stated that assistance to the Palestinian Authority would only continue if Hamas renounced violence, recognized Israel, and accepted previous Israeli-Palestinian agreements, which Hamas refused to do.", "The Quartet then imposed a freeze on all international aid to the Palestinian territories; by the time Haniyeh presented his Hamas government in late March, the U.S.-led boycott against the PA was in full force.", "As for the part of the EU, which in January 2006 had declared (see above) the Palestinian elections to have been free, their abrupt freezing of financial assistance to the Hamas-led government (following the example set by the US and Canada) in late April 2006 was a violation of its own core principles regarding free elections.", "The EU instead undertook to channel funds directly to people and projects, and pay salaries only to Fatah members, employed or otherwise.After unsuccessful attempts to form a coalition government with Fatah, Hamas on 27 March 2006 then assumed the administration of Gaza on its own, and introduced radical changes.Hamas had inherited a chaotic situation of lawlessness.", "The (new) economic sanctions imposed by Israel, the US and the Quartet (since Hamas' victory in the elections) had further crippled the PA's administrative resources, leading to the emergence of numerous mafia-style gangs and terror cells modeled after Al Qaeda.", "Writing in ''Foreign Affairs'', Daniel Byman later stated:After it took over the Gaza Strip Hamas revamped the police and security forces, cutting them 50,000 members (on paper, at least) under Fatah to smaller, efficient forces of just over 10,000, which then cracked down on crime and gangs.", "No longer did groups openly carry weapons or steal with impunity.", "People paid their taxes and electric bills, and in return authorities picked up garbage and put criminals in jail.", "Gaza – neglected under Egyptian and then Israeli control, and misgoverned by Palestinian leader Yasir Arafat and his successors – finally has a real government.", "'===Hamas–Fatah conflict===Hamas rally in BethlehemAfter the formation of the Hamas-led cabinet on March 20, 2006, tensions between Fatah and Hamas militants progressively rose in the Gaza strip as Fatah commanders refused to take orders from the government while the Palestinian Authority initiated a campaign of demonstrations, assassinations and abductions against Hamas, which led to Hamas responding.", "Israeli intelligence warned Mahmoud Abbas that Hamas had planned to kill him at his office in Gaza.", "According to a Palestinian source close to Abbas, Hamas considers President Abbas to be a barrier to its complete control over the Palestinian Authority and decided to kill him.", "In a statement to Al Jazeera, Hamas leader Mohammed Nazzal accused Abbas of being party to the besieging and isolation of the Hamas-led government.On June 9, 2006, during an Israeli artillery operation, an explosion occurred on a busy Gaza beach, killing eight Palestinian civilians.", "It was assumed that Israeli shellings were responsible for the killings, but Israeli government officials denied this.", "Hamas formally withdrew from its 16-month ceasefire on June 10, taking responsibility for the subsequent Qassam rocket attacks launched from Gaza into Israel.On June 25, two Israeli soldiers were killed and another, Gilad Shalit, captured following an incursion by the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades, Popular Resistance Committees and Army of Islam.", "In response, the Israeli military launched Operation Summer Rains three days later to secure the release of the kidnapped soldier, arresting 64 Hamas officials.", "Among them were 8 Palestinian Authority cabinet ministers and up to 20 members of the Palestinian Legislative Council.", "The arrests, along with other events, effectively prevented the Hamas-dominated legislature from functioning during most of its term.", "Shalit was held captive until 2011, when he was released in exchange for 1,027 Palestinian prisoners.", "Since then, Hamas has continued building a network of internal and cross-border tunnels, which are used to store and deploy weapons, shield militants, and facilitate cross-border attacks.", "Destroying the tunnels was a primary objective of Israeli forces in the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict.In February 2007 Saudi-sponsored negotiations led to the Hamas & Fatah Mecca Agreement to form a unity government, signed by Mahmoud Abbas on behalf of Fatah and Khaled Mashal on behalf of Hamas.", "The new government was called on to achieve Palestinian national goals as approved by the Palestine National Council, the clauses of the Basic Law and the National Reconciliation Document (the \"Prisoners' Document\") as well as the decisions of the Arab summit.In March 2007, the Palestinian Legislative Council established a national unity government, with 83 representatives voting in favor and three against.", "Government ministers were sworn in by Mahmoud Abbas, the chairman of the Palestinian Authority, at a ceremony held simultaneously in Gaza and Ramallah.", "In June that year, renewed fighting broke out between Hamas and Fatah.", "In a leaked comment by Major General Yadlin to the American Ambassador Richard H Jones at this point (June 12, 2007), Yadlin emphasized Hamas's electoral victory and an eventual Fatah withdrawal from Gaza would be advantageous to Israeli interests, in that the PLO's relocation to the West Bank would allow Israel to treat the Gaza Strip and Hamas as a hostile country.", "In the course of the June 2007 Battle of Gaza, Hamas exploited the near total collapse of Palestinian Authority forces in Gaza to seize control of Gaza, ousting Fatah officials.", "President Mahmoud Abbas then dismissed the Hamas-led Palestinian Authority government and outlawed the Hamas militia.", "At least 600 Palestinians died in fighting between Hamas and Fatah.", "Human Rights Watch, a US-based group, accused both sides in the conflict of torture and war crimes.Human Rights Watch estimates several hundred Gazans were \"maimed\" and tortured in the aftermath of the Gaza War.", "73 Gazan men accused of \"collaborating\" had their arms and legs broken by \"unidentified perpetrators\" and 18 Palestinians accused of collaborating with Israel, who had escaped from Gaza's main prison compound after Israel bombed the facility, were executed by Hamas security officials in the first days of the conflict.", "Hamas security forces attacked hundreds of Fatah officials who supported Israel.", "Human Rights Watch interviewed one such person:In March 2012, Mahmoud Abbas stated that there were no political differences between Hamas and Fatah as they had reached agreement on a joint political platform and on a truce with Israel.", "Commenting on relations with Hamas, Abbas revealed in an interview with Al Jazeera that \"We agreed that the period of calm would be not only in the Gaza Strip, but also in the West Bank,\" adding that \"We also agreed on a peaceful popular resistance against Israel, the establishment of a Palestinian state along the 1967 borders and that the peace talks would continue if Israel halted settlement construction and accepted our conditions.\"", "Progress was stalled, until an April 2014 agreement to form a compromise unity government, with elections to be held in late 2014.These elections did not take place and following a new agreement, the next Palestinian general election was scheduled to take place by the end of March 2021, but did not happen.=== 2008–2009 Gaza War ===On 24 April 2008, Hamas through Egyptian mediators proposed to Israel a six-month truce inside the Gaza Strip, thus excluding the West Bank from his proposal.", "Israel on 25 April 2008 rejected the proposal, reluctant that such an agreement would strengthen Hamas against their rivals in the Palestinian Territories, Fatah, based on the West Bank, at that time running the Palestinian National Authority and as such currently negotiating peace with Israel.", "Also Israel rejected the proposal because Israel presumed that Hamas would use the truce to prepare for more fighting rather than peace.On June 17, 2008, Egyptian mediators announced that an informal truce had been agreed to between Hamas and Israel.", "Hamas agreed to cease rocket attacks on Israel, while Israel agreed to allow limited commercial shipping across its border with Gaza, barring any breakdown of the tentative peace deal; Hamas also hinted that it would discuss the release of Gilad Shalit.", "Israeli sources state that Hamas also committed itself to enforce the ceasefire on the other Palestinian organizations.", "Even before the truce was agreed to, some on the Israeli side were not optimistic about it, Shin Bet chief Yuval Diskin stating in May 2008 that a ground incursion into Gaza was unavoidable and would more effectively quell arms smuggling and pressure Hamas into relinquishing power.Destroyed building in Rafah, January 12, 2009While Hamas was careful to maintain the ceasefire, the lull was sporadically violated by other groups, sometimes in defiance of Hamas.", "For example, on June 24 Islamic Jihad launched rockets at the Israeli town of Sderot; Israel called the attack a grave violation of the informal truce, and closed its border crossings with Gaza.", "On November 4, 2008, Israeli forces, in an attempt to stop construction of a tunnel, killed six Hamas gunmen in a raid inside the Gaza Strip.", "Hamas responded by resuming rocket attacks with a total of 190 rockets in November according to Israel's military.When the six-month truce officially expired on December 19, Hamas launched 50 to more than 70 rockets and mortars into Israel over the next three days, though no Israelis were injured.", "On December 21, Hamas said it was ready to stop the attacks and renew the truce if Israel stopped its \"aggression\" in Gaza and opened up its border crossings.On December 27 and 28, Israel implemented Operation Cast Lead against Hamas.", "Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak said \"We warned Hamas repeatedly that rejecting the truce would push Israel to aggression against Gaza.\"", "According to Palestinian officials, over 280 people were killed and 600 were injured in the first two days of airstrikes.", "Most were Hamas police and security officers, though many civilians also died.", "According to Israel, militant training camps, rocket-manufacturing facilities and weapons warehouses that had been pre-identified were hit, and later they attacked rocket and mortar squads who fired around 180 rockets and mortars at Israeli communities.", "Chief of Gaza police force Tawfiq Jabber, head of the General Security Service Salah Abu Shrakh, senior religious authority and security officer Nizar Rayyan, and Interior Minister Said Seyam were among those killed during the fighting.", "Although Israel sent out thousands of cell-phone messages urging residents of Gaza to leave houses where weapons may be stored in an attempt to minimise civilian casualties, some residents complained there was nowhere to go because many neighborhoods had received the same message.", "Israeli bombs landed close to civilian structures such as schools, and some alleged that Israel was deliberately targeting Palestinian civilians.Israel declared a unilateral ceasefire on January 17, 2009.Hamas responded the following day by announcing a one-week ceasefire to give Israel time to withdraw its forces from the Gaza Strip.", "Israeli, Palestinian and third-party sources disagreed on the total casualty figures from the Gaza war, and the number of Palestinian casualties who were civilians.", "In November 2010, a senior Hamas official acknowledged that up to 300 fighters were killed and \"In addition to them, between 200 and 300 fighters from the Al-Qassam Brigades and another 150 security forces were martyred.\"", "These new numbers reconcile the total with those of the Israeli military, which originally had said there were 709 \"terror operatives\" killed.==== After the Gaza War ====25th anniversary of Hamas celebrated in Gaza, December 8, 2012On August 16, 2009, Hamas leader Khaled Mashal stated that the organization was ready to open dialogue with the Obama administration because its policies were much better than those of former US president George W. Bush: Despite this, an August 30, 2009, speech during a visit to Jordan in which Mashal expressed support for the Palestinian right of return was interpreted by David Pollock of the Washington Institute for Near East Policy as a sign that \"Hamas has now clearly opted out of diplomacy.\"", "In an interview in May 2010, Mashal said that if a Palestinian state with real sovereignty was established under the conditions he set out, on the borders of 1967 with its capital Jerusalem and with the right of return, that will be the end of the Palestinian resistance, and then the nature of any subsequent ties with Israel would be decided democratically by the Palestinians.", "In July 2009, Khaled Mashal, Hamas's political bureau chief, stated Hamas's willingness to cooperate with a resolution to the Arab-Israeli conflict, which included a Palestinian state based on 1967 borders, provided that Palestinian refugees be given the right to return to Israel and that East Jerusalem be recognized as the new state's capital.In 2011, after the outbreak of the Syrian Civil War, Hamas distanced itself from the Syrian regime and its members began leaving Syria.", "Where once there were \"hundreds of exiled Palestinian officials and their relatives\", that number shrunk to \"a few dozen\".", "In 2012, Hamas publicly announced its support for the Syrian opposition.", "This prompted Syrian state TV to issue a \"withering attack\" on the Hamas leadership.", "Khaled Mashal said that Hamas had been \"forced out\" of Damascus because of its disagreements with the Syrian regime.", "In late October, Syrian Army soldiers shot dead two Hamas leaders in Daraa refugee camp.", "On November 5, 2012, the Syrian state security forces shut down all Hamas offices in the country.", "In January 2013, another two Hamas members were found dead in Syria's Husseinieh camp.", "Activists said the two had been arrested and executed by state security forces.", "In 2013, it was reported that the military wing of Hamas had begun training units of the Free Syrian Army.", "In 2013, after \"several intense weeks of indirect three-way diplomacy between representatives of Hamas, Israel, and the Palestinian Authority\", no agreement was reached.", "Also, intra-Palestinian reconciliation talks stalled and, as a result, during Obama's visit to Israel, Hamas launched five rocket strikes on Israel.", "In November, Isra Almodallal was appointed the first spokeswoman of the group.In 2014, in the presence and mediation of the Emir of Qatar in Doha, the Fatah leadership headed by Abbas met with the Hamas leadership headed by Khaled Mash’al.", "The full minutes of the talks were published in an official Emirati document.", "In essence, the message of the Hamas leadership was clear: \"If you in Fatah are convinced that you can get a state from Israel along the 1967 lines through negotiations, go for it.", "We will not interfere.", "\"=== 2014 Gaza War to 2022 ===During the 2014 Gaza War, Israel launched Operation Protective Edge to counter increased Hamas rocket fire from Gaza.", "The conflict ended with a permanent cease-fire after 7 weeks, and more than 2,200 dead.", "64 of the dead were Israeli soldiers, 7 were civilians in Israel (from rocket attacks), and 2,101 were killed in Gaza, of which, according to UN OCHA, at least 1,460 were civilians.", "Israel says 1,000 of the dead were militants.", "Following the conflict, Mahmoud Abbas president of the Palestinian Authority, accused Hamas of needlessly extending the fighting in the Gaza Strip, contributing to the high death toll, of running a \"shadow government\" in Gaza, and of illegally executing scores of Palestinians.", "Hamas has complained about the slow delivery of reconstruction materials after the conflict and announced that they were diverting these materials from civilian uses to build more infiltration tunnels.In 2016, Hamas began security co-ordination with Egypt to crack down on Islamic terrorist organizations in Sinai, in return for economic aid.In early 2017, Hamas established the Supreme Administrative Committee to oversee Gaza's ministries.", "Abbas decried the move as Hamas creating a shadow government and trying to entrench its control in Gaza.", "On 17 September 2017, Hamas announced it was dissolving the committee in response to Egypt's efforts as part of the Fatah–Hamas reconciliation process.In October 2017, Fatah and Hamas signed yet another reconciliation agreement.", "The partial agreement addresses civil and administrative matters involving Gaza and the West Bank.", "Other contentious issues such as national elections, reform of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and possible demilitarization of Hamas were to be discussed in the next meeting in November 2017, due to a new step-by-step approach.A UN report cited that Hamas, among numerous other organizations, participated in planning the 2018-2019 \"the Great March of Return\" along the Gaza border with Israel.", "The report states that the armed wings of the political parties were not represented on the committees.", "The planning committee included a diversity of representatives from all sectors of Palestinian society, including cultural and social organizations, student unions, and women's rights groups.", "The report states that \"while the members of the committee held diverse political views, they stated that their unifying element was the principle that the march was to be 'fully peaceful from beginning to the end' and demonstrators would be unarmed.\"", "At least 183 unarmed Palestinian protestors, including 1 woman and 35 children, were killed by the IDF firing live ammunition and 7,623 were injured by live ammunition, fragmentation, rubber-coated bullets, and direct tear-gas canister hits.", "6 Palestinians in the report, including teenagers, were shot with live ammunition for throwing stones at IDF soldiers in protest.", "A total of 4 IDF soldiers were injured by stones.In February–March 2021, Fatah and Hamas reached agreement to jointly conduct elections for a new Palestinian legislative assembly, in accordance with the Oslo Accords.", "Hamas committed to upholding international law, transferring control of Gaza to the Palestinian Authority and to allowing it to negotiate with Israel to establish a Palestinian state along the 1967 ceasefire lines, with East Jerusalem as its capital.", "According to Menachem Klein, Israeli Arabist and political scientist at Bar-Ilan University, Mahmood Abbas subsequently cancelled the elections after capitulating to severe pressure from Israel and the United States.In May 2021, after tensions escalated in Sheikh Jarrah and the al-Aqsa mosque compound in Jerusalem, Israel and Hamas clashed in Gaza once again.", "After eleven days of fighting, at least 243 people were killed in Gaza and 12 in Israel.", "During this conflict Hamas's military wing, the Al-Aqsa Brigades, started planning the operation which would break out on 7 October 2023.===2023 Israel–Hamas war===A blood-stained home floor in the aftermath of the Nahal Oz massacreCivilian casualty in Gaza during the Israel–Hamas warOn October 7, 2023 early morning, Hamas launched a barrage of rockets on Israeli towns and cities, followed by an invasion, breaching the Gaza–Israel barrier.", "For months prior to the attack, Hamas had been leading Israeli intelligence to believe that they were not seeking conflict.", "Hamas militants proceeded to massacre hundreds in Israeli civilian communities, including Kibbutzim, villages and towns, and hundreds of civilians celebrating at the Nova music festival.", "In total, 1,139 people were killed in Israel, making this the deadliest attack by Palestinian militants since the foundation of Israel in 1948.Approximately 250 Israeli civilians and soldiers were taken as hostages to the Gaza Strip, including 30 children.", "International human rights groups, medical personnel, and journalists have chronicled the militants' onslaught, detailing the killing, including the decapitation and burning, of women, children, and the elderly, alongside young men and soldiers.", "There are numerous reports of rapes and sexual assaults by Hamas militants, allegations that Hamas has denied.", "Senior Hamas official Khaled Mashal said that the group was fully aware of the consequences of attack on Israel, stating that Palestinian liberation comes with \"sacrifices\".On October 24, Ghazi Hamad, Hamas’ spokesperson, said that Hamas will repeat the October 7 attack time and again until Israel is annihilated, since Israel constitutes a catastrophe to the Arab and Islamic nation.The Israeli military responded by imposing a total blockade of the Gaza Strip, followed by an extensive aerial bombardment campaign on Gazan targets.", "Israel then launched an ongoing large-scale ground invasion of Gaza with the stated goal of destroying Hamas and controlling Gaza afterwards." ], [ "Political and religious positions", "Hamas is widely considered to be the \"dominant political force\" within the Palestinian territories.Hamas' policy towards a two-state solution and towards Israel has evolved.", "Historically, Hamas envisioned a Palestinian state on all of the territory that belonged to the British Mandate for Palestine (that is, from the Jordan River to the Mediterranean Sea).", "However, Hamas signed agreements with Fatah in 2005, 2007, 2011 and 2012 that indicated a tacit acceptance of the 1967 borders and previous accords between PLO and Israel.", "In 2006, Hamas signed the second version of (originally) 'the Palestinians' Prisoners Document' which supports the quest for a Palestinian state \"on all territories occupied in 1967\".", "This document also recognized authority of the President of the Palestinian National Authority to negotiate with Israel.", "On 2 May 2017, in a press conference in Doha (Qatar) presenting a new charter, Khaled Mashal, chief of the Hamas Political Bureau declared that, though Hamas considered the establishment of a Palestinian state \"on the basis of June 4, 1967\" (West Bank, Gaza Strip and East Jerusalem) acceptable, Hamas would in that case still not recognise the statehood of Israel and not relinquish their goal of liberating all of Palestine from \"the Zionist project\".", "Professor Mohammed Ayoob interpreted the 2017 charter as \"a de facto acceptance of the preconditions for a two-state solution\".", "Hamas leaders still occasionally called for the annihilation of Israel in the early 2020s.", "In 2024 Khaled Mashal said that Hamas accepts the state within the 1967 borders \"to facilitate Palestinian and Arab consensus\" while at the same time rejecting the two-state solution and claiming the right to all the land of Israel and Palestine.Whether Hamas would recognize Israel is debated.", "Hamas leaders have emphasized they do not recognize Israel, but indicate they \"have a de facto acceptance of its presence\".", "Hamas's acceptance of the 1967 borders acknowledges the existence of another entity on the other side.", "Many scholars believe Hamas's acceptance of the 1967 borders implicitly recognizes Israel.In a 2006 interview, Ismail Haniyeh, senior political leader of Hamas and at that time Prime Minister of the Palestinian National Authority, said \"\"We have no problem with a sovereign Palestinian state over all our lands within the 1967 borders, living in calm.\"", "In May 2010, Khaled Mashal, then chairman of the Hamas Political Bureau said that the state of Israel living next to \"a Palestinian state on the borders of 1967\" would be acceptable for Hamas.", "In November 2010, Ismail Haniyeh also proposed a Palestinian state on 1967 borders, though added three further conditions: \"resolution of the issue of refugees\", \"the release of Palestinian prisoners\", and \"Jerusalem as its capital\"; both Mashal and Haniyeh that year also made reservations as to a \"referendum\" in which \"the Palestinian people\" should decide whether, in such a two-state situation, those two states should still be merged into one.In the 1988 charter, Hamas' declared objectives were to wage an armed struggle against Israel, liberate Palestine from Israeli occupation and transform the country into an Islamic state.In March 2006, two months after winning an absolute majority in the 2006 Palestinian legislative election, Hamas released its legislative program, which signaled that Hamas could refer the issue of recognizing Israel to a national referendum: \"The question of recognizing Israel is not the jurisdiction of one faction, nor the government, but a decision for the Palestinian people.\"", "In June 2006, Hamas MP Riad Mustafa explained: \"Hamas will never recognize Israel\", but if a popular Palestinian referendum would endorse a peace agreement including recognition of Israel, \"we would of course accept their verdict\".", "A few months later, via University of Maryland's Jerome Segal, Hamas sent a letter to US President George W. Bush, stating that they \"don't mind having a Palestinian state in the 1967 borders\", and asked for direct negotiations.In 2007, Hamas signed the Fatah–Hamas Mecca Agreement.", "At the time of signing this agreement, Moussa Abu Marzouk, Deputy Chairman of the Hamas Political Bureau, said regarding the recognition of Israel: I can recognize the presence of Israel as a fait accompli (amr wâqi‘) or, as the French say, a de facto recognition, but this does not mean that I recognize Israel as a state.", "Since 2006 though, voices inside and outside Hamas have argued that the original 1988 Charter, with its talk of “eliminating” the state of Israel, is no longer (fully) in force — which others again have denied (see 1988 Hamas charter#Relevance).In an April 2008 meeting between Hamas leader Khaled Mashal and former US President Jimmy Carter, an understanding was reached in which Hamas agreed it would respect the creation of a Palestinian state in the territory seized by Israel in the 1967 Six-Day War, provided this were ratified by the Palestinian people in a referendum.", "In 2009, in a letter to UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon, Haniyeh repeated his group's support for a two-state settlement based on 1967 borders: \"We would never thwart efforts to create an independent Palestinian state with borders from June 4, 1967, with Jerusalem as its capital.\"", "On December 1, 2010, Ismail Haniyeh again repeated, \"We accept a Palestinian state on the borders of 1967, with Jerusalem as its capital, the release of Palestinian prisoners, and the resolution of the issue of refugees,\" and \"Hamas will respect the results of a referendum regardless of whether it differs with its ideology and principles.", "\"In November 2011, Hamas leader Khaled Mishal made an agreement with Mahmoud Abbas in Cairo, in which he committed to respecting the 1967 borders.In February 2012, according to the Palestinian authority, Hamas forswore the use of violence.", "Evidence for this was provided by an eruption of violence from Islamic Jihad in March 2012 after an Israeli assassination of a Jihad leader, during which Hamas refrained from attacking Israel.", "\"Israel—despite its mantra that because Hamas is sovereign in Gaza it is responsible for what goes on there—almost seems to understand,\" wrote Israeli journalists Avi Issacharoff and Amos Harel, \"and has not bombed Hamas offices or installations\".As to the question whether Hamas is capable to enter into a long-term non-aggression treaty with Israel without being disloyal to their understanding of Islamic law and God's word, ''the Atlantic'' magazine columnist Jeffrey Goldberg in 2009 stated: \"I tend to think not, though I’ve noticed over the years a certain plasticity of belief among some Hamas ideologues.", "Also, this is the Middle East, so anything is possible\".The short-term goal of Hamas was to liberate Palestine, including modern-day Israel, from Israeli occupation.", "Some academics argue that the long-term aim seeks to establish an Islamic state from the Jordan River to the Mediterranean Sea, remarkably similar to, and perhaps derived from, the Zionist notion of the same area under a Jewish majority.On 2 November 2023, Ismail Haniyeh stated that if Israel agreed to a ceasefire in the 2023 Israel–Hamas war and the opening of humanitarian corridors to bring more aid into Gaza, Hamas is \"ready for political negotiations for a two-state solution with Jerusalem as the capital of Palestine.", "\"=== Hudna proposals ===When Hamas won a majority in the January 2006 Palestinian legislative election, Ismail Haniyeh, the then newly elected Prime Minister of the Palestinian National Authority, sent messages both to US President George W. Bush and to Israel's leaders, asking to be recognized and offering a long-term truce and the establishment of a border on the lines of 1967.No response came.", "Haniyeh's proposal reportedly was a fifty-year armistice with Israel, if a Palestinian state is created along the 1967 borders with East Jerusalem as its capital.", "A Hamas official added that the armistice would renew automatically each time.", "In mid-2006, University of Maryland's Jerome Segal suggested that a Palestinian state within the 1967 borders and a truce for many years could be considered Hamas's ''de facto'' recognition of Israel.", "Hamas's spokesperson, Ahmed Yousef, said that a \"hudna\" is more than a ceasefire and it \"obliges parties to use the period to seek a permanent, non-violent resolution to their differences.", "\"In November 2008, in a meeting, on Gaza Strip soil, with 11 European members of parliaments, Hamas leader Ismail Haniyeh re-stated that Hamas was willing to accept a Palestinian state \"in the territories of 1967\" (Gaza Strip and West Bank), and offered Israel a long-term truce if Israel recognized the Palestinians' national rights; and stated that Israel rejected this proposal.", "A Hamas finance minister around 2018 contended that such a \"long-term ceasefire as understood by Hamas and a two-state settlement are the same”.Mkhaimer Abusada, a political scientist at Al Azhar University, in September 2009 wrote that Hamas talks \"of hudna temporary ceasefire, not of peace or reconciliation with Israel.", "They believe over time they will be strong enough to liberate all historic Palestine.\"", "Several more authors have warned around 2020, that, if Israel would accept such a proposal (a Palestinian state \"in the territories of 1967\" combined with a long-term truce), Hamas would retain its objective of establishing one state in former Mandatory Palestine.", "Hamas originally proposed a 10-year truce, or ''hudna'', to Israel, contingent on the creation of a Palestinian state based on the 1967 borders.", "Sheikh Ahmed Yasin indicated that such truce could be extended for 30, 40, or even 100 years, but it would never signal a recognition of Israel.", "A Hamas official explained that having an indefinite truce with Israel doesn't contradict Hamas's lack of recognition of Israel, comparing it to the Irish Republican Army's willingness to accept a permanent armistice with the United Kingdom without recognizing the UK's sovereignty over Northern Ireland.", "Many scholars maintain that Hamas's goal of establishing a Palestinian state in the West Bank and Gaza is an interim solution, while its long-term goal is a single state in all of mandatory Palestine in which Jews live as citizens.===Religious policy=======In the Gaza Strip====The gender ideology outlined in the Hamas charter, the importance of women in the religious-nationalist project of liberation is asserted as no lesser than that of males.", "Their role was defined primarily as one of manufacturing males and caring for their upbringing and rearing, though the charter recognized they could fight for liberation without obtaining their husband's permission and in 2002 their participation in jihad was permitted.", "The doctrinal emphasis on childbearing and rearing as woman's primary duty is not so different from Fatah's view of women in the First Intifada and it also resembles the outlook of Jewish settlers, and over time it has been subjected to change.In 1989, during the First Intifada, a small number of Hamas followers for polygamy, and also insisted women stay at home and be segregated from men.", "In the course of this campaign, women who chose not to wear the hijab were verbally and physically harassed, with the result that the hijab was being worn 'just to avoid problems on the streets'.", "The harassment dropped drastically when, after 18 months UNLU condemned it, though similar campaigns reoccurred.Since Hamas took control of the Gaza Strip in 2007, some of its members have attempted to impose Islamic dress or the hijab head covering on women.", "The government's \"Islamic Endowment Ministry\" has deployed Virtue Committee members to warn citizens of the dangers of immodest dress, card playing, and dating.", "There are no government laws imposing dress and other moral standards, and the Hamas education ministry reversed one effort to impose Islamic dress on students.", "There has also been successful resistance to attempts by local Hamas officials to impose Islamic dress on women.", "Hamas officials deny having any plans to impose Islamic law, one legislator stating that \"What you are seeing are incidents, not policy,\" and that Islamic law is the desired standard \"but we believe in persuasion\".In 2013, UNRWA canceled its annual marathon in Gaza after Hamas prohibited women from participating in the race.====In the West Bank====In 2005, the human rights organization Freemuse released a report titled \"Palestine: Taliban-like attempts to censor music\", which said that Palestinian musicians feared that harsh religious laws against music and concerts will be imposed since Hamas group scored political gains in the Palestinian Authority local elections of 2005.The attempt by Hamas to dictate a cultural code of conduct in the 1980s and early 1990s led to a violent fighting between different Palestinian sectors.", "Hamas members reportedly burned down stores that stocked videos they deemed indecent and destroyed books they described as \"heretical\".In 2005, an outdoor music-and-dance performance in Qalqiliya was suddenly banned by the Hamas-led municipality, for the reason that such an event would be \"haram\", i.e.", "forbidden by Islam.", "The municipality also ordered that music no longer be played in the Qalqiliya zoo, and mufti Akrameh Sabri issued a religious edict affirming the municipality decision.", "In response, the Palestinian national poet Mahmoud Darwish warned that \"There are Taliban-type elements in our society, and this is a very dangerous sign.", "\"The Palestinian columnist Mohammed Abd Al-Hamid, a resident of Ramallah, wrote that this religious coercion could cause the migration of artists, and said \"The religious fanatics in Algeria destroyed every cultural symbol, shattered statues and rare works of art and liquidated intellectuals and artists, reporters and authors, ballet dancers and singers—are we going to imitate the Algerian and Afghani examples?", "\"===Erdoğan's Turkey as a role model===Some Hamas members have stated that the model of Islamic government that Hamas seeks to emulate is that of Turkey under the rule of Recep Tayyip Erdoğan.", "The foremost members to distance Hamas from the practices of the Taliban and to publicly support the Erdoğan model were Ahmed Yousef and Ghazi Hamad, advisers to Prime Minister Hanieh.", "Yusuf, the Hamas deputy foreign minister, reflected this goal in an interview with a Turkish newspaper, stating that while foreign public opinion equates Hamas with the Taliban or al-Qaeda, the analogy is inaccurate.", "Yusuf described the Taliban as \"opposed to everything\", including education and women's rights, while Hamas wants to establish good relations between the religious and secular elements of society and strives for human rights, democracy and an open society.", "According to professor Yezid Sayigh of King's College in London, how influential this view is within Hamas is uncertain, since both Ahmad Yousef and Ghazi Hamad were dismissed from their posts as advisers to Hamas Prime Minister Ismail Hanieh in October 2007.Both have since been appointed to other prominent positions within the Hamas government.", "Khaled al-Hroub of the West Bank-based and anti-Hamas Palestinian daily ''Al Ayyam'' added that despite claims by Hamas leaders that it wants to repeat the Turkish model of Islam, \"what is happening on the ground in reality is a replica of the Taliban model of Islam.", "\"===1988 Hamas Charter===Hamas published its charter in August 1988, wherein it defined itself as a chapter of the Muslim Brotherhood and its desire to establish \"an Islamic state throughout Palestine\".", "The foundational document was, according to Khaled Hroub, written by a single individual and made public without going through the usual prior consultation process.", "It was then signed on August 18, 1988.It contains both antisemitic passages and characterizations of Israeli society as Nazi-like in its cruelty, and irredentist claims.", "It declares all of Palestine a ''waqf'', an unalienable religious property consisting of land endowed to Muslims in perpetuity by God, with religious coexistence under Islam's rule.", "The charter rejects a two-state solution, stating that the conflict cannot be resolved \"except through jihad\".Article 6 states that the movement's aim is to \"raise the banner of Allah over every inch of Palestine, for under the wing of Islam followers of all religions can coexist in security and safety where their lives, possessions and rights are concerned\".", "It adds that, \"when our enemies usurp some Islamic lands, jihad becomes a duty binding on all Muslims\", for which the whole of the land is non-negotiable, a position likened, without the racist sentiments present in the Hamas charter, to that in the Likud party platform and in movements such as Gush Emunim.", "For Hamas, to concede territory is seen as equivalent to renouncing Islam itself.The violent language against all Jews in the original Hamas charter is antisemitic and has been characterized by some as genocidal.", "The charter attributes collective responsibility to Jews, not just Israelis, for various global issues, including both World Wars.===2017 charter===In May 2017, Hamas unveiled a rewritten charter, titled \"A Document of General Principles and Policies\".", "The charter accepts a Palestinian state in the 1967 borders, without recognizing Israel.", "The charter clarifies that Hamas's struggle is not against the Jewish people but against Zionists.", "The charter argues that armed resistance to occupation is supported by international law.", "It also claims to support democracy.", "Hamas has described these changes as adaptation within a specific context, as opposed to abandonment of its principles.", "The 2017 charter removes the antisemitic references of the 1988 charter.", "But some sources maintain Hamas's condemnation of Zionists is antisemitic too.", "The 2017 charter describes Zionism as part of a conspiratorial global plot, as the enemy of all Muslims, and a danger to international security, and blames the Zionists for the conflation of anti-Zionism and antisemitism." ], [ "Organization", "===Leadership and structure===Map of key Hamas leadership nodes.", "2010Hamas inherited from its predecessor a tripartite structure that consisted in the provision of social services, of religious training and military operations under a Shura Council.", "Traditionally it had four distinct functions: (a) a charitable social welfare division (''dawah''); (b) a military division for procuring weapons and undertaking operations (''al-Mujahideen al Filastinun''); (c) a security service (''Jehaz Aman''); and (d) a media branch (''A'alam'').", "Hamas has both an internal leadership within the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, and an external leadership, split between a Gaza group directed by Mousa Mohammed Abu Marzook from his exile first in Damascus and then in Egypt, and a Kuwaiti group (''Kuwaidia'') under Khaled Mashal.", "The Kuwaiti group of Palestinian exiles began to receive extensive funding from the Gulf States after its leader Mashal broke with Yasser Arafat's decision to side with Saddam Hussein in the Invasion of Kuwait, with Mashal insisting that Iraq withdraw.", "On May 6, 2017, Hamas' Shura Council chose Ismail Haniya to become the new leader, to replace Mashal.The exact structure of the organization is unclear as it is shrouded in a veil of secrecy in order to conceal operational activities.", "Formally, Hamas maintains the wings are separate and independent, but this has been questioned.", "It has been argued that its wings are both separate and combined for reasons of internal and external political necessity.", "Communication between the political and military wings of Hamas is made difficult by the thoroughness of Israeli intelligence surveillance and the existence of an extensive base of informants.", "After the assassination of Abdel Aziz al-Rantisi the political direction of the militant wing was diminished and field commanders were given wider discretional autonomy over operations.====Political Bureau====Hamas's overarching governing body is the Majlis al-Shura (Shura Council), based on the Qur'anic concept of consultation and popular assembly (), which Hamas leaders argue provides for democracy within an Islamic framework.", "As the organization grew more complex and Israeli pressure increased, the Shura Council was renamed the General Consultative Council, with members elected from local council groups.", "The council elects the 15-member Political Bureau (''al-Maktab al-Siyasi'') that makes decisions for Hamas.", "Representatives come from Gaza, the West Bank, leaders in exile and Israeli prisons.", "The Political Bureau was based in Damascus until the Syrian Civil War until Hamas's support for the civil opposition to Bashar al-Assad led to the office's relocation to Qatar in January 2012, .===Finances and funding===Hamas, like its predecessor the Muslim Brotherhood, assumed the administration of Gaza's waqf properties, endowments which extend over 10% of all real estate in the Gaza Strip, with 2,000 acres of agricultural land held in religious trusts, together with numerous shops, rentable apartments and public buildings.In the first five years of the 1st Intifada, the Gaza economy, 50% of which depended on external sources of income, plummeted by 30–50% as Israel closed its labour market and remittances from the Palestinian expatriates in the Gulf countries dried up following the 1991–1992 Gulf War.", "At the 1993 Philadelphia conference, Hamas leaders' statements indicated that they read George H. W. Bush's outline of a New World Order as embodying a tacit aim to destroy Islam, and that therefore funding should focus on enhancing the Islamic roots of Palestinian society and promoting jihad, which also means zeal for social justice, in the occupied territories.", "Hamas became particularly fastidious about maintaining separate resourcing for its respective branches of activity—military, political and social services.", "It has had a holding company in East Jerusalem (''Beit al-Mal''), a 20% stake in Al Aqsa International Bank which served as its financial arm, the Sunuqrut Global Group and al-Ajouli money-changing firm.By 2011, Hamas's budget, calculated to be roughly US$70 million, derived even more substantially (85%) from foreign, rather than internal Palestinian, sources.", "Only two Israeli-Palestinian sources figure in a list seized in 2004, while the other contributors were donor bodies located in Jordan, Qatar, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Britain, Germany, the United States, United Arab Emirates, Italy and France.", "Much of the money raised comes from sources that direct their assistance to what Hamas describes as its charitable work for Palestinians, but investments in support of its ideological position are also relevant, with Persian Gulf States and Saudi Arabia prominent in the latter.", "Matthew Levitt claims that Hamas also taps money from corporations, criminal organizations and financial networks that support terror.", "It is also alleged that it engages in cigarette and drug smuggling, multimedia copyright infringement and credit card fraud.", "The United States, Israel and the EU have shut down many charities and organs that channel money to Hamas, such as the Holy Land Foundation for Relief.", "Between 1992 and 2001, this group is said to have provided $6.8 million to Palestinian charities of the $57 million collected.", "By 2001, it was alleged to have given Hamas $13 million, and was shut down shortly afterwards.About half of Hamas's funding came from states in the Persian Gulf down to the mid-2000s.", "Saudi Arabia supplied half of the Hamas budget of $50 million in the early 2000s, but, under US pressure, began to cut its funding by cracking down on Islamic charities and private donor transfers to Hamas in 2004, which by 2006 drastically reduced the flow of money from that area.", "Iran and Syria, in the aftermath of Hamas's 2006 electoral victory, stepped in to fill the shortfall.", "Saudi funding, negotiated with third parties including Egypt, remained supportive of Hamas as a Sunni group but chose to provide more assistance to the PNA, the electoral loser, when the EU responded to the outcome by suspending its monetary aid.", "During the 1980s, Iran began to provide 10% of Hamas's funding, which it increased annually until by the 1990s it supplied $30 million.", "It accounted for $22 million, over a quarter of Hamas's budget, by the late 2000s.", "According to Matthew Levitt, Iran preferred direct financing to operative groups rather than charities, requiring video proof of attacks.", "Much of the Iran funding is said to be channeled through Hezbollah.", "After 2006, Iran's willingness to take over the burden of the shortfall created by the drying up of Saudi funding also reflected the geopolitical tensions between the two, since, though Shiite, Iran was supporting a Sunni group traditionally closely linked with the Saudi kingdom.", "The US imposed sanctions on Iran's Bank Saderat, alleging it had funneled hundreds of millions to Hamas.", "The US has expressed concerns that Hamas obtains funds through Palestinian and Lebanese sympathizers of Arab descent in the Foz do Iguaçu area of the tri-border region of Latin America, an area long associated with arms trading, drug trafficking, contraband, the manufacture of counterfeit goods, money-laundering and currency fraud.", "The State Department adds that confirmatory information of a Hamas operational presence there is lacking.After 2009, sanctions on Iran made funding difficult, forcing Hamas to rely on religious donations by individuals in the West Bank, Qatar, and Saudi Arabia.", "Funds amounting to tens of millions of dollars raised in the Gulf states were transferred through the Rafah Border Crossing.", "These were not sufficient to cover the costs of governing the Strip and running the al Qassam Brigades, and when tensions arose with Iran over support of President Assad in Syria, Iran dropped its financial assistance to the government, restricting its funding to the military wing, which meant a drop from $150 million in 2012 to $60 million the following year.", "A further drop occurred in 2015 when Hamas expressed its criticisms of Iran's role in the Yemeni Civil War.In 2017, the PA government imposed its own sanctions against Gaza, including, among other things, cutting off salaries to thousands of PA employees, as well as financial assistance to hundreds of families in the Gaza Strip.", "The PA initially said it would stop paying for the electricity and fuel that Israel supplies to the Gaza Strip, but after a year partially backtracked.", "The Israeli government has allowed millions of dollars from Qatar to be funneled on a regular basis through Israel to Hamas, to replace the millions of dollars the PA had stopped transferring to Hamas.", "Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu explained that letting the money go through Israel meant that it could not be used for terrorism, saying: \"Now that we are supervising, we know it's going to humanitarian causes.", "\"According to U.S. officials, as of 2023 Hamas has an investment portfolio that is worth anywhere from 500 million to US$1 billion, including assets in Sudan, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Algeria and the United Arab Emirates.", "Hamas has denied such allegations.===Social services wing===Hamas developed its social welfare programme by replicating the model established by Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood.", "For Hamas, charity and the development of one's community are both prescribed by religion and to be understood as forms of resistance.", "In Islamic tradition, () obliges the faithful to reach out to others by both proselytising and by charitable works, and typically the latter centre on the mosques which make use of both endowment resources and charitable donations (, one of the five pillars of Islam) to fund grassroots services such as nurseries, schools, orphanages, soup kitchens, women's activities, library services and even sporting clubs within a larger context of preaching and political discussions.", "In the 1990s, some 85% of its budget was allocated to the provision of social services.", "Hamas has been called perhaps the most significant social services actor in Palestine.", "By 2000, Hamas or its affiliated charities ran roughly 40% of the social institutions in the West Bank and Gaza and, with other Islamic charities, by 2005, was supporting 120,000 individuals with monthly financial support in Gaza.", "Part of the appeal of these institutions is that they fill a vacuum in the administration by the PLO of the Palestinian territories, which had failed to cater to the demand for jobs and broad social services, and is widely viewed as corrupt.", "As late as 2005, the budget of Hamas, drawing on global charity contributions, was mostly tied up in covering running expenses for its social programmes, which extended from the supply of housing, food and water for the needy to more general functions such as financial aid, medical assistance, educational development and religious instruction.", "A certain accounting flexibility allowed these funds to cover both charitable causes and military operations, permitting transfer from one to the other.The infrastructure itself was understood, within the Palestinian context, as providing the soil from which a militant opposition to the occupation would flower.", "In this regard it differs from the rival Palestinian Islamic Jihad which lacks any social welfare network, and relies on spectacular terrorist attacks to recruit adherents.", "In 2007, through funding from Iran, Hamas managed to allocate at a cost of $60 million, monthly stipends of $100 for 100,000 workers, and a similar sum for 3,000 fishermen laid idle by Israel's imposition of restrictions on fishing offshore, plus grants totalling $45 million to detainees and their families.", "Matthew Levitt argues that Hamas grants to people are subject to a rigorous cost-benefit analysis of how beneficiaries will support Hamas, with those linked to terrorist activities receiving more than others.", "Israel holds the families of suicide bombers accountable and bulldozes their homes, whereas the families of Hamas activists who have been killed or wounded during militant operations are given an initial, one-time grant varying between $500–$5,000, together with a $100 monthly allowance.", "Rent assistance is also given to families whose homes have been destroyed by Israeli bombing though families unaffiliated with Hamas are said to receive less.Until 2007, these activities extended to the West Bank, but, after a PLO crackdown, now continue exclusively in the Gaza Strip.", "After the 2013 Egyptian coup d'état deposed the elected Muslim Brotherhood government of Mohamed Morsi in 2013, Hamas found itself in a financial straitjacket and has since endeavoured to throw the burden of responsibility for public works infrastructure in the Gaza Strip back onto the Palestinian National Authority, but without success.===Military wing===Weapons found in a mosque during Operation Cast Lead, according to the IDFThe Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades is Hamas's military wing.", "While the number of members is known only to the Brigades leadership, Israel estimates the Brigades have a core of several hundred members who receive military style training, including training in Iran and in Syria (before the Syrian Civil War).", "Additionally, the brigades have an estimated 10,000–17,000 operatives, forming a backup force whenever circumstances call for reinforcements for the Brigade.", "Recruitment training lasts for two years.", "The group's ideology outlines its aim as the liberation of Palestine and the restoration of Palestinian rights under the dispensations set forth in the Qur'an, and this translates into three policy priorities:To evoke the spirit of Jihad (Resistance) among Palestinians, Arabs, and Muslims; to defend Palestinians and their land against the Zionist occupation and its manifestations; to liberate Palestinians and their land that was usurped by the Zionist occupation forces and settlers.According to its official stipulations, the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades' military operations are to be restricted to operating only inside Palestine, engaging with Israeli soldiers, and in exercising the right of self-defense against armed settlers.", "They are to avoid civilian targets, to respect the enemy's humanity by refraining from mutilation, defacement or excessive killing, and to avoid targeting Westerners either in the occupied zones or beyond.Exercise of al-Qassam Brigades in Gaza City, January 27, 2013Down to 2007, the Brigades are estimated to have lost some 800 operatives in conflicts with Israeli forces.", "The leadership has been consistently undermined by targeted assassinations.", "Aside from Yahya Ayyash (January 5, 1996), it has lost Emad Akel (November 24, 1993), Salah Shehade (July 23, 2002), Ibrahim al-Makadmeh (March 8, 2003), Ismail Abu Shanab (August 21, 2003), Ahmed Yassin (March 22, 2004), and Abdel Aziz al-Rantisi (April 17, 2004).The Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades groups its fighters in 4–5 man cells, which in turn are integrated into companies and battalions.", "Unlike the political section, which is split between an internal and external structure, the Brigades are under a local Palestinian leadership, and disobedience with the decisions taken by the political leadership have been relatively rare.Although the Izz al-Din al-Qassam Brigades are an integral part of Hamas, the exact nature of the relationship is hotly debated.", "They appear to operate at times independently of Hamas, exercising a certain autonomy.", "Some cells have independent links with the external leadership, enabling them to bypass the hierarchical command chain and political leadership in Gaza.", "Ilana Kass and Bard O'Neill, likening Hamas's relationship with the Brigades to the political party Sinn Féin's relationship to the military arm of the Irish Republican Army, quote a senior Hamas official as stating: \"The Izz al-Din al-Qassam Brigade is a separate armed military wing, which has its own leaders who do not take their orders from Hamas and do not tell us of their plans in advance.", "\"====Gaza forces, October 2023====During the 2023 Gaza war, the IDF published its intelligence about the Hamas military in the Strip.", "They put the strength of the Qassam Brigades there at the start of the war at 30,000 fighters, organised by area in five brigades, consisting in total of 24 battalions and c. 140 companies.", "Each regional brigade had a number of strongholds and outposts, and included specialised arrays for rocket firing, anti-tank missiles, air defenses, snipers, and engineering.===Media======= Al-Aqsa TV ====Al-Aqsa TV is a television channel founded by Hamas.", "The station began broadcasting in the Gaza Strip on January 9, 2006, less than three weeks before the Palestinian legislative elections.", "It has shown television programs, including some children's television, which deliver antisemitic messages.", "Hamas has stated that the television station is \"an independent media institution that often does not express the views of the Palestinian government headed by Ismail Haniyeh or of the Hamas movement\", and that Hamas does not hold antisemitic views.", "The programming includes ideologically tinged children's shows, news talk, and religiously inspired entertainment.", "According to the Anti-Defamation League, the station promotes terrorist activity and incites hatred of Jews and Israelis.", "Al-Aqsa TV is headed by Fathi Ahmad Hammad, chairman of al-Ribat Communications and Artistic Productions—a Hamas-run company that also produces Hamas's radio station, ''Voice of al-Aqsa'', and its biweekly newspaper, ''The Message''.==== Al-Fateh magazine ====''Al-Fateh'' (\"the conqueror\") is the Hamas children's magazine, published biweekly in London, and also posted in an online website.", "It began publication in September 2002, and its 108th issue was released in mid-September 2007.The magazine features stories, poems, riddles, and puzzles, and states it is for \"the young builders of the future\".According to the Anti-Defamation League, al-Fateh promotes violence and antisemitism, with praise for and encouragement to become suicide bombers, and that it \"regularly includes photos of children it claims have been detained, injured or killed by Israeli police, images of children firing slingshots or throwing rocks at Israelis and children holding automatic weapons and firebombs.", "\"====Social media====Hamas has traditionally presented itself as a voice of suffering of the Palestinian people.", "According to Time magazine, a new social media strategy was employed in the wake of the October 7 attack: Hamas asserted itself as the dominant resistance force in the Middle East by recording and broadcasting the brutality of their attacks.According to Dr. Harel Horev, historian and researcher of Palestinian affairs at Tel Aviv University, Hamas has used social medi to dehumanize Israelis/Jews.", "According to his research, Hamas took over the most popular accounts on Palestinian networks in a covert manner that did not reveal its involvement.", "This control gave it the ability to significantly influence the Palestinian discourse online through content that denies the humanity and right to life of Israelis.", "These included posters, songs and videos glorifying threats; computer games that encourage the murder of Jews; training videos for carrying out effective and indiscriminate stabbing and shooting attacks; and anti-Semitic cartoons as a central means of dehumanizing the Israeli/Jew in the Palestinian online discourse." ], [ "Violence", "Hamas has used both political activities and violence in pursuit of its goals.", "For example, while politically engaged in the 2006 Palestinian Territories parliamentary election campaign, Hamas stated in its election manifesto that it was prepared to use \"armed resistance to end the occupation\".From 2000 to 2004, Hamas was responsible for killing nearly 400 Israelis and wounding more than 2,000 in 425 attacks, according to the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs.", "From 2001 through May 2008, Hamas launched more than 3,000 Qassam rockets and 2,500 mortar attacks into Israel.===Attacks on civilians===Aftermath of 1996 Jaffa Road bus bombings in which 26 people were killedHamas has attacked Israeli civilians.", "Hamas's most deadly suicide bombing was an attack on a Netanya hotel on March 27, 2002, in which 30 people were killed and 140 were wounded.", "The attack has also been referred to as the Passover massacre since it took place on the first night of the Jewish festival of Passover at a Seder.Hamas has defended suicide attacks as a legitimate aspect of its asymmetric warfare against Israel.", "In 2003, according to Stephen Atkins, Hamas resumed suicide bombings in Israel as a retaliatory measure after the failure of peace talks and an Israeli campaign targeting members of the upper echelon of the Hamas leadership.", "but they are considered as crimes against humanity under international law.", "In a 2002 report, Human Rights Watch stated that Hamas leaders \"should be held accountable\" for \"war crimes and crimes against humanity\" committed by the al-Qassam Brigades.In May 2006, Israel arrested a top Hamas official, Ibrahim Hamed, who Israeli security officials alleged was responsible for dozens of suicide bombings and other attacks on Israelis.", "Hamed's trial on those charges has not yet concluded.", "In 2008, Hamas explosives engineer Shihab al-Natsheh organized a deadly suicide bombing in Dimona.Since 2002, militants of al-Qassam Brigades and other groups have used homemade Qassam rockets to hit Israeli towns in the Negev, such as Sderot.", "Al-Qassam Brigades was estimated in 2007 to have launched 22% of the rocket and mortar attacks, which killed fifteen people between the years 2000 and 2009.The introduction of the ''Qassam-2'' rocket in 2008 enabled Palestinian paramilitary groups to reach, from Gaza, such Israeli cities such as Ashkelon.In 2008, Hamas leader Khaled Mashal, offered that Hamas would attack only military targets if the IDF would stop causing the deaths of Palestinian civilians.", "Following a June 19, 2008, ceasefire, the al-Qassam Brigades ended its rocket attacks and arrested Fatah militants in Gaza who had continued sporadic rocket and mortar attacks against Israel.", "The al-Qassam Brigades resumed the attacks after the November 4 Israeli incursion into Gaza.On June 15, 2014, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu accused Hamas of involvement in the kidnapping of three Israeli teenagers (including one who held American citizenship), saying \"This has severe repercussions.\"", "On July 20, 2014, nearly two weeks into Operation Protective Edge, Netanyahu in an interview with CNN described Hamas as \"genocidal terrorists.", "\"On August 5, 2014, Israel announced that Israeli security forces arrested Hussam Kawasme, in Shuafat, in connection with the murders of the teens.", "During interrogation, Kawasme admitted to being the mastermind behind the attack, in addition to securing the funding from Hamas.", "Officials have stated that additional people arrested in connection with the murders are still being held, but no names have been released.On August 20, Saleh al-Arouri, a Hamas leader then in exile in Turkey, claimed responsibility for the kidnapping of the three Israeli teens.", "He delivered an address on behalf of Khaled Mashal at the conference of the International Union of Muslim Scholars in Istanbul, a move that might reflect a desire by Hamas to gain leverage.", "In it he said: Hamas political leader Khaled Mashal accepted that members of Hamas were responsible, stating that he knew nothing of it in advance and that what the leadership knew of the details came from reading Israeli reports.", "Mashal, who had headed Hamas's exiled political wing since 2004, has denied being involved in the \"details\" of Hamas's \"military issues,\" but \"justified the killings as a legitimate action against Israelis on 'occupied' lands.", "\"The 2023 Re'im music festival massacre has left 364 people dead with many others wounded or taken hostageDuring the 2023 Hamas attack on Israel, Hamas infiltrated homes, shot civilians en masse, and took scores of Israeli civilians and soldiers as hostages into Gaza.", "According to Human Rights Watch, the deliberate targeting of civilians, indiscriminate attacks, and taking of civilians as hostages amount to war crimes under international humanitarian law.", "During its October 2023 offensive against Israel, Hamas massacred 364 people at the Re'im music festival, while abucting others.", "During the same offensive, it also was reported that Hamas had massacred the population of the Kfar Aza kibbutz.", "About 10 percent of the residents of the Be'eri kibbutz were killed.", "Hamas militants attacked the Psyduck festival, that took place near kibutz Nir Oz, killing 17 Israeli partygoers.", "Video footage shows children being deliberately killed during the kibbutz attacks, as well as what appears to be an attempt to decapitate a living person using a garden hoe.", "Forensic teams who have examined bodies of victims said many bodies showed signs of torture as well as rape.", "Testimonies from witnesses to acts of gang rapes committed by Hamas militants were collected by the police.===Rocket attacks on Israel===Hamas and other Palestinian armed groups have launched thousands of rockets into Israel since 2001, killing 15 civilians, wounding many more, and posing an ongoing threat to the nearly 800,000 Israeli civilians who live and work in the weapons' range.", "Hamas officials have said that the rockets were aimed only at military targets, saying that civilian casualties were the \"accidental result\" of the weapons' poor quality.", "According to Human Rights Watch, statements by Hamas leaders suggest that the purpose of the rocket attacks was indeed to strike civilians and civilian objects.", "From January 2009, following Operation Cast Lead, Hamas largely stopped launching rocket attacks on Israel and has on at least two occasions arrested members of other groups who have launched rockets, \"showing that it has the ability to impose the law when it wants\".", "In February 2010, Hamas issued a statement regretting any harm that may have befallen Israeli civilians as a result of Palestinian rocket attacks during the Gaza war.", "It maintained that its rocket attacks had been aimed at Israeli military targets but lacked accuracy and hence sometimes hit civilian areas.", "Israel responded that Hamas had boasted repeatedly of targeting and murdering civilians in the media.According to one report, commenting on the 2014 conflict, \"nearly all the 2,500–3,000 rockets and mortars Hamas has fired at Israel since the start of the war seem to have been aimed at towns\", including an attack on \"a kibbutz collective farm close to the Gaza border\", in which an Israeli child was killed.", "Former Israeli Lt. Col. Jonathan D. Halevi stated that \"Hamas has expressed pride in aiming long-range rockets at strategic targets in Israel including the nuclear reactor in Dimona, the chemical plants in Haifa, and Ben-Gurion Airport\", which \"could have caused thousands\" of Israeli casualties \"if successful\".In July 2008, Barack Obama, then the Democratic presidential candidate, said: \"If somebody was sending rockets into my house, where my two daughters sleep at night, I'm going to do everything in my power to stop that, and I would expect Israelis to do the same thing.\"", "On December 28, 2008, Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice said in a statement: \"the United States strongly condemns the repeated rocket and mortar attacks against Israel.\"", "On March 2, 2009, Secretary of State Hillary Clinton condemned the attacks.On October 7, 2023, Hamas claimed responsibility for a barrage of missile attacks originating from the Gaza Strip.===Attempts to derail 2010 peace talks===In 2010, Hamas, who have been actively sidelined from the peace talks by Israel, spearheaded a coordinated effort by 13 Palestinian militant groups, in attempt to derail the stalled peace talks between Israel and Mahmoud Abbas, President of the Palestinian Authority.", "According to the Israeli Coordinator of Government Activities in the Territories Major Gen. Eitan Dangot, Israel seeks to work with Salam Fayyad, to help revive the Palestinian economy, and hopes to ease restrictions on the Gaza Strip further, \"while somehow preventing the Islamic militants who rule it from getting credit for any progress\".", "According to Dangot, Hamas must not be seen as ruling successfully or be allowed to \"get credit for a policy that would improve the lives of people\".", "The campaign consists of attacks against Israelis in which, according to a Hamas declaration in early September, \"all options are open\".", "The participating groups also include Palestinian Islamic Jihad, the Popular Resistance Committees and an unnamed splinter group of Fatah.As part of the campaign, on August 31, 2010, 4 Israeli settlers, including a pregnant woman, were killed by Hamas militants while driving on Route 60 near the settlement Kiryat Arba, in the West bank.", "According to witnesses, militants opened fire on the moving vehicle, but then \"approached the car\" and shot the occupants in their seats at \"close range\".", "The attack was described by Israeli sources as one of the \"worst\" terrorist acts in years.", "A senior Hamas official said that Israeli settlers in the West Bank are legitimate targets since \"they are an army in every sense of the word\".===Guerrilla warfare===Hamas anti-tank rockets, captured by Israel Defense Forces during Operation Protective EdgeHamas has made great use of guerrilla tactics in the Gaza Strip and to a lesser degree the West Bank.", "It has successfully adapted these techniques over the years since its inception.", "According to a 2006 report by rival Fatah party, Hamas had smuggled between several hundred and 1,300 tons of advanced rockets, along with other weaponry, into Gaza.Hamas has used IEDs and anti-tank rockets against the IDF in Gaza.", "The latter include standard RPG-7 warheads and home-made rockets such as the Al-Bana, Al-Batar and Al-Yasin.", "The IDF has a difficult, if not impossible, time trying to find hidden weapons caches in Palestinian areas—this is due to the high local support base Hamas enjoys.===Extrajudicial killings of rivals===In addition to killing Israeli civilians and armed forces, Hamas has also murdered suspected Palestinian Israel collaborators and Fatah rivals.", "According to the Associated Press, collaborating with Israel is a crime punishable by death in Gaza.", "Hundreds of Palestinians were executed by both Hamas and Fatah during the First Intifada.", "In the wake of the 2006 Israeli conflict with Gaza, Hamas was accused of systematically rounding up, torturing and summarily executing Fatah supporters suspected of supplying information to Israel.", "Human Rights Watch estimates several hundred Gazans were \"maimed\" and tortured in the aftermath of the conflict.", "Seventy-three Gazan men accused of \"collaborating\" had their arms and legs broken by \"unidentified perpetrators\", and 18 Palestinians accused of helping Israel were executed by Hamas security officials in the first days of the conflict.", "In November 2012, Hamas's Izzedine al-Qassam brigade publicly executed six Gaza residents accused of collaborating with Israel.", "According to the witnesses, six alleged informers were shot dead one by one in Gaza City, while the corpse of the sixth victim was tied by a cable to the back of a motorcycle and dragged through the streets.", "In 2013, Human Rights Watch issued a statement condemning Hamas for not investigating and giving a proper trial to the six men.", "Their statement was released the day before Hamas issued a deadline for \"collaborators\" to turn themselves in, or they will be pursued \"without mercy\".", "During the 2014 Israel-Gaza conflict, Hamas executed at least 23 accused collaborators after three of its commanders were assassinated by Israeli forces, with Amnesty International also reporting instances of torture used by Hamas forces.", "An Israeli source denied that any of the commanders had been targeted on the basis of human intelligence.Frequent killings of unarmed people have also occurred during Hamas-Fatah clashes.", "NGOs have cited a number of summary executions as particular examples of violations of the rules of warfare, including the case of Muhammad Swairki, 28, a cook for Palestinian Authority Chairman Mahmoud Abbas's presidential guard, who was thrown to his death, with his hands and legs tied, from a 15-story apartment building in Gaza City.", "Hamas security forces reportedly shoot and torture Palestinians who opposed Hamas rule in Gaza.", "In one case, a Palestinian had criticized Hamas in a conversation on the street with some friends.", "Later that day, more than a dozen armed men with black masks and red kaffiyeh took the man from his home, and brought him to a solitary area where they shot him three times in the lower legs and ankles.", "The man told Human Rights Watch that he was not politically active.On August 14, 2009, Hamas fighters stormed the Mosque of cleric Abdel-Latif Moussa.", "The cleric was protected by at least 100 fighters from Jund Ansar Allah (\"Army of the Helpers of God\"), an Islamist group with links to Al-Qaeda.", "The resulting battle left at least 13 people dead, including Moussa and six Hamas fighters, and 120 people injured.", "According to Palestinian president Mahmoud Abbas, during 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict, Hamas killed more than 120 Palestinian youths for defying house arrest imposed on them by Hamas, in addition to 30–40 Palestinians killed by Hamas in extrajudicial executions after accusing them of being collaborators with Israel.", "Referring to the killing of suspected collaborators, a Shin Bet official stated that \"not even one\" of those executed by Hamas provided any intelligence to Israel, while the Shin Bet officially \"confirmed that those executed during Operation Protective Edge had all been held in prison in Gaza in the course of the hostilities\".===2011–2013 Sinai insurgency===Hamas has been accused of providing weapons, training and fighters for Sinai-based insurgent attacks, although Hamas strongly denies the allegations, calling them a smear campaign aiming to harm relations with Egypt.", "According to the Egyptian Army, since the ouster of Egypt's Muslim-Brotherhood president Mohamed Morsi, over 600 Hamas members have entered the Sinai Peninsula through smuggling tunnels.", "In addition, several weapons used in Sinai's insurgent attacks are being traced back to Hamas in the Gaza Strip, according to the army.", "The four leading insurgent groups in the Sinai have all reportedly maintained close ties with the Gaza Strip.", "Hamas called the accusation a \"dangerous development\".", "Egyptian authorities stated that the 2011 Alexandria bombing was carried out by the Gaza-based Army of Islam, which has received sanctuary from Hamas and earlier collaborated in the capture of Gilad Shalit.", "Army of Islam members linked to the August 2012 Sinai attack have reportedly sought refuge in the Gaza Strip.", "Egypt stated that Hamas directly provided logistical support to the Muslim Brotherhood militants who carried out the December 2013 Mansoura bombing.===Terrorist designation===The United States designated Hamas as a terrorist organisation in 1995, as did Canada in November 2002, and the United Kingdom in November 2021.The European Union so designated Hamas's military wing in 2001 and, under US pressure, designated Hamas in 2003.Hamas challenged this decision, which was upheld by the European Court of Justice in July 2017.Japan and New Zealand have designated the military wing of Hamas as a terrorist organization.", "The organization is banned in Jordan.Hamas is not regarded as a terrorist organization by Afghanistan, Algeria, Iran, Russia, Norway, Turkey, China, Egypt, Syria, and Brazil.", "\"Many other states, including Russia, China, Syria, Turkey and Iran consider the (armed) struggle waged by Hamas to be legitimate.", "\"According to Tobias Buck, Hamas is \"listed as a terrorist organisation by Israel, the US and the EU, but few dare to treat it that way now\" and in the Arab and Muslim world it has lost its pariah status and its emissaries are welcomed in capitals of Islamic countries.", "While Hamas is considered a terrorist group by several governments and some academics, others regard Hamas as a complex organization, with terrorism as only one component.CountryDesignated as terrorist org.Comments Australia announced they would designate Hamas as a terrorist organization in its entirety in 2022.Prior to that, Hamas's military wing, the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades, were recognized as one but the political branch were not.", "Brazil does not designate Hamas as a terrorist organization.", "The Brazilian government only classifies organizations as terrorists when the United Nations does so.", "Under the Anti-Terrorism Act, the Government of Canada has listed Hamas as a terrorist entity, thus establishing it as a terrorist group, since 2002.As of 2006, China does not designate Hamas to be a terrorist organization and acknowledges Hamas to be the legitimately elected political entity in the Gaza Strip that represents the Palestinian people.", "In June 2006, a spokesperson for the Chinese Foreign Ministry stated: \"We believe that the Palestinian government is legally elected by the people there and it should be respected.\"", "In March 2014, as part of a crackdown on the Muslim Brotherhood organization following the July 2013 overthrow of Mohamed Morsi, Cairo's Urgent Matters Court outlawed Hamas's activities in Egypt, ordered the closure of its offices and to arrest any Hamas member found in the country.", "In February 2015, the aforementioned court designated Hamas as a terrorist organization, accusing Hamas of carrying terrorist attacks in Egypt through tunnels linking the Sinai Peninsula to the Gaza Strip.However, in June 2015, Egypt's appeals court overturned the prior ruling that listed Hamas as a terrorist organization, and Egypt (as of 2023) no longer officially regards Hamas to be a terrorist organization.", "The EU designated Hamas as a terrorist group from 2003.In December 2014, the General Court of the European Union ordered that Hamas be removed from the register.", "The court stated that the move was technical and was not a reassessment of Hamas's classification as a terrorist group.", "In March 2015, EU decided to keep Hamas on its terrorism blacklist \"despite a controversial court decision\", appealing the court's judgment.", "In July 2017, this appeal was upheld by the European Court of Justice.", "Hamas is not regarded as a terrorist organization by India, though individual Indian leaders have condemned certain Hamas' attacks as terrorist.", "Hamas is not regarded as a terrorist organization by Iran.", "The Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs states, \"Hamas maintains a terrorist infrastructure in Gaza and the West Bank, and acts to carry out terrorist attacks in the territories and Israel.\"", "As of 2005, Japan had frozen the assets of 472 terrorists and terrorist organizations including those of Hamas.", "However, in 2006 it publicly acknowledged that Hamas had won the 2006 Palestinian legislative elections democratically.", "Hamas was banned in 1999, reportedly in part at the request of the United States, Israel, and the Palestinian Authority.", "In 2019, Jordanian sources are said to have revealed \"that the Kingdom refused a request from the General Secretariat of the Arab League in late March to ban Hamas and list it as a terrorist organization.\"", "The military wing of Hamas, the Izz al-Din al-Qassam Brigades, has been listed as a terrorist entity since 2010.New Zealand PM Chris Hipkins reiterated in October 2023 that \"Hamas is recognised by New Zealand as a terrorist organisation\".", "Norway does not list Hamas as a terrorist organization.", "Norway distanced itself from the European Union in 2006, claiming that its listing was causing problems for its role as a 'neutral facilitator.'", "After Progress Party leader Sylvi Listhaug criticized PM Jonas Gahr Støre at the start of the 2023 Israel-Hamas war for not calling Hamas a terrorist organization, Støre said that it was an organization that carried out terrorist acts but he would not change Norway's listing.", "The military wing of Hamas, the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades, is listed as a terrorist organization.", "Hamas is not considered as a terrorist organization by the Philippines.", "The National Security Council has proposed considering Hamas as a terrorist group as a response to the 2023 Israel–Hamas war.", "The Qatari government has a designated terrorist list.", "As of 2014, the list contained no names, according to ''The Daily Telegraph''.", "In September 2020, Qatar brokered a ceasefire between Israel and Hamas that is reported to include \"plans to build a power station operated by Qatar, the provision of $34 million for humanitarian aid, provision of 20,000 COVID-19 testing kits by Qatar to the Health Ministry, and a number of initiatives to reduce unemployment in the Gaza Strip.\"", "Russia does not designate Hamas a terrorist organisation, and held direct talks with Hamas in 2006, after Hamas won the Palestine elections, stating that it did so to press Hamas to reject violence and recognise Israel.", "Saudi Arabia banned the Muslim Brotherhood in 2014 and branded it a terrorist organization.", "While Hamas is not specifically listed, a non-official Saudi source stated that the decision also encompasses its branches in other countries, including Hamas.", "As of January 2020, ties between Saudi Arabia and Hamas remain strained despite attempts at a rapprochement.", "Wesam Afifa, director general of Al-Aqsa TV is quoted as saying that \"Saudi Arabia did not sever ties with Hamas, and even when Riyadh made public its list of terrorists in 2017, Hamas was not added to the list.\"", "In 2020, Saudi Arabia arrested 68 Palestinian and Jordanian citizens associated with Hamas in a special terrorism court.", "However, in 2022, Saudi Arabia released a number of those detainees in recent months, including senior member Mohammad Al-Khodary, who was set free in October, following statements by Hamas leaders expressing their desire for improved relations with the country.", "In 2023, during Ramadan, senior members of Hamas, including Ismail Haniyeh, Mousa Marzook, Khalil al-Hayya and Khaled Meshaal arrived in Saudi Arabia to mend Hamas's relationship with Saudi Arabia.", "They were spotted performing Umrah in Mecca, Saudi Arabia.", "Before the Hamas-led attack on Israel, Switzerland had not designated Hamas as a terrorist organization and had direct contacts with all major stakeholders in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, including Hamas.", "After the Hamas-led attack, the Swiss government (Federal Council) decided to propose listing Hamas as a terrorist organization and stated that it would recommend Swiss parliament to pass a new law by the end of February 2024 to ban “Hamas activities\" or \"support\" for the group.", "Already in December 2023, the upper house of Swiss parliament, the Council of States, voted to ban Hamas and declare it terrorist, as well as the Security Policy Commission of the lower house, the National Council.", "However, the full National Council has yet to vote on a ban and terrorist designation.", "Syria does not designate Hamas as a terrorist organization.", "Syria is among other countries that consider Hamas' armed struggle to be legitimate.", "The Turkish government met with Hamas leaders in February 2006, after the organization's victory in the Palestinian elections.", "In 2010, Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan described Hamas as \"resistance fighters who are struggling to defend their land\".", "Hamas in its entirety is proscribed as a terrorist group and banned under the Terrorism Act 2000.", "\"The government now assess that the approach of distinguishing between the various parts of Hamas is artificial.", "Hamas is a complex but single terrorist organisation.\"", "The list of United Nations designated terrorist groups does not include Hamas.", "On December 5, 2018, the UN rejected a US resolution aimed at unilaterally condemning Hamas for Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel and other violence.", "Lists Hamas as a \"Foreign Terrorist Organization\".", "The State Department decided to add Hamas to its US State Department list of Foreign Terrorist Organizations in April 1993., it is still listed." ], [ "Criticism", "Aside from its use of political violence in pursuit of its goals, Hamas has been widely criticised for a variety of reasons, including the use of antisemitic hate speech by its representatives, frequent calls for the military destruction of Israel, its specific use of human shields and child combatants as part of its military operations, its restriction of political freedoms within the Gaza Strip, and human rights abuses.After starting the 2023 war, the European Parliament passed a motion stating the need for Hamas to be eliminated, with US President Biden having expressed the same sentiment.", "Hamas was accused of having committed genocide against Israelis on 7 October 2023 by 240 legal experts, including jurists and academics, Raoul Wallenberg Centre for Human Rights, chaired by former Canadian Justice Minister Irwin Cotler, and Genocide Watch." ], [ "Support", "===Israeli policy towards Hamas===Benjamin Netanyahu had been Israel's prime minister for most of the two decades preceding the 2023 Israel–Hamas war, and was criticized for having championed a policy of empowering Hamas in Gaza.", "This policy was part of a strategy to sabotage a two-state solution by confining the Palestinian Authority to the West Bank and weakening it, and to demonstrate to the Israeli public and western governments that Israel has no partner for peace.", "This criticism was leveled by several Israeli officials, including former prime minister Ehud Barak, and former head of Shin Bet security services Yuval Diskin.", "Saudi Arabia and the Palestinian Authority were also critical of Israel under Netanyahu allowing suitcases of Qatari money to be given to Hamas, in exchange for maintaining the ceasefire.", "The ''Times of Israel'' reported after the Hamas attack that Netanyahu's policy to treat the Palestinian Authority as a burden and Hamas as an asset had \"blown up in our faces\".=== Public support ===A poll conducted in 2021 found that 53% of Palestinians believed Hamas was \"most deserving of representing and leading the Palestinian people\", while only 14% preferred Abbas's Fatah party.", "At the same time, a majority of Gazans saw Hamas as corrupt as well, but were frightened to criticize the group.", "Polls conducted in September 2023 found that support for Hamas among Palestinians was around 27–31%.Public opinions of Hamas deteriorated after it took control of the Gaza Strip in 2007.Prior to the takeover, 62% of Palestinians had held a favorable view of the group, while a third had negative views.", "According to a 2014 Pew Research just prior to the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict, only about a third had positive opinions and more than half viewed Hamas negatively.", "Furthermore, 68% of Israeli Arabs viewed Hamas negatively.", "In July 2014, 65% of Lebanese viewed Hamas negatively.", "In Jordan and Egypt, roughly 60% viewed Hamas negatively, and in Turkey, 80% had a negative view of Hamas.", "In Tunisia, 42% had a negative view of Hamas, while 56% of Bangladeshis and 44% of Indonesians had a negative opinion of Hamas.Hamas popularity surged after the war in July–August 2014 with polls reporting that 81 percent of Palestinians felt that Hamas had \"won\" that war.", "A June 2021 opinion poll found that 46% of respondents in Saudi Arabia supported rocket attacks on Israel by Hamas during the 2021 Israel–Palestine crisis.", "A March/April 2023 poll found that 60% of Jordanians viewed Hamas firing rockets at Israel at least somewhat positively.In November 2023, during Israel's bombing and blockade of the Gaza Strip, Hamas's popularity among Palestinians in Gaza and the West Bank increased significantly.", "Support for Hamas also increased among the people of Jordan.", "According to the poll conducted by ''The Washington Institute for Near East Policy'' from November 14 to December 6, 2023, 40% of Saudi participants expressed a positive view of Hamas, 95% of Saudis did not believe that Hamas killed civilians in its attack on Israel, and only 16% of Saudis said Hamas should accept a two-state solution.Pro-Hamas rally in Damascus" ], [ "International relations", "Hamas leader Ismail Haniyeh and Iranian Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei in 2012After winning the Palestinian elections, Hamas leaders made multi-national diplomatic tours abroad.", "In April 2006, Mahmoud al-Zahar (then foreign minister) visited Saudi Arabia, Syria, Kuwait, Bahrein, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, Yemen, Libya, Algeria, Sudan and Egypt.", "He met the Saudi foreign minister Prince Faysal.", "In Syria he held talks on the issue of Palestinians stuck on the Syrian-Iraqi border.", "He also stated that he unofficially met officials from Western Europe in Qatar who did not wish to be named.", "In May 2006, Hamas foreign minister visited Indonesia, Malaysia, the Sultanate of Brunei, Pakistan, China, Sri Lanka and Iran.", "The minister also participated in China–Arab States Cooperation Forum.", "Ismail Haniyeh in 2006 visited Egypt, Syria, Kuwait, Iran, Lebanon, Qatar and Saudi Arabia.Hamas has always maintained leadership abroad.", "The movement is deliberately fragmented to ensure that Israel cannot kill its top political and military leaders.", "Hamas used to be strongly allied with both Iran and Syria.", "Iran gave Hamas an estimated $13–15 million in 2011 as well as access to long-range missiles.", "Hamas's political bureau was once located in the Syrian capital of Damascus before the start of the Syrian civil war.", "Relations between Hamas, Iran, and Syria began to turn cold when Hamas refused to back the government of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad.", "Instead, Hamas backed the Sunni rebels fighting against Assad.", "As a result, Iran cut funding to Hamas, and Iranian ally Hezbollah ordered Hamas members out of Lebanon.", "Hamas was then forced out of Syria, and subsequently has tried to mend fences with Iran and Hezbollah.", "Hamas contacted Jordan and Sudan to see if either would open up its borders to its political bureau, but both countries refused, although they welcomed many Hamas members leaving Syria.From 2012 to 2013, under the short-lived leadership of Muslim Brotherhood President Mohamed Morsi, Hamas had the support of Egypt.", "However, after Morsi was removed from office, his successor Abdul Fattah al-Sisi outlawed the Muslim Brotherhood and destroyed the tunnels Hamas built into Egypt.", "In 2015, Egypt declared Hamas a terrorist organization.", "But this decision was overturned by Egypt in June of the same year.", "There was a rapprochement between Hamas and Egypt, when a Hamas delegation visited Cairo on 12 March 2016.Hamas has assisted Egypt in controlling the insurgency in Sinai.", "However, Hamas denied Egypt's request to deploy its own militants in the Sinai leading to tensions between the two.Egypt has occasionally served as mediator between Hamas and Fatah, seeking to unify the two factions.", "In 2017, Yahya Sinwar visited Cairo for 5 weeks and convinced the Egyptian government to open the Rafah crossing, letting in cement and fuel in exchange for Hamas committing to better relations with Fatah; this subsequently led to the signing of the 2017 Fatah–Hamas Agreement.The United Arab Emirates has been hostile to Hamas designating the Brotherhood as a terrorist organization and Hamas was at the time viewed as the Brotherhood's Palestinian equivalent.Hamas enjoyed close relations with Saudi Arabia in its early years.", "Saudi Arabia funded most of its operations from 2000 to 2004, but reduced its support due to US pressure.", "In 2020, many Hamas members in Saudi Arabia were arrested.", "In 2022, Saudi Arabia began releasing Hamas members from prison.", "In April 2023, Ismail Haniyeh visited Riyadh, a sign of improving relations.", "Haniyeh had long sought to visit Saudi Arabia, and his requests to do so had been long ignored up until then.Despite its Sunni Islamist ideology, Hamas has been flexible and pragmatic in its foreign policy, moderating and toning down its religious rhetoric when expedient; it has developed strong ties with Iran, and has also established relations with constitutionally secular states such as Syria and Russia.North Korea supplies Hamas with weaponry.", "Ali Barakeh, a Hamas official living in Lebanon, claimed the two are allies.Hamas leaders reportedly re-established relations with Kuwait, Libya and Oman, all of which reportedly have not had warm relations with Fatah.", "The cool relationship between Fatah and Kuwait owed to Arafat's support for Saddam during the First Gulf War, which lead to the Palestinian exodus from Kuwait (1990–91).", "This rapproachment is in part due to Hamas's policy of non-interference in the internal affairs of Arab countries.", "Mahmoud Al-Zahar stated that Hamas does not \"play the game\" of siding with one Arab nation against another (e.g.", "in the Gulf War).", "When Al-Qaradawi, and other Sunni ''ulema'', called for an uprising against Assad's regime in Syria, Mahmoud Al-Zahar maintained that taking sides would harm the Palestinian cause.=== Qatar and Turkey ===According to Middle East experts, now Hamas has two firm allies: Qatar and Turkey.", "Both give Hamas public and financial assistance estimated to be in the hundreds of millions of dollars.", "Qatar has transferred more than $1.8 billion to Hamas.", "Shashank Joshi, senior research fellow at the Royal United Services Institute, says that \"Qatar also hosts Hamas's political bureau which includes Hamas leader Khaled Meshaal.\"", "Meshaal also visits Turkey frequently to meet with Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan.", "Erdogan has dedicated himself to breaking Hamas out of its political and economic seclusion.", "On US television, Erdogan said in 2012 that \"I don't see Hamas as a terror organization.", "Hamas is a political party.", "\"Qatar has been called Hamas' most important financial backer and foreign ally.", "In 2007, Qatar was, with Turkey, the only country to back Hamas after the group ousted the Palestinian Authority from the Gaza Strip.", "The relationship between Hamas and Qatar strengthened in 2008 and 2009 when Khaled Meshaal was invited to attend the Doha Summit where he was seated next to the then Qatari Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani, who pledged $250 million to repair the damage caused by Israel in the Israeli war on Gaza.", "These events caused Qatar to become the main player in the \"Palestinian issue\".", "Qatar called Gaza's blockade unjust and immoral, which prompted the Hamas government in Gaza, including former Prime Minister Ismail Haniyeh, to thank Qatar for their \"unconditional\" support.", "Qatar then began regularly handing out political, material, humanitarian and charitable support for Hamas.Haniyeh with Turkish Minister of Culture Numan Kurtulmuş, 20 November 2012In 2012, Qatar's former Emir, Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani, became the first head of state to visit Gaza under Hamas rule.", "He pledged to raise $400 million for reconstruction.", "Sources say that advocating for Hamas is politically beneficial to Turkey and Qatar because the Palestinian cause draws popular support amongst their citizens at home.Speaking in reference to Qatar's support for Hamas, during a 2015 visit to Palestine, Qatari official Mohammad al-Emadi, said Qatar is using the money not to help Hamas but rather the Palestinian people as a whole.", "He acknowledges however that giving to the Palestinian people means using Hamas as the local contact.", "Emadi said, \"You have to support them.", "You don't like them, don't like them.", "But they control the country, you know.\"", "Some argue that Hamas's relations with Qatar are putting Hamas in an awkward position because Qatar has become part of the regional Arab problem.", "However, Hamas claims that having contacts with various Arab countries establishes positive relations which will encourage Arab countries to do their duty toward the Palestinians and support their cause by influencing public opinion in the Arab world.", "In March 2015, Hamas has announced its support of the Saudi Arabian-led military intervention in Yemen against the Shia Houthis and forces loyal to former President Ali Abdullah Saleh.In May 2018, Turkish president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan tweeted to the Prime Minister of Israel Benjamin Netanyahu that Hamas is not a terrorist organization but a resistance movement that defends the Palestinian homeland against an occupying power.", "During that period there were conflicts between Israeli troops and Palestinian protestors in the Gaza Strip, due to the decision of the United States to move their embassy to Jerusalem.", "Also in 2018 the Israel Security Agency accused SADAT International Defense Consultancy (a Turkish private military company with connections to the Turkish government) of transferring funds to Hamas.In February 2020, Hamas leader Ismail Haniyeh met with Turkish President Erdoğan.", "On 26 July 2023, Haniyeh met with Erdoğan and Palestinian Authority President Mahmoud Abbas.", "Behind the meeting was Turkey's effort to reconcile Fatah with Hamas.", "On 7 October 2023, the day of the Hamas attack on Israel, Haniyeh was in Istanbul, Turkey.", "On 21 October 2023, Haniyeh spoke with Erdoğan about the latest developments in the Israel–Hamas war and the current situation in Gaza.", "On 25 October 2023, Erdoğan said that Hamas was not a terrorist organisation but a liberation group fighting to protect Palestinian lands and people." ], [ "Lawsuits", "===In the United States===The charitable trust Holy Land Foundation for Relief and Development was accused in December 2001 of funding Hamas.", "The US Justice Department filed 200 charges against the foundation.", "The case first ended in a mistrial, in which jurors acquitted on some counts and were deadlocked on charges ranging from tax violations to providing material support for terrorists.", "In a retrial, on November 24, 2008, the five leaders of the Foundation were convicted on 108 counts.Several US organizations were either shut down or held liable for financing Hamas in early 2001, groups that have origins from the mid-1990s, among them the Holy Land Foundation (HLF), Islamic Association for Palestine (IAP), and Kind Hearts.", "The US Treasury Department specially designated the HLF in 2001 for terror ties because from 1995 to 2001 the HLF transferred \"approximately $12.4 million outside of the United States with the intent to contribute funds, goods, and services to Hamas.\"", "According to the Treasury Department, Khaled Meshal identified one of HLF's officers, Mohammed El-Mezain as \"the Hamas leader for the US\".", "In 2003, IAP was found liable for financially supporting Hamas, and in 2006, Kind Hearts had their assets frozen for supporting Hamas.In 2004, a federal court in the United States found Hamas liable in a civil lawsuit for the 1996 murders of Yaron and Efrat Ungar near Bet Shemesh, Israel.", "Hamas was ordered to pay the families of the Ungars $116 million.", "The Palestinian Authority settled the lawsuit in 2011.The settlement terms were not disclosed.", "On August 20, 2004, three Palestinians, one a naturalized American citizen, were charged with a \"lengthy racketeering conspiracy to provide money for terrorist acts in Israel\".", "The indicted included Mousa Mohammed Abu Marzook, who had left the US in 1997.On February 1, 2007, two men were acquitted of contravening United States law by supporting Hamas.", "Both men argued that they helped move money for Palestinian causes aimed at helping the Palestinian people and not to promote terrorism.In January 2009, a Federal prosecutor accused the Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR) of having links to a charity designated as a support network for Hamas.", "The Justice Department identified CAIR as an \"un-indicted co-conspirator\" in the Holy Land Foundation case.", "Later, a federal appeals court removed that label for all parties and instead, named them \"joint venturers\".", "CAIR was never charged with any crime, and it complained that the designation had tarnished its reputation.===In Germany===A German federal court ruled in 2004 that Hamas was a unified organization whose humanitarian aid work could not be separated from its \"terrorist and political activities\".", "In July 2010, Germany outlawed Frankfurt-based International Humanitarian Aid Organization (IHH e.V.", "), saying it had used donations to support Hamas-affiliated relief projects in Gaza.", "German Interior Minister Thomas de Maiziere said that while presenting their activities to donors as humanitarian assistance, IHH e.V.", "had \"exploited trusting donors' willingness to help by using money that was given for a good purpose for supporting what is, in the final analysis, a terrorist organization\"." ], [ "See also", "* Hamastan* Politics of Palestine* List of political parties in the State of Palestine" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Sources ======= Books ====* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ==== Journal articles ====* * * * * * * * * * * * * * ==== Other ====* * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * Official website * Hamas leaders CFR* Hamas Charter of 1988* Hamas 2017 Document of General Principles & Policies (English translation published by Hamas, via Internet Archive)* The Covenant of the Islamic Resistance Movement (Hamas) (includes interpretation)* Hamas Shifts From Rockets to Public Relations ''The New York Times'', July 23, 2009* 22 years on the start of Hamas Al-Qassam Brigades' Information Office* Sherifa Zuhur, Hamas and Israel: Conflicting Strategies of Group-Based Politics (PDF file) December 2008* Fatah and Hamas Human Rights Violations in the Palestinian Occupied Territories in 2007 by Elizabeth Freed of Palestinian Human Rights Monitoring Group* \"Hamas threatens attacks on US: Terrorist warns 'Middle East is full of American targets ''Ynetnews''.", "December 24, 2006.Accessed July 20, 2014." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of the graphical user interface" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''history of the graphical user interface''', understood as the use of graphic icons and a pointing device to control a computer, covers a five-decade span of incremental refinements, built on some constant core principles.", "Several vendors have created their own windowing systems based on independent code, but with basic elements in common that define the WIMP \"window, icon, menu and pointing device\" paradigm.There have been important technological achievements, and enhancements to the general interaction in small steps over previous systems.", "There have been a few significant breakthroughs in terms of use, but the same organizational metaphors and interaction idioms are still in use.", "Desktop computers are often controlled by computer mice and/or keyboards while laptops often have a pointing stick or touchpad, and smartphones and tablet computers have a touchscreen.", "The influence of game computers and joystick operation has been omitted." ], [ "Early research and developments", "The first prototype of a computer mouse, as designed by Bill English from Engelbart's sketchesEarly dynamic information devices such as radar displays, where input devices were used for direct control of computer-created data, set the basis for later improvements of graphical interfaces.", "Some early cathode-ray-tube (CRT) screens used a light pen, rather than a mouse, as the pointing device.The concept of a multi-panel windowing system was introduced by the first real-time graphic display systems for computers: the SAGE Project and Ivan Sutherland's Sketchpad.=== Augmentation of Human Intellect (NLS) ===Videoconferencing on NLS (1968)In the 1960s, Douglas Engelbart's Augmentation of Human Intellect project at the Augmentation Research Center at SRI International in Menlo Park, California developed the oN-Line System (NLS).", "This computer incorporated a mouse-driven cursor and multiple windows used to work on hypertext.", "Engelbart had been inspired, in part, by the memex desk-based information machine suggested by Vannevar Bush in 1945.Much of the early research was based on how young children learn.", "So, the design was based on the childlike characteristics of hand–eye coordination, rather than use of command languages, user-defined macro procedures, or automated transformation of data as later used by adult professionals.Engelbart publicly demonstrated this work at the Association for Computing Machinery / Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (ACM/IEEE)—Computer Society's Fall Joint Computer Conference in San Francisco on December 9, 1968.It was so-called The Mother of All Demos.=== Xerox PARC ===The Xerox Alto (1973) had an early graphical user interface.", "led to the advances at Xerox PARC.", "Several people went from SRI to Xerox PARC in the early 1970s.In 1973, Xerox PARC developed the Alto personal computer.", "It had a bitmapped screen, and was the first computer to demonstrate the desktop metaphor and graphical user interface (GUI).", "It was not a commercial product, but several thousand units were built and were heavily used at PARC, as well as other XEROX offices, and at several universities for many years.", "The Alto greatly influenced the design of personal computers during the late 1970s and early 1980s, notably the Three Rivers PERQ, the Apple Lisa and Macintosh, and the first Sun workstations.The modern WIMP GUI was first developed at Xerox PARC by Alan Kay, Larry Tesler, Dan Ingalls, David Smith, Clarence Ellis and a number of other researchers.", "This was introduced in the Smalltalk programming environment.", "It used windows, icons, and menus (including the first fixed drop-down menu) to support commands such as opening files, deleting files, moving files, etc.", "In 1974, work began at PARC on Gypsy, the first bitmap What-You-See-Is-What-You-Get (WYSIWYG) cut and paste editor.", "In 1975, Xerox engineers demonstrated a Graphical User Interface \"including icons and the first use of pop-up menus\".In 1981 Xerox introduced a pioneering product, Star, a workstation incorporating many of PARC's innovations.", "Although not commercially successful, Star greatly influenced future developments, for example at Apple, Microsoft and Sun Microsystems.=== Quantel Paintbox ===Quantel Paintbox (1981)Released by digital imaging company Quantel in 1981, the Paintbox was a color graphical workstation with supporting of mouse input, but more oriented for graphics tablets; this model also was notable as one of the first systems with implementation of pop-up menus.=== Blit ===The Blit, a graphics terminal, was developed at Bell Labs in 1982.=== Lisp machines, Symbolics ===Lisp machines originally developed at MIT and later commercialized by Symbolics and other manufacturers, were early high-end single user computer workstations with advanced graphical user interfaces, windowing, and mouse as an input device.", "First workstations from Symbolics came to market in 1981, with more advanced designs in the subsequent years.=== Apple Lisa and Macintosh (and later, the Apple II) ===Apple Lisa (1983)Beginning in 1979, started by Steve Jobs and led by Jef Raskin, the Apple Lisa and Macintosh teams at Apple Computer (which included former members of the Xerox PARC group) continued to develop such ideas.", "The Lisa, released in 1983, featured a high-resolution stationery-based (document-centric) graphical interface atop an advanced hard disk based OS that featured such things as preemptive multitasking and graphically oriented inter-process communication.", "The comparatively simplified Macintosh, released in 1984 and designed to be lower in cost, was the first commercially successful product to use a multi-panel window interface.", "A desktop metaphor was used, in which files looked like pieces of paper, file directories looked like file folders, there were a set of desk accessories like a calculator, notepad, and alarm clock that the user could place around the screen as desired, and the user could delete files and folders by dragging them to a trash-can icon on the screen.", "The Macintosh, in contrast to the Lisa, used a program-centric rather than document-centric design.", "Apple revisited the document-centric design, in a limited manner, much later with OpenDoc.There is still some controversy over the amount of influence that Xerox's PARC work, as opposed to previous academic research, had on the GUIs of the Apple Lisa and Macintosh, but it is clear that the influence was extensive, because first versions of Lisa GUIs even lacked icons.", "These prototype GUIs are at least mouse-driven, but completely ignored the WIMP ( \"window, icon, menu, pointing device\") concept.", "Screenshots of first GUIs of Apple Lisa prototypes show the early designs.", "Apple engineers visited the PARC facilities (Apple secured the rights for the visit by compensating Xerox with a pre-IPO purchase of Apple stock) and a number of PARC employees subsequently moved to Apple to work on the Lisa and Macintosh GUI.", "However, the Apple work extended PARC's considerably, adding manipulatable icons, and drag and drop manipulation of objects in the file system (see Macintosh Finder) for example.", "A list of the improvements made by Apple, beyond the PARC interface, can be read at Folklore.org.", "Jef Raskin warns that many of the reported facts in the history of the PARC and Macintosh development are inaccurate, distorted or even fabricated, due to the lack of usage by historians of direct primary sources.In 1984, Apple released a television commercial which introduced the Apple Macintosh during the telecast of Super Bowl XVIII by CBS, with allusions to George Orwell's noted novel, ''Nineteen Eighty-Four''.", "The commercial was aimed at making people think about computers, identifying the user-friendly interface as a personal computer which departed from previous business-oriented systems, and becoming a signature representation of Apple products.In 1986, the Apple II was launched.", "The II was a very advanced model of the successful Apple II series, based on 16-bit technology (in fact, virtually two machines into one).", "It came with a new operating system, the Apple GS/OS, which features a Finder-like GUI, very similar to that of the Macintosh series, able to deal with the advanced graphic abilities of its Video Graphics Chip (VGC).=== Agat ===The Soviet Union Agat PC featured a graphical interface and a mouse device and was released in 1983.=== SGI 1000 series and MEX ===Founded 1982, SGI introduced the IRIS 1000 Series in 1983.The first graphical terminals (IRIS 1000) shipped in late 1983, and the corresponding workstation model (IRIS 1400) was released in mid-1984.The machines used an early version of the MEX windowing system on top of the GL2 Release 1 operating environment.", "Examples of the MEX user interface can be seen in a 1988 article in the journal \"Computer Graphics\", while earlier screenshots can not be found.", "The first commercial GUI-based systems, these did not find widespread use as to their (discounted) academic list price of $22,500 and $35,700 for the IRIS 1000 and IRIS 1400, respectively.", "However, these systems were commercially successful enough to start SGI's business as one of the main graphical workstation vendors.", "In later revisions of graphical workstations, SGI switched to the X window system, which had been developed starting at MIT since 1984 and which became the standard for UNIX workstations.=== Visi On ===VisiCorp's Visi On was a GUI designed to run on DOS for IBM PCs.", "It was released in December 1983.Visi On had many features of a modern GUI, and included a few that did not become common until many years later.", "It was fully mouse-driven, used a bit-mapped display for both text and graphics, included on-line help, and allowed the user to open a number of programs at once, each in its own window, and switch between them to multitask.", "Visi On did not, however, include a graphical file manager.", "Visi On also demanded a hard drive in order to implement its virtual memory system used for \"fast switching\", at a time when hard drives were very expensive.=== GEM (Graphics Environment Manager) ===IBM PC running GEMDigital Research (DRI) created GEM as an add-on program for personal computers.", "GEM was developed to work with existing CP/M and MS-DOS compatible operating systems on business computers such as IBM PC compatibles.", "It was developed from DRI software, known as GSX, designed by a former PARC employee.", "Its similarity to the Macintosh desktop led to a copyright lawsuit from Apple Computer, and a settlement which involved some changes to GEM.", "This was to be the first of a series of \"look and feel\" lawsuits related to GUI design in the 1980s.GEM received widespread use in the consumer market from 1985, when it was made the default user interface built into the Atari TOS operating system of the Atari ST line of personal computers.", "It was also bundled by other computer manufacturers and distributors, such as Amstrad.", "Later, it was distributed with the best-sold Digital Research version of DOS for IBM PC compatibles, the DR-DOS 6.0.The GEM desktop faded from the market with the withdrawal of the Atari ST line in 1992 and with the popularity of the Microsoft Windows 3.0 in the PC front around the same period of time.", "The Falcon030, released in 1993 was the last computer from Atari to use GEM.=== DeskMate ===Tandy's DeskMate appeared in the early 1980s on its TRS-80 machines and was ported to its Tandy 1000 range in 1984.Like most PC GUIs of the time, it depended on a disk operating system such as TRSDOS or MS-DOS.", "The application was popular at the time and included a number of programs like Draw, Text and Calendar, as well as attracting outside investment such as Lotus 1-2-3 for DeskMate.=== MSX-View ===MSX-View running VShellMSX-View was developed for MSX computers by ASCII Corporation and HAL Laboratory.", "MSX-View contains software such as Page Edit, Page View, Page Link, VShell, VTed, VPaint and VDraw.", "An external version of the built-in MSX View of the Panasonic FS-A1GT was released as an add-on for the Panasonic FS-A1ST on disk instead of 512 KB ROM DISK.=== Amiga Intuition and the Workbench ===The Amiga computer was launched by Commodore in 1985 with a GUI called Workbench.", "Workbench was based on an internal engine developed mostly by RJ Mical, called Intuition, which drove all the input events.", "The first versions used a blue/orange/white/black default palette, which was selected for high contrast on televisions and composite monitors.", "Workbench presented directories as drawers to fit in with the \"workbench\" theme.", "Intuition was the widget and graphics library that made the GUI work.", "It was driven by user events through the mouse, keyboard, and other input devices.Due to a mistake made by the Commodore sales department, the first floppies of AmigaOS (released with the Amiga1000) named the whole OS \"Workbench\".", "Since then, users and CBM itself referred to \"Workbench\" as the nickname for the whole AmigaOS (including Amiga DOS, Extras, etc.).", "This common consent ended with release of version 2.0 of AmigaOS, which re-introduced proper names to the installation floppies of AmigaDOS, Workbench, Extras, etc.Starting with Workbench 1.0, AmigaOS treated the Workbench as a backdrop, borderless window sitting atop a blank screen.", "With the introduction of AmigaOS 2.0, however, the user was free to select whether the main Workbench window appeared as a normally layered window, complete with a border and scrollbars, through a menu item.Amiga users were able to boot their computer into a command-line interface (also known as the CLI or Amiga Shell).", "This was a keyboard-based environment without the Workbench GUI.", "Later they could invoke it with the CLI/SHELL command \"LoadWB\" which loaded Workbench GUI.One major difference between other OS's of the time (and for some time after) was the Amiga's fully multi-tasking operating system, a powerful built-in animation system using a hardware blitter and copper and four channels of 26 kHz 8-bit sampled sound.", "This made the Amiga the first multi-media computer years before other OS's.Like most GUIs of the day, Amiga's Intuition followed Xerox's, and sometimes Apple's, lead.", "But a CLI was included which dramatically extended the functionality of the platform.", "However, the CLI/Shell of Amiga is not just a simple text-based interface like in MS-DOS, but another graphic process driven by Intuition, and with the same gadgets included in Amiga's graphics.library.", "The CLI/Shell interface integrates itself with the Workbench, sharing privileges with the GUI.The Amiga Workbench evolved over the 1990s, even after Commodore's 1994 bankruptcy.=== Acorn BBC Master Compact ===Acorn's 8-bit BBC Master Compact shipped with Acorn's first public GUI interface in 1986.Little commercial software, beyond that included on the Welcome disk, was ever made available for the system, despite the claim by Acorn at the time that \"the major software houses have worked with Acorn to make over 100 titles available on compilation discs at launch\".", "The most avid supporter of the Master Compact appeared to be Superior Software, who produced and specifically labelled their games as 'Master Compact' compatible.=== Arthur / RISC OS ==='''RISC OS''' is a series of graphical user interface-based computer operating systems (OSes) designed for ARM architecture systems.", "It takes its name from the RISC (reduced instruction set computer) architecture supported.", "The OS was originally developed by Acorn Computers for use with their 1987 range of Archimedes personal computers using the Acorn RISC Machine (ARM) processors.", "It comprises a command-line interface and desktop environment with a windowing system.Originally branded as the ''Arthur 1.20'' the subsequent ''Arthur 2'' release was shipped under the name RISC OS 2.==== Desktop ====The WIMP interface incorporates three mouse buttons (named ''Select'', ''Menu'' and ''Adjust''), context-sensitive menus, window stack control (i.e.", "send to back) and dynamic window focus (a window can have input focus at any position on the stack).", "The Icon bar (Dock) holds icons which represent mounted disc drives, RAM discs, network directories, running applications, system utilities and docked: Files, Directories or inactive Applications.", "These icons and open windows have context-sensitive menus and support drag-and-drop behaviour.", "They represent the running application as a whole, irrespective of whether it has open windows.The application has control of the context-sensitive menus, inapplicable menu choices can be 'greyed out' to make them unavailable.", "Menus have their own titles and may be moved around the desktop by the user.", "Any menu can have further sub-menus or a new window for complicated choices.The GUI is centered around the concept of files.", "The Filer displays the contents of a disc.", "Applications are run from the Filer view and files can be dragged to the Filer view from applications to perform saves.", "The opposite can perform a load.", "With their co-operation data can be copied or moved directly between applications by saving (dragging) to another application.Application directories are used to store applications.", "The OS differentiates them from normal directories through the use of a pling (exclamation mark, also called shriek) prefix.", "Double-clicking on such a directory launches the application rather than opening the directory.", "The application's executable files and resources are contained within the directory, but normally they remain hidden from the user.", "Because applications are self-contained, this allows drag-and-drop installation and removal.Files are normally typed.", "RISC OS has some predefined types.", "Applications can supplement the set of known types.", "Double-clicking a file with a known type will launch the appropriate application to load the file.The ''Style Guide'' encourages a consistent look and feel across applications.", "This was introduced in and specifies application appearance and behaviour.", "Acorn's own main bundled applications were not updated to comply with the guide until 's ''Select'' release in 2001.==== Font manager ====The outline fonts manager provides spatial anti-aliasing of fonts, the OS being the first operating system to include such a feature, having included it since before January 1989.Since 1994, in RISC OS 3.5, it has been possible to use an outline anti-aliased font in the WindowManager for UI elements, rather than the bitmap system font from previous versions.=== MS-DOS file managers and utility suites ===Because most of the very early IBM PC and compatibles lacked any common true graphical capability (they used the 80-column basic text mode compatible with the original MDA display adapter), a series of file managers arose, including Microsoft's DOS Shell, which features typical GUI elements as menus, push buttons, lists with scrollbars and mouse pointer.", "The name text-based user interface was later invented to name this kind of interface.", "Many MS-DOS text mode applications, like the default text editor for MS-DOS 5.0 (and related tools, like QBasic), also used the same philosophy.", "The IBM DOS Shell included with IBM DOS 5.0 (circa 1992) supported both text display modes and actual graphics display modes, making it both a TUI and a GUI, depending on the chosen mode.Advanced file managers for MS-DOS were able to redefine character shapes with EGA and better display adapters, giving some basic low resolution icons and graphical interface elements, including an arrow (instead of a coloured cell block) for the mouse pointer.", "When the display adapter lacks the ability to change the character's shapes, they default to the CP437 character set found in the adapter's ROM.", "Some popular utility suites for MS-DOS, as Norton Utilities (pictured) and PC Tools used these techniques as well.DESQview was a text mode multitasking program introduced in July 1985.Running on top of MS-DOS, it allowed users to run multiple DOS programs concurrently in windows.", "It was the first program to bring multitasking and windowing capabilities to a DOS environment in which existing DOS programs could be used.", "DESQview was not a true GUI but offered certain components of one, such as resizable, overlapping windows and mouse pointing.=== Applications under MS-DOS with proprietary GUIs ===Before the MS-Windows age, and with the lack of a true common GUI under MS-DOS, most graphical applications which worked with EGA, VGA and better graphic cards had proprietary built-in GUIs.", "One of the best known such graphical applications was Deluxe Paint, a popular painting software with a typical WIMP interface.The original Adobe Acrobat Reader executable file for MS-DOS was able to run on both the standard Windows 3.x GUI and the standard DOS command prompt.", "When it was launched from the command prompt, on a machine with a VGA graphics card, it provided its own GUI.=== Microsoft Windows (16-bit versions) ===Windows 1.0, a GUI for the MS-DOS operating system was released in 1985.The market's response was less than stellar.", "Windows 2.0 followed, but it wasn't until the 1990 launch of Windows 3.0, based on Common User Access that its popularity truly exploded.", "The GUI has seen minor redesigns since, mainly the networking enabled Windows 3.11 and its Win32s 32-bit patch.", "The 16-bit line of MS Windows were discontinued with the introduction of Windows 95 and Windows NT 32-bit based architecture in the 1990s.", "See the next section.The main window of a given application can occupy the full screen in ''maximized'' status.", "The users must then to switch between maximized applications using the Alt+Tab keyboard shortcut; no alternative with the mouse except for de-maximize.", "When none of the running application windows are maximized, switching can be done by clicking on a partially visible window, as is the common way in other GUIs.In 1988, Apple sued Microsoft for copyright infringement of the Lisa and Apple Macintosh GUI.", "The court case lasted 4 years before almost all of Apple's claims were denied on a contractual technicality.", "Subsequent appeals by Apple were also denied.", "Microsoft and Apple apparently entered a final, private settlement of the matter in 1997.=== GEOS ===GEOS was launched in 1986, originally written for the 8-bit home computer Commodore 64, and shortly after, the Apple II series.", "The name was later used by the company as PC/Geos for IBM PC systems, then Geoworks Ensemble.", "It came with several application programs like a calendar and word processor.", "A cut-down version served as the basis for America Online's DOS client.", "Compared to the competing Windows 3.0 GUI, it could run reasonably well on simpler hardware, but its developer had a restrictive policy towards third-party developers that prevented it from becoming a serious competitor.", "Additionally, it was targeted at 8-bit machines, whilst the 16-bit computer age was dawning.=== The X Window System ===A Unix-based X Window System desktop (circa 1990)The standard windowing system in the Unix world is the X Window System (commonly X11 or X), first released in the mid-1980s.", "The W Window System (1983) was the precursor to X; X was developed at MIT as Project Athena.", "Its original purpose was to allow users of the newly emerging graphic terminals to access remote graphics workstations without regard to the workstation's operating system or the hardware.", "Due largely to the availability of the source code used to write X, it has become the standard layer for management of graphical and input/output devices and for the building of both local and remote graphical interfaces on virtually all Unix, Linux and other Unix-like operating systems, with the notable exceptions of macOS and Android.X allows a graphical terminal user to make use of remote resources on the network as if they were all located locally to the user by running a single module of software called the X server.", "The software running on the remote machine is called the client application.", "X's network transparency protocols allow the display and input portions of any application to be separated from the remainder of the application and 'served up' to any of a large number of remote users.", "X is available today as free software.=== NeWS ===HyperTIES authoring tool under NeWS window systemThe PostScript-based NeWS (Network extensible Window System) was developed by Sun Microsystems in the mid-1980s.", "For several years SunOS included a window system combining NeWS and the X Window System.", "Although NeWS was considered technically elegant by some commentators, Sun eventually dropped the product.", "Unlike X, NeWS was always proprietary software." ], [ "The 1990s: Mainstream usage of the desktop", "The widespread adoption of the PC platform in homes and small businesses popularized computers among people with no formal training.", "This created a fast-growing market, opening an opportunity for commercial exploitation and of easy-to-use interfaces and making economically viable the incremental refinement of the existing GUIs for home systems.Also, the spreading of high-color and true-color capabilities of display adapters providing thousands and millions of colors, along with faster CPUs and accelerated graphic cards, cheaper RAM, storage devices orders of magnitude larger (from megabytes to gigabytes) and larger bandwidth for telecom networking at lower cost helped to create an environment in which the common user was able to run complicated GUIs which began to favor aesthetics.=== Windows 95 and \"a computer in every home\" ===Computer running Windows 95After Windows 3.11, Microsoft started development on a new consumer-oriented version of the operating system.", "Windows 95 was intended to integrate Microsoft's formerly separate MS-DOS and Windows products and included an enhanced version of DOS, often referred to as MS-DOS 7.0.It also featured a significant redesign of the GUI, dubbed \"Cairo\".", "While Cairo never really materialized, parts of Cairo found their way into subsequent versions of the operating system starting with Windows 95.Both Win95 and WinNT could run 32-bit applications, and could exploit the abilities of the Intel 80386 CPU, as the preemptive multitasking and up to 4 GiB of linear address memory space.", "Windows 95 was touted as a 32-bit based operating system but it was actually based on a hybrid kernel (VWIN32.VXD) with the 16-bit user interface (USER.EXE) and graphic device interface (GDI.EXE) of Windows for Workgroups (3.11), which had 16-bit kernel components with a 32-bit subsystem (USER32.DLL and GDI32.DLL) that allowed it to run native 16-bit applications as well as 32-bit applications.", "In the marketplace, Windows 95 was an unqualified success, promoting a general upgrade to 32-bit technology, and within a year or two of its release had become the most successful operating system ever produced.Accompanied by an extensive marketing campaign, Windows 95 was a major success in the marketplace at launch and shortly became the most popular desktop operating system.Windows 95 saw the beginning of the browser wars, when the World Wide Web began receiving a great deal of attention in popular culture and mass media.", "Microsoft at first did not see potential in the Web, and Windows 95 was shipped with Microsoft's own online service called The Microsoft Network, which was dial-up only and was used primarily for its own content, not internet access.", "As versions of Netscape Navigator and Internet Explorer were released at a rapid pace over the following few years, Microsoft used its desktop dominance to push its browser and shape the ecology of the web mainly as a monoculture.Windows 95 evolved through the years into Windows 98 and Windows ME.", "Windows ME was the last in the line of the Windows 3.x-based operating systems from Microsoft.", "Windows underwent a parallel 32-bit evolutionary path, where Windows NT 3.1 was released in 1993.Windows NT (for New Technology) was a native 32-bit operating system with a new driver model, was unicode-based, and provided for true separation between applications.", "Windows NT also supported 16-bit applications in an NTVDM, but it did not support VxD based drivers.", "Windows 95 was supposed to be released before 1993 as the predecessor to Windows NT.", "The idea was to promote the development of 32-bit applications with backward compatibility – leading the way for more successful NT release.", "After multiple delays, Windows 95 was released without unicode and used the VxD driver model.", "Windows NT 3.1 evolved to Windows NT 3.5, 3.51 and then 4.0 when it finally shared a similar interface with its Windows 9x desktop counterpart and included a Start button.", "The evolution continued with Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows Vista, then Windows 7.Windows XP and higher were also made available in 64-bit modes.", "Windows server products branched off with the introduction of Windows Server 2003 (available in 32-bit and 64-bit IA64 or x64), then Windows Server 2008 and then Windows Server 2008 R2.Windows 2000 and XP shared the same basic GUI although XP introduced Visual Styles.", "With Windows 98, the Active Desktop theme was introduced, allowing an HTML approach for the desktop, but this feature was coldly received by customers, who frequently disabled it.", "At the end, Windows Vista definitively discontinued it, but put a new SideBar on the desktop.=== Mac OS ===The Macintosh's GUI has been revised multiple times since 1984, with major updates including System 7 and Mac OS 8.It underwent its largest revision to date with the introduction of the \"Aqua\" interface in 2001's Mac OS X.", "It was a new operating system built primarily on technology from NeXTSTEP with UI elements of the original Mac OS grafted on.", "macOS uses a technology known as Quartz, for graphics rendering and drawing on-screen.", "Some interface features of macOS are inherited from NeXTSTEP (such as the Dock, the automatic wait cursor, or double-buffered windows giving a solid appearance and flicker-free window redraws), while others are inherited from the old Mac OS operating system (the single system-wide menu-bar).", "Mac OS X 10.3 introduced features to improve usability including Exposé, which is designed to make finding open windows easier.With Mac OS X 10.4 released in April 2005, new features were added, including Dashboard (a virtual alternate desktop for mini specific-purpose applications) and a search tool called Spotlight, which provides users with an option for searching through files instead of browsing through folders.With Mac OS X 10.7 released in July 2011, included support for full screen apps and Mac OS X 10.11 (El Capitan) released in September 2015 support creating a full screen split view by pressing the green button on left upper corner of the window or Control+Cmd+F keyboard shortcut.=== GUIs built on the X Window System ===KDE Plasma 4.4 desktop (2010)A GNOME 2.28 desktop (2010) of X Window development, Sun Microsystems and AT&T attempted to push for a GUI standard called OPEN LOOK in competition with Motif.", "OPEN LOOK was developed from scratch in conjunction with Xerox, while Motif was a collective effort.", "Motif eventually gained prominence and became the basis for Hewlett-Packard's Visual User Environment (VUE), which later became the Common Desktop Environment (CDE).In the late 1990s, there was significant growth in the Unix world, especially among the free software community.", "New graphical desktop movements grew up around Linux and similar operating systems, based on the X Window System.", "A new emphasis on providing an integrated and uniform interface to the user brought about new desktop environments, such as KDE Plasma 5, GNOME and Xfce which have supplanted CDE in popularity on both Unix and Unix-like operating systems.", "The Xfce, KDE and GNOME look and feel each tend to undergo more rapid change and less codification than the earlier OPEN LOOK and Motif environments.=== Amiga ===Later releases added improvements over the original Workbench, like support for high-color Workbench screens, context menus, and embossed 2D icons with pseudo-3D aspect.", "Some Amiga users preferred alternative interfaces to standard Workbench, such as Directory Opus Magellan.The use of improved, third-party GUI engines became common amongst users who preferred more attractive interfaces – such as Magic User Interface (MUI), and ReAction.", "These object-oriented graphic engines driven by user interface classes and methods were then standardized into the Amiga environment and changed Amiga Workbench to a complete and modern guided interface, with new standard gadgets, animated buttons, true 24-bit-color icons, increased use of wallpapers for screens and windows, alpha channel, transparencies and shadows as any modern GUI provides.Modern derivatives of Workbench are Ambient for MorphOS, Scalos, Workbench for AmigaOS 4 and Wanderer for AROS.There is a brief article on Ambient and descriptions of MUI icons, menus and gadgets at aps.fr and images of Zune stay at main AROS site.Use of object oriented graphic engines dramatically changes the look and feel of a GUI to match actual styleguides.=== OS/2 ===Originally collaboratively developed by Microsoft and IBM to replace DOS, OS/2 version 1.0 (released in 1987) had no GUI at all.", "Version 1.1 (released 1988) included Presentation Manager (PM), an implementation of IBM Common User Access, which looked a lot like the later Windows 3.1 UI.", "After the split with Microsoft, IBM developed the Workplace Shell (WPS) for version 2.0 (released in 1992), a quite radical, object-oriented approach to GUIs.", "Microsoft later imitated much of this look in Windows 95.=== NeXTSTEP ===NeXTStep 3.x running ''NetHack'', help and more appsThe NeXTSTEP user interface was used in the NeXT line of computers.", "NeXTSTEP's first major version was released in 1989.It used Display PostScript for its graphical underpinning.", "The NeXTSTEP interface's most significant feature was the Dock, carried with some modification into Mac OS X, and had other minor interface details that some found made it easier and more intuitive to use than previous GUIs.", "NeXTSTEP's GUI was the first to feature opaque dragging of windows in its user interface, on a comparatively weak machine by today's standards, ideally aided by high performance graphics hardware.=== BeOS ===BeOS was developed on custom AT&T Hobbit-based computers before switching to PowerPC hardware by a team led by former Apple executive Jean-Louis Gassée as an alternative to Mac OS.", "BeOS was later ported to Intel hardware.", "It used an object-oriented kernel written by Be, and did not use the X Window System, but a different GUI written from scratch.", "Much effort was spent by the developers to make it an efficient platform for multimedia applications.", "Be Inc. was acquired by PalmSource, Inc. (Palm Inc. at the time) in 2001.The BeOS GUI still lives in Haiku, an open-source software reimplementation of the BeOS." ], [ "Current trends", "=== Mobile devices ===General Magic is the apparent parent of all modern smartphone GUI, i.e.", "touch-screen based including the iPhone et al.", "In 2007, with the iPhone and later in 2010 with the introduction of the iPad, Apple popularized the post-WIMP style of interaction for multi-touch screens, with those devices considered to be milestones in the development of mobile devices.Other portable devices such as MP3 players and cell phones have been a burgeoning area of deployment for GUIs in recent years.", "Since the mid-2000s, a vast majority of portable devices have advanced to having high-screen resolutions and sizes.", "(The Galaxy Note 4's 2,560 × 1,440 pixel display is an example).", "Because of this, these devices have their own famed user interfaces and operating systems that have large homebrew communities dedicated to creating their own visual elements, such as icons, menus, wallpapers, and more.", "Post-WIMP interfaces are often used in these mobile devices, where the traditional pointing devices required by the desktop metaphor are not practical.As high-powered graphics hardware draws considerable power and generates significant heat, many of the 3D effects developed between 2000 and 2010 are not practical on this class of device.", "This has led to the development of simpler interfaces making a design feature of two dimensionality such as exhibited by the Metro (Modern) UI first used in Windows 8 and the 2012 Gmail redesign.=== 3D user interface ===Compiz running on Fedora Core 6 with AIGLXIn the first decade of the 21st century, the rapid development of GPUs led to a trend for the inclusion of 3D effects in window management.", "It is based in experimental research in user interface design trying to expand the expressive power of the existing toolkits in order to enhance the physical cues that allow for direct manipulation.", "New effects common to several projects are scale resizing and zooming, several windows transformations and animations (wobbly windows, smooth minimization to system tray...), composition of images (used for window drop shadows and transparency) and enhancing the global organization of open windows (zooming to virtual desktops, desktop cube, Exposé, etc.)", "The proof-of-concept BumpTop desktop combines a physical representation of documents with tools for document classification possible only in the simulated environment, like instant reordering and automated grouping of related documents.These effects are popularized thanks to the widespread use of 3D video cards (mainly due to gaming) which allow for complex visual processing with low CPU use, using the 3D acceleration in most modern graphics cards to render the application clients in a 3D scene.", "The application window is drawn off-screen in a pixel buffer, and the graphics card renders it into the 3D scene.This can have the advantage of moving some of the window rendering to the GPU on the graphics card and thus reducing the load on the main CPU, but the facilities that allow this must be available on the graphics card to be able to take advantage of this.Examples of 3D user-interface software include Xgl and Compiz from Novell, and AIGLX bundled with Red Hat/Fedora.", "Quartz Extreme for macOS and Windows 7 and Vista's Aero interface use 3D rendering for shading and transparency effects as well as Exposé and Windows Flip and Flip 3D, respectively.", "Windows Vista uses Direct3D to accomplish this, whereas the other interfaces use OpenGL.=== Notebook interface ===The notebook interface is widely used in data science and other areas of research.", "Notebooks allow users to mix text, calculations, and graphs in the same interface which was previously impossible with a command-line interface.=== Virtual reality and presence ===Virtual reality devices such as the Oculus Rift and Sony's PlayStation VR (formerly Project Morpheus) aim to provide users with presence, a perception of full immersion into a virtual environment." ], [ "See also", "* Windowing system* Bill Atkinson* The Blit (graphics terminal by Rob Pike, 1982)* Direct manipulation interface* Douglas Engelbart's On-Line System* Graphical user interface* Text-based user interface* History of computing hardware* History of computer icons* Ivan Sutherland's Sketchpad* Jef Raskin* Office of the future* ETH Oberon* Xgl* AIGLX* DirectFB* Tiling window manager* Macro command language* Texting* Skeuomorph* Apple v. Microsoft* IBM Common User Access* The Mother of All Demos" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Raj Lal \"User Interface evolution in last 50 years\", Digital Design and Innovation Summit, San Francisco, Sept 20, 2013* Jeremy Reimer.", "\"A History of the GUI\" Ars Technica.", "May 5, 2005.", "* \"User Interface Timeline\" George Mason University* Nathan Lineback.", "\"The Graphical User Interface Gallery\".", "Nathan's Toasty Technology Page.", "* Oral history interview with Marvin L. Minsky, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota.", "Minsky describes artificial intelligence (AI) research at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), including research in the areas of graphics, word processing, and time-sharing.", "* Oral history interview with Ivan Sutherland, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota.", "Sutherland describes his tenure as head of ARPA's Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO) from 1963 to 1965, including new projects in graphics and networking.", "* Oral history interview with Charles A. Csuri, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota.", "Csuri recounts his art education and explains his transition to computer graphics in the mid-1960s, after receiving a National Science Foundation grant for research in graphics.", "* GUIdebook: Graphical User Interface gallery* VisiOn history – The first GUI for the PC* mprove: Historical Overview of Graphical User Interfaces* Anecdotes about the development of the Macintosh Hardware & GUI* Firsts: The Demo – Doug Engelbart Institute" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hezbollah" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hezbollah''' (, ; , ) is a Lebanese Shia Islamist political party and militant group, led since 1992 by its Secretary-General Hassan Nasrallah.", "Hezbollah's paramilitary wing is the Jihad Council, and its political wing is the Loyalty to the Resistance Bloc party in the Lebanese Parliament.Hezbollah was established in the wake of the 1982 Lebanon War by Lebanese clerics who studied in the Shia seminaries Hawza Najaf in Najaf.", "It adopted the model set out by Ayatollah Khomeini after the Iranian Revolution in 1979, and the party's founders adopted the name \"Hezbollah\" as chosen by Khomeini.", "Since then, close ties have developed between Iran and Hezbollah.", "The organization was created with the support of 1,500 Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) instructors, and aggregated a variety of Lebanese Shia groups into a unified organization to resist the former Israeli occupation of Southern Lebanon.", "During the Lebanese Civil War, Hezbollah's 1985 manifesto listed its objectives as the expulsion of \"the Americans, the French and their allies definitely from Lebanon, putting an end to any colonialist entity on our land\".", "From 1985 to 2000, Hezbollah also participated in the 1985–2000 South Lebanon conflict against the South Lebanon Army (SLA) and Israel Defense Forces (IDF), and fought again with the IDF in the 2006 Lebanon War.", "During the 1990s, Hezbollah also organized volunteers to fight for the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina during the Bosnian War.Since 1990, Hezbollah has participated in Lebanese politics, in a process which is described as the Lebanonisation of Hezbollah, and it later participated in the government of Lebanon and joined political alliances.", "After the 2006–08 Lebanese protests and clashes, a national unity government was formed in 2008, with Hezbollah and its opposition allies obtaining 11 of 30 cabinet seats, enough to give them veto power.", "In August 2008, Lebanon's new cabinet unanimously approved a draft policy statement that recognizes Hezbollah's existence as an armed organization and guarantees its right to \"liberate or recover occupied lands\" (such as the Shebaa Farms).", "Hezbollah is part of Lebanon's March 8 Alliance, in opposition to the March 14 Alliance.", "It maintains strong support among Lebanese Shia Muslims, while Sunnis have disagreed with its agenda.", "Hezbollah also has support in some Christian areas of Lebanon.", "Since 2012, Hezbollah involvement in the Syrian civil war has seen it join the Syrian government in its fight against the Syrian opposition, which Hezbollah has described as a Zionist plot and a \"Wahhabi-Zionist conspiracy\" to destroy its alliance with Bashar al-Assad against Israel.", "Between 2013 and 2015, the organisation deployed its militia in both Syria and Iraq to fight or train local militias to fight against the Islamic State.", "In the 2018 Lebanese general election, Hezbollah held 12 seats and its alliance won the election by gaining 70 out of 128 seats in the Parliament of Lebanon.Hezbollah did not disarm after the Israeli withdrawal from South Lebanon, in violation of the UN Security Council resolution 1701.From 2006, the group's military strength grew significantly, to the extent that its paramilitary wing became more powerful than the Lebanese Army.", "Hezbollah has been described as a \"state within a state\", and has grown into an organization with seats in the Lebanese government, a radio and a satellite TV station, social services and large-scale military deployment of fighters beyond Lebanon's borders.", "The group currently receives military training, weapons, and financial support from Iran and political support from Syria, although the sectarian nature of the Syrian war has damaged the group's legitimacy.", "In 2021, Nasrallah said the group had 100,000 fighters.", "Either the entire organization or only its military wing has been designated a terrorist organization by several countries, including by the European Union and, since 2017, also by most member states of the Arab League, with two exceptions – Lebanon, where Hezbollah is one of the country's most influential political parties, and Iraq.", "Russia does not view Hezbollah as a \"terrorist organization\" but as a \"legitimate socio-political force\"." ], [ "History", "===Foundation===In 1982, Hezbollah was conceived by Muslim clerics and funded by Iran primarily to fight the Israeli invasion of Lebanon.", "Its leaders were followers of Ayatollah Khomeini, and its forces were trained and organized by a contingent of 1,500 Revolutionary Guards that arrived from Iran with permission from the Syrian government, which occupied Lebanon's eastern highlands, permitted their transit to a base in the Bekaa valley which was in occupation of Lebanon at the time.Scholars differ as to when Hezbollah came to be a distinct entity.", "Various sources list the official formation of the group as early as 1982 whereas Diaz and Newman maintain that Hezbollah remained an amalgamation of various violent Shi'a extremists until as late as 1985.Another version states that it was formed by supporters of Sheikh Ragheb Harb, a leader of the southern Shia resistance killed by Israel in 1984.Regardless of when the name came into official use, a number of Shi'a groups were slowly assimilated into the organization, such as Islamic Jihad, Organization of the Oppressed on Earth and the Revolutionary Justice Organization.", "These designations are considered to be synonymous with Hezbollah by the US, Israel and Canada.=== 1980s ===Hezbollah emerged in South Lebanon during a consolidation of Shia militias as a rival to the older Amal Movement.", "Hezbollah played a significant role in the Lebanese civil war, opposing American forces in 1982–83 and opposing Amal and Syria during the 1985–88 War of the Camps.", "However, Hezbollah's early primary focus was ending Israel's occupation of southern Lebanon following Israel's 1982 invasion and siege of Beirut.", "Amal, the main Lebanese Shia political group, initiated guerrilla warfare.", "In 2006, former Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak stated, \"When we entered Lebanon … there was no Hezbollah.", "We were accepted with perfumed rice and flowers by the Shia in the south.", "It was our presence there that created Hezbollah\".Hezbollah waged an asymmetric war using suicide attacks against the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) and Israeli targets outside of Lebanon.", "Hezbollah is reputed to have been among the first Islamic resistance groups in the Middle East to use the tactics of suicide bombing, assassination, and capturing foreign soldiers, as well as murders and hijackings.", "Hezbollah also employed more conventional military tactics and weaponry, notably Katyusha rockets and other missiles.", "At the end of the Lebanese Civil War in 1990, despite the Taif Agreement asking for the \"disbanding of all Lebanese and non-Lebanese militias,\" Syria, which controlled Lebanon at that time, allowed Hezbollah to maintain their arsenal and control Shia areas along the border with Israel.=== After 1990 ===In the 1990s, Hezbollah transformed from a revolutionary group into a political one, in a process which is described as the Lebanonisation of Hezbollah.", "Unlike its uncompromising revolutionary stance in the 1980s, Hezbollah conveyed a lenient stance towards the Lebanese state.In 1992, Hezbollah decided to participate in elections, and Ali Khamenei, supreme leader of Iran, endorsed it.", "Former Hezbollah secretary general, Subhi al-Tufayli, contested this decision, which led to a schism in Hezbollah.", "Hezbollah won all twelve seats which were on its electoral list.", "At the end of that year, Hezbollah began to engage in dialog with Lebanese Christians.", "Hezbollah regards cultural, political, and religious freedoms in Lebanon as sanctified, although it does not extend these values to groups who have relations with Israel.In 1997, Hezbollah formed the multi-confessional Lebanese Brigades to Fighting the Israeli Occupation in an attempt to revive national and secular resistance against Israel, thereby marking the \"Lebanonisation\" of resistance.=== Islamic Jihad Organization (IJO) ===Whether the Islamic Jihad Organization (IJO) was a ''nom de guerre'' used by Hezbollah or a separate organization, is disputed.", "According to certain sources, IJO was identified as merely a \"telephone organization\", and whose name was \"used by those involved to disguise their true identity.\"", "Hezbollah reportedly also used another name, \"Islamic Resistance\" (''al-Muqawama al-Islamiyya''), for attacks against Israel.A 2003 American court decision found IJO was the name used by Hezbollah for its attacks in Lebanon, parts of the Middle East and Europe.", "The US, Israel and Canada consider the names \"Islamic Jihad Organization\", \"Organization of the Oppressed on Earth\" and the \"Revolutionary Justice Organization\" to be synonymous with Hezbollah." ], [ "Ideology", "The ideology of Hezbollah has been summarized as Shi'i radicalism; Hezbollah follows the Islamic Shi'a theology developed by Iranian leader Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini.", "Hezbollah was largely formed with the aid of the Ayatollah Khomeini's followers in the early 1980s in order to spread Islamic revolution and follows a distinct version of Islamic Shi'a ideology (''Wilayat al-faqih'' or Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists) developed by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, leader of the \"Islamic Revolution\" in Iran.", "Although Hezbollah originally aimed to transform Lebanon into a formal Faqihi Islamic republic, this goal has been abandoned in favor of a more inclusive approach.=== 1985 manifesto ===On 16 February 1985, Sheik Ibrahim al-Amin issued Hezbollah's manifesto.", "The ideology presented in it was described as radical.", "Its first objective was to fight against what Hezbollah described as American and Israeli imperialism, including the Israeli occupation of Southern Lebanon and other territories.", "The second objective was to gather all Muslims into an \"ummah\", under which Lebanon would further the aims of the 1979 Revolution of Iran.", "It also declared it would protect all Lebanese communities, excluding those that collaborated with Israel, and support all national movements—both Muslim and non-Muslim—throughout the world.", "The ideology has since evolved, and today Hezbollah is a left-wing political entity focused on social injustice.Translated excerpts from Hezbollah's original 1985 manifesto read:=== Attitudes, statements, and actions concerning Israel and Zionism ===From the inception of Hezbollah to the present, the elimination of the State of Israel has been one of Hezbollah's primary goals.", "Some translations of Hezbollah's 1985 Arabic-language manifesto state that \"our struggle will end only when this entity Israel is obliterated\".", "According to Hezbollah's Deputy-General, Naim Qassem, the struggle against Israel is a core belief of Hezbollah and the central rationale of Hezbollah's existence.Hezbollah says that its continued hostilities against Israel are justified as reciprocal to Israeli operations against Lebanon and as retaliation for what they claim is Israel's occupation of Lebanese territory.", "Israel withdrew from Lebanon in 2000, and their withdrawal was verified by the United Nations as being in accordance with resolution 425 of 19 March 1978, however Lebanon considers the Shebaa farms—a 26-km2 (10-mi2) piece of land captured by Israel from Syria in the 1967 war and considered by the UN to be Syrian territory occupied by Israel—to be Lebanese territory.", "Finally, Hezbollah considers Israel to be an illegitimate state.", "For these reasons, it justifies its actions as acts of defensive jihad.=== Attitudes and actions concerning Jews and Judaism ===Hezbollah officials have said, on rare occasions, that it is only \"anti-Zionist\" and not anti-Semitic.", "However, according to scholars, \"these words do not hold up upon closer examination\".", "Among other actions, Hezbollah actively engages in Holocaust denial and spreads anti-Semitic conspiracy theories.Various antisemitic statements have been attributed to Hezbollah officials.", "Amal Saad-Ghorayeb, a Lebanese political analyst, argues that although Zionism has influenced Hezbollah's anti-Judaism, \"it is not contingent upon it because Hezbollah's hatred of Jews is more religiously motivated than politically motivated\".", "Robert S. Wistrich, a historian specializing in the study of anti-Semitism, described Hezbollah's ideology concerning Jews:The anti-Semitism of Hezbollah leaders and spokesmen combines the image of seemingly invincible Jewish power ... and cunning with the contempt normally reserved for weak and cowardly enemies.", "Like the Hamas propaganda for holy war, that of Hezbollah has relied on the endless vilification of Jews as 'enemies of mankind,' 'conspiratorial, obstinate, and conceited' adversaries full of 'satanic plans' to enslave the Arabs.", "It fuses traditional Islamic anti-Judaism with Western conspiracy myths, Third Worldist anti-Zionism, and Iranian Shiite contempt for Jews as 'ritually impure' and corrupt infidels.", "Sheikh Fadlallah typically insists ... that Jews wish to undermine or obliterate Islam and Arab cultural identity in order to advance their economic and political domination.Conflicting reports say Al-Manar, the Hezbollah-owned and operated television station, accused either Israel or Jews of deliberately spreading HIV and other diseases to Arabs throughout the Middle East.", "Al-Manar was criticized in the West for airing \"anti-Semitic propaganda\" in the form of a television drama depicting a Jewish world domination conspiracy theory.", "The group has been accused by American analysts of engaging in Holocaust denial.", "In addition, during its 2006 war, it apologized only for killing Israel's Arabs (i.e., non-Jews).In November 2009, Hezbollah pressured a private English-language school to drop reading excerpts from ''The Diary of Anne Frank'', a book of the writings from the diary kept by the Jewish child Anne Frank while she was in hiding with her family during the Nazi occupation of the Netherlands.", "This was after Hezbollah's Al-Manar television channel complained, asking how long Lebanon would \"remain an open arena for the Zionist invasion of education?\"" ], [ "Organization", "Organizational chart of Hezbollah, by Ahmad Nizar HamzehSayyid Hassan Nasrallah, the third and current Secretary General of HezbollahAt the beginning, many Hezbollah leaders maintained that the movement was \"not an organization, for its members carry no cards and bear no specific responsibilities,\" and that the movement does not have \"a clearly defined organizational structure.\"", "Today, as Hezbollah scholar Magnus Ranstorp reports, Hezbollah does indeed have a formal governing structure and, in keeping with the principle of Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists (''velayat-e faqih''), it \"concentrates ... all authority and powers\" in its religious leaders, whose decisions then \"flow from the ulama down the entire community.", "\"The supreme decision-making bodies of the Hezbollah were divided between the Majlis al-Shura (Consultative Assembly) which was headed by 12 senior clerical members with responsibility for tactical decisions and supervision of overall Hizballah activity throughout Lebanon, and the Majlis al-Shura al-Karar (the Deciding Assembly), headed by Sheikh Muhammad Hussein Fadlallah and composed of eleven other clerics with responsibility for all strategic matters.", "Within the Majlis al-Shura, there existed seven specialized committees dealing with ideological, financial, military and political, judicial, informational and social affairs.", "In turn, the Majlis al-Shura and these seven committees were replicated in each of Hizballah's three main operational areas (the Beqaa, Beirut, and the South).Since the Supreme Leader of Iran is the ultimate clerical authority, Hezbollah's leaders have appealed to him \"for guidance and directives in cases when Hezbollah's collective leadership was too divided over issues and failed to reach a consensus.\"", "After the death of Iran's first Supreme Leader, Khomeini, Hezbollah's governing bodies developed a more \"independent role\" and appealed to Iran less often.", "Since the Second Lebanon War, however, Iran has restructured Hezbollah to limit the power of Hassan Nasrallah, and invested billions of dollars \"rehabilitating\" Hezbollah.Structurally, Hezbollah does not distinguish between its political/social activities within Lebanon and its military/''jihad'' activities against Israel.", "\"Hezbollah has a single leadership,\" according to Naim Qassem, Hezbollah's second in command.", "\"All political, social and jihad work is tied to the decisions of this leadership ...", "The same leadership that directs the parliamentary and government work also leads jihad actions in the struggle against Israel.", "\"In 2010, Iran's parliamentary speaker Ali Larijani said, \"Iran takes pride in Lebanon's Islamic resistance movement for its steadfast Islamic stance.", "Hezbollah nurtures the original ideas of Islamic Jihad.\"", "He also instead charged the West with having accused Iran with support of terrorism and said, \"The real terrorists are those who provide the Zionist regime with military equipment to bomb the people.", "\"=== Funding ===Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei in Tehran, August 2005Funding of Hezbollah comes from the Iranian government, Lebanese business groups, private persons, businessmen, the Lebanese diaspora involved in African diamond exploration, other Islamic groups and countries, and the taxes paid by the Shia Lebanese.", "Hezbollah says that the main source of its income comes from its own investment portfolios and donations by Muslims.Western sources maintain that Hezbollah actually receives most of its financial, training, weapons, explosives, political, diplomatic, and organizational aid from Iran and Syria.", "Iran is said to have given $400 million between 1983 and 1989 through donation.", "Due to economic problems, Iran temporarily limited funds to humanitarian actions carried on by Hezbollah.", "During the late 1980s, when there was extreme inflation due to the collapse of the Lira, it was estimated that Hezbollah was receiving $3–5 million per month from Iran.", "According to reports released in February 2010, Hezbollah received $400 million from Iran.", "In 2011, Iran earmarked $7 million to Hezbollah's activities in Latin America.", "Hezbollah has relied also on funding from the Shi'ite Lebanese Diaspora in West Africa, the United States and, most importantly, the Triple Frontier, or tri-border area, along the junction of Paraguay, Argentina, and Brazil.", "U.S. law enforcement officials have identified an illegal multimillion-dollar cigarette-smuggling fund raising operation and a drug smuggling operation.", "Nasrallah has repeatedly denied any links between the South American drug trade and Hezbollah, calling such accusations \"propaganda\" and attempts \"to damage the image of Hezbollah\".As of 2018, Iranian monetary support for Hezbollah is estimated at $700 million per annum according to US estimates.The United States has accused members of the Venezuelan government of providing financial aid to Hezbollah." ], [ "Social services", "Hezbollah organizes and maintains an extensive social development program and runs hospitals, news services, educational facilities, and encouragement of Nikah mut'ah.", "One of its established institutions, Jihad Al Binna's Reconstruction Campaign, is responsible for numerous economic and infrastructure development projects in Lebanon.", "Hezbollah controls the Martyr's Institute (Al-Shahid Social Association), which pays stipends to \"families of fighters who die\" in battle.", "An IRIN news report of the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs noted:Hezbollah not only has armed and political wings—it also boasts an extensive social development program.", "Hezbollah currently operates at least four hospitals, twelve clinics, twelve schools and two agricultural centres that provide farmers with technical assistance and training.", "It also has an environmental department and an extensive social assistance program.", "Medical care is also cheaper than in most of the country's private hospitals and free for Hezbollah members.According to CNN, \"Hezbollah did everything that a government should do, from collecting the garbage to running hospitals and repairing schools.\"", "In July 2006, during the war with Israel, when there was no running water in Beirut, Hezbollah was arranging supplies around the city.", "Lebanese Shiites \"see Hezbollah as a political movement and a social service provider as much as it is a militia.\"", "Hezbollah also rewards its guerrilla members who have been wounded in battle by taking them to Hezbollah-run amusement parks.Hezbollah is, therefore, deeply embedded in the Lebanese society." ], [ "Political activities", "Lebanon's majority Shi'a areas.A December 2006 anti-government rally in BeirutHezbollah along with Amal is one of two major political parties in Lebanon that represent Shiite Muslims.", "Unlike Amal, whose support is predominantly in Lebanon's south, Hezbollah maintains broad-based support in all three areas of Lebanon with a majority Shia Muslim population: in the south, in Beirut and its surrounding area, and in the northern Beqaa valley and Hirmil region.", "Hezbollah holds 14 of the 128 seats in the Parliament of Lebanon and is a member of the Resistance and Development Bloc.", "According to Daniel L. Byman, it is \"the most powerful single political movement in Lebanon.\"", "Hezbollah, along with the Amal Movement, represents most of Lebanese Shi'a.", "Unlike Amal, Hezbollah has not disarmed.", "Hezbollah participates in the Parliament of Lebanon.===Political alliances===Hezbollah has been one of the main parties of the March 8 Alliance since March 2005.Although Hezbollah had joined the new government in 2005, it remained staunchly opposed to the March 14 Alliance.", "On 1 December 2006, these groups began a series of political protests and sit-ins in opposition to the government of Prime Minister Fouad Siniora.In 2006, Michel Aoun and Hassan Nasrallah met in Mar Mikhayel Church, Chiyah, and signed a memorandum of understanding between Free Patriotic Movement and Hezbollah organizing their relation and discussing Hezbollah's disarmament with some conditions.", "The agreement also discussed the importance of having normal diplomatic relations with Syria and the request for information about the Lebanese political prisoners in Syria and the return of all political prisoners and diaspora in Israel.", "After this event, Aoun and his party became part of the March 8 Alliance.On 7 May 2008, Lebanon's 17-month-long political crisis spiraled out of control.", "The fighting was sparked by a government move to shut down Hezbollah's telecommunication network and remove Beirut Airport's security chief over alleged ties to Hezbollah.", "Hezbollah leader Hassan Nasrallah said the government's decision to declare the group's military telecommunications network illegal was a \"declaration of war\" on the organization, and demanded that the government revoke it.", "Hezbollah-led opposition fighters seized control of several West Beirut neighborhoods from Future Movement militiamen loyal to the backed government, in street battles that left 11 dead and 30 wounded.", "The opposition-seized areas were then handed over to the Lebanese Army.", "The army also pledged to resolve the dispute and has reversed the decisions of the government by letting Hezbollah preserve its telecoms network and re-instating the airport's security chief.", "At the end, rival Lebanese leaders reached consensus over Doha Agreement on 21 May 2008, to end the 18-month political feud that exploded into fighting and nearly drove the country to a new civil war.", "On the basis of this agreement, Hezbollah and its opposition allies were effectively granted veto power in Lebanon's parliament.", "At the end of the conflicts, National unity government was formed by Fouad Siniora on 11 July 2008, with Hezbollah controlling one ministerial and eleven of thirty cabinet places.In 2018 Lebanese general election, Hezbollah general secretary Hassan Nasrallah presented the names of the 13 Hezbollah candidates.", "On 22 March 2018, Nasrallah issued a statement outlining the main priorities for the parliamentary bloc of the party, Loyalty to the Resistance, in the next parliament.", "He stated that rooting out corruption would be the foremost priority of the Loyalty to the Resistance bloc.", "The electoral slogan of the party was 'We will construct and we will protect'.", "Finally Hezbollah held 12 seats and its alliance won the election by gaining 70 out of 128 seats of Parliament of Lebanon.=== Media operations ===Hezbollah operates a satellite television station, Al-Manar TV (\"the Lighthouse\"), and a radio station, al-Nour (\"the Light\").", "Al-Manar broadcasts from Beirut, Lebanon.", "Hezbollah launched the station in 1991 with the help of Iranian funds.", "Al-Manar, the self-proclaimed \"Station of the Resistance,\" (''qanat al-muqawama'') is a key player in what Hezbollah calls its \"psychological warfare against the Zionist enemy\" and an integral part of Hezbollah's plan to spread its message to the entire Arab world.", "Hezbollah has a weekly publication, ''Al Ahd'', which was established in 1984.It is the only media outlet which is openly affiliated with the organization.Hezbollah's television station Al-Manar airs programming designed to inspire suicide attacks in Gaza, the West Bank, and Iraq.", "Al-Manar's transmission in France is prohibited due to its promotion of Holocaust denial, a criminal offense in France.", "The United States lists Al-Manar television network as a terrorist organization.", "Al-Manar was designated as a \"Specially Designated Global Terrorist entity,\" and banned by the United States in December 2004.It has also been banned by France, Spain and Germany.Materials aimed at instilling principles of nationalism and Islam in children are an aspect of Hezbollah's media operations.", "The Hezbollah Central Internet Bureau released two video games''Special Force'' in 2003 and a sequel, ''Special Force 2: Tale of the Truthful Pledge'', in 2007in which players are rewarded with points and weapons for killing Israeli soldiers.", "In 2012, Al-Manar aired a television special praising an 8-year-old boy who raised money for Hezbollah and said: \"When I grow up, I will be a communist resistance warrior with Hezbollah, fighting the United States and Israel, I will tear them to pieces and drive them out of Lebanon, the Golan and Palestine, which I love very dearly.\"" ], [ "Secret services", "Hezbollah's secret services have been described as \"one of the best in the world\", and have even infiltrated the Israeli army.", "Hezbollah's secret services collaborate with the Lebanese intelligence agencies.In the summer of 1982, Hezbollah's Special Security Apparatus was created by Hussein al-Khalil, now a \"top political adviser to Nasrallah\"; while Hezbollah's counterintelligence was initially managed by Iran's Quds Force, the organization continued to grow during the 1990s.", "By 2008, scholar Carl Anthony Wege writes, \"Hizballah had obtained complete dominance over Lebanon's official state counterintelligence apparatus, which now constituted a Hizballah asset for counterintelligence purposes.\"", "This close connection with Lebanese intelligence helped bolster Hezbollah's financial counterintelligence unit.According to Ahmad Hamzeh, Hezbollah's counterintelligence service is divided into ''Amn al-Muddad'', responsible for \"external\" or \"encounter\" security; and ''Amn al-Hizb'', which protects the organization's integrity and its leaders.", "According to Wege, ''Amn al-Muddad'' \"may have received specialized intelligence training in Iran and possibly North Korea\".", "The organization also includes a military security component, as well as an External Security Organization (''al-Amn al-Khariji'' or Unit 910) that operates covertly outside Lebanon.Successful Hezbollah counterintelligence operations include thwarting the CIA's attempted kidnapping of foreign operations chief Hassan Ezzeddine in 1994, the 1997 manipulation of a double agent that led to the Ansariya ambush, and the 2000 kidnapping of alleged Mossad agent Elhanan Tannenbaum.", "In 2006, Hezbollah collaborated with the Lebanese government to detect Adeeb al-Alam, a former colonel, as an Israeli spy.", "Hezbollah recruited IDF Lieutenant Colonel Omar al-Heib, who was convicted in 2006 of conducting surveillance for Hezbollah.", "In 2009, Hezbollah apprehended Marwan Faqih, a garage owner who installed tracking devices in Hezbollah-owned vehicles.Hezbollah's counterintelligence apparatus uses electronic surveillance and intercept technologies.", "By 2011, Hezbollah counterintelligence began to use software to analyze cellphone data and detect espionage.", "Suspicious callers were then subjected to conventional surveillance.", "In the mid-1990s, Hezbollah was able to \"download unencrypted video feeds from Israeli drones,\" and Israeli SIGINT efforts intensified after the 2000 withdrawal from Lebanon.", "With possible help from Iran and the Russian FSB, Hezbollah augmented its electronic counterintelligence capabilities, and succeeded in 2008 in detecting Israeli bugs near Mount Sannine and in the organization's fiber optic network." ], [ "Armed strength", "Hezbollah fighters in southern Lebanon, May 2023Hezbollah does not reveal its armed strength.", "The Dubai-based Gulf Research Centre estimated in 2006 that Hezbollah's armed wing comprises 1,000 full-time Hezbollah members, along with a further 6,000–10,000 volunteers.", "According to the Iranian Fars News Agency, Hezbollah has up to 65,000 fighters.", "In October 2023, Al Jazeera cited Hezbollah expert Nicholas Blanford as estimating that Hezbollah has at least 60,000 fighters, including full-time and reservists, and that it had increased its stockpile of missiles from 14,000 in 2006 to about 150,000.It is often described as more militarily powerful than the Lebanese Army.", "Israeli commander Gui Zur called Hezbollah \"by far the greatest guerrilla group in the world\".In 2010, Hezbollah was believed to have 45,000 rockets.", "Israeli Defense Forces Chief of Staff Gadi Eisenkot said that Hezbollah possesses \"tens of thousands\" of long- and short-range rockets, drones, advanced computer encryption capabilities, as well as advanced defense capabilities like the SA-6 anti-aircraft missile system.Hezbollah possesses the Katyusha-122 rocket, which has a range of 29 km (18 mi) and carries a 15-kg (33-lb) warhead.", "Hezbollah possesses about 100 long-range missiles.", "They include the Iranian-made Fajr-3 and Fajr-5, the latter with a range of , enabling it to strike the Israeli port of Haifa, and the Zelzal-1, with an estimated range, which can reach Tel Aviv.", "Fajr-3 missiles have a range of and a 45-kg (99-lb) warhead.", "Fajr-5 missiles, extend to , also hold 45-kg (99-lb) warheads.", "It was reported that Hezbollah is in possession of Scud missiles that were provided to them by Syria.", "Syria denied the reports.", "According to various reports, Hezbollah is armed with anti-tank guided missiles, namely, the Russian-made AT-3 Sagger, AT-4 Spigot, AT-5 Spandrel, AT-13 Saxhorn-2 'Metis-M', АТ-14 Spriggan 'Kornet', Iranian-made Ra'ad (version of AT-3 Sagger), Towsan (version of AT-5 Spandrel), Toophan (version of BGM-71 TOW), and European-made MILAN missiles.", "These weapons have been used against IDF soldiers, causing many of the deaths during the 2006 Lebanon War.", "US courts said that North Korea provided armaments to Hezbollah during the 2006 war.", "A small number of Saeghe-2s, an Iranian-made version of the M47 Dragon, were also used in the war.For air defense, Hezbollah has anti-aircraft weapons that include the ZU-23 artillery and the man-portable, shoulder-fired SA-7 and SA-18 surface-to-air missile (SAM).", "One of the most effective weapons deployed by Hezbollah has been the C-802 anti-ship missile.In April 2010, U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert Gates claimed that Hezbollah has far more missiles and rockets than the majority of countries, and said that Syria and Iran are providing weapons to the organization.", "Israel also claims that Syria is providing the organization with these weapons.", "Syria has denied supplying these weapons and views these claims as an Israeli excuse for an attack.", "Leaked cables from American diplomats suggest that the United States has been trying unsuccessfully to prevent Syria from \"supplying arms to Hezbollah in Lebanon\", and that Hezbollah has \"amassed a huge stockpile (of arms) since its 2006 war with Israel\"; the arms were described as \"increasingly sophisticated.\"", "Gates added that Hezbollah is possibly armed with chemical or biological weapons, as well as anti-ship missiles that could threaten U.S.", "ships., the Israeli government believe Hezbollah had an arsenal of nearly 150,000 rockets stationed on its border with Lebanon.", "Some of these missiles are said to be capable of penetrating cities as far away as Eilat.", "The IDF has accused Hezbollah of storing these rockets beneath hospitals, schools, and civilian homes.", "Hezbollah has used drones against Israel, by penetrating air defense systems, in a report verified by Nasrallah, who added, \"This is only part of our capabilities\".Israeli military officials and analysts have drawn attention to the experience and weaponry Hezbollah would have gained from the involvement of thousands of its fighters in the Syrian Civil War.", "\"This kind of experience cannot be bought,\" said Gabi Siboni, director of the military and strategic affairs program at the Institute for National Security Studies at Tel Aviv University.", "\"It is an additional factor that we will have to deal with.", "There is no replacement for experience, and it is not to be scoffed at.", "\"On 13 July 2019, Seyyed Hassan Nasrallah, in an interview broadcast on Hezbollah's Al-Manar television, said \"Our weapons have been developed in both quality and quantity, we have precision missiles and drones,\" he illustrated strategic military and civilian targets on the map of Israel and stated, Hezbollah is able to launch Ben Gurion Airport, arms depots, petrochemical, and water desalinization plants, and the Ashdod port, Haifa's ammonia storage which would cause \"tens of thousands of casualties\"." ], [ "Military activities", "Hezbollah has a military branch known as the '''Jihad Council''', one component of which is ''Al-Muqawama al-Islamiyya'' (\"The Islamic Resistance\"), and is the possible sponsor of a number of lesser-known militant groups, some of which may be little more than fronts for Hezbollah itself, including the Organization of the Oppressed, the Revolutionary Justice Organization, the Organization of Right Against Wrong, and Followers of the Prophet Muhammad.United Nations Security Council Resolution 1559 called for the disarmament of militia with the Taif agreement at the end of the Lebanese civil war.", "Hezbollah denounced, and protested against, the resolution.", "The 2006 military conflict with Israel has increased the controversy.", "Failure to disarm remains a violation of the resolution and agreement as well as subsequent United Nations Security Council Resolution 1701.Since then both Israel and Hezbollah have asserted that the organization has gained in military strength.", "A Lebanese public opinion poll taken in August 2006 shows that most of the Shia did not believe that Hezbollah should disarm after the 2006 Lebanon war, while the majority of Sunni, Druze and Christians believed that they should.", "The Lebanese cabinet, under president Michel Suleiman and Prime Minister Fouad Siniora, guidelines state that Hezbollah enjoys the right to \"liberate occupied lands.\"", "In 2009, a Hezbollah commander, speaking on condition of anonymity, said, \"We have far more rockets and missiles now than we did in 2006.", "\"=== Lebanese Resistance Brigades ===The '''Lebanese Resistance Brigades''' (), also known as the '''Lebanese Brigades to Resist the Israeli Occupation''', were formed by Hezbollah in 1997 as a multifaith (Christian, Druze, Sunni and Shia) volunteer force to combat the Israeli occupation of Southern Lebanon.", "With the Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon in 2000, the organization was disbanded.In 2009, the Resistance Brigades were reactivated, mainly comprising Sunni supporters from the southern city of Sidon.", "Its strength was reduced in late 2013 from 500 to 200–250 due to residents' complaints about some fighters of the group exacerbating tensions with the local community.=== The beginning of its military activities: the South Lebanon conflict ===Hezbollah has been involved in several cases of armed conflict with Israel:During the 1982–2000 South Lebanon conflict, Hezbollah waged a guerrilla campaign against Israeli forces occupying Southern Lebanon.", "In 1982, the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) was based in Southern Lebanon and was firing Katyusha rockets into northern Israel from Lebanon.", "Israel invaded Lebanon to evict the PLO, and Hezbollah became an armed organization to expel the Israelis.", "Hezbollah's strength was enhanced by the dispatching of one thousand to two thousand members of the Iranian Revolutionary Guards and the financial backing of Iran.", "Iranian clerics, most notably Fzlollah Mahallati supervised this activity.", "It became the main politico-military force among the Shia community in Lebanon and the main arm of what became known later as the Islamic Resistance in Lebanon.", "With the collapse of the SLA, and the rapid advance of Hezbollah forces, Israel withdrew on 24 May 2000 six weeks before the announced 7 July date.\"", "Hezbollah held a victory parade, and its popularity in Lebanon rose.", "Israel withdrew in accordance with 1978's United Nations Security Council Resolution 425.Hezbollah and many analysts considered this a victory for the movement, and since then its popularity has been boosted in Lebanon.=== Alleged suicide attacks ===A smoke cloud rises from the bombed American barracks at Beirut International Airport, where over 200 U.S. marines were killedBetween 1982 and 1986, there were 36 suicide attacks in Lebanon directed against American, French and Israeli forces by 41 individuals, killing 659.Hezbollah denies involvement in some of these attacks, though it has been accused of being involved or linked to some or all of these attacks:* The 1982–1983 Tyre headquarters bombings* The April 1983 U.S. Embassy bombing, by the Islamic Jihad Organization.", "* The 1983 Beirut barracks bombing, by the Islamic Jihad Organization, that killed 241 U.S. marines, 58 French paratroopers and 6 civilians at the US and French barracks in Beirut.", "* The 1983 Kuwait bombings in collaboration with the Iraqi Dawa Party.", "* The 1984 United States embassy annex bombing, killing 24.", "* A spate of attacks on IDF troops and SLA militiamen in southern Lebanon.", "* Hijacking of TWA Flight 847 in 1985.", "* The Lebanon hostage crisis from 1982 to 1992.Since 1990, terror acts and attempts of which Hezbollah has been blamed include the following bombings and attacks against civilians and diplomats:* The 1992 Israeli Embassy attack in Buenos Aires, killing 29, in Argentina.", "Hezbollah operatives boasted of involvement.", "* The 1994 AMIA bombing of a Jewish cultural centre, killing 85, in Argentina.", "Ansar Allah, a Palestinian group closely associated with Hezbollah, claimed responsibility.", "* The 1994 AC Flight 901 attack, killing 21, in Panama.", "Ansar Allah, a Palestinian group closely associated with Hezbollah, claimed responsibility.", "* The 1996 Khobar Towers bombing, killing 19 US servicemen.", "* In 2002, Singapore accused Hezbollah of recruiting Singaporeans in a failed 1990s plot to attack U.S. and Israeli ships in the Singapore Straits.", "* 15 January 2008, bombing of a U.S. Embassy vehicle in Beirut.", "* In 2009, a Hezbollah plot in Egypt was uncovered, where Egyptian authorities arrested 49 men for planning attacks against Israeli and Egyptian targets in the Sinai Peninsula.", "* The 2012 Burgas bus bombing, killing 6, in Bulgaria.", "Hezbollah denied responsibility.", "* Training Shia insurgents against US troops during the Iraq War.=== During the Bosnian War ===Hezbollah provided fighters to fight on the Bosnian Muslim side during the Bosnian War, as part of the broader Iranian involvement.", "\"The Bosnian Muslim government is a client of the Iranians,\" wrote Robert Baer, a CIA agent stationed in Sarajevo during the war.", "\"If it's a choice between the CIA and the Iranians, they'll take the Iranians any day.\"", "By war's end, public opinion polls showed some 86 percent Bosnian Muslims had a positive opinion of Iran.", "In conjunction, Hezbollah initially sent 150 fighters to fight against the Bosnian Serb Army, the Bosnian Muslims' main opponent in the war.", "All Shia foreign advisors and fighters withdrew from Bosnia at the end of conflict.=== Conflict with Israel ===Hezbollah members and supporters parade following the end of the Israeli occupation of Southern Lebanon, May 2000On 25 July 1993, following Hezbollah's killing of seven Israeli soldiers in southern Lebanon, Israel launched Operation Accountability, known in Lebanon as the Seven Day War, during which the IDF carried out their heaviest artillery and air attacks on targets in southern Lebanon since 1982.The aim of the operation was to eradicate the threat posed by Hezbollah and to force the civilian population north to Beirut so as to put pressure on the Lebanese Government to restrain Hezbollah.", "The fighting ended when an unwritten understanding was agreed to by the warring parties.", "Apparently, the 1993 understanding provided that Hezbollah combatants would not fire rockets at northern Israel, while Israel would not attack civilians or civilian targets in Lebanon.In April 1996, after continued Hezbollah rocket attacks on Israeli civilians, the Israeli armed forces launched Operation Grapes of Wrath, which was intended to wipe out Hezbollah's base in southern Lebanon.", "Over 100 Lebanese refugees were killed by the shelling of a UN base at Qana, in what the Israeli military said was a mistake.", "Following several days of negotiations, the two sides signed the Grapes of Wrath Understandings on 26 April 1996.A cease-fire was agreed upon between Israel and Hezbollah, which would be effective on 27 April 1996.Both sides agreed that civilians should not be targeted, which meant that Hezbollah would be allowed to continue its military activities against IDF forces inside Lebanon.==== 2000 Hezbollah cross-border raid ====On 7 October 2000, three Israeli soldiers—Adi Avitan, Staff Sgt.", "Benyamin Avraham, and Staff Sgt.", "Omar Sawaidwere—were abducted by Hezbollah while patrolling the border between the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights and Lebanon.", "The soldiers were killed either during the attack or in its immediate aftermath.", "Israel Defense Minister Shaul Mofaz said that Hezbollah abducted the soldiers and then killed them.", "The bodies of the slain soldiers were exchanged for Lebanese prisoners in 2004.==== 2006 Lebanon War ====Hezbollah posters in the aftermath of the 2006 Lebanon WarThe 2006 Lebanon War was a 34-day military conflict in Lebanon and northern Israel.", "The principal parties were Hezbollah paramilitary forces and the Israeli military.", "The conflict was precipitated by a cross-border raid during which Hezbollah kidnapped and killed Israeli soldiers.", "The conflict began on 12 July 2006 when Hezbollah militants fired rockets at Israeli border towns as a diversion for an anti-tank missile attack on two armored Humvees patrolling the Israeli side of the border fence, killing three, injuring two, and seizing two Israeli soldiers.Israel responded with airstrikes and artillery fire on targets in Lebanon that damaged Lebanese infrastructure, including Beirut's Rafic Hariri International Airport, which Israel said that Hezbollah used to import weapons and supplies, an air and naval blockade, and a ground invasion of southern Lebanon.", "Hezbollah then launched more rockets into northern Israel and engaged the Israel Defense Forces in guerrilla warfare from hardened positions.", "The war continued until 14 August 2006.Hezbollah was responsible for thousands of Katyusha rocket attacks against Israeli civilian towns and cities in northern Israel, which Hezbollah said were in retaliation for Israel's killing of civilians and targeting Lebanese infrastructure.", "The conflict is believed to have killed 1,191–1,300 Lebanese citizens including combatants and 165 Israelis including soldiers.==== 2010 gas field claims ====In 2010, Hezbollah claimed that the Dalit and Tamar gas field, discovered by Noble Energy roughly west of Haifa in Israeli exclusive economic zone, belong to Lebanon, and warned Israel against extracting gas from them.", "Senior officials from Hezbollah warned that they would not hesitate to use weapons to defend Lebanon's natural resources.", "Figures in the March 14 Forces stated in response that Hezbollah was presenting another excuse to hold on to its arms.", "Lebanese MP Antoine Zahra said that the issue is another item \"in the endless list of excuses\" meant to justify the continued existence of Hezbollah's arsenal.==== 2011 attack in Istanbul ====In July 2011, Italian newspaper ''Corriere della Sera'' reported, based on American and Turkish sources, that Hezbollah was behind a bombing in Istanbul in May 2011 that wounded eight Turkish civilians.", "The report said that the attack was an assassination attempt on the Israeli consul to Turkey, Moshe Kimchi.", "Turkish intelligence sources denied the report and said \"Israel is in the habit of creating disinformation campaigns using different papers.", "\"==== 2012 planned attack in Cyprus ====In July 2012, a Lebanese man was detained by Cyprus police on possible charges relating to terrorism laws for planning attacks against Israeli tourists.", "According to security officials, the man was planning attacks for Hezbollah in Cyprus and admitted this after questioning.", "The police were alerted about the man due to an urgent message from Israeli intelligence.", "The Lebanese man was in possession of photographs of Israeli targets and had information on Israeli airlines flying back and forth from Cyprus, and planned to blow up a plane or tour bus.", "Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu stated that Iran assisted the Lebanese man with planning the attacks.==== 2012 Burgas attack ====Following an investigation into the 2012 Burgas bus bombing terrorist attack against Israeli citizens in Bulgaria, the Bulgarian government officially accused the Lebanese-militant movement Hezbollah of committing the attack.", "Five Israeli citizens, the Bulgarian bus driver, and the bomber were killed.", "The bomb exploded as the Israeli tourists boarded a bus from the airport to their hotel.Tsvetan Tsvetanov, Bulgaria's interior minister, reported that the two suspects responsible were members of the militant wing of Hezbollah; he said the suspected terrorists entered Bulgaria on 28 June and remained until 18 July.", "Israel had already previously suspected Hezbollah for the attack.", "Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu called the report \"further corroboration of what we have already known, that Hezbollah and its Iranian patrons are orchestrating a worldwide campaign of terror that is spanning countries and continents.\"", "Netanyahu said that the attack in Bulgaria was just one of many that Hezbollah and Iran have planned and carried out, including attacks in Thailand, Kenya, Turkey, India, Azerbaijan, Cyprus and Georgia.John Brennan, Director of the Central Intelligence Agency, has said that \"Bulgaria's investigation exposes Hezbollah for what it is—a terrorist group that is willing to recklessly attack innocent men, women and children, and that poses a real and growing threat not only to Europe, but to the rest of the world.\"", "The result of the Bulgarian investigation comes at a time when Israel has been petitioning the European Union to join the United States in designating Hezbollah as a terrorist organization.==== 2015 Shebaa farms incident ====In response to an attack against a military convoy comprising Hezbollah and Iranian officers on 18 January 2015 at Quneitra in south of Syria, Hezbollah launched an ambush on 28 January against an Israeli military convoy in the Israeli-occupied Shebaa Farms with anti-tank missiles against two Israeli vehicles patrolling the border, killing 2 and wounding 7 Israeli soldiers and officers, as confirmed by Israeli military.==== 2023–present Israel–Hezbollah conflict ====On 8 October 2023, Hezbollah launched guided rockets and artillery shells at Israeli-occupied positions in Shebaa Farms during the 2023 Israel–Hamas war.", "Israel retaliated with drone strikes and artillery fire on Hezbollah positions near the Golan Heights–Lebanon border.", "The attacks came after Hezbollah expressed support and praise for the Hamas attacks on Israel.", "The clashes have been the largest escalation between the two countries since the 2006 Lebanon War.=== Assassination of Rafic Hariri ===On 14 February 2005, former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafic Hariri was killed, along with 21 others, when his motorcade was struck by a roadside bomb in Beirut.", "He had been PM during 1992–1998 and 2000–2004.In 2009, the United Nations special tribunal investigating the murder of Hariri reportedly found evidence linking Hezbollah to the murder.In August 2010, in response to notification that the UN tribunal would indict some Hezbollah members, Hassan Nasrallah said Israel was looking for a way to assassinate Hariri as early as 1993 in order to create political chaos that would force Syria to withdraw from Lebanon, and to perpetuate an anti-Syrian atmosphere in Lebanon in the wake of the assassination.", "He went on to say that in 1996 Hezbollah apprehended an agent working for Israel by the name of Ahmed Nasrallah—no relation to Hassan Nasrallah—who allegedly contacted Hariri's security detail and told them that he had solid proof that Hezbollah was planning to take his life.", "Hariri then contacted Hezbollah and advised them of the situation.", "Saad Hariri responded that the UN should investigate these claims.On 30 June 2011, the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, established to investigate the death of Hariri, issued arrest warrants against four senior members of Hezbollah, including Mustafa Badr Al Din.", "On 3 July, Hassan Nasrallah rejected the indictment and denounced the tribunal as a plot against the party, vowing that the named persons would not be arrested under any circumstances.=== Involvement in the Syrian Civil War ===Hezbollah has long been an ally of the Ba'ath government of Syria, led by the Al-Assad family.", "Hezbollah has helped the Syrian government during the Syrian civil war in its fight against the Syrian opposition, which Hezbollah has described as a Zionist plot to destroy its alliance with al-Assad against Israel.", "Geneive Abdo opined that Hezbollah's support for al-Assad in the Syrian war has \"transformed\" it from a group with \"support among the Sunni for defeating Israel in a battle in 2006\" into a \"strictly Shia paramilitary force\".", "Hezbollah also fought against the Islamic State.In August 2012, the United States sanctioned Hezbollah for its alleged role in the war.", "General Secretary Nasrallah denied Hezbollah had been fighting on behalf of the Syrian government, stating in a 12 October 2012, speech that \"right from the start the Syrian opposition has been telling the media that Hizbullah sent 3,000 fighters to Syria, which we have denied\".", "However, according to the Lebanese ''Daily Star'' newspaper, Nasrallah said in the same speech that Hezbollah fighters helped the Syrian government \"retain control of some 23 strategically located villages in Syria inhabited by Shiites of Lebanese citizenship\".", "Nasrallah said that Hezbollah fighters have died in Syria doing their \"jihadist duties\".In 2012, Hezbollah fighters crossed the border from Lebanon and took over eight villages in the Al-Qusayr District of Syria.", "On 16–17 February 2013, Syrian opposition groups claimed that Hezbollah, backed by the Syrian military, attacked three neighboring Sunni villages controlled by the Free Syrian Army (FSA).", "An FSA spokesman said, \"Hezbollah's invasion is the first of its kind in terms of organisation, planning and coordination with the Syrian regime's air force\".", "Hezbollah said three Lebanese Shiites, \"acting in self-defense\", were killed in the clashes with the FSA.", "Lebanese security sources said that the three were Hezbollah members.", "In response, the FSA allegedly attacked two Hezbollah positions on 21 February; one in Syria and one in Lebanon.", "Five days later, it said it destroyed a convoy carrying Hezbollah fighters and Syrian officers to Lebanon, killing all the passengers.In January 2013, a weapons convoy carrying SA-17 anti-aircraft missiles to Hezbollah was destroyed allegedly by the Israeli Air Force.", "A nearby research center for chemical weapons was also damaged.", "A similar attack on weapons destined for Hezbollah occurred in May of the same year.The leaders of the March 14 alliance and other prominent Lebanese figures called on Hezbollah to end its involvement in Syria and said it is putting Lebanon at risk.", "Subhi al-Tufayli, Hezbollah's former leader, said \"Hezbollah should not be defending the criminal regime that kills its own people and that has never fired a shot in defense of the Palestinians.\"", "He said \"those Hezbollah fighters who are killing children and terrorizing people and destroying houses in Syria will go to hell\".", "The Consultative Gathering, a group of Shia and Sunni leaders in Baalbek-Hermel, also called on Hezbollah not to \"interfere\" in Syria.", "They said, \"Opening a front against the Syrian people and dragging Lebanon to war with the Syrian people is very dangerous and will have a negative impact on the relations between the two.\"", "Walid Jumblatt, leader of the Progressive Socialist Party, also called on Hezbollah to end its involvement and claimed that \"Hezbollah is fighting inside Syria with orders from Iran.\"", "Egyptian President Mohamed Morsi condemned Hezbollah by saying, \"We stand against Hezbollah in its aggression against the Syrian people.", "There is no space or place for Hezbollah in Syria.\"", "Support for Hezbollah among the Syrian public has weakened since the involvement of Hezbollah and Iran in propping up the Assad regime during the civil war.On 12 May 2013, Hezbollah with the Syrian army attempted to retake part of Qusayr.", "In Lebanon, there has been \"a recent increase in the funerals of Hezbollah fighters\" and \"Syrian rebels have shelled Hezbollah-controlled areas.", "\"On 25 May 2013, Nasrallah announced that Hezbollah is fighting in the Syrian Civil War against Islamic extremists and \"pledged that his group will not allow Syrian militants to control areas that border Lebanon\".", "He confirmed that Hezbollah was fighting in the strategic Syrian town of Al-Qusayr on the same side as Assad's forces.", "In the televised address, he said, \"If Syria falls in the hands of America, Israel and the takfiris, the people of our region will go into a dark period.", "\"=== Involvement in Iranian-led intervention in Iraq ===Beginning in July 2014, Hezbollah sent an undisclosed number of technical advisers and intelligence analysts to Baghdad in support of the Iranian intervention in Iraq (2014–present).", "Shortly thereafter, Hezbollah commander Ibrahim al-Hajj was reported killed in action near Mosul.===Latin America operations===Hezbollah operations in South America began in the late 20th century, centered around the Arab population which had moved there following the 1948 Arab-Israeli War and the 1985 Lebanese Civil War.", "One particular form of alleged activity is money laundering.", "The ''Los Angeles Times'' said that the group was more active in the 1990s, especially during the 1992 Israeli embassy bombing in Argentina, though its relevance grew more unclear as time progressed.", "''Vox'' writes that following the adoption of the Patriot Act in 2001, the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) would promote the term of narcoterrorism and arrest individuals with no prior history of being involved in terrorism, suggesting skepticism towards the reports of large-scale collusion between alleged terrorist groups and cartels.", "In 2002, Hezbollah was reported to be openly operating in Ciudad del Este, Paraguay.", "Beginning in 2008, the DEA began with Project Cassandra to work against reported Hezbollah activities in regards to Latin American drug trafficking.", "The investigation by the DEA reported that Hezbollah made about a billion dollars a year and trafficked thousands of tons of cocaine into the United States.", "Another destination for cocaine trafficking done by Hezbollah are nations within the Gulf Cooperation Council.", "In 2013, Hezbollah was accused of infiltrating South America and having ties with Latin American drug cartels.", "One area of operations is in the region of the Triple Frontier, where Hezbollah has been alleged to be involved in the trafficking of cocaine; officials with the Lebanese embassy in Paraguay have worked to counter American allegations and extradition attempts.", "In 2016, it was alleged that money gained from drug sales was used to purchase weapons in Syria.", "In 2018, ''Infobae'' reported that Hezbollah was operating in Colombia under the name Organization of External Security.", "That same year, Argentine police arrested individuals alleged to be connected to Hezbollah's criminal activities within the nation.", "The ''Los Angeles Times'' noted in 2020 that at the time, Hezbollah served as a \"bogeyman of sorts\" and that \"pundits and politicians in the U.S., particularly those on the far right, have long issued periodic warnings that Hezbollah and other Islamic groups pose a serious threat in Latin America.\"", "Various allegations have been made that Cuba, Nicaragua and Venezuela aid Hezbollah in its operations in the region.", "Israeli reports about the presence of Hezbollah in Latin America raised questions amongst Latin American analysts based in the United States while experts say that reports of presence in Latin America are exaggerated.", "Southern Pulse director and analyst Samuel Logan said \"Geopolitical proximity to Tehran doesn't directly translate into leniency of Hezbollah activity inside your country\" in an interview with the Pulitzer Center.", "William Neuman in his 2022 book ''Things Are Never So Bad That They Can't Get Worse'' said that claims of Hezbollah's presence in Latin America was \"in reality, minimal\", writing that the Venezuelan opposition raised such allegations to persuade the United States into believing that the nation faced a threat from Venezuela in an effort to promote foreign intervention.===United States operations===Ali Kourani, the first Hezbollah operative to be convicted and sentenced in the United States, was under investigation since 2013 and worked to provide targeting and terrorist recruiting information to Hezbollah's Islamic Jihad Organization.", "The organization had recruited a former resident of Minnesota and a military linguist, Mariam Tala Thompson, who disclosed \"identities of at least eight clandestine human assets; at least 10 U.S. targets; and multiple tactics, techniques and procedures\" before she was discovered and successfully prosecuted in a U.S. court.=== Other ===In 2010, Ahbash and Hezbollah members were involved in a street battle which was perceived to be over parking issues, both groups later met to form a joint compensation fund for the victims of the conflict.According to Reuters, in 2024, commanders from Hezbollah and Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps were reported to be actively involved on the ground in Yemen, overseeing and directing Houthi attacks on Red Sea shipping." ], [ "Finances/economy", "Arrival of fuel from Iran to Lebanon in September 2021During the September 2021 fuel shortage, Hezbollah received a convoy of 80 tankers carrying oil/diesel fuel from Iran." ], [ "Attacks on Hezbollah leaders", "Hezbollah has also been the target of bomb attacks and kidnappings.", "These include:* In the 1985 Beirut car bombing, Hezbollah leader Mohammad Hussein Fadlallah was targeted, but the assassination attempt failed.", "* On 28 July 1989, Israeli commandos kidnapped Sheikh Abdel Karim Obeid, the leader of Hezbollah.", "This action led to the adoption of UN Security Council resolution 638, which condemned all hostage takings by all sides.", "* On 16 February 1992, Israeli helicopters attacked a motorcade in southern Lebanon, killing the Hezbollah leader Abbas al-Musawi, his wife, son, and four others.", "* On 31 March 1995, Rida Yasin, also known as Abu Ali, was killed by a single rocket fired from an Israeli helicopter while in a car near Derdghaya in the Israeli security zone 10km east of Tyre.", "Yasin was a senior military commander in southern Lebanon.", "His companion in the car was also killed.", "An Israeli civilian was killed and fifteen wounded in the retaliatory rocket fire.", "* On 12 February 2008, Imad Mughnieh was killed by a car bomb in Damascus, Syria.", "* On 3 December 2013, senior military commander Hassan al-Laqis was shot outside his home, two miles (three kilometers) southwest of Beirut.", "He died a few hours later on 4 December.", "* On 18 January 2015, a group of Hezbollah fighters was targeted in Quneitra, with the Al-Nusra Front claiming responsibility.", "In this attack, for which Israel was also accused, Jihad Moghnieh, son of Imad Mughnieh, five other members of Hezbollah and an Iranian general of Quds Force, Mohammad Ali Allahdadi, were killed.", "* On 10 May 2016, an explosion near Damascus International Airport killed top military commander Mustafa Badreddine.", "Lebanese media sources attributed the attack to an Israeli airstrike.", "Hezbollah attributed the attack to Syrian opposition." ], [ "Targeting policy", "After the September 11, 2001 attacks, Hezbollah condemned al-Qaeda for targeting civilians in the World Trade Center, but remained silent on the attack on The Pentagon.", "Hezbollah also denounced the massacres in Algeria by Armed Islamic Group, Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya attacks on tourists in Egypt, the murder of Nick Berg, and ISIL attacks in Paris.Although Hezbollah has denounced certain attacks on civilians, some people accuse the organization of the bombing of an Argentine synagogue in 1994.Argentine prosecutor Alberto Nisman, Marcelo Martinez Burgos, and their \"staff of some 45 people\" said that Hezbollah and their contacts in Iran were responsible for the 1994 bombing of a Jewish cultural center in Argentina, in which \"eighty-five people were killed and more than 200 others injured.", "\"In August 2012, the United States State Department's counter-terrorism coordinator Daniel Benjamin said that Hezbollah \"is not constrained by concerns about collateral damage or political fallout that could result from conducting operations there in Europe\"." ], [ "Foreign relations", "Hezbollah has close relations with Iran.", "It also has ties with the leadership in Syria, specifically President Hafez al-Assad, until his death in 2000, supported it.", "It is also a close Assad ally, and its leader pledged support to the embattled Syrian leader.", "Although Hezbollah and Hamas are not organizationally linked, Hezbollah provides military training as well as financial and moral support to the Sunni Palestinian group.", "Furthermore, Hezbollah was a strong supporter of the second Intifada.American and Israeli counter-terrorism officials claim that Hezbollah has (or had) links to Al Qaeda, although Hezbollah's leaders deny these allegations.", "Also, some al-Qaeda leaders, like Abu Musab al-Zarqawi and Wahhabi clerics, consider Hezbollah to be apostate.", "But United States intelligence officials speculate that there has been contact between Hezbollah and low-level al-Qaeda figures who fled Afghanistan for Lebanon.", "However, Michel Samaha, Lebanon's former minister of information, has said that Hezbollah has been an important ally of the government in the war against terrorist groups, and described the \"American attempt to link Hezbollah to al-Qaeda\" to be \"astonishing\".=== Public opinion ===According to Michel Samaha, Lebanon's minister of information, Hezbollah is seen as \"a legitimate resistance organization that has defended its land against an Israeli occupying force and has consistently stood up to the Israeli army\".According to a survey released by the \"Beirut Center for Research and Information\" on 26 July during the 2006 Lebanon War, 87 percent of Lebanese support Hezbollah's \"retaliatory attacks on northern Israel\", a rise of 29 percentage points from a similar poll conducted in February.", "More striking, however, was the level of support for Hezbollah's resistance from non-Shiite communities.", "Eighty percent of Christians polled supported Hezbollah, along with 80 percent of Druze and 89 percent of Sunnis.In a poll of Lebanese adults taken in 2004, 6% of respondents gave unqualified support to the statement \"Hezbollah should be disarmed\".", "41% reported unqualified disagreement.", "A poll of Gaza Strip and West Bank residents indicated that 79.6% had \"a very good view\" of Hezbollah, and most of the remainder had a \"good view\".", "Polls of Jordanian adults in December 2005 and June 2006 showed that 63.9% and 63.3%, respectively, considered Hezbollah to be a legitimate resistance organization.", "In the December 2005 poll, only 6% of Jordanian adults considered Hezbollah to be terrorist.A July 2006 ''USA Today''/Gallup poll found that 83% of the 1,005 Americans polled blamed Hezbollah, at least in part, for the 2006 Lebanon War, compared to 66% who blamed Israel to some degree.", "Additionally, 76% disapproved of the military action Hezbollah took in Israel, compared to 38% who disapproved of Israel's military action in Lebanon.", "A poll in August 2006 by ABC News and ''The Washington Post'' found that 68% of the 1,002 Americans polled blamed Hezbollah, at least in part, for the civilian casualties in Lebanon during the 2006 Lebanon War, compared to 31% who blamed Israel to some degree.", "Another August 2006 poll by CNN showed that 69% of the 1,047 Americans polled believed that Hezbollah is unfriendly towards, or an enemy of, the United States.In 2010, a survey of Muslims in Lebanon showed that 94% of Lebanese Shia supported Hezbollah, while 84% of the Sunni Muslims held an unfavorable opinion of the group.Some public opinion has started to turn against Hezbollah for their support of Syrian President Assad's attacks on the opposition movement in Syria.", "Crowds in Cairo shouted out against Iran and Hezbollah, at a public speech by Hamas President Ismail Haniya in February 2012, when Hamas changed its support to the Syrian opposition.==== View of Hezbollah ====A November 2020 poll in Lebanon performed by the pro-Israel, American Washington Institute for Near East Policy declared that support for Hezbollah is declining significantly.", "Below is a table of the results of their polls.", "Religion Very positive view (%) Somewhat positive view (%) Somewhat negative view (%) Very negative view (%) Unsure (%) Christian 6% 10% 23% '''59%''' 2% Shia '''66%''' 23% 10% 2% 0% Sunni 2% 6% 32% '''60%''' 0%=== Designation as a terrorist organization or resistance movement ===Hezbollah's status as a legitimate political party, a terrorist group, a resistance movement, or some combination thereof is a contentious issue.As of October 2020, Hezbollah or its military wing are considered terrorist organizations by at least 26 countries, as well as by the European Union and since 2017 by most member states of the Arab League, with the exception of Iraq and Lebanon, where Hezbollah is the most powerful political party.The countries that have designated Hezbollah a terrorist organisation include: the Arab League and the Gulf Cooperation Council, and their members Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, United Arab Emirates, as well as Argentina, Canada, Colombia, Estonia, Germany, Honduras, Israel, Kosovo, Lithuania, Malaysia, Paraguay, Serbia, Slovenia, United Kingdom, United States, and Guatemala.The EU differentiates between the Hezbollah's political wing and military wing, banning only the latter, though Hezbollah itself does not recognize such a distinction.", "Hezbollah maintains that it is a legitimate resistance movement fighting for the liberation of Lebanese territory.There is a \"wide difference\" between American and Arab perception of Hezbollah.", "Several Western countries officially classify Hezbollah or its external security wing as a terrorist organization, and some of their violent acts have been described as terrorist attacks.", "However, throughout most of the Arab and Muslim worlds, Hezbollah is referred to as a resistance movement, engaged in national defense.", "Even within Lebanon, sometimes Hezbollah's status as either a \"militia\" or \"national resistance\" has been contentious.", "In Lebanon, although not universally well-liked, Hezbollah is widely seen as a legitimate national resistance organization defending Lebanon, and actually described by the Lebanese information minister as an important ally in fighting terrorist groups.", "In the Arab world, Hezbollah is generally seen either as a destabilizing force that functions as Iran's pawn by rentier states like Egypt and Saudi Arabia, or as a popular sociopolitical guerrilla movement that exemplifies strong leadership, meaningful political action, and a commitment to social justice.The United Nations Security Council has never listed Hezbollah as a terrorist organization under its sanctions list, although some of its members have done so individually.", "The United Kingdom listed Hezbollah's military wing as a terrorist organization until May 2019 when the entire organisation was proscribed, and the United States lists the entire group as such.", "Russia has considered Hezbollah a legitimate sociopolitical organization, and the People's Republic of China remains neutral and maintains contacts with Hezbollah.In May 2013, France and Germany released statements that they will join other European countries in calling for an EU-blacklisting of Hezbollah as a terror group.", "In April 2020 Germany designated the organization—including its political wing—as a terrorist organization, and banned any activity in support of Hezbollah.The following entities have listed Hezbollah as a terror group:The entire organization HezbollahThe entire organization HezbollahThe entire organization HezbollahThe entire organization HezbollahThe entire organization HezbollahThe entire organization HezbollahThe entire organization HezbollahThe entire organization HezbollahThe entire organization HezbollahHezbollah's military wingThe military wing of Hezbollah only, France considers the political wing as a legitimate sociopolitical organizationThe entire organization HezbollahThe entire organization HezbollahThe entire organization HezbollahThe entire organisation HezbollahThe entire organization HezbollahThe military wing of HezbollahThe entire organization HezbollahThe entire organization HezbollahHezbollah's military wing Al-Muqawama al-Islamiyya, since 2010The entire organization HezbollahThe entire organization HezbollahThe entire organization HezbollahThe entire organization HezbollahThe entire organization HezbollahThe entire organization HezbollahThe following countries do not consider Hezbollah a terror organization:Algeria refused to designate Hezbollah as a terrorist organizationThe People's Republic of China remains neutral and maintains contacts with HezbollahHezbollah allegedly operates a base in CubaAllegedly supports Hezbollah.", "Considers Hezbollah an organization of Lebanese patriotic forcesConsiders Hezbollah a legitimate sociopolitical organizationDisputed:==== In the Western world ====The United States Department of State has designated Hezbollah a terrorist organization since 1995.The group remains on Foreign Terrorist Organization and Specially Designated Terrorist lists.", "According to the Congressional Research Service, \"The U.S. government holds Hezbollah responsible for a number of attacks and hostage takings targeting Americans in Lebanon during the 1980s, including the bombing of the U.S. Embassy in Beirut in April 1983 and the bombing of the U.S. Marine barracks in October 1983, which together killed 258 Americans.", "Hezbollah's operations outside of Lebanon, including its participation in bombings of Israeli and Jewish targets in Argentina during the 1990s and more recent training and liaison activities with Shiite insurgents in Iraq, have cemented the organization's reputation among U.S. policy makers as a capable and deadly adversary with potential global reach.", "\"The United Kingdom was the first government to attempt to make a distinction between Hezbollah's political and military wings, declaring the latter a terrorist group in July 2008 after Hezbollah confirmed its association with Imad Mughniyeh.", "In 2012, British \"Foreign Minister William Hague urged the European Union to place Hezbollah's military wing on its list of terrorist organizations.\"", "The United States also urged the EU to classify Hezbollah as a terrorist organization.", "In light of findings implicating Hezbollah in the bus bombing in Burgas, Bulgaria in 2012, there was renewed discussion within the European Union to label Hezbollah's military wing as a terrorist group.", "On 22 July 2013, the European Union agreed to blacklist Hezbollah's military wing over concerns about its growing role in the Syrian conflict.In the midst of the 2006 conflict between Hezbollah and Israel, Russia's government declined to include Hezbollah in a newly released list of terrorist organizations, with Yuri Sapunov, the head of anti-terrorism for the Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation, saying that they list only organizations which represent \"the greatest threat to the security of our country\".", "Prior to the release of the list, Russian Defense Minister Sergei Ivanov called \"on Hezbollah to stop resorting to any terrorist methods, including attacking neighboring states.", "\"The Quartet's fourth member, the United Nations, does not maintain such a list, however, the United Nations has made repeated calls for Hezbollah to disarm and accused the group of destabilizing the region and causing harm to Lebanese civilians.", "Human rights organizations Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch have accused Hezbollah of committing war crimes against Israeli civilians.Argentine prosecutors hold Hezbollah and their financial supporters in Iran responsible for the 1994 AMIA Bombing of a Jewish cultural center, described by the Associated Press as \"the worst terrorist attack on Argentine soil,\" in which \"eighty-five people were killed and more than 200 others injured.\"", "During the Israeli occupation of southern Lebanon, French Prime Minister Lionel Jospin condemned attacks by Hezbollah fighters on Israeli forces in south Lebanon, saying they were \"terrorism\" and not acts of resistance.", "\"France condemns Hezbollah's attacks, and all types of terrorist attacks which may be carried out against soldiers, or possibly Israel's civilian population.\"", "Italian Foreign Minister Massimo D'Alema differentiated the wings of Hezbollah: \"Apart from their well-known terrorist activities, they also have political standing and are socially engaged.\"", "Germany does not maintain its own list of terrorist organizations, having chosen to adopt the common EU list.", "However, German officials have indicated they would likely support designating Hezbollah a terrorist organization.", "The Netherlands regards Hezbollah as terrorist discussing it as such in official reports of their general intelligence and security service and in official answers by the Minister of Foreign Affairs.", "On 22 July 2013, the European Union declared the military wings of Hezbollah as a terrorist organization; effectively blacklisting the entity.The United States, the Gulf Cooperation Council, Canada, United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Israel, and Australia have classified Hezbollah as a terrorist organization.", "In early 2015, the US Director of National Intelligence removed Hezbollah from the list of \"active terrorist threats\" against the United States while Hezbollah remained designated as terrorist by the US, and by mid 2015 several Hezbollah officials were sanctioned by the US for their role in facilitating military activity in the ongoing Syrian Civil War.", "The European Union, France and New Zealand have proscribed Hezbollah's military wing, but do not list Hezbollah as a whole as a terrorist organization.Serbia, which recently designated Iran-backed Hezbollah entirely as a terrorist organization, fully implement measures to restrict Hezbollah's operations and financial activities.==== In the Arab and Muslim world ====Protesters in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia with a Hezbollah flag in September 2012In 2006, Hezbollah was regarded as a legitimate resistance movement throughout most of the Arab and Muslim world.", "Furthermore, most of the Sunni Arab world sees Hezbollah as an agent of Iranian influence, and therefore, would like to see their power in Lebanon diminished.", "Egypt, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia have condemned Hezbollah's actions, saying that \"the Arabs and Muslims can't afford to allow an irresponsible and adventurous organization like Hezbollah to drag the region to war\" and calling it \"dangerous adventurism\",After an alleged 2009 Hezbollah plot in Egypt, the Egyptian regime of Hosni Mubarak officially classified Hezbollah as a terrorist group.", "Following the 2012 Presidential elections the new government recognized Hezbollah as a \"real political and military force\" in Lebanon.", "The Egyptian ambassador to Lebanon, Ashraf Hamdy, stated that \"Resistance in the sense of defending Lebanese territory ... That's their primary role.", "We ... think that as a resistance movement they have done a good job to keep on defending Lebanese territory and trying to regain land occupied by Israel is legal and legitimate.", "\"During the Bahraini uprising, Bahrain foreign minister Khalid ibn Ahmad Al Khalifah labeled Hezbollah a terrorist group and accused them of supporting the protesters.", "On 10 April 2013, Bahrain blacklisted Hezbollah as a terrorist group, being the first Arab state in this regard.While Hezbollah has supported popular uprisings in Egypt, Yemen, Bahrain and Tunisia, Hezbollah publicly sided with Iran and Syria during the 2011 Syrian uprising.", "This position has prompted criticism from anti-government Syrians.", "As Hezbollah supported other movements in the context of the Arab Spring, anti-government Syrians have stated that they feel \"betrayed\" by a double standard allegedly applied by the movement.", "Following Hezbollah's aid in Assad government's victory in Qusayr, anti-Hezbollah editorials began regularly appearing in the Arabic media and anti-Hezbollah graffiti has been seen in southern Lebanon.In March 2016, Gulf Cooperation Council designated Hezbollah as a terrorist organization due to its alleged attempts to undermine GCC states, and Arab League followed the move, with reservation by Iraq and Lebanon.", "In the summit, Lebanese Foreign Minister Gebran Bassil said that \"Hezbollah enjoys wide representation and is an integral faction of the Lebanese community\", while Iraqi Foreign Minister Ibrahim al-Jaafari said PMF and Hezbollah \"have preserved Arab dignity\" and those who accuse them of being terrorists are terrorists themselves.", "Saudi delegation walked out of the meeting.", "Israel's Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu called the step \"important and even amazing\".A day before the move by the Arab League, Hezbollah leader Nasrallah said that \"Saudi Arabia is angry with Hezbollah since it is daring to say what only a few others dare to say against its royal family\".In 2020, a German security contractor accused Qatar of financing Hezbollah.", "In September 2021, U.S' Secretary of State, Antony Blinken commended the combined efforts taken by the United States and the Government of Qatar against Hezbollah financial network which involved the abuse of international financial system by using global networks of financiers and front companies to spread terrorism.", "In July 2022, Qatar participated in a 30-nation meeting led by the United States to counter Hezbollah, according to Axios.==== In Lebanon ====Graves of killed Hezbollah members at a mausoleum in BeirutIn an interview during the 2006 Lebanon War, then-President Emile Lahoud stated \"Hezbollah enjoys utmost prestige in Lebanon, because it freed our country ... even though it is very small, it stands up to Israel.\"", "Following the 2006 War, other Lebanese including members of the government were resentful of the large damage sustained by the country and saw Hezbollah's actions as unjustified \"dangerous adventurism\" rather than legitimate resistance.", "They accused Hezbollah of acting on behalf of Iran and Syria.An official of the Future Movement, part of the March 14 Alliance, warned that Hezbollah \"has all the characteristics of a terrorist party\", and that Hezbollah is moving Lebanon toward the Iranian Islamic system of government.In August 2008, Lebanon's cabinet completed a policy statement which recognized \"the right of Lebanon's people, army, and resistance to liberate the Israeli-occupied Shebaa Farms, Kafar Shuba Hills, and the Lebanese section of Ghajar village, and defend the country using all legal and possible means.", "\"Gebran Tueni, a late conservative Orthodox Christian editor of an-Nahar, referred to Hezbollah as an \"Iranian import\" and said \"they have nothing to do with Arab civilization.\"", "Tuení believed that Hezbollah's evolution is cosmetic, concealing a sinister long-term strategy to Islamicize Lebanon and lead it into a ruinous war with Israel.By 2017, a poll showed that 62 percent of Lebanese Christians believed that Hezbollah was doing a \"better job than anyone else in defending Lebanese interests in the region, and they trust it more than other social institutions.", "\"==== Scholarly views ====Academics specializing in a wide variety of the social sciences believe that Hezbollah is an example of an Islamic terrorist organization.", "Such scholars and research institutes include the following:* Walid Phares, Lebanese-born terrorism scholar.", "* Mark LeVine, American historian* Avraham Sela, Israeli historian* Robert S. Wistrich, Israeli historian* Eyal Zisser, Israeli historian* Siamak Khatami, Iranian scholar* Rohan Gunaratna, Singaporean scholar* Neeru Gaba, Australian scholar* Tore Bjørgo, Norwegian scholar* Magnus Norell, of the European Foundation for Democracy* Anthony Cordesman, of the Center for Strategic and International Studies* Center for American Progress* United States Institute of Peace=== Views of foreign legislators ===J.", "Gresham Barrett brought up legislation in the U.S. House of Representatives which, among other things, referred to Hezbollah as a terrorist organization.", "Congress members Tom Lantos, Jim Saxton, Thad McCotter, Chris Shays, Charles Boustany, Alcee Hastings, and Robert Wexler referred to Hezbollah as a terrorist organization in their speeches supporting the legislation.", "Shortly before a speech by Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki, U.S.", "Congressman Dennis Hastert said, \"He Maliki denounces terrorism, and I have to take him at his word.", "Hezbollah is a terrorist organization.", "\"In 2011, a bipartisan group of members of Congress introduced the Hezbollah Anti-Terrorism Act.", "The act ensures that no American aid to Lebanon will enter the hands of Hezbollah.", "On the day of the act's introduction, Congressman Darrell Issa said, \"Hezbollah is a terrorist group and a cancer on Lebanon.", "The Hezbollah Anti-Terrorism Act surgically targets this cancer and will strengthen the position of Lebanese who oppose Hezbollah.", "\"In a Sky News interview during the 2006 Lebanon war, British MP George Galloway said that Hezbollah is \"not a terrorist organization\".Former Swiss member of parliament, Jean Ziegler, said in 2006: \"I refuse to describe Hezbollah as a terrorist group.", "It is a national movement of resistance.\"" ], [ "See also", "* Military equipment of Hezbollah* Politics of Lebanon* Jihad al-Bina* Mleeta museum* January 2015 Mazraat Amal incident* Hezbollah Movement in Iraq Kata'ib Hezbollah Harakah Hezbollah al-Nujaba Kata'ib Sayyid al-Shuhada Badr Organization** Kata'ib al-Imam Ali* 2023 Israel–Hamas war* Jaysh al-Mahdi (Iraq)* Al-Ashtar Brigades (Bahrain)* Liwa Assad Allah (Syria)* Hezbollah al-Hejaz (Saudi Arabia)* Harakah al-Sabireen (Palestine)* Islamic Front for the Liberation of Bahrain* Islamic Movement (Nigeria)* Emtrasur Cargo" ], [ "Notes", "===Citations===" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", "'''Books''' * * * * * * * * * * * '''Articles'''" ], [ "External links", "===UN resolutions regarding Hezbollah=== UN Press Release SC/8181.UN.", "2 September 2004.", "* Lebanon: Close Security Council vote backs free elections, urges foreign troop pullout.", "UN.", "2 September 2004.===Other links===* Is Hezbollah Confronting a Crisis of Popular Legitimacy?", "(PDF) Eric Lob, Crown Center for Middle East Studies, March 2014.", "* Hezbollah.", ": Financing Terror through Criminal Enterprise, Testimony of Matthew Levitt, Hearing of the Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs, United States Senate.", "* Hizbullah's two republics by Mohammed Ben Jelloun, ''Al-Ahram'', 15–21 February 2007.", "* \"Inside Hezbollah\" – short documentary and extensive information from ''Frontline/World'' on PBS* Hizbullah – the 'Party of God' – fact file at Ynetnews" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Homeland" ], [ "Introduction", "''Liberty Leading the People'' by Eugène Delacroix personifies the French motherland.A '''homeland''' is a place where a cultural, national, or racial identity has formed.", "The definition can also mean simply one's country of birth.", "When used as a proper noun, the Homeland, as well as its equivalents in other languages, often has ethnic nationalist connotations.", "A homeland may also be referred to as a ''fatherland'', a ''motherland'', or a ''mother country'', depending on the culture and language of the nationality in question." ], [ "Motherland", "Bharat Mata (Mother India) statue accompanied by a lion at Yanam, IndiaMotherland refers to a ''mother country'', i.e.", "the place in which somebody grew up or had lived for a long enough period that somebody has formed their own cultural identity, the place that one's ancestors lived for generations, or the place that somebody regards as home, or a Metropole in contrast to its colonies.", "People often refer to Mother Russia as a personification of the Russian nation.", "The Philippines is also considered as a motherland which is derived from the word \"''Inang Bayan''\" which means \"Motherland\".", "Within the British Empire, many natives in the colonies came to think of Britain as the mother country of one, large nation.", "India is often personified as Bharat Mata (Mother India).", "The French commonly refer to France as \"la mère patrie\"; Hispanic countries that were former Spanish colonies commonly referred to Spain as \"''la Madre Patria''\".", "Romans and the subjects of Rome saw Italy as the motherland (''patria'' or ''terrarum parens'') of the Roman Empire, in contrast to Roman provinces.", "Turks refer to Turkey as \"ana vatan\" (lit: mother homeland.)" ], [ "Fatherland", "Postcard of an Austrian and a German soldier in the First World War with the text \"Shoulder to shoulder, hand in hand, for God, Emperor and Fatherland.", "\"Fatherland is the nation of one's \"fathers\", \"forefathers\", or ancestors.", "The word can also mean the country of nationality, the country in which somebody grew up, the country that somebody's ancestors lived in for generations, or the country that somebody regards as home, depending on how the individual uses it.It can be viewed as a nationalist concept, in so far as it is evocative of emotions related to family ties and links them to national identity and patriotism.", "It can be compared to motherland and homeland, and some languages will use more than one of these terms.", "The national anthem of the Netherlands between 1815 and 1932, \"Wien Neêrlands Bloed\", makes extensive use of the parallel Dutch word, as does the current Dutch national anthem, Het Wilhelmus.The Ancient Greek ''patris'', fatherland, led to ''patrios'', ''of our fathers'' and thence to the Latin ''patriota'' and Old French ''patriote'', meaning compatriot; from these the English word patriotism is derived.", "The related Ancient Roman word ''Patria'' led to similar forms in modern Romance languages.", "\"Fatherland\" was first encountered by the vast majority of citizens in countries that did not themselves use it during World War II, when it was featured in news reports associated with Nazi Germany.", "German government propaganda used its appeal to nationalism when making references to Germany and the state.", "It was used in ''Mein Kampf'', and on a sign in a German concentration camp, also signed, Adolf Hitler.The term fatherland (''Vaterland'') is used throughout German-speaking Europe, as well as in Dutch.", "National history is usually called ''vaderlandse geschiedenis'' in Dutch.", "Another use of the Dutch word is well known from the national anthem, \"Het Wilhelmus\".In German, the word became more prominent in the 19th century.", "It appears in numerous patriotic songs and poems, such as Hoffmann's song ''Lied der Deutschen'' which became the national anthem in 1922.Because of the use of ''Vaterland'' in Nazi-German war propaganda, the term \"Fatherland\" in English has become associated with domestic British and American anti-Nazi propaganda during World War II.", "This is not the case in Germany itself, where the word remains used in the usual patriotic contexts.Terms equating \"Fatherland\" in other Germanic languages:* Afrikaans: ''Vaderland''* Danish: ''fædreland''* Dutch: ''vaderland'' (as in the national anthem Wilhelmus)* West Frisian: ''heitelân''* German: ''Vaterland'' (as in the national anthem Das Lied der Deutschen)* Icelandic: ''föðurland''* Norwegian: ''fedreland''* Scots: * Swedish: ''fäderneslandet'' (besides the more common ''fosterlandet''; the word ''faderlandet'' also exists in Swedish but is never used for Sweden itself, but for other countries such as Germany).A corresponding term is often used in Slavic languages, in:* Russian ''otechestvo'' (отечество) or ''otchizna'' (отчизна)* Polish ''ojczyzna'' in common language literally meaning \"fatherland\", ''ziemia ojców'' literally meaning \"land of fathers\", sometimes used in the phrase ''ziemia ojców naszych'' literally meaning \"land of our fathers\" (besides rarer name ''macierz'' \"motherland\")* Ukrainian ''batʹkivshchyna'' (батьківщина) or ''vitchyzna'' (вітчизна).", "* Czech ''otčina'' (although the normal Czech term for \"homeland\" is ''vlast'')* the Belarusians as (''Baćkaŭščyna'')* Serbo-Croatian ''otadžbina'' (отаџбина) meaning \"fatherland\", ''domovina'' (домовина) meaning \"homeland\", ''dedovina'' (дедовина) or ''djedovina'' meaning \"grandfatherland\" or \"land of grandfathers\"* Bulgarian татковина (''tatkovina'') as well as ''otechestvo'' (Отечество)* Macedonian татковина (''tatkovina'')===Other groups that refer to their native country as a \"fatherland\"===Groups with languages that refer to their native country as a \"fatherland\" include:* the Arabs as ''arḍ al-'abā'' (\"land of the fathers\")* the Armenians as (''Hayreniq'') * the Albanians as ''Atdhe''* the Amharas as (''Abbat Ager'')* the Austrians as ''Vaterland''* the Rohingya as ''Bafodinná woton''* the Arakaneses as (အဖရခိုင်ပြည်)* the Azerbaijanis as ''vətən'' (from Arabic)* the Chechens as \"Daimokh\" * the Estonians as ''isamaa'' (as in the national anthem Mu isamaa, mu õnn ja rõõm)* the Finns as ''isänmaa''* the French, as ''La patrie''* the Flemings as ''Vaderland''* the Georgians as ''Samshoblo'' (სამშობლო - \"land of parents\") or ''Mamuli'' (მამული)* the Ancient Greeks as πατρίς ''patris''* the Greeks as πατρίδα * the Irish as ''Athartha''* the Kazakhs as ''atameken''* the Kyrgyz as ''ata meken''* the Latvians as tēvzeme* the Liechtensteiners as ''Vaterland''* the Lithuanians as ''tėvynė''* the Nigerians as ''fatherland''* the Oromo as ''Biyya Abaa''* the Pakistanis as ''Vatan'' (madar-e-watan means motherland.", "Not fatherland)* the Somali as ''Dhulka Abaa'', land of the father* the Swiss as ''Vaterland'' (as in the national anthem Swiss Psalm)* the Thais as ''pituphum'' (ปิตุภูมิ), the word is adapted from ''Sanskrit''* the Tibetans as (''pha yul'')* the Welsh as , 'the ancient land of my fathers'=== Romance languages ===In Romance languages, a common way to refer to one's home country is ''Patria/Pátria/Patrie'' which has the same connotation as ''Fatherland'', that is, the nation of our parents/fathers (From the Latin, Pater, father).", "As ''patria'' has feminine gender, it is usually used in expressions related to one's mother, as in Italian ''la Madrepatria'', Spanish ''la Madre Patria'' or Portuguese ''a Pátria Mãe'' (Mother Fatherland).", "Examples include:* the Esperantists as ''patrio'', ''patrolando'' or ''patrujo''* Aragonese, Asturian, Franco-Provençal, Galician, Italian, Spanish (in its many dialects): ''Patria''* Catalan: ''Pàtria''* Occitans: ''Patrìo''* French: ''Patrie''* Romanian: ''Patrie''* Portuguese: ''Pátria''===Multiple references to parental forms ===* the Armenians, as ''Hayrenik'' (Հայրենիք), home.", "The national anthem Mer Hayrenik translates as ''Our Fatherland''the Azerbaijanis as ''Ana vətən'' (lit.", "mother homeland) or ''Ata ocağı'' (lit.", "father's hearth) the Bosniaks as ''Otadžbina'' (Отаџбина), although ''Domovina'' (Домовина) is sometimes used colloquially meaning ''homeland''* the Chinese as ''zǔguó'' (祖国 or 祖國 (traditional chinese), \"land of ancestors\"), ''zǔguómǔqīn'' (祖国母亲 or 祖國母親, \"ancestral land, the mother\") is frequently used.", "* the Czechs as ''vlast'', ''power'' or (rarely) ''otčina'', fatherland* the Hungarians as ''szülőföld'' (literally: \"bearing land\" or \"parental land\")* the Indians as मातृभूमि literally meaning \"motherland\"* the Kurds as ''warê bav û kalan'' meaning \"land of the fathers and the grandfathers\"* the Japanese as ''sokoku'' (祖国, \"land of ancestors\")* the Koreans as ''joguk'' (조국, Hanja: 祖國, \"land of ancestors\")* French speakers: ''Patrie'', although they also use ''la mère patrie'', which includes the idea of motherland* the Latvians as ''tēvija'' or ''tēvzeme'' (although ''dzimtene'' – roughly translated as \"place that somebody grew up\" – is more neutral and used more commonly nowadays)* the Burmese as အမိမြေ (ami-myay) literally meaning \"motherland\"* the Persians as ''Sarzamin e Pedari (Fatherland), Sarzamin e Mādari (Motherland) or Mihan (Home)''* the Poles as ''ojczyzna'' (''ojczyzna'' is derived from ''ojciec'', Polish for father, but ''ojczyzna'' itself and ''Polska'' are feminine, so it can also be translated as motherland), also an archaism ''macierz'' \"mother\" is rarely used.", "* the Russians, as ''Otechestvo'' (отечество) or ''Otchizna'' (отчизна), both words derived from ''отец'', Russian for father.", "''Otechestvo'' is neuter, ''otchizna'' is feminine.", "* the Slovenes as ''očetnjava'', although ''domovina'' (homeland) is more common.", "* the Swedes as ''fäderneslandet'', although ''fosterlandet'' is more common (meaning the land that fostered/raised a person)* the Vietnamese as ''Tổ quốc'' (Chữ Nôm: 祖國, \"land of ancestors\")" ], [ "Uses by country", "* The Soviet Union created homelands for some minorities in the 1920s, including the Volga German ASSR and the Jewish Autonomous Oblast.", "In the case of the Volga German ASSR, these homelands were later abolished and their inhabitants deported to either Siberia or the Kazakh SSR.", "* In the United States, the Department of Homeland Security was created soon after the 11 September 2001, terrorist attacks, as a means to centralize response to various threats.", "In a June 2002 column, Republican consultant and speechwriter Peggy Noonan expressed the hope that the Bush administration would change the name of the department, writing that, \"The name Homeland Security grates on a lot of people, understandably.", "''Homeland'' isn't really an American word, it's not something we used to say or say now\".", "* In the apartheid era in South Africa, the concept was given a different meaning.", "The white government had designated approximately 25% of its non-desert territory for black tribal settlement.", "Whites and other non-blacks were restricted from owning land or settling in those areas.", "After 1948 they were gradually granted an increasing level of \"home-rule\".", "From 1976 several of these regions were granted independence.", "Four of them were declared independent nations by South Africa, but were unrecognized as independent countries by any other nation besides each other and South Africa.", "The territories set aside for the African inhabitants were also known as bantustans.", "* In Australia, the term refers to relatively small Aboriginal settlements (referred to also as \"outstations\") where people with close kinship ties share lands significant to them for cultural reasons.", "Many such homelands are found across Western Australia, the Northern Territory, and Queensland.", "The homeland movement gained momentum in the 1970 and 1980s.", "Not all homelands are permanently occupied owing to seasonal or cultural reasons.", "Much of their funding and support have been withdrawn since the 2000s.", "* In Turkish, the concept of \"homeland\", especially in the patriotic sense, is \"''ana vatan''\" (lit.", "mother homeland), while \"''baba ocağı''\" (lit.", "father's hearth) is used to refer to one's childhood home.", "(Note: The Turkish word \"''ocak''\" has the double meaning of ''january'' and ''fireplace'', like the Spanish \"''hogar''\", which can mean \"home\" or \"hearth\".)" ], [ "Land of one's home", "In some languages, there are additional words that refer specifically to the place where one is home to, but is narrower in scope than one's nation, and often have some sort of nostalgic, fantastic, heritage connection, for example:* In German language, .", "* In Japanese language, , or .", "* In Chinese languages, or .", "* In Vietnamese language, .", "* In Korean language, , ." ], [ "See also", "* Diaspora politics* Heimat* Homeland security* Mother tongue* Separatism* Secession" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''Landscape and Memory'' by Simon Schama (Random House, 1995)" ], [ "External links", "* Nationalism and Ethnicity – A Theoretical Overview" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hani Hanjour" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hani Salih Hasan Hanjour''' (; 30 August 197211 September 2001) was a Saudi terrorist hijacker.", "He served as the hijacker-pilot of American Airlines Flight 77, crashing the plane into the Pentagon as part of the 9/11 attacks in 2001.Hanjour first went to the United States in 1991, enrolling at the University of Arizona, where he studied English for a few months before returning to Saudi Arabia early the next year.", "He returned to the United States in 1996, studying English in California before he began taking flying lessons in Florida and then Arizona.", "He received his commercial pilot certificate in 1999, and went back to his native Saudi Arabia to find a job as a commercial pilot.", "Hanjour applied to civil aviation school in Jeddah, but was turned down.", "Hanjour left his family in late 1999, telling them that he would be traveling to the United Arab Emirates to find work.", "According to Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, Osama bin Laden or Mohammed Atef identified Hanjour at an Afghanistan training camp as a trained pilot and selected him to participate in the 11 September attacks.Hanjour arrived in the United States again in December 2000.He joined up with Nawaf al-Hazmi in San Diego.", "They immediately left for Arizona, where Hanjour engaged in refresher pilot training.", "In April 2001, they relocated to Falls Church, Virginia and then Paterson, New Jersey in late May where Hanjour took additional flight training.Hanjour returned to the Washington, D.C., metropolitan area on 2 September 2001, checking into a motel in Laurel, Maryland.", "On 11 September, Hanjour boarded American Airlines Flight 77, took control of the aircraft after his team of hijackers helped subdue the pilots, passengers, and crew, and flew the plane into the Pentagon as part of the 11 September attacks.", "The crash killed all 64 passengers on board the aircraft and 125 people in the Pentagon.While in Florida and Arizona, Hanjour befriended and trained with Rayed Mohammed Abdullah Ali, a fellow Saudi who emigrated to Manawatū-Whanganui in 2006 to train as a pilot.", "He was deported from his Palmerston North home after his links to Hanjour were exposed." ], [ "Early life and education", "Hanjour was one of seven children, born to a food-supply businessman in Ta'if, Saudi Arabia.", "During his youth, Hanjour wanted to drop out of school to become a flight attendant, although his brother Abdulrahman discouraged this route, and tried to help him focus on his studies.According to his eldest brother, Hanjour traveled to Afghanistan in the late 1980s as a teenager to participate in the conflict against the Soviet Union.", "The Soviets had already withdrawn by the time he arrived in the country and he instead worked for a relief agency." ], [ "Career", "===Early 1990s===Hanjour was the first to arrive in the United States, much earlier than other hijackers.", "He first came to the United States in 1991 to study English at the University of Arizona's Center for English as a Second Language.", "Hanjour's eldest brother Abdulrahman helped him apply to the eight-week program, and found a room in Tucson, Arizona, for Hanjour near the Islamic Center of Tucson.", "Hanjour arrived for the English language program on 3 October 1991, and stayed until early February 1992, when he returned to Saudi Arabia.", "Hanjour shared a three-bedroom home on the corner of 4th Avenue and 4th Street owned and managed by a father-son team, who made a living renovating and renting rooms to international students and devoting their energies to spreading a born-again Christian influence; Bob, the oldest son, lived in this house and rented the room directly to Hanjour.", "Hanjour was a model housemate; he was extremely respectful of others, apolitical in his points of view, enjoyed his Turkish coffee, and appeared as a nonchalant happy-go-lucky teenager with very weak English-speaking skills.", "Hanjour claimed that he was interested in being an airplane mechanic and claimed that such a position was considered highly in Saudi Arabia.", "Hanjour participated in morning, noon, and evening prayers at the local mosque.", "As early as Hanjour moved into this house, he was under the constant watch of two \"uncles\" who would pick him up for the weekends so that he would spend time with them within their circle, thereby minimizing his contact with his American housemates and friends from the university.", "In December 1991 Hanjour informed Bob that he missed Saudi Arabia and would be leaving the United States due to homesickness.", "Hanjour was the only hijacker to visit the United States prior to any intentions for a large-scale attack and was not linked to the Hamburg cell in Germany, which composed of the three hijackers who were taking flight lessons to become pilots.", "He was the first to receive a license out of the three other men, most likely due to arriving to the U.S. prior to the preparations for the attacks.Over the next five years, Hanjour remained in Saudi Arabia, helping the family manage a lemon and date farm near Ta'if.", "His family often reminded Hanjour that he was getting past the age where he ought to get married and start a family, but Hanjour insisted he wanted to settle down more.", "While in Saudi Arabia, Hanjour applied for a job with Saudi Arabian Airlines, but was turned down due to poor grades.", "The airline told Hanjour they would consider him if he obtained a commercial pilot's license in the United States.===1996===In April 1996, Hanjour returned to the United States, staying with family friends, Susan and Adnan Khalil, in Miramar, Florida, for a month before heading to Oakland, California, to study English and attend flight school.", "Hanjour was admitted to the Sierra Academy of Aeronautics, but before beginning flight training, the academy arranged for Hanjour to take intensive English courses at ESL Language Center in Oakland.", "The flight school also arranged for Hanjour to stay with a host family, with whom he moved in on 20 May 1996.Hanjour completed the English program in August, and in early September 1996, he attended a single day of ground school courses at the Sierra Academy of Aeronautics before withdrawing, citing financial worries about the $35,000 cost.Hanjour left Oakland in September and moved to Phoenix, Arizona, paying $4,800 for lessons at CRM Flight Cockpit Resource Management in Scottsdale.", "Receiving poor marks, Hanjour dropped out of flight school, and returned to Saudi Arabia at the end of November 1996.===Late 1990s===Hanjour re-entered the United States on 15 November 1997, taking additional English courses in Florida, then returning to Phoenix, where he shared an apartment with Bandar al-Hazmi.", "After arriving in Florida on November 1997, Hanjour met a man Rayed Mohammed Abdullah Ali, a mutual friend through Bandar al-Hazmi.", "Al-Hamzi had suggested that Ali train to be a pilot in Florida.", "Hanjour and Ali subsequently trained together both in Florida and Arizona, and became friends.", "Ali was a leader at the Islamic Cultural Centre in Phoenix where, the FBI says, he \"reportedly gave extremist speeches at the mosque\".", "This, however, was disputed by a mosque staff member, who told the New Zealand Herald in June 2006 that Ali \"was never a leader for the mosque and he never gave speeches at the mosque\".", "The ''9/11 Commission Report'' reported that Abdullah attended the same Phoenix flight school as Hanjour and records show the pair used a flight simulator together on 23 June 2001.Ali later emigrated to New Zealand, where he settled in Auckland and then in Palmerston North to train as a pilot.", "He was identified as a friend and colleague of Hanjour in July 2006, less than six months after he first arrived in New Zealand.", "Immigration Minister David Cunliffe said that Ali \"was directly associated with persons responsible for the terrorist attacks in the United States on Sept. 11, 2001\".In December, he resumed training at CRM Flight Cockpit Resource Management for a few weeks, before pursuing training at Arizona Aviation.", "Bandar al-Hazmi and Hanjour stayed in Arizona, continued taking flight lessons at Arizona Aviation throughout 1998 and early 1999.After moving out of Bandar's place in March, Hanjour lived in several apartments in Tempe, Mesa and Phoenix.", "In February, financial records showed that Hanjour had taken a trip to Las Vegas, Nevada.", "In addition to flight training at Arizona Aviation, Hanjour enrolled in flight simulator classes at the Sawyer School of Aviation where he made only three or four visits.", "Lotfi Raissi would begin taking lessons at the same school a month after Hanjour quit, part of what piqued the FBI's interest in Raissi.An FBI informant named Aukai Collins claims he told the FBI about Hanjour's activities during 1998, giving them Hanjour's name and phone number, and warning them that more and more foreign-born Muslims seem to be taking flying lessons.", "The FBI admits it paid Collins to monitor the Islamic and Arab communities in Phoenix at the time, but denies Collins told them anything about Hanjour.Hanjour gained his FAA commercial pilot certificate in April 1999, getting a \"satisfactory\" rating from the examiner.", "After receiving his commercial pilot certificate, Hanjour went on to train at other flight schools for more advanced flying.", "This caused concern among the instructors as they thought “he was so bad a pilot and spoke such poor English that they contacted the Federal Aviation Administration to verify that his license was not a fake.” The FAA verified his license and offered to provide him with English language tutors.", "Hanjour's bank records indicate that he travelled to Ontario, Canada, in March 1999 for an unknown reason.He traveled to Saudi Arabia to get a job working with Saudi Arabian Airlines as a commercial pilot but was rejected by a civil aviation school in Jeddah.", "His brother, Yasser, relayed that Hanjour, frustrated, \"turned his attention toward religious texts and cassette tapes of militant Islamic preachers.\"", "He told his family in late 1999 he was heading to the United Arab Emirates to find work.", "However, it is likely that he headed to al-Qaeda training camps in Afghanistan.", "He was known by al-Qaeda as Urwa al-Taa'ifi.===2000===In May 2000, a third person accompanied Nawaf al-Hazmi and Khalid al-Mihdhar to Sorbi's Flying Club where he waited on the ground as they took a flight lesson.", "It has been theorized this may have been Hanjour.In September Hanjour again sent his $110 registration to the ELS Language Center, which leased space on Holy Names College campus in Oakland, California, to continue his English studies.", "He also applied for another U.S. student visa.", "Although he was accepted, after the attacks, it would be reported that his visa application was 'suspicious'.", "Granted an F-1 student visa in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, September 2000, he failed to reveal that he had previously traveled to the U.S.", "He never turned up for classes at the ELS Language Center, and when the school contacted its Saudi representative, he reported that he could not find Hanjour either.On 5 December, Hanjour opened a CitiBank account in Deira, Dubai.", "On 8 December, Hanjour was recorded flying into the Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport, and is thought to have met with Nawaf al-Hazmi in San Diego shortly thereafter.===2001===Hanjour came back to San Diego in December 2000, frequently visiting Abdussattar Shaikh's house, which was shared with Nawaf al-Hazmi and Khalid al-Mihdhar.", "During this time Hanjour may have visited the San Diego Zoo in February, as a security guard recalls having to page his name to reclaim a lost briefcase containing cash and Arabic documents and later recognized his photograph.", "Shortly afterwards, the three hijackers moved out of Shaikh's house to Falls Church, Virginia.A photograph of Hanjour, released by the FBI.The ELS Language Center at Oakland University said Hanjour reached a level of proficiency sufficient to \"survive very well in the English language\".", "However, in January 2001, Arizona JetTech flight school managers reported him to the FAA at least five times because his English was inadequate for the commercial pilot certificate he had already obtained.", "It took him five hours to complete an oral exam meant to last just two hours, said Peggy Chevrette.", "Hanjour failed UA English classes with a 0.26 GPA and a JetTech manager said \"He could not fly at all.\"", "The certificate was a requirement for him to join the Saudi Arabian pilot's academy.", "His FAA certificate had become invalid late in 1999 when he failed to take a mandatory medical examination.", "In February, Hanjour began advanced simulator training in Mesa, Arizona.He and Hazmi moved out of Mesa at the end of March, and they were in Falls Church, Virginia, by 4 April.", "Falls Church was the location of the Dar al-Hijrah mosque in the Washington, D.C., metropolitan area.", "Anwar Al-Awlaki was the recently appointed new Imam whom Hazmi had met with in San Diego.At the mosque, Hanjour and Hazmi soon met Eyad Alrababah, a Jordanian who later pleaded guilty to document fraud and was deported.", "They had told him that they were looking for an apartment to rent, and he found a friend who rented them an apartment in Alexandria where they stayed.", "On 4 April 2001, Hanjour asked to forward his utility deposits to 3159 Row Street, Falls Church, Virginia, which was the same address as the mosque.When police raided the Hamburg apartment of Ramzi bin al-Shibh (the \"20th hijacker\") while investigating the 9/11 attacks, Awlaki's telephone number was found among bin al-Shibh's personal contact information.On 2 May 2001, two new roommates joined them in Virginia: Majed Moqed and Ahmed al-Ghamdi, both of whom had just flown into the United States from the Middle East.Alrababah later suggested they all go together to look at apartments in Fairfield, Connecticut.", "On May 8, Alrababah, Hanjour, Hazmi, Moqed and Ghamdi traveled to Fairfield to look for housing.", "While there, they also called several local flight schools.", "They then travelled briefly to Paterson to look at that area as well.", "Rababah has contended that, after this trip, he never saw any of the men again.Sometime at the end of May 2001, Hanjour rented a one-bedroom apartment in Paterson, New Jersey.", "He lived there with at least one roommate and was visited by several other hijackers, including Mohamed Atta.", "During his time in New Jersey, he and Hazmi rented three different cars including a sedan in June that Hanjour cosigned with the alias \"Hani Saleh Hassan\".", "He later made his last phone call to his family back in Saudi Arabia, during which he claimed to be phoning from a payphone in the United Arab Emirates, where he was supposedly still working.Hanjour, along with at least five other future hijackers, are believed to have traveled to Las Vegas several times in mid-2001, where they allegedly drank alcohol, gambled, and visited lap dancing clubs.On 20 July, Hanjour flew to the Montgomery County Airpark in Maryland from New Jersey on a practice flight with fellow hijacker Nawaf Alhazmi.On 1 August, Hanjour and Almihdhar returned to Falls Church to obtain fraudulent documentation at a 7-Eleven convenience store where an illegal side business operated for such a service.", "There they met Luis Martinez-Flores, himself also an illegal immigrant, who agreed to help them for a $100 fee.", "They drove together to a DMV office at a mall in nearby Springfield, Virginia, where Martinez-Flores gave them a false address in Falls Church to use, and signed legal forms attesting that they lived there.", "Hanjour and Almihdhar were then granted state identity cards.", "(Martinez-Flores was later sentenced to 21 months in prison for aiding them, and giving false testimony to police.)", "On that same day, Hanjour was stopped by police for driving a Toyota Corolla in a zone in Arlington, Virginia, for which he paid a $70 fine.Employees at Advance Travel Service in Totowa, New Jersey later claimed that Moqed and Hanjour had both purchased tickets there.", "They claimed that Hanjour spoke very little English, and Moqed did most of the speaking.", "Hanjour requested a seat in the front row of the airplane.", "Their credit card failed to authorize, and after being told the agency did not accept personal checks, the pair left to withdraw cash.", "They returned shortly afterwards and paid the $1,842.25 total in cash.Hanjour began making cross-country flights in August to test security, and tried to rent a plane from Freeway Airport in Maryland; though he was declined after exhibiting difficulty controlling and landing a single-engine Cessna 172.He moved out of his New Jersey apartment on September 1, and was photographed four days later using an ATM with fellow hijacker Majed Moqed in Laurel, Maryland, where all five Flight 77 hijackers had purchased a 1-week membership in a local Gold's Gym.", "There, Hanjour claimed that his first name translated as ''warrior'' when a gym employee asked if there was an English translation of their Arabic names.", "(''Hani'' actually translates as \"contented.", "\")On 10 September 2001, Hanjour, Mihdhar, and Hazmi checked into the Marriott Residence Inn in Herndon, Virginia where Saleh Ibn Abdul Rahman Hussayen, a prominent Saudi government official, was staying.", "No evidence was ever uncovered that they had met, or knew of each other's presence.====9/11 attacks====At 7:35 a.m. on 11 September 2001, Hanjour arrived at the passenger security checkpoint at Washington Dulles International Airport, west of Washington, D.C., en route to board American Airlines Flight 77.Some earlier reports stated he may not have had a ticket or appeared on any manifest, however he was documented by the 9/11 Commission as having been assigned to seat 1B in first class, and reported to have bought a single first-class ticket from Advance Travel Service in Totowa.", "In the security tape footage released in 2004, Hanjour appears to walk through the metal detector without setting it off, which likely means that agents at the terminal were not looking at any warning signal that indicated if he had weapons.", "With this, it allowed Hanjour to board Flight 77 without any authorization.At 9:37 AM, Hani Hanjour crashed American Airlines Flight 77 into the Pentagon, the crash was captured on security footage.The flight was scheduled to depart at 8:10, but ended up departing 10 minutes late from Gate D26 at Dulles.", "The last normal radio communications from the aircraft to air traffic control occurred at 08:50:51.At 08:54, Flight 77 began to deviate from its normal, assigned flight path and turned south, and then hijackers set the flight's autopilot heading for Washington, D.C.", "Passenger Barbara Olson called her husband, United States Solicitor General Ted Olson, and reported that the plane had been hijacked and that the assailants had box cutters and knives.", "Using the flight intercom, Hanjour announced the flight was hijacked.", "As Flight 77 was 5 miles (8.0 km) west-southwest of the Pentagon, it made a 330-degree turn.", "At the end of the turn, it was descending through 2,200 feet (670 m), pointed toward the Pentagon and downtown Washington.", "Hanjour advanced the throttles to maximum power and dove towards the Pentagon at a speed of over .", "At 09:37:46, Hanjour crashed the Boeing 757 into the west façade of the Pentagon, killing himself and all 63 passengers and 6 crews aboard along with 125 on the ground in the Pentagon.", "While level above the ground and seconds from the crash, the airplane's wings knocked over light poles and its right engine smashed into a power generator, creating a smoke trail seconds before smashing into the Pentagon.", "In the recovery process at the Pentagon, remains of all five Flight 77 hijackers were identified through a process of elimination, as not matching any DNA samples for the victims, and put into custody of the FBI.===Family denial===After the 11 September attacks, Hanjour's family in Saudi Arabia vehemently stated that they could not, and would not, believe he had been involved as one of the hijacker pilots, and also stated that he had phoned them just eight hours prior to the hijackings and his voice did not sound strange or unusual at all." ], [ "In popular culture", "Afghan-Canadian actor Qaseem Gul portrayed Hani Hanjour in the Canadian TV series ''Mayday'' Season 16: Episode 2 (2016) called \"9/11: The Pentagon Attack\" and ''Air Crash Investigation Special Report'' Season 2: Episode 1 (2019) called \"Headline News\"." ], [ "See also", " Rayed Mohammed Abdullah Ali* PENTTBOM* Hijackers in the 11 September attacks" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The ''9/11 Commission Report''* NBC video showing Hanjour with a correct profile* Moussaoui trial exhibit video showing Hanjour with a correct profile * Hanjour Ticket Purchase" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hyena" ], [ "Introduction", "Aardwolf, smallest member of the Hyena family, skeleton.", "(Museum of Osteology)'''Hyenas''' or '''hyaenas''' ( ; from Ancient Greek , ) are feliform carnivoran mammals belonging to the family '''Hyaenidae''' .", "With just four extant species (each in its own genus), it is the fourth-smallest family in the order Carnivora and one of the smallest in the class Mammalia.", "Despite their low diversity, hyenas are unique and vital components of most African ecosystems.Although phylogenetically closer to felines and viverrids, hyenas are behaviourally and morphologically similar to canids in several elements due to convergent evolution: both hyenas and canines are non-arboreal, cursorial hunters that catch prey with their teeth rather than claws.", "Both eat food quickly and may store it, and their calloused feet with large, blunt, nonretractable claws are adapted for running and making sharp turns.", "However, hyenas' grooming, scent marking, defecation habits, mating and parental behavior are consistent with the behavior of other feliforms.Hyenas feature prominently in the folklore and mythology of human cultures that live alongside them.", "Hyenas are commonly viewed as frightening and worthy of contempt.", "In some cultures, hyenas are thought to influence people's spirits, rob graves, and steal livestock and children.", "Other cultures associate them with witchcraft, using their body parts in traditional medicine." ], [ "Evolution", "===Origins===Hyenas originated in the jungles of Miocene Eurasia 22 million years ago, when most early feliform species were still largely arboreal.", "The first ancestral hyenas were likely similar to the modern African civet; one of the earliest hyena species described, ''Plioviverrops'', was a lithe, civet-like animal that inhabited Eurasia 20–22 million years ago, and is identifiable as a hyaenid by the structure of the middle ear and dentition.", "The lineage of ''Plioviverrops'' prospered, and gave rise to descendants with longer legs and more pointed jaws, a direction similar to that taken by canids in North America.Hyenas then diversified into two distinct types: lightly built dog-like hyenas and robust bone-crushing hyenas.", "Although the dog-like hyenas thrived 15 million years ago (with one taxon having colonised North America), they became extinct after a change in climate, along with the arrival of canids into Eurasia.", "Of the dog-like hyena lineage, only the insectivorous aardwolf survived, while the bone-crushing hyenas (including the extant spotted, brown and striped hyenas) became the undisputed top scavengers of Eurasia and Africa.===Rise and fall of the dog-like hyenas===Skull of ''Ictitherium viverrinum'', one of the \"dog-like\" hyenas.", "American Museum of Natural HistoryThe descendants of ''Plioviverrops'' reached their peak 15 million years ago, with more than 30 species having been identified.", "Unlike most modern hyena species, which are specialised bone-crushers, these dog-like hyenas were nimble-bodied, wolfish animals; one species among them was ''Ictitherium viverrinum'', which was similar to a jackal.", "The dog-like hyenas were numerous; in some Miocene fossil sites, the remains of ''Ictitherium'' and other dog-like hyenas outnumber those of all other carnivores combined.", "The decline of the dog-like hyenas began 5–7 million years ago during a period of climate change, exacerbated by canids crossing the Bering land bridge to Eurasia.", "One species, ''Chasmaporthetes ossifragus'', managed to cross the land bridge into North America, being the only hyena to do so.", "''Chasmaporthetes'' managed to survive for some time in North America by deviating from the endurance-running and bone-crushing niches monopolized by canids, and developing into a cheetah-like sprinter.", "Most of the dog-like hyenas had died off by 1.5 million years ago.===Bone-crushing hyenas===By 10–14 million years ago, the hyena family had split into two distinct groups: dog-like hyenas and bone-crushing hyenas.", "The arrival of the ancestral bone-crushing hyenas coincided with the decline of the similarly built family Percrocutidae.", "The bone-crushing hyenas survived the changes in climate and the arrival of canids, which wiped out the dog-like hyenas, though they never crossed into North America, as their niche there had already been taken by the dog subfamily Borophaginae.", "By 5 million years ago, the bone-crushing hyenas had become the dominant scavengers of Eurasia, primarily feeding on large herbivore carcasses felled by sabre-toothed cats.", "One genus, ''Pachycrocuta'', was a 200 kg (440 lb) mega-scavenger that could splinter the bones of elephants.", "Starting in the early Middle Pleistocene ''Pachycrocuta'' was replaced by the smaller ''Crocuta'' and ''Hyena'', which corresponds to a general faunal change, perhaps in connection to the Mid-Pleistocene transition.===Rise of modern hyenas===Skeletons of a striped hyena (left) and a spotted hyena (right), two species of the \"bone-crushing\" hyenasThe four extant species are the striped hyena (''Hyaena hyaena''), the brown hyena (''Parahyaena brunnea''), the spotted hyena (''Crocuta crocuta''), and the aardwolf (''Proteles cristata'').The aardwolf can trace its lineage directly back to ''Plioviverrops'' 15 million years ago, and is the only survivor of the dog-like hyena lineage.", "Its success is partly attributed to its insectivorous diet, for which it faced no competition from canids crossing from North America.", "It is likely that its unrivaled ability to digest the terpene excretions from soldier termites is a modification of the strong digestive system its ancestors used to consume fetid carrion.The striped hyena may have evolved from ''Hyaenictitherium namaquensis'' of Pliocene Africa.", "Striped hyena fossils are common in Africa, with records going back as far as the Villafranchian.", "As fossil striped hyenas are absent from the Mediterranean region, it is likely that the species is a relatively late invader to Eurasia, having likely spread outside Africa only after the extinction of spotted hyenas in Asia at the end of the Ice Age.", "The striped hyena occurred for some time in Europe during the Pleistocene, having been particularly widespread in France and Germany.", "It also occurred in Montmaurin, Hollabrunn in Austria, the Furninha Cave in Portugal and the Genista Caves in Gibraltar.", "The European form was similar in appearance to modern populations, but was larger, being comparable in size to the brown hyena.The spotted hyena (''Crocuta crocuta'') diverged from the striped and brown hyena 10 million years ago.", "Its direct ancestor was the Indian ''Crocuta sivalensis'', which lived during the Villafranchian.", "Ancestral spotted hyenas probably developed social behaviours in response to increased pressure from rivals on carcasses, thus forcing them to operate in teams.", "Spotted hyenas evolved sharp carnassials behind their crushing premolars, therefore they did not need to wait for their prey to die, and thus became pack hunters as well as scavengers.", "They began forming increasingly larger territories, necessitated by the fact that their prey was often migratory, and long chases in a small territory would have caused them to encroach into another clan's turf.", "Spotted hyenas spread from their original homeland during the Middle Pleistocene, and quickly colonised a very wide area from Europe, to southern Africa and China.", "The eventual disappearance of the spotted hyena from Europe has traditionally been attributed to the end of the last glacial period and a subsequent displacement of open grassland by closed forests, which favoured wolves and humans instead.", "However, analyses have shown that climate change alone is insufficient to explain the spotted hyena's disappearance from Europe, suggesting that other factors – such as human pressure – must have played a role.", "This suggests that the events must be seen within the broader context of late-Quaternary extinctions, as the late Pleistocene and early Holocene saw the disappearance of many primarily large mammals from Europe and the world." ], [ "Genera of the Hyaenidae (extinct and recent)", "A spotted hyena of subfamily HyaeninaeThe list follows McKenna and Bell's ''Classification of Mammals'' for prehistoric genera (1997) and Wozencraft (2005) in Wilson and Reeders ''Mammal Species of the World'' for extant genera.", "The percrocutids are, in contrast to McKenna and Bell's classification, not included as a subfamily into the Hyaenidae, but as the separate family Percrocutidae (though they are generally grouped as sister-taxa to hyenas).", "Furthermore, the living brown hyena and its closest extinct relatives are not included in the genus ''Pachycrocuta'', but in the genus ''Parahyaena''.", "* '''Family Hyaenidae''' '''Subfamily ''Incertae sedis'''''* †''Tongxinictis'' (Middle Miocene of Asia) †'''Subfamily Ictitheriinae'''* †''Herpestides'' (Early Miocene of Africa and Eurasia)* †''Plioviverrops'' (including ''Jordanictis'', ''Protoviverrops'', ''Mesoviverrops''; Early Miocene to Early Pliocene of Europe, Late Miocene of Asia)* †''Ictitherium'' (=''Galeotherium''; including ''Lepthyaena'', ''Sinictitherium'', ''Paraictitherium''; Middle Miocene of Africa, Late Miocene to Early Pliocene of Eurasia)* †''Thalassictis'' (including ''Palhyaena'', ''Miohyaena'', ''Hyaenictitherium'', ''Hyaenalopex''; Middle to Late Miocene of Asia, Late Miocene of Africa and Europe)* †''Hyaenotherium'' (Late Miocene to Early Pliocene of Eurasia)* †''Miohyaenotherium''(Late Miocene of Europe)* †''Lycyaena'' (Late Miocene of Eurasia)* †''Tungurictis'' (Middle Miocene of Africa and Eurasia)* †''Protictitherium'' (Middle Miocene of Africa and Asia, Middle to Late Miocene of Europe) '''Subfamily Hyaeninae'''* †''Palinhyaena'' (Late Miocene of Asia)* †''Ikelohyaena'' (Early Pliocene of Africa)* ''Hyaena'' (=''Euhyaena'',=''Parahyaena''; including striped hyena, ''Pliohyaena'', ''Pliocrocuta'', ''Anomalopithecus'') Early Pliocene (?Middle Miocene) to Recent of Africa, Late Pliocene (?Late Miocene) to Late Pleistocene of Europe, Late Pliocene to recent in Asia* ''Parahyaena'' (=''Hyaena''; brown hyena Pliocene to recent of Africa)* †''Hyaenictis'' (Late Miocene of Asia?, Late Miocene of Europe, Early Pliocene (?Early Pleistocene) of Africa)* †''Leecyaena'' (Late Miocene and/or Early Pliocene of Asia)* †''Chasmaporthetes'' (=''Ailuriaena''; including ''Lycaenops'', ''Euryboas''; Late Miocene to Early Pleistocene of Eurasia, Early Pliocene to Late Pliocene or Early Pleistocene of Africa, Late Pliocene to Early Pleistocene of North America)* †''Pachycrocuta'' (Pliocene and Pleistocene of Eurasia and Africa)* †''Adcrocuta'' (Late Miocene of Eurasia)* ''Crocuta'' (=''Crocotta''; including ''Eucrocuta''; spotted hyena and cave hyena.", "Late Pliocene to recent of Africa, Late Pliocene to Late Pleistocene of Eurasia) '''Subfamily Protelinae'''* †''Gansuyaena''* ''Proteles'' (=''Geocyon''; aardwolf.", "Pleistocene to Recent of Africa)===Phylogeny===The following cladogram illustrates the phylogenetic relationships between extant and extinct hyaenids based on the morphological analysis by Werdelin & Solounias (1991), as updated by Turner et al.", "(2008).A more recent molecular analysis agrees on the phylogenetic relationship between the four extant hyaenidae species (Koepfli ''et al'', 2006)." ], [ "Characteristics", "===Build===Striped hyena skull.", "Note the disproportionately large carnassials and premolars adapted for bone consumptionAardwolf skull.", "Note the greatly reduced molars and carnassials, rendered redundant from insectivoryHyenas have relatively short torsos and are fairly massive and wolf-like in build, but have lower hind quarters, high withers and their backs slope noticeably downward towards their rumps.", "The forelegs are high, while the hind legs are very short and their necks are thick and short.", "Their skulls superficially resemble those of large canids, but are much larger and heavier, with shorter facial portions.", "Hyenas are digitigrade, with the fore and hind paws having four digits each and sporting bulging pawpads.", "Like canids, hyenas have short, blunt, non-retractable claws.", "Their pelage is sparse and coarse with poorly developed or absent underfur.", "Most species have a rich mane of long hair running from the withers or from the head.", "With the exception of the spotted hyena, hyaenids have striped coats, which they likely inherited from their viverrid ancestors.", "Their ears are large and have simple basal ridges and no marginal bursa.", "Their vertebral column, including the cervical region are of limited mobility.", "Hyenas have no baculum.", "Hyenas have one more pair of ribs than canids do, and their tongues are rough like those of felids and viverrids.", "Males in most hyena species are larger than females, though the spotted hyena is an exception, as it is the female of the species that outweighs and dominates the male.", "Also, unlike other hyenas, the female spotted hyena's external genitalia closely resembles that of the male.Their dentition is similar to that of the canid, but is more specialised for consuming coarse food and crushing bones.", "The carnassials, especially the upper, are very powerful and are shifted far back to the point of exertion of peak pressure on the jaws.", "The other teeth, save for the underdeveloped upper molars, are powerful, with broad bases and cutting edges.", "The canines are short, but thick and robust.", "Labiolingually, their mandibles are much stronger at the canine teeth than in canids, reflecting the fact that hyenas crack bones with both their anterior dentition and premolars, unlike canids, which do so with their post-carnassial molars.", "The strength of their jaws is such that both striped and spotted hyenas have been recorded to kill dogs with a single bite to the neck without breaking the skin.", "The spotted hyena is renowned for its strong bite proportional to its size, but a number of other animals (including the Tasmanian devil) are proportionately stronger.", "The aardwolf has greatly reduced cheek teeth, sometimes absent in the adult, but otherwise has the same dental formula as the other three species.", "The dental formula for all hyena species is: Although hyenas lack perineal scent glands, they have a large pouch of naked skin located at the anal opening.", "Large anal glands above the anus open into this pouch.", "Several sebaceous glands are present between the openings of the anal glands and above them.", "These glands produce a white, creamy secretion that the hyenas paste onto grass stalks.", "The odor of this secretion is very strong, smelling of boiling cheap soap or burning, and can be detected by humans several meters downwind.", "The secretions are primarily used for territorial marking, though both the aardwolf and the striped hyena will spray them when attacked.===Behavior===Brown hyena marking its territory with its anal glandsSpotted hyena cubs at their denHyenas groom themselves often like felids and viverrids, and their way of licking their genitals is very cat-like (sitting on the lower back, legs spread with one leg pointing vertically upward).", "However, unlike other feliforms, they do not \"wash\" their faces.", "They defecate in the same manner as other Carnivora, though they never raise their legs as canids do when urinating, as urination serves no territorial function for them.", "Instead, hyenas mark their territories using their anal glands, a trait found also in viverrids and mustelids, but not canids and felids.", "When attacked by lions or dogs, striped and brown hyenas will feign death, though the spotted hyena will defend itself ferociously.", "The spotted hyena is very vocal, producing a number of different sounds consisting of whoops, grunts, groans, lows, giggles, yells, growls, laughs and whines.", "The striped hyena is comparatively silent, its vocalizations being limited to a chattering laugh and howling.Whoop of a spotted hyena in Umfolosi Game Park, South Africa.Mating between hyenas involves a number of short copulations with brief intervals, unlike canids, who generally engage in a single, drawn out copulation.", "Spotted hyena cubs are born almost fully developed, with their eyes open and erupting incisors and canines, though lacking adult markings.", "In contrast, striped hyena cubs are born with adult markings, closed eyes and small ears.", "Hyenas do not regurgitate food for their young and male spotted hyenas play no part in raising their cubs, though male striped hyenas do so.The striped hyena is primarily a scavenger, though it will also attack and kill any animals it can overcome, and will supplement its diet with fruit.", "The spotted hyena, though it also scavenges occasionally, is an active pack hunter of medium to large sized ungulates, which it catches by wearing them down in long chases and dismembering them in a canid-like manner.", "Spotted hyenas may kill as many as 95% of the animals they eat, while striped hyenas are largely scavengers.", "The aardwolf is primarily an insectivore, specialised for feeding on termites of the genus ''Trinervitermes'' and ''Hodotermes'', which it consumes by licking them up with its long, broad tongue.", "An aardwolf can eat 300,000 ''Trinervitermes'' on a single outing.", "Except for the aardwolf, hyenas are known to drive off larger predators, like lions, from their kills, despite having a reputation in popular culture for being cowardly.", "Hyenas are primarily nocturnal animals, but sometimes venture from their lairs in the early-morning hours.", "With the exception of the highly social spotted hyena, hyenas are generally not gregarious animals, though the striped and brown hyenas may live in family groups and congregate at kills.Spotted hyenas are one of the few mammals other than bats known to survive infection with rabies virus and have shown little or no disease-induced mortality during outbreaks in sympatric carnivores, in part due to the high concentration of antibodies present in their saliva.", "Despite this perceived unique disease resistance, little is known about the immune system of spotted hyenas, and even less is known about other Hyaenidae species." ], [ "Relationships with humans", "===Folklore, mythology and literature===Cave hyena (''Crocuta crocuta spelaea'') painting found in the Chauvet Cave in 1994 A depiction of the legendary striped hyena, Krokottas of Kytheros Island, from the Nile mosaic of PalestrinaSpotted hyenas vary in their folkloric and mythological depictions, depending on the ethnic group from which the tales originate.", "It is often difficult to know whether spotted hyenas are the specific hyena species featured in such stories, particularly in West Africa, as both spotted and striped hyenas are often given the same names.", "In western African tales, spotted hyenas are sometimes depicted as bad Muslims who challenge the local animism that exists among the Beng in Côte d’Ivoire.", "In East Africa, Tabwa mythology portrays the spotted hyena as a solar animal that first brought the sun to warm the cold earth, while West African folklore generally shows the hyena as symbolizing immorality, dirty habits, the reversal of normal activities, and other negative traits.", "In Tanzania, there is a belief that witches use spotted hyenas as mounts.", "In the Mtwara Region of Tanzania, it is believed that a child born at night while a hyena is crying will be likely to grow up to be a thief.", "In the same area, hyena feces are believed to enable a child to walk at an early age, thus it is not uncommon in that area to see children with hyena dung wrapped in their clothes.", "The Kaguru of Tanzania and the Kujamaat of Southern Senegal view hyenas as inedible and greedy hermaphrodites.", "A mythical African tribe called the Bouda is reputed to house members able to transform into hyenas.", "A similar myth occurs in Mansôa.", "These \"werehyenas\" are executed when discovered, but do not revert to their human form when killed.Striped hyenas are often referred to in Middle Eastern literature and folklore, typically as symbols of treachery and stupidity.", "In the Near and Middle East, striped hyenas are generally regarded as physical incarnations of jinns.", "Arab writer al-Qazwīnī (1204–1283) spoke of a tribe of people called ''al-Ḍabyūn'' meaning \"hyena people\".", "In his book ''‘Ajā’ib Al-Makhlūqāt'' he wrote that should one of this tribe be in a group of 1000 people, a hyena could pick him out and eat him.", "A Persian medical treatise written in 1376 tells how to cure cannibalistic people known as ''kaftar'', who are said to be “half-man, half-hyena”.", "al-Damīrī in his writings in ''Ḥawayān al-Kubrā'' (1406) wrote that striped hyenas were vampiric creatures that attacked people at night and sucked the blood from their necks.", "He also wrote that hyenas only attacked brave people.", "Arab folklore tells of how hyenas can mesmerise victims with their eyes or sometimes with their pheromones.", "In a similar vein to al-Damīrī, the Greeks, until the end of the 19th century, believed that the bodies of werewolves, if not destroyed, would haunt battlefields as vampiric hyenas that drank the blood of dying soldiers.", "The image of striped hyenas in Afghanistan, India and Palestine is more varied.", "Though feared, striped hyenas were also symbolic of love and fertility, leading to numerous varieties of love medicine derived from hyena body parts.", "Among the Baluch and in northern India, witches or magicians are said to ride striped hyenas at night.The striped hyena is mentioned in the Bible.", "The Arabic word for the hyena, ''ḍab`'' or ''ḍabu`'' (plural ''ḍibā`''), is alluded to in a valley in Israel known as Shaqq-ud-Diba` (meaning \"cleft of the hyenas\") and Wadi-Abu-Diba` (meaning \"valley of the hyenas\").", "Both places have been interpreted by some scholars as being the Biblical Valley of Tsebo`im mentioned in 1 Samuel 13:18.In modern Hebrew, the word for hyena and hypocrite are both the same: tsavua.", "Though the Authorized King James Version of the Bible interprets the term \"`ayit tsavua`\" (which appears in Jeremiah 12:9) as \"speckled bird\", Henry Baker Tristram argued that it was most likely a hyena being mentioned.The vocalization of the spotted hyena resembling hysterical human laughter has been alluded to in numerous works of literature: \"to laugh like a hyæna\" was a common simile, and is featured in ''The Cobbler's Prophecy'' (1594), ''Webster's Duchess of Malfy'' (1623) and Shakespeare's ''As You Like It'', Act IV.", "Sc.1.", "''Die Strandjutwolf'' (The brown hyena) is an allegorical poem by the renowned South African poet, N. P. van Wyk Louw, which evokes a sinister and ominous presence.===Attacks on humans===Illustration from ''Fraser's magazine'' showing an artist's impression of a \"stag-hound\" biting a spotted hyena attacking its masterCharles Benjamin Incledon featuring feliforms: the Mesopotamian lion from the vicinity of Bassorah, Cape lion, tiger from the East Indies, panther from Buenos Aires, ''Hyaena hyaena'' from West Africa, and leopard from Turkey, besides a \"Man tyger\" from Africa.", "The advertisement mentions that the 'hyaena' can mimic a human voice to lure humans.In ordinary circumstances, striped hyenas are extremely timid around humans, though they may show bold behaviors towards people at night.", "On rare occasions, striped hyenas have preyed on humans.", "Among hyenas, only the spotted and striped hyenas have been known to become man-eaters.", "Hyenas are known to have preyed on humans in prehistory: Human hair has been found in fossilized hyena dung dating back 195,000 to 257,000 years.", "Some paleontologists believe that competition and predation by cave hyenas (''Crocuta crocuta spelaea'') in Siberia was a significant factor in delaying human colonization of Alaska.", "Hyenas may have occasionally stolen human kills, or entered campsites to drag off the young and weak, much like modern spotted hyenas in Africa.", "The oldest Alaskan human remains coincide with roughly the same time cave hyenas became extinct, leading certain paleontologists to infer that hyena predation was what prevented humans crossing the Bering strait earlier.", "Hyenas readily scavenge from human corpses; in Ethiopia, hyenas were reported to feed extensively on the corpses of victims of the 1960 attempted coup and the Red Terror.", "Hyenas habituated to scavenging on human corpses may develop bold behaviors towards living people: hyena attacks on people in southern Sudan increased during the Second Sudanese Civil War, when human corpses were readily available to them.Although spotted hyenas have been known to prey on humans in modern times, such incidents are rare.", "However, attacks on humans by spotted hyenas are likely to be underreported.", "Man-eating spotted hyenas tend to be very large specimens: A pair of man-eating hyenas, responsible for killing 27 people in Mulanje, Malawi in 1962, weighed in at 72 kg (159 lb) and 77 kg (170 lb) after being shot.", "A 1903 report describes spotted hyenas in the Mzimba district of Angoniland waiting at dawn outside people's huts to attack them when they opened their doors.", "Victims of spotted hyenas tend to be women, children and sick or infirm men: Theodore Roosevelt wrote in 1908–1909 in Uganda that spotted hyenas regularly killed sufferers of African sleeping sickness as they slept outside in camps.", "Spotted hyenas are widely feared in Malawi, where they have been known to attack people at night, particularly during the hot season when people sleep outside.", "A spate of hyena attacks were reported in Malawi's Phalombe plain, with five deaths recorded in 1956, five in 1957 and six in 1958.This pattern continued until 1961, when eight people were killed.", "Attacks occurred most commonly in September, when people slept outdoors and bush fires made the hunting of wild game difficult for the hyenas.", "A 2004 news report stated that 35 people were killed by spotted hyenas in a 12-month period in Mozambique along a 20-km stretch of road near the Tanzanian border.In the 1880s, a hyena was reported to have attacked humans, especially sleeping children, over a three-year period in the Iğdır Province of Turkey, with 25 children and 3 adults being wounded in one year.", "The attacks provoked local authorities into announcing a reward of 100 rubles for every hyena killed.", "Further attacks were reported later in some parts of the South Caucasus, particularly in 1908.Instances are known in Azerbaijan of striped hyenas killing children sleeping in courtyards during the 1930s and 1940s.", "In 1942, a sleeping guard was mauled in his hut by a hyena in Qalıncaq (Golyndzhakh).", "Cases of children being taken by hyenas by night are known in southeast Turkmenistan's Bathyz Nature Reserve.", "A further attack on a child was reported around Serakhs in 1948.Several attacks have occurred in India; in 1962, 9 children were thought to have been taken by hyenas in the town of Bhagalpur in the Bihar State in a six-week period, and 19 children up to the age of four were killed by hyenas in Karnataka in 1974.A survey of wild animal attacks during a five-year period in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh reported that hyenas had attacked three people, causing fewer deaths than wolves, gaur, boar, elephants, tigers, leopards and sloth bears.===Hyenas as food and medicine===Hyenas are used for food and medicinal purposes in Somalia.", "They are considered halal in Islam.", "This practice dates back to the times of the Ancient Greeks and Romans, who believed that different parts of the hyena's body were effective means to ward off evil and to ensure love and fertility." ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== General and cited references ===* * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " Funk, Holdger (2010) ''Hyaena: On the Naming and Localisation of an Enigmatic Animal'', GRIN Verlag, .", "* Lawick, Hugo & Goodall, Jane (1971) ''Innocent Killers'', Houghton Mifflin Company Boston.", "* Mills, M. G. L. (2003) ''Kalahari Hyenas: Comparative Behavioral Ecology of Two Species'', The Blackburn Press." ], [ "External links", "* IUCN Conservation Union Hyaena Specialist Group" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hershey–Chase experiment" ], [ "Introduction", "357x357pxThe '''Hershey–Chase experiments''' were a series of experiments conducted in 1952 by Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase that helped to confirm that DNA is genetic material.", "Scientist Martha Chase and Alfred HersheyWhile DNA had been known to biologists since 1869, many scientists still assumed at the time that proteins carried the information for inheritance because DNA appeared to be an inert molecule, and, since it is located in the nucleus, its role was considered to be phosphorus storage.", "In their experiments, Hershey and Chase showed that when bacteriophages, which are composed of DNA and protein, infect bacteria, their DNA enters the host bacterial cell, but most of their protein does not.", "Hershey and Chase and subsequent discoveries all served to prove that DNA is the hereditary material.Hershey shared the 1969 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Max Delbrück and Salvador Luria for their \"discoveries concerning the genetic structure of viruses\"." ], [ "Historical background", "In the early twentieth century, biologists thought that proteins carried genetic information.", "This was based on the belief that proteins were more complex than DNA.", "Phoebus Levene's influential \"tetranucleotide hypothesis\", which incorrectly proposed that DNA was a repeating set of identical nucleotides, supported this conclusion.", "The results of the Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment, published in 1944, suggested that DNA was the genetic material, but there was still some hesitation within the general scientific community to accept this, which set the stage for the Hershey–Chase experiment.Hershey and Chase, along with others who had done related experiments, confirmed that DNA was the biomolecule that carried genetic information.", "Before that, Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty had shown that DNA led to the transformation of one strain of ''Streptococcus pneumoniae'' to another.", "The results of these experiments provided evidence that DNA was the biomolecule that carried genetic information." ], [ "Methods and results", "Structural overview of T2 phageHershey and Chase needed to be able to examine different parts of the phages they were studying separately, so they needed to distinguish the phage subsections.", "Viruses were known to be composed of a protein shell and DNA, so they chose to uniquely label each with a different elemental isotope.", "This allowed each to be observed and analyzed separately.", "Since phosphorus is contained in DNA but not amino acids, radioactive phosphorus-32 was used to label the DNA contained in the T2 phage.", "Radioactive sulfur-35 was used to label the protein sections of the T2 phage, because sulfur is contained in protein but not DNA.Hershey and Chase inserted the radioactive elements in the bacteriophages by adding the isotopes to separate media within which bacteria were allowed to grow for 4 hours before bacteriophage introduction.", "When the bacteriophages infected the bacteria, the progeny contained the radioactive isotopes in their structures.", "This procedure was performed once for the sulfur-labeled phages and once for phosphorus-labeled phages.The labeled progeny were then allowed to infect unlabeled bacteria.", "The phage coats remained on the outside of the bacteria, while genetic material entered.", "Disruption of phage from the bacteria by agitation in a blender followed by centrifugation allowed for the separation of the phage coats from the bacteria.", "These bacteria were lysed to release phage progeny.", "The progeny of the phages that were labeled with radioactive phosphorus remained labeled, whereas the progeny of the phages labeled with radioactive sulfur were unlabeled.", "Thus, the Hershey–Chase experiment helped to confirm that DNA, not protein, is the genetic material.Hershey and Chase showed that the introduction of deoxyribonuclease (referred to as DNase), an enzyme that breaks down DNA, into a solution containing the labeled bacteriophages did not introduce any 32P into the solution.", "This demonstrated that the phage is resistant to the enzyme while intact.", "Additionally, they were able to plasmolyze the bacteriophages so that they went into osmotic shock, which effectively created a solution containing most of the 32P and a heavier solution containing structures called \"ghosts\" that contained the 35S and the protein coat of the virus.", "It was found that these \"ghosts\" could adsorb to bacteria that were susceptible to T2, although they contained no DNA and were simply the remains of the original viral capsule.", "They concluded that the protein protected the DNA from DNase, but that once the two were separated and the phage was inactivated, the DNase could hydrolyze the phage DNA.===Experiment and conclusions===Hershey and Chase were also able to prove that the DNA from the phage is inserted into the bacteria shortly after the virus attaches to its host.", "Using a high-speed blender they were able to force the bacteriophages from the bacterial cells after adsorption.", "The lack of 32P-labeled DNA remaining in the solution after the bacteriophages had been allowed to adsorb to the bacteria showed that the phage DNA was transferred into the bacterial cell.", "The presence of almost all the radioactive 35S in the solution showed that the protein coat that protects the DNA before adsorption stayed outside the cell.Hershey and Chase concluded that DNA, not protein, was the genetic material.", "They determined that a protective protein coat was formed around the bacteriophage, but that the internal DNA is what conferred its ability to produce progeny inside a bacterium.", "They showed that, in growth, protein has no function, while DNA has some function.", "They determined this from the amount of radioactive material remaining outside of the cell.", "Only 20% of the 32P remained outside the cell, demonstrating that it was incorporated with DNA in the cell's genetic material.", "All of the 35S in the protein coats remained outside the cell, showing it was not incorporated into the cell, and that protein is not the genetic material.Hershey and Chase's experiment concluded that little sulfur-containing material entered the bacterial cell.", "However no specific conclusions can be made regarding whether material that is sulfur-free enters the bacterial cell after phage adsorption.", "Further research was necessary to conclude that it was solely bacteriophages' DNA that entered the cell and not a combination of protein and DNA where the protein did not contain any sulfur." ], [ "Discussion", "===Confirmation===Hershey and Chase concluded that protein was not likely to be the hereditary genetic material.", "However, they did not make any conclusions regarding the specific function of DNA as hereditary material, and only said that it must have some undefined role.Confirmation and clarity came a year later in 1953, when James D. Watson and Francis Crick correctly hypothesized, in their journal article \"Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid\", the double helix structure of DNA, and suggested the copying mechanism by which DNA functions as hereditary material.", "Furthermore, Watson and Crick suggested that DNA, the genetic material, is responsible for the synthesis of the thousands of proteins found in cells.", "They had made this proposal based on the structural similarity that exists between the two macromolecules: both protein and DNA are linear sequences of monomers (amino acids and nucleotides, respectively).===Other experiments===Once the Hershey–Chase experiment was published, the scientific community generally acknowledged that DNA was the genetic code material.", "This discovery led to a more detailed investigation of DNA to determine its composition as well as its 3D structure.", "Using X-ray crystallography, the structure of DNA was discovered by James Watson and Francis Crick with the help of previously documented experimental evidence by Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin.Knowledge of the structure of DNA led scientists to examine the nature of genetic coding and, in turn, understand the process of protein synthesis.", "George Gamow proposed that the genetic code was composed of sequences of three DNA base pairs known as triplets or codons which represent one of the twenty amino acids.", "Genetic coding helped researchers to understand the mechanism of gene expression, the process by which information from a gene is used in protein synthesis.", "Since then, much research has been conducted to modulate steps in the gene expression process.", "These steps include transcription, RNA splicing, translation, and post-translational modification which are used to control the chemical and structural nature of proteins.", "Moreover, genetic engineering gives engineers the ability to directly manipulate the genetic materials of organisms using recombinant DNA techniques.", "The first recombinant DNA molecule was created by Paul Berg in 1972 when he combined DNA from the monkey virus SV40 with that of the lambda phage.Experiments on hereditary material during the time of the Hershey–Chase experiment often used bacteriophages as a model organism.", "Bacteriophages lend themselves to experiments on hereditary material because they incorporate their genetic material into their host cell's genetic material (making them useful tools), they multiply quickly, and they are easily collected by researchers." ], [ "Legacy", "The Hershey–Chase experiment, its predecessors, such as the Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment, and successors served to unequivocally establish that hereditary information was carried by DNA.", "This finding has numerous applications in forensic science, crime investigation and genealogy.", "It provided the background knowledge for further applications in DNA forensics, where DNA fingerprinting uses data originating from DNA, not protein sources, to deduce genetic variation." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Hershey–Chase experiment animation* Clear depiction and simple summary" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of religion" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''history of religion''' refers to the written record of human religious feelings, thoughts, and ideas.", "This period of religious history begins with the invention of writing about 5,200 years ago (3200 BCE).", "The prehistory of religion involves the study of religious beliefs that existed prior to the advent of written records.", "One can also study comparative religious chronology through a timeline of religion.", "Writing played a major role in standardizing religious texts regardless of time or location, and making easier the memorization of prayers and divine rules.The concept of \"religion\" was formed in the 16th and 17th centuries.", "Sacred texts like the Bible, the Quran, and others did not have a word or even a concept of religion in the original languages and neither did the people or the cultures in which these sacred texts were written.The word ''religion'' as used in the 21st century does not have an obvious pre-colonial translation into non-European languages.", "The anthropologist Daniel Dubuisson writes that \"what the West and the history of religions in its wake have objectified under the name 'religion' is ... something quite unique, which could be appropriate only to itself and its own history\"." ], [ "History of study", "The school of religious history called the , a late 19th-century German school of thought, originated the systematic study of religion as a socio-cultural phenomenon.", "It depicted religion as evolving with human culture, from polytheism to monotheism.The emerged at a time when scholarly study of the Bible and of church history flourished in Germany and elsewhere (see higher criticism, also called the ''historical-critical method'').", "The study of religion is important: religion and similar concepts have often shaped civilizations' law and moral codes, social structure, art and music." ], [ "Origin", "The earliest archeological evidence interpreted by some as suggestive of the emergence of religious ideas dates back several hundred thousand years, to the Middle and Lower Paleolithic periods: some archaeologists conclude that the apparently intentional burial of archaic humans, Neanderthals and even ''Homo naledi'' as early as 300,000 years ago is proof that religious ideas already existed, but such a connection is entirely conjectural.", "Other evidence that some infer as indicative of religious ideas includes symbolic artifacts from Middle Stone Age sites in Africa.", "However, the interpretation of early paleolithic artifacts, with regard to how they relate to religious ideas, remains controversial .", "Archeological evidence from more recent periods is less controversial.", "Scientists generally interpret a number of artifacts from the Upper Paleolithic (50,000–13,000 BCE) as representing religious ideas.", "Examples of Upper Paleolithic remains that some associate with religious beliefs include the lion man, the Venus figurines, and the elaborate ritual burial from Sungir.In the 19th century, researchers proposed various theories regarding the origin of religion, challenging earlier claims of a Christianity-like urreligion.", "Early theorists, such as Edward Burnett Tylor (1832–1917) and Herbert Spencer (1820–1903), emphasized the concept of animism, while archaeologist John Lubbock (1834–1913) used the term \"fetishism\".", "Meanwhile, the religious scholar Max Müller (1823–1900) theorized that religion began in hedonism and the folklorist Wilhelm Mannhardt (1831–1880) suggested that religion began in \"naturalism\" – by which he meant mythological explanations for natural events.", "All of these theories have been widely criticized since then; there is no broad consensus regarding the origin of religion.Pre-pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) Göbekli Tepe, the oldest potentially religious site yet discovered anywhere includes circles of erected massive T-shaped stone pillars, the world's oldest known megaliths decorated with abstract, enigmatic pictograms and carved-animal reliefs.", "The site, near the home place of original wild wheat, was built before the so-called Neolithic Revolution, i.e., the beginning of agriculture and animal husbandry around 9000 BCE.", "But the construction of Göbekli Tepe implies organization of an advanced order not hitherto associated with Paleolithic, PPNA, or PPNB societies.", "The site, abandoned around the time the first agricultural societies started, is still being excavated and analyzed, and thus might shed light on the significance it had, if any, for the religions of older, foraging communities, as well as for the general history of religions.The Pyramid Texts from ancient Egypt, the oldest known religious texts in the world, date to between 2400 and 2300 BCE.The earliest records of Indian religion are the Vedas, composed during the Vedic Period.Surviving early copies of religious texts include:* The Upanishads, some of which date to the mid-first millennium BCE.", "* The Dead Sea Scrolls, representing fragmentary texts of the Hebrew Tanakh.", "* Complete Hebrew texts, also of the Tanakh, but translated into the Greek language (Septuagint 300–200 BCE), were in wide use by the early 1st century CE.", "* The Zoroastrian Avesta, from a Sassanian-era master copy." ], [ "Axial age", "Some historians have labelled the period from 900 to 200 BCE as the \"axial age\", a term coined by German-Swiss philosopher Karl Jaspers (1883–1969).", "According to Jaspers, in this era of history \"the spiritual foundations of humanity were laid simultaneously and independently... And these are the foundations upon which humanity still subsists today.\"", "Intellectual historian Peter Watson has summarized this period as the foundation time of many of humanity's most influential philosophical traditions, including monotheism in Persia and Canaan, Platonism in Greece, Buddhism and Jainism in India, and Confucianism and Taoism in China.", "These ideas would become institutionalized in time – note for example Ashoka's role in the spread of Buddhism, or the role of Neoplatonic philosophy in Christianity at its foundation.The historical roots of Jainism in India date back to the 9th century BCE with the rise of Parshvanatha and his non-violent philosophy." ], [ "Middle Ages", "Medieval world religionsWorld religions of the present day established themselves throughout Eurasia during the Middle Ages by:* Christianization of the Western world* Buddhist missions to East Asia* the decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent* the spread of Islam throughout the Middle East, Central Asia, North Africa and parts of Europe and IndiaDuring the Middle Ages, Muslims came into conflict with Zoroastrians during the Muslim conquest of Persia (633–654); Christians fought against Muslims during the Arab–Byzantine wars (7th to 11th centuries), the Crusades (1095 onward), the Reconquista (718–1492), the Ottoman wars in Europe (13th century onwards) and the Inquisition; Shamanism was in conflict with Buddhists, Taoists, Muslims and Christians during the Mongol invasions and conquests (1206–1337); and Muslims clashed with Hindus and Sikhs during the Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent (8th to 16th centuries).Many medieval religious movements continued to emphasize mysticism, such as the Cathars and related movements in the West, the Jews in Spain (see Zohar), the Bhakti movement in India and Sufism in Islam.", "Monotheism and related mysticisms reached definite forms in Christian Christology and in Islamic Tawhid.", "Hindu monotheist notions of Brahman likewise reached their classical form with the teaching of Adi Shankara (788–820)." ], [ "Modern Ages", "From the 15th century to the 19th century, European colonisation resulted in the spread of Christianity to Sub-Saharan Africa, and the Americas, Australia and the Philippines.", "The invention of the printing press in the 15th century played a major role in the rapid spread of the Protestant Reformation under leaders such as Martin Luther (1483–1546) and John Calvin (1509–1564).", "Wars of religion broke out, culminating in the Thirty Years' War which ravaged Central Europe between 1618 and 1648.The 18th century saw the beginning of secularisation in Europe, a trend which gained momentum after the French Revolution broke out in 1789.By the late 20th century, religion had declined in most of Europe." ], [ "See also", "* Growth of religion* Historiography of religion* Religion and politics* Christianity and politics* Judaism and politics* Political aspects of Islam* Women and religion* Women as theological figures* List of founders of religious traditions* List of religions and spiritual traditions* List of religious movements that began in the United States===Shamanism and ancestor worship===* Prehistoric religion* Shamanism* Animism* Ancestor worship* Tribal religion===Panentheism===* Sikhism* Neoplatonism===Polytheism===* Ancient Near Eastern religion, Egyptian mythology* Ancient Greek religion, Ancient Roman religion* Germanic paganism, Finnish Paganism, Norse paganism* Maya religion, Inca religion, Aztec religion* Neopaganism, Polytheistic reconstructionism===Monotheism===* Aten* Baháʼí Faith** History of the Baháʼí Faith* Judaism* History of Mandaeism* Neoplatonism* History of Christianity History of the Catholic Church History of Eastern Orthodox Christianity History of Protestantism History of Jehovah's Witnesses Mormonism* History of the Latter Day Saint movement*** History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints* History of Islam* Zoroastrianism===Monism===* History of Buddhism* History of Jainism* History of Hinduism===Dualism===* Gnosticism===New religious movements===* Rastafari movement* History of Wicca* Timeline of Scientology* Adventism* Jehovah's Witnesses* Mormonism* Pentecostalism* Bábism* Bahá'í Faith* Spiritualism* History of Spiritism* Thelema* Ahmadiyya* Nation of Islam" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* * " ], [ "Further reading", " Armstrong, Karen.", "''A History of God: The 4,000-Year Quest of Judaism, Christianity and Islam'' (1994) excerpt and text search* Armstrong, Karen.", "''Islam: A Short History'' (2002) excerpt and text search* Bowker, John Westerdale, ed.", "''The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions'' (2007) excerpt and text search 1126pp* Carus, Paul.", "''The history of the devil and the idea of evil: from the earliest times to the present day'' (1899) full text* Eliade, Mircea, and Joan P. Culianu.", "''The HarperCollins Concise Guide to World Religion: The A-to-Z Encyclopedia of All the Major Religious Traditions'' (1999) covers 33 principal religions, including Buddhism, Christianity, Jainism, Judaism, Islam, Shinto, Shamanism, Taoism, South American religions, Baltic and Slavic religions, Confucianism, and the religions of Africa and Oceania.", "** Eliade, Mircea ed.", "''Encyclopedia of Religion'' (16 vol.", "1986; 2nd ed 15 vol.", "2005; online at Gale Virtual Reference Library).", "3300 articles in 15,000 pages by 2000 experts.", "* Ellwood, Robert S. and Gregory D. Alles.", "''The Encyclopedia of World Religions'' (2007), p 528; for middle schools* Gilley, Sheridan; Shiels, W. J.", "''History of Religion in Britain: Practice and Belief from Pre-Roman Times to the Present'' (1994), p.", "590.", "* * Marshall, Peter.", "\"(Re)defining the English Reformation,\" ''Journal of British Studies,'' July 2009, Vol.", "48#3 pp 564–586* Rüpke, Jörg, ''Religion'', EGO – European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2020, retrieved: March 8, 2021.", "* Schultz, Kevin M.; Harvey, Paul.", "\"Everywhere and Nowhere: Recent Trends in American Religious History and Historiography,\" ''Journal of the American Academy of Religion,'' March 2010, Vol.", "78#1 pp.", "129–162* Wilson, John F. ''Religion and the American Nation: Historiography and History'' (2003) p. 119." ], [ "External links", "* Historyofreligions.com* The history of religious and philosophical ideas, in ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas* History of Religion as flash animation* The history and origins of world religions depicted as a navigable tree" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "House music" ], [ "Introduction", "'''House''' is a genre of electronic dance music characterized by a repetitive four-on-the-floor beat and a typical tempo of 120-130 beats per minute as a re-emergence of 1970s disco.", "It was created by DJs and music producers from Chicago's underground club culture and evolved slowly in the early/mid 1980s as DJs began altering disco songs to give them a more mechanical beat.", "By early 1988, House became mainstream and supplanted the typical 80s music beat.House was created and pioneered by DJs and producers in Chicago such as Frankie Knuckles, Ron Hardy, Jesse Saunders, Chip E., Joe Smooth, Steve \"Silk\" Hurley, Farley \"Jackmaster\" Funk, Marshall Jefferson, Phuture, and others.", "House music initially expanded internationally, to London, then to other American cities, such as New York City, and ultimately a worldwide phenomenon.House has a large influence on pop music, especially dance music.", "It was incorporated into works by major international artists including Whitney Houston, Mariah Carey, Janet Jackson, Madonna, Pet Shop Boys, Kylie Minogue and Lady Gaga, and also produced many mainstream hits such as \"Pump Up the Jam\" by Technotronic, \"French Kiss\" by Lil Louis, \"Show Me Love\" by Robin S., and \"Push the Feeling On\" by the Nightcrawlers.", "Many house DJs also did and continue to do remixes for pop artists.", "House music has remained popular on radio and in clubs while retaining a foothold on the underground scenes across the globe." ], [ "Characteristics", "A house rhythm played on a Roland TR-909 drum machine, featuring a four-on-the-floor bass drum plus cymbal, claps, hi-hats and rimshotsIn its most typical form, the genre is characterized by repetitive 4/4 rhythms including bass drums, off-beat hi-hats, snare drums, claps, and/or snaps at a tempo of between 120 and 130 beats per minute (bpm); synthesizer riffs; deep basslines; and often, but not necessarily, sung, spoken or sampled vocals.", "In house, the bass drum is usually sounded on beats one, two, three, and four, and the snare drum, claps, or other higher-pitched percussion on beats two and four.", "The drum beats in house music are almost always provided by an electronic drum machine, often a Roland TR-808, TR-909, or a TR-707.Claps, shakers, snare drum, or hi-hat sounds are used to add syncopation.", "One of the signature rhythm riffs, especially in early Chicago house, is built on the clave pattern.", "Congas and bongos may be added for an African sound, or metallic percussion for a Latin feel.Sometimes, the drum sounds are \"saturated\" by boosting the gain to create a more aggressive edge.", "One classic subgenre, acid house, is defined through the squelchy sounds created by the Roland TB-303 bass synthesizer.", "House music could be produced on \"cheap and consumer-friendly electronic equipment\" and used sound gear, which made it easier for independent labels and DJs to create tracks.", "The electronic drum machines and other gear used by house DJs and producers were formerly considered \"too cheap-sounding\" by \"proper\" musicians.", "House music producers typically use sampled instruments, rather than bringing session musicians into a recording studio.", "Even though a key element of house production is layering sounds, such as drum machine beats, samples, synth basslines, and so on, the overall \"texture...is relatively sparse\".", "Unlike pop songs, which emphasize higher-pitched sounds like melody, in house music, the lower-pitched bass register is most important.House tracks typically involve an intro, a chorus, various verse sections, a midsection, and a brief outro.", "Some tracks do not have a verse, taking a vocal part from the chorus and repeating the same cycle.", "House music tracks are often based on eight-bar sections which are repeated.", "They are often built around bass-heavy loops or basslines produced by a synthesizer and/or around samples of disco, soul, jazz-funk, or funk songs.", "DJs and producers creating a house track to be played in clubs may make a \"seven or eight-minute 12-inch mix\"; if the track is intended to be played on the radio, a \"three-and-a-half-minute\" radio edit is used.", "House tracks build up slowly, by adding layers of sound and texture, and by increasing the volume.House tracks may have vocals like a pop song, but some are \"completely minimal instrumental music\".", "If a house track does have vocals, the vocal lines may also be simple \"words or phrases\" that are repeated." ], [ "Origins of the term \"house\"", "House music pioneers Alan King, Robert Williams and Derrick Carter.One book from 2009 states the name \"house music\" originated from a Chicago club called the Warehouse that was open from 1977 to 1982.Clubbers to the Warehouse were primarily black men, who came to dance to music played by the club's resident DJ, Frankie Knuckles, who fans refer to as the \"godfather of house\".", "Frankie began the trend of splicing together different records when he found that the records he had were not long enough to satisfy his audience of dancers.", "After the Warehouse closed in 1983, eventually the crowds went to Knuckles' new club, The Power House, later to be called The Power Plant, and the club was renamed, yet again, into Music Box with Ron Hardy as the resident DJ.", "The 1986 documentary, \"House Music in Chicago\", by filmmaker, Phil Ranstrom, captured opening night at The Power House, and stands as the only film or video to capture a young Frankie Knuckles in this early era, right after his departure from The Warehouse.In the Channel 4 documentary ''Pump Up the Volume'', Knuckles remarks that the first time he heard the term \"house music\" was upon seeing \"we play house music\" on a sign in the window of a bar on Chicago's South Side.", "One of the people in the car joked, \"you know that's the kind of music you play down at the Warehouse!\"", "In self-published statements, South-Side Chicago DJ Leonard \"Remix\" Rroy claimed he put such a sign in a tavern window because it was where he played music that one might find in one's home; in his case, it referred to his mother's soul and disco records, which he worked into his sets.Chicago house artist Farley \"Jackmaster\" Funk was quoted as saying, \"In 1982, I was DJing at a club called The Playground and there was this kid named Leonard 'Remix' Rroy who was a DJ at a rival club called The Rink.", "He came over to my club one night, and into the DJ booth and said to me, 'I've got the gimmick that's gonna take all the people out of your club and into mine – it's called House music.'", "Now, where he got that name from or what made him think of it I don't know, so the answer lies with him.", "\"Chicago artist Chip E.'s 1985 song \"It's House\" may also have helped to define this new form of electronic music.", "However, Chip E. himself lends credence to the Knuckles association, claiming the name came from methods of labeling records at the Importes Etc.", "record store, where he worked in the early 1980s.", "Bins of music that DJ Knuckles played at the Warehouse nightclub were labelled \"As Heard at the Warehouse\" in the store, which was shortened to simply \"House\".", "Patrons later asked for new music for the bins, which Chip E. implies was a demand the shop tried to meet by stocking newer local club hits.In a 1986 interview, when Rocky Jones, the club DJ who ran Chicago-based DJ International Records, was asked about the \"house\" moniker, he did not mention Importes Etc., Frankie Knuckles, or the Warehouse by name.", "However, he agreed that \"house\" was a regional catch-all term for dance music, and that it was once synonymous with older disco music before it became a way to refer to \"new\" dance music.Larry Heard, a.k.a.", "\"Mr.", "Fingers\", claims that the term \"house\" came from DJs creating music in their house or at home using synthesizers and drum machines, such as the Roland TB-303, Roland TR-808, and TR-909.These synthesizers were used to create the acid house subgenre.", "Juan Atkins, a pioneer of Detroit techno, claims the term \"house\" reflected the association of particular tracks with particular clubs and DJs, considered their \"house\" records." ], [ "Dance style", "At least three styles of dancing are associated with early house music: jacking, footwork and lofting.", "These styles include a variety of techniques and sub-styles, including skating, stomping, vosho, pouting cat, and shuffle steps (also see Melbourne shuffle).", "House music dancing styles can include movements from many other forms of dance, such as waacking, voguing, capoeira, jazz dance, Lindy Hop, tap dance, and even modern dance.", "House dancing is associated with a complete freedom of expression.One of the primary elements in house dancing is \"the jack\" or \"jacking\" — a style created in the early days of Chicago house that left its trace in numerous record titles such as \"Time to Jack\" by Chip E. from the ''Jack Trax'' EP (1985), \"Jack'n the House\" (1985) by Farley \"Jackmaster\" Funk (1985) or \"Jack Your Body\" by Steve \"Silk\" Hurley (1986).", "It involves moving the torso forward and backward in a rippling motion matching the beat of the music, as if a wave were passing through it." ], [ "Social and political aspects", "Early house lyrics contained generally positive, uplifting messages, but spoke especially to those who were considered to be outsiders, especially African Americans, Latinos, and the gay subculture.", "The house music dance scene was one of the most integrated and progressive spaces in the 1980s; the black and gay populations, as well as other minority groups, were able to dance together in a positive environment.House music DJs aimed to create a \"dream world of emotions\" with \"stories, keywords and sounds\", which helped to \"glue\" communities together.", "Many house tracks encourage the audience to \"release yourself\" or \"let yourself go\", which is further encouraged by the continuous dancing, \"incessant beat\", and use of club drugs, which can create a trance-like effect on dancers.", "Frankie Knuckles once said that the Warehouse club in Chicago was like \"church for people who have fallen from grace\".", "House record producer Marshall Jefferson compared it to \"old-time religion in the way that people just get happy and screamin.", "The role of a house DJ has been compared to a \"secular type of priest\".Some house lyrics contained messages calling for equality, unity, and freedom of expression beyond racial or sexual differences (e.g.", "\"Can You Feel It\" by Fingers Inc., 1987, or \"Follow Me\" by Aly-Us, 1992).", "Later on in the 1990s, independently from the Chicago scene, the idea of Peace, Love, Unity & Respect (PLUR) became a widespread set of principles for the rave culture." ], [ "History", "=== Influences and precursors ===One of the main influences of house was disco, house music having been defined as a genre which \"...picked up where disco left off in the late 1970's.\"", "Like disco DJs, house DJs used a \"slow mix\" to \"link records together\" into a mix.", "In the post-disco club culture during the early 1980s, DJs from the gay scene made their tracks \"less pop-oriented\", with a more mechanical, repetitive beat and deeper basslines, and many tracks were made without vocals, or with wordless melodies.", "Disco became so popular by the late 1970s that record companies pushed even non-disco artists (R&B and soft rock acts, for example) to record disco songs.", "When the backlash against disco started, known as \"Disco Demolition Night\", held in Chicago, ironically the city where house music would be created a few years later, dance music went from being produced by major labels to being created by DJs in the underground club scene.", "That is until several years later by 1988, when major labels would begin signing acts from this new dance genre.While disco was associated with lush orchestration, with string orchestra, flutes and horn sections, various disco songs incorporated sounds produced with synthesizers and electronic drum machines, and some compositions were entirely electronic; examples include Italian composer Giorgio Moroder's late 1970s productions such as Donna Summer's hit single \"I Feel Love\" from 1977, Kraftwerk's \"'The Man-Machine\" album from 1978, Cerrone's \"Supernature\" (1977), Yellow Magic Orchestra's synth-disco-pop productions from ''Yellow Magic Orchestra'' (1978) or ''Solid State Survivor'' (1979), and several early 1980s productions by hi-NRG groups like Lime, Trans-X and Bobby O.Frankie Knuckles (pictured in 2012) played an important role in developing house music in Chicago during the 1980s.Also important for the development of house were audio mixing and editing techniques earlier explored by disco, garage music and post-disco DJs, record producers, and audio engineers such as Walter Gibbons, Tom Moulton, Jim Burgess, Larry Levan, M & M, and others.While most post-disco disc jockeys primarily stuck to playing their conventional ensemble and playlist of dance records, Frankie Knuckles and Ron Hardy, two influential DJs of house music, were known for their unusual and non-mainstream playlists and mixing.", "Knuckles, often credited as \"the Godfather of House\" and resident DJ at the Warehouse club in Chicago from 1977 to 1982, worked primarily with early disco music with a hint of new and different post-punk or post-disco music.", "Knuckles started out as a disco DJ, but when he moved from New York City to Chicago, he changed from the typical disco mixing style of playing records one after another; instead, he mixed different songs together, including Philadelphia soul and Euro disco.", "He also explored adding a drum machine and a reel-to-reel tape player so he could create new tracks, often with a boosted deep register and faster tempos.", "Knuckles said: \"Kraftwerk were main components in the creation of house music in Chicago.", "Back in the early 80s, I mixed our 80s Philly sound with the electro beats of Kraftwerk and the Electronic body music bands of Europe.", "\"Ron Hardy produced unconventional DIY mixtapes which he later played straight-on in the successor of the Warehouse, the Music Box (reopened and renamed in 1983 after Knuckles left).", "Like Frankie Knuckles, Hardy \"combined certain sounds, remixing tracks with added synths and drum machines\", all \"refracted through the futurist lens of European music.\"", "Marshall Jefferson, who would later appear with the 1986 house classic \"Move Your Body (The House Music Anthem)\" (originally released on Trax Records), describes how he got involved in house music after hearing Ron Hardy's music in the Music Box:A precursor to house music is the Colonel Abrams hit song \"Trapped\", which was produced by Richard James Burgess in 1984 and has been referred to as a proto-house track and a precursor to garage house.Rachel Cain, better known as Screamin' Rachael, co-founder of the highly influential house label Trax Records, was previously involved in the burgeoning punk scene.", "Cain cites industrial music (another genre pioneered in Chicago) and post-punk record store Wax Trax!", "Records (later a record label) as an important connection between the ever-changing underground sounds of Chicago.The electronic instrumentation and minimal arrangement of Charanjit Singh's ''Synthesizing: Ten Ragas to a Disco Beat'' (1982), an album of Indian ragas performed in a disco style and anticipated the sounds of acid house music, but it is not known to have had any influence on the genre prior to the album's rediscovery in the 21st century.", "According to Hillegonda C. Rietveld, \"elements of hip hop and rap can be found in contemporary house tracks\", with hip hop acting as an \"accent or inflection\" that is inserted into the house sound.The constant bass drum in house music may have arisen from DJs experimenting with adding drum machines to their live mixes at clubs, underneath the records they were playing.=== 1980s: Chicago house, acid house and deep house ===An honorary street name sign in Chicago for house music and the seminal DJ Frankie Knuckles.In the early 1980s, Chicago radio jocks Hot Mix 5 from WBMX radio station (among them Farley \"Jackmaster\" Funk), and club DJs Ron Hardy and Frankie Knuckles played a range of styles of dance music, including older disco records (mostly Philly disco and Salsoul tracks), electro funk tracks by artists such as Afrika Bambaataa, newer Italo disco, Arthur Baker, and John Robie, and electronic pop.", "Some DJs made and played their own edits of their favorite songs on reel-to-reel tape, and sometimes mixed in electronic effects, drum machines, synthesizers and other rhythmic electronic instrumentation.The hypnotic electronic dance song \"On and On\", produced in 1984 by Chicago DJ Jesse Saunders and co-written by Vince Lawrence, had typical elements of the early house sound, such as the Roland TB-303 bass synthesizer and minimal vocals, as well as a Roland TR-808 drum machine and a Korg Poly-61 synthesizer.", "It also utilized the bassline from Player One's disco record \"Space Invaders\" (1979).", "\"On and On\" is sometimes cited as the \"first house record\", even though it was a remake of a Disco Bootleg \"On and On\" by Florida producer Mach.", "Other examples from around that time, such as J.M.", "Silk's \"Music is the Key\" (1985), have also been referred to as the first house tracks.Starting in 1985 and 1986, more and more Chicago DJs began producing and releasing original compositions.", "These compositions used newly affordable electronic instruments and enhanced styles of disco and other dance music they already favored.", "These homegrown productions were played on Chicago radio stations and in local clubs catering mainly to Black, Mexican American, and gay audiences.", "Subgenres of house, including deep house and acid house, quickly emerged and gained traction.Deep house's origins can be traced to Chicago producer Mr.", "Fingers's relatively jazzy, soulful recordings \"Mystery of Love\" (1985) and \"Can You Feel It?\"", "(1986).", "According to author Richie Unterberger, it moved house music away from its \"posthuman tendencies back towards the lush\" soulful sound of early disco music.Acid house, a rougher and more abstract subgenre, arose from Chicago artists' experiments with the squelchy sounds of the Roland TB-303 bass synthesizer that define the genre.", "Its origin on vinyl is generally cited as Phuture's \"Acid Tracks\" (Trax Records, 1987).", "Phuture, a group founded by Nathan \"DJ Pierre\" Jones, Earl \"Spanky\" Smith Jr., and Herbert \"Herb J\" Jackson, is credited with having been the first to use the TB-303 in the house music context.", "The group's 12-minute \"Acid Tracks\" was recorded to tape and played by DJ Ron Hardy at the Music Box, supposedly already by 1985.Hardy once played it four times over the course of an evening until the crowd responded favorably.Club play of house tracks by pioneering Chicago DJs such as Ron Hardy and Lil Louis, local dance music record shops such as Importes Etc., State Street Records, Loop Records, Gramaphone Records and the popular Hot Mix 5 shows on radio station WBMX-FM helped popularize house music in Chicago.", "Later, visiting DJs and producers from Detroit fell into the genre.", "Trax Records and DJ International Records, Chicago labels with wider distribution, helped popularize house music inside and outside of Chicago.The first major success of house music outside the U.S. is considered to be Farley \"Jackmaster\" Funk's \"Love Can't Turn Around\" (feat.", "Jesse Saunders and performed by Darryl Pandy), which peaked at #10 in the UK singles chart in 1986.Around that time, UK record labels started releasing house music by Chicago acts, but as the genre grew popular, the UK itself became one of the new hot spots for house, acid house and techno music, experiencing the so-called second summer of love between 1988 and 1989.==== Detroit and techno ====In Detroit during the early and mid-1980s, a new kind of electronic dance music began to emerge around Juan Atkins, Derrick May and Kevin Saunderson, known as the Belleville Three.", "The artists fused eclectic, futuristic sounds into a signature Detroit dance sound that was a main influence for the later techno genre.", "Their music included strong influences from Chicago house, although the term \"house\" played a less important role in Detroit than in Chicago, and the term \"techno\" was established instead.", "One of their most successful hits was a vocal house track named \"Big Fun\" by Inner City, a group produced by Kevin Saunderson, in 1988.Another major and even earlier influence on the Detroit artists was electronic music in the tradition of Germany's Kraftwerk.", "Atkins had released electro music in that style with his group Cybotron as early as 1981.Cybotron's best known songs are \"Cosmic Cars\" (1982) and \"Clear\" (1983); a 1984 release was titled \"Techno City\".", "In 1988, Atkins produced the track \"Techno Music\", which was featured on an influential compilation that was initially planned to be named \"The House Sound of Detroit\", but was renamed into \"Techno!", "The New Dance Sound of Detroit\" after Atkins' song.The 1987 song \"Strings of Life\" by Derrick May (under the name Rhythm Is Rhythm) represented a darker, more intellectual strain of early Detroit electronic dance music.", "It is considered a classic in both the house and techno genre and shows the connection and the \"boundary between house and techno.\"", "It made way to what was later known as \"techno\" in the internationally known sense of the word, referring to a harder, faster, colder, more machine-driven and minimal sound than house, as played by Detroit's Underground Resistance and Jeff Mills.==== UK: Acid house, rave culture and the Second Summer of Love ====A badge bearing a smiley, a symbol of the 1980s acid house scene in the UKWith house music already important in the 1980s dance club scene, eventually house penetrated the UK singles chart.", "London DJ \"Evil\" Eddie Richards spun at dance parties as resident at the Clink Street club.", "Richards' approach to house focuses on the deep basslines.", "Nicknamed the UK's \"Godfather of House\", he and Clink co-residents Kid Batchelor and Mr. C played a key role in early UK house.", "House first charted in the UK in Wolverhampton following the success of the Northern Soul scene.", "The record generally credited as the first house hit in the UK was Farley \"Jackmaster\" Funk's \"Love Can't Turn Around\", which reached #10 in the UK singles chart in September 1986.In January 1987, Chicago DJ/artist Steve \"Silk\" Hurley's \"Jack Your Body\" reached number one in the UK, showing it was possible for house music to achieve crossover success in the main singles chart.", "The same month also saw Raze enter the top 20 with \"Jack the Groove\", and several other house hits reached the top ten that year.", "Stock Aitken Waterman (SAW) expensively-produced productions for Mel and Kim, including the number-one hit \"Respectable\", added elements of house to their previous Europop sound.", "SAW session group Mirage scored top-ten hits with \"Jack Mix II\" and \"Jack Mix IV\", medleys of previous electro and Europop hits rearranged in a house music style.", "Key labels in the rise of house music in the UK included:* Jack Trax, which specialized in licensing US club hits for the British market (and released an influential series of compilation albums)* Rhythm King, which was set up as a hip hop label but also issued house records* Jive Records' Club Records imprintIn March 1987, the UK tour of influential US DJs such as Knuckles, Jefferson, Fingers Inc. (Heard), and Adonis on the DJ International Tour boosted house's popularity in the UK.", "Following the success of MARRS' \"Pump Up The Volume\" in October, from 1987 to 1989, UK acts such as The Beatmasters, Krush, Coldcut, Yazz, Bomb The Bass, S-Express, and Italy's Black Box opened the doors to house music success on the UK charts.", "Early British house music quickly set itself apart from the original Chicago house sound.", "Many of the early hits were based on sample montage, and unlike the US soulful vocals, in UK house, rap was often used for vocals (far more than in the US), and humor and wit was an important element.The second best-selling British single of 1988 was an acid house record, the Coldcut-produced \"The Only Way Is Up\" by Yazz.", "One of the early club anthems, \"Promised Land\" by Joe Smooth, was covered and charted within a week by UK band The Style Council.", "Europeans embraced house, and began booking important American house DJs to play at the big clubs, such as Ministry of Sound, whose resident, Justin Berkmann brought in US pioneer Larry Levan.The house music club scene in cities such as Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield, Wolverhampton, and London were provided with dance tracks by many underground pirate radio stations.", "Club DJs also brought in new house styles, which helped bolster this music genre.", "The earliest UK house and techno record labels, such as Warp Records and Network Records (formed out of Kool Kat records), helped introduce American and later Italian dance music to Britain.", "These labels also promoted UK dance music acts.", "By the end of the 1980s, UK DJs Jenö, Thomas, Markie and Garth moved to San Francisco and called their group the Wicked Crew.", "The Wicked Crew's dance sound transmitted UK styles to the US, which helped to trigger the birth of the US west coast's rave scene.The manager of Manchester's Factory nightclub and co-owner of The Haçienda, Tony Wilson, also promoted acid house culture on his weekly TV show.", "The UK midlands also embraced the late 1980s house scene with illegal parties and raves and more legal dance clubs such as The Hummingbird.==== Chicago's second wave: Hip house and ghetto house ====While the acid house hype spawned in the UK and Europe, in Chicago it reached its peak around 1988 and then declined in popularity.", "Instead, a crossover of house and hip-hop music, known as hip house, became popular.", "Tyree Cooper's single \"Turn Up the Bass\" featuring Kool Rock Steady from 1988 was an influential breakthrough for this subgenre, although the British trio the Beatmasters claimed having invented the genre with their 1986 release \"Rok da House\".", "Another notable figure in the hip house scene was Fast Eddie with \"Hip House\" and \"Yo Yo Get Funky!\"", "(both 1988).", "Even Farley \"Jackmaster\" Funk engaged in the genre, releasing \"Free at Last\", a song to free James Brown from jail that featured The Hip House Syndicate, in 1989, and producing a ''Real Hip House'' compilation on his label, House Records, in 1990.The early 1990s saw new Chicago house artists emerge, such as Armando Gallop, who had released seminal acid house records since 1987, but became even more influential by co-founding the new Warehouse nightclub in Chicago (on 738 W. Randolph Street) in which he also was resident DJ from 1992 until 1994, and founding Warehouse Records in 1988.Another important figure during the early to mid-1990s and until the 2000s was DJ and producer Paul Johnson, who released the Warehouse-anthem \"Welcome to the Warehouse\" on Armando's label in 1994 in collaboration with Armando himself.", "He also had part in the development of an entirely new kind of Chicago house sound, \"ghetto house\", which was prominently released and popularized through the Dance Mania record label.", "It was originally founded by Jesse Saunders in 1985 but passed on to Raymond Barney in 1988.It featured notable ghetto house artists like DJ Funk, DJ Deeon, DJ Milton, Paul Johnson and others.", "The label is regarded as hugely influential in the history of Chicago house music, and has been described as \"ghetto house's Motown\".One of the prototypes for Dance Mania's new ghetto house sound was the single \"(It's Time for the) Percolator\" by Cajmere, also known as Green Velvet, from 1992.Cajmere started the labels Cajual Records and Relief Records, the latter combining the sound of Chicago, acid, and ghetto house with the harder sound of techno.", "By the early 1990s, artists of note on those two labels included Dajae, DJ Sneak, Derrick Carter, DJ Rush, Paul Johnson, Joe Lewis, and Glenn Underground.==== New York and New Jersey: Garage house and the \"Jersey sound\" ====Building in New York City where the Paradise Garage nightclub was locatedWhile house became popular in UK and continental Europe, the scene in the US had still not progressed beyond a small number of clubs in Chicago, Detroit, New York City, and Newark.", "In New York and Newark, the terms \"garage house\", \"garage music\", or simply \"garage\", and \"Jersey sound\", or \"New Jersey house\", were coined for a deeper, more soulful, R&B-derived subgenre of house that was developed in the Paradise Garage nightclub in New York City and Club Zanzibar in Newark, New Jersey, during the early-to-mid 1980s.", "It is argued that garage house predates the development of Chicago house, as it is relatively closer to disco than other dance styles.", "As Chicago house gained international popularity, New York and New Jersey's music scene was distinguished from the \"house\" umbrella.In comparison to other forms of house music, garage house, and Jersey sound include more gospel-influenced piano riffs and female vocals.", "The genre was popular in the 1980s in the United States and in the 1990s in the United Kingdom.", "DJs playing it include Tony Humphries at Club Zanzibar, Larry Levan, who was resident DJ at the Paradise Garage from 1977 to 1987, Todd Terry, Kerri Chandler, Masters at Work, Junior Vasquez, and others.In the late 1980s, Nu Groove Records launched and nurtured the careers of Rheji Burrell and Rhano Burrell, collectively known as Burrell (after a brief stay on Virgin America via Timmy Regisford and Frank Mendez).", "Nu Groove also had a stable of other NYC underground scene DJs.", "The Burrells created the \"New York Underground\" sound of house, and they did more than 30 releases on this label featuring this sound.The emergence of New York's DJ and producer Todd Terry in 1988 demonstrated the continuum from the underground disco approach to a new and commercially successful house sound.", "Terry's cover of Class Action's \"Weekend\" (mixed by Larry Levan) shows how Terry drew on newer hip-hop influences, such as the quicker sampling and the more rugged basslines.==== Ibiza ====House was also being developed by DJs and record producers in the booming dance club scene in Ibiza, notably when DJ Alfredo, the father of Balearic house, began his residency at Amnesia in 1983.While no house artists or labels came from Ibiza at the time, mixing experiments and innovations done by Ibiza DJs helped to influence the house style.", "By the mid-1980s, a distinct Balearic mix of house was discernible.", "Several influential clubs in Ibiza, such as Amnesia, with DJ Alfredo at the decks, were playing a mix of rock, pop, disco, and house.", "These clubs, fuelled by their distinctive sound and copious consumption of the club drug Ecstasy (MDMA), began to influence the British scene.", "By late 1987, DJs such as Trevor Fung, Paul Oakenfold and Danny Rampling were bringing the Ibiza sound to key UK clubs such as the Haçienda in Manchester.", "Ibiza influences also spread to DJs working London clubs, such as Shoom in Southwark, Heaven, Future, and Spectrum.==== Other regional scenes ====This photo of a deep house DJ shows the pair of turntables and the DJ mixer in between.By the late 1980s, house DJing and production had moved to the US's west coast, particularly to San Francisco, Oakland, Los Angeles, Fresno, San Diego, and Seattle.", "Los Angeles saw an explosion of underground raves, where DJs mixed dance tracks.", "Los Angeles DJs Marques Wyatt and Billy Long spun at Jewel's Catch One.", "In 1989, the Los-Angeles-based former EBN-OZN singer/rapper Robert Ozn started indie house label One Voice Records.", "Ozn released the Mike \"Hitman\" Wilson remix of Dada Nada's \"Haunted House\", which garnered club and mix show radio play in Chicago, Detroit, and New York as well as in the UK and France.", "The record went up to number five on the ''Billboard'' Club Chart, marking it as the first house record by a white (Caucasian) artist to chart in the US.", "Dada Nada, the moniker for Ozn's solo act, did his first releases in 1990, using a jazz-based deep house style.", "The Frankie Knuckles and David Morales remix of Dada Nada's \"Deep Love\" (One Voice Records in the US, Polydor in the UK), featuring Ozn's lush, crooning vocals and jazzy improvisational solos by muted trumpet, underscored deep house's progression into a genre that integrated jazz and pop songwriting and song forms (unlike acid house and techno).", "The Twilight Zone (1980–89) located on Richmond Street in Toronto's entertainment district was the first after hours club to regularly feature New York and Chicago DJs that first spun house music in Canada.", "The venue was the first international gig destination for both Frankie Knuckles and David Morales.", "One of the club's owners, Tony Assoon, would make regular trips to New York in order to purchase funk, underground disco and house records to play on his regular Saturday night slot.==== The Montreal Scene ====Historically deeply influenced by musical trends coming from England, France, and the US, Montreal has developed a distinct house music scene.Shaped more specifically by the impact of UK's techno scene, France's French Touch movement, and American DJs and club owners such as Angel Moraes, David Morales, and Danny Tenaglia, the city has evolved to become a distinct dance music hub.Ever since the middle of the 1990s and early 2000s, an ever-growing number of house music festivals take place in the city throughout the year, including Igloofest, Nuit blanche, Piknic Electronik, Mutek, Ile Soniq, Montréal Pride, and the Black and Blue festival.==== South Africa ====Kwaito was created during the 1980s, in South Africa during the collapse or near-end of the apartheid regime.It was popularized by the likes of Trompies, Mdu Masilela, Arthur Mafokate, Boom Shaka, Mandoza, Brown Dash, Oskido and many others.", "Brenda Fassie released a song titled, \"Le Kwaito\" and Boom Shaka, Bongo Maffin as well as TKZee performed in London.=== 1990s ===In 1990, Italo house group Black Box's big hit \"Everybody Everybody\" reached US Billboard Hot 100.In Britain, further experiments in the genre boosted its appeal.", "House and rave clubs such as Lakota and Cream emerged across Britain, hosting house and dance scene events.", "The 'chilling out' concept developed in Britain with ambient house albums such as The KLF's ''Chill Out'' and ''Analogue Bubblebath'' by Aphex Twin.", "The Godskitchen superclub brand also began in the midst of the early 1990s rave scene.", "After initially hosting small nights in Cambridge and Northampton, the associated events scaled up at the Sanctuary Music Arena in Milton Keynes, in Birmingham, and in Leeds.", "A new indie dance scene also emerged in the 1990s.", "In New York, bands such as Deee-Lite, with Bootsy Collins, furthered house's international influence.In England, one of the few licensed venues was the Eclipse, which attracted people from up and down the country as it was open until the early hours.", "Due to the lack of licensed, legal dance event venues, house music promoters began organising illegal events in unused warehouses, aeroplane hangars, and in the countryside.", "The Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 was a government attempt to ban large rave dance events featuring music with \"repetitive beats\", due to law enforcement allegations that these events were associated with illegal club drugs.", "There were a number of \"Kill the Bill\" demonstrations by rave and electronic dance music fans.", "The Spiral Tribe dance event at Castle Morten was the last of these illegal raves, as the bill, which became law in November 1994, made unauthorised house music dance events illegal in the UK.", "Despite the new law, the music continued to grow and change, as typified by Leftfield with \"Release the Pressure\", which introduced dub and reggae into the house sound.A new generation of clubs such as Liverpool's Cream and the Ministry of Sound were opened to provide a venue for more commercial house sounds.", "Major record companies began to open \"superclubs\" promoting their own groups and acts.", "These superclubs entered into sponsorship deals initially with fast food, soft drink, and clothing companies.", "Flyers in clubs in Ibiza often sported many corporate logos from sponsors.", "A new subgenre, Chicago hard house, was developed by DJs such as Bad Boy Bill, DJ Lynnwood, DJ Irene, and Richard \"Humpty\" Vission, mixing elements of Chicago house, funky house, and hard house.", "Additionally, producers such as George Centeno, Darren Ramirez, and Martin O. Cairo developed the Los Angeles Hard House sound.", "Similar to gabber or hardcore techno from the Netherlands, this was associated with the \"rebel\", underground club subculture of the time.Towards the end of the 1990s and into the 2000s, French DJ/producers such as Daft Punk, Bob Sinclar, Stardust, Cassius, St. Germain and DJ Falcon began producing a new sound in Paris' club scene.", "Together, they laid the groundwork for what would be known as the French house movement.", "They combined the harder-edged-yet-soulful philosophy of Chicago house with the melodies of obscure funk records.", "By using new digital production techniques blended with the retro sound of old-school analog synthesizers, they created a new sound and style that influenced house music around the world.Afro house (ostensibly or was also simply referred to as 'house') before being categorized or titled as an official sub-genre) was emerging in South Africa ,during or slightly before this period according to various natives especially due to seemingly the emergence simultaneously during or shortly after kwaito and was being popularized globally in various locations such as in the United States.", "Former, kwaito artists such as Oskido and DJ Tira are also associated with, the genre.===2000s===Chicago Mayor Richard M. Daley proclaimed 10 August 2005 to be \"House Unity Day\" in Chicago, in celebration of the \"21st anniversary of house music\" (actually the 21st anniversary of the founding of Trax Records, an independent Chicago-based house label).", "The proclamation recognized Chicago as the original home of house music and that the music's original creators \"were inspired by the love of their city, with the dream that someday their music would spread a message of peace and unity throughout the world\".", "DJs such as Frankie Knuckles, Marshall Jefferson, Paul Johnson, and Mickey Oliver celebrated the proclamation at the Summer Dance Series, an event organized by Chicago's Department of Cultural Affairs.It was during this decade that vocal house became firmly established, both in the underground and as part of the pop market, and labels such as Defected Records, Roulé, and Om were at the forefront of the emerging sound.", "In the mid-2000s, fusion genres such as electro house and fidget house emerged.", "This fusion is apparent in the crossover of musical styles by artists such as Dennis Ferrer and Booka Shade, with the former's production style having evolved from the New York soulful house scene and the latter's roots in techno.", "Numerous live performance events dedicated to house music were founded during the course of the decade, including Shambhala Music Festival and major industry sponsored events like Miami's Winter Music Conference.", "The genre even gained popularity through events like Creamfields.", "In the late 2000s, house style witnessed renewed chart success thanks to acts such as Daft Punk, Deadmau5, Fedde Le Grand, David Guetta, and Calvin Harris.Afro house increased in popularity in other regions such as London and the genre's solidified emergence accelerated, resulting in it becoming preeminent, it also appeared to have been attributed to \"giving rise to\" the UK funky, scene.===2010s===Swedish House Mafia and Italian DJ Benny Benassi performing in 2011.During the 2010s, multiple new sounds in house music were developed by DJs, producers, and artists.", "Sweden pioneered the \"Festival progressive house\" genre with the emergence of Sebastian Ingrosso, Axwell, and Steve Angello.", "While all three artists had solo careers, when they formed a trio called Swedish House Mafia, it showed that house could still produce chart-topping hits, such as their 2012 single \"Don't You Worry Child\", which cracked the Billboard top 10.Avicii was a Swedish DJ/artist known for his hits such as \"Hey Brother\", \"Wake Me Up\", \"Addicted to You\", \"The Days\", \"The Nights\", \"Levels\", \"Waiting for Love\", \"Without You\", and \"I Could Be the One\" with Nicky Romero.", "Fellow Swedish DJ/artist Alesso collaborated with Calvin Harris, Usher, and David Guetta.", "In France, Justice blended garage and alternative rock influences into their pop-infused house tracks, creating a big and funky sound.During the 2010s, in the UK and in the US, many records labels stayed true to the original house music sound from the 1980s.", "It includes labels like Dynamic Music, Defected Records, Dirtybird, Fuse London, Exploited, Pampa, Cajual Records, Hot Creations, Get Physical, and Pets Recordings.From the Netherlands coalesced the concept of \"Dirty Dutch\", an electro house subgenre characterized by abrasive lead synths and darker arpeggios, with prominent DJs being Chuckie, Hardwell, Laidback Luke, Afrojack, R3hab, Bingo Players, Quintino, and Alvaro.", "Elsewhere, fusion genres derivative of 2000s progressive house returned, especially with the help of DJs/artists Calvin Harris, Eric Prydz, Mat Zo, Above & Beyond, and Fonzerelli in Europe.Avicii in 2011 in ParisDiplo, a DJ/producer from Tupelo, Mississippi, blended underground sounds with mainstream styles.", "As he came from the southern US, Diplo fused house music with rap and dance/pop, while also integrating more obscure southern US genres.", "Other North Americans playing house music include the Canadian Deadmau5 (known for his unusual mask and unique musical style), Kaskade, Steve Aoki, Porter Robinson, and Wolfgang Gartner.", "The growing popularity of such artists led to the emergence of electro house and progressive house sounds in popular music, such as singles like David Guetta feat.", "Avicii's \"Sunshine\" and Axwell's remix of \"In The Air\".Big room house became increasingly popular since 2010, through international dance music festivals such as Tomorrowland, Ultra Music Festival, and Electric Daisy Carnival.", "In addition to these popular examples of house, there has also been a reunification of contemporary house and its roots.", "Many hip hop and R&B artists also turned to house music to add a mass appeal and dance floor energy to the music they produce.", "Tropical house went onto the top 40 on the UK singles Chart in 2015 with artists such as Kygo and Jonas Blue.", "In the mid-2010s, the influences of house began to also be seen in Korean K-pop music, examples of this being f(x)'s single \"4 Walls\" and SHINee's title track, \"View\".Later in the 2010s, a more traditional house sound came to the forefront of the mainstream in the UK, with Calvin Harris's singles \"One Kiss\" and \"Promises\", with the latter also incorporating elements of nu-disco and Italo house.", "These singles both went to No.1 in the UK.Gqom was developed from kwaito predominantly in Durban, it was popularized globally as artists who popularized and pioneered the genre for instance Babes Wodumo and Distruction Boyz were nominated for the MTV Europe Music Award for Best African Act, collaborated with Major Lazer, featured on the Black Panther (soundtrack) and DJ Lag ,The Lion King: The Gift, album.Afro tech presumably began to initially emerge as artists like Black Coffee for example ostensibly started experimenting with what appeared to be a departed sound, similar to afro house however lead by a more techno-like, sound.", "Moreover, seemingly definitely not conventional techno nor deep house such as demonstrated in the song \"We Dance Again\" featuring Nakhane.", "The song won the Breakthrough of the Year award at the DJ Awards.", "The genre is both a sub-genre as well as fusion genre of afro house, there are also opinions that it is \"still\",afro house.===2020s===Drake (pictured in 2016) released a house album ''Honestly, Nevermind'' in 2022.In the late 2010s and early 2020s, exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic, one of the South African offshoots of house music, called amapiano, became popular first in South Africa, and then later spread to London and elsewhere worldwide, largely due to online music distribution.", "Amapiano draws heavily from earlier kwaito house music of South Africa and from jazz and chill-out music.", "In 2022, the music portal Beatport added an \"amapiano\" genre to its catalogue.During the late 2010s and early 2020s and partially due to YouTube music channels, closely related house subgenres Brazilian bass and slap house became popular worldwide, drawing from deep house and menacing basslines of tech house.Fred Again, United Kingdom-born DJ, released a song in 2021 called Marea (we’ve lost dancing) about the pandemic.", "He wrote this song to express his sadness about losing the house music scene including clubs, music festivals, and being able to dance with one another.", "This is another example of how COVID-19 affected the house music scene.In 2019, the DJ Awards introduced an additional new Afro house, category.", "Da Capo won the award.In 2020, American singer Lady Gaga released ''Chromatica'', which was her return to her dance roots towards deep house, french house, electro house, and disco house.In 2022, Canadian rapper Drake released ''Honestly, Nevermind'', which was a departure from his signature hip hop, R&B, and trap music sound, and moved towards house music and its derivativates: Jersey club, and ballroom.", "South African, artist Black Coffee and German music producers, collective Keinemusik(Crue/Kloud) were amongst the list of co-producers on the album.", "American singer Beyoncé's album ''Renaissance'', also released in 2022, incorporated ballroom house." ], [ "See also", "* List of electronic music genres* List of house music artists* Styles of house music* Music of the United States" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Bidder, Sean (2002).", "''Pump Up the Volume: A History of House Music'', London: MacMillan.", "* Bidder, Sean (1999).", "''The Rough Guide to House Music'', Rough Guides.", "* Brewster, Bill/Frank Broughton (2000).", "''Last Night a DJ Saved My Life: The History of the Disc Jockey'', Grove Press.", ".", "UK edition: Headline 1999/2006.", "* Fikentscher, Kai (2000).", "'''You Better Work!'", "Underground Dance Music in New York City.''", "Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press.", "* Hewitt, Michael (2008).", "''Music Theory for Computer Musicians''.", "1st Ed.", "U.S. Cengage Learning.", "* Kempster, Chris (Ed) (1996).", "''History of House'', Castle Communications.", "(A reprinting of magazine articles from the 1980s and 90s)* Mireille, Silcott (1999).", "''Rave America: New School Dancescapes'', ECW Press.", "* Reynolds, Simon (1998).", "''Energy Flash: a Journey Through Rave Music and Dance Culture'', (UK title, Pan Macmillan.", "), also released in U.S. as ''Generation Ecstasy : Into the World of Techno and Rave Culture'', London/New York: Routledge 1999.", "* Rietveld, Hillegonda C. (1998).", "''This is our House: House Music, Cultural Spaces and Technologies'', Aldershot Ashgate.", "Reissue: London/New York: Routledge 2018/2020.", "* Shapiro, Peter (2000).", "''Modulations: A History of Electronic Music: Throbbing Words on Sound''.", ".", "* Snoman, Rick (2009).", "''The Dance Music Manual: Tools, Toys, and Techniques — Second Edition'': Chapter 11: House.", "Oxford, UK: Elsevier Press.", "p. 231–249." ], [ "External links", "* Barry Walters: Burning Down the House.", "SPIN magazine, November 1986.", "* Phil Cheeseman: The History of House.", "DJ Magazine (28 December 2003)* Tim Lawrence: Acid ⎯ Can You Jack?", "– Liner notes on the early history of house (2005)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hanover, New Hampshire" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hanover''' is a town located along the Connecticut River in Grafton County, New Hampshire, United States.", "As of the 2020 census, its population was 11,870.The town is home to the Ivy League university Dartmouth College, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, and Hanover High School.", "The Appalachian Trail crosses the town, connecting with a number of trails and nature preserves.Most of the population resides in the Hanover census-designated place (CDP)—the main village of the town.", "Located at the junctions of New Hampshire routes 10, 10A, and 120, the Hanover CDP recorded a population of 9,078 people at the 2020 census.", "The town also contains the smaller villages of Etna and Hanover Center." ], [ "History", "Hanover was chartered by Governor Benning Wentworth on July 4, 1761, and in 1765–1766 its first European inhabitants arrived, the majority from Connecticut.", "Although the surface is uneven, the town developed into an agricultural community.", "Dartmouth College was established in 1769 beside the town common at a village called \"the Plain\"—an extensive and level tract of land a mile (1.6 kilometers) from the Connecticut River, and about above it.At one point in its history, the southwest corner of Hanover, site of \"The Plain\", was known as \"Dresden\", which in the 1780s joined other disgruntled New Hampshire towns along the Connecticut River that briefly defected to what was then the independent Vermont Republic.", "After various political posturings, however, the towns returned to New Hampshire at the heated insistence of George Washington.", "One remnant of this era is that the name \"Dresden\" is still used in the Dresden School District, an interstate school district serving both Hanover and Norwich, Vermont—the first and one of the few interstate school districts in the nation.The film ''Winter Carnival'' (1939) was shot in Hanover.=== Etymology ===\"Hannover\" (with a double n, as it was spelled in the 1761 charter and in its German original form as well) was named either after a local parish in Sprague, Connecticut, or after the German House of Hanover (which originated in 1635 as a cadet branch of the House of Brunswick-Lüneburg when George, Duke of Brunswick moved to the city of Hannover) in honor of the reigning British-Hanoverian king, George III.", "Today, the original Hannover is the capital and largest city of Lower Saxony, the second-largest state in Germany.", "The name of the German city is thought to derive from the Low German form of what is \"\" in German, which translates into \"high shore\" in English, and describes the high shore of the Leine river at the site, and at the time, of the first known settlement (near today's street ).While it is likely that the name \"Dresden\" derived from Dresden in Germany, it has also been suggested that it could derive directly from the old Sorbian word ''drezg'' (\"forest\") or ''Drezd'ane'', for an inhabitant of a forest." ], [ "Geography", "According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of , of which are land and are water, comprising 2.21% of the town.", "The primary settlement in Hanover, where over 75% of the town's population resides, is in the southwest corner of the town and is defined as the Hanover census-designated place (CDP).", "It contains the areas around Dartmouth College and the intersections of New Hampshire Routes 10, 10A, and 120.The CDP has a total area of , of which are land and are water.Hanover borders the towns of Lyme, Canaan, and Enfield, New Hampshire; Norwich, Vermont; and the city of Lebanon, New Hampshire.", "Inside the limits of Hanover are the small rural villages of Etna and Hanover Center.The highest point in Hanover is the north peak of Moose Mountain, at above sea level.", "Hanover lies fully within the Connecticut River watershed.There are a number of trails and nature preserves in Hanover, and the majority of these trails are suitable for snowshoes and cross-country skis.", "The Velvet Rocks Trail, located on the Appalachian Trail, has a number of rock climbing and bouldering spots.===Climate===According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Hanover has a warm-summer humid continental climate, abbreviated \"Dfb\" on climate maps.", "The hottest temperature recorded in Hanover was on August 2, 1975, while the coldest temperature recorded was on February 16, 1943." ], [ "Demographics", "As of the census of 2020, there were 11,870 people, 3,119 households, and 1,797 families residing in the town.", "The population density was .", "There were 3,278 housing units at an average density of .", "The racial makeup of the town was 81.0% White, 3.4% Black, 0.8% Native American, 10.8% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 0.7% from other races, and 3.2% from two or more races.", "Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.9% of the population.There were 3,119 households, out of which 27.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.5% were married couples living together, 4.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 42.4% were non-families.", "31.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.37 and the average family size was 2.95.In the town, the population was spread out, with 27.8% at or under the age of 19, 25.5% from 20 to 24, 14.4% from 25 to 44, 18.6% from 45 to 64, and 13.7% who were 65 years of age or older.", "The median age was 23 years.For the period 2010–2014, the estimated median income for a household in the town was $94,063, and the median income for a family was $129,000.Male full-time workers had a median income of $87,550 versus $53,141 for females.", "The per capita income for the town was $34,140.About 2.0% of families and 12.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.4% of those under age 18 and 4.8% of those age 65 or over." ], [ "Government", "+ '''Hanover town vote by party in presidential elections''' YearGOPDEMOthers'''2020'''11.8% ''841'''''87.3%''' ''6,210''0.93% ''66'''''2016'''11.94% ''926'''''84.63%''' ''6,561''3.43% ''266'''''2012'''23.67% ''1,727'''''74.97%''' ''5,469''1.36% ''99'''''2008'''17.67% ''1,328'''''81.69%''' ''6,140''0.64% ''48'''''2004'''21.70% ''1,444'''''77.42%''' ''5,152''0.89% ''59'''''2000'''29.56% ''1,541'''''65.05%''' ''3,391''5.39% ''281'''''1996'''31.71% ''1,424'''''63.16%''' ''2,836''5.12% ''230'''''1992'''25.91% ''1,201'''''62.70%''' ''2,906''11.39% ''528'''''1988'''40.33% ''1,472'''''58.96%''' ''2,152''0.71% ''26'''''1984'''44.17% ''1,501'''''55.50%''' ''1,886''0.33% ''11'''''1980'''33.15% ''1,108'''''34.20%''' ''1,143''32.65% ''1,091'''''1976'''46.17% ''1,483'''''50.25%''' ''1,614''3.58% ''115'''''1972'''39.88% ''1,377'''''59.75%''' ''2,063''0.38% ''13''In the New Hampshire Senate, Hanover is included in the 5th District and is represented by Democrat Suzanne Prentiss.", "On the New Hampshire Executive Council, Hanover is in the 1st District and is represented by Republican Joseph Kenney.", "In the United States House of Representatives, Hanover is a part of New Hampshire's 2nd congressional district and is currently represented by Democrat Ann McLane Kuster.No Republican presidential nominee has received over 40 percent of the vote in the town since 1988." ], [ "Education", "cricket at Dartmouth College in 1793;Public schools* Hanover High School* Frances C. Richmond Middle School* Bernice A. Ray Elementary School;UniversitiesDartmouth College;Private schoolsThe Clark School was at one time located in Hanover but merged with Cardigan Mountain School in the nearby town of Canaan in 1953." ], [ "Economy", "Ledyard National Bank on Main StreetHypertherm, White Mountains Insurance Group, and Daat Research Corp. are based in Hanover." ], [ "Infrastructure", ";WaterThe Hanover Water Company supplies water for downtown Hanover from several local reservoirs.", "The company is owned by Dartmouth College (52.8%) and the Town of Hanover (47.2%), with management by the Town of Hanover under a contract.", "In 2000, all full-time company employees became town employees.", "In recent years, the town has spent over $20 million to upgrade main water lines, and will undergo another $6 million project to build a new water treatment plant.", "Outside the downtown area, residents rely on private wells that are not maintained by the town.", ";Other utilitiesFairPoint Communications furnishes telephone communication.", "The municipality provides sewage treatment." ], [ "Plaudits", "CNN and ''Money'' magazine rated Hanover the sixth best place to live in America in 2011, and the second best in 2007.", "\"This just might be the best college town,\" read the headline of a story in the January–February 2017 issue of ''Yankee''." ], [ "Notable people" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Upper Valley Business Alliance* Howe Library* New Hampshire Economic and Labor Market Information Bureau Profile" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "HMS Beagle" ], [ "Introduction", "'''HMS ''Beagle''''' was a 10-gun brig-sloop of the Royal Navy, one of more than 100 ships of this class.", "The vessel, constructed at a cost of £7,803, was launched on 11 May 1820 from the Woolwich Dockyard on the River Thames.", "Later reports say the ship took part in celebrations of the coronation of King George IV of the United Kingdom, passing under the old London Bridge, and was the first rigged man-of-war afloat upriver of the bridge.", "There was no immediate need for ''Beagle'', so she \"lay in ordinary\", moored afloat but without masts or rigging.", "She was then adapted as a survey barque and took part in three survey expeditions.The second voyage of HMS ''Beagle'' is notable for carrying the recently graduated naturalist Charles Darwin around the world.", "While the survey work was carried out, Darwin travelled and researched geology, natural history and ethnology onshore.", "He gained fame by publishing his diary journal, best known as ''The Voyage of the Beagle'', and his findings played a pivotal role in the formation of his scientific theories on evolution and natural selection." ], [ "Design and construction", "The of 10-gun brig-sloops was designed by Sir Henry Peake in 1807, and eventually over 100 were constructed.", "The working drawings for HMS ''Beagle'' and HMS ''Barracouta'' were issued to the Woolwich Dockyard on 16 February 1817, and amended in coloured ink on 16 July 1817 with modifications to increase the height of the bulwarks (the sides of the ship extended above the upper deck) by an amount varying from at the stem to at the stern.", "''Beagle''s keel was laid in June 1818, construction cost £7,803, and the ship was launched on 11 May 1820.The first reported task of the ship was a part in celebrations of the coronation of King George IV of the United Kingdom; in his 1846 ''Journal'', John Lort Stokes said that the ship was taken up the River Thames to salute the coronation, passing through the old London Bridge, and was the first rigged man-of-war afloat upriver of the bridge." ], [ "First voyage (1826–1830)", "Captain Pringle Stokes was appointed captain of ''Beagle'' on 7 September 1825, and the ship was allocated to the surveying section of the Hydrographic Office.", "On 27 September 1825 ''The Beagle'' docked at Woolwich to be repaired and fitted out for her new duties.", "Her guns were reduced from ten cannon to six and a mizzen mast was added to improve her handling, thereby changing her from a brig to a bark (or barque).''", "The Beagle'' set sail from Plymouth on 22 May 1826 on her first voyage, under the command of Captain Stokes.", "The mission was to accompany the larger ship HMS ''Adventure'' (380 tons) on a hydrographic survey of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, under the overall command of the Australian Captain Phillip Parker King, commander and surveyor.On 3 March 1827, in the Barbara Channel, the ''Beagle'' encountered a boat with survivors of the sealer , which had wrecked in Cockburn Channel on 16 December 1826.Stokes sent two launches to rescue the other survivors who were encamped there.Faced with the more difficult part of the survey in the desolate waters of Tierra del Fuego, Captain Stokes fell into a deep depression.", "At Port Famine on the Strait of Magellan, he locked himself in his cabin for 14 days, then after getting over-excited and talking of preparing for the next cruise, shot himself on 2 August 1828.Following four days of delirium, Stokes recovered slightly, but then his condition deteriorated and he died on 12 August 1828.Captain Parker King then replaced Stokes with the First Lieutenant of ''Beagle'', Lieutenant William George Skyring as commander, and both ships sailed to Montevideo.", "On 13 October, King sailed ''Adventure'' to Rio de Janeiro for refitting and provisions.", "During this work Rear Admiral Sir Robert Otway, commander in chief of the South American station, arrived aboard and announced his decision that ''Beagle'' was also to be brought to Montevideo for repairs, and that he intended to supersede Skyring.", "When ''Beagle'' arrived, Otway put the ship under the command of his aide, Flag Lieutenant Robert FitzRoy.The 23-year-old aristocrat FitzRoy proved an able commander and meticulous surveyor.", "In one incident a group of Fuegians stole a ship's boat, and FitzRoy took their families on board as hostages.", "Eventually, he held two men, a girl and a boy, who was given the name of Jemmy Button, and these four native Fuegians were taken back with them when ''Beagle'' returned to England on 14 October 1830.During their brief sojourn in England, Boat Memory, the most promising of the four, died of smallpox.During this survey, the Beagle Channel was identified and named after the ship.The log book from the first voyage, in Captain FitzRoy's handwriting, was acquired at auction at Sotheby's by the ''Museo Naval de la Nación'' (under the administration of the Argentine Navy) located in Tigre, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, where it is now preserved." ], [ "Second voyage (1831–1836)", "''Beagle'' being hailed by native Fuegians during the survey of Tierra del Fuego, painted by Conrad Martens who became ship's artist in 1833FitzRoy had been given reason to hope that the South American Survey would be continued under his command, but when the Lords of the Admiralty appeared to abandon the plan, he made alternative arrangements to return the Fuegians.", "A kind uncle heard of this and contacted the Admiralty.", "Soon afterwards FitzRoy heard that he was to be appointed commander of to go to Tierra del Fuego, but due to her poor condition ''Beagle'' was substituted for the voyage.", "FitzRoy was re-appointed as commander on 27 June 1831 and ''Beagle'' was commissioned on 4 July 1831 under his command, with Lieutenants John Clements Wickham and Bartholomew James Sulivan.Longitudinal section of HMS ''Beagle'' as of 1832''Beagle'' was immediately taken into dock at Devonport for extensive rebuilding and refitting.", "As she required a new deck, FitzRoy had the upper-deck raised considerably, by aft and forward.", "The ''Cherokee''-class ships had the reputation of being \"coffin\" brigs, which handled badly and were prone to sinking.", "Apart from increasing headroom below, the raised deck made ''Beagle'' less liable to top-heaviness and possible capsize in heavy weather by reducing the volume of water that could collect on top of the upper deck, trapped aboard by the gunwales.", "Additional sheathing added to the hull added about seven tons to her burthen and perhaps fifteen to her displacement.The ship was one of the first to be fitted with the lightning conductor invented by William Snow Harris.", "FitzRoy spared no expense in her fitting out, which included 22 chronometers, and five examples of the ''Sympiesometer'', a kind of mercury-free barometer patented by Alexander Adie which was favoured by FitzRoy as giving the accurate readings required by the Admiralty.", "To reduce magnetic interference with the navigational instruments, FitzRoy proposed replacing the iron guns with brass guns, but the Admiralty turned this request down.", "(When the ship reached Rio de Janeiro in April 1832, he used his own funds for replacements: the ship now had a \"six-pound boat-carronade\" on a turntable on the forecastle, two brass six-pound guns before the main-mast, and aft of it another four brass guns; two of these were nine-pound, and the other two six-pound.", ")FitzRoy had found a need for expert advice on geology during the first voyage, and had resolved that if on a similar expedition, he would \"endeavour to carry out a person qualified to examine the land; while the officers, and myself, would attend to hydrography.\"", "Command in that era could involve stress and loneliness, as shown by the suicide of Captain Stokes, and FitzRoy's own uncle Viscount Castlereagh had committed suicide under stress of overwork.", "His attempts to get a friend to accompany him fell through, and he asked his friend and superior Captain Francis Beaufort to seek a gentleman naturalist as a self-financing passenger who would give him company during the voyage.", "A sequence of inquiries led to Charles Darwin, a young gentleman on his way to becoming a rural clergyman, joining the voyage.", "FitzRoy was influenced by the physiognomy of Lavater, and Darwin recounted in his autobiography that he was nearly \"rejected, on account of the shape of my nose!", "He was an ardent disciple of Lavater, & was convinced that he could judge a man's character by the outline of his features; & he doubted whether anyone with my nose could possess sufficient energy & determination for the voyage.", "\"''The Beagle Laid Ashore'' drawn by Conrad Martens (1834), and engraved by Thomas Landseer (1838)Admiralty Chart of the Galapagos Islands, one of the charts resulting from Fitzroy's hydrographic surveys''Beagle'' was originally scheduled to leave on 24 October 1831, but because of delays in her preparations the departure was delayed until December.", "Setting forth on what was to become a ground-breaking scientific expedition, she departed from Devonport on 10 December.", "Due to bad weather her first stop was just a few miles ahead, at Barn Pool, on the west side of Plymouth Sound.", "''Beagle'' left anchorage from Barn Pool on 27 December, passing the nearby town of Plymouth.", "After completing extensive surveys in South America she returned via New Zealand, Sydney, Hobart Town (6 February 1836), to Falmouth, Cornwall, England, on 2 October 1836.Darwin had kept a diary of his experiences, and combined this with details from his scientific notes as the book titled ''Journal and Remarks'', published in 1839 as the third volume of the official account of the expedition.", "This travelogue and scientific journal was widely popular, and was reprinted many times with various titles and a revised second edition, becoming known as ''The Voyage of the Beagle''." ], [ "Third voyage (1837–1843)", "In 1837 HMS ''Beagle'' set off on a survey of Australia, and is shown here in an 1841 watercolour by Captain Owen Stanley of ''Beagle''s sister ship HMS ''Britomart''.1846 \"General Chart of Australia\", showing coasts examined by ''Beagle'' during the third voyage in red, from John Lort Stokes' ''Discoveries in Australia''In the six months after returning from the second voyage, some light repairs were made and ''Beagle'' was commissioned to survey large parts of the coast of Australia under the command of Commander John Clements Wickham, who had been a lieutenant on the second voyage, with assistant surveyor Lieutenant John Lort Stokes who had been a midshipman on the first voyage of ''Beagle'', then mate and assistant surveyor on the second voyage (no relation to Pringle Stokes).", "They left Woolwich on 9 June 1837, towed by HM Steamer ''Boxer'', and after reaching Plymouth spent the remainder of the month adjusting their instruments.", "They set off from Plymouth Sound on the morning of 5 July 1837, and sailed south with stops for observations at Tenerife, Bahia and Cape Town.They reached the Swan River (modern Perth, Western Australia) on 15 November 1837.Their survey started with the western coast between there and the Fitzroy River, Western Australia, then surveyed both shores of the Bass Strait at the southeast corner of the continent.", "To aid ''Beagle'' in her surveying operations in Bass Strait, the Colonial cutter ''Vansittart'', of Van Diemen's Land, was loaned by Sir John Franklin, Lieutenant-Governor of Van Diemen's Land, and placed under the command of Mr Charles Codrington Forsyth, the senior mate, assisted by Mr Pasco, another of her mates.", "In May 1839, they sailed north to survey the shores of the Arafura Sea opposite Timor.", "When Wickham fell ill and resigned, the command was taken over in March 1841 by Lieutenant John Lort Stokes who continued the survey.", "The third voyage was completed in 1843.The exploration of the Gulf of Carpentaria revealed two major rivers, the Albert River and the Flinders River.Numerous places around the coast were named by Wickham, and subsequently by Stokes when he became captain, often honouring eminent people or the members of the crew.", "On 9 October 1839 Wickham named Port Darwin, which was first sighted by Stokes, in honour of their former shipmate Charles Darwin.", "They were reminded of him (and his \"geologising\") by the discovery there of a new fine-grained sandstone.", "A settlement there became the town of Palmerston in 1869, and was renamed Darwin in 1911 (not to be confused with the present day city of Palmerston near Darwin).During this survey, the Beagle Gulf was named after the ship.", "''Nicotiana benthamiana'', a species of tobacco used from the 1990s as a platform for the production of recombinant pharmaceutical proteins, was first collected for scientific study on the north coast of Australia by Benjamin Bynoe during this voyage." ], [ "Final years", "In 1845, ''Beagle'' was refitted as a static coastguard watch vessel like many similar watch ships stationed in rivers and harbours throughout the nation.", "She was transferred to HM Customs and Excise to control smuggling on the Essex coast in the navigable waterways beyond the north bank of the Thames Estuary.", "She was moored mid-river in the River Roach which forms part of an extensive maze of waterways and marshes known as The River Crouch and River Roach Tidal River System, located around and to the south and west of Burnham-on-Crouch.", "This large maritime area has a tidal coastline of , part of Essex's of coastline – the largest coastline in the United Kingdom.", "In 1851, oyster companies and traders who cultivated and harvested the \"Walflete\" or \"Walfleet\" oyster ''Ostrea edulis'', petitioned for the Customs and Excise watch vessel ''WV-7'' (ex HMS ''Beagle'') to be removed as she was obstructing the river and its oyster-beds.", "In the 1851 Navy List dated 25 May, it showed her renamed ''Southend \"W.V.", "No.", "7\" at Paglesham''.", "In 1870, she was sold to \"Messrs Murray and Trainer\" to be broken up." ], [ "Possible resting place", "Investigations started in 2000 by a team led by Robert Prescott of the University of St Andrews found documents confirming that ''\"W.V.", "7\"'' was ''Beagle'', and noted a vessel matching her size shown midstream on the River Roach (in Paglesham Reach) on the 1847 hydrographic survey chart.", "A later chart showed a nearby indentation to the north bank of Paglesham Reach near the Eastend Wharf and near Waterside Farm.", "This could have been a dock for ''W.V.", "7'' – ''Beagle''.", "Site investigations found an area of marshy ground some deep on the tidal river-bank, about west of the boat-house.", "This discovery matched the chart position and many fragments of pottery of the correct period were found in the same area.", "Replica scale 1:1 of HMS ''Beagle'', Nao Victoria Museum, Punta Arenas, Chile, 2018Surveys in November 2003 showed that there are the remains of substantial material within the dock that could be parts of the ship itself.", "An old anchor of 1841 pattern was excavated.", "It was also found that the 1871 census recorded a new farmhouse in the name of William Murray and Thomas Rainer, leading to speculation that they were the 1870 purchasers of the ship, \"Messrs Murray and Trainer\".", "The farmhouse was demolished in the 1940s, but a nearby boathouse incorporated timbers matching knee timbers used in ''Beagle''.", "Two more large anchors similar to the one excavated from the ship's present location are known to have been found in neighbouring villages.", "It is believed that the ship carried four anchors.Their investigations featured in a BBC television programme which showed how each watch ship would have accommodated seven coastguard officers, drawn from other areas to minimise collusion with the locals.", "Each officer had about three rooms to house his family, forming a small community.", "They would use small boats to intercept smugglers, and the investigators found a causeway giving access at low tide across the soft mud of the river bank.", "Apparently the next coastguard station along was ''Kangaroo'', a sister ship of ''Beagle''." ], [ "See also", "Museo Nao Victoria § HMS ''Beagle'', a full-scale replica of the vessel completed in 2016''Beagle 2'' – A British Mars space probe, lost on 25 December 2003, named after HMS ''Beagle''.", "It was photographed on the surface of Mars in 2015.", "Ship's chronometer from HMS ''Beagle''''The Voyage of the Space Beagle'', a science fiction adventure by A. E. van Vogt loosely inspired by Darwin's voyage aboard HMS ''Beagle''European and American voyages of scientific exploration" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Sources and references", ".", "Abridged version of Darwin's ''Journal and Remarks''.", "***Marquardt, Karl, ''HMS Beagle: Survey Ship Extraordinary'' Conway Maritime Press, 2010.", ", Volume 1, Volume 2" ], [ "External links", " Darwin Online – bibliography: ''Proceedings'' of the first and second expeditions, and Darwin's ''Journal'' (''The Voyage of the ''Beagle).", "* list includes ''The Voyage of the ''BeagleJohn Lort Stokes, ''Discoveries in Australia'', Volume 1, Volume 2.", " Digitised copies of the original logs of HMS ''Beagle'', British Atmospheric Data Centre/The National Archives as part of the CORRAL projectRobert FitzRoy, 1836, ''Sketch of the Surveying Voyages of his Majesty's Ships ''Adventure'' and ''Beagle'', 1825–1836.Commanded by Captains P. P. King, P. Stokes, and R. Fitz-Roy, Royal Navy''.", "''Journal of the Geological Society of London'' 6: 311–343 Visit and Testimony of Captain Fitz-Roy* HMS ''Beagle'' – Port Cities* The sympiesometer of Alexander Adie* The Journal of Syms Covington – Chapter 1.", "* BBC News – Darwin's ''Beagle'' ship 'found'* ''The Observer'' – Evolution of radar points to HMS ''Beagle''′s resting place.", "* BBC News – Plans to build HMS ''Beagle'' replica for 2009 Darwin bicentenary.", "* Former official blog of the building process for the full size HMS ''Beagle'' replica." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of St Albans" ], [ "Introduction", "St Albans is a city located in Hertfordshire, England.", "It was originally founded as Verlamion a settlement belonging to the Catuvellauni (a Celtic tribe or state of southeastern Britain before the Roman conquest, attested by inscriptions into the 4th century).", "It was subsequently transformed into the Roman settlement of Verulamium from where it grew into a ''municipium'' around AD 50.After the Anglo-Saxon settlement it was known as Verlamacaestir.It later became known as St Albans because of its association with Saint Alban." ], [ "Roman", "Remains of the Roman city of Verulamium have been excavated in modern timesThe Roman city of Verulamium, the third largest town in Roman Britain after Londinium and Colchester, was built alongside the Celtic settlement in the valley of the River Ver nearer to the present city centre.", "The settlement was granted the rank of ''municipium'' around AD 50, meaning that its citizens had what were known as \"Latin Rights\", a lesser citizenship status than a ''colonia'' possessed.", "It grew to a significant town, and as such received the attentions of Boudica of the Iceni in 61, when Verulamium was sacked and burnt on her orders: a black ash layer has been recorded by archaeologists, thus confirming the Roman written record.", "It grew steadily; by the early 3rd century, it covered an area of about , behind a deep ditch and wall.", "It was encircled by gated walls in AD 275.Verulamium contained a forum, basilica and a theatre, much of which were damaged during two fires, one in 155 and the other in around 250.One of the few extant Roman inscriptions in Britain is found on the remnants of the forum (see Verulamium Forum inscription).", "The town was rebuilt in stone rather than timber at least twice over the next 150 years.===Early Christianity===13th-Century manuscript depicting the martyrdom of St Alban (Trinity College Library, Dublin)The city is named after St Alban, a convert to Christianity who, according to medieval sources, lived in the Roman city.", "He was martyred in either the third or fourth century.", "Bede's ''Ecclesiastical History'' gives an account of Alban being beheaded on a hill outside the city.", "This suggests that the cathedral, built on a hill above the Roman city, may have been built on the site of his martyrdom.", "However, the cathedral could alternatively be on the site of his burial.", "Widespread cults of saints began in cemeteries outside of Roman cities.", "The site of Alban's burial remains a topic for investigation.", "The site of a Roman burial was uncovered near the Cathedral in the late 20th century, in the area of demolished medieval cloisters, probably extending beneath the present building, but there is no evidence of a connection with Alban.Bede referred to a Roman church dedicated to St Alban, built \"when peaceable Christian times were restored\" (possibly the fourth century) and still in use in Bede's time.", "In 429 Germanus of Auxerre visited the church and subsequently promoted the cult of St Alban.", "John Morris argued that the church was probably built in 396–8.It has been suggested that several unearthed remains might have been Roman churches but there is no certain archaeological evidence.", "An archaeological excavation in 1978, directed by Martin Biddle, failed to find Roman remains on the site of the chapter house of the medieval abbey, but recent investigation has uncovered a basilica near the Cathedral, supporting the contention that it is \"the oldest continuous site of Christian worship in Great Britain\".Some historians doubt the historicity of St Alban and argue that his cult was invented by Germanus." ], [ "Later medieval period", "The Abbots of St Albans diverted Watling Street away from the ruins of Verulamium into the medieval town.Three main roads date from the medieval period—Holywell Hill, St Peter's Street, and Fishpool Street—each of which had a pilgrim church founded in the ninth century by Abbot Ulsinus at the entrance to the town: St Stephen's, St Peter's and St Michael's respectively.", "The foundation of the town's markets is also attributed to this time." ], [ "Modern", "===Early Modern===As part of the dissolution of the monasteries, Henry VIII closed the Abbey in 1539 and took possession of the town, it remained crown property for the next fourteen years.", "In 1553, Henry’s son Edward VI sold the abbey, the governance of the town, and the market (by letters patent) to a group of local merchants and landowners.", "The town became borough with a mayor.", "The mayor, assisted by ten burgesses and serving for up to three years, had executive and judicial powers.", "The first mayor was John Lockey.", "The Lady Chapel became part of St Albans School and the Great Gatehouse was used as a prison until the 19th century, when the school took it over.", "In 1555, during the reign of Queen Mary I, a Protestant baker from Yorkshire, George Tankerfield, was brought from London and burnt to death on Romeland for his refusal to accept the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation.During the English Civil War (1642–45) the town sided with parliament but was largely unaffected by the conflict.===Eighteenth century===The bridge over the River Ver in St Michael's Street, adjacent to Kingsbury Watermill and not far from St Michael's Church, dates from 1765 and is believed to be the oldest extant bridge in Hertfordshire.", "It is Grade II listed.", "According to a contemporary account of the Second Battle of St Albans in 1461, another bridge existed on this site previously (recorded in 1505 as ''Pons de la Maltemyll'' - Malt Mill Bridge).", "It is thought that the Romans had built a bridge here by the 3rd century AD.", "The ford alongside the current bridge, which is known to have existed for 2,000 years, is traditionally believed to be Alban's crossing point on his way to his execution.===Nineteenth century===St Albans has many old coaching inns (pictured: The White Hart, Hollywell Hill)Before the 20th century, St Albans was a rural market town, a Christian pilgrimage site, and the first coaching stop of the route to and from London, accounting for its numerous old inns.", "Victorian St Albans was small and had little industry.", "It grew slowly, 8-9% per decade between 1801 and 1861, compared to the 31% per decade growth of London in the same period.", "The railway arrived relatively late.", "In 1869 the extension of the city boundaries was opposed by the Earl of Verulam and many of the townsfolk, but there was rapid expansion and much building at the end of the century, and between 1891 and 1901 the population grew by 37%.", "'''Population of St Albans in the Nineteenth Century''' 1801 ''3,872'' 1831 ''6,582'' 1851 ''8,208'' 1861 ''9,090'' 1871 ''10,421'' 1881 ''10,659'' 1891 ''12,478''1901 ''16,181''The medieval road pattern was amended from the 18th century onwards.", "London Road was constructed in 1754, Hatfield Road in 1824 and Verulam Road in 1833.Verulam Road was created (as part of Thomas Telford's large-scale improvement of sections of the London to Holyhead road) specifically to aid the movement of stage coaches, since St Albans was the first major stop on the coaching route north from London.", "Victoria Street was called Sweetbriar Lane until 1876.St Albans City station, opened 1868 (pictured in 1958)The Old London Road Station, closed 1951There were three railway stations in the town, two of which are still active: and .", "The first, St Albans Abbey, was opened by the London and North Western Railway on 5 May 1858 as the terminus of the Abbey Line, a branch line from .", "This was followed by the Midland Railway Company's station, now known as St Albans City, which opened on 1 October 1868 on the main line from Bedford to London.", "There was also a third railway station in the city centre, , which was opened on 16 October 1865 by the Great Northern Railway on its Hatfield and St Albans branch.", "This branch line closed to passengers in 1951.In 1877, in response to a public petition, Queen Victoria issued the second royal charter, which granted city status to the borough and Cathedral status to the former Abbey Church.", "The new diocese was established in the main from parts of the large Diocese of Rochester.", "The Abbey Church of St Alban had fallen into disrepair, despite work done on it under Sir George Gilbert Scott in 1860–1877, and some thought it ought to be allowed to decline into romantic ruin, but in the latter year, under the chairmanship of the Earl of Verulam, a restoration committee was formed, of which Edmund Beckett (later Lord Grimthorpe) became the dominant member.", "Grimthorpe put up £130,000 of his own money and by sheer force of personality brought about a restoration of the church (1880–1883) in Neo-Gothic style, sparking the ire of the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings.", "Nicholas Pevsner said that the Abbey \"is the only one of the major churches of England that has a West Front completely, or almost completely, Victorian.\"", "However, it seems reasonable to assume that, without Grimthorpe's money the Abbey Church would now be a ruin like many other former monastic churches.The original St Albans Football Club was founded in October 1881, if folded in 1904.The present day St Albans City Football Club was founded on 13 April 1908.The club's home ground is Clarence Park, which was donated to the city by Sir John Blundell and opened on 23 July 1894.The aforementioned transport links attracted a seed merchant, Samuel Ryder, to locate his business in St Albans, which eventually moved to offices and a large purpose-built packing seed hall on Holywell Hill, which is now a Café Rouge restaurant.", "He served as Mayor of St Albans in 1905, and remained a councillor for several years after his term of office.", "In later life, Ryder began to suffer from poor health and was advised to take up golf as exercise.", "He joined the local Verulam Golf Club, making large donations to the club including the famous Ryder Cup and sponsorship of the tournament.Ralph Chubb, the poet and printer, lived on College Street in St Albans from 1892 to 1913, and attended St Albans School.", "His work frequently references the Abbey of St Albans, and he ascribed mystical significance to the geography and history of the town.Another St Albans writer, Charles Williams, lived as boy and young man in Victoria Street from 1894 to 1917.He also attended St Albans School.===Twentieth century===Arthur Melbourne-Cooper's ''A Dream of Toyland'', produced in St Albans in 1907The pioneering filmmaker Arthur Melbourne-Cooper was born in St Albans in 1874 at 99 London Road.", "He became a noted figure in the history of film when he began to explore the new art of moving photography in the mid-1900s.", "By 1908, he had set up a production base, the Alpha Production Works in Bedford Park Road, later moving to larger premises at Alma Road.", "Among the pioneering films he shot in St Albans was the animated fantasy, ''Dreams of Toyland'' (1908).", "He also established a film theatre on London Road to present his productions to the paying public, the Alpha Picture House, which opened on 27 July 1908, Hertfordshire's first permanent cinema.", "The cinema changed hands several times, variously known as the Poly, the Regent, the Capitol and the Odeon.", "It was replaced by a new Art Deco building in 1931, and the cinema continued in operation until 1995.In 2014 the building was restored and re-opened as the Odyssey Cinema.During World War I in September 1916, following an attack on St Albans, the German Airship SL 11 became the first airship to be brought down over England.", "But when London Colney was attacked, the nation was so angered it became united in its battle.St Albans on the 1 inch to the mile map Ordnance Survey map of 1944In the inter-war years St Albans, in common with much of the surrounding area, became a centre for emerging high-technology industries, most notably aerospace.", "Nearby Radlett was the base for Handley Page Aircraft Company, while Hatfield became home to de Havilland.", "St Albans itself became a centre for the Marconi plc company, specifically, Marconi Instruments.", "Marconi (later part of the General Electric Company) remained the city's largest employer (with two main plants) until the 1990s.", "A third plant - working on top secret defence work - also existed.", "Even Marconi staff only found out about this when it closed down.", "All of these industries are now gone from the area.In 1936 St Albans was the last but one stop for the Jarrow Crusade.The City expanded rapidly after World War II, as government policy promoted the creation of New Towns and the expansion of existing towns around London.", "The local authority built large housing estates at Cottonmill (to the south), Mile House (to the south-east) and New Greens (to the north).", "The Marshalswick area to the north-east was also expanded, completing a programme of mainly private house building begun before the war.In 1974 St Albans City Council, St Albans Rural District Council and Harpenden Town Council were merged, as part of a major national re-organisation of local government in the UK, to form St Albans District Council.===Twenty-first century===In 2011 the population of the St Albans City and District was 140,664, up 9% on the 2001 population of 129,005.By 2021 the population had risen a further 5.4% to 148,700." ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "" ], [ "External links", " St Albans History and Archaeology; Chris Saunders.", "* British History Online - the city of St AlbansDiocesan House, St AlbansVerulam House, St Albans" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Head end" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Head end''' may refer to:* cable television headend, the central facility serving a local area for cable television systems* SMATV headend, Single Master Antenna Television, receives and rebroadcasts satellite TV throughout a property" ], [ "See also", "* Head-end power is the electrical power distribution system used in passenger trains" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hitachi 6309" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''6309''' is Hitachi's CMOS version of the Motorola 6809 microprocessor, released in late 1982.It was initially marketed as a low-power version of the 6809, without reference to its many internal improvements.", "While in \"Emulation Mode\" it is fully compatible with the 6809.To the 6809 specifications, it adds higher clock rates, enhanced features, new instructions, and additional registers.", "Most of the new instructions were added to support the additional registers, as well as up to 32-bit math, hardware division, bit manipulations, and block transfers.", "The 6309 is generally 30% faster in native mode than the 6809.This information was never published by Hitachi.", "The April 1988 issue of ''Oh!", "FM'', a Japanese magazine for Fujitsu personal computer users, contained the first description of the 6309's additional capabilities.", "Later, Hirotsugu Kakugawa posted details of the 6309's new features and instructions to comp.sys.m6809.This led to the development of NitrOS-9 for the Tandy Color Computer 3." ], [ "Programming model", "6309 Programming Model, showing register layout.", "Additions to the 6809 are shown with blue type." ], [ "Differences from the Motorola 6809", "The 6309 differs from the 6809 in several key areas.===Process technology===The 6309 is fabricated in CMOS technology, while the 6809 is an NMOS device.", "As a result, the 6309 requires less power to operate than the 6809.The low-power use also means it can be paused for up to 15 cycles as it does not have to constantly refresh its internal state.", "This is useful for direct memory access as it allows external devices to pause the CPU to release the memory bus, read or write small amounts of memory, and then unpause the CPU again.", "No other logic is required.It is a dynamic design.", "The datasheet specifies a minimum clocking frequency and it will lose its state when the clock speed is too low.===Clock speed===The 6309 has B (2 MHz) versions as the 6809 does.", "However, a \"C\" speed rating was produced with either a 3.0 or 3.5 MHz maximum clock rate, depending on which datasheet is referenced.", "(Several Japanese computers had 63C09 CPUs clocked at 3.58 MHz, the NTSC colorburst frequency, so the 3.5 rating seems most likely).", "Anecdotal and individual reports indicate that the 63C09 variant can be clocked at 5 MHz with no ill effects.", "Like the 6809, the Hitachi CPU comes in both internal and external clock versions (HD63B/C09 and HD63B/C09E respectively)===Computational efficiency===When switched into 6309 Native Mode (as opposed to the default 6809-compatible mode) many key instructions will complete in fewer clock cycles.", "This often improves execution speeds by up to 30%.===Additional registers===Two 8-bit accumulators: 'E' and 'F'.", "These can be concatenated to form 16-bit accumulator 'W'.", "The existing 6809 16-bit accumulator D can be concatenated with W to form 32-bit accumulator 'Q'.", "It is likely that D is short for 'Double' and Q for 'Quad', the number of bytes they hold.", "Transfer register 'V' for inter-register instructions.", "Its value is unaffected by a hardware reset so it can retain a constant Value, hence 'V'.", "8/16-bit Zero register '0' to speed up operations using a zero constant.", "This register always reads zero and writes to it are ignored.", "Mode register 'MD', a secondary Condition Code register that controls the operating mode.", "Only 4 bits of this register are defined.===Additional instructions===Most of the new instructions are modifications of existing instructions to handle the existence of the additional registers, such as load, store, add, and the like.", "Genuine 6309 additions include inter-register arithmetic, block transfers, hardware division, and bit-level manipulations.", "Further, 16 bit registers D and W can be target of 16 bit arithmetic with carry and 16 bit shift and rotate operations.", "On 6809, these operations are limited to 8 bit operands.Despite the user-friendliness of the additional instructions, analysis by 6809 programming gurus indicates that many of the new instructions are actually slower than the equivalent 6809 code, especially in tight loops.", "Careful analysis should be done to ensure that the programmer uses the most efficient code for the particular application.Most of new instructions use prefix opcode and that makes them slower by one cycle when compared to similar 6809 instruction.", "On other side, 6309 native mode executes many instructions faster by one or more cycles.", "Here is a timing comparison of an 8 bit LD instruction for 'A' register and 'E' register on 6809 and 6309:instruction68096309 emulation mode6309 native modeLDA immediate2 cycles2 cycles2 cyclesLDE immediaten/a3 cycles3 cyclesLDA direct4 cycles4 cycles3 cyclesLDE directn/a5 cycles4 cyclesLDA indexed4+ cycles4+ cycles4+ cyclesLDE indexedn/a5+ cycles5+ cyclesLDA extended5 cycles5 cycles4 cyclesLDE extendedn/a6 cycles5 cyclesAlso inter-register operations and new 16 bit operations are somewhat mixed bag.", "Depending on addressing mode and 6309 mode, equivalent 6809 code can be faster.", "For illustration, let us look on timing of exclusive or instruction.instruction68096309 emulation mode6309 native modeEORA immediate2 cycles2 cycles2 cyclesEORD immediaten/a5 cycles4 cyclesEORA direct4 cycles4 cycles3 cyclesEORD directn/a7 cycles5 cyclesEORA indexed4+ cycles4+ cycles4+ cyclesEORD indexedn/a7+ cycles6+ cyclesEORA extended5 cycles5 cycles4 cyclesEORD extendedn/a8 cycles6 cyclesEORR inter-registern/a4 cycles4 cyclesAs table above indicates, exclusive or of 16 bit register D with immediate parameter can be replaced by two 8 bit instructions EORA imm, EORB imm and it will execute faster when 6309 runs in emulation mode.", "Though one should realize that sequence of 8 bit instructions EORA imm, EORB imm is not exact equivalent of 16 bit EORD imm instruction as condition code CC register is set according result of 8 bit operation in first case and according result of 16 bit operation in second case.", "Similar issue is with inter-register EORR instruction.", "It accepts both 8 bit and 16 bit operands and it always executes within 4 cycles.", "However, for 8 bit operands, it is faster to use EORA imm or EORB imm instructions when appropriate.", "Further, when 6309 is running in native mode, instructions EORA direct, EORB direct take only 3 cycles, one cycle less than inter-register operation.===Additional hardware features===It is possible to change the mode of operation for the FIRQ interrupt.", "Instead of stacking the PC and CC registers (normal 6809 behavior) the FIRQ interrupt can be set to stack the entire register set, as the IRQ interrupt does.", "In addition, the 6309 has two possible trap modes, one for an illegal instruction fetch and one for division by zero.", "The illegal instruction fetch is not maskable, and many TRS-80 Color Computer users reported that their 6309's were \"buggy\" when in reality it was an indicator of enhanced and unknown features.===Undocumented Features===There is an additional register, called M, used for temporary storage that is available to use as well." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Article in the April 1988 issue of ''Oh!", "FM'' (Japanese)* Hirotsugu Kakugawa's original \"Secret 6309 features memo\" and thread on Google's Usenet archive * HD63B09EP Technical Reference Guide* 6x09 Microprocessor Instruction Sets * 6809/6309 Assembly and Mnemonic Information (PDF) By Chris Lomont, Version 1.2 May 2007* Comparison of 6809 and 6309 instruction list" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hominy" ], [ "Introduction", "quarter and Mexican one-peso coins pictured for scale.", "'''Hominy''' is a food produced from dried maize (corn) kernels that have been treated with an alkali, in a process called nixtamalization ( is the Nahuatl word for \"hominy\").", "\"Lye hominy\" is a type of hominy made with lye." ], [ "History", "The process of nixtamalization has been fundamental to Mesoamerican cuisine since ancient times.", "The lime used to treat the maize can be obtained from several different materials.", "Among the Lacandon Maya who inhabited the tropical lowland regions of eastern Chiapas, the caustic powder was obtained by toasting freshwater shells over a fire for several hours.", "In the highland areas of Chiapas and throughout much of the Yucatán Peninsula, Belize River valley and Petén Basin, limestone was used to make slaked lime for steeping the shelled kernels.", "The Maya used nixtamal to produce beers that more resembled ''chicha'' than ''pulque''.", "When bacteria were introduced to nixtamal it created a type of sourdough." ], [ "Production", "To make hominy, field corn (maize) grain is dried, and then it is treated by soaking and cooking the mature (hard) grain in a dilute solution of lye (potassium hydroxide) (which can be produced from water and wood ash) or of slaked lime (calcium hydroxide from limestone).", "The maize is then washed thoroughly to remove the bitter flavor of the lye or lime.", "Alkalinity helps dissolve hemicellulose, the major adhesive component of the maize cell walls, loosens the hulls from the kernels, and softens the corn.", "Also, soaking the corn in lye kills the seed's germ, which keeps it from sprouting while in storage.", "Finally, in addition to providing a source of dietary calcium, the lye or lime reacts with the corn so that the nutrient niacin can be assimilated by the digestive tract.", "People consume hominy in intact kernels, grind it into sand-sized particles for grits, or into flour.In Mexican cooking, hominy is finely ground to make masa (Spanish for ''dough'').", "Fresh masa that has been dried and powdered is called ''masa seca'' or ''masa harina''.", "Some of the corn oil breaks down into emulsifying agents (monoglycerides and diglycerides), and facilitates bonding the corn proteins to each other.", "The divalent calcium in lime acts as a cross-linking agent for protein and polysaccharide acidic side chains.", "Cornmeal from untreated ground corn cannot form a dough with the addition of water, but the chemical changes in masa (a.k.a.", "''masa nixtamalera'') make dough formation possible, for tortillas and other food." ], [ "Recipes", "In Mexican cuisine, people cook masa nixtamalera with water and milk to make a thick, gruel-like beverage called .", "When they make it with chocolate and sugar, it becomes .", "Adding anise and piloncillo to this mix creates , a popular breakfast drink.The English term ''hominy'' derives from the Powhatan language word for prepared maize (cf.", "Chickahominy).", "Many other indigenous American cultures also made hominy, and integrated it into their diet.", "Cherokees, for example, made hominy grits by soaking corn in a weak lye solution produced by leaching hardwood ash with water, and then beating it with a (), or corn beater.", "They used grits to make a traditional hominy soup ( ) that they let ferment ( ), cornbread, dumplings ( ), or, in post-contact times, fried with bacon and green onions.Hominy recipes include (a Mexican stew of hominy and pork, chicken, or other meat), hominy bread, hominy chili, hog 'n' hominy, casseroles and fried dishes.", "In Latin America there is a variety of dishes referred to as .", "Hominy can be ground coarsely for grits, or into a fine mash dough () used extensively in Latin American cuisine.", "Many islands in the West Indies, notably Jamaica, also use hominy (known as cornmeal or ''polenta'', though different from Italian polenta) to make a sort of porridge with corn starch or flour to thicken the mixture and condensed milk, vanilla, and nutmeg.", "In the Philippines, hominy () is the main component of dessert binatog.", "'''Rockihominy''', a popular trail food in the 19th and early 20th centuries, is dried corn, roasted to a golden brown, then ground to a very coarse meal, almost like hominy grits.", "Hominy is also used as animal feed." ], [ "Nutrition", "Canned hominy (drained) is composed of 83% water, 14% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and 1% fat (table).", "In a 100-gram serving, hominy provide 72 calories and is a good source (10–19% of the Daily Value) of zinc.", "Hominy also supplies dietary fiber.", "Other nutrients are in low amounts (table)." ], [ "See also", "* Arepa* Binatog* List of maize dishes* Pinole* Popcorn* Pozole* Sagamite" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "W. Heath Robinson" ], [ "Introduction", "'''William Heath Robinson''' (31 May 1872 – 13 September 1944) was an English cartoonist, illustrator and artist, best known for drawings of whimsically elaborate machines to achieve simple objectives.In the UK, the term \"Heath Robinson contraption\" gained recognition as a noun around 1912; the earliest citation in the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' is of 1917.It became part of popular language during the 1914–1918 First World War as a description of any unnecessarily complex and implausible contrivance.", "Other cartoonists drew on similar themes; by 1928 the American Rube Goldberg was known for \"Rube Goldberg machines\" in the United States.", "A \"Heath Robinson contraption\" is perhaps most commonly used in relation to temporary fixes using ingenuity and whatever is to hand, often string and tape, or unlikely cannibalisations.", "Its continuing popularity was undoubtedly linked to Britain's shortages during the Second World War and the need to \"make do and mend\"." ], [ "Early life", "An illustration from ''The Adventures of Uncle Lubin'' (1902)William Heath Robinson was born in Hornsey Rise, London, on 31 May 1872 into a family of artists in Stroud Green, Finsbury Park, North London.", "His grandfather Thomas, his father Thomas Robinson (1838–1902) and brothers Thomas Heath Robinson (1869–1954) and Charles Robinson (1870–1937) all worked as illustrators.", "His uncle Charles was an illustrator for ''The Illustrated London News''." ], [ "Career", "His early career involved illustrating books – among others: Hans Christian Andersen's ''Danish Fairy Tales and Legends'' (1897), ''The Arabian Nights'' (1899), ''Tales from Shakespeare'' (1902), ''Gargantua and Pantagruel'' (1904), ''Twelfth Night'' (1908), ''Andersen's Fairy Tales'' (1913), ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'' (1914), Charles Kingsley's ''The Water-Babies'' (1915) and Walter de la Mare's ''Peacock Pie'' (1916).", "Robinson was one of the leading illustrators selected by Percy Bradshaw for inclusion in his ''The Art of the Illustrator'' (1917–1918) which presented a separate portfolio for each of twenty illustrators.Robinson served as a consultant at the Percy Bradshaw's The Press Art School, a school teaching painting, drawing, and illustration by correspondence.", "The consultants commented on the work submitted by the students.", "In the course of his work, Robinson wrote and illustrated three children's books, ''The Adventures of Uncle Lubin'' (1902), ''Bill the Minder'' (1912) and ''Peter Quip in Search of a Friend'' (1922).", "''Uncle Lubin'' is regarded as the start of his career in the depiction of unlikely machines.During the First World War, he drew large numbers of cartoons, depicting ever-more-unlikely secret weapons being used by the combatants, and the American Expeditionary Force in France.", "After the war, his work was included in the painting event in the art competition at the 1932 Summer Olympics.", "''Testing Golf Drivers'', a typical \"Heath Robinson contraption\".As well as producing a steady stream of humorous drawings for magazines and advertisements, in 1934 he published a collection of his favourites as ''Absurdities'', such as:\"The Wart Chair.", "A simple apparatus for removing a wart from the top of the head\"\"Resuscitating stale railway scones for redistribution at the station buffets\"\"The multimovement tabby silencer\", which automatically threw water at serenading catsMost of his cartoons have since been reprinted many times in multiple collections.In 1935 the Great Western Railway (GWR) commissioned him to create a set of cartoons on the theme of the GWR itself, which they then published as ''Railway Ribaldry''.", "The Foreword (by GWR) notes that the cartoonist was given a free hand to re-imagine the history of the line for the amusement of its customers.", "The result is a 96-page softback book with alternating full-page cartoons and smaller vignettes, all on pertinent subjects.The machines he drew were frequently powered by steam boilers or kettles, heated by candles or a spirit lamp and usually kept running by balding, bespectacled men in overalls.", "There would be complex pulley arrangements, threaded by lengths of knotted string.", "Robinson's cartoons were so popular that in Britain the term \"Heath Robinson\" is used to refer to an improbable, rickety machine barely kept going by incessant tinkering.", "(The corresponding term in the U.S. is ''Rube Goldberg'', after the American cartoonist born just over a decade later, with an equal devotion to odd machinery.", "Similar \"inventions\" have been drawn by cartoonists in many countries, with the Danish Storm Petersen being on par with Robinson and Goldberg.", ")One of his most famous series of illustrations was that which accompanied the first ''Professor Branestawm'' book written by Norman Hunter.", "The stories told of the eponymous professor who was brilliant, eccentric and forgetful and provided a perfect backdrop for Robinson's drawings.Robinson motifs on \"Fairyland on China\" nursery jug for Midwinter Pottery, c.1928Around 1928, Robinson was commissioned to design a range of nursery ware for W.R.", "Midwinter, a Staffordshire pottery firm.", "Scenes from sixteen nursery rhymes (some illustrated with more than one vignette) were printed on ware ranging from eggcups to biscuit barrels, each with a decorative border of characterful children's faces.", "Titled \"Fairyland on China\", the range was favourably reviewed in the trade press.The last project Robinson worked on shortly before he died was illustrations for Lilian M. Clopet's short story collection ''Once Upon a Time'', which was published in 1944.One of the automatic analysis machines built for Bletchley Park during the Second World War to assist in the decryption of German message traffic was named \"Heath Robinson\" in his honour.", "It was a direct predecessor to the Colossus, the world's first programmable digital electronic computer." ], [ "Personal life", "In 1903 he married Josephine Latey, the daughter of newspaper editor John Latey.", "In 1908 the Robinsons moved to Pinner, Middlesex where they had two children, Joan and Oliver.", "His house in Moss Lane is commemorated by a blue plaque.In 1918 the Heath Robinsons moved to Cranleigh, Surrey where their daughter attended St Catherine's School, Bramley and their son attended Cranleigh School.", "Heath Robinson drew designs and illustrations for local institutions and schools.", "Heath Robinson was too old to enlist for WW1; he took on two German POWs to garden after the Armistice.", "In 1929 the Heath Robinsons returned to London where his two children were now working." ], [ "Death and legacy", "He died in September 1944, during the Second World War, and is buried in East Finchley Cemetery.The Heath Robinson Museum opened in October 2016 to house a collection of nearly 1,000 original artworks owned by The William Heath Robinson Trust.", "The museum is in Memorial Park, Pinner, close to where the artist lived and worked." ], [ "In popular culture", "A World War I cartoon by W. Heath RobinsonTitle page of ''A Song of the English'' by Rudyard Kipling, illustrated by W. Heath Robinson, c. 1914 (reprint)The name \"Heath Robinson\" became part of common parlance in the UK for complex inventions that achieved absurdly simple results following its use as services slang during the 1914–1918 First World War.In the ''Wallace and Gromit'' films, Wallace often invents Heath Robinson-like machines, with some inventions being direct references.During the Falklands War (1982), British Harrier aircraft lacked their conventional \"chaff\"-dispensing mechanism.", "Therefore, Royal Navy engineers designed an impromptu delivery system of welding rods, split pins and string which allowed six packets of chaff to be stored in the speedbrake well and deployed in flight.", "Due to its improvised and ramshackle nature it was often referred to as the \"Heath Robinson chaff modification\"." ], [ "Publications", "Patterson, R.F., illustrated by W. Heath Robinson, ''Mein Rant: A Summary in Light Verse of Mein Kampf''.", "1940Robinson, W. Heath, ''Works of Edgar Allan Poe'', Bell.", "1900Robinson, W. Heath, ''Uncle Lubin'', Richards.", "1902Robinson, W. Heath, ''Adventures of Don Quixote'', J.M.", "Dent.", "1902Kipling, Rudyard, ''A Song of the English'', illustrated by W. Heath Robinson, London: Hodder & Stoughton.", "1909Robinson, W. Heath, ''Bill the Minder'', Constable & Co., London, 1912Robinson, W. Heath, ''Some \"Frightful\" War Pictures'', Duckworth.", "1915Robinson, W. Heath, ''Hunlikely!", "'', Duckworth.", "1916Robinson, W. Heath, ''The Saintly Hun: a book of German virtues'', Duckworth.", "1917Robinson, W. Heath, ''Flypapers'', Duckworth.", "1919Robinson, W. Heath, ''The Rabelais'', Rabelais.", "Private Printing 1921Robinson, W. Heath, ''Peter Quip in Search of a Friend'', Partridge 1921Robinson, W. Heath, ''Humours of Golf'', Methuen.", "1923, Duckworth.", "1973, Robinson, W. Heath, ''Heath Robinson's Book of Goblins'', Hutchinson & Co, London, 1934Robinson, W. Heath, ''Absurdities: A Book of Collected Drawings'', Hutchinson.", "1934, Duckworth.", "1975, Robinson, W. Heath, ''Railway Ribaldry'', Great Western Railway, 1935Robinson, W. Heath, ''Railway Ribaldry'', Duckworth.", "1935, Duckworth.", "1997, Robinson, W. Heath, ''How to Live in Flat'', Hutchinson.", "1936, Duckworth.", "1976 Robinson, W. Heath, ''How to be a Perfect Husband'', Hutchinson & Co, London, 1937* Robinson, W. Heath, ''How to Make a Garden Grow'', Hutchinson & Co, London, 1938Robinson, W. Heath, ''How to be a Motorist'', Hutchinson & Co, London 1939Robinson, W. Heath, ''How to Make the Best of Things'' Hutchinson & Co London 1941Robinson, W. Heath, ''How to Build a New World'' Hutchinson & Co, London 1943Robinson, W. Heath, ''How to Run a Communal Home'' Hutchinson & Co London 1944Robinson, W. Heath, ''My Line of Life'', Blackie & Sons.", "1938Robinson, W. Heath, ''Let's Laugh: A Book of Humorous Inventions'', Hutchinson.", "1939Robinson, W. Heath, ''Heath Robinson at War'', Methuen.", "1942Clopet, Lilian M., illustrated by W. Heath Robinson, ''Once Upon a Time''.", "1944Lewis, John.", "''Heath Robinson Artist and Comic Genius'', Barnes and Noble.", "1973Robinson, W. Heath, ''Inventions'', Duckworth.", "1973, De Freitas, Leo John, ''The Fantastic Paintings of Charles and William Heath Robinson'', Peacock/Bantam.", "1976Robinson, W. Heath, ''Devices'', Duckworth.", "1977, Beare, Geoffrey.", "''The Illustrations of W. Heath Robinson'', Werner Shaw.", "1983Beare, Geoffrey.", "''W.", "Heath Robinson'', Chris Beetles.", "1987Hamilton, James, ''William Heath Robinson'', Pavilion.", "1992Beare, Geoffrey, ''The Brothers Robinson'', Chris Beetles.", "1992Beare, Geoffrey, ''The Art of William Heath Robinson'', Dulwich Picture Gallery.", "2003Robinson, W. Heath, ''Contraptions'', Duckworth.", "2007Robinson, W. Heath, ''Britain at Play'', Duckworth.", "2008Beare, Geoffrey, ''Heath Robinson's Commercial Art'', Lund Humphries, 2017Hart-Davis, Adam, ''Very Heath Robinson'', Sheldrake Press.", "2017" ], [ "See also", " Norman Hunter (author)* Professor Branestawm* Rube Goldberg, American artist with similar cartoon inventions* Storm P., Danish artist with similar cartoon inventions* Rowland Emett, British cartoonist with similar physical inventions" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Historic Figures at the BBC web site.", "Retrieved May 2007" ], [ "External links", "* The William Heath Robinson Trust* The Heath Robinson Museum* Heath Robinson exhibition at the Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool, 2004* SurLaLune Fairy Tale Pages: Fairy Tale Illustrations of William Heath Robinson* W. H. Robinson's illustrations for Andersen's Fairy Tales (1913) and Heath Robinson's Book of Goblins (Golden Age Children's Book Illustrators Gallery)* Tribute from JVJ Publishing site* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Heraclius" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Heraclius''' (; – 11 February 641) was Byzantine emperor from 610 to 641.His rise to power began in 608, when he and his father, Heraclius the Elder, the exarch of Africa, led a revolt against the unpopular emperor Phocas.Heraclius's reign was marked by several military campaigns.", "The year Heraclius came to power, the empire was threatened on multiple frontiers.", "Heraclius immediately took charge of the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628.The first battles of the campaign ended in defeat for the Byzantines; the Persian army fought their way to the Bosphorus but Constantinople was protected by impenetrable walls and a strong navy, and Heraclius was able to avoid total defeat.", "Soon after, he initiated reforms to rebuild and strengthen the military.", "Heraclius drove the Persians out of Asia Minor and pushed deep into their territory, defeating them decisively in 627 at the Battle of Nineveh.", "The Persian Shah Khosrow II was overthrown and executed by his son Kavad II, who soon sued for a peace treaty, agreeing to withdraw from all occupied territory.", "This way peaceful relations were restored to the two deeply strained empires.Heraclius soon lost many of his newly regained lands to the Rashidun Caliphate.", "Emerging from the Arabian Peninsula, the Muslims quickly conquered the Sasanian Empire.", "In 636, the Muslims marched into Roman Syria, defeating Heraclius's brother Theodore.", "Within a short period of time, the Arabs conquered Mesopotamia, Armenia and Egypt.", "Heraclius responded with reforms which allowed his successors to combat the Arabs and avoid total destruction.Heraclius entered diplomatic relations with the Croats and Serbs in the Balkans.", "He tried to repair the schism in the Christian church in regard to the Monophysites, by promoting a compromise doctrine called monothelitism.", "The Church of the East (commonly called Nestorian) was also involved in the process.", "Eventually, this project of unity was rejected by all sides of the dispute." ], [ "Origins", "Heraclius was the eldest son of Heraclius the Elder and Epiphania.", "His father, Heraclius the Elder, is almost universally recognized as being of Armenian origin.", "His mother, Epiphania, was probably of Cappadocian origin.", "Walter Kaegi considers Heracliusʼ Armenian origin \"probable\" and speculates that he was presumably \"bilingual (Armenian and Greek) from an early age, but even this is uncertain.\"", "According to the 7th century Armenian historian Sebeos, Heraclius was related to the Arsacid dynasty of Armenia.", "Elizabeth Redgate considers his Armenian origin likely.", "However, Anthony Kaldellis argues that there is not a single primary source that says that Heraclius the Elder was an Armenian and that the assertion is based on an erroneous reading of Theophylact Simocatta.", "In a letter, Priscus, a general who had replaced Heraclius the Elder, wrote to him \"to leave the army and return to his own city in Armenia\".", "Kaldellis interprets it as the command headquarters of Heraclius the Elder, and not his hometown.", "Nevertheless, beyond that, there is little specific information known about his origin.", "His father was a key general during Emperor Maurice's war with Shah Bahram Chobin, usurper of the Sasanian Empire, during 590.After the war, Maurice appointed Heraclius the Elder to the position of Exarch of Africa." ], [ "Early life", "===Revolt against Phocas and accession===solidus'' of Heraclius and his father in consular robes, struck during their revolt against PhocasIn 608, Heraclius the Elder renounced his loyalty to the Emperor Phocas, who had overthrown Maurice six years earlier.", "The rebels issued coins showing both Heraclii dressed as hypatos, though neither of them explicitly claimed the imperial title at this time.", "Heraclius's younger cousin Nicetas launched an overland invasion of Egypt; by 609, he had defeated Phocas's general Bonosus and secured the province.", "Meanwhile, the younger Heraclius sailed eastward with another force via Sicily and Cyprus.As he approached Constantinople, he made contact with prominent leaders and planned an attack to overthrow aristocrats in the city.", "When he reached the capital, the Excubitors, an elite Imperial Guard unit led by Phocas's son-in-law Priscus, deserted to Heraclius, and he entered the city without serious resistance.", "When Heraclius captured Phocas, he asked him \"Is this how you have ruled, wretch?\"", "Phocas's reply—\"And will you rule better?", "\"—so enraged Heraclius that he beheaded Phocas on the spot.", "He later had the genitalia removed from the body because Phocas had raped the wife of Photius, a powerful politician in the city.On 5 October 610, Heraclius was crowned in the Chapel of St. Stephen within the Great Palace.", "He then married Fabia, who took the name Eudokia.", "After her death in 612, he married his niece Martina in 613; this second marriage was considered incestuous and was very unpopular.", "In the reign of Heraclius's two sons, the divisive Martina was to become the center of power and political intrigue.", "Despite widespread hatred for Martina in Constantinople, Heraclius took her on campaigns with him and refused attempts by Patriarch Sergius to prevent and later dissolve the marriage." ], [ "Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628", "===Initial Persian advantage===During his Balkan campaigns, Emperor Maurice and his family were murdered by Phocas in November 602 after a mutiny.", "Khosrow II (Chosroes) of the Sasanian Empire had been restored to his throne by Maurice, and they had remained allies until the latter's death.", "Thereafter, Khosrow seized the opportunity to attack the Byzantine Empire and reconquer Mesopotamia.", "Khosrow had at his court a man who claimed to be Maurice's son Theodosius, and Khosrow demanded that the Byzantines accept this Theodosius as emperor.Heraclius in 613–616 (aged 38–41) with his son Heraclius Constantine.The war initially went the Persians' way, partly because of Phocas's brutal repression and the succession crisis that ensued as the general Heraclius sent his nephew Nicetas to attack Egypt, enabling his son Heraclius the younger to claim the throne in 610.Phocas, an unpopular ruler who is invariably described in historical sources as a \"tyrant\" (in its original meaning of the word, i.e.", "illegitimate king by the rules of succession), was eventually deposed by Heraclius, who sailed to Constantinople from Carthage with an icon affixed to the prow of his ship.By this time, the Persians had conquered Mesopotamia and the Caucasus, and in 611 they overran Syria and entered Anatolia.", "A major counter-attack led by Heraclius two years later was decisively defeated outside Antioch by Shahrbaraz and Shahin, and the Roman position collapsed; the Persians devastated parts of Asia Minor and captured Chalcedon across from Constantinople on the Bosporus.Over the following decade the Persians were able to conquer Palestine and Egypt (by mid-621, the whole province was in their hands) and to devastate Anatolia, while the Avars and Slavs took advantage of the situation to overrun the Balkans, bringing the Empire to the brink of destruction.", "In 613, the Persian army took Damascus with the help of the Jews, seized Jerusalem in 614, damaging the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and capturing the True Cross, and afterwards capturing Egypt in 617 or 618.When the Sasanians reached Chalcedon in 615, it was at this point, according to Sebeos, that Heraclius had agreed to stand down and was about ready to allow the Byzantine Empire to become a Persian client state, even permitting Khosrow II to choose the emperor.", "In a letter delivered by his ambassadors, Heraclius acknowledged the Persian empire as superior, described himself as Khosrow II's \"obedient son, one who is eager to perform the services of your serenity in all things\", and even called Khosrow II the \"supreme emperor\".", "Khosrow II nevertheless rejected the peace offer, and arrested Heraclius' ambassadors.With the Persians at the very gate of Constantinople, Heraclius thought of abandoning the city and moving the capital to Carthage, but the powerful church figure Patriarch Sergius convinced him to stay.", "Safe behind the walls of Constantinople, Heraclius was able to sue for peace in exchange for an annual tribute of a thousand talents of gold, a thousand talents of silver, a thousand silk robes, a thousand horses, and a thousand virgins to the Persian King.", "The peace allowed him to rebuild the Empire's army by slashing non-military expenditure, devaluing the currency, and melting down, with the backing of Patriarch Sergius, Church treasures to raise the necessary funds to continue the war.===Byzantine counter-offensive and resurgence===On 4 April 622, Heraclius left Constantinople, entrusting the city to Sergius and general Bonus as regents of his son.", "He assembled his forces in Asia Minor, probably in Bithynia, and, after he revived their broken morale, he launched a new counter-offensive, which took on the character of a holy war; an acheiropoietos image of Christ was carried as a military standard.Cherub and Heraclius receiving the submission of Khosrow II; plaque from a cross (Champlevé enamel over gilt copper, 1160–1170, Paris, Louvre).", "This is an allegory as Khosrow never submitted in person.\|alt=Medieval style portrait of Cherub and Heraclius receiving the submission of Khosrow II; plaque from a cross (Champlevé enamel over gilt copper).The Roman army proceeded to Armenia, inflicted a defeat on an army led by a Persian-allied Arab chief, and then won a victory over the Persians under Shahrbaraz.", "Heraclius would stay on campaign for several years.", "On 25 March 624, he again left Constantinople with his wife, Martina, and his two children; after he celebrated Easter in Nicomedia on 15 April, he campaigned in the Caucasus, winning a series of victories in Armenia against Khosrow and his generals Shahrbaraz, Shahin, and Shahraplakan.", "In the same year the Visigoths succeeded in recapturing Cartagena, capital of the western Byzantine province of Spania, resulting in the loss of one of the few minor provinces that had been conquered by the armies of Justinian I.", "In 626 the Avars and Slavs supported by a Persian army commanded by Shahrbaraz, besieged Constantinople, but the siege ended in failure (the victory was attributed to the icons of the Virgin which were led in procession by Sergius about the walls of the city), while a second Persian army under Shahin suffered another crushing defeat at the hands of Heraclius's brother Theodore.Heraclius (center) venerating the icon of Mary before campaigning against the Persians.", "Scene from the 12th century Manasses Chronicle.With the Persian war effort disintegrating, Heraclius was able to bring the Gokturks of the Western Turkic Khaganate, under Ziebel, who invaded Persian Transcaucasia.", "Heraclius exploited divisions within the Persian Empire, keeping Shahrbaraz neutral by convincing him that Khosrow had grown jealous of him and had ordered his execution.", "Late in 627 he launched a winter offensive into Mesopotamia, where, despite the desertion of his Turkish allies, he defeated the Persians under Rhahzadh at the Battle of Nineveh.", "Continuing south along the Tigris he sacked Khosrow's great palace at Dastagird and was only prevented from attacking Ctesiphon by the destruction of the bridges on the Nahrawan Canal.", "Discredited by this series of disasters, Khosrow was overthrown and killed in a coup led by his son Kavad II, who at once sued for peace, agreeing to withdraw from all occupied territories.", "In 629 Heraclius restored the True Cross to Jerusalem in a majestic ceremony.Heraclius took for himself the ancient Persian title of \"King of Kings\" after his victory.", "Later on, starting in 629, he styled himself as ''Basileus'', the Greek word for \"sovereign\", and that title was used by the Byzantine emperors for the next 800 years.", "The reason Heraclius chose this title over previous Roman terms such as ''Augustus'' has been attributed by some scholars to his Armenian origins.Heraclius's defeat of the Persians ended a war that had been going on intermittently for almost 400 years and led to instability in the Persian Empire.", "Kavad II died only months after assuming the throne, plunging Persia into several years of dynastic turmoil and civil war.", "Ardashir III, Heraclius's ally Shahrbaraz, and Khosrow's daughters Boran and Azarmidokht all succeeded to the throne within months of each other.", "Only when Yazdegerd III, a grandson of Khosrow II, succeeded to the throne in 632 was there stability.", "But by then the Sasanid Empire was severely disorganised, having been weakened by years of war and civil strife over the succession to the throne.The war had been devastating, and left the Byzantines in a much-weakened state.", "Within a few years both empires were overwhelmed by the onslaught of the Arabs, ultimately leading to the Muslim conquest of Persia and the fall of the Sasanian dynasty in 651." ], [ "Byzantine–Arab Wars", "alt=A map with Muslim-Byzantine troop movements from September 365 to just before the event of the Battle of YarmoukBy 630, the Arabs had unified all the tribes of the Hijaz, previously too divided to pose a serious military challenge to the Byzantines or the Persians.", "They composed one of the most powerful states in the region.", "The first conflict between the Byzantines and the Arabs was the Battle of Mu'tah in September 629.A small Arabs skirmishing force attacked the province of Arabia in response to the Arab ambassador's death at the hands of the Ghassanid Roman governor, but were repulsed.", "Since the engagement was a Byzantine victory, there was no apparent reason to make changes to the military organization of the region.", "The Roman military wasn't accustomed to fighting Arab armies at scale, much like the Islamic forces of Hijaz who had no prior experience in their engagements against the Romans.", "Even the Strategicon of Maurice, a manual of war praised for the variety of enemies it covers, does not mention warfare against Arabs at any length.", "The religious zeal of the Arab army, which was a recent development following the rise of Islam, ultimately contributed to the latter's success in its campaigns against the Romans.The following year, the Arabs launched an offensive into the Arabah south of Lake Tiberias, taking al-Karak.", "Other raids penetrated into the Negev, reaching as far as Gaza.", "The Battle of Yarmouk in 636 resulted in a crushing defeat for the larger Byzantine army; within three years, the Levant had been lost again.", "Heraclius died of an illness on 11 February 641; and most of Egypt had fallen by that time as well." ], [ "Legacy", "Battle between Heraclius's army and Persians under Khosrow II.", "Fresco by Piero della Francesca, ca.", "1452\|alt=Idealized painting of a battle between Heraclius's army and Persians under Khosrow II ca.", "1452Looking back at the reign of Heraclius, scholars have credited him with many accomplishments.", "He enlarged the Empire, and his reorganization of the government and military were great successes.", "His attempts at religious harmony failed, but he succeeded in returning the True Cross, one of the holiest Christian relics, to Jerusalem.===Accomplishments===Although the territories recovered by his defeat of the Persians were annulled again by the Early Muslim conquests, Heraclius still ranks among the great Roman emperors.", "His reforms of the government reduced the corruption which had taken hold in Phocas's reign, and he reorganized the military with great success.", "Ultimately, the reformed Imperial army halted the Muslims in Asia Minor and held on to Carthage for another 60 years, saving a core from which the empire's strength could be rebuilt.The recovery of the eastern areas of the Roman Empire from the Persians once again raised the problem of religious unity centering on the understanding of the true nature of Christ.", "Most of the inhabitants of these provinces were Monophysites who rejected the Council of Chalcedon.", "Heraclius tried to promote a compromise doctrine called Monothelitism but this philosophy was rejected as heretical by both sides of the dispute.", "For this reason, Heraclius was viewed as a heretic and a bad ruler by some later religious writers.", "After the Monophysite provinces were finally lost to the Muslims, Monotheletism rather lost its ''raison d'être'' and was eventually abandoned.The Croats and Serbs of Byzantine Dalmatia initiated diplomatic relations and dependencies with Heraclius.", "The Serbs, who briefly lived in Macedonia, became ''foederati'' and were baptized at the request of Heraclius (before 626).", "At his request, Pope John IV (640–642) sent Christian teachers and missionaries to Duke Porga and his Croats, who practiced Slavic paganism.", "He also created the office of sakellarios, a comptroller of the treasury.Up to the 20th century he was credited with establishing the Thematic system but modern scholarship now points more to the 660s, under Constans II.Saint Helena.", "15th century, Spain\|alt=15th century, Spanish, a medieval painting showing Heraclius on a horse returning the True Cross to Jerusalem, anachronistically accompanied by Saint HelenaEdward Gibbon, in ''The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', wrote:===Recovery of the True Cross===Heraclius was long remembered favourably by the Western church for his reputed recovery of the True Cross from the Persians.", "As Heraclius approached the Persian capital during the final stages of the war, Khosrow fled from his favourite residence—Dastagird near Baghdad—without offering resistance.", "Meanwhile, some of the Persian grandees freed Khosrow's eldest son Kavad II, who had been imprisoned by his father, and proclaimed him King on the night of 23–24 February, 628.Kavad, however, was mortally ill and was anxious that Heraclius should protect his infant son Ardeshir.", "So, as a goodwill gesture, he sent the True Cross with a negotiator in 628.After a tour of the Empire, Heraclius returned the cross to Jerusalem on 21 March 629 or 630.For Christians of Western Medieval Europe, Heraclius was the \"first crusader\".", "The iconography of the emperor appeared in the sanctuary at Mont Saint-Michel (ca.", "1060), and then it became popular, especially in France, the Italian Peninsula, and the Holy Roman Empire.", "The story was included in the ''Golden Legend'', the famous 13th-century compendium of hagiography, and he is sometimes shown in art, as in ''The History of the True Cross'' sequence of frescoes painted by Piero della Francesca in Arezzo, and a similar sequence on a small altarpiece by Adam Elsheimer (Städel, Frankfurt).", "Both of these show scenes of Heraclius and Constantine I's mother Saint Helena, traditionally responsible for the excavation of the cross.", "The scene usually shown is Heraclius carrying the cross; according to the ''Golden Legend'', he insisted on doing this as he entered Jerusalem, against the advice of the Patriarch.", "At first, when he was on horseback (shown above), the burden was too heavy, but after he dismounted and removed his crown it became miraculously light, and the barred city gate opened of its own accord.Local tradition suggests that the Late Antique Colossus of Barletta depicts Heraclius.Some scholars disagree with this narrative, Professor Constantin Zuckerman going as far as to suggest that the True Cross was actually lost, and that the wood contained in the allegedly-still-sealed reliquary brought to Jerusalem by Heraclius in 629 was a fake.", "In his analysis, the hoax was designed to serve the political purposes of both Heraclius and his former foe, the Persian general Shahrbaraz.===Islamic view of Heraclius===Purported letter sent by Muhammad to Heraclius, emperor of Byzantium; reproduction taken from Majid Ali Khan, ''Muhammad The Final Messenger ''Islamic Book Service, New Delhi (1998).In early Islamic and Arab histories, Heraclius is the most popular Roman emperor, who is discussed at length.", "Owing to his role as Roman emperor at the time Islam emerged, he is remembered in Arabic literature, such as the Islamic hadith and sira.The Swahili ''Utendi wa Tambuka'', an epic poem composed in 1728 at Pate Island (off the shore of present-day Kenya) and depicting the wars between the Muslims and Byzantines from the former's point of view, is also known as ''Kyuo kya Hereḳali'' (\"The Book of Heraclius\").", "In that work, Heraclius is portrayed as declining the Prophet's request to renounce his belief in Christianity: he is therefore defeated by the Muslim forces.In Muslim tradition, he is seen as a just ruler of great piety, who had direct contact with the emerging Islamic forces.", "The 14th-century scholar Ibn Kathir (d. 1373) went even further, stating that \"Heraclius was one of the wisest men and among the most resolute, shrewd, deep and opinionated of kings.", "He ruled the Romans with great leadership and splendor.\"", "Historians such as Nadia Maria El-Cheikh and Lawrence Conrad note that Islamic histories even go so far as claiming that Heraclius recognized Islam as the true faith and Muhammad as its prophet, by comparing Islam to Christianity.Islamic historians often cite a letter in which they claim Heraclius wrote to Muhammad: \"I have received your letter with your ambassador and I testify that you are the messenger of God found in our New Testament.", "Jesus, son of Mary, announced you.\"", "According to the Muslim sources reported by El-Cheikh, he tried to convert the ruling class of the Empire, but they resisted so strongly that he reversed course and claimed that he was just testing their faith in Christianity.", "El-Cheikh notes that these accounts of Heraclius add \"little to our historical knowledge\" of the emperor; rather, they are an important part of \"Islamic kerygma,\" attempting to legitimize Muhammad's status as a prophet.Most Western academic historians view such traditions as biased and proclamatory and of little historical value.", "Furthermore, they argue that any messengers sent by Muhammad to Heraclius would not have received an imperial audience or recognition.", "According to Kaegi, there is no evidence outside of Islamic sources to suggest Heraclius ever heard of Islam, and it is possible that he and his advisors actually viewed the Muslims as some special sect of Jews." ], [ "Family", "''Solidus'' showing Heraclius (middle, with the large beard) in his later reign flanked by his sons Heraclius Constantine and HeraclonasJob and his family, likely represented as Heraclius (left), his second wife Martina, his sister Epiphania, and his daughter Eudoxia, on a 5th century biblical manuscript.See also .Heraclius was married twice: first to Fabia Eudokia, a daughter of Rogatus, and then to his niece Martina.", "He had two children with Fabia (Eudoxia Epiphania and Emperor Constantine III) and at least nine with Martina, many of whom were sickly children.", "Of Martina's children at least two were disabled, which was seen as punishment for the illegality of the marriage: Fabius had a paralyzed neck and Theodosius was a deaf-mute.", "The latter married Nike, daughter of the Persian general Shahrbaraz, or daughter of Niketas, cousin of Heraclius.Two of Heraclius's children would become emperor: Heraclius Constantine (Constantine III), his son with Eudokia, and Martina's son Heraclius (Heraclonas).", "Constantine was crowned co-emperor (''augustus'') on 22 January 613, at the age of 8 months.", "Heraclonas was made ''caesar'' on 1 January 632, aged 6, and was later crowned ''augustus'' on 4 July 638.They ruled for a few months in 641, but were eventually succeeded by Constans II, the son of Constantine III, by the end of the year.Heraclius had at least one illegitimate son, John Athalarichos, who conspired against Heraclius with his cousin, the magister Theodorus, and the Armenian noble David Saharuni.", "When Heraclius discovered the plot, he had Athalarichos's nose and hands cut off, and he was exiled to Prinkipo, one of the Princes' Islands.", "Theodorus received the same treatment, but was sent to Gaudomelete (possibly modern-day Gozo Island) with additional instructions to cut off one leg.During the last years of Heraclius's life, it became evident that a struggle was taking place between Heraclius Constantine and Martina, who was trying to position her son Heraclonas to assume the throne.", "When Heraclius died, he devised the empire to both Heraclius Constantine and Heraclonas to rule jointly with Martina as empress.===Family tree===" ], [ "See also", "* Cathedral of Mren* Flavia gens* Non-Muslim interactants with Muslims during Muhammad's era* Revolt against Heraclius" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Sources ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " \"Heraclius\" at ''De Imperatoribus Romanis'' ( Archive) – online encyclopedia of Roman Emperors" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Henry the Fowler" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Henry the Fowler''' ( or ''''; ) (c. 876 – 2 July 936) was the Duke of Saxony from 912 and the King of East Francia from 919 until his death in 936.As the first non-Frankish king of East Francia, he established the Ottonian dynasty of kings and emperors, and he is generally considered to be the founder of the medieval German state, known until then as East Francia.", "An avid hunter, he obtained the epithet \"the Fowler\" because he was allegedly fixing his birding nets when messengers arrived to inform him that he was to be king.He was born into the Liudolfing line of Saxon dukes.", "His father Otto I of Saxony died in 912 and was succeeded by Henry.", "The new duke launched a rebellion against the king of East Francia, Conrad I of Germany, over the rights to lands in the Duchy of Thuringia.", "They reconciled in 915 and on his deathbed in 918, Conrad recommended Henry as the next king, considering the duke the only one who could hold the kingdom together in the face of internal revolts and external Magyar raids.Henry was elected and crowned king in 919.He went on to defeat the rebellious dukes of Bavaria and Swabia, consolidating his rule.", "Through successful warfare and a dynastic marriage, Henry acquired Lotharingia as a vassal in 925.Unlike his Carolingian predecessors, Henry did not seek to create a centralized monarchy, ruling through federated autonomous stem duchies instead.", "Henry built an extensive system of fortifications and mobile heavy cavalry across Germany to neutralize the Magyar threat and in 933 routed them at the Battle of Riade, ending Magyar attacks for the next 21 years and giving rise to a sense of German nationhood.", "Henry greatly expanded German hegemony in Europe with his defeat of the Slavs in 929 at the Battle of Lenzen along the Elbe river, by compelling the submission of Duke Wenceslaus I of Bohemia through an invasion of the Duchy of Bohemia the same year and by conquering Danish realms in Schleswig in 934.Henry's hegemonic status north of the Alps was acknowledged by the kings Rudolph of West Francia and Rudolph II of Upper Burgundy, who both accepted a place of subordination as allies in 935.Henry planned an expedition to Rome to be crowned emperor by the pope, but the design was thwarted by his death.", "Henry prevented a collapse of royal power, as had happened in West Francia, and left a much stronger kingdom to his successor Otto I.", "He was buried at Quedlinburg Abbey, established by his wife Matilda in his honour." ], [ "Family", "Born in Memleben, in what is now Saxony-Anhalt, Henry was the son of Otto the Illustrious, Duke of Saxony, and his wife Hedwiga, who was probably the daughter of Henry of Franconia.In 906 he married Hatheburg of Merseburg, daughter of the Saxon count Erwin.", "She had previously been a nun.", "The marriage was annulled in 909 because her vows as a nun were deemed by the church to remain valid.", "She had already given birth to Henry's son Thankmar.", "The annulment placed a question mark over Thankmar's legitimacy.", "Later that year he married Matilda, daughter of Dietrich of Ringelheim, Count in Westphalia.", "Matilda bore him three sons and two daughters, Hedwig and Gerberga, and founded many religious institutions, including the Quedlinburg Abbey where Henry and Matilda are buried.", "She was later canonized.His son Otto I, traditionally known as ''Otto the Great'', continued his father's work of unifying all German tribes into a single kingdom and greatly expanded the king's powers.", "He installed members of his family in the kingdom's most important duchies, subjected the clergy to his personal control, defeated the Magyars and conquered the Kingdom of Italy." ], [ "Rule", "Hermann Vogel (1854–1921)Henry became Duke of Saxony after his father's death in 912.An able ruler, he continued to strengthen the position of his duchy within the weakening kingdom of East Francia, and was frequently in conflict with his neighbors to the South in the Duchy of Franconia.On 23 December 918 Conrad I, king of East Francia and Franconian duke, died.", "Although Henry had rebelled against Conrad I between 912 and 915 over the lands in Thuringia, Conrad recommended Henry as his successor.", "Kingship now changed from the Franks to the Saxons, who had suffered greatly during the conquests of Charlemagne and were proud of their identity.", "Henry, as Saxon, was the first non-Frank on the throne.Conrad's choice was conveyed by his brother, duke Eberhard III of Franconia at the Imperial Diet of Fritzlar in 919.The assembled Franconian and Saxon nobles elected Henry to be king with other regional dukes not participating in the election.", "Archbishop Heriger of Mainz offered to anoint Henry according to the usual ceremony, but he refused – the only king of his time not to undergo that rite – allegedly because he wished to be king not by the church's but by the people's acclaim.Henry, who was elected to kingship by only the Saxons and Franconians at Fritzlar, had to subdue the other dukes.Duke Burchard II of Swabia soon swore fealty to the new king, but when he died, Henry appointed a noble from Franconia to be the new duke.Duke Arnulf of Bavaria, lord over a realm of impressive extent, with ''de facto'' powers of a king and at times even named so in documents, proved a much harder nut to crack.", "He would not submit until Henry defeated him in two campaigns in 921.", "''Finkenherd'' (finch trap) at Quedlinburg, built around 1530 at the legendary place of the king's bird trappingIn the short remnant of a more lengthy text, \"Fragmentum de Arnulfo duce Bavariae (de)\", the author gives a very lively impression of the disconcert Henry's claims caused in Bavaria:The piece abruptly starts with a clause.", "It relates that Henry I (''Saxo Heimricus''), following the advice of an unnamed bishop, had invaded the Bavarian kingdom (''regnum Baioariae'') in a hostile way.", "Decidedly, it hints at the unlawfulness of this encroachment, namely in that Bavaria was a territory in which none of Henry's forefathers had ever possessed even a foot (gressum pedis) of land.", "This was also the reason – by God's will (Dei nutu) – for him having been defeated in this first campaign.", "This can be seen as proof that Henry did campaign against Bavaria, and Arnulf, more than once.In the second chapter, the unknown chronicler hints that Henry's predecessor on the throne, Conrad I, had also invaded Bavaria in an equally unlawful and hostile (non regaliter, sed hostiliter) fashion.", "Conrad is said to have marauded through the land, murdering and pillaging, having made many children orphans (orphanos) and women widows (viduas).", "Ratisbon, the duke's seat, was set to light and looted.", "After Conrad committed all these crimes (peccatis), it reports that divine providence (divino nutu) forced him to withdraw.", "The reason for this is not mentioned.The last section is a eulogy to Duke Arnulf who is described as a glorious leader (gloriosus dux), being blessed by heaven (ex alto) with all kinds of virtues, brave and dynamic.", "He alone had saved his people from the scourge of the Saxons (de sevienti gladio paganorum) and given them back their freedom.This panegyric to the Bavarian duke is unparalleled for its time and underlines his position of power in the southeast of the East Frankish realm, so endangered by disintegration, so that \"Arnulf ... nearly found the same resonance in the scarce historiography of his time, as did King Henry\".Henry besieged Arnulf's residence at Ratisbon and forced the duke into submission.", "Arnulf had crowned himself as king of Bavaria in 919, but in 921 renounced the crown and submitted to Henry while maintaining significant autonomy and the right to mint his own coins.In his time, the king was considered ''primus inter pares (first among equals)''.", "The king and princes formulated policies together and the position of the monarchy could only be consolidated gradually.", "Even under Otto the Great and later monarchs, consensus building would remain important.", "===Wars over Lotharingia===Map of Lotharingia in the 10th centuryIn 920, the king of West Francia, Charles the Simple, invaded and marched as far as Pfeddersheim near Worms, but retreated when he learned that Henry was organizing an army.", "On 7 November 921, Henry and Charles met and concluded the Treaty of Bonn, in which Henry was recognized as the east Frankish king and Charles rule in Lotharingia was recognized.", "Henry then saw an opportunity to take Lotharingia when a civil war over royal succession began in West Francia after the coronation of King Robert I.", "In 923 Henry crossed the Rhine twice, capturing a large part of the duchy.", "The eastern part of Lotharingia was left in Henry's possession until October 924.In 925 Duke Gilbert of Lotharingia rebelled.", "Henry invaded the duchy and besieged Gilbert at Zülpich (Tolbiac), captured the town, and became master of a large portion of his lands.", "Allowing Gilbert to remain in power as duke, Henry arranged the marriage of his daughter Gerberga to his new vassal in 928.Thus he brought that realm, which had been lost in 910, back into the kingdom as the fifth stem duchy.===Wars with Magyars===The threat of Magyar raiders improved his situation, as all the dukes and nobles realized that only a strong state could defend their lands against barbarian incursions.In 919 Henry was defeated by the Magyars in the Battle of Püchen, hardly escaping from being killed in battle, managing to take refuge in the town of Püchen.In 921 the Magyars once again invaded East Francia and Italy.", "Although a sizable Magyar force was defeated near Bleiburg in the Bavarian March of Carinthia by Eberhard and the Count of Meran and another group was routed by Liutfried, count of Elsass (French reading: Alsace), the Magyars continued raiding East Francia.Henry, having captured a Hungarian prince, managed to arrange a ten-year truce in 924, though he agreed to pay annual tribute.", "By doing so he and the dukes gained time to build new fortified towns and to train a new elite cavalry force.", "Henry built fortified settlements as a defense against Magyar and Slav invaders.", "In 932 Henry refused to pay the annual tribute to the Magyars.", "When they began raiding again, Henry, with his improved army in 933 at the Battle of Riade, crushed the Magyars so completely that they never returned to the northern lands of Henry's kingdom.===Wars with Slavs===During the truce with the Magyars, Henry subdued the Polabian Slavs who lived on his eastern borders.", "In the winter of 928 he marched against the Slavic Hevelli tribes and seized their capital, Brandenburg.", "He then invaded the Glomacze lands on the middle Elbe river, conquering the capital Gana (Jahna) after a siege, and had a fortress (the later Albrechtsburg) built at Meissen.", "In 929, with the help of Arnulf of Bavaria, Henry entered the Duchy of Bohemia and forced Duke Wenceslaus I to resume the annual payment of tribute to the king.Meanwhile, the Slavic Redarii had driven away their chief, captured the town of Walsleben and massacred its inhabitants.", "Counts Bernard and Thietmar marched against the fortress of Lenzen beyond the Elbe, and, after fierce fighting, completely routed the enemy on 4 September 929.The Lusatians and the Ukrani on the lower Oder were subdued and made tributary in 932 and 934, respectively.", "In conquered lands Henry did not create march administration, which was implemented by his successor Otto I.===Wars with Danes===Henry also pacified territories to the north, where the Danes had been harrying the Frisians by sea.", "The monk and chronicler Widukind of Corvey in his ''Res gestae Saxonicae'' reports that the Danes were subjects of Henry the Fowler.", "Henry incorporated into his kingdom territories held by the Wends, who together with the Danes had attacked Germany, and also conquered Schleswig in 934." ], [ "Family and children", "As the first Saxon king of East Francia, Henry was the founder of the Ottonian dynasty.", "He and his descendants ruled East Francia, and later the Holy Roman Empire, from 919 until 1024.Henry had two wives and at least six children:With Hatheburg:# Thankmar (908–938) – rebelled against his half-brother Otto and was killed in battle in 938With Matilda:# Hedwig (910–965) – wife of West Francia's powerful Robertian duke Hugh the Great, mother of Hugh Capet, King of West Francia# Otto I (912–973) – Duke of Saxony, King of East Francia and Holy Roman Emperor.", "In 929 Henry married Otto to Eadgyth, daughter of Edward the Elder, King of Wessex.", "One of his son was Prince (dux) Slavník, from an unknown mother, he founded the Slavník dynasty, from this dynasty comes the later noble family of Lehoczky.# Gerberga (913–984) – wife of (1) Duke Gilbert of Lotharingia and (2) King Louis IV of France# Henry I (919–955) – Duke of Bavaria# Bruno (925–965) – Archbishop of Cologne and Duke of Lotharingia and regent of West Francia." ], [ "Legacy", "Himmler at Henry's grave, 1938Henry returned to public attention as a character in Richard Wagner's opera, ''Lohengrin'' (1850), trying to gain the support of the Brabantian nobles against the Magyars.", "After the attempts to achieve German national unity failed with the Revolutions of 1848, Wagner strongly relied on the picture of Henry as the actual ruler of all German tribes as advocated by pan-Germanist activists like Friedrich Ludwig Jahn.There are indications that Heinrich Himmler saw himself as the reincarnation of Henry, who was proclaimed to be the first king of Germany.", "Himmler traveled to Quedlinburg several times to hold a ceremony in the crypt on the anniversary of the king's death, 2 July.", "This started in 1936, 1,000 years after Henry died.", "Himmler considered him to be the \"first German king\" and declared his tomb a site of pilgrimage for Germans.", "In 1937, the king's remains were reinterred in a new sarcophagus." ], [ "In the arts", "Henry the Fowler is a main character of Richard Wagner's opera ''Lohengrin''.", "Henry the Fowler is one of two antagonists, being the end boss in the final mission of the 2001 game ''Return to Castle Wolfenstein''.", "The game portrays him as an evil necromancer and anachronistically places him in 943 CE, 7 years after his actual death year of 936." ], [ "See also", "Family tree of the German monarchs" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Bachrach.", "David S. \"Restructuring the Eastern Frontier: Henry I of Germany, 924–936,\" ''Journal of Military History'' (Jan 2014) 78#1 pp 9–36*********" ], [ "Further reading", "Arnold, Benjamin, ''Medieval Germany, 500–1300: A Political Interpretation'' (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 1997)Bachrach, David S., 'The Military Organization of Ottonian German, c. 900–1018: The Views of Bishop Thietmar of Merseburg', ''The Journal of Military History'', 72 (2008), 1061–1088Bachrach, David S., 'Exercise of Royal Power in Early Medieval Europe: the Case of Otto the Great 936-73', ''Early Medieval Europe'', 17 (2009), 89–419Bachrach, David S., 'Henry I of Germany's 929 Military Campaign in Archaeological Perspective', ''Early Medieval Europe'', 21 (2013), 307–337Bachrach.", "David S., 'Restructuring the Eastern Frontier: Henry I of Germany, 924–936', ''Journal of Military History'', 78 (2014), 9–36Gillingham, John, ''The Kingdom of Germany in the High Middle Ages (900–1200)'' (London: The Historical Association, 1971)Leyser, Karl, ''Rule and Conflict in Early Medieval Society: Ottonian Saxony'' (Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1979)Leyser, Karl, ''Medieval Germany and Its Neighbours 900–1250'' (London: The Hambledon Press, 1982)Müller-Mertens, Eckhard, 'The Ottonians as Kings and Emperors', in ''The New Cambridge Medieval History III: c. 900–1024'', ed.", "by Timothy Reuter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp.", "233–266Nicholas, David M., ''The Evolution of the Medieval World: Society, Government & Thought in Europe, 312–1500'' (London: Routledge, 1992)Peden, Alison 'Unity, Order and Ottonian Kingship in the Thought of Abbo of Fleury', in ''Belief and Culture in the Middle Ages: Studies Presented to Henry Mayr-Harting'', ed.", "Richard Gameson and Henrietta Leyser (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), pp.", "158–168Reuter, Timothy, ''Germany in the Early Middle Ages, C. 800–1056'' (London: Longman Group, 1991)Reuter, Timothy 'The 'Imperial Church System' of the Ottonian and Salian Rulers: a Reconsideration', ''The Journal of Ecclesiastical History'', 33 (2011), 347–375" ], [ "External links", "* Deed by Henry I for Hersfeld Abbey, 1 June 932 with his seal, * Publications about Henry I in the OPAC of the ''Regesta Imperii''" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hannibal" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hannibal''' (; ; 247 – between 183 and 181 BC) was a Carthaginian general and statesman who commanded the forces of Carthage in their battle against the Roman Republic during the Second Punic War.Hannibal's father, Hamilcar Barca, was a leading Carthaginian general during the First Punic War.", "His younger brothers were Mago and Hasdrubal; his brother-in-law was Hasdrubal the Fair, who commanded other Carthaginian armies.", "Hannibal lived during a period of great tension in the Mediterranean Basin, triggered by the emergence of the Roman Republic as a great power with its defeat of Carthage in the First Punic War.", "Revanchism prevailed in Carthage, symbolized by the pledge that Hannibal made to his father to \"never be a friend of Rome\".In 218 BC, Hannibal attacked Saguntum (modern Sagunto, Spain), an ally of Rome, in Hispania, sparking the Second Punic War.", "Hannibal invaded Italy by crossing the Alps with North African war elephants.", "In his first few years in Italy, he won a succession of victories at the Battle of Ticinus, Trebia, Lake Trasimene, and Cannae, inflicting heavy losses on the Romans.", "Hannibal was distinguished for his ability to determine both his and his opponent's respective strengths and weaknesses, and to plan battles accordingly.", "His well-planned strategies allowed him to conquer and ally with several Italian cities that were previously allied to Rome.", "Hannibal occupied most of southern Italy for 15 years.", "The Romans, led by Fabius Maximus, avoided directly engaging him, instead waging a war of attrition (the Fabian strategy).", "Carthaginian defeats in Hispania prevented Hannibal from being reinforced, and he was unable to win a decisive victory.", "A counter-invasion of North Africa, led by Roman General Scipio Africanus, forced him to return to Carthage.", "Hannibal was eventually defeated at the Battle of Zama, ending the war in a Roman victory.After the war, Hannibal successfully ran for the office of sufet.", "He enacted political and financial reforms to enable the payment of the war indemnity imposed by Rome.", "Those reforms were unpopular with members of the Carthaginian aristocracy and in Rome, and he fled into voluntary exile.", "During this time, he lived at the Seleucid court, where he acted as military advisor to Antiochus III the Great in his war against Rome.", "Antiochus met defeat at the Battle of Magnesia and was forced to accept Rome's terms, and Hannibal fled again, making a stop in the Kingdom of Armenia.", "His flight ended in the court of Bithynia.", "He was betrayed by the Romans and committed suicide by poisoning himself.Hannibal is considered one of the greatest military tacticians and generals of antiquity, alongside Alexander the Great, Cyrus the Great, Julius Caesar, and Pyrrhus.", "According to Plutarch, Scipio asked Hannibal \"who the greatest general was\", to which Hannibal replied \"either Alexander or Pyrrhus, then himself\"." ], [ "Name", "Charles TurnerHannibal was a common Semitic Phoenician-Carthaginian personal name.", "It is recorded in Carthaginian sources as ().", "It is a combination of the common Phoenician masculine given name Hanno with the Northwest Semitic Canaanite deity Baal (lit, \"lord\") a major god of the Carthaginians ancestral homeland of Phoenicia in Western Asia.", "Its precise vocalization remains a matter of debate.", "Suggested readings include ''Ḥannobaʿal'', ''Ḥannibaʿl'', or ''Ḥannibaʿal'', meaning \"Baʿal/The lord is gracious\", \"Baʿal Has Been Gracious\", or \"The Grace of Baʿal\".", "It is equivalent to the fellow Semitic Hebrew name Haniel.", "Greek historians rendered the name as ''Anníbas'' ().The Phoenicians and Carthaginians, like many West Asian Semitic peoples, did not use hereditary surnames, but were typically distinguished from others bearing the same name using patronymics or epithets.", "Although he is by far the most famous Hannibal, when further clarification is necessary he is usually referred to as \"Hannibal, son of Hamilcar\", or \"Hannibal the Barcid\", the latter term applying to the family of his father, Hamilcar Barca.", "''Barca'' (, ) is a Semitic cognomen meaning \"lightning\" or \"thunderbolt\", a surname acquired by Hamilcar on account of the swiftness and ferocity of his attacks.", "Barca is cognate with similar names for lightning found among the Israelites, Assyrians, Babylonians, Arameans, Arabs, Amorites, Moabites, Edomites and other fellow Asiatic Semitic peoples.", "Although they did not inherit the surname from their father, Hamilcar's progeny are collectively known as the Barcids.", "Modern historians occasionally refer to Hannibal's brothers as Hasdrubal Barca and Mago Barca to distinguish them from the multitudes of other Carthaginians named Hasdrubal and Mago, but this practice is ahistorical and is rarely applied to Hannibal." ], [ "Background and early career", "quarter shekel of Carthage, perhaps minted in Spain.", "The obverse may depict Hannibal with the traits of a young Melqart.", "The reverse features one of his famous war elephants.Hannibal was one of the sons of Hamilcar Barca, a Carthaginian leader, and an unknown mother.", "He was born in what is present-day northern Tunisia, one of many Mediterranean regions colonized by the Canaanites from their homelands in Phoenicia, a region corresponding with the Mediterranean coasts of modern Lebanon and Syria.", "He had several sisters whose names are unknown, and two brothers, Hasdrubal and Mago.", "His brothers-in-law were Hasdrubal the Fair and the Numidian king Naravas.", "He was still a child when his sisters married, and his brothers-in-law were close associates during his father's struggles in the Mercenary War and the Punic conquest of the Iberian Peninsula.After Carthage's defeat in the First Punic War, Hamilcar set out to improve his family's and Carthage's fortunes.", "With that in mind and supported by Gades, Hamilcar began the subjugation of the tribes of the Iberian Peninsula (Modern Spain and Portugal).", "Carthage at the time was in such a poor state that it lacked a navy able to transport his army; instead, Hamilcar had to march his forces across Numidia towards the Pillars of Hercules and then cross the Strait of Gibraltar.According to Polybius, Hannibal much later said that when he came upon his father and begged to go with him, Hamilcar agreed and demanded that he swear that as long as he lived he would never be a friend of Rome.", "There is even an account of him at a very young age (9 years old) begging his father to take him to an overseas war.", "In the story, Hannibal's father took him up and brought him to a sacrificial chamber.", "Hamilcar held Hannibal over the fire roaring in the chamber and made him swear that he would never be a friend of Rome.", "Other sources report that Hannibal told his father, \"I swear so soon as age will permit...I will use fire and steel to arrest the destiny of Rome.\"", "According to the tradition, Hannibal's oath took place in the town of Peñíscola, today part of the Valencian Community, Spain.Hannibal's father went about the conquest of Hispania.", "When his father drowned in battle, Hannibal's brother-in-law Hasdrubal the Fair succeeded to his command of the army with Hannibal (then 18 years old) serving as an officer under him.", "Hasdrubal pursued a policy of consolidation of Carthage's Iberian interests, even signing a treaty with Rome whereby Carthage would not expand north of the Ebro so long as Rome did not expand south of it.", "Hasdrubal also endeavored to consolidate Carthaginian power through diplomatic relationships with the native tribes of Iberia and native Berbers of the North African coasts.Upon the assassination of Hasdrubal in 221 BC, Hannibal, now 26 years old, was proclaimed commander-in-chief by the army and confirmed in his appointment by the Carthaginian government.", "The Roman scholar Livy gives a depiction of the young Carthaginian: \"No sooner had he arrived...the old soldiers fancied they saw Hamilcar in his youth given back to them; the same bright look; the same fire in his eye, the same trick of countenance and features.", "Never was the same spirit more skillful to meet opposition, to obey, or to command.", "\"An 1868 illustration of Imilce and her son Haspar Barca by Juan de Dios de la RadaLivy also records that Hannibal married a woman of Castulo, a powerful Spanish city closely allied with Carthage.", "The Roman epic poet Silius Italicus names her as Imilce.", "Silius suggests a Greek origin for Imilce, but Gilbert Charles-Picard argued for a Punic heritage based on an etymology from the Semitic root m-l-k ('chief, the 'king').", "Silius also suggests the existence of a son, who is otherwise not attested by Livy, Polybius, or Appian.", "The son may have been named Haspar or Aspar, although this is disputed.After he assumed command, Hannibal spent two years consolidating his holdings and completing the conquest of Hispania, south of the Ebro.", "In his first campaign, Hannibal attacked and stormed the Olcades' strongest center, Alithia, which promptly led to their surrender, and brought Punic power close to the River Tagus.", "His following campaign in 220 BC was against the Vaccaei to the west, where he stormed the Vaccaen strongholds of Helmantice and Arbucala.", "On his return home, laden with many spoils, a coalition of Spanish tribes, led by the Carpetani, attacked, and Hannibal won his first major battlefield success and showed off his tactical skills at the battle of the River Tagus.", "Rome, fearing the growing strength of Hannibal in Iberia, made an alliance with the city of Saguntum, which lay a considerable distance south of the River Ebro, and claimed the city as its protectorate.", "Hannibal not only perceived this as a breach of the treaty signed with Hasdrubal, but as he was already planning an attack on Rome, this was his way to start the war.", "So he laid siege to the city, which fell after eight months.Hannibal sent the booty from Saguntum to Carthage, a shrewd move which gained him much support from the government; Livy records that only Hanno II the Great spoke against him.", "In Rome, the Senate reacted to this apparent violation of the treaty by dispatching a delegation to Carthage to demand whether Hannibal had destroyed Saguntum by orders from Carthage.", "The Carthaginian Senate responded with legal arguments observing the lack of ratification by either government for the treaty alleged to have been violated.", "The delegation's leader, Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, demanded Carthage choose between war and peace, to which his audience replied that Rome could choose.", "Fabius chose war." ], [ "Second Punic War in Italy (218–204 BC)", "===Overland journey to Italy===This journey was originally planned by Hannibal's brother-in-law Hasdrubal the Fair, who became a Carthaginian general in the Iberian Peninsula in 229 BC.", "He maintained this post for eight years until 221 BC.", "Soon the Romans became aware of an alliance between Carthage and the Celts of the Po Valley in Northern Italy.", "When Hannibal arrived in the Po Valley, roughly 10,000 Celtic tribesmen joined his army.The Celts were amassing forces to invade farther south in Italy, presumably with Carthaginian backing.", "Therefore, the Romans pre-emptively invaded the Po region in 225 BC.", "By 220 BC, the Romans had annexed the area as Cisalpine Gaul.", "Hasdrubal was assassinated around the same time (221 BC), bringing Hannibal to the fore.", "It seems that the Romans lulled themselves into a false sense of security, having dealt with the threat of a Gallo-Carthaginian invasion, and perhaps knowing that the original Carthaginian commander had been killed.Hannibal departed Cartagena, Spain (New Carthage) in late spring of 218 BC.", "He fought his way through the northern tribes to the foothills of the Pyrenees, subduing the tribes through clever mountain tactics and stubborn fighting.", "He left a detachment of 20,000 troops to garrison the newly conquered region.", "At the Pyrenees, he released 11,000 Iberian troops who showed reluctance to leave their homeland.", "Hannibal reportedly entered Gaul with 40,000 foot soldiers and 12,000 horsemen.Hannibal recognized that he still needed to cross the Pyrenees, the Alps, and many large rivers.", "Additionally, he would have to contend with opposition from the Gauls, whose territory he passed through.", "Starting in the spring of 218 BC, he crossed the Pyrenees and reached the Rhône by conciliating the Gaulish chiefs along his passage before the Romans could take any measures to bar his advance, arriving at the Rhône in September.", "Hannibal's army numbered 38,000 infantry, 8,000 cavalry, and 38 elephants, almost none of which would survive the harsh conditions of the Alps.An 1866 illustration of Hannibal and his army crossing the Alps, by Heinrich LeutemannHannibal outmaneuvered the natives who had tried to prevent his crossing, then evaded a Roman force marching from the Mediterranean coast by turning inland up the valley of the Rhône.", "His exact route over the Alps has been the source of scholarly dispute ever since (Polybius, the surviving ancient account closest in time to Hannibal's campaign, reports that the route was already debated).", "The most influential modern theories favour either a march up the valley of the Drôme and a crossing of the main range to the south of the modern highway over the Col de Montgenèvre or a march farther north up the valleys of the Isère and Arc crossing the main range near the present Col de Mont Cenis or the Little St Bernard Pass.", "Recent numismatic evidence suggests that Hannibal's army passed within sight of the Matterhorn.", "Stanford geoarchaeologist Patrick Hunt argues that Hannibal took the Col de Clapier mountain pass, claiming the Clapier most accurately met ancient depictions of the route: wide view of Italy, pockets of year-round snow, and a large campground.", "Other scholars have doubts, proposing that Hannibal took the easier route across Petit Mount Cenis.", "Hunt responds to this by proposing that Hannibal's Celtic guides purposefully misguided the Carthaginian general.Most recently, W. C. Mahaney has argued Col de la Traversette closest fits the records of ancient authors.", "Biostratigraphic archaeological data has reinforced the case for Col de la Traversette; analysis of peat bogs near watercourses on both sides of the pass's summit showed that the ground was heavily disturbed \"by thousands, perhaps tens of thousands, of animals and humans\" and that the soil bore traces of unique levels of ''Clostridia'' bacteria associated with the digestive tract of horses and mules.", "Radiocarbon dating secured dates of 2168 BP or c. 218 BC, the year of Hannibal's march.", "Mahaney ''et al''.", "have concluded that this and other evidence strongly support the Col de la Traversette as being the \"Hannibalic Route\" as had been argued by Gavin de Beer in 1954.De Beer was one of only three interpreters—the others being John Lazenby and Jakob Seibert—to have visited all the Alpine high passes and presented a view on which was most plausible.", "Both De Beer and Siebert had selected the Col de la Traversette as the one most closely matching the ancient descriptions.", "Polybius wrote that Hannibal had crossed the highest of the Alpine passes: Col de la Traversette, between the upper Guil valley and the upper Po River is the highest pass.", "It is moreover the most southerly, as Varro in his ''De re rustica'' relates, agreeing that Hannibal's Pass was the highest in the Western Alps and the most southerly.", "Mahaney ''et al''.", "argue that factors used by De Beer to support Col de la Traversette including \"gauging ancient place names against modern, scrutiny of times of flood in major rivers and distant viewing of the Po plains\" taken together with \"massive radiocarbon and microbiological and parasitical evidence\" from the alluvial sediments either side of the pass furnish \"supporting evidence, proof if you will\" that Hannibal's invasion went that way.", "If Hannibal had ascended the Col de la Traversette, the Po Valley would indeed have been visible from the pass's summit, vindicating Polybius's account.By Livy's account, the crossing was accomplished in the face of huge difficulties.", "These Hannibal surmounted with ingenuity, such as when he used vinegar and fire to break through a rockfall.", "According to Polybius, he arrived in Italy accompanied by 20,000 foot soldiers, 4,000 horsemen, and only a few elephants.", "The fired rockfall event is mentioned only by Livy; Polybius is mute on the subject and there is no evidence of carbonized rock at the only two-tier rockfall in the Western Alps, located below the Col de la Traversette (Mahaney, 2008).", "If Polybius is correct in his figure for the number of troops that he commanded after the crossing of the Rhône, this would suggest that he had lost almost half of his force.", "Historians such as Serge Lancel have questioned the reliability of the figures for the number of troops that he had when he left Hispania.", "From the start, he seems to have calculated that he would have to operate without aid from Hispania.", "Hannibal's vision of military affairs was derived partly from the teaching of his Greek tutors and partly from experience gained alongside his father, and it stretched over most of the Hellenistic World of his time.", "The breadth of his vision gave rise to his grand strategy of conquering Rome by opening a northern front and subduing allied city-states on the peninsula, rather than by attacking Rome directly.", "Historical events that led to the defeat of Carthage during the First Punic War when his father commanded the Carthaginian Army also led Hannibal to plan the invasion of Italy by land across the Alps.", "The task involved the mobilization of between 60,000 and 100,000 troops and the training of a war-elephant corps, all of which had to be provisioned along the way.", "The alpine invasion of Italy was a military operation that would shake the Mediterranean World of 218 BC with repercussions for more than two decades.===Battle of Trebia===A diagram depicting the tactics used in the Battle of the TrebiaHannibal's perilous march brought him into the Roman territory and frustrated the attempts of the enemy to fight out the main issue on foreign ground.", "His sudden appearance among the Gauls of the Po Valley, moreover, enabled him to detach those tribes from their new allegiance to the Romans before the Romans could take steps to check the rebellion.", "Publius Cornelius Scipio was the consul who commanded the Roman force sent to intercept Hannibal.", "He was also the father of Scipio Africanus.He had not expected Hannibal to make an attempt to cross the Alps, since the Romans were prepared to fight the war in the Iberian Peninsula.", "With a small detachment still positioned in Gaul, Scipio made an attempt to intercept Hannibal.", "He succeeded, through prompt decision and speedy movement, in transporting his army to Italy by sea in time to meet Hannibal.", "Hannibal's forces moved through the Po Valley and were engaged in the Battle of Ticinus.", "Here, Hannibal forced the Romans to evacuate the plain of Lombardy, by virtue of his superior cavalry.", "The victory was minor, but it encouraged the Gauls and Ligurians to join the Carthaginian cause.", "Their troops bolstered his army back to around 40,000 men.", "Scipio was severely injured, his life only saved by the bravery of his son who rode back onto the field to rescue his fallen father.", "Scipio retreated across the Trebia to camp at Placentia with his army mostly intact.The other Roman consular army was rushed to the Po Valley.", "Even before news of the defeat at Ticinus had reached Rome, the Senate had ordered Consul Tiberius Sempronius Longus to bring his army back from Sicily to meet Scipio and face Hannibal.", "Hannibal, by skillful maneuvers, was in position to head him off, for he lay on the direct road between Placentia and Arminum, by which Sempronius would have to march to reinforce Scipio.", "He then captured Clastidium, from which he drew large amounts of supplies for his men.", "But this gain was not without loss, as Sempronius avoided Hannibal's watchfulness, slipped around his flank, and joined his colleague in his camp near the Trebia River near Placentia.", "There Hannibal had an opportunity to show his masterful military skill at the Trebia in December of the same year, after wearing down the superior Roman infantry, when he cut it to pieces with a surprise attack and ambush from the flanks.", "However, most or all of his war elephants had died of injuries or the cold that winter and none took part in the succeeding battles at Lake Trasimene and/or Cannae.===Battle of Lake Trasimene===The Battle of Lake Trasimene, 217 BC.From the Department of History, United States Military AcademyHannibal quartered his troops for the winter with the Gauls, whose support for him had abated.", "Fearing the possibility of an assassination attempt by his Gallic allies, Hannibal had a number of wigs made, dyed to suit the appearance of persons differing widely in age, and kept constantly changing them, so that any would-be assassins wouldn't recognize him.", "In the spring of 217 BC, Hannibal decided to find a more reliable base of operations farther south.", "Gnaeus Servilius and Gaius Flaminius (the new consuls of Rome) were expecting Hannibal to advance on Rome, and they took their armies to block the eastern and western routes that Hannibal could use.The only alternative route to central Italy lay at the mouth of the Arno.", "This area was practically one huge marsh, and happened to be overflowing more than usual during this particular season.", "Hannibal knew that this route was full of difficulties, but it remained the surest and certainly the quickest way to central Italy.", "Polybius claims that Hannibal's men marched for four days and three nights \"through a land that was under water\", suffering terribly from fatigue and enforced want of sleep.", "He crossed without opposition over both the Apennines (during which he lost his right eye because of conjunctivitis) and the seemingly impassable Arno, but he lost a large part of his force in the marshy lowlands of the Arno.", "He arrived in Etruria in the spring of 217 BC and decided to lure the main Roman army under Flaminius into a pitched battle by devastating the region that Flaminius had been sent to protect.", "As Polybius recounts, \"he Hannibal calculated that, if he passed the camp and made a descent into the district beyond, Flaminius (partly for fear of popular reproach and partly of personal irritation) would be unable to endure watching passively the devastation of the country but would spontaneously follow him... and give him opportunities for attack.\"", "At the same time, Hannibal tried to break the allegiance of Rome's allies by proving that Flaminius was powerless to protect them.", "Despite this, Flaminius remained passively encamped at Arretium.", "Hannibal marched boldly around Flaminius' left flank, unable to draw him into battle by mere devastation, and effectively cut him off from Rome, executing the first recorded turning movement in military history.", "He then advanced through the uplands of Etruria, provoking Flaminius into a hasty pursuit and catching him in a defile on the shore of Lake Trasimenus.", "There Hannibal destroyed Flaminius' army in the waters or on the adjoining slopes, killing Flaminius as well (see Battle of Lake Trasimene).", "This was the most costly ambush that the Romans ever sustained until the Battle of Carrhae against the Parthian Empire.", "Hannibal had now disposed of the only field force that could check his advance upon Rome.", "He realized that without siege engines, he could not hope to take the capital.", "He opted to exploit his victory by entering into central and southern Italy and encouraging a general revolt against the sovereign power.The Romans appointed Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus as their dictator.", "Departing from Roman military traditions, Fabius adopted the strategy named after him, avoiding open battle while placing several Roman armies in Hannibal's vicinity in order to watch and limit his movements.", "Hannibal ravaged Apulia but was unable to bring Fabius to battle, so he decided to march through Samnium to Campania, one of the richest and most fertile provinces of Italy, hoping that the devastation would draw Fabius into battle.", "Fabius closely followed Hannibal's path of destruction, yet still refused to let himself be drawn out of the defensive.", "This strategy was unpopular with many Romans, who believed that it was a form of cowardice.Hannibal decided that it would be unwise to winter in the already devastated lowlands of Campania, but Fabius had trapped him there by ensuring that all the exit passes were blocked.", "This situation led to the night Battle of Ager Falernus.", "Hannibal had his men tie burning torches to the horns of a herd of cattle and drive them up the heights nearby.", "Some of the Romans, seeing a moving column of lights, were tricked into believing it was the Carthaginian army marching to escape along the heights.", "As they moved off in pursuit of this decoy, Hannibal managed to move his army in complete silence through the dark lowlands and up to an unguarded pass.", "Fabius himself was within striking distance but in this case his caution worked against him, as rightly sensing a trick he stayed put.", "Thus, Hannibal managed to stealthily escape with his entire army intact.", "What Hannibal achieved in extricating his army was, as Adrian Goldsworthy puts it, \"a classic of ancient generalship, finding its way into nearly every historical narrative of the war and being used by later military manuals\".", "This was a severe blow to Fabius' prestige and soon after this his period of dictatorial power ended.", "For the winter, Hannibal found comfortable quarters in the Apulian plain.===Battle of Cannae===at Cannae, courtesy of the Department of History, United States Military AcademyIn the spring of 216 BC, Hannibal took the initiative and seized the large supply depot at Cannae in the Apulian plain.", "By capturing Cannae, Hannibal had placed himself between the Romans and their crucial sources of supply.", "Once the Roman Senate resumed their consular elections in 216 BC, they appointed Gaius Terentius Varro and Lucius Aemilius Paullus as consuls.", "In the meantime, the Romans hoped to gain success through sheer strength and weight of numbers, and they raised a new army of unprecedented size, estimated by some to be as large as 100,000 men, but more likely around 50,000–80,000.The Romans and allied legions resolved to confront Hannibal and marched southward to Apulia.", "They eventually found him on the left bank of the Aufidus River, and encamped away.", "On this occasion, the two armies were combined into one, the consuls having to alternate their command on a daily basis.", "According to Livy, Varro was a man of reckless and hubristic nature and it was his turn to command on the day of battle.", "This account is possibly biased against Varro as its main source, Polybius, was a client of Paullus's aristocratic family whereas Varro was less distinguished.", "Some historians have suggested that the sheer size of the army required both generals to command a wing each.", "This theory is supported by the fact that, after Varro survived the battle he was pardoned by the Senate, which would be peculiar if he were the sole commander at fault.Hannibal capitalized on the eagerness of the Romans and drew them into a trap by using an envelopment tactic.", "This eliminated the Roman numerical advantage by shrinking the combat area.", "Hannibal drew up his least reliable infantry in the centre in a semicircle curving towards the Romans.", "Placing them forward of the wings allowed them room to fall back, luring the Romans after them, while the cavalry on the flanks dealt with their Roman counterparts.", "Hannibal's wings were composed of the Gallic and Numidian cavalry.", "The Roman legions forced their way through Hannibal's weak centre, but the Libyan mercenaries on the wings, swung around by the movement, menaced their flanks.The onslaught of Hannibal's cavalry was irresistible.", "Hannibal's chief cavalry commander, Maharbal, led the mobile Numidian cavalry on the right; they shattered the Roman cavalry opposing them.", "Hannibal's Iberian and Gallic heavy cavalry on the left, led by Hanno, defeated the Roman heavy cavalry, and then both the Carthaginian heavy cavalry and the Numidians attacked the legions from behind.", "As a result, the Roman army was hemmed in with no means of escape.Roman senators killed during the Battle of Cannae, statue by Sébastien Slodtz, 1704, LouvreDue to these brilliant tactics, Hannibal managed to surround and destroy all but a small remnant of his enemy, despite his own inferior numbers.", "Depending upon the source, it is estimated that 50,000–70,000 Romans were killed or captured.", "Among the dead were Roman consul Lucius Aemilius Paullus, two consuls for the preceding year, two quaestors, 29 of the 48 military tribunes, and an additional eighty senators.", "At a time when the Roman Senate was composed of no more than 300 men, this constituted 25–30% of the governing body.", "This makes the battle one of the most catastrophic defeats in the history of ancient Rome, and one of the bloodiest battles in all of human history, in terms of the number of lives lost in a single day.After Cannae, the Romans were very hesitant to confront Hannibal in pitched battle, preferring instead to weaken him by attrition, relying on their advantages of interior lines, supply, and manpower.", "As a result, Hannibal fought no more major battles in Italy for the rest of the war.", "It is believed that his refusal to bring the war to Rome itself was due to a lack of commitment from Carthage of men, money, and material—principally siege equipment.", "Whatever the reason, the choice prompted Maharbal to say, \"Hannibal, you know how to gain a victory, but not how to use one.", "\"As a result of this victory, many parts of Italy joined Hannibal's cause.", "As Polybius notes, \"How much more serious was the defeat of Cannae, than those that preceded it can be seen by the behaviour of Rome's allies; before that fateful day, their loyalty remained unshaken, now it began to waver for the simple reason that they despaired of Roman Power.\"", "During that same year, the Greek cities in Sicily were induced to revolt against Roman political control, while Macedonian King Philip V pledged his support to Hannibal— initiating the First Macedonian War against Rome.", "Hannibal also secured an alliance with newly appointed tyrant Hieronymus of Syracuse.", "It is often argued that, if Hannibal had received proper material reinforcements from Carthage, he might have succeeded with a direct attack upon Rome.", "Instead, he had to content himself with subduing the fortresses that still held out against him, and the only other notable event of 216 BC was the defection of certain Italian territories, including Capua, the second largest city of Italy, which Hannibal made his new base.", "However, only a few of the Italian city-states that he had expected to gain as allies defected to him.===Stalemate===The war in Italy settled into a strategic stalemate.", "The Romans used the attritional strategy that Fabius had taught them, which, they finally realized, was the only feasible means of defeating Hannibal.", "Fabius received the name \"Cunctator\" (\"the Delayer\") because of his policy of not meeting Hannibal in open battle, but through attrition.", "The Romans deprived Hannibal of a large-scale battle and instead assaulted his weakening army with multiple smaller armies in an attempt to both weary him and create unrest in his troops.", "For the next few years, Hannibal was forced to sustain a scorched earth policy and obtain local provisions for protracted and ineffectual operations throughout southern Italy.", "His immediate objectives were reduced to minor operations centred mainly around the cities of Campania.The forces detached to his lieutenants were generally unable to hold their own, and neither his home government nor his new ally Philip V of Macedon helped to make up his losses.", "His position in southern Italy, therefore, became increasingly difficult and his chance of ultimately conquering Rome grew ever more remote.", "Hannibal still won a number of notable victories: completely destroying two Roman armies in 212 BC, and killing two consuls, including the famed Marcus Claudius Marcellus in a battle in 208 BC.", "However, Hannibal slowly began losing ground—inadequately supported by his Italian allies, abandoned by his government, either because of jealousy or simply because Carthage was overstretched, and unable to match Rome's resources.", "He was never able to bring about another grand decisive victory that could produce a lasting strategic change.Carthaginian political will was embodied in the ruling oligarchy.", "There was a Carthaginian Senate, but the real power was with the inner \"Council of 30 Nobles\" and the board of judges from ruling families known as the \"Hundred and Four\".", "These two bodies came from the wealthy, commercial families of Carthage.", "Two political factions operated in Carthage: the war party, also known as the \"Barcids\" (Hannibal's family name), and the peace party led by Hanno II the Great.", "Hanno had been instrumental in denying Hannibal's requested reinforcements following the battle at Cannae.Hannibal started the war without the full backing of Carthaginian oligarchy.", "His attack of Saguntum had presented the oligarchy with a choice of war with Rome or loss of prestige in Iberia.", "The oligarchy, not Hannibal, controlled the strategic resources of Carthage.", "Hannibal constantly sought reinforcements from either Iberia or North Africa.", "Hannibal's troops who were lost in combat were replaced with less well-trained and motivated mercenaries from Italy or Gaul.", "The commercial interests of the Carthaginian oligarchy dictated the reinforcement and supply of Iberia rather than Hannibal throughout the campaign.===Hannibal's retreat in Italy===A bust of doubtful provenance, possibly of Scipio Africanus, and originally from the Tomb of the ScipiosIn March 212 BC, Hannibal captured Tarentum in a surprise attack but he failed to obtain control of its harbor.", "The tide was slowly turning against him, and in favor of Rome.The Roman consuls mounted a siege of Capua in 212 BC.", "Hannibal attacked them, forcing their withdrawal from Campania.", "He moved to Lucania and destroyed a 16,000-man Roman army at the Battle of the Silarus, with 15,000 Romans killed.", "Another opportunity presented itself soon after, a Roman army of 18,000 men being destroyed by Hannibal at the first battle of Herdonia with 16,000 Romans dead, freeing Apulia from the Romans for the year.", "The Roman consuls mounted another siege of Capua in 211 BC, conquering the city.", "Hannibal's attempt to lift the siege with an assault on the Roman siege lines failed.", "He marched on Rome to force the recall of the Roman armies.", "He drew off 15,000 Roman soldiers, but the siege continued and Capua fell.", "In 212 BC, Marcellus conquered Syracuse and the Romans destroyed the Carthaginian army in Sicily in 211–210 BC.", "In 210 BC, the Romans entered into an alliance with the Aetolian League to counter Philip V of Macedon.", "Philip, who attempted to exploit Rome's preoccupation in Italy to conquer Illyria, now found himself under attack from several sides at once and was quickly subdued by Rome and her Greek allies.In 210 BC, Hannibal again proved his superiority in tactics by inflicting a severe defeat at the Battle of Herdonia (modern Ordona) in Apulia upon a proconsular army and, in 208 BC, destroyed a Roman force engaged in the siege of Locri at the Battle of Petelia.", "But with the loss of Tarentum in 209 BC and the gradual reconquest by the Romans of Samnium and Lucania, his hold on south Italy was almost lost.", "In 207 BC, he succeeded in making his way again into Apulia, where he waited to concert measures for a combined march upon Rome with his brother Hasdrubal.", "On hearing of his brother's defeat and death at the battle of the Metaurus, he retired to Calabria, where he maintained himself for the ensuing years.", "His brother's head had been cut off, carried across Italy, and tossed over the palisade of Hannibal's camp as a cold message of the iron-clad will of the Roman Republic.", "The combination of these events marked the end to Hannibal's success in Italy.", "With the failure of his brother Mago in Liguria (205–203 BC) and of his own negotiations with Phillip V, the last hope of recovering his ascendancy in Italy was lost.", "In 203 BC, after nearly fifteen years of fighting in Italy and with the military fortunes of Carthage rapidly declining, Hannibal was recalled to Carthage to direct the defense of his native country against a Roman invasion under Scipio Africanus." ], [ "Conclusion of the Second Punic War (203–201 BC)", "===Return to Carthage===The final act of the Second Punic War, the battle of Zama (202 BC)In 203 BC, Hannibal was recalled from Italy by the war party in Carthage.", "After leaving a record of his expedition engraved in Punic and Greek upon bronze tablets in the Temple of Juno Lacinia at Crotona, he sailed back to Africa.", "His arrival immediately restored the predominance of the war party, which placed him in command of a combined force of African levies and his mercenaries from Italy.", "In 202 BC, Hannibal met Scipio in a fruitless peace conference.", "Despite mutual admiration, negotiations floundered due to Roman allegations of \"Punic Faith,\" referring to the breach of protocols that ended the First Punic War by the Carthaginian attack on Saguntum, and a Carthaginian attack on a stranded Roman fleet.", "Scipio and Carthage had worked out a peace plan, which was approved by Rome.", "The terms of the treaty were quite modest, but the war had been long for the Romans.", "Carthage could keep its African territory but would lose its overseas empire.", "Masinissa (Numidia) was to be independent.", "Also, Carthage was to reduce its fleet and pay a war indemnity.", "Carthage then made a terrible blunder.", "Its long-suffering citizens had captured a stranded Roman fleet in the Gulf of Tunis and stripped it of supplies, an action that aggravated the faltering negotiations.", "Fortified by both Hannibal and the supplies, the Carthaginians rebuffed the treaty and Roman protests.", "The decisive battle of Zama soon followed.", "The defeat removed Hannibal's aura of invincibility.===Battle of Zama (202 BC)===Unlike most battles of the Second Punic War, at Zama the Romans were superior in cavalry and the Carthaginians had the edge in infantry.", "This Roman cavalry superiority was due to the betrayal of Masinissa, who had earlier assisted Carthage in Iberia but changed sides in 206 BC with the promise of land, and due to his personal conflicts with Syphax, a Carthaginian ally.", "Although the ageing Hannibal was suffering from mental exhaustion and deteriorating health after years of campaigning in Italy, the Carthaginians still had the advantage in numbers and were boosted by the presence of 80 war elephants.Engraving of the Battle of Zama by Cornelis Cort, 1567.Note that Asian elephants are illustrated rather than the very small North African elephants used by Carthage.\|237x237pxThe Roman cavalry won an early victory by swiftly routing the Carthaginian cavalry.", "The Romans were also successful in limiting the effectiveness of the Carthaginian war elephants, with tactics such as playing trumpets to frighten the elephants and cause them to run into the Carthaginian lines.", "Some historians say that the elephants routed the Carthaginian cavalry and not the Romans, whilst others suggest that it was actually a tactical retreat planned by Hannibal.", "Whatever the truth, the battle remained closely fought.", "At one point, it seemed that Hannibal was on the verge of victory, but Scipio was able to rally his men.", "Scipio's cavalry, having routed the Carthaginian cavalry, attacked Hannibal's rear.", "This two-pronged attack caused the Carthaginian formation to collapse.With their foremost general defeated, the Carthaginians had no choice but to surrender.", "Carthage lost approximately 20,000 troops with an additional 15,000 wounded.", "In contrast, the Romans suffered only 2,500 casualties.", "The last major battle of the Second Punic War resulted in a loss of respect for Hannibal by his fellow Carthaginians.", "The conditions of defeat were such that Carthage could no longer battle for Mediterranean supremacy." ], [ "Later career", "===Peacetime Carthage (200–196 BC)===A bust of Hannibal, Bardo National Museum, TunisiaHannibal was still only 46 at the conclusion of the Second Punic War in 201 BC and soon showed that he could be a statesman as well as a soldier.", "Following the conclusion of a peace that left Carthage saddled with an indemnity of ten thousand talents, he was elected suffete (chief magistrate) of the Carthaginian state.", "After an audit confirmed Carthage had the resources to pay the indemnity without increasing taxation, Hannibal initiated a reorganization of state finances aimed at eliminating corruption and recovering embezzled funds.The principal beneficiaries of these financial peculations had been the oligarchs of the Hundred and Four.", "In order to reduce the power of the oligarchs, Hannibal passed a law stipulating the Hundred and Four be chosen by direct election rather than co-option.", "He also used citizen support to change the term of office in the Hundred and Four from life to a year, with none permitted to \"hold office for two consecutive years.", "\"===Exile (after 195 BC)===Seven years after the victory of Zama, the Romans, alarmed by Carthage's renewed prosperity and suspicious that Hannibal had been in contact with Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire, sent a delegation to Carthage alleging that Hannibal was helping an enemy of Rome.", "Aware that he had many enemies, not the least of which were due to his financial reforms eliminating corruption, Hannibal fled into voluntary exile before the Romans could demand that Carthage surrender him into their custody.He journeyed first to Tyre, the mother city of Carthage, and then to Antioch, before he finally reached Ephesus, where he was honourably received by Antiochus.", "Livy states that the Seleucid king consulted Hannibal on the strategic concerns of making war on Rome.", "According to Cicero, while at the court of Antiochus, Hannibal attended a lecture by Phormio, a philosopher, that ranged through many topics.", "When Phormio finished a discourse on the duties of a general, Hannibal was asked his opinion.", "He replied, \"I have seen during my life many old fools; but this one beats them all.\"", "Another story, according to Aulus Gellius, is that after Antiochus III showed Hannibal the gigantic and elaborately equipped army he had created to invade Greece, he asked him if they would be enough for the Roman Republic, to which Hannibal replied, \"I think all this will be enough, yes, quite enough, for the Romans, even though they are most avaricious.", "\"In the summer of 193 BC, tensions flared up between the Seleucids and Rome.", "Antiochus gave tacit support to Hannibal's plans of launching an anti-Roman coup d'état in Carthage, yet it was not carried out.", "The Carthaginian general also advised equipping a fleet and landing a body of troops in the south of Italy, offering to take command himself.", "In 190 BC, after having suffered a series of defeats in the Roman–Seleucid War, Antiochus gave Hannibal his first significant military command after spending five years in the Seleucid court.", "Hannibal was tasked with building a fleet in Cilicia from scratch.", "Although Phoenician territories like Tyre and Sidon possessed the necessary combination of raw materials, technical expertise, and experienced personnel, it took much longer than expected for it to be completed, most likely due to wartime shortages.Hannibal with Artaxias I of Greater Armenia in Ayrarat.In July 190 BC, Hannibal ordered his fleet to set sail from Seleucia Pieria along the southern Asia Minor coast in order to reinforce the rest of the Seleucid navy at Ephesus.", "The following month Hannibal's fleet clashed with the Rhodian navy in the Battle of Side.", "The faster Rhodian ships managed to heavily damage half of Hannibal's warships through the manoeuvre, forcing him to retreat.", "Hannibal had preserved most of his fleet; however, he was in no position to unite with Polyxenidas' fleet at Ephesus since his ships required lengthy repairs.", "The ensuing Battle of Myonessus resulted in a Roman-Rhodian victory, which cemented Roman control over the Aegean Sea, enabling them to launch an invasion of Seleucid Asia Minor.", "The two armies faced off in the Battle of Magnesia, north-east of Magnesia ad Sipylum.", "The battle resulted in a decisive Roman-Pergamene victory.", "The truce was signed at Sardes in January 189 BC, whereupon Antiochus agreed to abandon his claims on all lands west of the Taurus Mountains, paid a heavy war indemnity and promised to hand over Hannibal and other notable enemies of Rome from among his allies.According to Strabo and Plutarch, Hannibal also received hospitality at the Armenian royal court of Artaxias I.", "The authors add an apocryphal story of how Hannibal planned and supervised the building of the new royal capital Artaxata.", "Suspicious that Antiochus was prepared to surrender him to the Romans, Hannibal fled to Crete, but he soon went back to Anatolia and sought refuge with Prusias I of Bithynia, who was engaged in warfare with Rome's ally, King Eumenes II of Pergamon.", "Hannibal went on to serve Prusias in this war.", "During one of the naval victories he gained over Eumenes, Hannibal had large pots filled with venomous snakes thrown onto Eumenes' ships.", "Hannibal also went on to defeat Eumenes in two other battles on land.===Death (183–181 BC)===At this stage, the Romans intervened and threatened Bithynia into giving up Hannibal.", "Prusias agreed, but the general was determined not to fall into his enemy's hands.", "The precise year and cause of Hannibal's death are unknown.", "Pausanias wrote that Hannibal's death occurred after his finger was wounded by his drawn sword while mounting his horse, resulting in a fever and then his death three days later.", "Cornelius Nepos and Livy, tell a different story, namely that the ex-consul Titus Quinctius Flamininus, on discovering that Hannibal was in Bithynia, went there in an embassy to demand his surrender from King Prusias.", "Hannibal, discovering that the castle where he was living was surrounded by Roman soldiers and he could not escape, took poison.", "Appian writes that it was Prusias who poisoned Hannibal.Pliny the Elder and Plutarch, in his life of Flamininus, record that Hannibal's tomb was at Libyssa on the coast of the Sea of Marmara.", "According to some, Libyssa was sited at Gebze, between Bursa and Üskudar.", "W. M. Leake, identifying Gebze with ancient Dakibyza, placed it further west.", "Before dying, Hannibal is said to have left behind a letter declaring, \"Let us relieve the Romans from the anxiety they have so long experienced, since they think it tries their patience too much to wait for an old man's death\".Appian wrote of a prophecy about Hannibal's death, which stated that \"Libyssan earth shall cover Hannibal's remains.\"", "This, he wrote, made Hannibal believe that he would die in Libya, but instead, it was at the Bithynian Libyssa that he would die.In his ''Annales'', Titus Pomponius Atticus reports that Hannibal's death occurred in 183 BC, and Livy implies the same.", "Polybius, who wrote nearest the event, gives 182 BC.", "Sulpicius Blitho records the death under 181 BC." ], [ "Legacy", "===Ancient world===Hannibal caused great distress to many in Roman society.", "He became such a figure of terror that, whenever disaster threatened, Romans would exclaim \"''Hannibal ad portas''\" (\"Hannibal is at the gates!\")", "to emphasize the gravity of the emergency, a phrase still used in modern languages.His legacy would be recorded by his Greek tutor, Sosylus of Lacedaemon.", "The works of Roman writers such as Livy (64 or 59 BC – AD 12 or 17), Frontinus ( AD 40–103), and Juvenal (1st–2nd century AD) show a grudging admiration for Hannibal.", "The Romans even built statues of the Carthaginian in the streets of Rome to advertise their defeat of such a worthy adversary.", "It is plausible to suggest that Hannibal engendered the greatest fear Rome had towards an enemy.", "Nevertheless, the Romans grimly refused to admit the possibility of defeat and rejected all overtures for peace; they even refused to accept the ransom of prisoners after Cannae.During the war there are no reports of revolutions among the Roman citizens, no factions within the Senate desiring peace, no pro-Carthaginian Roman turncoats, and no coups.", "Indeed, throughout the war Roman aristocrats ferociously competed with each other for positions of command to fight against Rome's most dangerous enemy.", "Hannibal's military genius was not enough to really disturb the Roman political process and the collective political and military capacity of the Roman people.", "As Lazenby states,It says volumes, too, for their political maturity and respect for constitutional forms that the complicated machinery of government continued to function even amidst disaster—there are few states in the ancient world in which a general who had lost a battle like Cannae would have dared to remain, let alone would have continued to be treated respectfully as head of state.According to the historian Livy, the Romans feared Hannibal's military genius, and during Hannibal's march against Rome in 211 BCa messenger who had travelled from Fregellae for a day and a night without stopping created great alarm in Rome, and the excitement was increased by people running about the City with wildly exaggerated accounts of the news he had brought.", "The wailing cry of the matrons was heard everywhere, not only in private houses but even in the temples.", "Here they knelt and swept the temple-floors with their dishevelled hair and lifted up their hands to heaven in piteous entreaty to the gods that they would deliver the City of Rome out of the hands of the enemy and preserve its mothers and children from injury and outrage.", "In the Senate the news was \"received with varying feelings as men's temperaments differed,\" so it was decided to keep Capua under siege, but to send 15,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry as reinforcements to Rome.According to Livy, the land occupied by Hannibal's army outside Rome in 211 BC was sold by a Roman while it was occupied.", "This may not be true, but as Lazenby states, \"could well be, exemplifying as it does not only the supreme confidence felt by the Romans in ultimate victory, but also the way in which something like normal life continued.\"", "After Cannae, the Romans showed considerable steadfastness.", "As an example of Rome's confidence, after the Cannae disaster she was left virtually defenseless; however, the Senate still chose not to withdraw a single garrison from an overseas province to strengthen the city.", "In fact, they were reinforced and the campaigns there maintained until victory was secured; beginning first in Sicily under the direction of Claudius Marcellus, and later in Hispania under Scipio Africanus.", "Although the long-term consequences of Hannibal's war are debatable, this war was undeniably Rome's \"finest hour\".Most of the sources available to historians about Hannibal are from Romans.", "They considered him the greatest enemy Rome had ever faced.", "Livy gives us the idea that Hannibal was extremely cruel.", "Even Cicero, when he talked of Rome and its two great enemies, spoke of the \"honourable\" Pyrrhus and the \"cruel\" Hannibal.", "Yet a different picture sometimes emerges.", "When Hannibal's successes had brought about the death of two Roman consuls, he vainly searched for the body of Gaius Flaminius on the shores of Lake Trasimene, held ceremonial rituals in recognition of Lucius Aemilius Paullus, and sent Marcellus' ashes back to his family in Rome.", "Any bias attributed to Polybius, however, is more troublesome.", "Ronald Mellor considered the Greek scholar a loyal partisan of Scipio Aemilianus, while H. Ormerod does not view him as an \"altogether unprejudiced witness\" when it came to his pet peeves, the Aetolians, the Carthaginians, and the Cretans.", "Nonetheless, Polybius did recognize that the reputation for cruelty the Romans attached to Hannibal might in reality have been due to mistaking him for one of his officers, Hannibal Monomachus.===Military history===The material of legend: in ''Snow Storm: Hannibal and his Army Crossing the Alps'' (1812) J. M. W. Turner envelops Hannibal's crossing of the Alps in Romantic atmosphere.Hannibal is generally regarded as one of the best military strategists and tacticians of all time, the double envelopment at Cannae an enduring legacy of tactical brilliance.", "According to Appian, several years after the Second Punic War, Hannibal served as a political advisor in the Seleucid Kingdom and Scipio arrived there on a diplomatic mission from Rome.Military academies all over the world continue to study Hannibal's exploits, especially his victory at Cannae.", "Hannibal's celebrated feat in crossing the Alps with war elephants passed into European legend: detail of a fresco by Jacopo Ripanda, , Capitoline Museums, Rome.Maximilian Otto Bismarck Caspari, in his article in the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910–1911), praises Hannibal in these words:Even the Roman chroniclers acknowledged Hannibal's supreme military leadership, writing that \"he never required others to do what he could not and would not do himself\".", "According to Polybius 23, 13, p. 423:A bust of Hannibal, 17th century, Museum of Antiquities (Saskatoon)Count Alfred von Schlieffen developed his \"Schlieffen Plan\" (1905/1906) from his military studies, including the envelopment technique that Hannibal employed in the Battle of Cannae.", "George S. Patton believed himself a reincarnation of Hannibal—as well as of many other people, including a Roman legionary and a Napoleonic soldier.", "Norman Schwarzkopf Jr., the commander of the Coalition of the Gulf War of 1990–1991, claimed, \"The technology of war may change, the sophistication of weapons certainly changes.", "But those same principles of war that applied to the days of Hannibal apply today.", "\"According to the military historian Theodore Ayrault Dodge,===In modern Tunisia===Due to his origin and connection with the territory belonging to modern-day Tunisia, he is widely revered as a national hero in the Arab nation.Hannibal's profile appears on the Tunisian five-dinar bill issued on 8 November 1993, as well as on another new bill put into circulation on 20 March 2013.His name also appears in that of a private television channel, Hannibal TV.", "A street in Carthage, located near the Punic ports, bears his name; as does as a station on the TGM railway line: \"Carthage Hannibal\".Plans envisage a mausoleum and a high colossus of Hannibal on the Byrsa, the highest point of Carthage overlooking Tunis.===Other===Kocaeli, TurkeyThe teenaged Sigmund Freud regarded Hannibal as a \"hero\"; the founder of psychoanalysis portrays an idealized image of the Carthaginian general in his analysis of his \"dreams of Rome\" in ''The Interpretation of Dreams''.", "Freud then associates this phenomenon with the adage \"All roads lead to Rome\".", "He writes in ''The Interpretation of Dreams'': \"Hannibal and Rome symbolized for the adolescent that I was the opposition between the tenacity of Judaism and the organizing spirit of the Catholic Church\".Kocaeli in Turkey has a cenotaph built in Hannibal's memory.", "Even though the location of Hannibal's tomb could not be determined precisely in the studies carried out due to Atatürk's great interest, a monumental cenotaph was built in 1981 in the south of present-day Gebze as an expression of Atatürk's will and Atatürk's respect for Hannibal.David Anthony Durham's novel ''Pride of Carthage'' is a fictionalized account of Hannibal's conquests.", "It was followed by The Risen – an account of Spartacus' slave revolution.Since 2011, Hannibal has appeared as one of the main characters, with Scipio Africanus, of the ''Ad Astra'' manga in which Mihachi Kagano traces the course of the Second Punic War.", "The two generals appear as allies in the ''Drifters'' manga, having been teleported to another dimension to wage war together.Tunisia's home and away kit for the 2022 FIFA World Cup was inspired by the Ksour Essef cuirass, a piece of body armor believed to be worn by Carthaginian soldiers under the command of Hannibal." ], [ "Timeline" ], [ "Battle record", "+AllegianceWarYearActionCarthaginian EmpireBarcid conquest of Hispania221 BCSiege of Alithia220 BCSiege of HelmanticeSiege of ArbucalaBattle of the Tagus219 BCSiege of SaguntumSecond Punic War218 BCBattle of Rhone CrossingBattle of Ticinus Battle of the Trebia217 BCBattle of VictumulaeBattle of Lake Trasimene Battle of Ager FalernusBattle of Geronium216 BCBattle of CannaeBattle of NolaSiege of Casilinum215 BCBattle of Nola214 BCBattle of Nola212 BCBattle of TarentumBattle of CapuaBattle of the SilarusBattle of Herdonia211 BCSiege of CapuaRaid on Rome210 BCBattle of HerdoniaBattle of Numistro209 BCBattle of CanusiumBattle of Caulonia208 BCBattle of Petelia207 BCBattle of Grumentum204 BCBattle of Crotona202 BCBattle of ZamaSeleucid EmpireRoman–Seleucid War190 BCBattle of the EurymedonBithyniaPergamese-Bithynian War184 BCBattle of the Sea of Marmara" ], [ "See also", "* Other Hannibals in Carthaginian history* Military of Carthage* Alaric I* Arminius* Attila* Bato the Daesitiate* Boiorix* Brennus (leader of the Senones)* Mithridates VI of Pontus* Odoacer* Gaiseric* Septimius Severus, who refurbished Hannibal's tomb* Spartacus* Theodoric the Great" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* " ], [ "Further reading", " * * ; UK edition: London, Macmillan, 1981.", "* * * * * * * * * .", "* * * * * * * * online review* * * * " ], [ "External links", " Life of Hannibal by Cornelius Nepos – translated by J.C. Rolfe* The Biography of Hannibal * ''Hannibal'' by Jacob Abbott* Hannibal's life by Cornelius Nepos, Latin transcription and translation to German* The History of Hannibal* Hannibal at ''FactBehindFiction.com''" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hansie Cronje" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Wessel Johannes '''\"'''Hansie'''\"''' Cronje''' (25 September 1969 – 1 June 2002) was a South African international cricketer and captain of the South Africa national cricket team in the 1990s.", "A right-handed all-rounder, as captain Cronje led his team to victory in 27 Test matches and 99 One Day Internationals.", "Cronje also led South Africa to win the 1998 ICC KnockOut Trophy, the only major ICC title the country has won to date.", "In the 1998 ICC KnockOut Trophy Final, Cronje played a major role with the bat with his 61 not out, leading the team to victory by 4 wickets.", "He was voted the 11th-greatest South African in 2004 despite having been banned from cricket for life due to his role in a match-fixing scandal.", "He died in a plane crash in 2002." ], [ "Early life", "Cronje was born in Bloemfontein, South Africa to Ewie Cronje and San-Marie Cronje on 25 September 1969.He graduated in 1987 from Grey College in Bloemfontein, where he was the head boy.", "An excellent all round sportsman, he represented the then Orange Free State Province in cricket and rugby at schools level.", "He was the captain of his school's cricket and rugby teams.", "Cronje earned a Bachelor of Commerce degree from the University of the Free State.", "He had an older brother, Frans Cronje, and a younger sister, Hester Parsons.His father Ewie had played for Orange Free State in the 1960s, and Frans had also played first-class cricket." ], [ "First-class career", "Cronje made his first-class debut for Orange Free State against Transvaal at Johannesburg in January 1988 at the age of 18.In the following season, he was a regular, appearing in all eight Currie Cup matches plus being part of the Benson and Hedges Series-winning team, scoring 73 as an opener in the final.", "In 1989–90, despite playing all the Currie Cup matches, he failed to make a century, and averaged only 19.76; however, in one-day games he averaged 60.12.During that season he scored his maiden century for South African Universities against Mike Gatting's rebels.Despite having just turned 21, Cronje was made captain of Orange Free State for the 1990–91 season.", "He scored his maiden century for them against Natal in December 1990, and finished the season with another century and a total of 715 runs at 39.72.That season he also scored 159* in a 40-over match against Griqualand West.In 1992–93, he captained Orange Free State to the Castle Cup/Total Power Series double.In 1995, Cronje appeared for Leicestershire where he scored 1301 runs at 52.04 finishing the season as the county's leading scorer.In 1995–96, he finished the season top of the batting averages in the Currie Cup, his top score of 158 helped Free State chase down 389 to beat Northern Transvaal.In 1997, Cronje played for Ireland as an overseas player in the Benson and Hedges Cup and helped them to a 46-run win over Middlesex by scoring 94 not out and taking three wickets.", "This was Ireland's first-ever win against English county opposition.", "Later in the same competition, he scored 85 and took one wicket against Glamorgan." ], [ "International career", "===Debuts===Cronje's form in 1991/92 was impressive especially in the one-day format where he averaged 61.40.He earned an international call up for the 1992 World Cup, making his One Day International debut against Australia at Sydney.", "During the tournament he played in eight of the team's nine games, averaging 34.00 with the bat, while his medium pace was used in bowling 20 overs.After the World Cup Cronje was part of the tour to the West Indies; he featured in the three ODIs, and in the Test match at Bridgetown that followed, he made his Test debut.", "This was South Africa's first Test since readmission and they came close to beating a strong West Indian side, going into the final day at 122/2 chasing 200 they collapsed to 148.India toured South Africa in 1992/93.In the first one-day international, he hit the famous six when his team needed 6 runs off only 4 balls, and was awarded Man of the match for his bowling.", "In the one-day series, Cronje managed just one fifty but with the ball he was economical and took his career best figures of 5/32, becoming the second South African to take five wickets in an ODI.", "In the Test series that followed he scored his maiden test century, 135 off 411 balls, after coming in at 0–1 in the second over he was last man out, after eight and three-quarter hours, in a total of 275.This contributed to South Africa's first Test win since readmission.", "At the end of the season in a triangular tournament with Pakistan and West Indies he scored 81 off 70 balls against Pakistan.In South Africa's next Test series against Sri Lanka, Cronje scored his second Test century, 122 in the second Test in Colombo; the victory margin of an innings and 208 runs is a South African record.", "He finished the series with 237 runs at 59.25 after scoring 73* in the drawn third Test.===Stand-in captain===In 1993–94, there was another Castle Cup/Total Power Series double for Orange Free State.", "In international cricket, he was named as vice-captain for the tour of Australia despite being the youngest member of the squad.", "In the first ODI of the triangular tournament with New Zealand and Australia, he guided South Africa to victory against Australia at the MCG with 91, which won him the man of the match award.", "He scored 71 in a rain-affected first test at Melbourne before a tense second test that South Africa won by 5 runs.", "An injury to captain Kepler Wessels meant Cronje was captain for the final day of the match.", "Between the second and third tests, the one-day tournament continued, now with Cronje as captain, South Africa made the final series but lost it 2–1 to Australia.", "He became South Africa's second-youngest Test captain, after Murray Bisset in 1898–99, when he led the team for the third test at Adelaide but it was an unsuccessful start to his captaincy career as the series was squared.In February 1994, there was the return series as Australia toured South Africa.", "Cronje started the ODI series with scores of 112, 97, 45 and 50 and when Australia played Orange Free State in their final match before the first Test, Cronje hit 251 off 306 balls, 200 of these came on the final day in which 294 runs were added.", "Despite this, Orange Free State lost the match.", "In the first test at Johannesburg, he added another century as South Africa won by 197 runs.", "This innings was the end of a 14-day period in which he'd scored 721 runs against the Aussies.", "However, he failed to reach fifty in the next two tests and four ODIs as both series were drawn.There was another drawn series when South Africa toured England in 1994.Cronje scored only one century on the whole tour and scored only 90 runs in the three-test series.", "In October 1994, South Africa again came up against Australia in a triangular one day series also featuring Pakistan.", "Cronje scored 354 runs at an average of 88.50.Despite this, South Africa lost all their matches.", "This series was Bob Woolmer's first as coach and Kepler Wessels' last as captain.", "Cronje, who'd previously been vice-captain, was named as captain for the test series with New Zealand in 1994–95.===Permanent captain===Cronje during an interview after South Africa winning a championshipSouth Africa lost the first Test in Johannesburg but before the second test the two teams plus Pakistan and Sri Lanka competed for the Mandela Trophy, New Zealand failed to gain a win in the six-match round robin stage while South Africa beat Pakistan in the final.", "This changed the momentum as South Africa secured wins in Durban and Cape Town, where Cronje scored his fourth test century.", "He was the first captain since W. G. Grace to win a three-match series after being one down.In early 1995, South Africa won one-off tests against both Pakistan and New Zealand.", "In Auckland Cronje scored the only century of the match before a final day declaration left his bowlers barely enough time to dismiss the Kiwis.In October 1995, South Africa won a one-off Test with Zimbabwe.", "Cronje scored a second innings 54* to guide them to a seven wicket win.", "In two one-dayers that followed, he took five wickets as South Africa comfortably won both.", "South Africa won the five Test series against England 1–0 despite Cronje struggling, scoring 113 runs at 18.83.However, he top scored in the one-day series that they won 6–1.In the 1996 World Cup, he scored 78 and 45* against New Zealand and Pakistan, respectively, as South Africa won their group but in the Quarter final with West Indies a Brian Lara century ended their ten-game winning streak.The 1996–97 season featured back-to-back series with India.", "The first away was lost 2–1.The home series was won 2–0.In the six tests combined, Cronje managed one fifty.", "Cronje produced better form against Australia, averaging over 50 in both test and ODI series although both were lost.Cronje started 1997–98 by leading South Africa to their first series victory in Pakistan, his batting continued to struggle with his biggest contribution being taking the wickets of Inzamam-ul-Haq and Moin Khan in the Third Test.===Better form===Cronje once again came up against Australia and once again ended on the losing side.", "In the triangular one day series they won the group with Australia just scraping through, they also won the first 'final' but South Africa lost the last two finals.", "During the group matches Cronje had threatened to lead his team off after Pat Symcox had missiles thrown at him, Symcox had the last laugh ending the match with 4/24.Before the Test series started he scored consecutive centuries against Tasmania and Australia A these were his first in two years.In the first Test, Cronje scored 70 as South Africa saved the match; in the second Test, he lasted 335 minutes for his 88.Despite this, they lost by an innings.", "In the third Test, they scored 517 and although Mark Taylor carried his bat for 169, Australia needed to bat 109 overs to save the match.", "Mark Waugh batted 404 minutes, and, despite controversy when Waugh hit one of his bails off (under Law 35 he was adjudged to have finished his stroke and therefore given not out), South Africa fell three wickets short.", "Cronje put a stump through the umpires' dressing room door after the match and was lucky to avoid a ban.Cronje missed the first Test of the series with Pakistan because of a knee injury.", "The second Test at Durban was lost, but he top scored at Port Elizabeth with 85, to help square the three Test series 1–1.There was still time in the season for a two-Test series with Sri Lanka.", "The first was won with Cronje scoring 49 and 74; in the second Test, he took 3/14, his best bowling in Tests, and smashed 82 off 63 balls, his fifty being brought up with three consecutive sixes off Muttiah Muralitharan, and was reached off just 31 balls; at the time, it was the second fastest in Tests after Kapil Dev's.", "In the triangular series, which South Africa won, he scored only one fifty at East London where he also took 2/17 off 10 overs.During the 1998 Test series against England, Cronje scored five consecutive fifties, having failed to score one in the nine previous Tests against them.", "In his fiftieth Test, at Trent Bridge he scored 126, his sixth and last Test century and his first in 29 matches.", "During his second innings of 67, he passed 3,000 runs—only the second South African to do so.", "However, England won the Test, and the one at Headingley, to win the series 2–1, Cronje finished the series as South Africa's top scorer with 401 runs at 66.83.===Whitewash, tie and forfeit===In the West Indies series of 1998–99, Cronje captained South Africa to their only whitewash in a five Test series.", "His best batting against West Indies came when playing for Free State; he scored 158* as they chased down 438 and made up a first innings deficit of 249.In the ODI series he was South Africa's top scorer and took 11 wickets at 14.72 as South Africa won 6–1.In March 1999, they toured New Zealand, beating them 1–0 in the Test series and 3–2 in the one-dayers.At the 1999 World Cup, Cronje finished with 98 runs at 12.25 as South Africa were eliminated after the famous tied semi-final against Australia at Edgbaston.", "In the first match of the tournament versus India, Cronje came onto the field with an earpiece wired to coach Bob Woolmer, but at the first drinks break match referee Talat Ali ordered him to remove it.In October 1999, Cronje became South Africa's highest Test run scorer during the first Test against Zimbabwe.", "The two Test series was won 2–0 thanks to innings victories.", "South Africa won the series with England in the fourth Test at Cape Town, Cronje's fiftieth as captain.The fifth test of the 1999–2000 South Africa versus England series at Centurion was ruined by rain, entering the final day only 45 overs had been possible with South Africa 155/6.On the final morning as they batted on, news filtered through that the captains had met and were going to \"make a game of it\".", "A target of 250 from 70 overs was agreed.", "When South Africa reached 248/8, Cronje declared; both teams then forfeited an innings leaving England a target of 249 to win the Test, which they did with two wickets left and only five balls remaining.", "It ended South Africa's 14-game unbeaten streak in Test cricket.", "It was later learnt Cronje accepted money and a gift from a bookmaker in return for making an early declaration in this Test (see below).Cronje top scored with 56 after South Africa were left reeling at 21–5 in the Final of the triangular tournament which featured England and Zimbabwe.On 31 March 2000, his cricket career finished with a 73-ball 79 against Pakistan in the final of Sharjah Cup 1999/2000." ], [ "Statistics", "Under Cronje's captaincy, South Africa won 27 Tests and lost 11, completing series victories against every team except Australia.He captained the One Day International team to 99 wins out of 138 matches with one tied match and three no results.", "He holds the South African record for matches won as captain, and his record of captaining his side in 138 matches stands bettered only by Graeme Smith's 149 matches as ODI captain.", "His 99 wins as captain makes him the fourth-most-successful captain worldwide in terms of matches won, behind Ricky Ponting, Allan Border and Mahendra Singh Dhoni and in terms of percentage of wins (73.70), behind Ponting and Clive Lloyd.Between September 1993 and March 2000, he played in 162 consecutive ODIs, a South African record.Cronje has the record for playing the most consecutive ODI matches as captain (130) and is the only player to play in 100-plus consecutive ODI matches as captain." ], [ "Match fixing", "On 7 April 2000, it was revealed there was a conversation between Cronje and Sanjeev Chawla, a representative of an Indian betting syndicate, over match-fixing allegations.", "Three other players, Herschelle Gibbs, Nicky Boje and Pieter Strydom, were also implicated.", "After an enquiry by the King Commission, Cronje was banned from any involvement in cricket for life.", "He challenged his life ban in September 2001 but on 17 October 2001, his application was dismissed.After 13 years, on 22 July 2013, the Delhi Police registered a first information report for match-fixing in 2000; the charge sheet in the case involved several South African cricketers including Cronje." ], [ "Death", "On 1 June 2002, Cronje's scheduled flight home from Johannesburg to George was grounded.", "He then hitched a ride as the only passenger aboard a Hawker Siddeley HS 748 turboprop aircraft.", "Near George airport, the pilots lost visibility in clouds and were unable to land, partly due to unusable navigational equipment.", "While circling, the plane crashed into Cradock Peak, in the Outeniqua Mountains northeast of the airport.", "Cronje, aged 32, and the two pilots were killed instantly.In August 2006, an inquest into the plane crash was opened by South Africa's High Court.", "The inquest concluded that \"the death of the deceased Wessel Johannes Cronje was brought about by an act or omission prima facie amounting to an offence on the part of pilots.", "\"Conspiracy theories that Cronje was murdered on the orders of a cricket betting syndicate flourished after his death and were most recently re-floated by former Nottinghamshire coach Clive Rice in the wake of the death of Pakistan coach Bob Woolmer in March 2007.It was alleged that he was murdered to hide the truths behind match-fixing." ], [ "Personal life", "Hansie Cronje married Bertha Hans on 8 April 1995.They had no children.", "Hansie's widow later married Jacques Du Plessis, a financial auditor, in 2003.It was reported that the private ceremony was attended by Hansie's parents and siblings, and close friends Jonty Rhodes and his wife Kate.In 2008, a biographical film titled ''Hansie: A True Story'' was released, where Frank Rautenbach played the part of Cronje." ], [ "See also", "Declaration and forfeiture – Cronje was the only captain to ever forfeit an innings during a Test matchList of South Africans – voted 11 in the SABC3's Great South AfricansList of people who died in aviation-related incidentsList of cricketers banned for match fixing''Hansie'' – biographical film about Cronje after his life-ban" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Match fixing scandal* Hansie Cronje killed in a plane crash* Not Cricket 2 – The Captain and The Bookmaker" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hultsfred Municipality" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hultsfred Municipality''' (''Hultsfreds kommun'') is a municipality in Kalmar County, in south-eastern Sweden.", "The seat is in the town of Hultsfred.The present municipality was created in 1971 through the amalgamation of the market town (''köping'') of Hultsfred (instituted in 1927) with a number of surrounding municipalities.", "In 1863 there were eight entities in the area.Hultsfred is known as the site of a major rock festival in Sweden, the Hultsfred Festival." ], [ "History", "In the age known as the Nordic Bronze Age, the area had some shipping of furs to northern Germany and the Roman army, but not much is known from that time other than the area being inhabited; there have also been older finds from 3000 to 4000 BC.", "However, from the medieval age, around 1100 AD, a few churches remain.The area continued to be inhabited mainly by farmers until the 20th century.", "In the 17th and 18th there was some production of iron in Kalmar County, totalling about 10 mines; of those 2 were located in the municipality of Hultsfred.", "Hultsfred was a center for some military exercising companies during the 19th century, and some remaining building can be visited in the vicinity of Silverån.", "When the railroads through Sweden were built late in that century, Hultsfred received a population boost.There are several folks museums around the area that keeps trace of its history." ], [ "Geography", "Basically every one of the localities of Hultsfred Municipality are situated on the railway.", "Besides Hultsfred, in the mid north of the municipality, there are the towns of Virserum in the south-west and other ever smaller settlements such as Lönneberga, Silverdalen and Målilla.", "The population of the municipality has however been decreasing with some 2,000 people in the last 10 years, as many people move to larger cities, causing a decrease in nativity.Much of the geography is taken up with forests, a notability for the entire province of Småland, with some few scattered areas suitable for agriculture.===Localities===There are eight urban areas (also called a Tätort or locality) in Hultsfred Municipality.In the table the localities are listed according to the size of the population as of December 31, 2005.The municipal seat is in bold characters.", "# Locality Population 1 '''Hultsfred''' 5,305 2 Virserum 1,847 3 Målilla 1,605 4 Mörlunda 956 5 Silverdalen 791 6 Järnforsen 539 7 Vena 380 8 Rosenfors 308" ], [ "Demographics", "This is a demographic table based on Hultsfred Municipality's electoral districts in the 2022 Swedish general election sourced from SVT's election platform, in turn taken from SCB official statistics.In total there were 14,027 residents, including 10,283 Swedish citizens of voting age.", "47.4% voted for the left coalition and 50.9% for the right coalition.", "Indicators are in percentage points except population totals and income.Location % % Ekeberg 1,664 1,270 59.6 37.5 73 68 32 21,173 24Hultsfred N 2,544 1,907 49.6 49.1 82 81 19 25,421 26Hultsfred S 1,606 1,033 56.6 41.2 65 54 46 19,789 26Järeda 569 426 42.9 53.6 79 80 20 24,270 22Lönneberga 1,015 776 44.9 53.3 78 80 20 22,293 29Målilla 1,796 1,309 45.5 53.6 75 80 20 21,859 22Mörlunda 1,542 1,130 40.9 57.6 78 80 20 20,530 27Vena 1,076 829 41.7 57.0 87 92 8 24,461 29Virserum 2,215 1,603 41.3 57.9 70 72 28 20,729 23Source: SVT" ], [ "International relations", "===Twin towns — Sister cities===Hultsfred Municipality is twinned with:* Rumia, Poland" ], [ "References", "* Statistics Sweden" ], [ "External links", "* Hultsfred Municipality - Official site" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Parliament of the United Kingdom" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland''' is the supreme legislative body of the United Kingdom, and may also legislate for the Crown Dependencies and the British Overseas Territories.", "It meets at the Palace of Westminster in London.", "Parliament possesses legislative supremacy and thereby holds ultimate power over all other political bodies in the United Kingdom and the Overseas Territories.", "While Parliament is bicameral, it has three parts: the sovereign (King-in-Parliament), the House of Lords, and the House of Commons.", "In theory, power is officially vested in the King-in-Parliament.", "However, the Crown normally acts on the advice of the prime minister, and the powers of the House of Lords are limited to only delaying legislation; thus power is ''de facto'' vested in the House of Commons.The House of Commons is the elected lower chamber of Parliament, with elections to 650 single-member constituencies held at least every five years under the first-past-the-post system.", "By constitutional convention, all government ministers, including the prime minister, are members of the House of Commons, or less commonly the House of Lords, and are thereby accountable to the respective branches of the legislature.", "Most Cabinet ministers are from the Commons, while junior ministers can be from either house.The House of Lords is the upper chamber of Parliament, comprising two types of members.", "The most numerous are the Lords Temporal, consisting mainly of life peers appointed by the sovereign on the advice of the prime minister, plus up to 92 hereditary peers.", "The less numerous Lords Spiritual consist of up to 26 bishops of the Church of England.", "Before the establishment of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom in 2009, the House of Lords performed judicial functions through the law lords.The Parliament of the United Kingdom is one of the oldest legislatures in the world and is characterised by the stability of its governing institutions and its capacity to absorb change.", "The Westminster system shaped the political systems of the nations once ruled by the British Empire, and thus has been called the \"mother of parliaments\"." ], [ "History", "The Parliament of Great Britain was formed in 1707 following the ratification of the Treaty of Union by Acts of Union passed by the Parliament of England (established 1215) and the Parliament of Scotland (), both Acts of Union stating, \"That the United Kingdom of Great Britain be represented by one and the same Parliament to be styled The Parliament of Great Britain.\"", "At the start of the 19th century, Parliament was further enlarged by Acts of Union ratified by the Parliament of Great Britain and the Parliament of Ireland, which abolished the latter and added 100 Irish MPs and 32 Lords to the former to create the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.", "The Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927 formally amended the name to the \"Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland\", five years after the secession of the Irish Free State.===Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland===Print of the Palace of Westminster, before it burnt down in 1834The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was created on 1 January 1801, by the merger of the Kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland under the Acts of Union 1800.The principle of ministerial responsibility to the lower house (Commons) did not develop until the 19th century—the House of Lords was superior to the House of Commons both in theory and in practice.", "Members of the House of Commons (MPs) were elected in an antiquated electoral system, under which constituencies of vastly different sizes existed.", "Thus, the borough of Old Sarum, with seven voters, could elect two members, as could the borough of Dunwich, which had almost completely disappeared into the sea due to land erosion.Many small constituencies, known as pocket or rotten boroughs, were controlled by members of the House of Lords, who could ensure the election of their relatives or supporters.", "During the reforms of the 19th century, beginning with the Reform Act 1832, the electoral system for the House of Commons was progressively regularised.", "No longer dependent on the Lords for their seats, MPs grew more assertive.The supremacy of the British House of Commons was reaffirmed in the early 20th century.", "In 1909, the Commons passed the \"People's Budget\", which made numerous changes to the taxation system which were detrimental to wealthy landowners.", "The House of Lords, which consisted mostly of powerful landowners, rejected the Budget.", "On the basis of the Budget's popularity and the Lords' consequent unpopularity, the Liberal Party narrowly won two general elections in 1910.Using the result as a mandate, the Liberal Prime Minister, H. H. Asquith, introduced the Parliament Bill, which sought to restrict the powers of the House of Lords.", "(He did not reintroduce the land tax provision of the People's Budget.)", "When the Lords refused to pass the bill, Asquith countered with a promise extracted from the King in secret before the second general election of 1910 and requested the creation of several hundred Liberal peers, so as to erase the Conservative majority in the House of Lords.", "In the face of such a threat, the House of Lords narrowly passed the bill.The Parliament Act 1911, as it became, prevented the Lords from blocking a money bill (a bill dealing with taxation), and allowed them to delay any other bill for a maximum of three sessions (reduced to two sessions in 1949), after which it could become law over their objections.", "However, regardless of the Parliament Acts of 1911 and 1949, the House of Lords has always retained the unrestricted power to veto any bill outright which attempts to extend the life of a parliament.===Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland===The result of the 1918 general election in Ireland showed a landslide victory for the Irish republican party Sinn Féin, who vowed in their manifesto to establish an independent Irish Republic.", "Accordingly, Sinn Féin MPs, though ostensibly elected to sit in the House of Commons, refused to take their seats in Westminster, and instead assembled in 1919 to proclaim Irish independence and form a revolutionary unicameral parliament for the independent Irish Republic, called Dáil Éireann.In 1920, in parallel to the Dáil, the Government of Ireland Act 1920 created home rule parliaments of Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland and reduced the representation of both parts at Westminster.", "The number of Northern Ireland seats was increased again after the introduction of direct rule in 1973.The Irish republicans responded by declaring the elections to these home rule Parliaments, held on the same day in 1921, to be the basis of membership for a new Dáil Éireann.", "While the elections in Northern Ireland were both contested and won by Unionist parties, in Southern Ireland, all 128 candidates for the Southern Irish seats were returned unopposed.", "Of these, 124 were won by Sinn Féin and four by independent Unionists representing Dublin University (Trinity College).", "Since only four MPs sat in the home rule Southern Irish parliament, with the remaining 124 being in the Republic's Second Dáil, the home rule parliament was adjourned ''sine die'' without ever having operated.Victoria Tower In London.In 1922, pursuant to the Anglo-Irish Treaty, the revolutionary Irish Republic was replaced by the Irish Free State, recognised by the United Kingdom as a separate state (and thus, no longer represented in the Westminster Parliament), while Northern Ireland would remain British, and in 1927 parliament was renamed the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.Further reforms to the House of Lords were made in the 20th century.", "The Life Peerages Act 1958 authorised the regular creation of life peerage dignities.", "By the 1960s, the regular creation of hereditary peerage dignities had ceased; thereafter, almost all new peers were life peers only.The House of Lords Act 1999 removed the automatic right of hereditary peers to sit in the House of Lords, although it made an exception for 92 of them to be elected to life-terms by the other hereditary peers, with by-elections upon their death.", "The House of Lords is now a chamber that is subordinate to the House of Commons.", "Additionally, the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 led to abolition of the judicial functions of the House of Lords with the creation of the new Supreme Court of the United Kingdom in October 2009." ], [ "Composition and powers", "The legislative authority, the King-in-Parliament, has three separate elements: the Monarch, the House of Lords, and the House of Commons.", "No individual may be a member of both Houses, and members of the House of Lords are legally barred from voting in elections for members of the House of Commons.", "Formerly, no-one could be a Member of Parliament (MP) while holding an office of profit under the Crown, thus maintaining the separation of powers, but the principle has been gradually eroded.", "Until 1919, Members of Parliament who were appointed to ministerial office lost their seats in the House of Commons and had to seek re-election; the rule was abolished in 1926.Holders of offices are ineligible to serve as a Member of Parliament under the House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975.Royal assent of the Monarch is required for all Bills to become law, and certain delegated legislation must be made by the Monarch by Order in Council.", "The Crown also has executive powers which do not depend on Parliament, through prerogative powers, including the power to make treaties, declare war, award honours, and appoint officers and civil servants.", "In practice these are always exercised by the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister and the other ministers of HM Government.", "The Prime Minister and government are directly accountable to Parliament, through its control of public finances, and to the public, through the election of members of parliament.The Monarch also appoints the Prime Minister, who then forms a government from members of the Houses of Parliament.", "This must be someone who could command a majority in a confidence vote in the House of Commons.", "In the past the monarch has occasionally had to make a judgement, as in the appointment of Alec Douglas-Home in 1963 when it was thought that the incumbent Prime Minister, Harold Macmillan, had become ill with terminal cancer.", "However, today the outgoing Prime Minister advises the monarch who should be offered the position.The House of Lords is known formally as \"The Right Honourable The Lords Spiritual and Temporal in Parliament Assembled\", the Lords Spiritual being bishops of the Church of England and the Lords Temporal being Peers of the Realm.", "The Lords Spiritual and Lords Temporal are considered separate \"estates\", but they sit, debate and vote together.Since the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949, the powers of the House of Lords have been very much less than those of the House of Commons.", "All bills except money bills are debated and voted upon in the House of Lords; however, by voting against a bill, the House of Lords can only delay it for a maximum of two parliamentary sessions over a year.", "After that time, the House of Commons can force the Bill through without the Lords' consent, under the Parliament Acts.", "The House of Lords can also hold the government to account through questions to government ministers and the operation of a small number of select committees.", "The highest court in England & Wales and in Northern Ireland used to be a committee of the House of Lords, but it became an independent supreme court in 2009.The Lords Spiritual formerly included all of the senior clergymen of the Church of England—archbishops, bishops, abbots and mitred priors.", "Upon the Dissolution of the Monasteries under Henry VIII the abbots and mitred priors lost their positions in Parliament.", "All diocesan bishops continued to sit in Parliament, but the Bishopric of Manchester Act 1847, and later Acts, provide that only the 26 most senior are Lords Spiritual.", "These always include the incumbents of the \"five great sees\", namely the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Archbishop of York, the Bishop of London, the Bishop of Durham and the Bishop of Winchester.", "The remaining 21 Lords Spiritual are the most senior diocesan bishops, ranked in order of consecration, although the Lords Spiritual (Women) Act 2015 makes time-limited provision for vacancies to be filled by women who are bishops.The Lords Temporal are life peers created under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876 and the Life Peerages Act 1958, in addition to 92 hereditary peers under the House of Lords Act 1999.Formerly, the Lords Temporal were exclusively hereditary peers.", "The right of some hereditary peers to sit in Parliament was not automatic: after Scotland and England united into Great Britain in 1707, it was provided that all peers whose dignities had been created by English kings could sit in Parliament, but those whose dignities had been created by Scottish kings were to elect a limited number of \"representative peers.\"", "A similar arrangement was made in respect of Ireland when it was united with Great Britain in 1801, but when southern Ireland left the United Kingdom in 1922 the election of Irish representative peers ceased.", "By the Peerage Act 1963, the election of Scottish representative peers also ended, and all Scottish peers were granted the right to sit in Parliament.", "Under the House of Lords Act 1999, only life peerages (that is to say, peerage dignities which cannot be inherited) automatically entitle their holders to seats in the House of Lords.", "Of the hereditary peers, only 92—the Earl Marshal, the Lord Great Chamberlain and the 90 elected by other peers—retain their seats in the House.As of 2019, the House consists of 650 members; this total includes the Speaker, who by convention renounces partisan affiliation and does not take part in debates or votes, as well as three Deputy Speakers, who also do not participate in debates or votes but formally retain their party membership.", "Each Member of Parliament (MP) is chosen by a single constituency by the First-Past-the-Post electoral system.", "There are 650 constituencies in the United Kingdom, each made up of an average of 65,925 voters.", "The First-Past-the-Post system means that every constituency elects one MP each (except the constituency of the Speaker, whose seat is uncontested).", "Each voter assigns one vote for one candidate, and the candidate with the most votes in each constituency is elected as MP to represent their constituency.", "A party needs to win 326 constituencies (known as \"seats\") to win a majority in the House of Commons.", "If no party achieves a majority, then a situation of no overall control occurs – commonly known as a \"Hung Parliament\".", "In case of a Hung Parliament, the party with the most seats has the opportunity to form a coalition with other parties, so their combined seat tally extends past the 326-seat majority.", "Universal adult suffrage exists for those 18 and over; citizens of the United Kingdom, and those of the Republic of Ireland and Commonwealth nations resident in the United Kingdom, are qualified to vote, unless they are in prison at the time of the election.", "The term of members of the House of Commons depends on the term of Parliament, a maximum of five years; a general election, during which all the seats are contested, occurs after each dissolution (see below).All legislation must be passed by the House of Commons to become law and it controls taxation and the supply of money to the government.", "Government ministers (including the Prime Minister) must regularly answer questions in the House of Commons and there are a number of select committees that scrutinise particular issues and the workings of the government.", "There are also mechanisms that allow members of the House of Commons to bring to the attention of the government particular issues affecting their constituents." ], [ "State Opening of Parliament", "The State Opening of Parliament is an annual event that marks the commencement of a session of the Parliament of the United Kingdom.", "It is held in the House of Lords Chamber.", "Before 2012, it took place in November or December, or, in a general election year, when the new Parliament first assembled.", "From 2012 onwards, the ceremony has taken place in May or June.Leading 17th-century Parliamentarian John Hampden is one of the Five Members annually commemoratedUpon the signal of the Monarch, the Lord Great Chamberlain raises their wand of office to signal to Black Rod, who is charged with summoning the House of Commons and has been waiting in the Commons lobby.", "Black Rod turns and, under the escort of the Door-keeper of the House of Lords and an inspector of police, approaches the doors to the Chamber of the Commons.", "In 1642, King Charles I stormed into the House of Commons in an unsuccessful attempt to arrest the Five Members, who included the celebrated English patriot and leading Parliamentarian John Hampden.", "This action sparked the English Civil War.", "The wars established the constitutional rights of Parliament, a concept legally established in the Glorious Revolution in 1688 and the subsequent Bill of Rights 1689.Since then, no British monarch has entered the House of Commons when it is in session.", "On Black Rod's approach, the doors are slammed shut against them, symbolising the rights of parliament and its independence from the monarch.", "They then strike, with the end of their ceremonial staff (the Black Rod), three times on the closed doors of the Commons Chamber.", "They are then admitted, and announce the command of the monarch for the attendance of the Commons.The monarch reads a speech, known as the Speech from the Throne, which is prepared by the Prime Minister and the Cabinet, outlining the Government's agenda for the coming year.", "The speech reflects the legislative agenda for which the Government intends to seek the agreement of both Houses of Parliament.After the monarch leaves, each Chamber proceeds to the consideration of an \"Address in Reply to His Majesty's Gracious Speech.\"", "But, first, each House considers a bill ''pro forma'' to symbolise their right to deliberate independently of the monarch.", "In the House of Lords, the bill is called the Select Vestries Bill, while the Commons equivalent is the Outlawries Bill.", "The Bills are considered for the sake of form only, and do not make any actual progress." ], [ "Legislative procedure", "Henry Addington in state robes.", "Portrait by John Singleton Copley, 1797–98.", ":''See also the stages of a bill section in Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom''Both houses of the British Parliament are presided over by a speaker, the Speaker of the House for the Commons and the Lord Speaker in the House of Lords.For the Commons, the approval of the Sovereign is required before the election of the Speaker becomes valid, but it is, by modern convention, always granted.", "The Speaker's place may be taken by the Chairman of Ways and Means, the First Deputy Chairman, or the Second Deputy Chairman.", "(The titles of those three officials refer to the Committee of Ways and Means, a body which no longer exists.", ")Prior to July 2006, the House of Lords was presided over by a Lord Chancellor (a Cabinet member), whose influence as Speaker was very limited (whilst the powers belonging to the Speaker of the House of Commons are vast).", "However, as part of the Constitutional Reform Act 2005, the position of Speaker of the House of Lords (as it is termed in the Act) was separated from the office of Lord Chancellor (the office which has control over the judiciary as a whole), though the Lords remain largely self-governing.", "Decisions on points of order and on the disciplining of unruly members are made by the whole body, but by the Speaker alone in the Lower House.", "Speeches in the House of Lords are addressed to the House as a whole (using the words \"My Lords\"), but those in the House of Commons are addressed to the Speaker alone (using \"Mr Speaker\" or \"Madam Speaker\").", "Speeches may be made to both Houses simultaneously.Both Houses may decide questions by voice vote; members shout out \"Aye!\"", "and \"No!\"", "in the Commons—or \"Content!\"", "and \"Not-Content!\"", "in the Lords—and the presiding officer declares the result.", "The pronouncement of either Speaker may be challenged, and a recorded vote (known as a division) demanded.", "(The Speaker of the House of Commons may choose to overrule a frivolous request for a division, but the Lord Speaker does not have that power.)", "In each House, a division requires members to file into one of the two lobbies alongside the Chamber; their names are recorded by clerks, and their votes are counted as they exit the lobbies to re-enter the Chamber.", "The Speaker of the House of Commons is expected to be non-partisan, and does not cast a vote except in the case of a tie; the Lord Speaker, however, votes along with the other Lords.", "Speaker Denison's rule is a convention which concerns how the Speaker should vote should he be required to break a tie.", "Both Houses normally conduct their business in public, and there are galleries where visitors may sit." ], [ "Duration", "Originally there was no fixed limit on the length of a Parliament, but the Triennial Act 1694 set the maximum duration at three years.", "As the frequent elections were deemed inconvenient, the Septennial Act 1715 extended the maximum to seven years, but the Parliament Act 1911 reduced it to five.", "During the Second World War, the term was temporarily extended to ten years by Acts of Parliament.", "Since the end of the war the maximum has remained five years.", "Modern Parliaments, however, rarely continued for the maximum duration; normally, they were dissolved earlier.", "For instance, the 52nd, which assembled in 1997, was dissolved after four years.", "The Septennial Act was repealed by the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011, which established a presumption that a Parliament will last for five years, unless two thirds of the House of Commons votes for an early general election, or the government loses the confidence of the House.", "'''Summary history of terms of the Parliament of the United Kingdom''' Year Term (years) Act Notes 1707 3 (maximum) Ratification of the Acts of Union Formation of Parliament of Great Britain.", "1715 7 (maximum) Septennial Act 1715 Maximum 7-year duration of Parliament.", "Parliament to be dissolved before the seventh anniversary of its first sitting.", "1801 7 (maximum) Acts of Union 1800 Formation of Parliament of United Kingdom.", "1911 5 (maximum) Parliament Act 1911 Maximum 5-year duration of Parliament.", "Parliament to be dissolved before the fifth anniversary of its first sitting.", "Second World War 10 Various Acts of Parliament Maximum 5-year duration of Parliament extended by the Prolongation of Parliament Act 1940, Prolongation of Parliament Act 1941, Prolongation of Parliament Act 1942, Prolongation of Parliament Act 1943 and Prolongation of Parliament Act 1944; each Act of Parliament extended the maximum duration of Parliament for another year.", "Post-WW2 5 (maximum) Parliament Act 1911 Maximum 5-year duration of Parliament.", "Parliament to be dissolved before the fifth anniversary of its first sitting.", "2011 5 Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 Five-year interval between ordinary general elections.", "General elections were scheduled to take place on the first Thursday in May in every fifth year or the first Thursday in May on the fourth year if the previous election took place before the first Thursday in May, unless one of two situations arises, mentioned below.", "2022 5 (maximum) Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act Parliament automatically dissolves at the beginning of the day, which is the fifth anniversary of the day on which it first met unless dissolved earlier.Parliament Bill, 1911Following a general election, a new Parliamentary session begins.", "Parliament is formally summoned 40 days in advance by the Sovereign, who is the source of parliamentary authority.", "On the day indicated by the Sovereign's proclamation, the two Houses assemble in their respective chambers.", "The Commons are then summoned to the House of Lords, where Lords Commissioners (representatives of the Sovereign) instruct them to elect a Speaker.", "The Commons perform the election; on the next day, they return to the House of Lords, where the Lords Commissioners confirm the election and grant the new Speaker the royal approval in the Sovereign's name.The business of Parliament for the next few days of its session involves the taking of the oaths of allegiance.", "Once a majority of the members have taken the oath in each House, the State Opening of Parliament may take place.", "The Lords take their seats in the House of Lords Chamber, the Commons appear at the Bar (at the entrance to the Chamber), and the Sovereign takes the seat on the throne.", "The Sovereign then reads the Speech from the Throne—the content of which is determined by the Ministers of the Crown—outlining the Government's legislative agenda for the upcoming year.", "Thereafter, each House proceeds to the transaction of legislative business.By custom, before considering the Government's legislative agenda, a bill is introduced ''pro forma'' in each House—the Select Vestries Bill in the House of Lords and the Outlawries Bill in the House of Commons.", "These bills do not become laws; they are ceremonial indications of the power of each House to debate independently of the Crown.", "After the ''pro forma'' bill is introduced, each House debates the content of the Speech from the Throne for several days.", "Once each House formally sends its reply to the Speech, legislative business may commence, appointing committees, electing officers, passing resolutions and considering legislation.A session of Parliament is brought to an end by a prorogation.", "There is a ceremony similar to the State Opening, but much less well known to the general public.", "Normally, the Sovereign does not personally attend the prorogation ceremony in the House of Lords and is represented by Lords Commissioners.", "The next session of Parliament begins under the procedures described above, but it is not necessary to conduct another election of a Speaker or take the oaths of allegiance afresh at the beginning of such subsequent sessions.", "Instead, the State Opening of Parliament proceeds directly.", "To avoid the delay of opening a new session in the event of an emergency during the long summer recess, Parliament is no longer prorogued beforehand, but only after the Houses have reconvened in the autumn; the State Opening follows a few days later.Each Parliament comes to an end, after a number of sessions, in anticipation of a general election.", "Parliament is dissolved by virtue of the Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act 2022 and previously the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011.Prior to that, dissolution was effected by the Sovereign, always on the advice of the Prime Minister.", "The Prime Minister could seek dissolution at a time politically advantageous to their party.", "If the Prime Minister loses the support of the House of Commons, Parliament will dissolve and a new election will be held.", "Parliaments can also be dissolved if two-thirds of the House of Commons votes for an early election.Formerly, the demise of the Sovereign automatically brought a Parliament to an end, the Crown being seen as the '''' (beginning, basis and end) of the body, but this is no longer the case.", "The first change was during the reign of William and Mary, when it was seen to be inconvenient to have no Parliament at a time when succession to the Crown could be disputed, and an Act was passed that provided that a Parliament was to continue for six months after the death of a Sovereign, unless dissolved earlier.", "Under the Representation of the People Act 1867 Parliament can now continue for as long as it would otherwise have done in the event of the death of the Sovereign.After each Parliament concludes, the Crown issues writs to hold a general election and elect new members of the House of Commons, though membership of the House of Lords does not change." ], [ "Legislative functions", "The Palace of Westminster, where Parliament meets.Laws can be made by Acts of the United Kingdom Parliament.", "While Acts can apply to the whole of the United Kingdom including Scotland, due to the continuing separation of Scots law many Acts do not apply to Scotland and may be matched either by equivalent Acts that apply to Scotland alone or, since 1999, by legislation set by the Scottish Parliament relating to devolved matters.This has led to a paradox known as the West Lothian question.", "The existence of a devolved Scottish Parliament means that while Westminster MPs from Scotland may vote directly on matters that affect English constituencies, they may not have much power over their laws affecting their own constituency.", "Since there is no devolved \"English Parliament\", the converse is not true.", "Any Act of the Scottish Parliament may be overturned, amended or ignored by Westminster under section 35 of the Scotland Act 1998, and this happened for the first time in January 2023, when the Gender Recognition Reform (Scotland) Bill was prohibited from receiving royal assent.", "Legislative Consent Motions enables the UK Parliament to vote on issues normally devolved to Scotland, Wales or Northern Ireland, as part of United Kingdom legislation.Laws, in draft form known as bills, may be introduced by any member of either House.", "A bill introduced by a Minister is known as a \"Government Bill\"; one introduced by another member is called a \"Private Member's Bill\".", "A different way of categorising bills involves the subject.", "Most bills, involving the general public, are called \"public bills\".", "A bill that seeks to grant special rights to an individual or small group of individuals, or a body such as a local authority, is called a \"Private Bill\".", "A Public Bill which affects private rights (in the way a Private Bill would) is called a \"Hybrid Bill\", although those that draft bills take pains to avoid this.Private Members' Bills make up the majority of bills, but are far less likely to be passed than government bills.", "There are three methods for an MP to introduce a Private Member's Bill.", "The Private Members' Ballot (once per Session) put names into a ballot, and those who win are given time to propose a bill.", "The Ten Minute Rule is another method, where MPs are granted ten minutes to outline the case for a new piece of legislation.", "Standing Order 57 is the third method, which allows a bill to be introduced without debate if a day's notice is given to the Table Office.", "Filibustering is a danger, as an opponent of a bill can waste much of the limited time allotted to it.", "Private Members' Bills have no chance of success if the current government opposes them, but they are used in moral issues: the bills to decriminalise homosexuality and abortion were Private Members' Bills, for example.", "Governments can sometimes attempt to use Private Members' Bills to pass things it would rather not be associated with.", "\"Handout bills\" are bills which a government hands to MPs who win Private Members' Ballots.Each Bill goes through several stages in each House.", "The first stage, called the first reading, is a formality.", "At the second reading, the general principles of the bill are debated, and the House may vote to reject the bill, by not passing the motion \"That the Bill be now read a second time.\"", "Defeats of Government Bills in the Commons are extremely rare, the last being in 2005, and may constitute a motion of no confidence.", "(Defeats of Bills in the Lords never affect confidence and are much more frequent.", ")Following the second reading, the bill is sent to a committee.", "In the House of Lords, the Committee of the Whole House or the Grand Committee are used.", "Each consists of all members of the House; the latter operates under special procedures, and is used only for uncontroversial bills.", "In the House of Commons, the bill is usually committed to a Public Bill Committee, consisting of between 16 and 50 members, but the Committee of the Whole House is used for important legislation.", "Several other types of committees, including Select Committees, may be used, but rarely.", "A committee considers the bill clause by clause, and reports the bill as amended to the House, where further detailed consideration (\"consideration stage\" or \"report stage\") occurs.", "However, a practice which used to be called the \"kangaroo\" (Standing Order 32) allows the Speaker to select which amendments are debated.", "This device is also used under Standing Order 89 by the committee chairman, to restrict debate in committee.", "The Speaker, who is impartial as between the parties, by convention selects amendments for debate which represent the main divisions of opinion within the House.", "Other amendments can technically be proposed, but in practice have no chance of success unless the parties in the House are closely divided.", "If pressed they would normally be casually defeated by acclamation.Once the House has considered the bill, the third reading follows.", "In the House of Commons, no further amendments may be made, and the passage of the motion \"That the Bill be now read a third time\" is passage of the whole bill.", "In the House of Lords further amendments to the bill may be moved.", "After the passage of the third reading motion, the House of Lords must vote on the motion \"That the Bill do now pass.\"", "Following its passage in one House, the bill is sent to the other House.", "If passed in identical form by both Houses, it may be presented for the Sovereign's Assent.", "If one House passes amendments that the other will not agree to, and the two Houses cannot resolve their disagreements, the bill will normally fail.Since the passage of the Parliament Act 1911 the power of the House of Lords to reject bills passed by the House of Commons has been restricted, with further restrictions were placed by the Parliament Act 1949.If the House of Commons passes a public bill in two successive sessions, and the House of Lords rejects it both times, the Commons may direct that the bill be presented to the Sovereign for his or her Assent, disregarding the rejection of the Bill in the House of Lords.", "In each case, the bill must be passed by the House of Commons at least one calendar month before the end of the session.", "The provision does not apply to Private bills or to Public bills if they originated in the House of Lords or if they seek to extend the duration of a Parliament beyond five years.", "A special procedure applies in relation to bills classified by the Speaker of the House of Commons as \"Money Bills\".", "A Money Bill concerns ''solely'' national taxation or public funds; the Speaker's certificate is deemed conclusive under all circumstances.", "If the House of Lords fails to pass a Money Bill within one month of its passage in the House of Commons, the Lower House may direct that the Bill be submitted for the Sovereign's Assent immediately.Even before the passage of the Parliament Acts, the Commons possessed pre-eminence in cases of financial matters.", "By ancient custom, the House of Lords may not introduce a bill relating to taxation or Supply, nor amend a bill so as to insert a provision relating to taxation or Supply, nor amend a Supply Bill in any way.", "The House of Commons is free to waive this privilege, and sometimes does so to allow the House of Lords to pass amendments with financial implications.", "The House of Lords remains free to reject bills relating to Supply and taxation, but may be over-ruled easily if the bills are Money Bills.", "(A bill relating to revenue and Supply may not be a Money Bill if, for example, it includes subjects other than national taxation and public funds).The last stage of a bill involves the granting of royal assent.", "Theoretically, the Sovereign may either grant or withhold royal assent (make the bill a law or veto the bill).", "In modern times the Sovereign always grants royal assent, using the Norman French words \"Le Roy le veult\" (the King wishes it; \"La Reyne\" in the case of a Queen).", "The last refusal to grant the Assent was in 1708, when Queen Anne withheld her Assent from a bill \"for the settling of Militia in Scotland\", in the words \"\" (the Queen will think it over).Thus, every bill obtains the assent of all three components of Parliament before it becomes law (except where the House of Lords is over-ridden under the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949).", "The words \"BE IT ENACTED by the King's most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows:-,\" or, where the House of Lords' authority has been over-ridden by use of the Parliament Acts, the words \"BE IT ENACTED by King's most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Commons in this present Parliament assembled, in accordance with the provisions of the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949, and by the authority of the same, as follows:-\" appear near the beginning of each Act of Parliament.", "These words are known as the enacting formula." ], [ "Judicial functions", "The impeachment of Warren Hastings, 1788Prior to the creation of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom in 2009, Parliament was the highest court in the realm for most purposes, but the Privy Council had jurisdiction in some cases (for instance, appeals from ecclesiastical courts).", "The jurisdiction of Parliament arose from the ancient custom of petitioning the Houses to redress grievances and to do justice.", "The House of Commons ceased considering petitions to reverse the judgements of lower courts in 1399, effectively leaving the House of Lords as the court of last resort.", "In modern times, the judicial functions of the House of Lords were performed not by the whole House, but by the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary (judges granted life peerage dignities under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876) and by Lords of Appeal (other peers with experience in the judiciary).", "However, under the Constitutional Reform Act 2005, these judicial functions were transferred to the newly created Supreme Court in 2009, and the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary became the first Justices of the Supreme Court.", "Peers who hold high judicial office are no longer allowed to vote or speak in the Lords until they retire as justices.In the late 19th century, Acts allowed for the appointment of ''Scottish Lords of Appeal in Ordinary'' and ended appeal in Scottish criminal matters to the House of Lords, so that the High Court of Justiciary became the highest criminal court in Scotland.", "There is an argument that the provisions of Article XIX of the Union with England Act 1707 prevent any Court outside Scotland from hearing any appeal in criminal cases: \"And that the said Courts or any other of the like nature after the Unions shall have no power to Cognosce Review or Alter the Acts or Sentences of the Judicatures within Scotland or stop the Execution of the same.\"", "The House of Lords judicial committee usually had a minimum of two Scottish Judges to ensure that some experience of Scots law was brought to bear on Scottish appeals in civil cases, from the Court of Session.", "The Supreme Court now usually has at least two Scottish judges, together with at least one from Northern Ireland.", "As Wales is developing its own judicature, it is likely that the same principle will be applied.Certain other judicial functions have historically been performed by the House of Lords.", "Until 1948, it was the body in which peers had to be tried for felonies or high treason; now, they are tried by normal juries.", "The last occasion of the trial of a peer in the House of Lords was in 1935.When the House of Commons impeaches an individual, the trial takes place in the House of Lords.", "Impeachments are now possibly defunct, as the last one occurred in 1806.In 2006, a number of MPs attempted to revive the custom, having signed a motion for the impeachment of Tony Blair, but this was unsuccessful." ], [ "Relationship with the UK Government", "The British Government is answerable to the House of Commons.", "However, neither the Prime Minister nor members of the Government are elected by the House of Commons.", "Instead, the King requests the person most likely to command the support of a majority in the House, normally the leader of the largest party in the House of Commons, to form a government.", "So that they may be accountable to the Lower House, the Prime Minister and most members of the Cabinet are, by convention, members of the House of Commons.", "The last Prime Minister to be a member of the House of Lords was Alec Douglas-Home, 14th Earl of Home, who became Prime Minister in 1963.To adhere to the convention under which he was responsible to the Lower House, he disclaimed his peerage and procured election to the House of Commons within days of becoming Prime Minister.Governments have a tendency to dominate the legislative functions of Parliament, by using their in-built majority in the House of Commons, and sometimes using their patronage power to appoint supportive peers in the Lords.", "In practice, governments can pass any legislation (within reason) in the Commons they wish, unless there is major dissent by MPs in the governing party.But even in these situations, it is highly unlikely a bill will be defeated, though dissenting MPs may be able to extract concessions from the government.", "In 1976, Quintin Hogg, Lord Hailsham of St Marylebone created a now widely used name for this behaviour, in an academic paper called \"elective dictatorship\".Parliament controls the executive by passing or rejecting its Bills and by forcing Ministers of the Crown to answer for their actions, either at \"Question Time\" or during meetings of the parliamentary committees.", "In both cases, Ministers are asked questions by members of their Houses, and are obliged to answer.Although the House of Lords may scrutinise the executive through Question Time and through its committees, it cannot bring down the Government.", "A ministry must always retain the confidence and support of the House of Commons.", "The Lower House may indicate its lack of support by rejecting a Motion of Confidence or by passing a Motion of No Confidence.", "Confidence Motions are generally originated by the Government to reinforce its support in the House, whilst No Confidence Motions are introduced by the Opposition.", "The motions sometimes take the form \"That this House has no confidence in His Majesty's Government\" but several other varieties, many referring to specific policies supported or opposed by Parliament, are used.", "For instance, a Confidence Motion of 1992 used the form, \"That this House expresses the support for the economic policy of His Majesty's Government.\"", "Such a motion may theoretically be introduced in the House of Lords, but, as the Government need not enjoy the confidence of that House, would not be of the same effect as a similar motion in the House of Commons; the only modern instance of such an occurrence involves the 'No Confidence' motion that was introduced in 1993 and subsequently defeated.Many votes are considered votes of confidence, although not including the language mentioned above.", "Important bills that form part of the Government's agenda (as stated in the Speech from the Throne) are generally considered matters of confidence.", "The defeat of such a bill by the House of Commons indicates that a Government no longer has the confidence of that House.", "The same effect is achieved if the House of Commons \"withdraws Supply,\" that is, rejects the budget.Where a Government has lost the confidence of the House of Commons, in other words has lost the ability to secure the basic requirement of the authority of the House of Commons to tax and to spend Government money, the Prime Minister is obliged either to resign, or seek the dissolution of Parliament and a new general election.", "Otherwise the machinery of government grinds to a halt within days.", "The third choice – to mount a coup d'état or an anti-democratic revolution – is hardly to be contemplated in the present age.", "Though all three situations have arisen in recent years even in developed economies, international relations have allowed a disaster to be avoided.Where a Prime Minister has ceased to retain the necessary majority and requests a dissolution, the Sovereign can in theory reject his or her request, forcing a resignation and allowing the Leader of the Opposition to be asked to form a new government.", "This power is used extremely rarely.", "The conditions that should be met to allow such a refusal are known as the Lascelles Principles.", "These conditions and principles are constitutional conventions arising from the Sovereign's reserve powers as well as longstanding tradition and practice, not laid down in law.In practice, the House of Commons' scrutiny of the Government is very weak.", "Since the first-past-the-post electoral system is employed in elections, the governing party tends to enjoy a large majority in the Commons; there is often limited need to compromise with other parties.", "Modern British political parties are so tightly organised that they leave relatively little room for free action by their MPs.", "In many cases, MPs may be expelled from their parties for voting against the instructions of party leaders.", "During the 20th century, the Government has lost confidence issues only three times—twice in 1924, and once in 1979.===Parliamentary questions===House of Commons packed with members\|249x249pxIn the United Kingdom, question time in the House of Commons lasts for an hour each day from Monday to Thursday (2:30 to 3:30 pm on Mondays, 11:30 am to 12:30 pm on Tuesdays and Wednesdays, and 9:30 to 10:30 am on Thursdays).", "Each Government department has its place in a rota which repeats every five weeks.", "The exception to this sequence are the Business Questions (Questions to the Leader of House of Commons), in which questions are answered each Thursday about the business of the House the following week.", "Also, Questions to the Prime Minister takes place each Wednesday from noon to 12:30 pm.In addition to government departments, there are also questions to the Church commissioners.", "Additionally, each Member of Parliament is entitled to table questions for written answer.", "Written questions are addressed to the Ministerial head of a government department, usually a Secretary of State, but they are often answered by a Minister of State or Parliamentary Under Secretary of State.", "Written Questions are submitted to the Clerks of the Table Office, either on paper or electronically, and answers are recorded in ''The Official Report (Hansard)'' so as to be widely available and accessible.In the House of Lords, a half-hour is set aside each afternoon at the start of the day's proceedings for Lords' oral questions.", "A peer submits a question in advance, which then appears on the Order Paper for the day's proceedings.", "The peer shall say: \"''My Lords, I beg leave to ask the Question standing in my name on the Order Paper''.\"", "The Minister responsible then answers the question.", "The peer is then allowed to ask a supplementary question and other peers ask further questions on the theme of the original put down on the order paper.", "(For instance, if the question regards immigration, peers can ask the Minister any question related to immigration during the allowed period.)" ], [ "Parliamentary sovereignty", "Parliament Buildings, Stormont, Northern Ireland is home to the Northern Ireland Assembly.Several different views have been taken of Parliament's sovereignty.", "According to the jurist Sir William Blackstone, \"It has sovereign and uncontrollable authority in making, confirming, enlarging, restraining, abrogating, repealing, reviving, and expounding of laws, concerning matters of all possible denominations, ecclesiastical, or temporal, civil, military, maritime, or criminal… it can, in short, do every thing that is not naturally impossible.", "\"A different view has been taken by the Scottish judge Thomas Cooper, 1st Lord Cooper of Culross.", "When he decided the 1953 case of ''MacCormick v. Lord Advocate'' as Lord President of the Court of Session, he stated, \"The principle of unlimited sovereignty of Parliament is a distinctively English principle and has no counterpart in Scottish constitutional law.\"", "He continued, \"Considering that the Union legislation extinguished the Parliaments of Scotland and England and replaced them by a new Parliament, I have difficulty in seeing why the new Parliament of Great Britain must inherit all the peculiar characteristics of the English Parliament but none of the Scottish.\"", "Nevertheless, he did not give a conclusive opinion on the subject.Thus, the question of Parliamentary sovereignty appears to remain unresolved.", "Parliament has not passed any Act defining its own sovereignty.", "The European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020 states \"It is recognised that the Parliament of the United Kingdom is sovereign\" without qualification or definition.", "A related possible limitation on Parliament relates to the Scottish legal system and Presbyterian faith, preservation of which were Scottish preconditions to the creation of the unified Parliament.", "Since the Parliament of the United Kingdom was set up in reliance on these promises, it may be that it has no power to make laws that break them.Parliament's power has often been limited by its own Acts, whilst retaining the power to overturn those decisions should it decide toActs passed in 1921 and 1925 granted the Church of Scotland complete independence in ecclesiastical matters.", "From 1973 to 2020, under membership of the European Community and European Union, parliament agreed to the position that European law would apply and be enforceable in Britain and that Britain would be subject to the rulings of the European Court of Justice.", "In the Factortame case, the European Court of Justice ruled that British courts could have powers to overturn British legislation that was not compatible with European law.", "This position ended with the passing of the European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020 and Britain leaving the EU on 31 January 2020.Parliament has also created national devolved parliaments and an assembly with differing degrees of legislative authority in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, but not in England, which continues to be governed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom.", "Parliament still has the power over areas for which responsibility lies with the devolved institutions, but would ordinarily gain the agreement of those institutions to act on their behalf.", "Similarly, it has granted the power to make regulations to Ministers of the Crown, and the power to enact religious legislation to the General Synod of the Church of England.", "(Measures of the General Synod and, in some cases proposed statutory instruments made by ministers, must be approved by both Houses before they become law.", ")In every case aforementioned, authority has been conceded by Act of Parliament and may be taken back in the same manner.", "It is entirely within the authority of Parliament, for example, to abolish the devolved governments in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, or — as happened in 2020 — to leave the EU.", "However, Parliament also revoked its legislative competence over Australia and Canada with the Australia and Canada Acts: although the Parliament of the United Kingdom could pass an Act reversing its action, it would not take effect in Australia or Canada as the competence of the '''Imperial Parliament''' is no longer recognised there in law.One well-recognised consequence of Parliament's sovereignty is that it cannot bind future Parliaments; that is, no Act of Parliament may be made secure from amendment or repeal by a future Parliament.", "For example, although the Act of Union 1800 states that the Kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland are to be united \"forever,\" Parliament permitted southern Ireland to leave the United Kingdom in 1922." ], [ "Privileges", "Each House of Parliament possesses and guards various ancient privileges.", "The House of Lords relies on inherent right.", "In the case of the House of Commons, the Speaker goes to the Lords' Chamber at the beginning of each new Parliament and requests representatives of the Sovereign to confirm the Lower House's \"undoubted\" privileges and rights.", "The ceremony observed by the House of Commons dates to the reign of King Henry VIII.", "Each House is the guardian of its privileges, and may punish breaches thereof.", "The extent of parliamentary privilege is based on law and custom.", "Sir William Blackstone states that these privileges are \"very large and indefinite,\" and cannot be defined except by the Houses of Parliament themselves.The foremost privilege claimed by both Houses is that of freedom of speech in debate; nothing said in either House may be questioned in any court or other institution outside Parliament.", "Another privilege claimed is that of freedom from arrest; at one time this was held to apply for any arrest except for high treason, felony or breach of the peace but it now excludes any arrest on criminal charges; it applies during a session of Parliament, and 40 days before or after such a session.", "Members of both Houses are no longer privileged from service on juries.Both Houses possess the power to punish breaches of their privilege.", "Contempt of Parliament—for example, disobedience of a subpoena issued by a committee—may also be punished.", "The House of Lords may imprison an individual for any fixed period of time, but an individual imprisoned by the House of Commons is set free upon prorogation.", "The punishments imposed by either House may not be challenged in any court, and the Human Rights Act does not apply.Until at least 2015, members of the House of Commons also had the privilege of a separate seating area in the Palace of Westminster canteen, protected by a false partition labelled \"MPs only beyond this point,\" so that they did not have to sit with canteen staff who were taking a break.", "This provoked mockery from a newly elected 20-year-old MP who described it as \"ridiculous\" snobbery." ], [ "Emblem", "Beaufort Portcullis badge of the TudorsThe quasi-official emblem of the Houses of Parliament is a crowned portcullis.", "The portcullis was originally the badge of various English noble families from the 14th century.", "It went on to be adopted by the kings of the Tudor dynasty in the 16th century, under whom the Palace of Westminster became the regular meeting place of Parliament.", "The crown was added to make the badge a specifically royal symbol.The portcullis probably first came to be associated with the Palace of Westminster through its use as decoration in the rebuilding of the Palace after the fire of 1512.However, at the time it was only one of many symbols.", "The widespread use of the portcullis throughout the Palace dates from the 19th century, when Charles Barry and Augustus Pugin used it extensively as a decorative feature in their designs for the new Palace built following the disastrous 1834 fire.The crowned portcullis came to be accepted during the early 20th century as the emblem of both houses of parliament.", "This was simply a result of custom and usage rather than a specific decision.", "The emblem now appears on all official stationery, publications and papers, and is stamped on various items in use in the Palace of Westminster, such as cutlery, silverware and china.", "Various shades of red (for the House of Lords) and green (for the House of Commons)are used for visual identification of the houses." ], [ "Broadcast media", "All public events are broadcast live and on-demand via '' parliamentlive.tv'', which maintains an archive dating back to 4 December 2007.There is also a related official YouTube channel.", "They are also broadcast live by the independent Euronews English channel.", "In the UK the BBC has its own dedicated parliament channel, BBC Parliament, which broadcasts 24 hours a day and is also available on BBC iPlayer.", "It shows live coverage from the House of Commons, House of Lords, the Scottish Parliament, the Northern Ireland Assembly and the Senedd." ], [ "See also", "* Act of Parliament* Acts of Parliament of the United Kingdom relating to the European Communities and the European Union* History of democracy* ''The History of Parliament''* List of acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom* List of British governments* List of legislatures in the United Kingdom* List of parliaments of the United Kingdom* Parliament in the Making, a programme of anniversary events in 2015* Parliament of the United Kingdom relocation* Parliamentary agent* ''Parliamentary Brief''* Parliamentary Information and Communication Technology Service* Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology* Parliamentary records of the United Kingdom* Records of members of parliament of the United Kingdom* TheyWorkForYou* United Kingdom Parliament constituencies* UK Parliament Week===Lists of MPs elected===* List of MPs elected in the 1966 United Kingdom general election* List of MPs elected in the 1970 United Kingdom general election* List of MPs elected in the February 1974 United Kingdom general election* List of MPs elected in the October 1974 United Kingdom general election* List of MPs elected in the 1979 United Kingdom general election* List of MPs elected in the 1983 United Kingdom general election* List of MPs elected in the 1987 United Kingdom general election* List of MPs elected in the 1992 United Kingdom general election* List of MPs elected in the 1997 United Kingdom general election* List of MPs elected in the 2001 United Kingdom general election* List of MPs elected in the 2005 United Kingdom general election* List of MPs elected in the 2010 United Kingdom general election* List of MPs elected in the 2015 United Kingdom general election* List of MPs elected in the 2017 United Kingdom general election* List of MPs elected in the 2019 United Kingdom general election" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Footnotes======Sources===* * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * Public Policy Hub – Parliament and law making* ''Hansard'' from 1803 to 2005* Parliament Live TV* \"A–Z of Parliament\"—The British Broadcasting Corporation (2005).", "* Topic: Politics—''The Guardian''* Topic: House of Lords—''The Guardian''* Parliamentary procedure site at Leeds University* =10970 British House of Commons people (C-SPAN)* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hosea" ], [ "Introduction", "Gomer from the Bible Historiale, 1372''The Prophet Hosea'', by Duccio di Buoninsegna, in the Siena Cathedral ()In the Hebrew Bible, '''Hosea''' ( or ; – ''Hōšēaʿ'', 'Salvation'; – ''Hōsēé''), also known as '''Osee''', son of Beeri, was an 8th-century BCE prophet in Israel and the nominal primary author of the Book of Hosea.", "He is the first of the Twelve Minor Prophets, whose collective writings were aggregated and organized into a single book in the Jewish Tanakh by the Second Temple period (forming the last book of the Nevi'im) but which are distinguished as individual books in Christianity.", "Hosea is often seen as a \"prophet of doom\", but underneath his message of destruction is a promise of restoration.", "The Talmud claims that he was the greatest prophet of his generation.", "The period of Hosea's ministry extended to some sixty years, and he was the only prophet of Israel of his time who left any written prophecy.", "Though its date is contested among scholars, the current trend is to date much of the book to postmonarchical times, authored particularly in Persian Yehud (c. 550-330 BCE)." ], [ "Name meaning", "The name ''Hosea'' (meaning 'salvation', 'he saves' or 'he helps'), seems to have been common, being derived from a related verb meaning ''salvation''.", "Numbers 13:16 states that ''Hosea'' was the original name of Joshua, son of Nun until Moses gave him the longer, theophoric name Yehoshua () incorporating an abbreviated form of the Tetragrammaton.", "Rashi explains in Sotah 34b that Joshua is a compound name of יה (Yah) and הושע (Hosea, \"God may save\")." ], [ "Location", "Although it is not expressly stated in the Book of Hosea, it is apparent from the level of detail and familiarity focused on north-east geography, that Hosea conducted his prophetic ministries in the northern Kingdom of Israel, of which he was a native.", "In Hosea 5:8 ff., there seems to be a reference to the Syro-Ephraimite War which led to the capture of the kingdom by the Assyrians (c. ).", "Hosea's long ministry, from the reign of Jeroboam II (787–747) to the reign of Hoshea (731–722), seems to have ended before the fall of Samaria in 722/721." ], [ "Family", "Little is known about the life or social status of Hosea.", "According to the Book of Hosea, he married Gomer, the daughter of Diblaim, but she proved to be unfaithful.", "Hosea knew she would be unfaithful, as God says this to him immediately in the opening statements of the book.", "This marriage was arranged in order to serve to the prophet as a symbol of Israel's unfaithfulness to the Lord.", "His marriage will dramatize the breakdown in the relationship between God and His people Israel.", "Hosea's family life reflected the \"adulterous\" relationship which Israel had built with other gods.Similarly, his children's names represent God's estrangement from Israel.", "They are prophetic of the fall of the ruling dynasty and the severed covenant with God – much like the prophet Isaiah a generation later.", "The name of Hosea's daughter, Lo-ruhamah, which translates as 'not pitied', is chosen as a sign of displeasure with the people of Israel for following false gods.", "The name of Hosea's son, Lo-ammi, which translates as 'not my people', is chosen as a sign of the Lord's displeasure with the people of Israel for following those false gods." ], [ "Christian thought", "One of the early writing prophets, Hosea used his own experience as a symbolic representation of God and Israel.", "The relationship between Hosea and Gomer parallels the relationship between God and Israel.", "Even though Gomer runs away from Hosea and sleeps with another man, he loves her anyway and forgives her.", "Likewise, even though the people of Israel worshipped false gods, God continued to love them and did not abandon his covenant with them.The Book of Hosea was a severe warning to the northern kingdom against the growing idolatry being practiced there; the book was a dramatic call to repentance.", "Christians extend the analogy of Hosea to Christ and the church: Christ the husband, his church the bride.", "Christians see in this book a comparable call to the church not to forsake the Lord Jesus Christ.", "Christians also take the buying back of Gomer as the redemptive qualities of Jesus Christ's sacrifice on the cross.Other preachers, like Charles Spurgeon, saw Hosea as a striking presentation of the mercy of God in his sermon on Hosea 1:7 titled The LORD's Own Salvation.", "\"But I will have mercy upon the house of Judah, and will save them by the Lord their God, and will not save them by bow, nor by sword, nor by battle, by horses, nor by horsemen.\"", "– Bible, Hosea 1:7" ], [ "Islamic literature", "The Qur'an mentions only some prophets by name but makes it clear that many were sent who are not mentioned.", "Therefore, many Muslim scholars, such as Ibn Ishaq, speak of Hosea as one of the true Hebrew prophets of Israel.", "The Book of Hosea has also been used in Qur'anic exegesis by Abdullah Yusuf Ali, especially in reference to Qur'anic verses which speak of the backsliding of Israel." ], [ "Observances", "He is commemorated with the other Minor prophets in the Calendar of saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church on July 31.He is commemorated on the Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar, with a feast day on October 17 (for those churches which follow the Julian Calendar, October 17 currently falls on October 30 of the modern Gregorian Calendar).", "He is also commemorated on the Sunday of the Holy Fathers (the Sunday before the Nativity of the Lord).Several haftarot are taken from Hosea, including those for ''Vayetze, Vayishlach, Bamidbar, Naso, Shabbat Shuvah,'' and (Sephardic only) Tisha B'Av." ], [ "Tomb", "The structure at the cemetery in Safed known as the Tomb of HoseaJewish tradition holds that the tomb of Hosea is a structure located in the Jewish cemetery of Safed; however, Emil G. Hirsch and Victor Ryssel, writing in ''The Jewish Encyclopedia'', say that this tradition is \"historically worthless\"." ], [ "In popular culture", "The character Hosea Matthews in the video game ''Red Dead Redemption 2'' is named after the prophet.The story of Hosea is retold in a modern-day setting in the film ''HOSEA'' (2020), directed by Ryan Daniel Dobson.Hosea is portrayed by Elijah Alexander in the film ''Amazing Love: The Story of Hosea'' (2012).The novel Redeeming Love is based on the book of Hosea." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Prophet Hosea Orthodox icon and synaxarion" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Habakkuk" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Habakkuk''', or '''Habacuc''', who was active around 612 BCE, was a prophet whose oracles and prayer are recorded in the Book of Habakkuk, the eighth of the collected twelve minor prophets in the Hebrew Bible.", "He is revered by Jews, Christians, and Muslims.Almost all information about Habakkuk is drawn from the book of the Bible bearing his name, with no biographical details provided other than his title, \"the prophet\".", "Outside the Bible, he is mentioned over the centuries in the forms of Christian and Rabbinic tradition." ], [ "Name", "The name Habakkuk, or Habacuc, appears in the Hebrew Bible only in Habakkuk 1:1 and 3:1.In the Masoretic Text, it is written in (Standard ''Ḥavaqquq'' Tiberian ''Ḥăḇaqqûq'').", "This name does not occur elsewhere.", "The Septuagint transcribes his name into Greek as (''Ambakoum''), and the Vulgate transcribes it into Latin as ''Abacuc''.The etymology of the name is not clear, and its form has no parallel in Hebrew.", "The name is possibly related to the Akkadian ''khambbaququ'' (, ''ḫâmbaququ'') the name of a fragrant plant, or the Hebrew root , meaning \"embrace\"." ], [ "Life", "Almost nothing is known about Habakkuk, aside from what is stated within the book of the Bible bearing his name, or those inferences that may be drawn from that book.", "No biographical details are provided other than his title \"the prophet\".For almost every other prophet, more information is given, such as the name of the prophet's hometown, his occupation, or information concerning his parentage or tribe.", "For Habakkuk, however, there is no reliable account of any of these.", "Although his home is not identified, scholars conclude that Habakkuk lived in Jerusalem at the time he wrote his prophecy.", "Further analysis has provided an approximate date for his prophecy and possibilities concerning his activities and background.Beyond the Bible, considerable conjecture has been put forward over the centuries in the form of Christian and Rabbinic tradition, but such accounts are dismissed by modern scholars as speculative and apocryphal.", "Statue of Habakkuk by Donatello, in the Museo dell'Opera del Duomo of Florence===Biblical account===Because the book of Habakkuk consists of five oracles about the Chaldeans (Babylonians), and the Chaldean rise to power is dated circa 612 BC, it is assumed he was active about that time, making him an early contemporary of Jeremiah and Zephaniah.", "Jewish sources, however, do not group him with those two prophets, who are often placed together, so it is possible that he was slightly earlier than these prophets.Because the final chapter of his book is a song, it is sometimes assumed that he was a member of the Tribe of Levi, who served as musicians in Solomon's Temple.", "===Tradition===Habakkuk appears in Bel and the Dragon, which is part of the deuterocanonical Additions to Daniel.", "Verses 33–39 state that Habakkuk is in Judea; after making some stew, he is instructed by an angel of the Lord to take the stew to Daniel, who is in the lion's den in Babylon.", "After Habakkuk proclaims that he is unaware of both the den and Babylon, the angel transports Habakkuk to the lion's den.", "Habakkuk gives Daniel the food to sustain him, and he is immediately taken back to \"his place\".Habakkuk is also mentioned in the ''Lives of the Prophets'', which also mentions his time in Babylon.According to the Zohar (Volume 1, page 8b) Habakkuk is the boy born to the Shunamite woman through Elisha's blessing:" ], [ "Works", "The only work attributed to Habakkuk is the short book of the Bible that bears his name.", "The book of Habakkuk consists of five oracles about the Chaldeans (Babylonians) and a song of praise to God.The style of the book has been praised by many scholars, suggesting that its author was a man of great literary talent.", "The entire book follows the structure of a chiasmus in which parallelism of thought is used to bracket sections of the text.Habakkuk is unusual among the prophets in that he openly questions the working of God.", "In the first part of the first chapter, the prophet sees the injustice among his people and asks why God does not take action: \"O LORD, how long shall I cry for help, and you will not hear?", "Or cry to you \"Violence!\"", "and you will not save?\"" ], [ "Tombs", "The final resting place of Habakkuk has been claimed at multiple locations.", "The fifth-century Christian historian Sozomen claimed that the relics of Habakkuk were found at Cela, when God revealed their location to Zebennus, bishop of Eleutheropolis, in a dream.", "Currently, one location in Israel and one in Iran lay claim to being the burial site of the prophet.===Tomb in Israel===Tomb of Habakkuk near Kadarim, IsraelThe burial place of Habakkuk is identified by Jewish tradition as a hillside in the Upper Galilee region of northern Israel, close to the villages Kadarim and Hukok, about six miles southwest of Safed and twelve miles north of Mount Tabor.", "A small stone building, erected during the 20th century, protects the tomb.", "Tradition dating as early as the 12th century AD holds that Habakkuk's tomb is at this location, but the tomb may also be of a local sheikh of Yaquq, a name related to the biblical place named \"Hukkok\", whose pronunciation and spelling in Hebrew are close to \"Habakkuk\".", "Archaeological findings in this location include several burial places dated to the Second Temple period.===Persian shrine===Shrine of Habakkuk in Tuyserkan, IranA mausoleum southeast of the city of Tuyserkan in the west of Iran is also believed to be Habakkuk's burial place.", "It is protected by Iran's Cultural Heritage, Handcrafts and Tourism Organization.", "The Organization's guide to the Hamadan Province states that Habakkuk was believed to be a guardian to Solomon's Temple, and that he was captured by the Babylonians and remained in their prison for some years.", "After being freed by Cyrus the Great, he went to Ecbatana and remained there until he died, and was buried somewhere nearby, in what is today Tuyserkan.", "Habakkuk is called both Habaghugh and Hayaghugh by the Muslim locals.The surrounding shrine may date to the period of the Seljuq Empire (11–12th century); it consists of an octagonal wall and conical dome.", "Underneath the shrine is a hidden basement with three floors.", "In the center of the shrine's courtyard is the grave where Habakkuk is said to be buried.", "A stone upon the grave is inscribed in both Hebrew and Persian stating that the prophet's father was Shioua Lovit, and his mother was Lesho Namit.", "Both Muslims and Jews visit it to pay their respects." ], [ "Commemoration", "===Christian===On the Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar, his feast day is December 2.In the Roman Catholic Church, the twelve minor prophets are read in the Roman Breviary during the fourth and fifth weeks of November, which are the last two weeks of the liturgical year, and his feast day is January 15.In 2011, he was commemorated with the other Minor Prophets in the calendar of saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church on February 8.Habakkuk has also been commemorated in sculpture.", "In 1435, the Florentine artist Donatello created a sculpture of the prophet for the bell tower of Florence.", "This statue, nicknamed ''Zuccone'' (\"Big Head\") because of the shape of the head, now resides in the Museo dell'Opera del Duomo.", "The Basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome contains a Baroque sculpture of Habakkuk by the 17th-century artist Bernini.", "Between 1800 and 1805, the Brazilian sculptor Aleijadinho completed a soapstone sculpture of Habakkuk as part of his ''Twelve Prophets''.", "The figures are arranged around the forecourt and monumental stairway in front of the ''Santuário do Bom Jesus do Matosinhos'' at Congonhas.===Islam=======Ali al-Ridha debate at al-Ma'mun's court====Although not mentioned by name in the Qu'ran, Habakkuk (), is recognized as an Islamic prophet because he is believed to herald the coming of last prophet and divine scripture Muhammad and the Qu'ran in the Book of Habakkuk.In the court of Al-Ma'mun, Imam Ali al-Ridha, a descendant of Muhammad and chief Islamic scholar in the time of the Abbasid Caliphs, was asked by the Exilarch to prove that Muhammad was a prophet through the Torah.", "Imam Ridha asks \"Do you know the prophet Habakkuk?\"", "He said, \"Yes.", "I know of him.\"", "al-Ridha said, \"and this is narrated in your book, 'Allah brought down speech on Mount Faran, and the heavens were filled with the glorification of Muhammad and his community.", "His horse carries him over water as it carries him over land.", "He will bring a new book to us after the ruin of the holy house the temple in Jerusalem.'", "What is meant by this book is the Qur'an.", "Do you know this and believe in it?\"", "The Exilarch said, \"Habakkuk the prophet has said this and we do not deny what he said.", "\"====Further evidence of prophethood====Although the Quran only mentions around twenty-five prophets by name, and alludes to a few others, it has been a cardinal doctrine of Islam that many more prophets were sent by God who are not mentioned in the scripture.", "Thus, Muslims have traditionally had no problem accepting those other Hebrew prophets not mentioned in the Quran or hadith as legitimate prophets of God, especially as the Quran itself states: \"Surely We sent down the Torah (to Moses), wherein is guidance and light; thereby the prophets (who followed him), who had surrendered themselves, gave judgment for those who were Jewish, as did the masters and the rabbis, following such portion of God's Book as they were given to keep and were witnesses to,\" with this passage having often been interpreted by Muslims to include within the phrase \"prophets\" an allusion to all the prophetic figures of the Jewish scriptural portion of the nevi'im, that is to say all the prophets of Israel after Moses and Aaron.", "Thus, Islamic authors have often alluded to Habakkuk as a prophet in their works, and followed the pronunciation of his name with the traditional salutations of peace bestowed by Muslims onto prophets after the utterance of their names.Some medieval Muslim scholars even provided commentaries on the biblical Book of Habakkuk, with the primary purpose of showing that the prophet had predicted the coming of Muhammad in Habakkuk 3:2–6, in a manner akin to the earlier Christian tradition of seeing in the book's prophecies allusions to the advent of Christ.", "For example, the medieval exegete Najm al-Dīn al-Ṭūfī (d. 716 AH/1316 CE) provided a commentary on select verses from the Book of Habakkuk, saying the prophet's words \"for his rays become light\" (Habakkuk 3:4) alluded to the spread of Islam; that his words \"his glory comes to town, his power appears in his courts\" (Habakkuk 3:4) referred to Muhammad's stay in the town of Yathrib and the help he received there from the ansar; and that his words \"death goes before him\" (Habakkuk 3:5).", "Likewise, Habakkuk 3:5–6 also received similar commentaries from medieval Islamic thinkers.The famous and revered Persian Islamic scholar and polymath Ibn Qutaybah, who served as a judge during the Abbasid Caliphate, said of the prophet Habakkuk: \"Among the words of Habakkuk, who prophesied in the days of Daniel, Habakkuk says: 'God came from Teman, and the holy one from the mountains of Paran and the earth was filled with the sanctification of the praiseworthy one (''aḥmad'', which is a name of Muhammad in Islam), and with his right hand he exercised power over the earth and the necks of the nations,'\" which has been interpreted by scholars to be a clear allusion to Habakkuk 3:3-4.Elsewhere, the same scholar glossed Habakkuk 3:4, 15 as follows: \"The earth shines with his light, and his horses launched into the sea\", again interpreting the prophecy to be an allusion to the coming of Muhammad.", "One further prophecy of Habakkuk which Ibn Qutaybah cited, from extra-canonical Hebraic literature, was \"You shall be exceedingly filled in your bows ... O Praised One (Muhammad).\"", "This final prophecy attributed to Habakkuk was also referred to by later scholars like Ibn al-Jawzi and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah." ], [ "See also", "* Persian Jews" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * * The Prophet Habakkuk at Chabad.org" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Haggai" ], [ "Introduction", "Russian icon of Haggai, 18th century (Iconostasis of Kizhi monastery, Karelia, Russia).", "'''Haggai''' or '''Aggeus''' (; – ''Ḥaggay''; Koine Greek: Ἀγγαῖος; ) was a Hebrew prophet during the building of the Second Temple in Jerusalem, and one of the twelve minor prophets in the Hebrew Bible and the author of the Book of Haggai.", "He is known for his prophecy in 520 BCE, commanding the Jews to rebuild the Temple.", "He was the first of three post-exile prophets from the Neo-Babylonian Exile of the House of Judah (with Zechariah, his contemporary, and Malachi, who lived about one hundred years later), who belonged to the period of Jewish history which began after the return from captivity in Babylon.", "His name means \"my holidays.\"" ], [ "Life", "Scarcely anything is known of his personal history, with the book of Haggai offering no biographical details about his ancestry or anything else in his life outside the prophecies of 520 BCE.", "Haggai is only mentioned in one other book of the Bible, the book of Ezra.", "He may have been one of the captives taken to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar.", "Some commentors suggest he may have been an old man, and seen the previous temple before its destruction due to what he says about the former glory of the Temple in Haggai 2:3.He began God's prophecy about sixteen years after the return of the Jews to Judah (ca.", "520 BCE).", "The work of rebuilding the temple had been put to a stop through the intrigues of the Samaritans.", "After having been suspended for eighteen years, the work was resumed through the efforts of Haggai and Zechariah.", "They exhorted the people, which roused them from their lethargy, and induced them to take advantage of a change in the policy of the Persian government under Darius I." ], [ "Haggai prophecies", "Haggai (watercolor circa 1896–1902 by James Tissot)Haggai prophesied in late 520 BCE Jerusalem, about the people needing to complete building the Temple.", "He has four messages, which begin on August 29 and culminate on December 18.The new Temple was bound to exceed the awesomeness of the previous Temple.", "He claimed if the Temple was not built there would be poverty, famine and drought affecting the Jewish nation.There is a controversy regarding who edited Haggai's works.", "According to scholars, they credit it to his students.", "However, Jewish Tradition believe that the Men of the Great Assembly were responsible for the edits.", "The Men of the Great Assembly are traditionally known for continuing the work of Ezra and Nehemiah." ], [ "Haggai and officials of his time", "Haggai supported the officials of his time, specifically Zerubbabel, the governor, and Joshua the High Priest.", "In the Book of Haggai, God refers to Zerubbabel as \"my servant\" as King David was, and says he will make him as a \"signet ring,\" as King Jehoiachin was.", "The signet ring symbolized a ring worn on the hand of Yahweh, showing that a king held divine favour.", "Thus, Haggai is implicitly, but not explicitly, saying that Zerubbabel would preside over a restored Davidic kingdom." ], [ "Jewish Persian diplomacy", "The Persian Empire was growing weak, and Haggai saw time as an opportunity to restore the Davidic Kingdom.", "He believed that the Kingdom of David was able to rise and take back their part in Jewish issues.", "Haggai's message was directed to the nobles and Zerubbabel, as he would be the first Davidic monarch restored.", "He saw this as important because the Kingdom would be an end to Jewish idol worship." ], [ "Haggai in Jewish tradition", "Haggai, in rabbinic writing, is often referred to as one of the men of the Great Assembly.", "The Babylonian Talmud (5th century CE) mentions a tradition concerning the prophet Haggai, saying that he gave instruction concerning three things: (a) that it is not lawful for a man whose brother married his daughter (as a co-wife in a polygamous relationship) to consummate a levirate marriage with one of his deceased brother's co-wives (a teaching accepted by the School of Hillel, but rejected by the School of Shammai); (b) that Jews living in the regions of Ammon and Moab separate from their produce the poor man's tithe during the Sabbatical year; (c) that they accept of proselytes from the peoples of Tadmor (Palmyra) and from the people of Ḳardu." ], [ "Liturgical commemoration", "On the Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar, Haggai is commemorated as a saint and prophet.", "His feast day is 16 December (for those churches which follow the traditional Julian Calendar, 16 December currently falls on 29 December of the modern Gregorian Calendar).", "He is also commemorated, in common with the other righteous persons of the Old Testament, on the Sunday of the Holy Fathers (the second Sunday before the Nativity of the Lord).Haggai is commemorated with the other Minor prophets in the Calendar of saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church on 31 July." ], [ "Haggai in Freemasonry", "In the Masonic degree of Holy Royal Arch Haggai is one of the Three Principals of the Chapter.", "Named after Haggai the prophet and accompanies Zerubbabel, Prince of the People, and Joshua, the son of Josedech, the High Priest." ], [ "See also", "Book of HaggaiTomb of the Prophets Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi" ], [ "References", "" ], [ "External links", " Prophet Haggai Orthodox icon and synaxarion" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Herman Hollerith" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Herman Hollerith''' (February 29, 1860 – November 17, 1929) was an American statistician, inventor, and businessman who developed an electromechanical tabulating machine for punched cards to assist in summarizing information and, later, in accounting.", "His invention of the punched card tabulating machine, patented in 1884, marks the beginning of the era of mechanized binary code and semiautomatic data processing systems, and his concept dominated that landscape for nearly a century.Hollerith founded a company that was amalgamated in 1911 with several other companies to form the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company.", "In 1924, the company was renamed \"International Business Machines\" (IBM) and became one of the largest and most successful companies of the 20th century.", "Hollerith is regarded as one of the seminal figures in the development of data processing." ], [ "Biography", "Herman Hollerith was the son of German immigrant Georg Hollerith, a school teacher from Großfischlingen, Rhineland-Palatinate.", "He was born in Buffalo, New York, in 1860, where he also spent his early childhood.", "He entered the City College of New York in 1875, graduated from the Columbia School of Mines with an Engineer of Mines degree in 1879 at age 19, and, in 1890, earned a Doctor of Philosophy based on his development of the tabulating system.", "In 1882, Hollerith joined the Massachusetts Institute of Technology where he taught mechanical engineering and conducted his first experiments with punched cards.", "He eventually moved to Washington, D.C., living in Georgetown with a home on 29th Street and a business building at 31st Street and the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, where today there is a commemorative plaque installed by IBM.", "He died in Washington, D.C., at age 69 of a heart attack." ], [ "Electromechanical tabulation of data", "At the suggestion of John Shaw Billings, Hollerith developed a mechanism using electrical connections to increment a counter, recording information.", "A key idea was that a datum could be recorded by the presence or absence of a hole at a specific location on a card.", "For example, if a specific hole location indicates ''marital status'', then a hole there can indicate ''married'' while not having a hole indicates ''single''.", "Hollerith determined that data in specified locations on a card, arranged in rows and columns, could be counted or sorted electromechanically.", "A description of this system, ''An Electric Tabulating System (1889)'', was submitted by Hollerith to Columbia University as his doctoral thesis, and is reprinted in Brian Randell's 1982 ''The Origins of Digital Computers, Selected Papers''.", "On January 8, 1889, Hollerith was issued U.S. Patent 395,782, claim 2 of which reads:Replica of Hollerith tabulating machine with sorting box, circa 1890.The \"sorting box\" was an adjunct to, and controlled by, the tabulator.", "The \"sorter\", an independent machine, was a later development.The herein-described method of compiling statistics, which consists in recording separate statistical items pertaining to the individual by holes or combinations of holes punched in sheets of electrically non-conducting material, and bearing a specific relation to each other and to a standard, and then counting or tallying such statistical items separately or in combination by means of mechanical counters operated by electro-magnets the circuits through which are controlled by the perforated sheets, substantially as and for the purpose set forth." ], [ "Inventions and businesses", "Hollerith punched cardOak Hill Cemetery in Georgetown in Washington, D.C.Hollerith had left teaching and began working for the United States Census Bureau in the year he filed his first patent application.", "Titled \"Art of Compiling Statistics\", it was filed on September 23, 1884; U.S. Patent 395,782 was granted on January 8, 1889.Hollerith initially did business under his own name, as ''The Hollerith Electric Tabulating System'', specializing in punched card data processing equipment.", "He provided tabulators and other machines under contract for the Census Office, which used them for the 1890 census.", "The net effect of the many changes from the 1880 census: the larger population, the data items to be collected, the Census Bureau headcount, the scheduled publications, and the use of Hollerith's electromechanical tabulators, reduced the time required to process the census from eight years for the 1880 census to six years for the 1890 census.In 1896, Hollerith founded the Tabulating Machine Company (in 1905 renamed The Tabulating Machine Company).", "Many major census bureaus around the world leased his equipment and purchased his cards, as did major insurance companies.", "Hollerith's machines were used for censuses in England & Wales, Italy, Germany, Russia, Austria, Canada, France, Norway, Puerto Rico, Cuba, and the Philippines, and again in the 1900 census.He invented the first automatic card-feed mechanism and the first keypunch.", "The 1890 Tabulator was hardwired to operate on 1890 Census cards.", "A control panel in his 1906 Type I Tabulator simplified rewiring for different jobs.", "The 1920s removable control panel supported prewiring and near instant job changing.", "These inventions were among the foundations of the data processing industry and Hollerith's punched cards (later used for computer input/output) continued in use for almost a century.In 1911, four corporations, including Hollerith's firm, were amalgamated to form a fifth company, the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company (CTR).", "Under the presidency of Thomas J. Watson, CTR was renamed International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) in 1924.By 1933 The Tabulating Machine Company name had disappeared as subsidiary companies were subsumed by IBM." ], [ "Death and legacy", "Herman Hollerith died November 17, 1929.Hollerith is buried at Oak Hill Cemetery in the Georgetown neighborhood of Washington, D.C.Hollerith cards were named after Herman Hollerith,as were Hollerith strings and Hollerith constants.His great-grandson, the Rt.", "Rev.", "Herman Hollerith IV, was the Episcopal bishop of the Diocese of Southern Virginia, and another great-grandson, Randolph Marshall Hollerith, is an Episcopal priest and the dean of Washington National Cathedral in Washington, D.C." ], [ "See also", "* Unit record equipment* History of IBM" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", " Includes extensive, detailed, description of Hollerith's first machines and their use for the 1890 census." ], [ "Further reading", " Beniger, James R. (1986/2009) ''The Control Revolution: Technological and Economic Origins of the Information Society,'' Harvard University Press, 1986 pp.", "390–425*** Reprinted by Arno Press, 1976, ''from the best available copy''.", "Some text is illegible.", "* Heide, Lars. \"", "Herman Hollerith\".", "In Jeffrey Fear (ed.).", "''Immigrant Entrepreneurship: German-American Business Biographies, 1720 to the Present''.", "German Historical Institute, 2017.", " From the Columbia Univ.", "History site: This article is the basis for his 1890 Columbia ''Ph.D.''", "Extracts reprinted in (Randell, 1982).", " From Randell (1982),\"... brief... fascinating article... describes the way in which tabulators and sorters were used on ... 100 million cards ... 1890 census.''\"''" ], [ "External links", "* Herman Hollerith (2017) In Immigrant Entrepreneurship Heide, Lars.", "German-American Business Biographies, 1720 to the Present, vol.", "4, edited by Jeffrey Fear.", "German Historical Institute.", "Last modified April 5, 2017.Recommended* Hollerith's patents from 1889: * Columbia University Computing History: Herman Hollerith Hollerith's 1890 Census Tabulator* IBM Archives: Herman Hollerith The Tabulating Machine Co. plant* Early Office Museum: Punched Card Tabulating Machines* * The Norwegian Historical Data Center: Census 1900 Includes a description of the use of Hollerith machines (\"complicated, American enumeration machines\"), together with illustrations.", "* The Research notes on Herman Hollerith collection at Hagley Museum and Library includes the research materials Geoffrey Austrian used to write ''Herman Hollerith: Forgotten Giant of Information Processing''.", "* Richard Hollerith Papers at Hagley Museum and Library.", "Richard Hollerith was the grandson of Herman Hollerith and part of this collection documents the sale and settlement of the Herman Hollerith estate following the death of his last remaining child, Virginia.", "* – Hollerith's house" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of painting" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''history of painting''' reaches back in time to artifacts and artwork created by pre-historic artists, and spans all cultures.", "It represents a continuous, though periodically disrupted, tradition from Antiquity.", "Across cultures, continents, and millennia, the history of painting consists of an ongoing river of creativity that continues into the 21st century.", "Until the early 20th century it relied primarily on representational, religious and classical motifs, after which time more purely abstract and conceptual approaches gained favor.Developments in Eastern painting historically parallel those in Western painting, in general, a few centuries earlier.", "African art, Jewish art, Islamic art, Indonesian art, Indian art, Chinese art, and Japanese art each had significant influence on Western art, and vice versa.Initially serving utilitarian purpose, followed by imperial, private, civic, and religious patronage, Eastern and Western painting later found audiences in the aristocracy and the middle class.", "From the Modern era, the Middle Ages through the Renaissance painters worked for the church and a wealthy aristocracy.", "Beginning with the Baroque era artists received private commissions from a more educated and prosperous middle class.", "Finally in the West the idea of \"art for art's sake\" began to find expression in the work of the Romantic painters like Francisco de Goya, John Constable, and J. M. W. Turner.", "The 19thcentury saw the rise of the commercial art gallery, which provided patronage in the 20th century." ], [ "Pre-history", "Pettakere Cave are more than 44,000 years old, Maros, South Sulawesi, IndonesiaThe oldest known paintings are approximately 40,000 years old, found in both the Franco-Cantabrian region in western Europe, and in the caves in the district of Maros (Sulawesi, Indonesia).", "The oldest type of cave paintings are hand stencils and simple geometric shapes; the oldest undisputed examples of figurative cave paintings are somewhat younger, close to 35,000 years old.", "In November 2018, scientists reported the discovery of the then-oldest known figurative art painting, over 40,000 (perhaps as old as 52,000) years old, of an unknown animal, in the cave of Lubang Jeriji Saléh on the Indonesian island of Borneo (Kalimantan).", "In December 2019, however, figurative cave paintings depicting pig hunting in the Maros-Pangkep karst in Sulawesi were estimated to be even older, at least 43,900 years old.", "The finding was noted to be \"the oldest pictorial record of storytelling and the earliest figurative artwork in the world\".", "And more recently, in 2021, cave art of a pig found in an Indonesian island, and dated to over 45,500 years, has been reported.", "There are examples of cave paintings all over the world—in Indonesia, France, India, Spain, Southern Africa, China, Australia etc.Various conjectures have been made as to the meaning these paintings had to the people that made them.", "Prehistoric artists may have painted animals to \"catch\" their soul or spirit in order to hunt them more easily or the paintings may represent an animistic vision and homage to surrounding nature.", "They may be the result of a basic need of expression that is innate to human beings, or they could have been for the transmission of practical information.File:Bhimbetka.JPG\|Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka, rock painting, Stone Age, IndiaFile:Lascaux2.jpg\|Lascaux, ''Horse''File:San Painting, Ukalamba Drakensberge 1.JPG\|''Eland'', rock painting, Drakensberg, South AfricaFile:Lascaux painting.jpg\|Lascaux, ''Bulls and Horses''File:Rock art bull.jpg\|Spanish cave painting of ''Bulls''File:Haljesta.jpg\|Petroglyphs, from Sweden, Nordic Bronze Age (painted)File:Lascaux 04.jpg\|Lascaux, Aurochs (''Bos primigenius primigenius'')File:GreatGalleryedit.jpg\|Pictographs from the Great Gallery, Canyonlands National Park, Horseshoe Canyon, Utah, c. 1500 BCEFile:SantaCruz-CuevaManos-P2210651b.jpg\|Cueva de las Manos (Spanish for Cave of the Hands) in the Santa Cruz province in Argentina, c. 7300 BCFile:Bradshaw rock paintings.jpg\|Gwion Gwion rock paintings found in the north-west Kimberley region of Western Australia c. 15,000 BC In Paleolithic times, the representation of humans in cave paintings was rare.", "Mostly, animals were painted, not only animals that were used as food but also animals that represented strength like the rhinoceros or large Felidae, as in the Chauvet Cave.", "Signs like dots were sometimes drawn.", "Rare human representations include handprints and stencils, and figures depicting human / animal hybrids.", "The Chauvet Cave in the Ardèche Departments of France contains the most important preserved cave paintings of the Paleolithic era, painted around 31,000 BC.", "The Altamira cave paintings in Spain were done 14,000 to 12,000 BC and show, among others, bisons.", "The hall of bulls in Lascaux, Dordogne, France, is one of the best known cave paintings and dates to about 15,000 to 10,000 BC.If there is meaning to the paintings, it remains unknown.", "The caves were not in an inhabited area, so they may have been used for seasonal rituals.", "The animals are accompanied by signs which suggest a possible magic use.", "Arrow-like symbols in Lascaux are sometimes interpreted as being used as calendars or almanacs, but the evidence remains inconclusive.", "The most important work of the Mesolithic era were the ''marching warriors'', a rock painting at Cingle de la Mola, Castellón, Spain dated to about 7000 to 4000 BC.", "The technique used was probably spitting or blowing the pigments onto the rock.", "The paintings are quite naturalistic, though stylized.", "The figures are not three-dimensional, even though they overlap.The earliest known Indian paintings were the rock paintings of prehistoric times, the petroglyphs as found in places like the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka, and some of them are older than 5500 BC.", "Such works continued and after several millennia, in the 7th century, carved pillars of Ajanta, Maharashtra state present a fine example of Indian paintings.", "The colors, mostly various shades of red and orange, were derived from minerals." ], [ "Eastern", "''Silk painting depicting a man riding a dragon'', painting on silk, dated to 5th–3rd century BC, Warring States period, from Zidanku Tomb no.", "1 in Changsha, Hunan ProvinceThe history of Eastern painting includes a vast range of influences from various cultures and religions.", "Developments in Eastern painting historically parallel those in Western painting, in general a few centuries earlier.", "African art, Jewish art, Islamic art, Indonesian art, Indian art, Chinese art, Korean Art, and Japanese art each had significant influence on Western art, and, vice versa.Chinese painting is one of the oldest continuous artistic traditions in the world.", "The earliest paintings were not representational but ornamental; they consisted of patterns or designs rather than pictures.", "Early pottery was painted with spirals, zigzags, dots, or animals.", "It was only during the Warring States period (403–221 B.C.)", "that artists began to represent the world around them.", "Japanese painting is one of the oldest and most highly refined of the Japanese arts, encompassing a wide variety of genre and styles.", "The history of Japanese painting is a long history of synthesis and competition between native Japanese aesthetics and adaptation of imported ideas.", "Korean painting, as an independent form, began around 108 B.C., around the fall of Gojoseon, making it one of the oldest in the world.", "The artwork of that time period evolved into the various styles that characterized the Three Kingdoms of Korea period, most notably the paintings and frescoes that adorn the tombs of Goguryeo's royalty.", "During the Three Kingdoms period and through the Goryeo dynasty, Korean painting was characterized primarily by a combination of Korean-style landscapes, facial features, Buddhist-centered themes, and an emphasis on celestial observation that was facilitated by the rapid development of Korean astronomy.===East Asian===''See also Chinese painting, Japanese painting, Korean painting.", "''File:Lacquer painting from Ch'u State.jpg\|A lacquerware painting from the Jingmen Tomb (Chinese: 荊門楚墓; Pinyin: Jīngmén chǔ mù) of the State of Chu (704–223 BC), depicting men riding in a two-horsed chariotFile:Confucius, fresco from a Western Han tomb of Dongping County, Shandong province, China.jpg\|Detail of a fresco showing the Chinese philosopher Confucius, from a Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD) tomb of Dongping County, Shandong provinceFile:Western Han Dynasty Woman, Han Tomb in Sian, Shensi.jpg\|A Chinese woman, fresco from a Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD) tomb of Xi'an (ancient Chang'an), Shaanxi provinceImage:Guardians of Day and Night, Han Dynasty.jpg\|Paintings on tile of guardian spirits donned in Chinese robes, from the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD)File:Gentlemen in conversation, Eastern Han Dynasty.jpg\|''Gentlemen in Conversation'', tomb painting dated to the Eastern Han dynasty (25–220 AD).File:Basket from Lo-lang.jpg\|Lacquerware basket from the Lelang Commandery, showing seated men, Eastern Han dynasty (25-220 AD)File:Dahuting mural, Eastern Han Dynasty.jpg\|Female court attendants, a mural from an Eastern Han (25-220 AD) tomb in Zhengzhou, Henan provinceFile:Dahuting tomb mural detail of women wearing hanfu, Eastern Han period.jpg\|Female court attendants, a mural from an Eastern Han (25-220 AD) tomb in Zhengzhou, Henan provinceFile:Male figure from a lacquer painting over wood, Northern Wei.jpg\|Male figure from a lacquerware painting over wood, Northern Wei period, 5th century ADFile:Side wall statues Yungang.jpg\|Buddhist art of painted relief sculptures from the Yungang Grottoes, Northern Wei dynasty (386-535 AD)Image:Sun Quan Tang.jpg\|Emperor Sun Quan in the ''Thirteen Emperors Scroll and Northern Qi Scholars Collating Classic Texts'', by Yan Liben (c. 600–673 AD), ChineseImage:EightySevenCelestials3.jpg\|Eighty-Seven Celestials, by Wu Daozi (685–758), Tang dynasty, ChineseImage:Hangan03.jpg\|Portrait of ''Night-Shining White'', by Han Gan, 8th century, Tang dynasty, ChineseImage:Spring Outing of the Tang Court.jpg\|''Spring Outing of the Tang Court'', by Zhang Xuan, 8th century, Tang dynasty, ChineseFile:Anonymous-Astana Graves Servant Girl2.jpg\|''Servant'', 8th century, Tang dynasty, ChineseImage:Meister nach Chang Hsüan 001.jpg\|''Ladies making silk'', a remake of an 8th-century original by Zhang Xuan by Emperor Huizong of Song, early 12th century, ChineseImage:E innga kyo.jpg\|An illustrated sutra from the Nara period, 8th century, JapaneseImage:Chou Fang 001.jpg\|''Ladies Playing Double Sixes'', by Zhou Fang (730–800 AD), Tang dynasty, ChineseImage:A palace concert.jpg\|''A Palace Concert'', Tang dynasty, ChineseImage:Xiao and Xiang rivers.jpg\|''The Xiao and Xiang Rivers'', by Dong Yuan (c. 934–962 AD), ChineseImage:Gu Hongzhong's Night Revels, Detail 1.jpg\|''Night Revels'', a Song dynasty remake of a 10th-century original by Gu Hongzhong.File:Shenzong of Song.jpg\|Court portrait of Emperor Shenzong of Song (r. 1067–1085), ChineseImage:Songhuizong4.jpg\|''Golden Pheasant and Cotton Rose'', by Emperor Huizong of Song (r.1100–1126 AD), ChineseImage:Songhuizong8.jpg\|''Listening to the Guqin'', by Emperor Huizong of Song (1100–1126 AD), ChineseImage:Su Han Ch'en 001.jpg\|''Children Playing'', by Su Han Chen, c. 1150, ChineseImage:Chinesischer Maler des 12.Jahrhunderts (II) 001.jpg\|Chinese, anonymous artist of the 12th century Song dynastyImage:Chinesischer Maler von 1238 001.jpg\|Portrait of the Zen Buddhist Wuzhun Shifan, 1238 AD, ChineseImage:Ma Lin 010.jpg\|Ma Lin, 1246 AD, ChineseImage:Zhao Mengfu1.jpg\|''A Man and His Horse in the Wind'', by Zhao Mengfu (1254–1322 AD), ChineseImage:SesshuToyo.jpg\|Shukei-sansui (Autumn Landscape), Sesshu Toyo (1420–1506), JapaneseFile:Zhou Maoshu Appreciating Lotuses.jpg\|Kanō Masanobu, 15th-century founder of the Kanō school, ''Zhou Maoshu Appreciating Lotuses'', JapaneseImage:Kano White-robed Kannon, Bodhisattva of Compassion.jpg\|''A White-Robed Kannon, Bodhisattva of Compassion'', by Kanō Motonobu (1476–1559), JapaneseImage:Mogyeon.jpg\|Yi Ahm (1499–?", "), ''Mother Dog'', 15th century, National Museum of KoreaImage:T'ang Yin 003.jpg\|Tang Yin, ''A Fisher in Autumn'', (1523), ChineseImage:Nanbansen2.jpg\|''Nanban ships arriving for trade in Japan'', 16th century, JapaneseImage:Kano Eitoku 010.jpg\|A screen painting depicting people playing Go, by Kanō Eitoku (1543–1590), JapaneseImage:Pine Trees.jpg\|Right panel of the by Hasegawa Tōhaku (1539–1610), JapaneseImage:Bodhidarma.jpg\|Scroll calligraphy of Bodhidharma, \"Zen points directly to the human heart, see into your nature and become Buddha\", Hakuin Ekaku (1686 to 1769), JapaneseImage:Shunkeizu.jpg\|Hanging scroll 1672, Kanō Tanyū (1602–1674), JapaneseImage:Peonies by Yun Shouping.jpg\|''Peonies'', by Yun Shouping (1633–1690), ChineseImage:Ch20 asago.jpg\|''Genji Monogatari'', by Tosa Mitsuoki (1617–1691), JapaneseImage:Geumgangjeon.jpg\|''View of Geumgang'', Jeong Seon (1676–1759), 1734, KoreanImage:Ikeno Taiga 001.jpg\|Ike no Taiga (1723–1776), ''Fish in Spring'', JapaneseImage:Okyo Pine, Bamboo, Plum.jpg\|Maruyama school, ''Pine, Bamboo, Plum'', six-fold screen, Maruyama Ōkyo (1733–1795), JapaneseImage:Hwangmyo.jpg\|''A Cat and a Butterfly'', Kim Hong-do (1745–?", "), 18th century, KoreanImage:Joyucheong.jpg\|''A Boat Ride'', Shin Yun-bok (1758–?", "), 1805, KoreanImage:SakaiHoitsuAutumnFlowersandMoon.JPG\|Rimpa school, ''Autumn Flowers and Moon'', Sakai Hoitsu (1761–1828), JapaneseImage:Hokusai tanuki tea kettle.jpg\|A tanuki (raccoon dog) as a tea kettle, by Katsushika Hokusai (1760–1849), JapaneseImage:Maehwaseo.jpg\|''A House amongst Apricot Trees'', Jo Hee-ryong (1797–1859), KoreanImage:hokusai-fuji-koryuu.png\|Katsushika Hokusai, ''The Dragon of Smoke Escaping from Mt Fuji'', JapaneseImage:MiyagawaIsshoScene.jpg\|Miyagawa Isshō, untitled Ukiyo-e painting, JapaneseImage:Tomioka Tessai Two Divinities Dancing.jpg\|Tomioka Tessai (1837–1924), Nihonga style, ''Two Divinities Dancing'', 1924, JapaneseWestern Han Era (202 BCE – 9 CE)China, Japan and Korea have a strong tradition in painting which is also highly attached to the art of calligraphy and printmaking (so much that it is commonly seen as painting).", "Far east traditional painting is characterized by water based techniques, less realism, \"elegant\" and stylized subjects, graphical approach to depiction, the importance of white space (or negative space) and a preference for landscape (instead of the human figure) as a subject.", "Beyond ink and color on silk or paper scrolls, gold on lacquer was also a common medium in painted East Asian artwork.", "Although silk was a somewhat expensive medium to paint upon in the past, the invention of paper during the 1st century AD by the Han court eunuch Cai Lun provided not only a cheap and widespread medium for writing, but also a cheap and widespread medium for painting (making it more accessible to the public).The ideologies of Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism played important roles in East Asian art.", "Medieval Song dynasty painters such as Lin Tinggui and his ''Luohan Laundering'' (housed in the Smithsonian Freer Gallery of Art) of the 12th century are excellent examples of Buddhist ideas fused into classical Chinese artwork.", "In the latter painting on silk (image and description provided in the link), bald-headed Buddhist Luohan are depicted in a practical setting of washing clothes by a river.", "However, the painting itself is visually stunning, with the Luohan portrayed in rich detail and bright, opaque colors in contrast to a hazy, brown, and bland wooded environment.", "Also, the tree tops are shrouded in swirling fog, providing the common \"negative space\" mentioned above in East Asian Art.In Japonisme, late 19th-century Post-Impressionists like Van Gogh and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, and tonalists such as James McNeill Whistler, admired early 19th-century Japanese Ukiyo-e artists like Hokusai (1760–1849) and Hiroshige (1797–1858) and were influenced by them.==== Chinese ====''Spring Morning in the Han Palace'', by Ming-era artist Qiu Ying (1494–1552 AD)The earliest surviving examples of Chinese painted artwork date to the Warring States period (481–221 BC), with paintings on silk or tomb murals on rock, brick, or stone.", "They were often in simplistic stylized format and in more-or-less rudimentary geometric patterns.", "They often depicted mythological creatures, domestic scenes, labor scenes, or palatial scenes filled with officials at court.", "Artwork during this period and the subsequent Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) and Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) was made not as a means in and of itself or for higher personal expression; rather artwork was created to symbolize and honor funerary rites, representations of mythological deities or spirits of ancestors, etc.", "Paintings on silk of court officials and domestic scenes could be found during the Han dynasty, along with scenes of men hunting on horseback or partaking in military parade.", "There was also painting on three dimensional works of art like figurines and statues, such as the original-painted colors covering the soldier and horse statues of the Terracotta Army.", "During the social and cultural climate of the ancient Eastern Jin dynasty (316 – 420 AD) based at Nanjing in the south, painting became one of the official pastimes of Confucian-taught bureaucratic officials and aristocrats (along with music played by the guqin zither, writing fanciful calligraphy, and writing and reciting of poetry).", "Painting became a common form of artistic self-expression, and during this period painters at court or amongst elite social circuits were judged and ranked by their peers.Sakyamuni Buddha'', by Zhang Shengwen, 1173–1176 AD, Song dynasty period.The establishment of classical Chinese landscape painting is accredited largely to the Eastern Jin dynasty artist Gu Kaizhi (344 – 406 AD), one of the most famous artists of Chinese history.", "Like the elongated scroll scenes of Kaizhi, Tang dynasty (618–907 AD) Chinese artists like Wu Daozi painted vivid and highly detailed artwork on long horizontal handscrolls (which were very popular during the Tang), such as his ''Eighty Seven Celestial People''.", "Painted artwork during the Tang period pertained the effects of an idealized landscape environment, with sparse numbers of objects, persons, or amount of activity, as well as monochromatic in nature (example: the murals of Price Yide's tomb in the Qianling Mausoleum).", "There were also figures such as early Tang-era painter Zhan Ziqian, who painted superb landscape paintings that were well ahead of his day in portrayal of realism.", "However, landscape art did not reach greater level of maturity and realism in general until the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907–960 AD).", "During this time, there were exceptional landscape painters like Dong Yuan (refer to this article for an example of his artwork), and those who painted more vivid and realistic depictions of domestic scenes, like Gu Hongzhong and his ''Night Revels of Han Xizai''.", "''Loquats and Mountain Bird'', anonymous artist of the Southern Song dynasty; paintings in leaf album style such as this were popular in the Southern Song (1127–1279).During the Chinese Song dynasty (960–1279 AD), not only landscape art was improved upon, but portrait painting became more standardized and sophisticated than before (for example, refer to Emperor Huizong of Song), and reached its classical age maturity during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644 AD).", "During the late 13th century and first half of the 14th century, Chinese under the Mongol-controlled Yuan dynasty were not allowed to enter higher posts of government (reserved for Mongols or other ethnic groups from Central Asia), and the Imperial examination was ceased for the time being.", "Many Confucian-educated Chinese who now lacked profession turned to the arts of painting and theatre instead, as the Yuan period became one of the most vibrant and abundant eras for Chinese artwork.", "An example of such would be Qian Xuan (1235–1305 AD), who was an official of the Song dynasty, but out of patriotism, refused to serve the Yuan court and dedicated himself to painting.", "Examples of superb art from this period include the rich and detailed painted murals of the Yongle Palace, or \"Dachunyang Longevity Palace\", of 1262 AD, a UNESCO World Heritage site.", "Within the palace, paintings cover an area of more than 1000 square meters, and hold mostly Daoist themes.", "It was during the Song dynasty that painters would also gather in social clubs or meetings to discuss their art or others' artwork, the praising of which often led to persuasions to trade and sell precious works of art.", "However, there were also many harsh critics of others art as well, showing the difference in style and taste amongst different painters.", "In 1088 AD, the polymath scientist and statesman Shen Kuo once wrote of the artwork of one Li Cheng, who he criticized as follows:Qianlong Emperor Practicing Calligraphy, mid-18th century.Although high level of stylization, mystical appeal, and surreal elegance were often preferred over realism (such as in shan shui style), beginning with the medieval Song dynasty there were many Chinese painters then and afterwards who depicted scenes of nature that were vividly real.", "Later Ming dynasty artists would take after this Song dynasty emphasis for intricate detail and realism on objects in nature, especially in depictions of animals (such as ducks, swans, sparrows, tigers, etc.)", "amongst patches of brightly colored flowers and thickets of brush and wood (a good example would be the anonymous Ming dynasty painting ''Birds and Plum Blossoms'', housed in the Freer Gallery of the Smithsonian Museum in Washington, D.C.).", "There were many renowned Ming dynasty artists; Qiu Ying is an excellent example of a paramount Ming era painter (famous even in his own day), utilizing in his artwork domestic scenes, bustling palatial scenes, and nature scenes of river valleys and steeped mountains shrouded in mist and swirling clouds.", "During the Ming dynasty there were also different and rivaling schools of art associated with painting, such as the Wu School and the Zhe School.Classical Chinese painting continued on into the early modern Qing dynasty, with highly realistic portrait paintings like seen in the late Ming dynasty of the early 17th century.", "The portraits of Kangxi Emperor, Yongzheng Emperor, and Qianlong Emperor are excellent examples of realistic Chinese portrait painting.", "During the Qianlong reign period and the continuing 19th century, European Baroque styles of painting had noticeable influence on Chinese portrait paintings, especially with painted visual effects of lighting and shading.", "Likewise, East Asian paintings and other works of art (such as porcelain and lacquerware) were highly prized in Europe since initial contact in the 16th century.===== Chinese oil paintings =====Western techniques of oil paintings began entering China in the 19th century, becoming prevalent among Chinese artists and art students in the early 20th century, coinciding with China's growing engagement with the West.", "Artists such as Li Tiefu, Hong Yi, Xu Beihong, Yan Wenliang, Lin Fengmian, Fang Ganmin, Pang Yuliang went abroad, predominantly to Paris and Tokyo, to learn Western art.", "Through them, artistic movements such as Impressionism, Cubism, Fauvism, Post-impressionism grew and thrived in China, only halted by the Second World War and the birth of the People's Republic of China, when modernistic artistic styles were seen as being inconsistent with the prevailing political ideals and realism was the only acceptable artistic form.", "Nonetheless, the legacy of the close engagement with Western art in the early 20th century endured.", "Oil paintings survived as an important medium in Chinese artistic scenes; traditional Chinese ink paintings were also changed as a result.", "File:Li-tiefu-portrait-of-madame-liu.jpg\|''Portrait of Madame Liu'', (1942) Li Tiefu oil on canvasFile:Litiefu1904.jpg\|''Portrait of Kang Youwei'' (1904) Li Tiefu oil on canvasFile:XuBeiHongMdmCheng.jpg\|''Portrait of Madam Cheng'' (1941) Oil on board Xu Beihong==== Japanese ====Muromachi period, Shingei (1431–1485), ''Viewing a Waterfall'', Nezu Museum, Tokyo.Japanese painting (絵画) is one of the oldest and most highly refined of the Japanese arts, encompassing a wide variety of genres and styles.", "As with Japanese arts in general, Japanese painting developed through a long history of synthesis and competition between native Japanese aesthetics and adaptation of imported ideas.", "Ukiyo-e, or \"pictures of the floating world,\" is a genre of Japanese woodblock prints (or \"woodcuts\") and paintings produced between the 17th and 20th centuries, featuring motifs of landscapes, theater, and courtesan districts.", "It is the main artistic genre of Japanese woodblock printing.", "Japanese printmaking, especially from the Edo period, exerted enormous influence on French painting over the 19th century.", "While in the 19th century, Japanese painters developed a new painting technique called ''yōga'' that borrowed heavily from western painting techniques and materials, such notable artists include Harada Naojirō, Fujishima Takeji, and Kuroda Seiki.==== Korean ====Korean painting, as an independent form, began around 108 B.C., around the fall of Gojoseon, making it one of the oldest in the world.", "The artwork of that time period evolved into the various styles that characterized the Three Kingdoms of Korea period, most notably the paintings and frescoes that adorn the tombs of Goguryeo's royalty.", "During the Three Kingdoms period and through the Goryeo dynasty, Korean painting was characterized primarily by a combination of Korean-style landscapes, facial features, Buddhist-centered themes, and an emphasis on celestial observation that was facilitated by the rapid development of Korean astronomy.", "It wasn't until the Joseon dynasty that Confucian themes began to take root in Korean paintings, used in harmony with indigenous aspects.The history of Korean painting has been characterized by the use monochromatic works of black brushwork, often on mulberry paper or silk.", "This style is evident in \"Min-Hwa\", or colorful folk art, tomb paintings, and ritual and festival arts, both of which incorporated an extensive use of colour.===South Asian===Image:Indischer Maler um 850 001.jpg\|''Floating Figures Dancing'', a mural of c. 850.File:Akbar Being Received by Khan Kilan, the Governor of Nagaur, in 1570, Akbarnama.jpg\|Mughal, Akbar Being Received by Khan Kilan, the Governor of Nagaur, in 1570, AkbarnamaFile:Farrukh Beg.", "Sultan Ibrahim Adil Shah II Khan hawking.", "Page from St. Petersburg Album.", "Bijapur ca.1590-95 (28,7x15,6cm) Institute of Oriental Studies St. Petersburg.jpg\|Deccan painting; the young Ibrahim Adil Shah II hawking, c. 1590File:Yudishthira wrestling with Karna.jpg\|Mughal, Yudishthira wrestling with Karna, 1598File:Indian - Single Leaf of a Nilgai - Walters W865.jpg\|Mughal nilgai, 1625–1650File:Emperor Shah Jahan, 1628.jpg\|Emperor Shah Jahan and sons, c. 1628 or later.", "Mughal portraits normally use profile views.Image:Indischer Maler um 1750 (III) 001.jpg\|A Lady Listening to Music, c. 1750.Image:Radha and Krishna in Discussion.jpg\|Bahsoli painting of Radha and Krishna in Discussion, c. 1730.File:Sultan-Ibrahim-Adil-Shah-II-of-Bijapur.", "Miniature.", "Deccan, Bijapur; c. 1590.The David Collection.", "(cropped).jpg\|Deccan painting, Sultan Ibrahim Adil Shah II of Bijapur, c. 1590.A three-quarter view which gives a powerful and lively impression of the sitter, despite lacking both Mughal precision, and very coherent modelling of the surfaces.File:Bichitr - Portrait of Raja Jagat Singh of Nurpur (reigned 1618-46) - 2013.324 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif\|Mughal portrait of Raja Jagat Singh of Nurpur (reigned 1618–1646), probably 1619File:Clevelandart 2018.90.jpg\|Pahari painting, Chamba, c. 1665, a warrior mounts his horseImage:Meister des Porträts des Govardhân Chand 001.jpg\|Portrait of the Govardhân Chand, Pahari painting style, c. 1750.File:Unknown, Kangra, India - Krishna Fluting to the Milkmaids - Google Art Project.jpg\|Kangra painting, c. 1775, Krishna plays his flute to the gopis Image:Ravi Varma-Ravana Sita Jathayu.jpg\|Ravana kills Jathayu; the captive Sita despairs, by Raja Ravi VarmaImage:Akbar and Tansen visit Haridas.jpg\|''Akbar and Tansen Visit Haridas in Vrindavan'', Rajasthan style, c. 1750.File:India, Pahari Hills, Bilaspur school, 18th century - Krishna Summoning the Cows - 1989.339 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif\|Krishna Summoning the Cows, Pahari painting, Bilaspur, 18th centuryImage:Indischer Maler um 1760 001.jpg\|A man with children, Pahari painting style, 1760.File:Maker unknown, India - Crimson Horned Pheasant (Satyr Tragapan) - Google Art Project.jpg\|Company style, 1770s, Crimson Horned Pheasant (Satyr Tragapan)Image:Indischer Maler um 1770 001.jpg\|''Râdhâ arrests Krishna'', Pahari painting style, 1770.Image:Indischer Maler von 1780 001.jpg\|''Rama and Sita in the Forest'', Pahari painting style, 1780.File:Unknown Indian - Rama, Lakshmana, and Sita Cooking and Eating in the Wilderness - Google Art Project.jpg\|Late Kangra painting, 1815/1825, Rama, Lakshmana, and SitaFile:16 Kota Ram Singh II Tiger Hunting.", "Kotah, c 1830-1840, Cleveland MOA.jpg\|Late Rajput painting, Kota, c. 1830s, Ram Singh II Tiger Hunting==== Indian ====Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka, rock painting, Stone Age, IndiaIndian paintings historically revolved around the religious deities and kings.", "Indian art is a collective term for several different schools of art that existed in the Indian subcontinent.", "The paintings varied from large frescoes of Ajanta to the intricate Mughal miniature paintings to the metal embellished works from the Tanjore school.", "The paintings from the Gandhar–Taxila are influenced by the Persian works in the west.", "The eastern style of painting was mostly developed around the Nalanda school of art.", "The works are mostly inspired by various scenes from Indian mythology.=====History=====Cave 1 of Ajanta.The earliest Indian paintings were the rock paintings of prehistoric times, the petroglyphs as found in places like the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka, and some of them are older than 5500 BC.", "Such works continued and after several millennia, in the 7th century, carved pillars of Ajanta, Maharashtra state present a fine example of Indian paintings, and the colors, mostly various shades of red and orange, were derived from minerals.Ajanta Caves in Maharashtra, India are rock-cut cave monuments dating back to the 2nd century BCE and containing paintings and sculpture considered to be masterpieces of both Buddhist religious art and universal pictorial art.", ";Madhubani paintingMadhubani painting is a style of Indian painting, practiced in the Mithila region of Bihar state, India.", "The origins of Madhubani painting are shrouded in antiquity.===== Mughal =====Two Scribes Seated with Books and a Writing Table Fragment of a decorative margin Northern India (Mughal school), ca.", "1640–1650Mughal painting is a particular style of Indian painting, generally confined to illustrations on the book and done in miniatures, and which emerged, developed and took shape during the period of the Mughal Empire 16th −19th centuries.===== Rajput =====Mother Goddess A miniature painting of the Pahari style, dating to the eighteenth century.", "Pahari and Rajput miniatures share many common features.Rajput painting evolved and flourished during the 18th century, in the royal courts of Rajputana, India.", "Each Rajput kingdom evolved a distinct style, but with certain common features.", "Rajput paintings depict a number of themes, events of epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, Krishna's life, beautiful landscapes, and humans.", "Miniatures were the preferred medium of Rajput painting, but several manuscripts also contain Rajput paintings, and paintings were even done on the walls of palaces, inner chambers of the forts, havelies, particularly, the havelis of Shekhawait.The colors extracted from certain minerals, plant sources, conch shells, and were even derived by processing precious stones, gold and silver were used.", "The preparation of desired colors was a lengthy process, sometimes taking weeks.", "Brushes used were very fine.===== Tanjore =====Tanjore painting is an important form of classical South Indian painting native to the town of Tanjore in Tamil Nadu.", "The art form dates back to the early 9th century, a period dominated by the Chola rulers, who encouraged art and literature.", "These paintings are known for their elegance, rich colors, and attention to detail.", "The themes for most of these paintings are Hindu Gods and Goddesses and scenes from Hindu mythology.", "In modern times, these paintings have become a much sought after souvenir during festive occasions in South India.The process of making a Tanjore painting involves many stages.", "The first stage involves the making of the preliminary sketch of the image on the base.", "The base consists of a cloth pasted over a wooden base.", "Then chalk powder or zinc oxide is mixed with water-soluble adhesive and applied on the base.", "To make the base smoother, a mild abrasive is sometimes used.", "After the drawing is made, decoration of the jewellery and the apparels in the image is done with semi-precious stones.", "Laces or threads are also used to decorate the jewellery.", "On top of this, the gold foils are pasted.", "Finally, dyes are used to add colors to the figures in the paintings.=====Madras School=====During British rule in India, the crown found that Madras had some of the most talented and intellectual artistic minds in the world.", "As the British had also established a huge settlement in and around Madras, Georgetown was chosen to establish an institute that would cater to the artistic expectations of the royal family in London.", "This has come to be known as the Madras School of Art.", "At first traditional artists were employed to produce exquisite varieties of furniture, metal work, and curios and their work was sent to the royal palaces of the Queen.Unlike the Bengal School where 'copying' is the norm of teaching, the Madras School flourishes on 'creating' new styles, arguments and trends.=====Bengal School=====''Bharat Mata'' by Abanindranath Tagore (1871–1951), a nephew of the poet Rabindranath Tagore, and a pioneer of the movementThe Bengal school of art was an influential style of art that flourished in India during the British Raj in the early 20th century.", "It was associated with Indian nationalism, but was also promoted and supported by many British arts administrators.The Bengal School arose as an avant garde and nationalist movement reacting against the academic art styles previously promoted in India, both by Indian artists such as Raja Ravi Varma and in British art schools.", "Following the widespread influence of Indian spiritual ideas in the West, the British art teacher Ernest Binfield Havel attempted to reform the teaching methods at the Calcutta School of Art by encouraging students to imitate Mughal miniatures.", "This caused immense controversy, leading to a strike by students and complaints from the local press, including from nationalists who considered it to be a retrogressive move.", "Havel was supported by the artist Abanindranath Tagore, a nephew of the poet Rabindranath Tagore.", "Tagore painted a number of works influenced by Mughal art, a style that he and Havel believed to be expressive of India's distinct spiritual qualities, as opposed to the \"materialism\" of the West.", "Tagore's best-known painting, ''Bharat Mata'' (Mother India), depicted a young woman, portrayed with four arms in the manner of Hindu deities, holding objects symbolic of India's national aspirations.", "Tagore later attempted to develop links with Japanese artists as part of an aspiration to construct a pan-Asianist model of art.The Bengal School's influence in India declined with the spread of modernist ideas in the 1920s.", "In the post-independence period, Indian artists showed more adaptability as they borrowed freely from European styles and amalgamated them freely with the Indian motifs to new forms of art.", "While artists like Francis Newton Souza and Tyeb Mehta were more western in their approach, there were others like Ganesh Pyne and Maqbool Fida Husain who developed thoroughly indigenous styles of work.", "Today after the process of liberalization of market in India, the artists are experiencing more exposure to the international art-scene which is helping them in emerging with newer forms of art which were hitherto not seen in India.", "Jitish Kallat had shot to fame in the late 1990s with his paintings which were both modern and beyond the scope of generic definition.", "However, while artists in India in the new century are trying out new styles, themes and metaphors, it would not have been possible to get such quick recognition without the aid of the business houses which are now entering the art field like they had never before.===== Modern Indian =====Amrita Sher-Gil was an Indian painter, sometimes known as India's Frida Kahlo, and today considered an important woman painter of 20th-century India, whose legacy stands at par with that of the Masters of Bengal Renaissance; she is also the 'most expensive' woman painter of India.Today, she is amongst ''Nine Masters'', whose work was declared as ''art treasures'' by The Archaeological Survey of India, in 1976 and 1979, and over 100 of her paintings are now displayed at National Gallery of Modern Art, New Delhi.During the colonial era, Western influences started to make an impact on Indian art.", "Some artists developed a style that used Western ideas of composition, perspective and realism to illustrate Indian themes.", "Others, like Jamini Roy, consciously drew inspiration from folk art.By the time of Independence in 1947, several schools of art in India provided access to modern techniques and ideas.", "Galleries were established to showcase these artists.", "Modern Indian art typically shows the influence of Western styles, but is often inspired by Indian themes and images.", "Major artists are beginning to gain international recognition, initially among the Indian diaspora, but also among non-Indian audiences.The Progressive Artists' Group, established shortly after India became independent in 1947, was intended to establish new ways of expressing India in the post-colonial era.", "The founders were six eminent artists – K. H. Ara, S. K. Bakre, H. A. Gade, M.F.", "Husain, S.H.", "Raza and F. N. Souza, though the group was dissolved in 1956, it was profoundly influential in changing the idiom of Indian art.", "Almost all India's major artists in the 1950s were associated with the group.", "Some of those who are well-known today are Bal Chabda, Manishi Dey, Mukul Dey, V. S. Gaitonde, Ram Kumar, Tyeb Mehta, and Akbar Padamsee.", "Other famous painters like Jahar Dasgupta, Prokash Karmakar, John Wilkins, Narayanan Ramachandran, and Bijon Choudhuri enriched the art culture of India.", "They have become the icons of modern Indian art.", "Art historians like Prof. Rai Anand Krishna have also referred to those works of modern artistes that reflect Indian ethos.", "Geeta Vadhera has had acclaim in translating complex, Indian spiritual themes onto canvas like Sufi thought, the Upanishads and the Bhagwad Geeta.Indian art got a boost with the economic liberalization of the country since the early 1990s.", "Artists from various fields now started bringing in varied styles of work.", "In post-liberalization India, many artists have established themselves in the international art market like the abstract painter Natvar Bhavsar, figurative artist Devajyoti Ray and sculptor Anish Kapoor whose mammoth postminimalist artworks have acquired attention for their sheer size.", "Many art houses and galleries have also opened in USA and Europe to showcase Indian artworks.===South-East Asia======= Indonesian ====Hand stencils in the \"Tree of Life\" cave painting in Gua Tewet, Kalimantan, IndonesiaThe oldest known cave paintings are more than 44,000–50,000 years old, found in the caves in the district of Maros (Sulawesi, Indonesia).", "The oldest type of cave paintings are hand stencils and simple geometric shapes; the oldest undisputed examples of figurative cave paintings are somewhat younger, close to 35,000 years old.The discovery of the then-oldest known figurative art painting, over 40,000 (perhaps as old as 52,000) years old, of an unknown animal, in the cave of Lubang Jeriji Saléh on the Indonesian island of Borneo.", "In December 2019, however, figurative cave paintings depicting pig hunting in the Maros-Pangkep karst in Sulawesi were estimated to be even older, at at least 43,900 years old.", "The finding was noted to be \"the oldest pictorial record of storytelling and the earliest figurative artwork in the world\".Wayang beber, 17th centuryOther examples of Indonesian paintings are the Kenyah decorative art, based on endemic natural motifs such as ferns and hornbills, found decorating the walls of Kenyah longhouses.", "Other notable traditional art is the geometric Toraja wood carvings.", "Balinese paintings are initially the narrative images to depict scenes of Balinese legends and religious scripts.", "The classical Balinese paintings are often decorating the lontar manuscripts and also the ceilings of temples pavilion.", "Notable modern Indonesian painters in the European tradition include Raden Saleh, Jan Toorop, Basuki Abdullah and Abdullah Suriosubroto, their themes explore landscape and portrait painting.File: Balinese Cockfighting.jpg\|Traditional Balinese painting depicting cockfighting.File: Raden Saleh - Diponegoro arrest.jpg\|''Capture of Prince Diponegoro'', 1857.File:Raden Saleh - Javanese Landscape, with Tigers Listening to the Sound of a Travelling Group.jpg \|''Javanese Landscape, with Tigers Listening to the Sound of a Travelling Group'', 1849.File: Murtika.jpg \|''The Wheel of Life'', I Ketut Murtika (b.", "1952), Gouache on canvasFile: Detail of Antique Kamasan Balinese Painting.jpg\|Pre-1920 Kamasan Palindon Painting detail, an example of Kamasan-style classical painting.File: Mask Dancer (by A.A. Gde Anom Sukawati).jpg\|''Mask Dancer'' (by A.A. Gde Anom Sukawati) in Puri Lukisan Museum.", "File: Romualdo Locatelli - Legong Dancer.jpg\|Legong dancer.File: Candi Jabung Probolinggo 1840.jpg\|Indonesian Temple painting.==== Filipino ====Juan Luna, ''La Bulaqueña'', 1895Filipino painting as a whole can be seen as an amalgamation of many cultural influences, though it tends to be more Western in its current form with Eastern roots.Early Filipino painting can be found in red slip (clay mixed with water) designs embellished on the ritual pottery of the Philippines such as the acclaimed Manunggul Jar.", "Evidence of Philippine pottery-making dated as early as 6000BC has been found in Sanga-sanga Cave, Sulu and Laurente Cave, Cagayan.", "It has been proven that by 5000BC, the making of pottery was practiced throughout the country.", "Early Filipinos started making pottery before their Cambodian neighbors and at about the same time as the Thais as part of what appears to be a widespread Ice Age development of pottery technology.", "Further evidences of painting are manifested in the tattoo tradition of early Filipinos, whom the Portuguese explorer referred to as ''Pintados'' or the 'Painted People' of the Visayas.", "Various designs referencing flora and fauna with heavenly bodies decorate their bodies in various colored pigmentation.", "Perhaps, some of the most elaborate painting done by early Filipinos that survive to the present day can be manifested among the arts and architecture of the Maranao who are well known for the Nāga Dragons and the Sarimanok carved and painted in the beautiful Panolong of their Torogan or King's House.Juan Luna, ''The Parisian Life'', 1892Filipinos began creating paintings in the European tradition during the 17th-century Spanish period.", "The earliest of these paintings were Church frescoes, religious imagery from Biblical sources, as well as engravings, sculptures and lithographs featuring Christian icons and European nobility.", "Most of the paintings and sculptures between the 19th, and 20th century produced a mixture of religious, political, and landscape art works, with qualities of sweetness, dark, and light.", "Early modernist painters such as Damián Domingo was associated with religious and secular paintings.", "The art of Juan Luna and Félix Hidalgo showed a trend for political statement.", "Artist such as Fernando Amorsolo used post-modernism to produce paintings that illustrated Philippine culture, nature, and harmony.", "While other artists such as Fernando Zóbel used realities and abstract on his work.File:The Death of Cleopatra by Juan Luna1881.jpg\|Juan Luna, ''The Death of Cleopatra'', 1881File:Juan Luna Spoliarium.jpg\|Juan Luna, ''Spoliarium'', c.1884File:2016 Official Portrait of Our Lady of Solitude of Porta Vaga.jpg\|''Nuestra Senora de la Soledad de Porta Vaga''File:Ceiling Paintings 07 Nuestra Sra.", "del Santissimo Rosario Parish Church, Lila, Bohol (100 dpi).jpg\|Lila Church ceiling paintingFile:Mujer filipina by Lorenzo de la Rocha Icaza - MBACO.jpg\|Lorenzo de la Rocha Icaza, ''Mujer filipina'', 1895File:Fabian de la Rosa, Women working in a rice field.jpg\|Fabián de la Rosa, ''Women Working in rice field'', 1902File:Tampuhan by Juan Luna.jpg\|Juan Luna, ''Tampuhan'', 1895File:Indios by José Honorato Lozano.jpg\|José Honorato Lozano, ''Indios'', 1847" ], [ "Western", "===Egypt, Greece and Rome===Hellenistic Greek terracotta funerary wall painting, 3rd century BCAncient Egypt, a civilization with very strong traditions of architecture and sculpture (both originally painted in bright colours) also had many mural paintings in temples and buildings, and painted illustrations on papyrus manuscripts.", "Egyptian wall painting and decorative painting is often graphic, sometimes more symbolic than realistic.", "Egyptian painting depicts figures in bold outline and flat silhouette, in which symmetry is a constant characteristic.", "Egyptian painting has close connection with its written language – called Egyptian hieroglyphs.", "Painted symbols are found amongst the first forms of written language.", "The Egyptians also painted on linen, remnants of which survive today.", "Ancient Egyptian paintings survived due to the extremely dry climate.", "The ancient Egyptians created paintings to make the afterlife of the deceased a pleasant place.", "The themes included journey through the afterworld or their protective deities introducing the deceased to the gods of the underworld.", "Some examples of such paintings are paintings of the gods and goddesses Ra, Horus, Anubis, Nut, Osiris and Isis.", "Some tomb paintings show activities that the deceased were involved in when they were alive and wished to carry on doing for eternity.", "In the New Kingdom and later, the ''Book of the Dead'' was buried with the entombed person.", "It was considered important for an introduction to the afterlife.File:Maler der Grabkammer des Sennudem 001.jpg\|''Sennedjem plows his fields with a pair of oxen'', c.1200 BCImage:Ägyptischer Maler um 1360 v. Chr.", "001.jpg\|Ancient Egypt,''The Goddess Isis'', wall painting, c.1360 BCImage:Maler der Grabkammer der Nefertari 004.jpg\|Ancient Egypt, ''Queen Nefertari''Image:egyptian papyrus.jpg\|Ancient Egypt, papyrusImage:The Pharaoh Tutankhamun destroying his enemies.jpg\|Ancient EgyptImage:Egypt.Ra-Apep.01.jpg\|Ancient EgyptImage:KnossosFrescoRepro06827.jpg\|Knossos, Minoan civilization, Bronze Age CreteImage:NAMA Sacrifice aux Charites.jpg\|Pitsa panels, one of the few surviving panel paintings from Archaic Greece, c.540–530 BCImage:Symposiumnorthwall.jpg\|''Symposium scene in the Tomb of the Diver'' at Paestum, circa 480BC Greek artFile:Agios Athanasios 1 fresco.jpg\|Mural of soldiers from Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki, Ancient Macedonia, 4th century BCFile:Produzione greca o magnogreca, sarcofago delle amazzoni, 350-325 a.C. ca, da tarquinia 05.JPG\|A Greek fighting an Amazon.", "Detail from painted sarcophagus found in Italy, 350-325 BCFile:Thueros affresco.jpg\|Fresco of an ancient Macedonian soldier (''thorakitai'') wearing chainmail armor and bearing a ''thureos'' shield, 3rd century BCFile:Wall painting - sacrifice of Iphigenia - Pompeii (VI 8 5) - Napoli MAN 9112 - 01.jpg\|Fresco depicting sacrifice of IphigeniaFile:Telephus (son of Hercules) being suckled by a doe in the tem Wellcome V0015047.jpg\|Roman art showing Hercules and TelephusFile:Wall painting - Meleagros and Atalanta - Pompeii (VI 9 3) - Napoli MAN 8980.jpg\|Roman art showing Meleager and AtalantaFile:Wall painting - punishment of Dirke - Pompeii (VII 4 56) - Napoli MAN 9042 - 01.jpg\|Roman art showing Dirce's punishmentFile:Wall painting - Peirithoos receiving the centaurs at his wedding - Pompeii (VII 2 16) - Napoli MAN 9044.jpg\|Roman art showing Pirithous and HippodamiaImage:Pompejanischer Maler um 80 v. Chr.", "001.jpg\|Roman art, Pompeii, Villa of the Mysteries, c. 60-50 BCFile:P. Fannius Synistor anagoria links.JPG\|Roman art, Villa Boscoreale frescos, c. 40 BCFile:Pompeii Painter.jpg\|Roman art, PompeiiFile:The Three Graces, from Pompeii (fresco).jpg\|The Three Graces, fresco from PompeiiFile:The Fall of Icarus, fresco from Pompeii, 40-79 AD.png\|The Fall of Icarus, fresco from Pompeii, 40-79 ADImage:Pompejanischer Maler um 10 20 001.jpg\|Roman art, PompeiiFile:Fayum-34.jpg\|Roman art, Fayum mummy portraits from Roman EgyptFile:Pompeii - Casa dei Vettii - Pentheus.jpg\|Roman art from the House of the Vettii, Pompeii, 1st century ADFile:Herculaneum - Lyre and Cupids.jpg\|Cupids playing with a lyre, Roman fresco from HerculaneumFile:Dea Barberini 01.JPG\|Roman fresco with a seated Venus, the so-called \"Dea Barberini\", 4th century ADTo the north of Egypt was the Minoan civilization centered on the island of Crete.", "The wall paintings found in the palace of Knossos are similar to that of the Egyptians but much more free in style.", "Mycenaean Greece, beginning around 1600 BC, produced similar art to that of Minoan Crete.", "Ancient Greek art during the Greek Dark Age became far less complex, but the renewal of Greek civilization throughout the Mediterranean during Archaic Greece brought about new forms of Greek art with the Orientalizing style.A fresco showing Hades and Persephone riding in a chariot, from the tomb of Queen Eurydice I of Macedon at Vergina, Greece, 4th century BCAncient Greece had skilled painters, sculptors (though both endeavours were regarded as mere manual labour at the time), and architects.", "The Parthenon is an example of their architecture that has lasted to modern days.", "Greek marble sculpture is often described as the highest form of Classical art.", "Painting on pottery of Ancient Greece and ceramics gives a particularly informative glimpse into the way society in Ancient Greece functioned.", "Black-figure vase painting and Red-figure vase painting gives many surviving examples of what Greek painting was.", "Some famous Greek painters on wooden panels who are mentioned in texts are Apelles, Zeuxis and Parrhasius, however few examples of Ancient Greek panel painting survive, mostly just written descriptions by their contemporaries or later Romans.", "Zeuxis lived in 5–6BC and was said to be the first to use sfumato.", "According to Pliny the Elder, the realism of his paintings was such that birds tried to eat the painted grapes.", "Apelles is described as the greatest painter of Antiquity for perfect technique in drawing, brilliant color and modeling.Roman art was influenced by Greece and can in part be taken as a descendant of ancient Greek painting.", "However, Roman painting does have important unique characteristics.", "Surviving Roman paintings include wall paintings and frescoes, many from villas in Campania, in Southern Italy at sites such as Pompeii and Herculaneum.", "Such painting can be grouped into four main \"styles\" or periods and may contain the first examples of ''trompe-l'œil'', pseudo-perspective, and pure landscape.", "Almost the only painted portraits surviving from the Ancient world are a large number of coffin-portraits of bust form found in the Late Antique cemetery of Al-Fayum.", "Although these were neither of the best period nor the highest quality, they are impressive in themselves, and give an idea of the quality that the finest ancient work must have had.", "A very small number of miniatures from Late Antique illustrated books also survive, and a rather larger number of copies of them from the Early Medieval period.===Middle Ages===File:CottonGenesisFragment26vAbrahamAndAngels.JPG\|Cotton Genesis A miniature of ''Abraham Meeting Angels''File:Spas vsederzhitel sinay.jpg\|Byzantine icon, 6th centuryFile:Sanvitale03.jpg\|Byzantine art mosaics in RavennaFile:RabulaGospelsFol13vAscension.jpg\|Byzantine, 6th centuryFile:KellsFol292rIncipJohn.jpg\|Book of KellsFile:KellsFol032vChristEnthroned.jpg\|Book of KellsFile:Les Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry Janvier.jpg\|Limbourg BrothersFile:Les Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry juin.jpg\|Limbourg BrothersFile:Hastings book of the hours.jpg\|Book of HoursFile:1099jerusalem.jpg\|''The Capture of Jerusalem during the First Crusade'', c. 1099File:MorganLeafVerso.jpg\|''The Morgan Leaf'', from the Winchester Bible 1160–75, Scenes from the life of DavidFile:Yaroslavl gospel.jpg\|Yaroslavl Gospels c. 1220sFile:Codexaureus 25.jpg\|CarolingianFile:Ebbo Gospels St Mark.jpg\|Carolingian ''Saint Mark''File:RossanoGospelsFolio121rStMark.jpg\|Evangelist portraitFile:Giottino pieta.jpg\|GiottinoFile:Madonna dei denti.jpg\|Vitale da BolognaFile:Simone Martini 072.jpg\|Simone MartiniFile:Simone Martini - Blessed Agostino Novello Altarpiece - WGA21422.jpg\|Simone MartiniFile:Cimabue 025.jpg\|CimabueFile:Giotto Cruxifixion.jpg\|GiottoFile:Giotto - Scrovegni - -24- - Marriage at Cana.jpg\|GiottoFile:Giotto - Scrovegni - -18- - Adoration of the Magi.jpg\|GiottoFile:Andrej Rublëv 001.jpg\|Andrei RublevFile:Ascension from Vasilyevskiy chin (15th c., GTG).jpg\|Andrei RublevFile:Lorenzetti gov.jpg\|Ambrogio LorenzettiFile:Lorenzetti Pietro Beata Umilta.jpg\|Pietro LorenzettiFile:Duccio di Buoninsegna 036.jpg\|DuccioFile:Bonaventura Berlinghieri Francesco.jpg\|Bonaventura Berlinghieri, ''St Francis of Assisi'', 1235File:Chora Church Constantinople 2007 011.jpg\|Chora ChurchFile:Moscow Archangel Michael Cathedral overhead.jpg\|Cathedral of the ArchangelFile:Weyden Deposition.jpg\|Rogier van der Weyden, (c. 1435)File:Weyden Ivo.jpg\|Rogier van der Weyden, ''St Ivo'' (c. 1450)File:Voronet last judgment.jpg\|Voronet MonasteryThe rise of Christianity imparted a different spirit and aim to painting styles.", "Byzantine art, once its style was established by the 6th century, placed great emphasis on retaining traditional iconography and style, and gradually evolved during the thousand years of the Byzantine Empire and the living traditions of Greek and Russian Orthodox icon-painting.", "Byzantine painting has a hieratic feeling and icons were and still are seen as a representation of divine revelation.", "There were many frescos, but fewer of these have survived than mosaics.Byzantine art has been compared to contemporary abstraction, in its flatness and highly stylised depictions of figures and landscape.", "Some periods of Byzantine art, especially the so-called Macedonian art of around the 10th century, are more flexible in approach.", "Frescos of the Palaeologian Renaissance of the early 14th century survive in the Chora Church in Istanbul.Book of HoursIn post-Antique Catholic Europe the first distinctive artistic style to emerge that included painting was the Insular art of the British Isles, where the only surviving examples are miniatures in Illuminated manuscripts such as the Book of Kells.", "These are most famous for their abstract decoration, although figures, and sometimes scenes, were also depicted, especially in Evangelist portraits.", "Carolingian and Ottonian art also survives mostly in manuscripts, although some wall-painting remain, and more are documented.", "The art of this period combines Insular and \"barbarian\" influences with a strong Byzantine influence and an aspiration to recover classical monumentality and poise.Walls of Romanesque and Gothic churches were decorated with frescoes as well as sculpture and many of the few remaining murals have great intensity, and combine the decorative energy of Insular art with a new monumentality in the treatment of figures.", "Far more miniatures in Illuminated manuscripts survive from the period, showing the same characteristics, which continue into the Gothic period.Panel painting becomes more common during the Romanesque period, under the heavy influence of Byzantine icons.", "Towards the middle of the 13th century, Medieval art and Gothic painting became more realistic, with the beginnings of interest in the depiction of volume and perspective in Italy with Cimabue and then his pupil Giotto.", "From Giotto on, the treatment of composition by the best painters also became much more free and innovative.", "They are considered to be the two great medieval masters of painting in western culture.", "Cimabue, within the Byzantine tradition, used a more realistic and dramatic approach to his art.", "His pupil, Giotto, took these innovations to a higher level which in turn set the foundations for the western painting tradition.", "Both artists were pioneers in the move towards naturalism.Churches were built with more and more windows and the use of colorful stained glass become a staple in decoration.", "One of the most famous examples of this is found in the cathedral of Notre Dame de Paris.", "By the 14th century Western societies were both richer and more cultivated and painters found new patrons in the nobility and even the bourgeoisie.", "Illuminated manuscripts took on a new character and slim, fashionably dressed court women were shown in their landscapes.", "This style soon became known as International style and tempera panel paintings and altarpieces gained importance.===Renaissance and Mannerism===File:Robert Campin - L' Annonciation - 1425.jpg\|Robert Campin, c. 1425File:Van Eyck - Arnolfini Portrait.jpg\|Jan van Eyck, 1434File:Weyden_Deposition.jpg\|Rogier van der Weyden, c. 1435File:Hugo van der Goes (Gand, 1440 circa – Auderghem, 1482) Altare Monforte - Adorazione dei Magi (1470 circa) - Tecnica olio su tavola Dimensioni 147×242 cm - Gemäldegalerie, Berlin.jpg\|Hugo van der Goes, c. 1470File:Dieric_Bouts_-_The_Last_Supper_-_WGA03003.jpg\|Dieric Bouts, 1464–1467File:Das_Jüngste_Gericht_%28Memling%29.jpg\|Hans Memling, c. 1466–1473File:Petrus_Christus_-_Portrait_of_a_Young_Woman_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg\|Petrus Christus, c. 1470File:The Garden of Earthly Delights by Bosch High Resolution.jpg\|Hieronymus Bosch, c. 1480–1505File:La Anunciación, de Fra Angelico.jpg\|Fra Angelico, 1425–1428File:Paolo Uccello 047b.jpg\|Paolo Uccello, c. 1470File:Masaccio_expulsion-1427.jpg\|Masaccio, 1426–1427File:Fouquet Madonna.jpg\|Jean Fouquet, 1450File:Andrea Mantegna 036.jpg\|Andrea Mantegna, c. 1458–1460File:Piero della Francesca - Resurrection - WGA17609.jpg\|Piero della Francesca, 1463–1465File:Sandro Botticelli - La nascita di Venere - Google Art Project - edited.jpg\|Sandro Botticelli, 1483–1485File:Mona Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci, from C2RMF retouched.jpg\|Leonardo da Vinci, 1503–1506File:Raphael - Madonna in the Meadow - Google Art Project.jpg\|Raphael, 1505–1506File:Michelangelo - Creation of Adam.jpg\|Michelangelo, c. 1511File:1530 Cranach Judith mit dem Haupt des Holofernes anagoria.JPG\|Lucas Cranach the Elder, c. 1530File:Dürer Alte Pinakothek.jpg\|Albrecht Dürer, 1500File:Mathis_Gothart_Grünewald_030.jpg\|Matthias Grünewald, 1512–1516File:Giovanni Bellini St Francis in Ecstasy.jpg\|Giovanni Bellini, c. 1480File:Giorgione tempest.jpg\|Giorgione, c. 1505File:Titian Bacchus and Ariadne.jpg\|Titian, 1520–1523File:Scuola di fontainebleau, presunti ritratti di gabrielle d'estrées sua sorella la duchessa di villars, 1594 ca.", "04.jpg\|École de Fontainebleau, 1530File:Angelo Bronzino - Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time - National Gallery, London.jpg\|Bronzino, 1540–1545File:Pieter Bruegel the Elder- The Harvesters - Google Art Project.jpg\|Pieter Bruegel, 1565File:Hans Holbein, the Younger - Sir Thomas More - Google Art Project.jpg\|Hans Holbein the Younger, 1527File:Jacopo Tintoretto - The Origin of the Milky Way - Google Art Project.jpg\|Jacopo Tintoretto, 1582File:Paolo_Veronese_008.jpg\|Paolo Veronese, 1562–1563File:1595 Wtewael Die Sintflut anagoria.JPG\|Joachim Wtewael, 1595File:El Greco View of Toledo.jpg\|El Greco, 1596–1600The Renaissance (French for 'rebirth'), a cultural movement roughly spanning the 14th through the mid-17th century, heralded the study of classical sources, as well as advances in science which profoundly influenced European intellectual and artistic life.", "In the Low Countries, especially in modern day Flanders, a new way of painting was established in the beginning of the 15th century.", "In the footsteps of the developments made in the illumination of manuscripts, especially by the Limbourg Brothers, artists became fascinated by the tangible in the visible world and began representing objects in an extremely naturalistic way.", "The adoption of oil painting whose invention was traditionally, but erroneously, credited to Jan van Eyck, made possible a new verisimilitude in depicting this naturalism.", "The medium of oil paint was already present in the work of Melchior Broederlam, but painters like Jan van Eyck and Robert Campin brought its use to new heights and employed it to represent the naturalism they were aiming for.", "With this new medium the painters of this period were capable of creating richer colors with a deep intense tonality.", "The illusion of glowing light with a porcelain-like finish characterized Early Netherlandish painting and was a major difference to the matte surface of tempera paint used in Italy.", "Unlike the Italians, whose work drew heavily from the art of Ancient Greece and Rome, the northerners retained a stylistic residue of the sculpture and illuminated manuscripts of the Middle Ages (especially its naturalism).", "The most important artist of this time was Jan van Eyck, whose work ranks among the finest made by artists who are now known as Early Netherlandish painters or Flemish Primitives (since most artists were active in cities in modern day Flanders).", "The first painter of this period was the Master of Flémalle, nowadays identified as Robert Campin, whose work follows the art of the International Gothic.", "Another important painter of this period was Rogier van der Weyden, whose compositions stressed human emotion and drama, demonstrated for instance in his Descent from the Cross, which ranks among the most famous works of the 15th century and was the most influential Netherlandish painting of Christ's crucifixion.", "Other important artists from this period are Hugo van der Goes (whose work was highly influential in Italy), Dieric Bouts (who was among the first northern painters to demonstrate the use of a single vanishing point), Petrus Christus, Hans Memling and Gerard David.In Italy, the art of Classical antiquity inspired a style of painting that emphasized the ideal.", "Artists such as Paolo Uccello, Masaccio, Fra Angelico, Piero della Francesca, Andrea Mantegna, Filippo Lippi, Sandro Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo Buonarroti, and Raphael took painting to a higher level through the use of perspective, the study of human anatomy and proportion, and through their development of an unprecedented refinement in drawing and painting techniques.", "A somewhat more naturalistic style emerged in Venice.", "Painters of the Venetian school, such as Giovanni Bellini, Giorgione, Titian, Tintoretto, and Veronese, were less concerned with precision in their drawing than with the richness of color and unity of effect that could be achieved by a more spontaneous approach to painting.Flemish, Dutch and German painters of the Renaissance such as Hans Holbein the Younger, Albrecht Dürer, Lucas Cranach, Matthias Grünewald, Hieronymus Bosch, and Pieter Bruegel represent a different approach from their Italian colleagues, one that is more realistic and less idealized.", "Genre painting became a popular idiom amongst the Northern painters like Pieter Bruegel.The French tradition of International Gothic, will develop a new style by integrating the strong chromatic tones of Gothic with the Italian perspective and volumes of the ''Quattrocento'', as well as the naturalistic innovations of the Flemish primitives, called the École de Tours.", "Its main representatives are Jean Fouquet, Barthélemy d'Eyck from the Netherlands, Jean and François Clouet, Jean Perreal, Nicolas Froment and the École de Fontainebleau.Renaissance painting reflects the revolution of ideas and science (astronomy, geography) that occurred in this period, the Reformation, and the invention of the printing press.", "Dürer, considered one of the greatest of printmakers, states that painters are not mere artisans but thinkers as well.", "With the development of easel painting in the Renaissance, painting gained independence from architecture.", "Easel paintings—movable pictures which could be hung easily on walls—became a popular alternative to paintings fixed to furniture, walls or other structures.", "Following centuries dominated by religious imagery, secular subject matter slowly returned to Western painting.", "Artists included visions of the world around them, or the products of their own imaginations in their paintings.", "Those who could afford the expense could become patrons and commission portraits of themselves or their family.The High Renaissance gave rise to a stylized art known as Mannerism.", "In place of the balanced compositions and rational approach to perspective that characterized art at the dawn of the 16th century, the Mannerists sought instability, artifice, and doubt.", "The unperturbed faces and gestures of Piero della Francesca and the calm Virgins of Raphael are replaced by the troubled expressions of Pontormo and the emotional intensity of El Greco.", "Restless and unstable compositions, often extreme or disjunctive effects of perspective, and stylized poses are characteristic of Italian Mannerists such as Tintoretto, Pontormo, and Bronzino, and appeared later in the work of Northern Mannerists such as Hendrick Goltzius, Bartholomeus Spranger, and Joachim Wtewael.===Baroque and Rococo===File:Baco, por Caravaggio.jpg\|Caravaggio, 1595–1597File:Judit decapitando a Holofernes, por Artemisia Gentileschi.jpg\|Artemisia Gentileschi, 1614–1620File:Rubens_-_Judgement_of_Paris.jpg\|Peter Paul Rubens, 1632–1635File:Cavalier_soldier_Hals-1624x.jpg\|Frans Hals, 1624File:Judith_Leyster_A_Game_of_Tric_Trac.jpg\|Judith Leyster, 1630File:La ronda de noche, por Rembrandt van Rijn.jpg\|Rembrandt van Rijn, 1642File:Pieter_de_Hooch_-_The_Courtyard_of_a_House_in_Delft.jpg\|Pieter de Hooch, 1658File:Johannes Vermeer - Het melkmeisje - Google Art Project.jpg\|Johannes Vermeer, c. 1660File:The_way_you_hear_it.jpg\|Jan Steen, c. 1665File:The_Windmill_at_Wijk_bij_Duurstede_1670_Ruisdael.jpg\|Jacob van Ruisdael, 1670File:Willem_Clasz._Heda_-_Breakfast_Table_with_Blackberry_Pie_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg\|Willem Claesz.", "Heda, 1631File:Las Meninas, by Diego Velázquez, from Prado in Google Earth.jpg\|Diego Velázquez, 1656–1657File:Jusepe de Ribera - Martyrdom of St Lawrence - Google Art Project.jpg\|Jusepe de Ribera, 1620–1624File:L'Enlèvement des Sabines – Nicolas Poussin – Musée du Louvre, INV 7290 – Q3110586.jpg\|Nicolas Poussin, c. 1637–1638File:Georges de La Tour - Newlyborn infant - Musée des Beaux-Arts de Rennes.jpg\|Georges de La Tour, 1640sFile:Consegna delle chiavi - Reni.jpg\|Guido Reni, 1625File:Self-portrait_by_Salvator_Rosa.jpg\|Salvator Rosa, c. 1645File:Bartolomé Esteban Murillo - Saint Peter in Tears - Google Art Project.jpg\|Bartolomé Esteban Murillo, c. 1650–1655File:Claude Lorrain 008.jpg\|Claude Lorrain, 1648File:Sir Anthony Van Dyck - Charles I (1600-49) - Google Art Project.jpg\|Anthony van Dyck, 1635–1636File:Canaletto - Piazza di San Marco, em Veneza.jpg\|Canaletto, 1723File:Gimbattiasta Tiepolo - La morte di Giacinto (1752-53) - Museo Nacional Thyssen-Bornemisza Madrid.jpg\|Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, c. 1752–1753File:Antoine Watteau - The Italian Comedians - Google Art Project.jpg\|Antoine Watteau, c. 1720File:Fragonard, The Swing.jpg\|Jean-Honoré Fragonard, c. 1767–1768File:François Boucher, Ruhendes Mädchen (1751, Wallraf-Richartz Museum).jpg\|François Boucher, 1751File:Self-portrait_in_a_Straw_Hat_by_Elisabeth-Louise_Vigée-Lebrun.jpg\|Élisabeth Louise Vigée-Le Brun, after 1782File:Maurice-Quentin de La Tour - Pierre-Louis Laideguive - Google Art Project.jpg\|Maurice Quentin de La Tour, c. 1761File:The Blue Boy.jpg\|Thomas Gainsborough, c. 1770File:Sir Joshua Reynolds - Colonel Acland and Lord Sydney- The Archers - Google Art Project.jpg\|Joshua Reynolds, 1769File:Jean-Baptiste Siméon Chardin 029.jpg\|Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin, c. 1728File:William Hogarth by William Hogarth.jpg\|William Hogarth, c. 1757File:Sleepingnymph.jpg\|Angelica Kauffman, c. 1780Baroque painting is associated with the Baroque cultural movement, a movement often identified with Absolutism and the Counter Reformation or Catholic Revival; the existence of important Baroque painting in non-absolutist and Protestant states also, however, underscores its popularity, as the style spread throughout Western Europe.Baroque painting is characterized by great drama, rich, deep color, and intense light and dark shadows.", "Baroque art was meant to evoke emotion and passion instead of the calm rationality that had been prized during the Renaissance.", "During the period beginning around 1600 and continuing throughout the 17th century, painting is characterized as Baroque.", "Among the greatest painters of the Baroque are Caravaggio, Rembrandt, Frans Hals, Rubens, Velázquez, Poussin, and Johannes Vermeer.", "Caravaggio is an heir of the humanist painting of the High Renaissance.", "His realistic approach to the human figure, painted directly from life and dramatically spotlit against a dark background, shocked his contemporaries and opened a new chapter in the history of painting.Baroque painting often dramatizes scenes using light effects; this can be seen in works by Rembrandt, Vermeer, Le Nain, La Tour, and Jusepe de Ribera.Rembrandt van Rijn, ''The Jewish Bride'', ca.", "1665–1669In Italy, the Baroque style is epitomized by religious and mythological paintings in the Grand Manner by artists such as the Carracci, Guido Reni, and Luca Giordano.", "Illusionistic church ceiling frescoes by Pietro da Cortona seemed to open to the sky.", "A much quieter type of Baroque emerged in the Dutch Republic, where easel paintings of everyday subjects were popular with middle-class collectors, and many painters became specialists in genre, others in landscape or seascape or still life.", "Vermeer, Gerard ter Borch, and Pieter de Hooch brought great technical refinement to the painting of domestic scenes, as did Willem Claesz.", "Heda to still life.", "In contrast, Rembrandt excelled in painting every type of subject, and developed an individual painterly style in which the chiaroscuro and dark backgrounds derived from Caravaggio and the Utrecht Caravaggists lose their theatrical quality.During the 18th century, Rococo followed as a lighter extension of Baroque, often frivolous and erotic.", "Rococo developed first in the decorative arts and interior design in France.", "Louis XV's succession brought a change in the court artists and general artistic fashion.", "The 1730s represented the height of Rococo development in France exemplified by the works of Antoine Watteau and François Boucher.", "Rococo still maintained the Baroque taste for complex forms and intricate patterns, but by this point, it had begun to integrate a variety of diverse characteristics, including a taste for Oriental designs and asymmetric compositions.The Rococo style spread with French artists and engraved publications.", "It was readily received in the Catholic parts of Germany, Bohemia, and Austria, where it was merged with the lively German Baroque traditions.", "German Rococo was applied with enthusiasm to churches and palaces, particularly in the south, while Frederician Rococo developed in the Kingdom of Prussia.The French masters Watteau, Boucher and Fragonard represent the style, as do Giovanni Battista Tiepolo and Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin who was considered by some as the best French painter of the 18th century – the ''Anti-Rococo''.", "Portraiture was an important component of painting in all countries, but especially in England, where the leaders were William Hogarth, in a blunt realist style, and Francis Hayman, Angelica Kauffman (who was Swiss), Thomas Gainsborough and Joshua Reynolds in more flattering styles influenced by Anthony van Dyck.", "In France during the Rococo era Jean-Baptiste Greuze (the favorite painter of Denis Diderot), excelled in portraits and history paintings, and Maurice Quentin de La Tour and Élisabeth Vigée-Lebrun were highly accomplished portrait painters.", "La Tour specialized in pastel painting, which became a popular medium during this period.William Hogarth helped develop a theoretical foundation for Rococo beauty.", "Though not intentionally referencing the movement, he argued in his ''Analysis of Beauty'' (1753) that the undulating lines and S-curves prominent in Rococo were the basis for grace and beauty in art or nature (unlike the straight line or the circle in Classicism).", "The beginning of the end for Rococo came in the early 1760s as figures like Voltaire and Jacques-François Blondel began to voice their criticism of the superficiality and degeneracy of the art.", "Blondel decried the \"ridiculous jumble of shells, dragons, reeds, palm-trees and plants\" in contemporary interiors.By 1785, Rococo had passed out of fashion in France, replaced by the order and seriousness of Neoclassical artists like Jacques-Louis David.===19th century: Neo-classicism, History painting, Romanticism, Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, Symbolism===Image:David_-_The_Death_of_Socrates.jpg\|Jacques-Louis David 1787Image:Watsonandtheshark-original.jpg\|John Singleton Copley 1778Image:Constable DeadhamVale.jpg\|John Constable 1802Image:Antoine-Jean Gros - Bonaparte visitant les pestiférés de Jaffa.jpg\|Antoine-Jean Gros, 1804Image:Jean-Auguste-Dominique_Ingres_-_Oedipus_and_the_Sphinx_-_Walters_379.jpg\|Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres 1814File:El Tres de Mayo, by Francisco de Goya, from Prado thin black margin.jpg\|Francisco de Goya 1814Image:Jean Louis Théodore Géricault 002.jpg\|Théodore Géricault 1819Image:Caspar_David_Friedrich_-_Mondaufgang_am_Meer_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg\|Caspar David Friedrich c.1822Image:Eugène Delacroix - La liberté guidant le peuple.jpg\|Eugène Delacroix 1830Image:The Fighting Temeraire, JMW Turner, National Gallery.jpg\|J.", "M. W. Turner 1838File:Gustave Courbet - A Burial at Ornans - Google Art Project.jpg\|Gustave Courbet 1849–1850File:Hovhannes Aivazovsky - The Ninth Wave - Google Art Project.jpg\|Ivan Aivazovsky 1850Image:Albert Bierstadt - A Storm in the Rocky Mountains, Mt.", "Rosalie - Google Art Project.jpg\|Albert Bierstadt 1866Image:corot.villedavray.750pix.jpg\|Camille Corot c.1867File:Ilia Efimovich Repin (1844-1930) - Volga Boatmen (1870-1873).jpg\|Ilya Repin 1870–1873File:Road_to_Versailles_at_Louveciennes_1869_Camille_Pissarro.jpg\|Camille Pissarro 1872Image:Claude Monet, Impression, soleil levant.jpg\|Claude Monet 1872Image:Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Le Moulin de la Galette.jpg\|Pierre-Auguste Renoir 1876File:Edgar Degas - In a Café - Google Art Project 2.jpg\|Edgar Degas 1876Image:Edouard Manet, A Bar at the Folies-Bergère.jpg\|Édouard Manet 1882Image:Swimming hole.jpg\|Thomas Eakins 1884–1885File:A Sunday on La Grande Jatte, Georges Seurat, 1884.png\|Georges Seurat 1884–1886Image:Valentin Serov - Девочка с персиками.", "Портрет В.С.Мамонтовой - Google Art Project.jpg\|Valentin Serov 1887Image:Van Gogh - Starry Night - Google Art Project.jpg\|Vincent van Gogh 1889File:Albert Pinkham Ryder - Moonlit Cove - Google Art Project.jpg\|Albert Pinkham Ryder 1890Image:Paul Gauguin - D'ou venons-nous.jpg\|Paul Gauguin 1897–1898File:Winslow Homer - After the Hurricane, Bahamas.jpg\|Winslow Homer 1899Image:Paul Cézanne 047.jpg\|Paul Cézanne 1906After Rococo there arose in the late 18th century, in architecture, and then in painting severe neo-classicism, best represented by such artists as David and his heir Ingres.", "Ingres' work already contains much of the sensuality, but none of the spontaneity, that was to characterize Romanticism.This movement turned its attention toward landscape and nature as well as the human figure and the supremacy of natural order above mankind's will.", "There is opposition to Enlightenment ideals, as humanity is seen being at the whim of nature's chaos.", "The idea that human beings are not above the forces of Nature is in contradiction to Ancient Greek and Renaissance ideals where mankind was above all things and owned his fate.", "This thinking led romantic artists to depict the sublime, ruined churches, shipwrecks, massacres and madness.By the mid-19th-century painters became liberated from the demands of their patronage to only depict scenes from religion, mythology, portraiture or history.", "The idea \"art for art's sake\" began to find expression in the work of painters like Francisco de Goya, John Constable, and J.M.W.", "Turner.", "Romantic painters saw landscape painting as an important genre to express the vanity of mankind in opposition to the grandeur of nature.", "Until then, landscape painting wasn't considered the most important genre for painters (like portraiture or history painting).", "But painters like J.M.W.", "Turner and Caspar David Friedrich managed to elevate landscape painting to an eminence rivalling history painting.Some of the major painters of this period are Eugène Delacroix, Théodore Géricault, J. M. W. Turner, Caspar David Friedrich and John Constable.", "Francisco de Goya's late work demonstrates the Romantic interest in the irrational, while the work of Arnold Böcklin evokes mystery and the paintings of Aesthetic movement artist James McNeill Whistler evoke both sophistication and decadence.", "In the United States the Romantic tradition of landscape painting was known as the Hudson River School: exponents include Thomas Cole, Frederic Edwin Church, Albert Bierstadt, Thomas Moran, and John Frederick Kensett.", "Luminism was a movement in American landscape painting related to the Hudson River School.", "''Young Mother Sewing'', Mary CassattThe leading Barbizon School painter Camille Corot painted in both a romantic and a realistic vein; his work prefigures Impressionism, as does the paintings of Eugène Boudin who was one of the first French landscape painters to paint outdoors.", "Boudin was also an important influence on the young Claude Monet, whom in 1857 he introduced to Plein air painting.", "A major force in the turn towards Realism at mid-century was Gustave Courbet.", "In the latter third of the century Impressionists like Édouard Manet, Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Camille Pissarro, Alfred Sisley, Berthe Morisot, Mary Cassatt, and Edgar Degas worked in a more direct approach than had previously been exhibited publicly.", "They eschewed allegory and narrative in favor of individualized responses to the modern world, sometimes painted with little or no preparatory study, relying on deftness of drawing and a highly chromatic pallette.", "Manet, Degas, Renoir, Morisot, and Cassatt concentrated primarily on the human subject.", "Both Manet and Degas reinterpreted classical figurative canons within contemporary situations; in Manet's case the re-imaginings met with hostile public reception.", "Renoir, Morisot, and Cassatt turned to domestic life for inspiration, with Renoir focusing on the female nude.", "Monet, Pissarro, and Sisley used the landscape as their primary motif, the transience of light and weather playing a major role in their work.", "While Sisley most closely adhered to the original principals of the Impressionist perception of the landscape, Monet sought challenges in increasingly chromatic and changeable conditions, culminating in his series of monumental works of Water Lilies painted in Giverny.Edvard Munch, 1893, early example of ExpressionismPissarro adopted some of the experiments of Post-Impressionism.", "Slightly younger Post-Impressionists like Vincent van Gogh, Paul Gauguin, and Georges Seurat, along with Paul Cézanne led art to the edge of modernism; for Gauguin Impressionism gave way to a personal symbolism; Seurat transformed Impressionism's broken color into a scientific optical study, structured on frieze-likecompositions; Van Gogh's turbulent method of paint application, coupled with a sonorous use of color, predicted Expressionism and Fauvism, and Cézanne, desiring to unite classical composition with a revolutionary abstraction of natural forms, would come to be seen as a precursor of 20th-century art.The spell of Impressionism was felt throughout the world, including in the United States, where it became integral to the painting of American Impressionists such as Childe Hassam, John Twachtman, and Theodore Robinson; and in Australia where painters of the Heidelberg School such as Arthur Streeton, Frederick McCubbin and Charles Conder painted ''en plein air'' and were particularly interested in the Australian landscape and light.", "It also exerted influence on painters who were not primarily Impressionistic in theory, like the portrait and landscape painter John Singer Sargent.", "At the same time in America at the turn of the 20th century there existed a native and nearly insular realism, as richly embodied in the figurative work of Thomas Eakins, the Ashcan School, and the landscapes and seascapes of Winslow Homer, all of whose paintings were deeply invested in the solidity of natural forms.", "The visionary landscape, a motive largely dependent on the ambiguity of the nocturne, found its advocates in Albert Pinkham Ryder and Ralph Albert Blakelock.In the late 19th century there also were several, rather dissimilar, groups of Symbolist painters whose works resonated with younger artists of the 20th century, especially with the Fauvists and the Surrealists.", "Among them were Gustave Moreau, Odilon Redon, Pierre Puvis de Chavannes, Henri Fantin-Latour, Arnold Böcklin, Edvard Munch, Félicien Rops, and Jan Toorop, and Gustav Klimt amongst others including the Russian Symbolists like Mikhail Vrubel.Symbolist painters mined mythology and dream imagery for a visual language of the soul, seeking evocative paintings that brought to mind a static world of silence.", "The symbols used in Symbolism are not the familiar emblems of mainstream iconography but intensely personal, private, obscure and ambiguous references.", "More a philosophy than an actual style of art, the Symbolist painters influenced the contemporary Art Nouveau movement and Les Nabis.", "In their exploration of dreamlike subjects, symbolist painters are found across centuries and cultures, as they are still today; Bernard Delvaille has described René Magritte's surrealism as \"Symbolism plus Freud\".===20th-century modern and contemporary===The heritage of painters like Van Gogh, Cézanne, Gauguin, and Seurat was essential for the development of modern art.", "At the beginning of the 20th century Henri Matisse and several other young artists revolutionized the Paris art world with \"wild\", multi-colored, expressive, landscapes and figure paintings that the critics called Fauvism.", "Pablo Picasso made his first cubist paintings based on Cézanne's idea that all depiction of nature can be reduced to three solids: cube, sphere and cone.====Pioneers of the 20th century====Image:Matisse-Open-Window.jpg\|Henri Matisse 1905, FauvismImage:Les Demoiselles d'Avignon.jpg\|Pablo Picasso 1907, Proto-CubismFile:Violin and Candlestick.jpg\|Georges Braque 1910, Analytic CubismImage:Henri Rousseau 005.jpg\|Henri Rousseau 1910 Primitive SurrealismHenri Matisse 1909, late FauvismThe heritage of painters like Van Gogh, Cézanne, Gauguin, and Seurat was essential for the development of modern art.", "At the beginning of the 20th century Henri Matisse and several other young artists including the pre-cubist Georges Braque, André Derain, Raoul Dufy and Maurice de Vlaminck revolutionized the Paris art world with \"wild\", multi-colored, expressive, landscapes and figure paintings that the critics called Fauvism.", "Henri Matisse's second version of ''The Dance'' signifies a key point in his career and in the development of modern painting.", "It reflects Matisse's incipient fascination with primitive art: the intense warm colors against the cool blue-green background and the rhythmical succession of dancing nudes convey the feelings of emotional liberation and hedonism.", "Pablo Picasso made his first cubist paintings based on Cézanne's idea that all depiction of nature can be reduced to three solids: cube, sphere and cone.", "With the painting Les Demoiselles d'Avignon 1907, Picasso dramatically created a new and radical picture depicting a raw and primitive brothel scene with five prostitutes, violently painted women, reminiscent of African tribal masks and his own new Cubist inventions.", "analytic Cubism was jointly developed by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, exemplified by ''Violin and Candlestick, Paris'', from about 1908 through 1912.Analytic cubism, the first clear manifestation of cubism, was followed by synthetic cubism, practised by Braque, Picasso, Fernand Léger, Juan Gris, Albert Gleizes, Marcel Duchamp and countless other artists into the 1920s.", "Synthetic cubism is characterized by the introduction of different textures, surfaces, collage elements, papier collé and a large variety of merged subject matter.Pierre Bonnard, 1913, European modernist Narrative paintingLes Fauves (French for ''The Wild Beasts'') were early-20th-century painters, experimenting with freedom of expression through color.", "The name was given, humorously and not as a compliment, to the group by art critic Louis Vauxcelles.", "Fauvism was a short-lived and loose grouping of early-20th-century artists whose works emphasized painterly qualities, and the imaginative use of deep color over the representational values.", "Fauvists made the subject of the painting easy to read, exaggerated perspectives and an interesting prescient prediction of the Fauves was expressed in 1888 by Paul Gauguin to Paul Sérusier,The leaders of the movement were Henri Matisse and André Derain – friendly rivals of a sort, each with his own followers.", "Ultimately Matisse became the ''yang'' to Picasso's ''yin'' in the 20th century.", "Fauvist painters included Albert Marquet, Charles Camoin, Maurice de Vlaminck, Raoul Dufy, Othon Friesz, the Dutch painter Kees van Dongen, and Picasso's partner in Cubism, Georges Braque amongst others.Giorgio de Chirico 1914, pre-SurrealismFauvism, as a movement, had no concrete theories, and was short lived, beginning in 1905 and ending in 1907, they only had three exhibitions.", "Matisse was seen as the leader of the movement, due to his seniority in age and prior self-establishment in the academic art world.", "His 1905 portrait of Mme.", "Matisse ''The Green Line'', (above), caused a sensation in Paris when it was first exhibited.", "He said he wanted to create art to delight; art as a decoration was his purpose and it can be said that his use of bright colors tries to maintain serenity of composition.", "In 1906 at the suggestion of his dealer Ambroise Vollard, André Derain went to London and produced a series of paintings like ''Charing Cross Bridge, London'' (above) in the Fauvist style, paraphrasing the famous series by the Impressionist painter Claude Monet.", "Masters like Henri Matisse and Pierre Bonnard continued developing their narrative styles independent of any movement throughout the 20th century.By 1907 Fauvism no longer was a shocking new movement, soon it was replaced by Cubism on the critics' radar screen as the latest new development in Contemporary Art of the time.In 1907 Appolinaire, commenting about Matisse in an article published in La Falange, said, \"We are not here in the presence of an extravagant or an extremist undertaking: Matisse's art is eminently reasonable.", "\"Analytic cubism was jointly developed by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque from about 1908 through 1912.Analytic cubism, the first clear manifestation of cubism, was followed by Synthetic cubism, practised by Braque, Picasso, Fernand Léger, Juan Gris, Albert Gleizes, Marcel Duchamp and countless other artists into the 1920s.", "Synthetic cubism is characterized by the introduction of different textures, surfaces, collage elements, papier collé and a large variety of merged subject matter.During the years between 1910 and the end of World War I and after the heyday of cubism, several movements emerged in Paris.", "Giorgio de Chirico moved to Paris in July 1911, where he joined his brother Andrea (the poet and painter known as Alberto Savinio).", "Through his brother he met Pierre Laprade a member of the jury at the Salon d'Automne, where he exhibited three of his dreamlike works: ''Enigma of the Oracle'', ''Enigma of an Afternoon'' and ''Self-Portrait''.", "During 1913 he exhibited his work at the Salon des Indépendants and Salon d'Automne, his work was noticed by Pablo Picasso and Guillaume Apollinaire and several others.", "His compelling and mysterious paintings are considered instrumental to the early beginnings of Surrealism.", "During the first half of the 20th century in Europe masters like Georges Braque, André Derain, and Giorgio de Chirico continued painting independent of any movement.====Pioneers of Modern art====File:André Derain, 1905, Le séchage des voiles (The Drying Sails), oil on canvas, 82 x 101 cm, Pushkin Museum, Moscow.", "Exhibited at the 1905 Salon d'Automne.jpg\|André Derain, 1905, ''Le séchage des voiles (The Drying Sails)'', FauvismFile:Matisse-Woman-with-a-Hat.jpg\|Henri Matisse, 1905, ''Woman with a Hat'', FauvismFile:Jean Metzinger, c.1905, Baigneuses, Deux nus dans un jardin exotique, oil on canvas, 116 x 88.8 cm, Colección Carmen Thyssen-Bornemisza.jpg\|Jean Metzinger, c.1905, ''Two Nudes in an Exotic Landscape'', Divisionism, Proto-CubismFile:MunchDerToddesMarat1907.JPG\|Edvard Munch, ''Death of Marat I'' (1907), an example of ExpressionismImage:The Kiss - Gustav Klimt - Google Cultural Institute.jpg\|Gustav Klimt, expressionism, 1907–1908File:Pablo Picasso, 1908, Dryad, oil on canvas, 185 x 108 cm, The State Hermitage Museum, St Petersburg.jpg\|Pablo Picasso, 1908, ''Dryad'', Proto-CubismImage:Chagall IandTheVillage.jpg\|Marc Chagall 1911, expressionism and surrealismFile:Marcel Duchamp, 1911-12, Nude (Study), Sad Young Man on a Train (Nu -esquisse-, jeune homme triste dans un train), Peggy Guggenheim Collection, Venice.jpg\|Marcel Duchamp, 1911–1912, Cubism and DadaImage:Albert Gleizes, l'Homme au Balcon, 1912, oil on canvas, 195.6 x 114.9 cm, Philadelphia Museum of Art.jpg\|Albert Gleizes, 1912, ''l'Homme au Balcon, Man on a Balcony (Portrait of Dr. Théo Morinaud)'', CubismImage:Jean Metzinger, 1912, Danseuse au café, Dancer in a café, oil on canvas, 146.1 x 114.3 cm, Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York.jpg\|Jean Metzinger, 1912, ''Danseuse au café (Dancer in a café)'', CubismImage:Deer_in_the_Woods_II.jpg\|Franz Marc 1912, Der Blaue ReiterImage:Delaunay ChampDeMars.jpg\|Robert Delaunay, 1911, OrphismImage:Francis Picabia, 1912, La Source, The Spring, oil on canvas, 249.6 x 249.3 cm, Museum of Modern Art, New York.", "Exhibited, 1912 Salon d'Automne, Paris.jpg\|Francis Picabia, 1912, ''La Source (The Spring)'', Abstract artFile:Gino Severini, 1912, Dynamic Hieroglyphic of the Bal Tabarin, oil on canvas with sequins, .", "), Museum of Modern Art, New York.jpg\|Gino Severini, 1912, ''Dynamic Hieroglyphic of the Bal Tabarin'', FuturismFile:Vassily Kandinsky, 1913 - Composition 7.jpg\|Wassily Kandinsky 1913, birth of abstract artImage:Amadeo Modigliani 036.jpg\|Amedeo Modigliani, ''Portrait of Soutine'' 1916, example of ExpressionismImage:Leger railway crossing.jpg\|Fernand Léger 1919, synthetic Cubism, tubismIn the first two decades of the 20th century and after Cubism, several other important movements emerged; futurism (Balla), abstract art (Kandinsky), Der Blaue Reiter), Bauhaus, (Kandinsky) and (Klee), Orphism, (Robert Delaunay and František Kupka), Synchromism (Morgan Russell), De Stijl (Mondrian), Suprematism (Malevich), Constructivism (Tatlin), Dadaism (Duchamp, Picabia, Arp) and Surrealism (De Chirico, André Breton, Miró, Magritte, Dalí, Ernst).", "Modern painting influenced all the visual arts, from Modernist architecture and design, to avant-garde film, theatre and modern dance and became an experimental laboratory for the expression of visual experience, from photography and concrete poetry to advertising art and fashion.", "Van Gogh's painting exerted great influence upon 20th-century Expressionism, as can be seen in the work of the Fauves, Die Brücke (a group led by German painter Ernst Kirchner), and the Expressionism of Edvard Munch, Egon Schiele, Marc Chagall, Amedeo Modigliani, Chaïm Soutine and others..Wassily Kandinsky a Russian painter, printmaker and art theorist, one of the most famous 20th-century artists is generally considered the first important painter of modern abstract art.", "As an early Modernist, in search of new modes of visual expression, and spiritual expression, he theorized as did contemporary occultists and theosophists, that pure visual abstraction had corollary vibrations with sound and music.", "They posited that pure abstraction could express pure spirituality.", "His earliest abstractions were generally titled as the example in the (above gallery) ''Composition VII'', making connection to the work of the composers of music.", "Kandinsky included many of his theories about abstract art in his book ''Concerning the Spiritual in Art.''", "Robert Delaunay was a French artist who is associated with Orphism, (reminiscent of a link between pure abstraction and cubism).", "His later works were more abstract, reminiscent of Paul Klee.", "His key contributions to abstract painting refer to his bold use of color, and a clear love of experimentation of both depth and tone.", "At the invitation of Wassily Kandinsky, Delaunay and his wife the artist Sonia Delaunay, joined The Blue Rider (Der Blaue Reiter), a Munich-based group of abstract artists, in 1911, and his art took a turn to the abstract.Other major pioneers of early abstraction include Russian painter Kasimir Malevich, who after the Russian Revolution in 1917, and after pressure from the Stalinist regime in 1924 returned to painting imagery and ''Peasants and Workers in the field'', and Swiss painter Paul Klee whose masterful color experiments made him an important pioneer of abstract painting at the Bauhaus.", "Still other important pioneers of abstract painting include the Swedish artist Hilma af Klint, Czech painter František Kupka as well as American artists Stanton Macdonald-Wright and Morgan Russell who, in 1912, founded Synchromism, an art movement that closely resembles Orphism.", "''Expressionism'' and ''Symbolism'' are broad rubrics that involve several important and related movements in 20th-century painting that dominated much of the avant-garde art being made in Western, Eastern and Northern Europe.", "Expressionist works were painted largely between World War I and World War II, mostly in France, Germany, Norway, Russia, Belgium, and Austria.", "Expressionist artists are related to both Surrealism and Symbolism and are each uniquely and somewhat eccentrically personal.", "Fauvism, Die Brücke, and Der Blaue Reiter are three of the best known groups of Expressionist and Symbolist painters.Artists as interesting and diverse as Marc Chagall, whose painting ''I and the Village'', (above) tells an autobiographical story that examines the relationship between the artist and his origins, with a lexicon of artistic Symbolism.", "Gustav Klimt, Egon Schiele, Edvard Munch, Emil Nolde, Chaïm Soutine, James Ensor, Oskar Kokoschka, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Max Beckmann, Franz Marc, Käthe Schmidt Kollwitz, Georges Rouault, Amedeo Modigliani and some of the Americans abroad like Marsden Hartley, and Stuart Davis, were considered influential expressionist painters.", "Although Alberto Giacometti is primarily thought of as an intense Surrealist sculptor, he made intense expressionist paintings as well.====Pioneers of abstraction====File:Gray Tree 1911.jpg\|Piet Mondrian, 1912, early De StijlImage:Malevici06.jpg\|Kasimir Malevich 1916, SuprematismImage:Theo van Doesburg Composition VII (the three graces).jpg\|Theo van Doesburg 1917, De Stijl, Neo-PlasticismImage:MacDonaldWright_AirplaneSynchYelOrng.jpg\|Stanton Macdonald-Wright 1920, SynchromismPiet Mondrian's art was also related to his spiritual and philosophical studies.", "In 1908 he became interested in the theosophical movement launched by Helena Petrovna Blavatsky in the late 19th century.", "Blavatsky believed that it was possible to attain a knowledge of nature more profound than that provided by empirical means, and much of Mondrian's work for the rest of his life was inspired by his search for that spiritual knowledge.Piet Mondrian, ''\"Composition No.", "10\"'' 1939–1942, De StijlDe Stijl also known as neoplasticism, was a Dutch artistic movement founded in 1917.The term ''De Stijl'' is used to refer to a body of work from 1917 to 1931 founded in the Netherlands.", "''De Stijl'' is also the name of a journal that was published by the Dutch painter, designer, writer, and critic Theo van Doesburg propagating the group's theories.", "Next to van Doesburg, the group's principal members were the painters Piet Mondrian, Vilmos Huszár, and Bart van der Leck, and the architects Gerrit Rietveld, Robert van 't Hoff, and J. J. P. Oud.", "The artistic philosophy that formed a basis for the group's work is known as ''neoplasticism'' – the new plastic art (or ''Nieuwe Beelding'' in Dutch).Morgan Russell, ''Cosmic Synchromy'' (1913–14), SynchromismProponents of De Stijl sought to express a new utopian ideal of spiritual harmony and order.", "They advocated pure abstraction and universality by a reduction to the essentials of form and colour; they simplified visual compositions to the vertical and horizontal directions, and used only primary colors along with black and white.", "Indeed, according to the Tate Gallery's online article on neoplasticism, Mondrian himself sets forth these delimitations in his essay \"Neo-Plasticism in Pictorial Art\".", "He writes, \"... this new plastic idea will ignore the particulars of appearance, that is to say, natural form and colour.", "On the contrary, it should find its expression in the abstraction of form and colour, that is to say, in the straight line and the clearly defined primary colour.\"", "The Tate article further summarizes that this art allows \"only primary colours and non-colours, only squares and rectangles, only straight and horizontal or vertical line.\"", "The Guggenheim Museum's online article on De Stijl summarizes these traits in similar terms: \"It De Stijl was posited on the fundamental principle of the geometry of the straight line, the square, and the rectangle, combined with a strong asymmetricality; the predominant use of pure primary colors with black and white; and the relationship between positive and negative elements in an arrangement of non-objective forms and lines.", "\"De Stijl movement was influenced by Cubist painting as well as by the mysticism and the ideas about \"ideal\" geometric forms (such as the \"perfect straight line\") in the neoplatonic philosophy of mathematician M. H. J. Schoenmaekers.", "The works of De Stijl would influence the Bauhaus style and the international style of architecture as well as clothing and interior design.", "However, it did not follow the general guidelines of an \"ism\" (Cubism, Futurism, Surrealism), nor did it adhere to the principles of art schools like Bauhaus; it was a collective project, a joint enterprise.====Dada and Surrealism====Image:Picabia Machine Turn.jpg\|Francis Picabia 1916, DadaImage:DasUndbild.jpg\|Kurt Schwitters, 1919, painted collage, DadaFile:The Elephant Celebes.jpg\|Max Ernst, 1921, SurrealismImage:Pedestal Table in the Studio.jpg\|André Masson, 1922, early SurrealismFrancis Picabia, (Left) ''Le saint des saints c'est de moi qu'il s'agit dans ce portrait'', 1 July 1915; (center) ''Portrait d'une jeune fille americaine dans l'état de nudité'', 5 July 1915: (right) ''J'ai vu et c'est de toi qu'il s'agit, De Zayas!", "De Zayas!", "Je suis venu sur les rivages du Pont-Euxin'', New York, 1915Marcel Duchamp, ''Nude Descending a Staircase, No.", "2'', 1912, Philadelphia Museum of ArtJoan Miró, ''Horse, Pipe and Red Flower'', 1920, abstract Surrealism, Philadelphia Museum of ArtMarcel Duchamp, came to international prominence in the wake of his notorious success at the New York City Armory Show in 1913, (soon after he denounced artmaking for chess).", "After Duchamp's Nude Descending a Staircase became the international cause celebre at the 1913 Armory show in New York he created ''The Bride Stripped Bare by Her Bachelors, Even, Large Glass''.", "The ''Large Glass'' pushed the art of painting to radical new limits being part painting, part collage, part construction.", "Duchamp became closely associated with the Dada movement that began in neutral Zürich, Switzerland, during World War I and peaked from 1916 to 1920.The movement primarily involved visual arts, literature (poetry, art manifestoes, art theory), theatre, and graphic design, and concentrated its anti war politic through a rejection of the prevailing standards in art through anti-art cultural works.", "Francis Picabia, Man Ray, Kurt Schwitters, Tristan Tzara, Hans Richter, Jean Arp, Sophie Taeuber-Arp, along with Duchamp and many others are associated with the Dadaist movement.", "Duchamp and several Dadaists are also associated with Surrealism, the movement that dominated European painting in the 1920s and 1930s.In 1924 André Breton published the ''Surrealist Manifesto.''", "The Surrealist movement in painting became synonymous with the avant-garde and which featured artists whose works varied from the abstract to the super-realist.", "With works on paper like ''Machine Turn Quickly'', (above) Francis Picabia continued his involvement in the Dada movement through 1919 in Zürich and Paris, before breaking away from it after developing an interest in Surrealist art.", "Yves Tanguy, René Magritte and Salvador Dalí are particularly known for their realistic depictions of dream imagery and fantastic manifestations of the imagination.", "Joan Miró's ''The Tilled Field'' of 1923–1924 verges on abstraction, this early painting of a complex of objects and figures, and arrangements of sexually active characters; was Miró's first Surrealist masterpiece.", "Miró's ''The Tilled Field'' also contains several parallels to Bosch's ''Garden of Earthly Delights'': similar flocks of birds; pools from which living creatures emerge; and oversize disembodied ears all echo the Dutch master's work that Miró saw as a young painter in The Prado.", "The more abstract Joan Miró, Jean Arp, André Masson, and Max Ernst were very influential, especially in the United States during the 1940s.Throughout the 1930s, Surrealism continued to become more visible to the public at large.", "A Surrealist group developed in Britain and, according to Breton, their 1936 London International Surrealist Exhibition was a high water mark of the period and became the model for international exhibitions.", "Surrealist groups in Japan, and especially in Latin America, the Caribbean and in Mexico produced innovative and original works.Dalí and Magritte created some of the most widely recognized images of the movement.", "The 1928/1929 painting ''This Is Not A Pipe'', by Magritte is the subject of a Michel Foucault 1973 book, ''This is not a Pipe'' (English edition, 1991), that discusses the painting and its paradox.", "Dalí joined the group in 1929, and participated in the rapid establishment of the visual style between 1930 and 1935.Surrealism as a visual movement had found a method: to expose psychological truth by stripping ordinary objects of their normal significance, in order to create a compelling image that was beyond ordinary formal organization, and perception, sometimes evoking empathy from the viewer, sometimes laughter and sometimes outrage and bewilderment.1931 marked a year when several Surrealist painters produced works which marked turning points in their stylistic evolution: in one example, liquid shapes become the trademark of Dalí, particularly in his ''The Persistence of Memory'', which features the image of watches that sag as if they are melting.", "Evocations of time and its compelling mystery and absurdity.The characteristics of this style – a combination of the depictive, the abstract, and the psychological – came to stand for the alienation which many people felt in the modernist period, combined with the sense of reaching more deeply into the psyche, to be \"made whole with one's individuality.", "\"Max Ernst, 1920, early SurrealismMax Ernst whose 1920 painting ''Murdering Airplane'', studied philosophy and psychology in Bonn and was interested in the alternative realities experienced by the insane.", "His paintings may have been inspired by the psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud's study of the delusions of a paranoiac, Daniel Paul Schreber.", "Freud identified Schreber's fantasy of becoming a woman as a ''castration complex.''", "The central image of two pairs of legs refers to Schreber's hermaphroditic desires.", "Ernst's inscription on the back of the painting reads: ''The picture is curious because of its symmetry.", "The two sexes balance one another.", "''During the 1920s André Masson's work was enormously influential in helping the newly arrived in Paris and young artist Joan Miró find his roots in the new Surrealist painting.", "Miró acknowledged in letters to his dealer Pierre Matisse the importance of Masson as an example to him in his early years in Paris.Long after personal, political and professional tensions have fragmented the Surrealist group into thin air and ether, Magritte, Miró, Dalí and the other Surrealists continue to define a visual program in the arts.", "Other prominent surrealist artists include Giorgio de Chirico, Méret Oppenheim, Toyen, Grégoire Michonze, Roberto Matta, Kay Sage, Leonora Carrington, Dorothea Tanning, and Leonor Fini among others.====Before and after the war====File:Egon Schiele - Self-Portrait with Physalis - Google Art Project.jpg\|Egon Schiele, Symbolism and Expressionism 1912File:Kirchner 1913 Street, Berlin.jpg\|Ernst Kirchner, Die Brücke 1913Image:Modigliani - Nu couché.jpg\|Amedeo Modigliani Symbolism and Expressionism 1917File:Blue-green.jpg\|Georgia O'Keeffe, American Modernism, 1921Image:Davis steeple street.jpg\|Stuart Davis, American Modernism 1922File:1920, Soutine, Chemin de la Fontaine des Tins at Céret.jpg\|Chaïm Soutine, Expressionism, c. 1920Paul Klee, 1922, BauhausDer Blaue Reiter was a German movement lasting from 1911 to 1914, fundamental to Expressionism, along with Die Brücke which was founded the previous decade in 1905 and was a group of German expressionist artists formed in Dresden in 1905.Founding members of Die Brücke were Fritz Bleyl, Erich Heckel, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner and Karl Schmidt-Rottluff.", "Later members included Max Pechstein, Otto Mueller and others.", "The group was one of the seminal ones, which in due course had a major impact on the evolution of modern art in the 20th century and created the style of Expressionism.Wassily Kandinsky, Franz Marc, August Macke, Alexej von Jawlensky, whose psychically expressive painting of the Russian dancer ''Portrait of Alexander Sakharoff'', 1909 is in the gallery above, Marianne von Werefkin, Lyonel Feininger and others founded the Der Blaue Reiter group in response to the rejection of Kandinsky's painting ''Last Judgement'' from an exhibition.", "Der Blaue Reiter lacked a central artistic manifesto, but was centered around Kandinsky and Marc.", "Artists Gabriele Münter and Paul Klee were also involved.Patrick Henry Bruce, American modernism, 1924The name of the movement comes from a painting by Kandinsky created in 1903.It is also claimed that the name could have derived from Marc's enthusiasm for horses and Kandinsky's love of the colour blue.", "For Kandinsky, ''blue'' is the colour of spirituality: the darker the blue, the more it awakens human desire for the eternal.In the USA during the period between World War I and World War II painters tended to go to Europe for recognition.", "Artists like Marsden Hartley, Patrick Henry Bruce, Gerald Murphy and Stuart Davis, created reputations abroad.", "In New York City, Albert Pinkham Ryder and Ralph Blakelock were influential and important figures in advanced American painting between 1900 and 1920.During the 1920s photographer Alfred Stieglitz exhibited Georgia O'Keeffe, Arthur Dove, Alfred Henry Maurer, Charles Demuth, John Marin and other artists including European Masters Henri Matisse, Auguste Rodin, Henri Rousseau, Paul Cézanne, and Pablo Picasso, at his gallery ''the 291.", "''====Social consciousness====Image:Republican Automatons George Grosz 1920.jpg\|George Grosz, 1920, Neue SachlichkeitImage:People-of-Chilmark-Benton-1920-lrg.jpg\|Thomas Hart Benton 1920, RegionalismImage:Bellows George Dempsey and Firpo 1924.jpg\|George Bellows, 1924, American realismImage:Demuth_Charles_Spring_1921.jpg\|Charles Demuth ''Spring'', 1921, American Precisionism (proto Pop Art)Diego Rivera, Recreation of ''Man at the Crossroads'' (renamed ''Man, Controller of the Universe''), originally created in 1934, Mexican muralism movementDuring the 1920s and the 1930s and the Great Depression, Surrealism, late Cubism, the Bauhaus, De Stijl, Dada, German Expressionism, Expressionism, and modernist and masterful color painters like Henri Matisse and Pierre Bonnard characterized the European art scene.", "In Germany Max Beckmann, Otto Dix, George Grosz and others politicized their paintings, foreshadowing the coming of World War II.", "While in America American Scene painting and the social realism and regionalism movements that contained both political and social commentary dominated the art world.", "Artists like Ben Shahn, Thomas Hart Benton, Grant Wood, George Tooker, John Steuart Curry, Reginald Marsh, and others became prominent.", "In Latin America besides the Uruguayan painter Joaquín Torres García and Rufino Tamayo from Mexico, the muralist movement with Diego Rivera, David Siqueiros, José Orozco, Pedro Nel Gómez and Santiago Martinez Delgado and the Symbolist paintings by Frida Kahlo began a renaissance of the arts for the region, with a use of color and historic, and political messages.", "Frida Kahlo's Symbolist works also relate strongly to Surrealism and to the Magic Realism movement in literature.", "The psychological drama in many of Kahlo's self portraits (above) underscore the vitality and relevance of her paintings to artists in the 21st century.Grant Wood, 1930, social realism''American Gothic'' is a painting by Grant Wood from 1930.Portraying a pitchfork-holding farmer and a younger woman in front of a house of Carpenter Gothic style, it is one of the most familiar images in 20th-century American art.", "Art critics had favorable opinions about the painting, like Gertrude Stein and Christopher Morley, they assumed the painting was meant to be a satire of rural small-town life.", "It was thus seen as part of the trend towards increasingly critical depictions of rural America, along the lines of Sherwood Anderson's ''1919 Winesburg, Ohio'', Sinclair Lewis' 1920 ''Main Street'', and Carl Van Vechten's ''The Tattooed Countess'' in literature.", "However, with the onset of the Great Depression, the painting came to be seen as a depiction of steadfast American pioneer spirit.Diego Rivera is perhaps best known by the public world for his 1933 mural, \"Man at the Crossroads\", in the lobby of the RCA Building at Rockefeller Center.", "When his patron Nelson Rockefeller discovered that the mural included a portrait of Vladimir Lenin and other communist imagery, he fired Rivera, and the unfinished work was eventually destroyed by Rockefeller's staff.", "The film ''Cradle Will Rock'' includes a dramatization of the controversy.", "Frida Kahlo (Rivera's wife's) works are often characterized by their stark portrayals of pain.", "Of her 143 paintings 55 are self-portraits, which frequently incorporate symbolic portrayals of her physical and psychological wounds.", "Kahlo was deeply influenced by indigenous Mexican culture, which is apparent in her paintings' bright colors and dramatic symbolism.", "Christian and Jewish themes are often depicted in her work as well; she combined elements of the classic religious Mexican tradition—which were often bloody and violent—with surrealist renderings.", "While her paintings are not overtly Christian they certainly contain elements of the macabre Mexican Christian style of religious paintings.Political activism was an important piece of David Siqueiros' life, and frequently inspired him to set aside his artistic career.", "His art was deeply rooted in the Mexican Revolution, a violent and chaotic period in Mexican history in which various social and political factions fought for recognition and power.", "The period from the 1920s to the 1950s is known as the Mexican Renaissance, and Siqueiros was active in the attempt to create an art that was at once Mexican and universal.", "He briefly gave up painting to focus on organizing miners in Jalisco.====World conflict====File:Ernst Ludwig Kirchner - Bogenschützen -1935-37.jpg\|Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, 1935–1937, German ExpressionismFile:Wassily Kandinsky, 1939 - Composition X.png\|Wassily Kandinsky ''Composition X'' 1939, Geometric abstractionDuring the 1930s radical leftist politics characterized many of the artists connected to Surrealism, including Pablo Picasso.", "On 26 April 1937, during the Spanish Civil War, the Basque town of Gernika was the scene of the \"Bombing of Gernika\" by the Condor Legion of Nazi Germany's Luftwaffe.", "The Germans were attacking to support the efforts of Francisco Franco to overthrow the Basque Government and the Spanish Republican government.", "The town was devastated, though the Biscayan assembly and the Oak of Gernika survived.", "Pablo Picasso painted his mural sized ''Guernica'' to commemorate the horrors of the bombing.Pablo Picasso, ''Guernica'', 1937, protest against FascismIn its final form, ''Guernica'' is an immense black and white, tall and wide mural painted in oil.", "The mural presents a scene of death, violence, brutality, suffering, and helplessness without portraying their immediate causes.", "The choice to paint in black and white contrasts with the intensity of the scene depicted and invokes the immediacy of a newspaper photograph.Picasso painted the mural sized painting called ''Guernica'' in protest of the bombing.", "The painting was first exhibited in Paris in 1937, then Scandinavia, then London in 1938 and finally in 1939 at Picasso's request the painting was sent to the United States in an extended loan (for safekeeping) at MoMA.", "The painting went on a tour of museums throughout the USA until its final return to the Museum of Modern Art in New York City where it was exhibited for nearly thirty years.", "Finally in accord with Pablo Picasso's wish to give the painting to the people of Spain as a gift, it was sent to Spain in 1981.Max Beckmann, ''The Night (Die Nacht)'', 1918–1919, Kunstsammlung Nordrhein-Westfalen, DüsseldorfDuring the Great Depression of the 1930s, through the years of World War II American art was characterized by Social Realism and American Scene Painting in the work of Grant Wood, Edward Hopper, Ben Shahn, Thomas Hart Benton, and several others.", "''Nighthawks'' (1942) is a painting by Edward Hopper that portrays people sitting in a downtown diner late at night.", "It is not only Hopper's most famous painting, but one of the most recognizable in American art.", "It is currently in the collection of the Art Institute of Chicago.", "The scene was inspired by a diner (since demolished) in Greenwich Village, Hopper's home neighborhood in Manhattan.", "Hopper began painting it immediately after the attack on Pearl Harbor.", "After this event there was a large feeling of gloominess over the country, a feeling that is portrayed in the painting.", "The urban street is empty outside the diner, and inside none of the three patrons is apparently looking or talking to the others but instead is lost in their own thoughts.", "This portrayal of modern urban life as empty or lonely is a common theme throughout Hopper's work.The Dynamic for artists in Europe during the 1930s deteriorated rapidly as the Nazi's power in Germany and across Eastern Europe increased.", "The climate became so hostile for artists and art associated with Modernism and abstraction that many left for the Americas.", "''Degenerate art'' was a term adopted by the Nazi regime in Germany for virtually all modern art.", "Such art was banned on the grounds that it was un-German or Jewish Bolshevist in nature, and those identified as degenerate artists were subjected to sanctions.", "These included being dismissed from teaching positions, being forbidden to exhibit or to sell their art, and in some cases being forbidden to produce art entirely.", "''Degenerate Art'' was also the title of an exhibition, mounted by the Nazis in Munich in 1937, consisting of modernist artworks chaotically hung and accompanied by text labels deriding the art.", "Designed to inflame public opinion against modernism, the exhibition subsequently traveled to several other cities in Germany and Austria.", "German artist Max Beckmann and scores of others fled Europe for New York.", "In New York City a new generation of young and exciting Modernist painters led by Arshile Gorky, Willem de Kooning, and others were just beginning to come of age.Arshile Gorky's portrait of someone who might be Willem de Kooning (above) is an example of the evolution of abstract expressionism from the context of figure painting, cubism and surrealism.", "Along with his friends de Kooning and John D. Graham Gorky created bio-morphically shaped and abstracted figurative compositions that by the 1940s evolved into totally abstract paintings.", "Gorky's work seems to be a careful analysis of memory, emotion and shape, using line and color to express feeling and nature.====Towards mid-century====Edward Hopper, ''Nighthawks'', 1942, an American Scene paintingThe 1940s in New York City heralded the triumph of American abstract expressionism, a modernist movement that combined lessons learned from Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, Surrealism, Joan Miró, Cubism, Fauvism, and early Modernism via great teachers in America like Hans Hofmann and John D. Graham.", "American artists benefited from the presence of Piet Mondrian, Fernand Léger, Max Ernst and the André Breton group, Pierre Matisse's gallery, and Peggy Guggenheim's gallery ''The Art of This Century'', as well as other factors.", "The figurative work of Francis Bacon, Frida Kahlo, Edward Hopper, Lucian Freud, Andrew Wyeth and others served as a kind of alternative to abstract expressionism.Post-Second World War American painting called Abstract expressionism included artists like Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning, Arshile Gorky, Mark Rothko, Hans Hofmann, Clyfford Still, Franz Kline, Adolph Gottlieb, Mark Tobey, Barnett Newman, James Brooks, Philip Guston, Robert Motherwell, Conrad Marca-Relli, Jack Tworkov, William Baziotes, Richard Pousette-Dart, Ad Reinhardt, Hedda Sterne, Jimmy Ernst, Esteban Vicente, Bradley Walker Tomlin, and Theodoros Stamos, among others.", "American Abstract expressionism got its name in 1946 from the art critic Robert Coates.", "It is seen as combining the emotional intensity and self-denial of the German Expressionists with the anti-figurative aesthetic of the European abstract schools such as futurism, the Bauhaus and synthetic cubism.", "Abstract expressionism, action painting, and Color Field painting are synonymous with the New York School.Technically Surrealism was an important predecessor for abstract expressionism with its emphasis on spontaneous, automatic or subconscious creation.", "Jackson Pollock's dripping paint onto a canvas laid on the floor is a technique that has its roots in the work of André Masson.", "Another important earanifestation of what came to be abstract expressionism is the work of American Northwest artist Mark Tobey, especially his \"white writing\" canvases, which, though generally not large in scale, anticipate the \"all over\" look of Pollock's drip paintings.====Abstract expressionism====Additionally, Abstract expressionism has an image of being rebellious, anarchic, highly idiosyncratic and, some feel, rather nihilistic.", "In practice, the term is applied to any number of artists working (mostly) in New York who had quite different styles, and even applied to work which is not especially abstract nor expressionist.", "Pollock's energetic \"action paintings\", with their \"busy\" feel, are different both technically and aesthetically, to the violent and grotesque ''Women'' series of Willem de Kooning.", "As seen above in the gallery ''Woman V'' is one of a series of six paintings made by de Kooning between 1950 and 1953 that depict a three-quarter-length female figure.", "He began the first of these paintings, ''Woman I'' collection: The Museum of Modern Art, New York City, in June 1950, repeatedly changing and painting out the image until January or February 1952, when the painting was abandoned unfinished.", "The art historian Meyer Schapiro saw the painting in de Kooning's studio soon afterwards and encouraged the artist to persist.", "De Kooning's response was to begin three other paintings on the same theme; ''Woman II'' collection: The Museum of Modern Art, New York City, ''Woman III'', Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art, ''Woman IV'', Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, Missouri.", "During the summer of 1952, spent at East Hampton, de Kooning further explored the theme through drawings and pastels.", "He may have finished work on ''Woman I'' by the end of June, or possibly as late as November 1952, and probably the other three women pictures were concluded at much the same time.", "The ''Woman series'' are decidedly figurative paintings.", "Another important artist is Franz Kline, as demonstrated by his painting ''High Street'', 1950 as with Jackson Pollock and other Abstract Expressionists, was labelled an \"action painter\" because of his seemingly spontaneous and intense style, focusing less, or not at all, on figures or imagery, but on the actual brush strokes and use of canvas.Clyfford Still, Barnett Newman, Adolph Gottlieb, and the serenely shimmering blocks of color in Mark Rothko's work (which is not what would usually be called expressionist and which Rothko denied was abstract), are classified as abstract expressionists, albeit from what Clement Greenberg termed the Color Field direction of abstract expressionism.", "Both Hans Hofmann and Robert Motherwell (gallery) can be comfortably described as practitioners of action painting and Color Field painting.Abstract expressionism has many stylistic similarities to the Russian artists of the early 20th century such as Wassily Kandinsky.", "Although it is true that spontaneity or of the impression of spontaneity characterized many of the abstract expressionists works, most of these paintings involved careful planning, especially since their large size demanded it.", "An exception might be the drip paintings of Pollock.Why this style gained mainstream acceptance in the 1950s is a matter of debate.", "American Social realism had been the mainstream in the 1930s.", "It had been influenced not only by the Great Depression but also by the Social Realists of Mexico such as David Alfaro Siqueiros and Diego Rivera.", "The political climate after World War II did not long tolerate the social protests of those painters.", "Abstract expressionism arose during World War II and began to be showcased during the early 1940s at galleries in New York like ''The Art of This Century Gallery''.", "The late 1940s through the mid-1950s ushered in the McCarthy era.", "It was after World War II and a time of political conservatism and extreme artistic censorship in the United States.", "Some people have conjectured that since the subject matter was often totally abstract, Abstract expressionism became a safe strategy for artists to pursue this style.", "Abstract art could be seen as apolitical.", "Or if the art was political, the message was largely for the insiders.", "However, those theorists are in the minority.", "As the first truly original school of painting in America, Abstract expressionism demonstrated the vitality and creativity of the country in the post-war years, as well as its ability (or need) to develop an aesthetic sense that was not constrained by the European standards of beauty.Although Abstract expressionism spread quickly throughout the United States, the major centers of this style were New York City and California, especially in the New York School, and the San Francisco Bay area.", "Abstract expressionist paintings share certain characteristics, including the use of large canvases, an \"all-over\" approach, in which the whole canvas is treated with equal importance (as opposed to the center being of more interest than the edges).", "The canvas as the ''arena'' became a credo of action painting, while the ''integrity of the picture plane'' became a credo of the Color Field painters.", "Many other artists began exhibiting their abstract expressionist related paintings during the 1950s including Alfred Leslie, Sam Francis, Joan Mitchell, Helen Frankenthaler, Cy Twombly, Milton Resnick, Michael Goldberg, Norman Bluhm, Ray Parker, Nicolas Carone, Grace Hartigan, Friedel Dzubas, and Robert Goodnough among others.During the 1950s Color Field painting initially referred to a particular type of abstract expressionism, especially the work of Mark Rothko, Clyfford Still, Barnett Newman, Robert Motherwell and Adolph Gottlieb.", "It essentially involved abstract paintings with large, flat expanses of color that expressed the sensual, and visual feelings and properties of large areas of nuanced surface.", "Art critic Clement Greenberg perceived Color Field painting as related to but different from Action painting.", "The overall expanse and gestalt of the work of the early color field painters speaks of an almost religious experience, awestruck in the face of an expanding universe of sensuality, color and surface.", "During the early-to-mid-1960s, ''Color Field painting'' came to refer to the styles of artists like Jules Olitski, Kenneth Noland, and Helen Frankenthaler, whose works were related to second-generation abstract expressionism, and to younger artists like Larry Zox, and Frank Stella, – all moving in a new direction.", "Artists like Clyfford Still, Mark Rothko, Hans Hofmann, Morris Louis, Jules Olitski, Kenneth Noland, Helen Frankenthaler, Larry Zox, and others often used greatly reduced references to nature, and they painted with a highly articulated and psychological use of color.", "In general these artists eliminated recognizable imagery.", "In ''Mountains and Sea'', from 1952, a seminal work of Color Field painting by Helen Frankenthaler the artist used the stain technique for the first time.In Europe there was the continuation of Surrealism, Cubism, Dada and the works of Matisse.", "Also in Europe, Tachisme (the European equivalent to Abstract expressionism) took hold of the newest generation.", "Serge Poliakoff, Nicolas de Staël, Georges Mathieu, Vieira da Silva, Jean Dubuffet, Yves Klein and Pierre Soulages among others are considered important figures in post-war European painting.Eventually abstract painting in America evolved into movements such as Neo-Dada, Color Field painting, Post painterly abstraction, Op art, hard-edge painting, Minimal art, shaped canvas painting, lyrical abstraction, Neo-expressionism and the continuation of Abstract expressionism.", "As a response to the tendency toward abstraction imagery emerged through various new movements, notably Pop art.====Pop art====Earlier in England in 1956 the term ''Pop Art'' was used by Lawrence Alloway for paintings that celebrated consumerism of the post World War II era.", "This movement rejected abstract expressionism and its focus on the hermeneutic and psychological interior, in favor of art which depicted, and often celebrated material consumer culture, advertising, and iconography of the mass production age.", "The early works of David Hockney and the works of Richard Hamilton Peter Blake and Eduardo Paolozzi were considered seminal examples in the movement.Pop art in America was to a large degree initially inspired by the works of Jasper Johns, Larry Rivers, and Robert Rauschenberg.", "Although the paintings of Gerald Murphy, Stuart Davis and Charles Demuth during the 1920s and 1930s set the table for pop art in America.", "In New York City during the mid-1950s Robert Rauschenberg and Jasper Johns created works of art that at first seemed to be continuations of Abstract expressionist painting.", "Actually their works and the work of Larry Rivers, were radical departures from abstract expressionism especially in the use of banal and literal imagery and the inclusion and the combining of mundane materials into their work.", "The innovations of Johns' specific use of various images and objects like chairs, numbers, targets, beer cans and the American flag; Rivers paintings of subjects drawn from popular culture such as George Washington crossing the Delaware, and his inclusions of images from advertisements like the camel from Camel cigarettes, and Rauschenberg's surprising constructions using inclusions of objects and pictures taken from popular culture, hardware stores, junkyards, the city streets, and taxidermy gave rise to a radical new movement in American art.", "Eventually by 1963 the movement came to be known worldwide as pop art.American pop art is exemplified by artists: Andy Warhol, Claes Oldenburg, Wayne Thiebaud, James Rosenquist, Jim Dine, Tom Wesselmann and Roy Lichtenstein among others.", "Lichtenstein's most important work is arguably ''Whaam!''", "(1963, Tate Modern, London), one of the earliest known examples of pop art, adapted a comic-book panel from a 1962 issue of DC Comics' ''All-American Men of War''.", "The painting depicts a fighter aircraft firing a rocket into an enemy plane, with a red-and-yellow explosion.", "The cartoon style is heightened by the use of the onomatopoeic lettering ''\"Whaam!\"''", "and the boxed caption ''\"I pressed the fire control... and ahead of me rockets blazed through the sky...\"'' Pop art merges popular and mass culture with fine art, while injecting humor, irony, and recognizable imagery and content into the mix.", "In October 1962 the Sidney Janis Gallery mounted ''The New Realists'' the first major pop art group exhibition in an uptown art gallery in New York City.", "Sidney Janis mounted the exhibition in a 57th Street storefront near his gallery at 15 E. 57th Street.", "The show sent shockwaves through the New York School and reverberated worldwide.", "Earlier in the fall of 1962 an historically important and ground-breaking ''New Painting of Common Objects'' exhibition of pop art, curated by Walter Hopps at the Pasadena Art Museum sent shock waves across the Western United States.While in the downtown scene in New York City's East Village 10th Street galleries artists were formulating an American version of Pop Art.", "Claes Oldenburg had his storefront and made painted objects, and the Green Gallery on 57th Street began to show Tom Wesselmann and James Rosenquist.", "Later Leo Castelli exhibited other American artists including the bulk of the careers of Andy Warhol and Roy Lichtenstein and his use of Benday dots, a technique used in commercial reproduction.", "There is a connection between the radical works of Duchamp, and Man Ray, the rebellious Dadaists – with a sense of humor; and pop artists like Alex Katz (who became known for his parodies of portrait photography and suburban life), Claes Oldenburg, Andy Warhol, Roy Lichtenstein and the others.While throughout the 20th century many painters continued to practice landscape and figurative painting with contemporary subjects and solid technique, like Milton Avery, John D. Graham, Fairfield Porter, Edward Hopper, Balthus, Francis Bacon, Nicolas de Staël, Andrew Wyeth, Lucian Freud, Frank Auerbach, Philip Pearlstein, David Park, Nathan Oliveira, David Hockney, Malcolm Morley, Richard Estes, Ralph Goings, Audrey Flack, Chuck Close, Susan Rothenberg, Eric Fischl, Vija Celmins and Richard Diebenkorn.====Figurative, landscape, still-Life, seascape, and Realism====During the 1930s through the 1960s abstract painting in America and Europe evolved into movements such as abstract expressionism, Color Field painting, Post painterly abstraction, Op art, hard-edge painting, Minimal art, shaped canvas painting, and lyrical abstraction.", "Other artists reacted as a response to the tendency toward abstraction, allowing figurative imagery to continue through various new contexts like the Bay Area Figurative Movement in the 1950s and new forms of expressionism from the 1940s through the 1960s.", "In Italy during this time, Giorgio Morandi was the foremost still life painter, exploring a wide variety of approaches to depicting everyday bottles and kitchen implements.", "Throughout the 20th century many painters practiced Realism and used expressive imagery; practicing landscape and figurative painting with contemporary subjects and solid technique, and unique expressivity like still-life painter Giorgio Morandi, Milton Avery, John D. Graham, Fairfield Porter, Edward Hopper, Andrew Wyeth, Balthus, Francis Bacon, Leon Kossoff, Frank Auerbach, Lucian Freud, Philip Pearlstein, Willem de Kooning, Arshile Gorky, Grace Hartigan, Robert De Niro, Sr., Elaine de Kooning and others.", "Along with Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, Pierre Bonnard, Georges Braque, and other 20th-century masters.", "In particular Milton Avery through his use of color and his interest in seascape and landscape paintings connected with the Color field aspect of Abstract expressionism as manifested by Adolph Gottlieb and Mark Rothko as well as the lessons American painters took from the work of Henri Matisse.", "''Head VI'', 1949 is a painting by the Irish born artist Francis Bacon and is an example of Post World War II European Expressionism.", "The work shows a distorted version of the Portrait of Innocent X painted by the Spanish artist Diego Velázquez in 1650.The work is one of a series of variants of the Velázquez painting which Bacon executed throughout the 1950s and early 1960s, over a total of forty-five works.", "When asked why he was compelled to revisit the subject so often, Bacon replied that he had nothing against the Popes, that he merely \"wanted an excuse to use these colours, and you can't give ordinary clothes that purple colour without getting into a sort of false fauve manner.\"", "The Pope in this version seethes with anger and aggression, and the dark colors give the image a grotesque and nightmarish appearance.", "The pleated curtains of the backdrop are rendered transparent, and seem to fall through the Pope's face.Italian painter Giorgio Morandi was an important 20th-century early pioneer of Minimalism.", "Born in Bologna, Italy, in 1890, throughout his career, Morandi concentrated almost exclusively on still lifes and landscapes, except for a few self-portraits.", "With great sensitivity to tone, color, and compositional balance, he would depict the same familiar bottles and vases again and again in paintings notable for their simplicity of execution.", "Morandi executed 133 etchings, a significant body of work in its own right, and his drawings and watercolors often approach abstraction in their economy of means.", "Through his simple and repetitive motifs and economical use of color, value and surface, Morandi became a prescient and important forerunner of Minimalism.", "He died in Bologna in 1964.After World War II the term School of Paris often referred to Tachisme, the European equivalent of American Abstract expressionism and those artists are also related to Cobra.", "Important proponents being Jean Dubuffet, Pierre Soulages, Nicolas de Staël, Hans Hartung, Serge Poliakoff, and Georges Mathieu, among several others.", "During the early 1950s Dubuffet (who was always a figurative artist), and de Staël, abandoned abstraction, and returned to imagery via figuration and landscape.", "De Staël 's work was quickly recognised within the post-war art world, and he became one of the most influential artists of the 1950s.", "His return to representation (seascapes, footballers, jazz musicians, seagulls) during the early 1950s can be seen as an influential precedent for the American Bay Area Figurative Movement, as many of those abstract painters like Richard Diebenkorn, David Park, Elmer Bischoff, Wayne Thiebaud, Nathan Oliveira, Joan Brown and others made a similar move; returning to imagery during the mid-1950s.", "Much of de Staël 's late work – in particular his thinned, and diluted oil on canvas abstract landscapes of the mid-1950s predicts Color Field painting and Lyrical Abstraction of the 1960s and 1970s.", "Nicolas de Staël's bold and intensely vivid color in his last paintings predict the direction of much of contemporary painting that came after him including Pop art of the 1960s.====Art brut, New Realism, Bay Area Figurative Movement, neo-Dada, photorealism====File:John's Diner by John Baeder.jpg\|John Baeder, PhotorealismDuring the 1950s and 1960s as abstract painting in America and Europe evolved into movements such as Color Field painting, post-painterly abstraction, op art, hard-edge painting, minimal art, shaped canvas painting, lyrical abstraction, and the continuation of Abstract expressionism.", "Other artists reacted as a response to the tendency toward abstraction with art brut, as seen in ''Court les rues,'' 1962, by Jean Dubuffet, fluxus, neo-Dada, New Realism, allowing imagery to re-emerge through various new contexts like pop art, the Bay Area Figurative Movement (a prime example is Diebenkorn's ''Cityscape I, (Landscape No.", "1),'' 1963, Oil on canvas, 60 1/4 x 50 1/2 inches, collection: San Francisco Museum of Modern Art) and later in the 1970s Neo-expressionism.", "The Bay Area Figurative Movement of whom David Park, Elmer Bischoff, Nathan Oliveira and Richard Diebenkorn whose painting ''Cityscape 1'', 1963 is a typical example were influential members flourished during the 1950s and 1960s in California.", "Although throughout the 20th century painters continued to practice Realism and use imagery, practicing landscape and figurative painting with contemporary subjects and solid technique, and unique expressivity like Milton Avery, Edward Hopper, Jean Dubuffet, Francis Bacon, Frank Auerbach, Lucian Freud, Philip Pearlstein, and others.", "Younger painters practiced the use of imagery in new and radical ways.", "Yves Klein, Martial Raysse, Niki de Saint Phalle, Wolf Vostell, David Hockney, Alex Katz, Malcolm Morley, Ralph Goings, Audrey Flack, Richard Estes, Chuck Close, Susan Rothenberg, Eric Fischl, John Baeder and Vija Celmins were a few who became prominent between the 1960s and the 1980s.", "Fairfield Porter was largely self-taught, and produced representational work in the midst of the Abstract Expressionist movement.", "His subjects were primarily landscapes, domestic interiors and portraits of family, friends and fellow artists, many of them affiliated with the New York School of writers, including John Ashbery, Frank O'Hara, and James Schuyler.", "Many of his paintings were set in or around the family summer house on Great Spruce Head Island, Maine.Also during the 1960s and 1970s, there was a reaction against painting.", "Critics like Douglas Crimp viewed the work of artists like Ad Reinhardt, and declared the \"death of painting\".", "Artists began to practice new ways of making art.", "New movements gained prominence some of which are: Fluxus, Happening, Video art, Installation art Mail art, the situationists, Conceptual art, Postminimalism, Earth art, arte povera, performance art and body art among others.Neo-Dada is also a movement that started in the 1950s and 1960s and was related to Abstract expressionism only with imagery.", "Featuring the emergence of combined manufactured items, with artist materials, moving away from previous conventions of painting.", "This trend in art is exemplified by the work of Jasper Johns and Robert Rauschenberg, whose \"combines\" in the 1950s were forerunners of Pop Art and Installation art, and made use of the assemblage of large physical objects, including stuffed animals, birds and commercial photography.", "Robert Rauschenberg, Jasper Johns, Larry Rivers, John Chamberlain, Claes Oldenburg, George Segal, Jim Dine, and Edward Kienholz among others were important pioneers of both abstraction and Pop Art; creating new conventions of art-making; they made acceptable in serious contemporary art circles the radical inclusion of unlikely materials as parts of their works of art.====New abstraction from the 1950s through the 1980s====Image:IKB 191.jpg\|Yves Klein, 1962, Monochrome paintingColor Field painting clearly pointed toward a new direction in American painting, away from abstract expressionism.", "Color Field painting is related to post-painterly abstraction, suprematism, abstract expressionism, hard-edge painting and Lyrical Abstraction.During the 1960s and 1970s abstract painting continued to develop in America through varied styles.", "Geometric abstraction, Op art, hard-edge painting, Color Field painting and minimal painting, were some interrelated directions for advanced abstract painting as well as some other new movements.", "Morris Louis was an important pioneer in advanced Color Field painting, his work can serve as a bridge between abstract expressionism, Color Field painting, and minimal art.", "Two influential teachers Josef Albers and Hans Hofmann introduced a new generation of American artists to their advanced theories of color and space.", "Josef Albers is best remembered for his work as a Geometric abstractionist painter and theorist.", "Most famous of all are the hundreds of paintings and prints that make up the series ''Homage to the Square''.", "In this rigorous series, begun in 1949, Albers explored chromatic interactions with flat colored squares arranged concentrically on the canvas.", "Albers' theories on art and education were formative for the next generation of artists.", "His own paintings form the foundation of both hard-edge painting and Op art.Josef Albers, Hans Hofmann, Ilya Bolotowsky, Burgoyne Diller, Victor Vasarely, Bridget Riley, Richard Anuszkiewicz, Frank Stella, Morris Louis, Kenneth Noland, Ellsworth Kelly, Barnett Newman, Larry Poons, Ronald Davis, Larry Zox, Al Held and some others like Mino Argento, are artists closely associated with Geometric abstraction, Op art, Color Field painting, and in the case of Hofmann and Newman Abstract expressionism as well.In 1965, an exhibition called ''The Responsive Eye'', curated by William C. Seitz, was held at the Museum of Modern Art, in New York City.", "The works shown were wide-ranging, encompassing the Minimalism of Frank Stella, the Op art of Larry Poons, the work of Alexander Liberman, alongside the masters of the Op Art movement: Victor Vasarely, Richard Anuszkiewicz, Bridget Riley and others.", "The exhibition focused on the perceptual aspects of art, which result both from the illusion of movement and the interaction of color relationships.", "Op art, also known as optical art, is a style present in some paintings and other works of art that use optical illusions.", "Op art is also closely akin to geometric abstraction and hard-edge painting.", "Although sometimes the term used for it is perceptual abstraction.Op art is a method of painting concerning the interaction between illusion and picture plane, between understanding and seeing.", "Op art works are abstract, with many of the better known pieces made in only black and white.", "When the viewer looks at them, the impression is given of movement, hidden images, flashing and vibration, patterns, or alternatively, of swelling or warping.Color Field painting sought to rid art of superfluous rhetoric.", "Artists like Clyfford Still, Mark Rothko, Hans Hofmann, Morris Louis, Jules Olitski, Kenneth Noland, Helen Frankenthaler, John Hoyland, Larry Zox, and others often used greatly reduced references to nature, and they painted with a highly articulated and psychological use of color.", "In general these artists eliminated recognizable imagery.", "Certain artists quoted references to past or present art, but in general color field painting presents abstraction as an end in itself.", "In pursuing this direction of modern art, artists wanted to present each painting as one unified, cohesive, monolithic image.====Washington Color School, Shaped canvas, Abstract illusionism, Lyrical abstraction====Ronald Davis 1968, Abstract IllusionismFrank Stella, Kenneth Noland, Ellsworth Kelly, Barnett Newman, Ronald Davis, Neil Williams, Robert Mangold, Charles Hinman, Richard Tuttle, David Novros, and Al Loving are examples of artists associated with the use of the shaped canvas during the period beginning in the early 1960s.", "Many Geometric abstract artists, minimalists, and Hard-edge painters elected to use the edges of the image to define the shape of the painting rather than accepting the rectangular format.", "In fact, the use of the shaped canvas is primarily associated with paintings of the 1960s and 1970s that are coolly abstract, formalistic, geometrical, objective, rationalistic, clean-lined, brashly sharp-edged, or minimalist in character.", "The Andre Emmerich Gallery, the Leo Castelli Gallery, the Richard Feigen Gallery, and the Park Place Gallery were important showcases for Color Field painting, shaped canvas painting and Lyrical Abstraction in New York City during the 1960s.", "There is a connection with post-painterly abstraction, which reacted against abstract expressionisms' mysticism, hyper-subjectivity, and emphasis on making the act of painting itself dramatically visible – as well as the solemn acceptance of the flat rectangle as an almost ritual prerequisite for serious painting.", "During the 1960s Color Field painting and Minimal art were often closely associated with each other.", "In actuality by the early 1970s both movements became decidedly diverse.Another related movement of the late 1960s, Lyrical Abstraction (the term being coined by Larry Aldrich, the founder of the Aldrich Contemporary Art Museum, Ridgefield Connecticut), encompassed what Aldrich said he saw in the studios of many artists at that time.", "It is also the name of an exhibition that originated in the Aldrich Museum and traveled to the Whitney Museum of American Art and other museums throughout the United States between 1969 and 1971.Ronnie Landfield, 1968, Lyrical AbstractionLyrical Abstraction in the late 1960s is characterized by the paintings of Dan Christensen, Ronnie Landfield, Peter Young and others, and along with the fluxus movement and postminimalism (a term first coined by Robert Pincus-Witten in the pages of ''Artforum'' in 1969) sought to expand the boundaries of abstract painting and minimalism by focusing on process, new materials and new ways of expression.", "Postminimalism often incorporating industrial materials, raw materials, fabrications, found objects, installation, serial repetition, and often with references to Dada and Surrealism is best exemplified in the sculptures of Eva Hesse.", "Lyrical Abstraction, conceptual art, postminimalism, Earth art, video, performance art, installation art, along with the continuation of fluxus, abstract expressionism, Color Field painting, hard-edge painting, minimal art, op art, pop art, photorealism and New Realism extended the boundaries of contemporary art in the mid-1960s through the 1970s.", "Lyrical Abstraction is a type of freewheeling abstract painting that emerged in the mid-1960s when abstract painters returned to various forms of painterly, pictorial, expressionism with a predominate focus on process, gestalt and repetitive compositional strategies in general.Lyrical Abstraction shares similarities with color field painting and abstract expressionism, Lyrical Abstraction as exemplified by the 1968 Ronnie Landfield painting ''For William Blake'', (above) especially in the freewheeling usage of paint – texture and surface.", "Direct drawing, calligraphic use of line, the effects of brushed, splattered, stained, squeegeed, poured, and splashed paint superficially resemble the effects seen in abstract expressionism and color field painting.", "However, the styles are markedly different.", "Setting it apart from abstract expressionism and action painting of the 1940s and 1950s is the approach to composition and drama.", "As seen in action painting there is an emphasis on brushstrokes, high compositional drama, dynamic compositional tension.", "While in Lyrical Abstraction there is a sense of compositional randomness, all over composition, low key and relaxed compositional drama and an emphasis on process, repetition, and an all over sensibility.,====Hard-edge painting, minimalism, postminimalism, monochrome painting====Brice Marden, 1966/1986, Monochrome paintingAgnes Martin, Robert Mangold, Brice Marden, Jo Baer, Robert Ryman, Richard Tuttle, Neil Williams, David Novros, Paul Mogenson, Charles Hinman are examples of artists associated with Minimalism and (exceptions of Martin, Baer and Marden) the use of the shaped canvas also during the period beginning in the early 1960s.", "Many Geometric abstract artists, minimalists, and hard-edge painters elected to use the edges of the image to define the shape of the painting rather than accepting the rectangular format.", "In fact, the use of the shaped canvas is primarily associated with paintings of the 1960s and 1970s that are coolly abstract, formalistic, geometrical, objective, rationalistic, clean-lined, brashly sharp-edged, or minimalist in character.", "The Bykert Gallery, and the Park Place Gallery were important showcases for Minimalism and shaped canvas painting in New York City during the 1960s.During the 1960s and 1970s artists such as Robert Motherwell, Adolph Gottlieb, Phillip Guston, Lee Krasner, Cy Twombly, Robert Rauschenberg, Jasper Johns, Richard Diebenkorn, Josef Albers, Elmer Bischoff, Agnes Martin, Al Held, Sam Francis, Ellsworth Kelly, Morris Louis, Helen Frankenthaler, Gene Davis, Frank Stella, Kenneth Noland, Joan Mitchell, Friedel Dzubas, and younger artists like Brice Marden, Robert Mangold, Sam Gilliam, John Hoyland, Sean Scully, Pat Steir, Elizabeth Murray, Larry Poons, Walter Darby Bannard, Larry Zox, Ronnie Landfield, Ronald Davis, Dan Christensen, Joan Snyder, Ross Bleckner, Archie Rand, Susan Crile, and dozens of others produced a wide variety of paintings.Barnett Newman, ''Untitled Etching 1 (First Version)'', 1968, MinimalismDuring the 1960s and 1970s, there was a reaction against abstract painting.", "Some critics viewed the work of artists like Ad Reinhardt, and declared the 'death of painting'.", "Artists began to practice new ways of making art.", "New movements gained prominence some of which are: postminimalism, Earth art, video art, installation art, arte povera, performance art, body art, fluxus, happening, mail art, the situationists and conceptual art among others.However still other important innovations in abstract painting took place during the 1960s and the 1970s characterized by monochrome painting and hard-edge painting inspired by Ad Reinhardt, Barnett Newman, Milton Resnick, and Ellsworth Kelly.", "Artists as diverse as Agnes Martin, Al Held, Larry Zox, Frank Stella, Larry Poons, Brice Marden and others explored the power of simplification.", "The convergence of Color Field painting, minimal art, hard-edge painting, Lyrical Abstraction, and postminimalism blurred the distinction between movements that became more apparent in the 1980s and 1990s.", "The neo-expressionism movement is related to earlier developments in abstract expressionism, neo-Dada, Lyrical Abstraction and postminimal painting.====Neo Expressionism====In the late 1960s an abstract expressionist painter Philip Guston helped to lead a transition from abstract expressionism to Neo-expressionism in painting, abandoning the so-called \"pure abstraction\" of abstract expressionism in favor of more cartoonish renderings of various personal symbols and objects.", "These works were inspirational to a new generation of painters interested in a revival of expressive imagery.", "His painting ''Painting, Smoking, Eating'' 1973, seen above in the gallery is an example of Guston's final and conclusive return to representation.In the late 1970s and early 1980s, there was also a return to painting that occurred almost simultaneously in Italy, Germany, France and Britain.", "These movements were called Transavantguardia, Neue Wilde, Figuration Libre, Neo-expressionism, the school of London, and in the late 1980s the Stuckists respectively.", "These paintings were characterized by large formats, free expressive mark making, figuration, myth and imagination.", "All work in this genre came to be labeled neo-expressionism.", "Critical reaction was divided.", "Some critics regarded it as driven by profit motivations by large commercial galleries.", "This type of art continues in popularity into the 21st century, even after the art crash of the late 1980s.", "Anselm Kiefer is a leading figure in European Neo-expressionism by the 1980s, Kiefer's themes widened from a focus on Germany's role in civilization to the fate of art and culture in general.", "His work became more sculptural and involves not only national identity and collective memory, but also occult symbolism, theology and mysticism.", "The theme of all the work is the trauma experienced by entire societies, and the continual rebirth and renewal in life.During the late 1970s in the United States painters who began working with invigorated surfaces and who returned to imagery like Susan Rothenberg gained in popularity, especially as seen above in paintings like ''Horse 2'', 1979.During the 1980s American artists like Eric Fischl, David Salle, Jean-Michel Basquiat (who began as a graffiti artist), Julian Schnabel, and Keith Haring, and Italian painters like Mimmo Paladino, Sandro Chia, and Enzo Cucchi, among others defined the idea of Neo-expressionism in America.Neo-expressionism was a style of modern painting that became popular in the late 1970s and dominated the art market until the mid-1980s.", "It developed in Europe as a reaction against the conceptual and minimalistic art of the 1960s and 1970s.", "Neo-expressionists returned to portraying recognizable objects, such as the human body (although sometimes in a virtually abstract manner), in a rough and violently emotional way using vivid colours and banal colour harmonies.", "The veteran painters Philip Guston, Frank Auerbach, Leon Kossoff, Gerhard Richter, A. R. Penck and Georg Baselitz, along with slightly younger artists like Anselm Kiefer, Eric Fischl, Susan Rothenberg, Francesco Clemente, Jean-Michel Basquiat, Julian Schnabel, Keith Haring, and many others became known for working in this intense expressionist vein of painting.Painting still holds a respected position in contemporary art.", "Art is an open field no longer divided by the objective versus non-objective dichotomy.", "Artists can achieve critical success whether their images are representational or abstract.", "What has currency is content, exploring the boundaries of the medium, and a refusal to recapitulate the works of the past as an end goal.====Contemporary painting into the 21st century====At the beginning of the 21st century Contemporary painting and Contemporary art in general continues in several contiguous modes, characterized by the idea of pluralism.", "The \"crisis\" in painting and current art and current art criticism today is brought about by pluralism.", "There is no consensus, nor need there be, as to a representative style of the age.", "There is an ''anything goes'' attitude that prevails; an \"everything going on\", and consequently \"nothing going on\" syndrome; this creates an aesthetic traffic jam with no firm and clear direction and with every lane on the artistic superhighway filled to capacity.", "Consequently magnificent and important works of art continue to be made albeit in a wide variety of styles and aesthetic temperaments, the marketplace being left to judge merit.Hard-edge painting, geometric abstraction, appropriation, hyperrealism, photorealism, expressionism, minimalism, Lyrical Abstraction, pop art, op art, abstract expressionism, Color Field painting, monochrome painting, neo-expressionism, collage, intermedia painting, assemblage painting, digital painting, postmodern painting, neo-Dada painting, shaped canvas painting, environmental mural painting, traditional figure painting, landscape painting, portrait painting, are a few continuing and current directions in painting at the beginning of the 21st century." ], [ "Americas", "''The Eternal Father Painting the Virgin of Guadalupe''.", "Attributed to Joaquín Villegas (1713 – active in 1753) (Mexican) (painter, Museo Nacional de Arte.During the period before and after European exploration and settlement of the Americas, including North America, Central America, South America and the Islands of the Caribbean, the Antilles, the Lesser Antilles and other island groups, indigenous native cultures produced creative works including architecture, pottery, ceramics, weaving, carving, sculpture, painting and murals as well as other religious and utilitarian objects.", "Each continent of the Americas hosted societies that were unique and individually developed cultures; that produced totems, works of religious symbolism, and decorative and expressive painted works.", "African influence was especially strong in the art of the Caribbean and South America.", "The arts of the indigenous people of the Americas had an enormous impact and influence on European art and vice versa during and after the Age of Exploration.", "Spain, Portugal, France, The Netherlands, and England were all powerful and influential colonial powers in the Americas during and after the 15th century.", "By the 19th century cultural influence began to flow both ways across the Atlantic===Mexico and Central America===File:Tetitla Diosa de Jade.jpg\|Great Goddess of Teotihuacan mural from the site at Tetitla, MexicoFile:Great Goddess of Teotihuacan (T Aleto).jpg\|Mural from the Complex of Tepantitla in Teotihuacan, a reproduction in the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico CityFile:Tepantitla Mountain Stream mural Teotihuacan (Luis Tello).jpg\|A portion of the mural from the Complex of Tepantitla, represent the Tlalocan one of the levels in the Underworld, MexicoFile:Butterfly Palace IMG 7281.JPG\|Mural of the Jaguars compound in Teotihuacan.File:Pinturas prehispánicas.JPG\|Portic A from Cacaxtla, represent the Man-jaguarFile:Frescos cacaxtla.JPG\|Detail from the Red Temple, c.600–700, Cacaxtla, MexicoFile:Monte Alban - Rekonstruktion Grab 105 1.jpg\|Reconstruction of the Tomb 105 from Monte Alban.File:Bonampak painting.jpg\|A Mayan mural from Bonampak, Mexico, 580–800 AD.File:Bonampakmural3.jpg\|A Mayan mural from Bonampak, 580–800 ADFile:SBmural.jpg\|A Mayan mural from San Bartolo, Pre-Classical period (1–250 AD)File:Jaguar vase.jpg\|Painting on the Lord of the jaguar pelt throne vase, a scene of the Maya court, 700–800 AD.File:Cylinder Vase with dancing maize god, 675-725 AD, Maya culture, eastern Peten lowlands, Guatemala or Belize, earthenware with slip - Gardiner Museum, Toronto - DSC01183.JPG\|Painting on a Maya vase from the Late Classical Period (600–900)File:Jaina Figurine 1 (T Aleto).jpg\|Painted pottery figurine of a King from the burial site at Jaina Island, Mayan art, 400–800 ADFile:Palenque Relief.jpg\|Painted relief of the Maya site Palenque, featuring the son of K'inich Ahkal Mo' Naab' III (678–730s?, r. 722–729).File:Dresden p 74 large.jpg\|Painting from a Dresden Codex.File:CNuttall16.jpg\|A Mixtec painting from the Codex Zouche-Nuttall.File:Codex Borgia page 56.jpg\|An Aztec painting from the Codex Borgia, represent a Mictlantecuhtli and Quetzalcoatl.File:Codex Borbonicus (p. 7).jpg\|An Aztec painting from the Codex Borbonicus, represent a Tlaloc.File:Matrícula de tributos - 06.tif\|A painting from Matrícula de Tributos showing the Ichcahuipilli, Mexico.File:Codex Mendoza folio 2r.jpg\|A painting from Codex Mendoza showing the Aztec legend of the foundation of Tenochtitlán, c.1553===South America===File:Huaca de la Luna - Août 2007.jpg\|Moche murals from the Huaca de la Luna site, Peru, 100–700 AD.File:H Luna Frisorestaurado lou.jpg\|A Moche mural of a decapitator from the Huaca de la Luna site, Peru, 100–700 AD.File:Huaca Cao Viejo Mausoleum of Senora de Cao frescos 1.jpg\|Mural in Huaca Cao Viejo, PeruFile:Moche warrior pot.jpg\|Painted pottery from the Moche culture of PeruFile:Orca mitica nasca.jpg\|''Killer Whale'', painted pottery, Nazca culture, 300 BC–800 AD, Larco Museum.", "Lima, PeruFile:Huari pottery 01.png\|Painted pottery from the Huari culture of Peru, 500–1200 ADFile:Pataxo 2417a.JPG\|Body painting, Indigenous peoples in Brazil, Pataxo tribe.===North America=======United States====Image:GreatGalleryPanel.jpg\|''The Great Gallery'', Pictographs, Canyonlands National Park, Horseshoe Canyon, Utah, , c. 1500 BCEImage:pictograph_jqjacobs.jpg\|Pictograph, southeastern Utah, c. 1200 BC Pueblo cultureImage:Chaco Anasazi canteen NPS.jpg\|''Painted pottery'', Anasazi, North America: A canteen (pot) excavated from the ruins in Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, c. 700 AD–1100 ADImage:Mississippian Underwater Panther ceramic.JPG\|Painted ceramic jug showing the underwater panther from the Mississippian culture, found at Rose Mound in Cross County, Arkansas, c. 1400–1600.Image:Dahlem Wolfsmaske Haida.jpg\|A Haida wolf mask, 1880.Image:Ceramic Hopi jar - by-Nampeyo - date-ca.", "1880 - from-DC1.jpg\|A Hopi jar by Nampeyo (c.1860–1942), made in Arizona, 1880.Image:Zuni-girl-with-jar2.png\|A girl from the Zuni tribe of New Mexico with a painted pottery jar, photographed in c. 1903.Image:Navajo sandpainting.jpg\|Edward S. Curtis, ''Navajo sandpainting'', sepia photogravure c. 1907Image:Zahadolzhá--Navaho.jpg\|Navajo man in ceremonial dress with mask and body paint, c. 1904Image:Blackhawk-spiritbeing.jpg\|Ledger art of Haokah (ca.", "1880) by Black Hawk (Lakota).Image:Ledger-sm2.jpg\|Kiowa ledger art, possibly of the ''1874 Buffalo Wallow battle'', Red River War.File:Silver horn painting 1880 ohs.jpg\|Detail of ledger painting on muslin by Silver Horn (1860–1940), ca.", "1880, Oklahoma History CenterFile:Carl sweezy 1904.jpg\|''Work on Paper'', by Arapaho painter, Carl Sweezy (1881–1953), 1904Image:UteHideArt3.jpg\|An Uncompaghre Ute, ''Shaved Beaver Hide Painting.''", "The Northern Ute would trap beavers, shave images into the animals' stretched and cured hides, and use them to decorate their personal and ceremonial dwellings, c. 19th century.Image:Tlingit totem pole.jpg\|Tlingit totem pole in Ketchikan, Alaska, ''circa'' 1901.Image:Tlingit K'alyaan Totem Pole August 2005.jpg\|The ''K'alyaan'' Totem Pole of the Tlingit Kiks.ádi Clan, erected at Sitka National Historical Park to commemorate the lives lost in the 1804 Battle of Sitka.Image:Ketchican totem pole 2 stub.jpg\|A totem pole in Ketchikan, Alaska, in the Tlingit style.Image:Totem pole (js) 2.jpg\|From Saxman Totem Park, Ketchikan, AlaskaImage:Totem pole (js) 3.jpg\|From Saxman Totem Park, Ketchikan, Alaska====Canada====Image:Totem Park pole 1.jpg\|A totem pole in Totem Park, Victoria, British Columbia.Image:Totem Park pole 2.jpg\|From Totem Park, Victoria, British Columbia.===Caribbean===Image:Petroglyph at Caguana.jpg\|''Rock petroglyph overlaid with chalk'', Caguana Indigenous Ceremonial Center.", "Utuado, Puerto Rico." ], [ "Islamic", "Image:Yahyâ ibn Mahmûd al-Wâsitî 007.jpg\|Yahyâ ibn Mahmûd al-Wâsitî, Iraq, 1237Image:Yahyâ ibn Mahmûd al-Wâsitî 004.jpg\|Yahyâ ibn Mahmûd al-Wâsitî, Iraq, 1237Image:Syrischer Maler um 1315 001.jpg\|Syrian painter, 1315 Metropolitan Museum of ArtImage:Iskandar (Alexander) and the Talking Tree, Folio from a Great Mongol Shahnameh.jpg\|Ilkhanid Shahnameh, ca.", "1330–1340, SmithsonianImage:Kamal-ud-din Bihzad - Construction of the fort of Kharnaq.jpg\|Kamal-ud-din Bihzad (c. 1450 – c. 1535), The construction of castle Khavarnaq (الخورنق) in al-Hira, c. 1494–1495 C.E.", "British MuseumImage:Miraj_by_Sultan_Muhammad.jpg\|Persian miniature painting, CE 1550Image:Saki - Reza Abbasi - Moraqqa’-e Golshan 1609 Golestan Palace.jpg\|Reza Abbasi, 1609Image:Meister des Razm-Nâma-Manuskripts 001.jpg\|Razmnama, 1616, British MuseumImage:Reza Abbasi - Two Lovers (1630).jpg\|Two Lovers by Reza Abbasi, 1630Image:Harun Al-Rashid and the World of the Thousand and One Nights.jpg\|Persian miniature ''Harun al-Rashid in Thousand and One Nights''Image:Georgian prince by Reza Abbasi.jpg\|Reza Abbasi (1565–1635), ''Prince Muhammad-Beik of Georgia'', 1620Image:Adam and Eve from a copy of the Falnama.jpg\|Adam and Eve, Safavid Iran, from a Falnama (book of Omens) c. 1550 AD.Image:Arabischer Maler um 1335 002.jpg\|A painting depicting Abû Zayd, 1335 AD.Image:Irakischer Maler um 1210 001.jpg\|A scene from the book of Ahmad ibn al-Husayn ibn al-Ahnaf, showing two galloping horsemen, 1210 AD.Image:Irakischer Maler um 1280 001.jpg\|The angel Isrâfîl, Iraq, 1280 AD.Image:Irakischer Maler von 1287 002.jpg\|''The Clerk'', Iraq, 1287.Image:Al-Bawwâb 001.jpg\|An ornamental Qur'an, by al-Bawwâb, 11th century AD.Image:Sarayi_Album_10a.jpg\|Mehmet II, from the Sarai Albums of Istanbul, Turkey, 15th century ADImage:Maiden fur cap Louvre OA7128.jpg\|''Maiden in a fur cap'', by Muhammad 'Alî, Isfahan, Iran, mid-17th centuryImage:Youth and suitors.jpg\|''Youth and Suitors'', Mashhad, Iran, 1556–1565 ADThe depiction of humans, animals or any other figurative subjects is forbidden within Islam to prevent believers from idolatry so there is no religiously motivated painting (or sculpture) tradition within Muslim culture.", "Pictorial activity was reduced to Arabesque, mainly abstract, with geometrical configuration or floral and plant-like patterns.", "Strongly connected to architecture and calligraphy, it can be widely seen as used for the painting of tiles in mosques or in illuminations around the text of the Koran and other books.", "In fact, abstract art is not an invention of modern art but it is present in pre-classical, barbarian and non-western cultures many centuries before it and is essentially a decorative or applied art.", "Notable illustrator M. C. Escher was influenced by this geometrical and pattern-based art.", "Art Nouveau (Aubrey Beardsley and the architect Antonio Gaudí) re-introduced abstract floral patterns into western art.Note that despite the taboo of figurative visualization, some Muslim countries did cultivate a rich tradition in painting, though not in its own right, but as a companion to the written word.", "Iranian or Persian art, widely known as Persian miniature, concentrates on the illustration of epic or romantic works of literature.", "Persian illustrators deliberately avoided the use of shading and perspective, though familiar with it in their pre-Islamic history, in order to abide by the rule of not creating any lifelike illusion of the real world.", "Their aim was not to depict the world as it is, but to create images of an ideal world of timeless beauty and perfect order.===Iran===Oriental historian Basil Gray believes \"Iran has offered a particularly unique art to the world which is excellent in its kind\".", "Caves in Iran's Lorestan province exhibit painted imagery of animals and hunting scenes.", "Some such as those in Fars Province and Sialk are at least 5,000 years old.", "Painting in Iran is thought to have reached a climax during the Tamerlane era, when outstanding masters such as Kamaleddin Behzad gave birth to a new style of painting.Paintings of the Qajar period are a combination of European influences and Safavid miniature schools of painting such as those introduced by Reza Abbasi and classical works by Mihr 'Ali.", "Masters such as Kamal-ol-molk further pushed forward the European influence in Iran.", "It was during the Qajar era when \"Coffee House painting\" emerged.", "Subjects of this style were often religious in nature depicting scenes from Shia epics and the like.Image:Babur-drunken.jpg\|Farrukh Beg (ca.", "1545 – ca.", "1615), ''A Drunken Babur Returns to Camp at Night'', Lahore, Pakistan, 1589File:Fath_Ali_Shah(Saad_Abad).jpg\|Mihr 'Ali (fl.", "1795–1830), ''Fat'h Ali Shah Qajar'' (1813–14)File:Rammal by Kamalolmolk.jpg\|Kamal-ol-molk (1847–1940), ''Predictor of the Future'', 1892, Museum of Sadabad, Tehran===Pakistan===Image:LAgha_Star.jpg\|Lubna Agha, ''Star'' – a painting inspired by the artisans of MoroccoImage:Anarkali.jpg\|AR Chughtai, ''Anarkali''" ], [ "Oceania", "===Australia======New Zealand===" ], [ "Africa", "Image:Himba_lady_preparing_deodorant.jpg\|Himba woman covered with traditional red ochre pigment.", "Traditional body paint symbolic of the earth and of blood, and also worn for protection from the sun.Image:Kikuyu_woman_traditional_dress.jpg\|A Kĩkũyũ woman in traditional dress.", "Ceremonial face painting.Image:Young Maasai Warrior.jpg\|''Young Maasai Warrior'', with head-dress and face painting.Image:Dogon Circumsion Cave Painting.jpg\|Dogon, ''circumcision cave'', with paintings Mali c. contemporaryAfrican traditional culture and tribes do not seem to have great interest in two-dimensional representations in favour of sculpture and relief.", "However, decorative painting in African culture is often abstract and geometrical.", "Another pictorial manifestation is body painting, and face painting present for example in Maasai and Kĩkũyũ culture in their ceremony rituals.", "Ceremonial cave painting in certain villages can be found to be still in use.", "Note that Pablo Picasso and other modern artists were influenced by African sculpture and masks in their varied styles.Contemporary African artists follow western art movements and their paintings have little difference from occidental art works.===Sudanese===Nubian painting from Old DongolaThe Kingdom of Kush in ancient Nubia (i.e.", "modern Sudan), bordering Ancient Egypt, produced a wide variety of arts, including wall paintings and painted objects.", "At the Sudanese site of Kerma, center of the Kerma culture that predated the Kingdom of Kush, a circa 1700 BC fragmentary painting from a royal tomb depicts a sailing ship and houses with ladders that are similar to scenes in reliefs from the reign of Egyptian queen Hatshepsut (c. 1479–1458 BC).", "The ancient tradition of wall paintings, first described by Abu Salih during the 12th century AD, continued into the period of medieval Nubia.===Ethiopian===An Ethiopian illuminated Evangelist portrait of Mark the Evangelist, from the Ethiopian Garima Gospels, 6th century AD, Kingdom of AksumThe Christian tradition of painting in Ethiopia dates back to the 4th century AD, during the ancient Kingdom of Aksum.", "During their exile to Axum, the 7th-century followers of Muhammad described paintings decorating the Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion.", "However, the earliest surviving examples of church paintings in Ethiopia come from the church of Debre Selam Mikael in the Tigray Region, dated to the 11th century AD.", "Ethiopian paintings in illuminated manuscripts predate the earliest surviving church paintings.", "For instance, the Ethiopian Garima Gospels of the 4th-6th centuries AD contain illuminated scenes imitating the contemporary Byzantine illuminated style.File:Bible tana.jpg\|An illuminated Bible from a monastery on Lake Tana, Ethiopia, 12th-13th century ADFile:Gebre Mesqel Lalibela.png\|A 15th-century Ethiopian painting of the Solomonic dynasty depicting the Zagwe dynasty ruler Gebre Mesqel Lalibela (r. 1181–1221 AD)File:The Queen of Sheba (2131716999).jpg\|A 17th-century Gondarene-style Ethiopian painting depicting Saint Mercurius, originally from Lalibela, now housed in the National Museum of Ethiopia in Addis AbabaFile:Nerga Sellasie.jpg\|A 1748 portrait of the Ethiopian Empress Mentewab, an important figure of the Zemene Mesafint, prostrating herself before Mary and Jesus, from the Narga Selassie church.===Influence on Western art===At the start of the 20th century, artists like Picasso, Matisse, Paul Gauguin and Modigliani became aware of, and were inspired by, African art.", "In a situation where the established avant garde was straining against the constraints imposed by serving the world of appearances, African Art demonstrated the power of supremely well organised forms; produced not only by responding to the faculty of sight, but also and often primarily, the faculty of imagination, emotion and mystical and religious experience.", "These artists saw in African art a formal perfection and sophistication unified with phenomenal expressive power." ], [ "See also", "* 20th-century Western painting* Art periods* Hierarchy of genres* List of painters* ''Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects''* Timeline of Italian artists to 1800" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Clement Greenberg, ''Art and Culture'', Beacon Press, 1961* ''Lyrical Abstraction'', Exhibition Catalogue, Whitney Museum of American Art, NYC, 1971.", "* O'Connor, Francis V. ''Jackson Pollock'' Exhibition Catalogue, (New York, Museum of Modern Art, 1967) * ''Pictures of Nothing: Abstract Art since Pollock'' (A.W.", "Mellon Lectures in the Fine Arts), Kirk Varnedoe, 2003* ''The Triumph of Modernism'': The Art World, 1985–2005, Hilton Kramer, 2006, " ], [ "External links", " History of Art: From Paleolithic Age to Contemporary Art * Kandinsky * Metropolitan Museum of Art Timeline of Art History* Ancient Roman Wall-Painting" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hungarian language" ], [ "Introduction", "A Hungarian speaker.", "'''Hungarian''' (, ) is a Uralic language spoken in Hungary and parts of several neighbouring countries that used to belong to it.", "It is the official language of Hungary and one of the 24 official languages of the European Union.", "Outside Hungary, it is also spoken by Hungarian communities in southern Slovakia, western Ukraine (Subcarpathia), central and western Romania (Transylvania), northern Serbia (Vojvodina), northern Croatia, northeastern Slovenia (Prekmurje), and eastern Austria.It is also spoken by Hungarian diaspora communities worldwide, especially in North America (particularly the United States and Canada) and Israel.", "With 14 million speakers, it is the Uralic family's largest member by number of speakers." ], [ "Classification", "Hungarian is a member of the Uralic language family.", "Linguistic connections between Hungarian and other Uralic languages were noticed in the 1670s, and the family itself was established in 1717.Hungarian has traditionally been assigned to the Ugric branch along with the Mansi and Khanty languages of western Siberia (Khanty–Mansia region of North Asia), but it is no longer clear that it is a valid group.", "When the Samoyed languages were determined to be part of the family, it was thought at first that Finnic and Ugric (the most divergent branches within Finno-Ugric) were closer to each other than to the Samoyed branch of the family, but that is now frequently questioned.The name of Hungary could be a result of regular sound changes of ''Ungrian/Ugrian'', and the fact that the Eastern Slavs referred to Hungarians as ''Ǫgry/Ǫgrove'' (sg.", "''Ǫgrinŭ'') seemed to confirm that.", "Current literature favors the hypothesis that it comes from the name of the Turkic tribe Onoğur (which means \"ten arrows\" or \"ten tribes\").There are numerous regular sound correspondences between Hungarian and the other Ugric languages.", "For example, Hungarian corresponds to Khanty in certain positions, and Hungarian corresponds to Khanty , while Hungarian final corresponds to Khanty final .", "For example, Hungarian ''ház'' \"house\" vs. Khanty ''xot'' \"house\", and Hungarian ''száz'' \"hundred\" vs. Khanty ''sot'' \"hundred\".", "The distance between the Ugric and Finnic languages is greater, but the correspondences are also regular." ], [ "History", "===Prehistory=======Scholarly consensus====The traditional view holds that the Hungarian language diverged from its Ugric relatives in the first half of the 1st millennium BC, in western Siberia east of the southern Urals.", "In Hungarian, Iranian loanwords date back to the time immediately following the breakup of Ugric and probably span well over a millennium.", "These include 'cow' (cf.", "Avestan ); 'ten' (cf.", "Avestan ); 'milk' (cf.", "Persian 'wet nurse'); and ''nád'' 'reed' (from late Middle Iranian; cf.", "Middle Persian and Modern Persian ).Archaeological evidence from present-day southern Bashkortostan confirms the existence of Hungarian settlements between the Volga River and the Ural Mountains.", "The Onoğurs (and Bulgars) later had a great influence on the language, especially between the 5th and 9th centuries.", "This layer of Turkic loans is large and varied (e.g.", "''szó'' \"word\", from Turkic; and ''daru'' \"crane\", from the related Permic languages), and includes words borrowed from Oghur Turkic; e.g.", "''borjú'' \"calf\" (cf.", "Chuvash ''păru'', ''părăv'' vs. Turkish ''buzağı''); ''dél'' 'noon; south' (cf.", "Chuvash ''tĕl'' vs. Turkish dial.", "''düš'').", "Many words related to agriculture, state administration and even family relationships show evidence of such backgrounds.", "Hungarian syntax and grammar were not influenced in a similarly dramatic way over these three centuries.Funeral Sermon and Prayer, 12th centuryA page from the first book written completely in Hungarian, 1533After the arrival of the Hungarians in the Carpathian Basin, the language came into contact with a variety of speech communities, among them Slavic, Turkic, and German.", "Turkic loans from this period come mainly from the Pechenegs and Cumanians, who settled in Hungary during the 12th and 13th centuries: e.g.", "\"cobza\" (cf.", "Turkish 'lute'); ''komondor'' \"mop dog\" ( (H)ungars), a Turkic tribal confederation.", "The similarity between customs of Hungarians and the Chuvash people, the only surviving member of the Oghur tribes, is visible.", "For example, the Hungarians appear to have learned animal husbandry techniques from the Oghur speaking Chuvash people (or historically Suvar people), as a high proportion of words specific to agriculture and livestock are of Chuvash origin.", "A strong Chuvash influence was also apparent in Hungarian burial customs.===Old Hungarian===The first written accounts of Hungarian date to the 10th century, such as mostly Hungarian personal names and place names in , written in Greek by Eastern Roman Emperor Constantine VII.", "No significant texts written in Old Hungarian script have survived, because the medium of writing used at the time, wood, is perishable.The Kingdom of Hungary was founded in 1000 by Stephen I.", "The country became a Western-styled Christian (Roman Catholic) state, with Latin script replacing Hungarian runes.", "The earliest remaining fragments of the language are found in the establishing charter of the abbey of Tihany from 1055, intermingled with Latin text.", "The first extant text fully written in Hungarian is the Funeral Sermon and Prayer, which dates to the 1190s.", "Although the orthography of these early texts differed considerably from that used today, contemporary Hungarians can still understand a great deal of the reconstructed spoken language, despite changes in grammar and vocabulary.A more extensive body of Hungarian literature arose after 1300.The earliest known example of Hungarian religious poetry is the 14th-century ''Lamentations of Mary''.", "The first Bible translation was the Hussite Bible in the 1430s.The standard language lost its diphthongs, and several postpositions transformed into suffixes, including ''reá'' \"onto\" (the phrase ''utu '''rea''''' \"onto the way\" found in the 1055 text would later become ''út'''ra''''').", "There were also changes in the system of vowel harmony.", "At one time, Hungarian used six verb tenses, while today only two or three are used.===Modern Hungarian===The Bible in HungarianIn 1533, Kraków printer Benedek Komjáti published (modern orthography: ), the first Hungarian-language book set in movable type.By the 17th century, the language already closely resembled its present-day form, although two of the past tenses remained in use.", "German, Italian and French loans also began to appear.", "Further Turkish words were borrowed during the period of Ottoman rule (1541 to 1699).In the 19th century, a group of writers, most notably Ferenc Kazinczy, spearheaded a process of ''nyelvújítás'' (language revitalization).", "Some words were shortened (''győzedelem'' > ''győzelem'', 'victory' or 'triumph'); a number of dialectal words spread nationally (''e.g.", "'', ''cselleng'' 'dawdle'); extinct words were reintroduced (''dísz'', 'décor'); a wide range of expressions were coined using the various derivative suffixes; and some other, less frequently used methods of expanding the language were utilized.", "This movement produced more than ten thousand words, most of which are used actively today.The 19th and 20th centuries saw further standardization of the language, and differences between mutually comprehensible dialects gradually diminished.In 1920, Hungary signed the Treaty of Trianon, losing 71 percent of its territory and one-third of the ethnic Hungarian population along with it.Today, the language holds official status nationally in Hungary and regionally in Romania, Slovakia, Serbia, Austria and Slovenia." ], [ "Geographic distribution", "Areas of Transylvania, in Romania, where Hungarian has co-official status (areas in which at least 20% of the population is Hungarian)CountrySpeakersNotesHungary 9,896,333 2011Romania (mainly Transylvania) 1,038,806 2021Slovakia422,065 2021Serbia (mainly Vojvodina)241,164 2011Ukraine (mainly Zakarpattia)149,400 2001United States117,973 2000Canada75,555 2001Israel70,000Austria (mainly Burgenland)22,000Australia20,8832011Croatia16,500Slovenia (mainly Prekmurje)9,240Total12–13 million:''Source: National censuses, Ethnologue''Hungarian has about 13 million native speakers, of whom more than 9.8 million live in Hungary.", "According to the 2011 Hungarian census, 9,896,333 people (99.6% of the total population) speak Hungarian, of whom 9,827,875 people (98.9%) speak it as a first language, while 68,458 people (0.7%) speak it as a second language.", "About 2.2 million speakers live in other areas that were part of the Kingdom of Hungary before the Treaty of Trianon (1920).", "Of these, the largest group lives in Transylvania, the western half of present-day Romania, where there are approximately 1.25 million Hungarians.", "There are large Hungarian communities also in Slovakia, Serbia and Ukraine, and Hungarians can also be found in Austria, Croatia, and Slovenia, as well as about a million additional people scattered in other parts of the world.", "For example, there are more than one hundred thousand Hungarian speakers in the Hungarian American community and 1.5 million with Hungarian ancestry in the United States.===Official status===Official usage of Hungarian language in Vojvodina, SerbiaHungarian is the official language of Hungary, and thus an official language of the European Union.", "Hungarian is also one of the official languages of Serbian province of Vojvodina and an official language of three municipalities in Slovenia: Hodoš, Dobrovnik and Lendava, along with Slovene.", "Hungarian is officially recognized as a minority or regional language in Austria, Croatia, Romania, Zakarpattia in Ukraine, and Slovakia.", "In Romania it is a recognized minority language used at local level in communes, towns and municipalities with an ethnic Hungarian population of over 20%.===Dialects===The dialects of Hungarian identified by Ethnologue are: Alföld, West Danube, Danube-Tisza, King's Pass Hungarian, Northeast Hungarian, Northwest Hungarian, Székely and West Hungarian.", "These dialects are, for the most part, mutually intelligible.", "The Hungarian Csángó dialect, which is mentioned but not listed separately by Ethnologue, is spoken primarily in Bacău County in eastern Romania.", "The Csángó Hungarian group has been largely isolated from other Hungarian people, and therefore preserved features that closely resemble earlier forms of Hungarian." ], [ "Phonology", "Hungarian vowelsHungarian has 14 vowel phonemes and 25 consonant phonemes.", "The vowel phonemes can be grouped as pairs of short and long vowels such as and .", "Most of the pairs have an almost similar pronunciation and vary significantly only in their duration.", "However, pairs / and / differ both in closedness and length.+ Consonant phonemes of Hungarian Labial Alveolar Post-alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal Nasal Stop Affricate Fricative Trill Approximant Consonant length is also distinctive in Hungarian.", "Most consonant phonemes can occur as geminates.The sound voiced palatal plosive , written , sounds similar to 'd' in British English 'duty'.", "It occurs in the name of the country, \"\" (Hungary), pronounced .", "It is one of three palatal consonants, the others being and .", "Historically a fourth palatalized consonant existed, still written .A single 'r' is pronounced as an alveolar tap ( 'of that size'), but a double 'r' is pronounced as an alveolar trill ( 'by that time'), like in Spanish and Italian.===Prosody===Primary stress is always on the first syllable of a word, as in Finnish and the neighbouring Slovak and Czech.", "There is a secondary stress on other syllables in compounds: ''viszontlátásra'' (\"goodbye\") is pronounced .", "Elongated vowels in non-initial syllables may seem to be stressed to an English-speaker, as length and stress correlate in English." ], [ "Grammar", "Hungarian is an agglutinative language.", "It uses various affixes, mainly suffixes but also some prefixes and a circumfix, to change a word's meaning and its grammatical function.===Vowel harmony===Hungarian uses vowel harmony to attach suffixes to words.", "That means that most suffixes have two or three different forms, and the choice between them depends on the vowels of the head word.", "There are some minor and unpredictable exceptions to the rule.===Nouns===Nouns have 18 cases, which are formed regularly with suffixes.", "The nominative case is unmarked (''az alma'' 'the apple') and, for example, the accusative is marked with the suffix ''–t'' (''az almát'' 'I eat the apple').", "Half of the cases express a combination of the source-location-target and surface-inside-proximity ternary distinctions (three times three cases); there is a separate case ending –''ból'' / ''–ből'' meaning a combination of source and insideness: 'from inside of'.Possession is expressed by a possessive suffix on the possessed object, rather than the possessor as in English (Peter's apple becomes ''Péter almája'', literally 'Peter apple-his').", "Noun plurals are formed with ''–k'' (''az almák'' 'the apples'), but after a numeral, the singular is used (''két alma'' 'two apples', literally 'two apple'; not ''két almák'').Unlike English, Hungarian uses case suffixes and nearly always postpositions instead of prepositions.There are two types of articles in Hungarian, definite and indefinite, which roughly correspond to the equivalents in English.===Adjectives===Adjectives precede nouns (''a piros alma'' 'the red apple') and have three degrees: positive (''piros'' 'red'), comparative (''pirosabb'' 'redder') and superlative (''a legpirosabb'' 'the reddest').If the noun takes the plural or a case, an attributive adjective is invariable: ''a piros almák'' 'the red apples'.", "However, a predicative adjective agrees with the noun: ''az almák piros'''ak''''' 'the apples are red'.", "Adjectives by themselves can behave as nouns (and so can take case suffixes): ''Melyik almát kéred?", "– A piros'''at'''.''", "'Which apple would you like?", "– The red one'.===Verbs======Word order===The neutral word order is subject–verb–object (SVO).", "However, Hungarian is a topic-prominent language, and so has a word order that depends not only on syntax but also on the topic–comment structure of the sentence (for example, what aspect is assumed to be known and what is emphasized).A Hungarian sentence generally has the following order: topic, comment (or focus), verb and the rest.The topic shows that the proposition is only for that particular thing or aspect, and it implies that the proposition is not true for some others.", "For example, in \"''Az almát János látja\".''", "('It is John who sees the apple'.", "Literally 'The apple John sees.", "'), the apple is in the topic, implying that other objects may be seen by not him but other people (the pear may be seen by Peter).", "The topic part may be empty.The focus shows the new information for the listeners that may not have been known or that their knowledge must be corrected.", "For example, \"Én vagyok az apád\".", "('I am your father'.", "Literally, 'It is I who am your father'.", "), from the movie ''The Empire Strikes Back'', the pronoun I (''én'') is in the focus and implies that it is new information, and the listener thought that someone else is his father.Although Hungarian is sometimes described as having free word order, different word orders are generally not interchangeable, and the neutral order is not always correct to use.", "The intonation is also different with different topic-comment structures.", "The topic usually has a rising intonation, the focus having a falling intonation.", "In the following examples, the topic is marked with italics, and the focus (comment) is marked with boldface.", "János látja az almát.", "- 'John sees the apple'.", "Neutral sentence.", "''János'' '''látja''' az almát.", "- 'John '''sees''' the apple'.", "(Peter may not see the apple.", ")'''János''' látja az ''almát''.", "- 'It is John who sees the apple'.", "(The listener may have thought that it is Peter.", ")'''Látja''' János az ''almát''.", "- 'John does see the apple'.", "(The listener may have thought that John does not see the apple.", ")''János''''' az almát '''látja.", "- 'What John sees is the apple'.", "(It is the apple, not the pear, that John specifically sees.", "However, Peter may see the pear.", ")''Az almát''''' látja''' János.", "- 'It is the apple that is seen by John'.", "(The pear may not be seen by John, but it may be smelled, for example.", ")''Az almát''''' János''' látja.", "- 'It is by John that the apple is seen'.", "(It is not seen by Peter, but the pear may be seen by Peter, for example.)" ], [ "Politeness", "Hungarian has a four-tiered system for expressing levels of politeness.", "From highest to lowest:''Ön'' (''önözés''): Use of this form in speech shows respect towards the person addressed, but it is also the common way of speaking in official texts and business communications.", "Here \"you\", the second person, is grammatically addressed in the third person.", "''Maga'' (''magázás'', ''magázódás''): Use of this form serves to show that the speakers wish to distance themselves from the person they address.", "A boss could also address a subordinate as ''maga''.", "Aside from the different pronoun it is grammatically the same as \"''önözés''\".", "''Néni/bácsi'' (''tetszikezés''): This is a somewhat affectionate way of expressing politeness and is grammatically the same as \"''önözés''\" or \"''magázódás''\", but adds a certain verb in auxiliary role \"''tetszik''\" (\"like\") to support the main verb of the sentence.", "For example, children are supposed to address adults who are not parents, close friends or close relatives by using \"''tetszik''\" (\"you like\"): \"''Hogy vagy?''\"", "(\"How are you?\")", "here becomes \"''Hogy tetszik lenni?''\"", "(\"How do you like to be?\").", "The elderly, especially women, are generally addressed this way, even by adults.", "''Te'' (''tegezés'', ''tegeződés'' or ''pertu'', per tu from Latin): Used generally, i.e.", "with persons with whom none of the above forms of politeness is required, and, in religious contexts, to address God.", "The highest rank, the king, was traditionally addressed \"per tu\" by all, peasants and noblemen alike, though with Hungary not having had any crowned king since 1918, this practice survives only in folk tales and children's stories.", "Use of \"''tegezés''\" in the media and advertisements has become more frequent since the early 1990s.", "It is informal and is normally used in families, among friends, colleagues, among young people, and by adults speaking to children; it can be compared to addressing somebody by their first name in English.", "Perhaps prompted by the widespread use of English (a language without T–V distinction in most contemporary dialects) on the Internet, \"''tegezés''\" is also becoming the standard way to address people over the Internet, regardless of politeness.The four-tiered system has somewhat been eroded due to the recent expansion of \"''tegeződés''\" and \"''önözés''\".Some anomalies emerged with the arrival of multinational companies who have addressed their customers in the ''te'' (least polite) form right from the beginning of their presence in Hungary.", "A typical example is the Swedish furniture shop IKEA, whose web site and other publications address the customers in ''te'' form.", "When a news site asked IKEA—using the ''te'' form—why they address their customers this way, IKEA's PR Manager explained in his answer—using the ''ön'' form—that their way of communication reflects IKEA's open-mindedness and the Swedish culture.", "However IKEA in France uses the polite (''vous'') form.", "Another example is the communication of Yettel Hungary (earlier Telenor, a mobile network operator) towards its customers.", "Yettel chose to communicate towards business customers in the polite ''ön'' form while all other customers are addressed in the less polite ''te'' form." ], [ "Vocabulary", "+ Examples with '''''ad''''' Hungarian English givesDerived terms with suffixesto give transmission, broadcast tax or transmitter pays tax taxpayer debtor debt data gives (practise charity) additive (ingredient) dose, portion donation anecdoteWith verbal prefixes hands over hands in sells gives up, mails augments, adds to rents out, publishes, extradites loses weight, deposits (an object) repays (debt), calls (poker),grants (permission) adds (does mathematical addition)During the first early phase of Hungarian language reforms (late 18th and early 19th centuries) more than ten thousand words were coined, several thousand of which are still actively used today (see also Ferenc Kazinczy, the leading figure of the Hungarian language reforms.)", "Kazinczy's chief goal was to replace existing words of German and Latin origins with newly created Hungarian words.", "As a result, Kazinczy and his later followers (the reformers) significantly reduced the formerly high ratio of words of Latin and German origins in the Hungarian language, which were related to social sciences, natural sciences, politics and economics, institutional names, fashion etc.Giving an accurate estimate for the total word count is difficult, since it is hard to define a \"word\" in agglutinating languages, due to the existence of affixed words and compound words.", "To obtain a meaningful definition of compound words, it is necessary to exclude compounds whose meaning is the mere sum of its elements.", "The largest dictionaries giving translations from Hungarian to another language contain 120,000 words and phrases (but this may include redundant phrases as well, because of translation issues).", "The new desk lexicon of the Hungarian language contains 75,000 words, and the Comprehensive Dictionary of Hungarian Language (to be published in 18 volumes in the next twenty years) is planned to contain 110,000 words.", "The default Hungarian lexicon is usually estimated to comprise 60,000 to 100,000 words.", "(Independently of specific languages, speakers actively use at most 10,000 to 20,000 words, with an average intellectual using 25,000 to 30,000 words.)", "However, all the Hungarian lexemes collected from technical texts, dialects etc.", "would total up to 1,000,000 words.Parts of the lexicon can be organized using word-bushes (see an example on the right).", "The words in these bushes share a common root, are related through inflection, derivation and compounding, and are usually broadly related in meaning.The basic vocabulary shares several hundred word roots with other Uralic languages like Finnish, Estonian, Mansi and Khanty.", "Examples are the verb \"live\" (Finnish ), the numbers (2), (3), (4) (cf.", "Mansi , , , Finnish , Estonian ), as well as 'water', 'hand', 'blood', 'head' (cf.", "Finnish and Estonian , Finnish , Estonian or ).Words for elementary kinship and nature are more Ugric, less r-Turkic and less Slavic.", "Agricultural words are about 50% r-Turkic and 50% Slavic; pastoral terms are more r-Turkic, less Ugric and less Slavic.", "Finally, Christian and state terminology is more Slavic and less r-Turkic.", "The Slavic is most probably proto-Slovakian and/or -Slovenian.", "This is easily understood in the Uralic paradigm, proto-Magyars were first similar to Ob-Ugors, who were mainly hunters, fishers and gatherers, but with some horses too.", "Then they accultured to Bulgarian r-Turks, so the older layer of agriculture words (wine, beer, wheat, barley etc.)", "are purely r-Turkic, and many terms of statesmanship and religion were, too.Except for a few Latin and Greek loanwords, these differences are unnoticed even by native speakers; the words have been entirely adopted into the Hungarian lexicon.", "There are an increasing number of English loanwords, especially in technical fields.Another source differs in that loanwords in Hungarian are held to constitute about 45% of bases in the language.", "Although the lexical fraction of native words in Hungarian is 55%, their use accounts for 88.4% of all words used (the fraction of loanwords used being just 11.6%).", "Therefore, the history of Hungarian has come, especially since the 19th century, to favor neologisms from original bases, whilst still having developed as many terms from neighboring languages in the lexicon.===Word formation===Words can be compounds or derived.", "Most derivation is with suffixes, but there is a small set of derivational prefixes as well.====Compounds====Compounds have been present in the language since the Proto-Uralic era.", "Numerous ancient compounds transformed to base words during the centuries.", "Today, compounds play an important role in vocabulary.A good example is the word ''arc'':: ''orr'' (nose) + ''száj'' (mouth) → ''orca'' (face) (colloquial until the end of the 19th century and still in use in some dialects) > ''arc'' (face)Compounds are made up of two base words: the first is the prefix, the latter is the suffix.", "A compound can be ''subordinative'': the prefix is in logical connection with the suffix.", "If the prefix is the subject of the suffix, the compound is generally classified as a subjective one.", "There are objective, determinative, and adjunctive compounds as well.", "Some examples are given below:: Subjective::: ''menny'' (heaven) + ''dörgés'' (rumbling) → ''mennydörgés'' (thundering):: ''Nap'' (Sun) + ''sütötte'' (lit by) → ''napsütötte'' (sunlit): Objective::: ''fa'' (tree, wood) + ''vágó'' (cutter) → ''favágó'' (lumberjack, literally \"woodcutter\"): Determinative::: ''új'' (new) + ''já'' (modification of ''-vá, -vé'' a suffix meaning \"making it to something\") + ''építés'' (construction) → ''újjáépítés'' (reconstruction, literally \"making something to be new by construction\"): Adjunctive::: ''sárga'' (yellow) + ''réz'' (copper) → ''sárgaréz'' (brass)According to current orthographic rules, a subordinative compound word has to be written as a single word, without spaces; however, if a compound of three or more words (not counting one-syllable verbal prefixes) is seven or more syllables long (not counting case suffixes), a hyphen must be inserted at the appropriate boundary to ease the determination of word boundaries for the reader.Other compound words are ''coordinatives'': there is no concrete relation between the prefix and the suffix.", "Subcategories include reduplication (to emphasise the meaning; ''olykor-olykor'''really occasionally'), twin words (where a base word and a distorted form of it makes up a compound: , where the suffix 'gaz' means 'weed' and the prefix is the distorted form; the compound itself means 'inconsiderable weed'), and such compounds which have meanings, but neither their prefixes, nor their suffixes make sense (for example, 'complex, obsolete procedures').A compound also can be made up by multiple (i.e., more than two) base words: in this case, at least one word element, or even both the prefix and the suffix, is a compound.", "Some examples:: ''elme'' mind; standalone base + (''gyógy'' medical + ''intézet'' institute) → ''elmegyógyintézet'' (asylum): (''hadi'' militarian + ''fogoly'' prisoner) + (''munka'' work + ''tábor'' camp) → ''hadifogoly-munkatábor'' (work camp of prisoners of war)===Noteworthy lexical items=======Points of the compass====Hungarian words for the points of the compass are directly derived from the position of the Sun during the day in the Northern Hemisphere.", "* North = észak (from \"éj(szaka)\", 'night'), as the Sun never shines from the north* South = dél ('noon'), as the Sun shines from the south at noon* East = kelet (from \"nap(kelte)\",literally;'rising of the Sun,waking up of the Sun'), as the Sun rises in the east* West = nyugat (from \"nap(nyugta)\",literally;'setting of the Sun,calming of the Sun'), as the Sun sets in the west====Two words for \"red\"====There are two basic words for \"red\" in Hungarian: \"piros\" and \"vörös\" (variant: \"veres\"; compare with Estonian \"verev\" or Finnish \"punainen\").", "(They are basic in the sense that one is not a sub-type of the other, as the English \"scarlet\" is of \"red\".)", "The word \"vörös\" is related to \"vér\", meaning \"blood\" (Finnish and Estonian \"veri\").", "When they refer to an actual difference in colour (as on a colour chart), \"vörös\" usually refers to the deeper (darker and/or more red and less orange) hue of red.", "In English similar differences exist between \"scarlet\" and \"red\".", "While many languages have multiple names for this colour, often Hungarian scholars assume that this is unique in recognizing two shades of red as separate and distinct \"folk colours\".However, the two words are also used independently of the above in collocations.", "\"Piros\" is learned by children first, as it is generally used to describe inanimate, artificial things, or things seen as cheerful or neutral, while \"vörös\" typically refers to animate or natural things (biological, geological, physical and astronomical objects), as well as serious or emotionally charged subjects.When the rules outlined above are in contradiction, typical collocations usually prevail.", "In some cases where a typical collocation does not exist, the use of either of the two words may be equally adequate.Examples:* Expressions where \"red\" typically translates to \"piros\": a red road sign, red traffic lights, the red line of Budapest Metro, red (now called express) bus lines in Budapest, a holiday shown in red in the calendar, ruddy complexion, the red nose of a clown, some red flowers (those of a neutral nature, e.g.", "tulips), red peppers and paprika, red card suits (hearts and diamonds), red stripes on a flag (but the red flag and its variants translate to \"vörös\"), etc.", "* Expressions where \"red\" typically translates to \"vörös\": a red railway signal (unlike traffic lights, see above), Red Sea, Red Square, Red Army, Red Baron, Erik the Red, red wine, red carpet (for receiving important guests), red hair or beard, red lion (the mythical animal), the Red Cross, the novel ''The Red and the Black'', redshift, red giant, red blood cells, red oak, some red flowers (those with passionate connotations, e.g.", "roses), red fox, names of ferric and other red minerals, red copper, rust, red phosphorus, the colour of blushing with anger or shame, the red nose of an alcoholic (in contrast with that of a clown, see above), the red posterior of a baboon, red meat, regular onion (not the red onion, which is \"lila\"), litmus paper (in acid), cities, countries, or other political entities associated with leftist movements (e.g.", "Red Vienna, Red Russia), etc.====Kinship terms====The Hungarian words for brothers and sisters are differentiated based upon relative age.", "There is also a general word for \"sibling\": , from \"body\" and \"blood\"; i.e., originating from the same body and blood.", "younger elder unspecifiedrelative age brother or sister (archaic) or sibling () (There used to be a separate word for \"elder sister\", , but it has become obsolete except to mean \"aunt\" in some dialects and has been replaced by the generic word for \"sister\".", ")In addition, there are separate prefixes for several ancestors and descendants:parentgrandparentgreat-grandparentgreat-great-grandparentgreat-great-great-grandparentgreat-great-great-great-grandparent''szülő''''nagyszülő''''déd(nagy)szülő''''ük(nagy)szülő''''szép(nagy)szülő''(OR ''ük-ük(nagy)szülő'')''ó(nagy)szülő''(OR ''ük-ük-ük(nagy)szülő)''childgrandchildgreat-grandchildgreat-great-grandchildgreat-great-great-grandchildgreat-great-great-great-grandchild''gyerek''''unoka''''dédunoka''''ükunoka''''szépunoka''(OR ''ük-ükunoka'')''óunoka''(OR ''ük-ük-ükunoka'')The words for \"boy\" and \"girl\" are applied with possessive suffixes.", "Nevertheless, the terms are differentiated with different declension or lexemes: boy/girl (his/her)son/daughter (his/her)lover, partner male / female is only used in this, irregular possessive form; it has no nominative on its own (see inalienable possession).", "However, the word can also take the regular suffix, in which case the resulting word () will refer to a lover or partner (boyfriend), rather than a male offspring.The word (boy) is also often noted as an extreme example of the ability of the language to add suffixes to a word, by forming , adding vowel-form suffixes only, where the result is quite a frequently used word: boy his/her son his/her sons his/her son's (singular object) his/her son's (plural object) his/her sons' (singular object) his/her sons' (plural object)====Extremely long words====* ''megszentségteleníthetetlenségeskedéseitekért'': Partition to root and suffixes with explanations: meg- verb prefix; in this case, it means \"completed\" szent holy (the word root) -ség like English \"-ness\", as in \"holiness\" -t(e)len variant of \"-tlen\", noun suffix expressing the lack of something; like English \"-less\", as in \"useless\" -ít constitutes a transitive verb from an adjective -het expresses possibility; somewhat similar to the English modal verbs \"may\" or \"can\" -(e)tlen another variant of \"-tlen\" -ség (see above) -es constitutes an adjective from a noun; like English \"-y\" as in \"witty\" -ked attached to an adjective (e.g.", "\"strong\"), produces the verb \"to pretend to be (strong)\" -és constitutes a noun from a verb; there are various ways this is done in English, e.g.", "\"-ance\" in \"acceptance\" -eitek plural possessive suffix, second-person plural (e.g.", "\"apple\" → \"your apples\", where \"your\" refers to multiple people) -ért approximately translates to \"because of\", or in this case simply \"for\": '''Translation:''' \"for your plural repeated pretending to be indesecratable\"The above word is often considered to be the longest word in Hungarian, although there are longer words like:* ''legeslegmegszentségteleníttethetetlenebbjeitekként'': ''leges-leg-meg-'''''szent'''''-ség-telen-ít-tet-het-etlen-ebb-je-i-tek-ként'': \"like those of you that are the very least possible to get desecrated\"Words of such length are not used in practice and are difficult to understand even for natives.", "They were invented to show, in a somewhat facetious way, the ability of the language to form long words (see agglutinative language).", "They are not compound words but are formed by adding a series of one- and two-syllable suffixes (and a few prefixes) to a simple root (\"szent\", saint or holy).There is virtually no limit for the length of words, but when too many suffixes are added, the meaning of the word becomes less clear, and the word becomes hard to understand and will work like a riddle even for native speakers.====Hungarian words in English====The English word best known as being of Hungarian origin is probably ''paprika'', from Serbo-Croatian ''papar'' \"pepper\" and the Hungarian diminutive ''-ka''.", "The most common, however, is ''coach'', from ''kocsi'', originally ''kocsi szekér'' \"car from/in the style of Kocs\".", "Others are:* shako, from ''csákó'', from ''csákósüveg'' \"peaked cap\"* sabre, from ''szablya''* heyduck, from ''hajdúk'', plural of ''hajdú'' \"brigand\"* tolpatch, from ''talpas'' \"foot-soldier\", apparently derived from ''talp'' \"sole\"." ], [ "Writing system", "Benedictine Abbey of Tihany, 1055.It reads \"''feheruuaru rea meneh hodu utu rea''\" (in modern Hungarian \"''Fehérvárra menő hadi útra''\", meaning \"''to the military road going to Fehérvár''\")Hungarian-language road signMedieval Hungarian book (a copy of the Hussite Bible), 1466The Hungarian language was originally written in right-to-left Old Hungarian runes, superficially similar in appearance to the better-known futhark runes but unrelated.", "After Stephen I of Hungary established the Kingdom of Hungary in the year 1000, the old system was gradually discarded in favour of the Latin alphabet and left-to-right order.", "Although now not used at all in everyday life, the old script is still known and practised by some enthusiasts.Modern Hungarian is written using an expanded Latin alphabet and has a phonemic orthography, i.e.", "pronunciation can generally be predicted from the written language.", "In addition to the standard letters of the Latin alphabet, Hungarian uses several modified Latin characters to represent the additional vowel sounds of the language.", "These include letters with acute accents ''(á, é, í, ó, ú)'' to represent long vowels, and umlauts (''ö'' and ''ü'') and their long counterparts ''ő'' and ''ű'' to represent front vowels.", "Sometimes (usually as a result of a technical glitch on a computer) or is used for , and for .", "This is often due to the limitations of the Latin-1 / ISO-8859-1 code page.", "These letters are not part of the Hungarian language and are considered misprints.", "Hungarian can be properly represented with the Latin-2 / ISO-8859-2 code page, but this code page is not always available.", "(Hungarian is the only language using both and .)", "Unicode includes them, and so they can be used on the Internet.Additionally, the letter pairs , , and represent the palatal consonants , , and (roughly analogous to the \"d+y\" sounds in British \"''du''ke\" or American \"woul''d y''ou\")—produced using a similar mechanism as the letter \"d\" when pronounced with the tongue pointing to the palate.Hungarian uses for and for , which is the reverse of Polish usage.", "The letter is and is .", "These digraphs are considered single letters in the alphabet.", "The letter is also a \"single letter digraph\", but is pronounced like (English ) and appears mostly in old words.", "The letters and are exotic remnants and are hard to find even in longer texts.", "Some examples still in common use are ''madzag'' (\"string\"), ''edzeni'' (\"to train (athletically)\") and ''dzsungel'' (\"jungle\").Sometimes additional information is required for partitioning words with digraphs: házszám (\"street number\") = ''ház'' (\"house\") + ''szám'' (\"number\"), not an unintelligible ''házs'' + ''zám''.Hungarian distinguishes between long and short vowels, with long vowels written with acutes.", "It also distinguishes between long and short consonants, with long consonants being doubled.", "For example, ''lenni'' (\"to be\"), ''hozzászólás'' (\"comment\").", "The digraphs, when doubled, become trigraphs: + = , e.g.", "''művésszel'' (\"with an artist\").", "But when the digraph occurs at the end of a line, all of the letters are written out.", "For example, (\"with a bus\"):: ... ''busz-'': ''szal''...When the first lexeme of a compound ends in a digraph and the second lexeme starts with the same digraph, both digraphs are written out: + = (\"engagement/wedding ring\", means \"sign\", \"mark\".", "The term means \"to be engaged\"; means \"ring\").Usually a trigraph is a double digraph, but there are a few exceptions: (\"eighteen\") is a concatenation of + .", "There are doubling minimal pairs: (\"push\") vs. (\"feather\" or \"pen\").While to English speakers they may seem unusual at first, once the new orthography and pronunciation are learned, written Hungarian is almost completely phonemic (except for etymological spellings and \"ly, j\" representing )." ], [ "Word order", "The word order is basically from general to specific.", "This is a typical analytical approach and is used generally in Hungarian.===Name order===The Hungarian language uses the so-called eastern name order, in which the surname (general, deriving from the family) comes first and the given name comes last.", "If a second given name is used, this follows the first given name.====Hungarian names in foreign languages====For clarity, in foreign languages Hungarian names are usually represented in the western name order.", "Sometimes, however, especially in the neighbouring countries of Hungary – where there is a significant Hungarian population – the Hungarian name order is retained, as it causes less confusion there.For an example of foreign use, the birth name of the Hungarian-born physicist called the \"father of the hydrogen bomb\" was '''''Teller Ede''''', but he immigrated to the United States in the 1930s and thus became known as '''''Edward Teller'''''.", "Prior to the mid-20th century, given names were usually translated along with the name order; this is no longer as common.", "For example, the pianist uses ''András Schiff'' when abroad, not ''Andrew Schiff'' (in Hungarian ''Schiff András'').", "If a second given name is present, it becomes a middle name and is usually written out in full, rather than truncated to an initial.====Foreign names in Hungarian====In modern usage, foreign names retain their order when used in Hungarian.", "Therefore:Amikor ''Kiss János'' Los Angelesben volt, látta ''John Travoltát.''", "(means: When János Kiss was in Los Angeles he saw John Travolta.", "):The Hungarian name ''Kiss János'' is in the Hungarian name order (''János'' is equivalent to ''John''), but the foreign name ''John Travolta'' remains in the western name order.Before the 20th century, not only was it common to reverse the order of foreign personalities, they were also \"Hungarianised\": ''Goethe János Farkas'' (originally Johann Wolfgang Goethe).", "This usage sounds odd today, when only a few well-known personalities are referred to using their Hungarianised names, including ''Verne Gyula'' (Jules Verne), ''Marx Károly'' (Karl Marx), ''Kolumbusz Kristóf'' (Christopher Columbus; the last of these is also translated in English from the original Italian or possibly Ligurian).Some native speakers disapprove of this usage; the names of certain historical religious personalities (including popes), however, are always Hungarianised by practically all speakers, such as ''Luther Márton'' (Martin Luther), ''Husz János'' (Jan Hus), ''Kálvin János'' (John Calvin); just like the names of monarchs, for example the king of Spain, Juan Carlos I is referred to as ''I.", "János Károly'' or the late queen of the UK, Elizabeth II would be referred to as ''II.", "Erzsébet''.Japanese names, which are usually written in western order in the rest of Europe, retain their original order in Hungarian, e. g. ''Kuroszava Akira'' instead of Akira Kurosawa.====Date and time====The Hungarian convention for date and time is to go from the generic to the specific: 1.year, 2.month, 3.day, 4.hour, 5.minute, (6.second)The year and day are always written in Arabic numerals, followed by a full stop.", "The month can be written by its full name or can be abbreviated, or even denoted by Roman or Arabic numerals.", "Except for the first case (month written by its full name), the month is followed by a full stop.", "Usually, when the month is written in letters, there is no leading zero before the day.", "On the other hand, when the month is written in Arabic numerals, a leading zero is common, but not obligatory.", "Except at the beginning of a sentence, the name of the month always begins with a lower-case letter.Hours, minutes, and seconds are separated by a colon (H:m:s).", "Fractions of a second are separated by a full stop from the rest of the time.", "Hungary generally uses the 24-hour clock format, but in verbal (and written) communication 12-hour clock format can also be used.", "See below for usage examples.Date and time may be separated by a comma or simply written one after the other.", "2020.9.16:23:42 ''or'' 2020.9., 16:23:422020.febr.", "9.2020.02.09.", "''or'' 2020.2.9.(rarely)2020.II.", "9.Date separated by hyphen is also spreading, especially on datestamps.", "Here – just like the version separated by full stops – leading zeros are in use.", "2020-02-09When only hours and minutes are written in a sentence (so not only \"displaying\" time), these parts can be separated by a full stop (e.g. \"\"", "– \"Let's meet at 10.35.", "\"), or it is also regular to write hours in normal size, and minutes put in superscript (and not necessarily) underlined (e.g. \"\"", "''or'' \"\" – \"The meeting begins at 10.35.", "\").Also, in verbal and written communication it is common to use \"\" (literally \"before noon\") and \"\" (lit.", "\"after noon\") abbreviated as \"de.\"", "and \"du.\"", "respectively.", "and is said or written before the time, e.g. \"\"", "– \"It's 4 p.m.\".", "However e.g. \"\"", "(should mean \"5 a.m.\") or \"\" (should mean \"10 p.m.\") are never used, because at these times the sun is not up, instead \"\" (\"dawn\"), \"\" (\"morning\"), \"\" (\"evening\") and \"\" (\"night\") is used, however there are no exact rules for the use of these, as everybody uses them according to their habits (e.g.", "somebody may have woken up at 5 a.m. so he/she says \"\" – \"I had food at ''morning'' 6.", "\", and somebody woke up at 11 a.m. so he/she says \"\" – \"I was still sleeping at ''dawn'' 6.\").", "Roughly, these expressions mean these times:ExpressionApproximate time''''''4–6 a.m.''''''6–9 a.m.'''''' (de.", ")9 a.m. – 12 p.m.''''''=12 p.m. (=\"noon\")'''''' (du.", ")12–6 p.m.''''''6–11 p.m.''''''11 p.m. – 4 a.m.''''''=12 a.m. (=\"midnight\")* * \"\" and \"\" mean these exact times, so using time after them is incorrect.", "So there is '''no''' \"\" (\"We were still partying at ''midnight 0''.\")", "or \"\" (\"The sun shines at ''noon 12''.\").", "Instead \"\" and \"\" is correct.", "(More confusingly, one can say \"\", meaning \"The sun shines at 12 '''of''' noon.", "\", i.e.", "\"The sun shines at 12, which is the 12 of daytime.\")", "\"\" on the other hand means \"The sun shines in the south\", as means both noon and south.==== Addresses ====Although address formatting is increasingly being influenced by standard European conventions, the traditional Hungarian style is:'''1052 Budapest, Deák Ferenc tér 1.", "'''So the order is: 1) postcode 2) settlement (most general), 3) street/square/etc.", "(more specific), 4) house number (most specific).", "The house number may be followed by the storey and door numbers.Addresses on envelopes and postal parcels should be formatted and placed on the right side as follows:Name of the recipientSettlementStreet address (up to door number if necessary)(HU-)postcodeThe HU- part before the postcode is only for incoming postal traffic from foreign countries." ], [ "Vocabulary examples", "''Note: The stress is always placed on the first syllable of each word.", "The remaining syllables all receive an equal, lesser stress.", "All syllables are pronounced clearly and evenly, even at the end of a sentence, unlike in English.", "''=== Example text ===Article 1 of the ''Universal Declaration of Human Rights'' in Hungarian::'''''Minden emberi lény szabadon születik és egyenlő méltósága és joga van.", "Az emberek, ésszel és lelkiismerettel bírván, egymással szemben testvéri szellemben kell hogy viseltessenek.", "'''''Article 1 of the ''Universal Declaration of Human Rights'' in English::''All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.", "They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.", "''=== Numbers ===Source: Wiktionary English Hungarian IPA zero one two three four five six seven eight nine ten English Hungarian IPA eleven ''tizenegy'' twelve ''tizenkettő'' thirteen ''tizenhárom'' fourteen ''tizennégy'' fifteen ''tizenöt'' sixteen ''tizenhat'' seventeen ''tizenhét'' eighteen ''tizennyolc'' nineteen ''tizenkilenc'' twenty ''húsz'' English Hungarian IPA twenty-one ''huszonegy'' twenty-two ''huszonkettő'' twenty-three ''huszonhárom'' twenty-four ''huszonnégy'' twenty-five ''huszonöt'' twenty-six ''huszonhat'' twenty-seven ''huszonhét'' twenty-eight ''huszonnyolc'' twenty-nine ''huszonkilenc'' thirty ''harminc'' forty ''negyven'' fifty ''ötven'' sixty ''hatvan '' seventy ''hetven'' eighty ''nyolcvan'' ninety ''kilencven'' English Hungarian IPA one hundred száz one thousand ezer two thousand kétezer (kettőezer) () two thousand (and) nineteen (2019) kétezer-tizenkilenc (kettőezertizenkilenc) () one million egymillió /ˈɛɟmilːiʲoː/ one billion egymilliárd /ˈɛɟmilːiʲaːrd/===Time===+ Days of the week English Hungarian IPA Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday Source: Wiktionary+ Months of the year English Hungarian IPA January February March April May June July August September October November December Source:''Wiktionary''===Conversation===Hungarian (person, language): Hello!", ":Formal, when addressing a stranger: \"Good day!", "\": Informal, when addressing a close acquaintance: is a version of the Latin origin loanword Servus.Good-bye!", ": (formal) (see above), (semi-informal), (informal: same stylistic remark as for \"See you\" or \"Hello!\"", ")Excuse me: Please:* (This literally means \"I'm asking (it/you) ''nicely''\", as in German .", "See next for a more common form of the polite request.", ")** (literally: \"Be (so) kind!", "\")I would like ____, please: '' ____'' (this example illustrates the use of the conditional tense, as a common form of a polite request; it literally means \"I would like\".)Sorry!", ": Thank you: that/this: , How much?", ": How much does it cost?", ": Yes: No: I do not understand: I do not know: Where's the toilet?", ":* (vécé/veːtseː is the Hungarian pronunciation of the English abbreviation of \"Water Closet\")** – more polite (and word-for-word) versiongeneric toast: (literally: \"To our health!", "\")juice: water: wine: beer: tea: milk: Do you speak English?", ": The fact of ''asking'' is only shown by the proper intonation: continually rising until the penultimate syllable, then falling for the last one.", "I love you: Help!", ": It is needed: I need to go:" ], [ "Recorded examples", "WIKITONGUES-_Orsolya_speaking_Hungarian.webm\|A Hungarian speakerWIKITONGUES-_Norbert_speaking_Hungarian.webm\|A Hungarian speaker recorded in TaiwanWIKITONGUES-_M%C3%A1ria_speaking_Swabian_and_Hungarian.webm\|A bilingual speaker of Hungarian and Swabian, recorded in Perbál, HungaryWIKITONGUES- Gabriel speaking Hungarian.webm\|A native Icelandic speaker speaking Hungarian" ], [ "See also", "* Hungarian grammar* Hungarian verbs* Hungarian noun phrase* Hungarian phonology* History of the Hungarian language* Regular sound correspondences between Hungarian and other Uralic languages* Hungarian dialects* Hungarian Cultural Institute* List of English words of Hungarian origin* BABEL Speech Corpus* ''Magyar szótár'' (Dictionary of the Hungarian Language)* Szabadkai Friss Újság (1901), Hungarian language daily newspaper" ], [ "Bibliography", "===Courses===* ''MagyarOK – Text book and exercise book for beginners''.", "Szita, Szilvia; Pelcz, Katalin (2013).", "Pécs; Pécsi Tudományegyetem.", "MagyarOK website .", "* ''Colloquial Hungarian – The complete course for beginners''.", "Rounds, Carol H.; Sólyom, Erika (2002).", "London; New York: Routledge.", ".", ": This book gives an introduction to the Hungarian language in 15 chapters.", "The dialogues are available on CDs.", "* ''Teach Yourself Hungarian – A complete course for beginners''.", "Pontifex, Zsuzsa (1993).", "London: Hodder & Stoughton.", "Chicago: NTC/Contemporary Publishing.", ".", ": This is a complete course in spoken and written Hungarian.", "The course consists of 21 chapters with dialogues, culture notes, grammar and exercises.", "The dialogues are available on cassette.", "* ''Hungarolingua 1 – Magyar nyelvkönyv''.", "Hoffmann, István; et al.", "(1996).", "Debreceni Nyári Egyetem.", "* ''Hungarolingua 2 – Magyar nyelvkönyv''.", "Hlavacska, Edit; et al.", "(2001).", "Debreceni Nyári Egyetem.", "* ''Hungarolingua 3 – Magyar nyelvkönyv''.", "Hlavacska, Edit; et al.", "(1999).", "Debreceni Nyári Egyetem.", ": These course books were developed by the University of Debrecen Summer School program for teaching Hungarian to foreigners.", "The books are written completely in Hungarian and therefore unsuitable for self study.", "There is an accompanying 'dictionary' with translations of the Hungarian vocabulary into English, German, and French for the words used in the first two books.", "* \"NTC's Hungarian and English Dictionary\" by Magay and Kiss.", "(You may be able to find a newer edition also.", "This one is 1996.", ")===Grammars===* ''Gyakorló magyar nyelvtan / A Practical Hungarian grammar'' (2009, 2010).", "Szita Szilvia, Görbe Tamás.", "Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó.", "978 963 05 8703 7.", "* ''A practical Hungarian grammar'' (3rd, rev.", "ed.).", "Keresztes, László (1999).", "Debrecen: Debreceni Nyári Egyetem.", ".", "''Simplified Grammar of the Hungarian Language'' (1882).", "Ignatius Singer.", "London: Trübner & Co.''Practical Hungarian grammar: a compact guide to the basics of Hungarian grammar''.", "Törkenczy, Miklós (2002).", "Budapest: Corvina.", ".", "''Hungarian verbs and essentials of grammar: a practical guide to the mastery of Hungarian'' (2nd ed.).", "Törkenczy, Miklós (1999).", "Budapest: Corvina; Lincolnwood, Ill.: Passport Books.", ".", "''Hungarian: an essential grammar'' (2nd ed.).", "Rounds, Carol (2009).", "London; New York: Routledge.", ".", "''Hungarian: Descriptive grammar''.", "Kenesei, István, Robert M. Vago, and Anna Fenyvesi (1998).", "London; New York: Routledge.", ".", " Hungarian Language Learning References (including the short reviews of three of the above books)''Noun Declension Tables – HUNGARIAN''.", "Budapest: Pons.", "Klett.", "''Verb Conjugation Tables – HUNGARIAN''.", "Budapest: Pons.", "Klett.", "===Others===* Abondolo, Daniel Mario: ''Hungarian Inflectional Morphology''.", "Akadémiai publishing.", "Budapest, 1988.", "* Balázs, Géza: ''The Story of Hungarian.", "A Guide to the Language.''", "Translated by Thomas J. DeKornfeld.", "Corvina publishing.", "Budapest, 1997.", "* Stephanides, Éva H.", "(ed.", "): ''Contrasting English with Hungarian''.", "Akadémiai publishing.", "Budapest, 1986.", "" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " Free downloadable Hungarian teaching and learning material * Introduction to Hungarian* Hungarian Profile* List of formative suffixes in Hungarian* The relationship between the Finnish and the Hungarian languages* Hungarian Language Review at How-to-learn-any-language.com* \"The Hungarian Language: A Short Descriptive Grammar\" by Beáta Megyesi (PDF document)* The old site of the Indiana University Institute of Hungarian Studies (various resources) * Hungarian Language Learning References on the Hungarian Language Page (short reviews of useful books)* One of the oldest Hungarian texts – A Halotti Beszéd (The Funeral Oration)* WikiLang – Hungarian Page (Hungarian grammar / lessons, in English)* Hungarian Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words (from Wiktionary's Swadesh-list appendix)* Basic Hungarian language course (book + audio files) USA Foreign Service Institute (FSI)* Old Hungarian Corpus===''Encyclopaedia Humana Hungarica''===* Introduction to the History of the Language; The Pre-Hungarian Period; The Early Hungarian Period; The Old Hungarian Period* The Linguistic Records of the Early Old Hungarian Period; The Linguistic System of the Age* The Old Hungarian Period; The System of the Language of the Old Hungarian Period* The Late Old Hungarian Period; The System of the Language* The First Half of the Middle Hungarian Period; Turkish Loan Words===Dictionaries===* Hungarian ↔ English created by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences – Computer and Automation Research Institute MTA SZTAKI (also includes dictionaries for the following languages to and from Hungarian : German, French, Italian, Dutch, and Polish)* bab.la - Online Hungarian-English dictionary and language learning portal* English-Hungarian-Finnish – three-language freely editable online dictionary* Collection of Hungarian Technical Dictionaries* Hungarian bilingual dictionaries* Hungarian-English dictionary* English-Hungarian dictionary* Hungarian Verb Conjugation" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hymenoptera" ], [ "Introduction", "''' Hymenoptera''' is a large order of insects, comprising the sawflies, wasps, bees, and ants.", "Over 150,000 living species of Hymenoptera have been described, in addition to over 2,000 extinct ones.", "Many of the species are parasitic.", "Females typically have a special ovipositor for inserting eggs into hosts or places that are otherwise inaccessible.", "This ovipositor is often modified into a stinger.", "The young develop through holometabolism (complete metamorphosis)—that is, they have a wormlike larval stage and an inactive pupal stage before they mature." ], [ "Etymology", "The name Hymenoptera refers to the wings of the insects, but the original derivation is ambiguous.", "All references agree that the derivation involves the Ancient Greek πτερόν (''pteron'') for wing.", "The Ancient Greek ὑμήν (''hymen'') for membrane provides a plausible etymology for the term because species in this order have membranous wings.", "However, a key characteristic of this order is that the hindwings are connected to the forewings by a series of hooks.", "Thus, another plausible etymology involves Hymen, the Ancient Greek god of marriage, as these insects have married wings in flight.", "Another suggestion for the inclusion of Hymen is the myth of Melissa, a nymph with a prominent role at the wedding of Zeus." ], [ "Evolution", "Molecular analysis finds that Hymenoptera is the earliest branching group of Holometabola.Hymenoptera originated in the Triassic, with the oldest fossils belonging to the family Xyelidae.", "Social hymenopterans appeared during the Cretaceous.", "The evolution of this group has been intensively studied by Alex Rasnitsyn, Michael S. Engel, and others.Phylogenetic relationships within the Hymenoptera, based on both morphology and molecular data, have been intensively studied since 2000.In 2023, a molecular study based on the analysis of ultra-conserved elements confirmed many previous findings and produced a relatively robust phylogeny of the whole Order.", "Basal superfamilies are shown in the cladogram below." ], [ "Anatomy", "''Bombus muscorum'' drinking nectar with its long proboscisHymenopterans range in size from very small to large insects, and usually have two pairs of wings.", "Their mouthparts are adapted for chewing, with well-developed mandibles (ectognathous mouthparts).", "Many species have further developed the mouthparts into a lengthy proboscis, with which they can drink liquids, such as nectar.", "They have large compound eyes, and typically three simple eyes, ocelli.The forward margin of the hind wing bears a number of hooked bristles, or \"hamuli\", which lock onto the fore wing, keeping them held together.", "The smaller species may have only two or three hamuli on each side, but the largest wasps may have a considerable number, keeping the wings gripped together especially tightly.", "Hymenopteran wings have relatively few veins compared with many other insects, especially in the smaller species.In the more ancestral hymenopterans, the ovipositor is blade-like, and has evolved for slicing plant tissues.", "In the majority, however, it is modified for piercing, and, in some cases, is several times the length of the body.", "In some species, the ovipositor has become modified as a stinger, and the eggs are laid from the base of the structure, rather than from the tip, which is used only to inject venom.", "The sting is typically used to immobilize prey, but in some wasps and bees may be used in defense.Hymenopteran larvae typically have a distinct head region, three thoracic segments, and usually nine or 10 abdominal segments.", "In the suborder Symphyta, the larvae resemble caterpillars in appearance, and like them, typically feed on leaves.", "They have large chewing mandibles, three pairs of thoracic limbs, and, in most cases, six or eight abdominal prolegs.", "Unlike caterpillars, however, the prolegs have no grasping spines, and the antennae are reduced to mere stubs.", "Symphytan larvae that are wood borers or stem borers have no abdominal legs and the thoracic legs are smaller than those of non-borers.With rare exceptions, larvae of the suborder Apocrita have no legs and are maggotlike in form, and are adapted to life in a protected environment.", "This may be the body of a host organism, or a cell in a nest, where the adults will care for the larva.", "In parasitic forms, the head is often greatly reduced and partially withdrawn into the prothorax (anterior part of the thorax).", "Sense organs appear to be poorly developed, with no ocelli, very small or absent antennae, and toothlike, sicklelike, or spinelike mandibles.", "They are also unable to defecate until they reach adulthood due to having an incomplete digestive tract (a blind sac), presumably to avoid contaminating their environment.", "The larvae of stinging forms (Aculeata) generally have 10 pairs of spiracles, or breathing pores, whereas parasitic forms usually have nine pairs present." ], [ "Reproduction", "===Sex determination===Among most or all hymenopterans, sex is determined by the number of chromosomes an individual possesses.", "Fertilized eggs get two sets of chromosomes (one from each parent's respective gametes) and develop into diploid females, while unfertilized eggs only contain one set (from the mother) and develop into haploid males.", "The act of fertilization is under the voluntary control of the egg-laying female, giving her control of the sex of her offspring.", "This phenomenon is called haplodiploidy.However, the actual genetic mechanisms of haplodiploid sex determination may be more complex than simple chromosome number.", "In many Hymenoptera, sex is determined by a single gene locus with many alleles.", "In these species, haploids are male and diploids heterozygous at the sex locus are female, but occasionally a diploid will be homozygous at the sex locus and develop as a male, instead.", "This is especially likely to occur in an individual whose parents were siblings or other close relatives.", "Diploid males are known to be produced by inbreeding in many ant, bee, and wasp species.", "Diploid biparental males are usually sterile but a few species that have fertile diploid males are known.One consequence of haplodiploidy is that females on average have more genes in common with their sisters than they do with their daughters.", "Because of this, cooperation among kindred females may be unusually advantageous and has been hypothesized to contribute to the multiple origins of eusociality within this order.", "In many colonies of bees, ants, and wasps, worker females will remove eggs laid by other workers due to increased relatedness to direct siblings, a phenomenon known as worker policing.Another consequence is that hymenopterans may be more resistant to the deleterious effects of inbreeding.", "As males are haploid, any recessive genes will automatically be expressed, exposing them to natural selection.", "Thus, the genetic load of deleterious genes is purged relatively quickly.===Thelytoky===Some hymenopterans take advantage of parthenogenesis, the creation of embryos without fertilization.", "Thelytoky is a particular form of parthenogenesis in which female embryos are created (without fertilisation).", "The form of thelytoky in hymenopterans is a kind of automixis in which two haploid products (proto-eggs) from the same meiosis fuse to form a diploid zygote.", "This process tends to maintain heterozygosity in the passage of the genome from mother to daughter.", "It is found in several ant species including the desert ant ''Cataglyphis cursor'', the clonal raider ant ''Cerapachys biroi'', the predaceous ant ''Platythyrea punctata'', and the electric ant (little fire ant) ''Wasmannia auropunctata''.", "It also occurs in the Cape honey bee ''Apis mellifera capensis''.Oocytes that undergo automixis with central fusion often have a reduced rate of crossover recombination, which helps to maintain heterozygosity and avoid inbreeding depression.", "Species that display central fusion with reduced recombination include the ants ''Platythyrea punctata'' and '' Wasmannia auropunctata'' and the Cape honey bee ''Apis mellifera capensis''.", "In ''A.", "m. capensis'', the recombination rate during meiosis is reduced more than tenfold.", "In ''W.", "auropunctata'' the reduction is 45 fold.Single queen colonies of the narrow headed ant ''Formica exsecta'' illustrate the possible deleterious effects of increased homozygosity.", "Colonies of this species which have more homozygous queens will age more rapidly, resulting in reduced colony survival." ], [ "Diet", "Different species of Hymenoptera show a wide range of feeding habits.", "The most primitive forms are typically phytophagous, feeding on flowers, pollen, foliage, or stems.", "Stinging wasps are predators, and will provision their larvae with immobilised prey, while bees feed on nectar and pollen.A huge number of species are parasitoids as larvae.", "The adults inject the eggs into a host, which they begin to consume after hatching.", "For example, the eggs of the endangered ''Papilio homerus'' are parasitized at a rate of 77%, mainly by Hymenoptera species.", "Some species are even hyperparasitoid, with the host itself being another parasitoid insect.", "Habits intermediate between those of the herbivorous and parasitoid forms are shown in some hymenopterans, which inhabit the galls or nests of other insects, stealing their food, and eventually killing and eating the occupant." ], [ "Classification", "Symphyta, without a waist: the sawfly ''Arge pagana''Apocrita, with narrow waist: the wasp ''Vespula germanica''The Hymenoptera are divided into two groups; the Symphyta which have no waist, and the Apocrita which have a narrow waist.===Symphyta===The suborder Symphyta includes the sawflies, horntails, and parasitic wood wasps.", "The group may be paraphyletic, as it has been suggested that the family Orussidae may be the group from which the Apocrita arose.", "They have an unconstricted junction between the thorax and abdomen.", "The larvae are herbivorous, free-living, and eruciform, usually with three pairs of true legs, prolegs (on every segment, unlike Lepidoptera) and ocelli.", "The prolegs do not have crochet hooks at the ends unlike the larvae of the Lepidoptera.", "The legs and prolegs tend to be reduced or absent in larvae that mine or bore plant tissue, as well as in larvae of Pamphiliidae.===Apocrita===The wasps, bees, and ants together make up the suborder (and clade) Apocrita, characterized by a constriction between the first and second abdominal segments called a wasp-waist (petiole), also involving the fusion of the first abdominal segment to the thorax.", "Also, the larvae of all Apocrita lack legs, prolegs, or ocelli.", "The hindgut of the larvae also remains closed during development, with feces being stored inside the body, with the exception of some bee larvae where the larval anus has reappeared through developmental reversion.", "In general, the anus only opens at the completion of larval growth." ], [ "Threats", "Hymenoptera as a group are highly susceptible to habitat loss, which can lead to substantial decreases in species richness and have major ecological implications due to their pivotal role as plant pollinators." ], [ "See also", "* Hymenoptera Genome Database* Insects in literature (ant, bee, wasp)* Worker policing" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", ";General* Hymenoptera Anatomy Ontology project* Hymenoptera Anatomy Glossary* Hymenoptera Forum German and International* Hymenoptera of North America – large format reference photographs, descriptions, taxonomy* International Society of Hymenopterists* Bees, Wasps and Ants Recording Society (UK)* Ants Photo Gallery (RU)* Sphecos Forum for Aculeate Hymenoptera* Hymenoptera images on MorphBank (a biological image database)* Order Hymenoptera Insect Life Forms;Systematics* Hymenopteran Systematics* Hymenoptera Online 1000+ images;Regional Lists* Insetos do Brasil* New Zealand Hymenoptera * Waspweb Afrotropical Hymenoptera Excellent images* checklist of Australian Hymenoptera" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hannibal Hamlin" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hannibal Hamlin''' (August 27, 1809 – July 4, 1891) was an American attorney and politician who served as the 15th vice president of the United States from 1861 to 1865, during President Abraham Lincoln's first term.", "He was the first Republican vice president.An attorney by background, Hamlin began his political career as a Democrat in the Maine House of Representatives before being elected twice to the United States House of Representatives, and then to the United States Senate.", "With his strong abolitionist views, he left the Democratic Party for the newly formed Republican Party in 1856.In the 1860 general election, Hamlin balanced the successful Republican ticket as a New Englander partnered with the Northwesterner Lincoln.", "Although not a close friend of the president, he lent loyal support to his key projects such as the Emancipation Proclamation.In the 1864 election, Hamlin was replaced as vice-presidential nominee by Andrew Johnson, a Southern Democrat chosen for his appeal to Southern Unionists.", "After being appointed Collector of the Port of Boston, Hamlin was elected to two more terms in the Senate, and finally served as U.S. Minister to Spain before retiring in 1882." ], [ "Early life", "Hamlin Hamlin was born to Cyrus Hamlin and his wife Anna (née Livermore) in Paris (now in Maine, then a part of Massachusetts).", "He was a descendant in the sixth generation of English colonist James Hamlin, who had settled in Barnstable, part of the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1639.He was a grandnephew of U.S.", "Senator Samuel Livermore II of New Hampshire.According to folklore, Hamlin's life was saved when he was an infant by a Native American medicine woman named Molly Ockett.", "Hamlin was gravely ill and Ockett prescribed that he be given warm cow's milk, after which he recovered.Hamlin attended the district schools and Hebron Academy and later managed his father's farm.", "From 1827 to 1830 he published the ''Oxford Jeffersonian'' newspaper in partnership with Horatio King.He studied law with the firm headed by Samuel Fessenden, was admitted to the bar in 1833, and began practicing in Hampden, Maine, where he lived until 1848." ], [ "Personal life", "Hamlin married Sarah Jane Emery of Paris Hill in 1833.Her father was Stephen Emery, who was appointed as Maine's Attorney General from 1839 to 1840.Hamlin and Sarah had four children: George, Charles, Cyrus, and Sarah.His wife died in 1855.The next year, Hamlin married Sarah's half-sister, Ellen Vesta Emery.", "They had two children together: Hannibal E. and Frank.", "Ellen Hamlin died in 1925." ], [ "Political beginnings", "Hamlin's political career began in 1835, when he was elected to the Maine House of Representatives.", "Appointed a Major on the staff of Governor John Fairfield, he served with the militia in the bloodless Aroostook War of 1839.He facilitated negotiations between Fairfield and Lieutenant Governor John Harvey of New Brunswick, which helped reduce tensions and make possible the Webster–Ashburton Treaty, which ended the war.Hamlin unsuccessfully ran for the United States House of Representatives in 1840 and left the State House in 1841.He later was elected to two terms in the United States House of Representatives, serving from 1843 to 1847.He was elected by the state legislature to fill a U.S. Senate vacancy in 1848, and to a full term in 1851.A Democrat at the beginning of his career, Hamlin supported the presidential candidacy of Franklin Pierce in 1852.From the very beginning of his service in Congress, Hamlin was prominent as an opponent of the extension of slavery.", "He was a conspicuous supporter of the Wilmot Proviso and spoke against the Compromise of 1850.In 1854, Hamlin strongly opposed the passage of the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which repealed the Missouri Compromise.", "After the Democratic Party endorsed that repeal at the 1856 Democratic National Convention, on June 12, 1856, he withdrew from the Democratic Party and joined the newly organized Republican Party, causing a national sensation.The Republicans nominated Hamlin for governor of Maine the same year.", "He won the election by a large margin and was inaugurated on January 8, 1857.In the latter part of February 1857, however, he resigned the governorship.", "He returned to the United States Senate, serving from 1857 to January 1861." ], [ "Vice presidency (1861–1865)", "1860 election campaign button for Abraham Lincoln and Hannibal Hamlin.", "The other side of the button has Lincoln's portrait.Hamlin was nominated by the Republican Party for Vice President of the United States in the 1860 presidential election on a ticket with former Representative Abraham Lincoln, the presidential nominee.", "Given that Lincoln was from Illinois, a vice presidential nominee from Maine provided regional balance.", "As a former Democrat, Hamlin could persuade other anti-slavery Democrats that joining the Republican Party was the only way to ensure slavery's demise.Hamlin and Lincoln were not close personally but had a good working relationship.", "At the time, the vice president was part of the legislative branch in his role as president of the Senate and did not attend cabinet meetings; Hamlin did not regularly visit the White House.", "Mary Todd Lincoln and Hamlin disliked each other.", "For his part, Hamlin complained, \"I am only a fifth wheel of a coach and can do little for my friends.", "\"He had little influence in the Lincoln administration, although he urged both the Emancipation Proclamation and the arming of Black Americans.", "He strongly supported Joseph Hooker's appointment as commander of the Army of the Potomac, which ended in failure at the Battle of Chancellorsville.Beginning in 1860, Hamlin was a member of Company A of the Maine State Guard, a militia unit.", "When the company was called up in the summer of 1864, militia leaders informed Hamlin that because of his position as vice president, he did not have to take part in the muster.", "He opted to serve, arguing that he could set an example by doing the duty expected of any citizen, and the only concession made because of his office was that he was quartered with the officers.", "He reported to Fort McClary in July, initially taking part in routine assignments including guard duty, and later taking over as company cook.", "He was promoted to corporal during his service, and mustered out with the rest of his unit in mid-September.In June 1864, the Republicans and War Democrats joined to form the National Union Party.", "Although Lincoln was renominated, War Democrat Andrew Johnson of Tennessee was named to replace Hamlin as Lincoln's running mate.", "Lincoln was seeking to broaden his base of support and was also looking ahead to Southern Reconstruction, at which Johnson had proven himself adept as military governor of occupied Tennessee.", "Hamlin, by contrast, was an ally of the Northern \"Radical Republicans\" (who later impeached Johnson).", "Lincoln and Johnson were elected in November 1864, and Hamlin's term expired on March 4, 1865.After leaving the vice presidency, Hamlin served briefly as Collector of the Port of Boston.", "Appointed to the post by Johnson, he resigned in protest over Johnson's Reconstruction policy and accompanying efforts to build a political following loyal to him after he had been repudiated by the Republicans.", "Republicans had supported Johnson as part of the National Union ticket during the war, but opposed him after he became president and his position on Reconstruction deviated from theirs.Although Hamlin narrowly missed becoming president, his vice presidency ushered in a half-century of sustained national influence for the Maine Republican Party.", "In the period 1861–1911, Maine Republicans occupied the offices of vice president, Secretary of the Treasury (twice), Secretary of State, President pro tempore of the United States Senate, and Speaker of the United States House of Representatives (twice), and fielded a presidential nominee in James G. Blaine, a level of influence in national politics unmatched by subsequent Maine political delegations." ], [ "Post-vice presidency (1865–1891)", "Not content with private life, Hamlin returned to the U.S. Senate in 1869 to serve two more terms before declining to run for reelection in 1880 because of an ailing heart.", "His last duty as a public servant came in 1881 when Secretary of State James G. Blaine convinced President James A. Garfield to name Hamlin as United States Ambassador to Spain.", "Hamlin received the appointment on June 30, 1881, and held the post until October 17, 1882.Upon returning from Spain, Hamlin retired from public life to his home in Bangor, Maine, which he had purchased in 1851.The Hannibal Hamlin House—as it is known today—is in central Bangor at 15 5th Street.", "Incorporating Victorian, Italianate, and Mansard-style architecture, the mansion was posted to the National Register of Historic Places in 1979.Hamlin was elected as a Third Class Companion of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States.", "Third Class was the MOLLUS division created to recognize civilians who had contributed outstanding service to the Union during the war." ], [ "Death", "Hamlin's graveOn July 4, 1891, Hamlin collapsed and fell unconscious while playing cards at the Tarratine Club he founded in downtown Bangor, and died there a few hours later, at the age of 81.He was buried in the Hamlin family plot at Mount Hope Cemetery in Bangor.", "He outlived six of his successors in the vice presidency (Andrew Johnson, Schuyler Colfax, Henry Wilson, William A. Wheeler, Chester A. Arthur, and Thomas A. Hendricks), more than any other U.S. vice president.", "He was also the third American Vice President to die on the Independence Day." ], [ "Family", "Hamlin had four sons who grew to adulthood: Charles Hamlin, Cyrus Hamlin, Hannibal Emery Hamlin and Frank Hamlin.", "Charles and Cyrus served in the Union forces during the Civil War, both becoming generals, Charles by brevet.", "Cyrus was among the first Union officers to argue for the enlistment of black troops, and commanded a brigade of freedmen in the Siege of Port Hudson.", "Charles and sister Sarah were present at Ford's Theater the night of Lincoln's assassination.", "Hannibal Emery Hamlin was Maine Attorney General from 1905 to 1908.Hannibal Hamlin's great-granddaughter Sally Hamlin was a child actor who made many spoken word recordings for the Victor Talking Machine Company in the early 20th century.Hannibal's older brother, Elijah Livermore Hamlin, was president of the Mutual Fire Insurance Co. of Bangor and the Bangor Institution for Savings.", "He was twice an unsuccessful candidate for governor of Maine in the late 1840s, and served as mayor of Bangor in 1851–1852.The brothers were members of different political parties (Hannibal a Democrat, and Elijah a Whig) before both becoming Republican in the later 1850s.Hannibal's nephew (Elijah's son) Augustus Choate Hamlin was a physician, artist, mineralogist, author, and historian.", "He was also mayor of Bangor in 1877–1878, and a founding member of the Bangor Historical Society.Augustus served as surgeon in the 2nd Maine Volunteer Infantry Regiment during the Civil War, eventually becoming a U.S. Army Medical Inspector, and later the Surgeon General of Maine.", "He wrote books about Andersonville Prison and the Battle of Chancellorsville.", "Hannibal's grand-nephew (Elijah's grandson) Isaiah K. Stetson was Speaker of the Maine House of Representatives in 1899–1900, and owned a large company in Bangor which manufactured and shipped lumber and ice and ran a shipyard and marine railway.Hannibal's first cousin Cyrus Hamlin, who was a graduate of the Bangor Theological Seminary, became a missionary in Turkey, where he founded Robert College.", "He later became president of Middlebury College in Vermont.", "His son, A. D. F. Hamlin, Hannibal's first cousin once removed, became a professor of architecture at Columbia University and a noted architectural historian.", "There are biographies of Hamlin by his grandson Charles E. Hamlin (1899, reprinted 1971) and by H. Draper Hunt (1969)." ], [ "Honors and legacy", "Sculptor Charles Tefft of Brewer, Maine, created this bronze statue of Hannibal Hamlin, which was dedicated in 1927 in downtown Bangor.Hamlin County, South Dakota is named in his honor, as are Hamlin, Kansas; Hamlin, New York; Hamlin, West Virginia; Hamlin Township; Hamlin Lake in Mason County, Michigan; Hamlin Peak, a mountain in Piscataquis County, Maine; and Hamlin, a small Maine village that is a U.S.–Canada border crossing with Grand Falls, New Brunswick.", "There are statues in Hamlin's likeness in the United States Capitol and in a public park (Norumbega Mall) in Bangor, Maine.There is also a building on the University of Maine Campus, in Orono, named Hannibal Hamlin Hall.", "A fire broke out there on February 13, 1944, in which two students died and one was severely injured.", "The building was later rebuilt.", "Hannibal Hamlin Memorial Library is next to his birthplace in Paris, Maine.The Hampden Maine Historical Society exhibits a restoration of his first law office at its Kinsley House Museum grounds.Hamlin's house in Bangor subsequently housed the presidents of the adjacent Bangor Theological Seminary.", "It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, as is Hamlin's birthplace in Paris, Maine (as part of the Paris Hill Historic District).Hamlin Park in Chicago is named in his honor." ], [ "In popular culture", "Hamlin appears briefly in three alternate history writings by Harry Turtledove: ''The Guns of the South'', ''Must and Shall'', and ''How Few Remain''." ], [ "See also", "* List of American politicians who switched parties in office* Statue of Hannibal Hamlin" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * " ], [ "External links", " Biography at Mr. Lincoln's White House* ''The life and Times of Hannibal Hamlin '' by Charles Eugene Hamlin* Bangor in Focus: Hannibal Hamlin* * Hamlin Memorial Library and Museum" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hopwood Award" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Hopwood Awards''' are a major scholarship program at the University of Michigan, founded by Avery Hopwood.Under the terms of the will of Avery Hopwood, a prominent American dramatist and member of the class of 1905 of the University of Michigan, one-fifth of Mr. Hopwood's estate was given to the regents for the encouragement of creative work in writing.", "The first awards were made in 1931, and today, the Hopwood Program offers around $120,000 in prizes every year to aspiring writers at the University of Michigan.", "According to Nicholas Delbanco, UM English professor and former director of the Hopwood Awards Program, \"This is the oldest and best-known series of writing prizes in the country, and it is a very good indicator of future success.\"" ], [ "Contests and prizes", "===The Graduate and Undergraduate Hopwood Contests===Awards are offered in these genres: drama/screenplay, essay, the novel, short fiction, nonfiction, and poetry.", "These awards are classified under two categories, graduate or undergraduate, except the novel and drama/screenplay, which are combined categories.", "Award amounts for this contest vary, but usually fall in the range of $1000 to $6000.===Summer Hopwood Contest===The Summer Hopwood Contest was discontinued in 2017, but archives of winning Summer Hopwood manuscripts continue to be held in the Hopwood Room.", "When it ran, the contest was open only to students who took writing courses during spring and summer terms.", "Awards were given in the categories of drama or screenplay, nonfiction, short fiction, and poetry.", "Novels were not eligible for the Summer Hopwood Contest.===Hopwood Underclassmen Contest===This contest is open only to freshmen and sophomores who are enrolled in writing courses.", "Awards are given in the categories of nonfiction, fiction, and poetry." ], [ "Hopwood Program", "The Hopwood Program administers the Hopwood Award, and several other awards in writing.", "It is located in the Hopwood Room at the University of Michigan and serves the needs and interests of Hopwood contestants.", "The room was established by Professor Roy W. Cowden, director of the Hopwood Awards from 1933 to 1952, who generously contributed a part of his library, which has grown through the addition of many volumes of contemporary literature.", "In addition to housing the winning manuscripts from the past years of the contests, the Hopwood Room has a lending library of 20th-century literature, a generous supply of noncirculating current periodicals, some reference books on how to get published, information on graduate and summer writing programs, and a collection of screen plays donated by former Hopwood winner Lawrence Kasdan." ], [ "Prizes administered by the Hopwood Program", "The Hopwood Program also administers these writing contests: * The Kasdan Scholarship in Creative Writing* Arthur Miller Award of the U-M Club of New York Scholarship* The Jeffery L. Weisberg Poetry Prize* The Chamberlain Award for Creative Writing* The Dennis McIntyre Poetry Prize* The Andrea Beauchamp Prize* The Helen S. and John Wagner Prize* The Robert F. Haugh Prize* The Meader Family Award* The Naomi Saferstein Literary Award* The Leonard and Eileen Newman Writing Prizes* The Paul and Sonia Handleman Poetry Award* The Keith Taylor Award for Excellence in Poetry" ], [ "Notable Hopwood winners", "Max Apple, (BA 1963).", "Author of: \"The Oranging of America\" (1976, short stories), \"Zip: A Novel of the Left and the Right\" (1978, novel), \"Three Stories\" (1983, short stories), \"Free Agents\" (1984, novel), \"The Propheteers: A Novel\" (1987, novel), \"Roommates: My Grandfather's Story\" (1994, biography, of Apple's grandfather)Brett Ellen Block, (BFA) award-winning short story author and novelist.", "Victoria Chang, (BA 1992) poet and children's writer.", "Recipient of 2017 Guggenheim Fellowship.", "John Ciardi, (MA 1939) author of: A Browser's Dictionary, A Second Browser's Dictionary, A Third Browser's Dictionary, The Collected Poems of John Ciardi, Good Words to You: An All-New Dictionary and Native's Guide to the Unknown, American Language, How Does a Poem Mean?, His translation of The Inferno, Limericks (with Isaac Asimov),You Read to Me, I'll Read to You, (illustrated by Edward Gorey)Harold Courlander, (BA 1931) First winner of the award & author of The African, on which much of Roots was later based.", "Christopher Paul Curtis (BA 1999) Newbery and Coretta Scott King award-winning author of: The Watsons Go To Birmingham-1963 (1996, novel), Bud, Not Buddy (1999, novel), Elijah Of Buxton (2006, novel)Mary Gaitskill, (BA) Bad Behavior (1988),Two Girls, Fat and Thin (1991),Because They Wanted To (1997) (stories),Veronica (2005).", "Peggy Goodin, (AB 1945) author of ''Clemetine'', ''Take Care of My Little Girl''; novels adapted multiple times to filmSteve Hamilton, (BA 1983), author of \"Blood Is the Sky\", \"North of Nowhere\", \"A Cold Day in Paradise\", \"Winter of the Wolf Moon\", \"The Hunting Wind\", \"North of Nowhere\", and \"Ice Run\".", "\"A Cold Day In Paradise,\" won the 1999 Edgar Allan Poe Award, one of the mystery genre's most prestigious awards.", "Cynthia Haven, author of \"Czesław Miłosz: A California Life\" (2021) nominated for a Northern California Book Award, and \"Evolution of Desire: A Life of René Girard\" (2018).", "Robert Hayden, (M.A.", "1944).", "Former Poet Laureate of the United States.", "Lawrence Kasdan (MA) three-times Academy Awards-nominated screenwriter and director.", "Laura Kasischke (BA 1983, M.F.A.", "1987) winner of the National Book Critics Circle Award for Poetry and a Pushcart prize.", "Jane Kenyon, (BA 1970, MA 1972).", "New Hampshire's poet laureate.", "Winner of a PEN/Voelcker Award for PoetryElizabeth Kostova, (MFA) Novel-in-Progress The HistorianArthur Miller (BA 1938) Pulitzer Prize for Drama winning playwright.", "Howard Moss, won the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry for ''Selected Poems'' in 1971.", "Davi Napoleon, (BA 1966, MA 1968; known then as Davi Skurnick), theater historian and critic, author of ''Chelsea on the Edge: The Adventures of an American Theater.", "''Celeste Ng, (MFA) Novelist.", "Author of Little Fires Everywhere.", "Chigozie Obioma, (MFA) Nigerian writer.", "Finalist for 2015 Man Booker Prize and The Guardian First Book Award.", "Frank O'Hara, (M.A.", "1951), poet.", "Leading figure of the New York School.", "Author of: \"A City Winter and Other Poems\", \"Oranges: 12 pastorals\", \"Second Avenue\", \"Odes\", \"Lunch Poems.", "Love Poems\".", "Patrick O'Keeffe, (MFA), winner of the Chamberlain Award for Creative Writing for \"Above the Bar.\"", "(administered by the Hopwood Program) and instructor in the University of Michigan's Sweetland Writing Center has won the 2005 Story Prize, the richest U.S. prize for short fiction, for \"The Hill Road\", a collection of four novellas set in a fictional Irish farming village.", "O'Keeffe's writing has been compared to the Irish short-story and novel writer William Trevor.", "Marge Piercy, (BA) Poetry and Fiction (1957); author of seventeen volumes of poemsPaisley Rekdal, (MFA) poet and essayist.", "Poet Laureate of Utah.", "Theodore Roethke, (B.A.", "1930, M.A.", "1932) regarded as one of the most accomplished and influential poets of his generation.", "Winner of a Pulitzer Prize for Poetry and two National Book Awards for Poetry.", "Betty Smith (B.A.)", "Author of ''A Tree Grows in Brooklyn''Danez Smith (MFA) Poet.", "Finalist for 2017 National Book Award for Poetry.", "Keith Waldrop (Ph.D. 1964) poet and translator.", "Winner of a National Book Award for Poetry.", "Ronald WallaceJesmyn Ward, (MFA 2005), novelist.", "Two-time winner of National Book Award for Fiction (2011, 2017).", "Nancy Willard (B.A.", "1958; Ph.D.) author of eleven poetry books.", "Newbery Medal for \"A Visit to William Blakes' Inn,\" finalist for National Book Award, O'Henry Award, Devins Poetry Award." ], [ "See also", "University of MichiganArthur Miller" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " Hopwood Awards* University of Michigan" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Homeostasis" ], [ "Introduction", "In biology, '''homeostasis''' (British also '''homoeostasis''') (/hɒmɪə(ʊ)ˈsteɪsɪs/) is the state of steady internal, physical, chemical, and social conditions maintained by living systems.", "This is the condition of optimal functioning for the organism and includes many variables, such as body temperature and fluid balance, being kept within certain pre-set limits (homeostatic range).", "Other variables include the pH of extracellular fluid, the concentrations of sodium, potassium, and calcium ions, as well as the blood sugar level, and these need to be regulated despite changes in the environment, diet, or level of activity.", "Each of these variables is controlled by one or more regulators or homeostatic mechanisms, which together maintain life.Homeostasis is brought about by a natural resistance to change when already in optimal conditions, and equilibrium is maintained by many regulatory mechanisms; it is thought to be the central motivation for all organic action.", "All homeostatic control mechanisms have at least three interdependent components for the variable being regulated: a receptor, a control center, and an effector.", "The receptor is the sensing component that monitors and responds to changes in the environment, either external or internal.", "Receptors include thermoreceptors and mechanoreceptors.", "Control centers include the respiratory center and the renin-angiotensin system.", "An effector is the target acted on, to bring about the change back to the normal state.", "At the cellular level, effectors include nuclear receptors that bring about changes in gene expression through up-regulation or down-regulation and act in negative feedback mechanisms.", "An example of this is in the control of bile acids in the liver.Some centers, such as the renin–angiotensin system, control more than one variable.", "When the receptor senses a stimulus, it reacts by sending action potentials to a control center.", "The control center sets the maintenance range—the acceptable upper and lower limits—for the particular variable, such as temperature.", "The control center responds to the signal by determining an appropriate response and sending signals to an effector, which can be one or more muscles, an organ, or a gland.", "When the signal is received and acted on, negative feedback is provided to the receptor that stops the need for further signaling.The cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1), located at the presynaptic neuron, is a receptor that can stop stressful neurotransmitter release to the postsynaptic neuron; it is activated by endocannabinoids (ECs) such as anandamide (''N''-arachidonoylethanolamide; AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) via a retrograde signaling process in which these compounds are synthesized by and released from postsynaptic neurons, and travel back to the presynaptic terminal to bind to the CB1 receptor for modulation of neurotransmitter release to obtain homeostasis.The polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are lipid derivatives of omega-3 (docosahexaenoic acid, DHA, and eicosapentaenoic acid, EPA) or of omega-6 (arachidonic acid, ARA) are synthesized from membrane phospholipids and used as a precursor for endocannabinoids (ECs) mediate significant effects in the fine-tuning adjustment of body homeostasis." ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''homeostasis'' () uses combining forms of ''homeo-'' and ''-stasis'', Neo-Latin from Greek: ὅμοιος ''homoios'', \"similar\" and στάσις ''stasis'', \"standing still\", yielding the idea of \"staying the same\"." ], [ "History", "The concept of the regulation of the internal environment was described by French physiologist Claude Bernard in 1849, and the word ''homeostasis'' was coined by Walter Bradford Cannon in 1926.In 1932, Joseph Barcroft a British physiologist, was the first to say that higher brain function required the most stable internal environment.", "Thus, to Barcroft homeostasis was not only organized by the brain—homeostasis served the brain.", "Homeostasis is an almost exclusively biological term, referring to the concepts described by Bernard and Cannon, concerning the constancy of the internal environment in which the cells of the body live and survive.", "The term cybernetics is applied to technological control systems such as thermostats, which function as homeostatic mechanisms but are often defined much more broadly than the biological term of homeostasis." ], [ "Overview", "The metabolic processes of all organisms can only take place in very specific physical and chemical environments.", "The conditions vary with each organism, and with whether the chemical processes take place inside the cell or in the interstitial fluid bathing the cells.", "The best-known homeostatic mechanisms in humans and other mammals are regulators that keep the composition of the extracellular fluid (or the \"internal environment\") constant, especially with regard to the temperature, pH, osmolality, and the concentrations of sodium, potassium, glucose, carbon dioxide, and oxygen.", "However, a great many other homeostatic mechanisms, encompassing many aspects of human physiology, control other entities in the body.", "Where the levels of variables are higher or lower than those needed, they are often prefixed with ''hyper-'' and ''hypo-'', respectively such as hyperthermia and hypothermia or hypertension and hypotension.Circadian variation in body temperature, ranging from about 37.5 °C from 10 a.m. to 6 p.m., and falling to about 36.4 °C from 2 a.m. to 6 a.m.If an entity is homeostatically controlled it does not imply that its value is necessarily absolutely steady in health.", "Core body temperature is, for instance, regulated by a homeostatic mechanism with temperature sensors in, amongst others, the hypothalamus of the brain.", "However, the set point of the regulator is regularly reset.", "For instance, core body temperature in humans varies during the course of the day (i.e.", "has a circadian rhythm), with the lowest temperatures occurring at night, and the highest in the afternoons.", "Other normal temperature variations include those related to the menstrual cycle.", "The temperature regulator's set point is reset during infections to produce a fever.", "Organisms are capable of adjusting somewhat to varied conditions such as temperature changes or oxygen levels at altitude, by a process of acclimatisation.Homeostasis does not govern every activity in the body.", "For instance, the signal (be it via neurons or hormones) from the sensor to the effector is, of necessity, highly variable in order to convey information about the direction and magnitude of the error detected by the sensor.", "Similarly, the effector's response needs to be highly adjustable to reverse the error – in fact it should be very nearly in proportion (but in the opposite direction) to the error that is threatening the internal environment.", "For instance, arterial blood pressure in mammals is homeostatically controlled and measured by stretch receptors in the walls of the aortic arch and carotid sinuses at the beginnings of the internal carotid arteries.", "The sensors send messages via sensory nerves to the medulla oblongata of the brain indicating whether the blood pressure has fallen or risen, and by how much.", "The medulla oblongata then distributes messages along motor or efferent nerves belonging to the autonomic nervous system to a wide variety of effector organs, whose activity is consequently changed to reverse the error in the blood pressure.", "One of the effector organs is the heart whose rate is stimulated to rise (tachycardia) when the arterial blood pressure falls, or to slow down (bradycardia) when the pressure rises above the set point.", "Thus the heart rate (for which there is no sensor in the body) is not homeostatically controlled but is one of the effector responses to errors in arterial blood pressure.", "Another example is the rate of sweating.", "This is one of the effectors in the homeostatic control of body temperature, and therefore highly variable in rough proportion to the heat load that threatens to destabilize the body's core temperature, for which there is a sensor in the hypothalamus of the brain." ], [ "Controls of variables", "===Core temperature===Birds huddling for warmthMammals regulate their core temperature using input from thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus, brain, spinal cord, internal organs, and great veins.", "Apart from the internal regulation of temperature, a process called allostasis can come into play that adjusts behaviour to adapt to the challenge of very hot or cold extremes (and to other challenges).", "These adjustments may include seeking shade and reducing activity, seeking warmer conditions and increasing activity, or huddling.Behavioral thermoregulation takes precedence over physiological thermoregulation since necessary changes can be affected more quickly and physiological thermoregulation is limited in its capacity to respond to extreme temperatures.When the core temperature falls, the blood supply to the skin is reduced by intense vasoconstriction.", "The blood flow to the limbs (which have a large surface area) is similarly reduced and returned to the trunk via the deep veins which lie alongside the arteries (forming venae comitantes).", "This acts as a counter-current exchange system that short-circuits the warmth from the arterial blood directly into the venous blood returning into the trunk, causing minimal heat loss from the extremities in cold weather.", "The subcutaneous limb veins are tightly constricted, not only reducing heat loss from this source but also forcing the venous blood into the counter-current system in the depths of the limbs.The metabolic rate is increased, initially by non-shivering thermogenesis, followed by shivering thermogenesis if the earlier reactions are insufficient to correct the hypothermia.When core temperature rises are detected by thermoreceptors, the sweat glands in the skin are stimulated via cholinergic sympathetic nerves to secrete sweat onto the skin, which, when it evaporates, cools the skin and the blood flowing through it.", "Panting is an alternative effector in many vertebrates, which cools the body also by the evaporation of water, but this time from the mucous membranes of the throat and mouth.===Blood glucose===Negative feedback at work in the regulation of blood sugar.", "Flat line is the set-point of glucose level and sine wave the fluctuations of glucose.Blood sugar levels are regulated within fairly narrow limits.", "In mammals, the primary sensors for this are the beta cells of the pancreatic islets.", "The beta cells respond to a rise in the blood sugar level by secreting insulin into the blood and simultaneously inhibiting their neighboring alpha cells from secreting glucagon into the blood.", "This combination (high blood insulin levels and low glucagon levels) act on effector tissues, the chief of which is the liver, fat cells, and muscle cells.", "The liver is inhibited from producing glucose, taking it up instead, and converting it to glycogen and triglycerides.", "The glycogen is stored in the liver, but the triglycerides are secreted into the blood as very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) particles which are taken up by adipose tissue, there to be stored as fats.", "The fat cells take up glucose through special glucose transporters (GLUT4), whose numbers in the cell wall are increased as a direct effect of insulin acting on these cells.", "The glucose that enters the fat cells in this manner is converted into triglycerides (via the same metabolic pathways as are used by the liver) and then stored in those fat cells together with the VLDL-derived triglycerides that were made in the liver.", "Muscle cells also take glucose up through insulin-sensitive GLUT4 glucose channels, and convert it into muscle glycogen.A fall in blood glucose, causes insulin secretion to be stopped, and glucagon to be secreted from the alpha cells into the blood.", "This inhibits the uptake of glucose from the blood by the liver, fats cells, and muscle.", "Instead the liver is strongly stimulated to manufacture glucose from glycogen (through glycogenolysis) and from non-carbohydrate sources (such as lactate and de-aminated amino acids) using a process known as gluconeogenesis.", "The glucose thus produced is discharged into the blood correcting the detected error (hypoglycemia).", "The glycogen stored in muscles remains in the muscles, and is only broken down, during exercise, to glucose-6-phosphate and thence to pyruvate to be fed into the citric acid cycle or turned into lactate.", "It is only the lactate and the waste products of the citric acid cycle that are returned to the blood.", "The liver can take up only the lactate, and, by the process of energy-consuming gluconeogenesis, convert it back to glucose.===Iron levels===Controlling iron levels in the body is a critically important part of many aspects of human health and disease.", "In humans iron is both necessary to the body and potentially harmful.===Copper regulation===Copper is absorbed, transported, distributed, stored, and excreted in the body according to complex homeostatic processes which ensure a constant and sufficient supply of the micronutrient while simultaneously avoiding excess levels.", "If an insufficient amount of copper is ingested for a short period of time, copper stores in the liver will be depleted.", "Should this depletion continue, a copper health deficiency condition may develop.", "If too much copper is ingested, an excess condition can result.", "Both of these conditions, deficiency and excess, can lead to tissue injury and disease.", "However, due to homeostatic regulation, the human body is capable of balancing a wide range of copper intakes for the needs of healthy individuals.Many aspects of copper homeostasis are known at the molecular level.", "Copper's essentiality is due to its ability to act as an electron donor or acceptor as its oxidation state fluxes between Cu1+ (cuprous) and Cu2+ (cupric).", "As a component of about a dozen cuproenzymes, copper is involved in key redox (i.e., oxidation-reduction) reactions in essential metabolic processes such as mitochondrial respiration, synthesis of melanin, and cross-linking of collagen.", "Copper is an integral part of the antioxidant enzyme copper-zinc superoxide dismutase, and has a role in iron homeostasis as a cofactor in ceruloplasmin.===Levels of blood gases===The respiratory centerChanges in the levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and plasma pH are sent to the respiratory center, in the brainstem where they are regulated.The partial pressure of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the arterial blood is monitored by the peripheral chemoreceptors (PNS) in the carotid artery and aortic arch.", "A change in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide is detected as altered pH in the cerebrospinal fluid by central chemoreceptors (CNS) in the medulla oblongata of the brainstem.", "Information from these sets of sensors is sent to the respiratory center which activates the effector organs – the diaphragm and other muscles of respiration.", "An increased level of carbon dioxide in the blood, or a decreased level of oxygen, will result in a deeper breathing pattern and increased respiratory rate to bring the blood gases back to equilibrium.Too little carbon dioxide, and, to a lesser extent, too much oxygen in the blood can temporarily halt breathing, a condition known as apnea, which freedivers use to prolong the time they can stay underwater.The partial pressure of carbon dioxide is more of a deciding factor in the monitoring of pH.", "However, at high altitude (above 2500 m) the monitoring of the partial pressure of oxygen takes priority, and hyperventilation keeps the oxygen level constant.", "With the lower level of carbon dioxide, to keep the pH at 7.4 the kidneys secrete hydrogen ions into the blood and excrete bicarbonate into the urine.", "This is important in acclimatization to high altitude.===Blood oxygen content===The kidneys measure the oxygen content rather than the partial pressure of oxygen in the arterial blood.", "When the oxygen content of the blood is chronically low, oxygen-sensitive cells secrete erythropoietin (EPO) into the blood.", "The effector tissue is the red bone marrow which produces red blood cells (RBCs, also called ).", "The increase in RBCs leads to an increased hematocrit in the blood, and a subsequent increase in hemoglobin that increases the oxygen carrying capacity.", "This is the mechanism whereby high altitude dwellers have higher hematocrits than sea-level residents, and also why persons with pulmonary insufficiency or right-to-left shunts in the heart (through which venous blood by-passes the lungs and goes directly into the systemic circulation) have similarly high hematocrits.Regardless of the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood, the amount of oxygen that can be carried, depends on the hemoglobin content.", "The partial pressure of oxygen may be sufficient for example in anemia, but the hemoglobin content will be insufficient and subsequently as will be the oxygen content.", "Given enough supply of iron, vitamin B12 and folic acid, EPO can stimulate RBC production, and hemoglobin and oxygen content restored to normal.===Arterial blood pressure===The brain can regulate blood flow over a range of blood pressure values by vasoconstriction and vasodilation of the arteries.High pressure receptors called baroreceptors in the walls of the aortic arch and carotid sinus (at the beginning of the internal carotid artery) monitor the arterial blood pressure.", "Rising pressure is detected when the walls of the arteries stretch due to an increase in blood volume.", "This causes heart muscle cells to secrete the hormone atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) into the blood.", "This acts on the kidneys to inhibit the secretion of renin and aldosterone causing the release of sodium, and accompanying water into the urine, thereby reducing the blood volume.This information is then conveyed, via afferent nerve fibers, to the solitary nucleus in the medulla oblongata.", "From here motor nerves belonging to the autonomic nervous system are stimulated to influence the activity of chiefly the heart and the smallest diameter arteries, called arterioles.", "The arterioles are the main resistance vessels in the arterial tree, and small changes in diameter cause large changes in the resistance to flow through them.", "When the arterial blood pressure rises the arterioles are stimulated to dilate making it easier for blood to leave the arteries, thus deflating them, and bringing the blood pressure down, back to normal.", "At the same time, the heart is stimulated via cholinergic parasympathetic nerves to beat more slowly (called bradycardia), ensuring that the inflow of blood into the arteries is reduced, thus adding to the reduction in pressure, and correcting the original error.Low pressure in the arteries, causes the opposite reflex of constriction of the arterioles, and a speeding up of the heart rate (called tachycardia).", "If the drop in blood pressure is very rapid or excessive, the medulla oblongata stimulates the adrenal medulla, via \"preganglionic\" sympathetic nerves, to secrete epinephrine (adrenaline) into the blood.", "This hormone enhances the tachycardia and causes severe vasoconstriction of the arterioles to all but the essential organ in the body (especially the heart, lungs, and brain).", "These reactions usually correct the low arterial blood pressure (hypotension) very effectively.===Calcium levels===Calcium homeostasisThe plasma ionized calcium (Ca2+) concentration is very tightly controlled by a pair of homeostatic mechanisms.", "The sensor for the first one is situated in the parathyroid glands, where the chief cells sense the Ca2+ level by means of specialized calcium receptors in their membranes.", "The sensors for the second are the parafollicular cells in the thyroid gland.", "The parathyroid chief cells secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH) in response to a fall in the plasma ionized calcium level; the parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland secrete calcitonin in response to a rise in the plasma ionized calcium level.The effector organs of the first homeostatic mechanism are the bones, the kidney, and, via a hormone released into the blood by the kidney in response to high PTH levels in the blood, the duodenum and jejunum.", "Parathyroid hormone (in high concentrations in the blood) causes bone resorption, releasing calcium into the plasma.", "This is a very rapid action which can correct a threatening hypocalcemia within minutes.", "High PTH concentrations cause the excretion of phosphate ions via the urine.", "Since phosphates combine with calcium ions to form insoluble salts (see also bone mineral), a decrease in the level of phosphates in the blood, releases free calcium ions into the plasma ionized calcium pool.", "PTH has a second action on the kidneys.", "It stimulates the manufacture and release, by the kidneys, of calcitriol into the blood.", "This steroid hormone acts on the epithelial cells of the upper small intestine, increasing their capacity to absorb calcium from the gut contents into the blood.The second homeostatic mechanism, with its sensors in the thyroid gland, releases calcitonin into the blood when the blood ionized calcium rises.", "This hormone acts primarily on bone, causing the rapid removal of calcium from the blood and depositing it, in insoluble form, in the bones.The two homeostatic mechanisms working through PTH on the one hand, and calcitonin on the other can very rapidly correct any impending error in the plasma ionized calcium level by either removing calcium from the blood and depositing it in the skeleton, or by removing calcium from it.", "The skeleton acts as an extremely large calcium store (about 1 kg) compared with the plasma calcium store (about 180 mg).", "Longer term regulation occurs through calcium absorption or loss from the gut.Another example are the most well-characterised endocannabinoids like anandamide (''N''-arachidonoylethanolamide; AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), whose synthesis occurs through the action of a series of intracellular enzymes activated in response to a rise in intracellular calcium levels to introduce homeostasis and prevention of tumor development through putative protective mechanisms that prevent cell growth and migration by activation of CB1 and/or CB2 and adjoining receptors.===Sodium concentration=== The homeostatic mechanism which controls the plasma sodium concentration is rather more complex than most of the other homeostatic mechanisms described on this page.The sensor is situated in the juxtaglomerular apparatus of kidneys, which senses the plasma sodium concentration in a surprisingly indirect manner.", "Instead of measuring it directly in the blood flowing past the juxtaglomerular cells, these cells respond to the sodium concentration in the renal tubular fluid after it has already undergone a certain amount of modification in the proximal convoluted tubule and loop of Henle.", "These cells also respond to rate of blood flow through the juxtaglomerular apparatus, which, under normal circumstances, is directly proportional to the arterial blood pressure, making this tissue an ancillary arterial blood pressure sensor.In response to a lowering of the plasma sodium concentration, or to a fall in the arterial blood pressure, the juxtaglomerular cells release renin into the blood.", "Renin is an enzyme which cleaves a decapeptide (a short protein chain, 10 amino acids long) from a plasma α-2-globulin called angiotensinogen.", "This decapeptide is known as angiotensin I.", "It has no known biological activity.", "However, when the blood circulates through the lungs a pulmonary capillary endothelial enzyme called angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) cleaves a further two amino acids from angiotensin I to form an octapeptide known as angiotensin II.", "Angiotensin II is a hormone which acts on the adrenal cortex, causing the release into the blood of the steroid hormone, aldosterone.", "Angiotensin II also acts on the smooth muscle in the walls of the arterioles causing these small diameter vessels to constrict, thereby restricting the outflow of blood from the arterial tree, causing the arterial blood pressure to rise.", "This, therefore, reinforces the measures described above (under the heading of \"Arterial blood pressure\"), which defend the arterial blood pressure against changes, especially hypotension.The angiotensin II-stimulated aldosterone released from the zona glomerulosa of the adrenal glands has an effect on particularly the epithelial cells of the distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts of the kidneys.", "Here it causes the reabsorption of sodium ions from the renal tubular fluid, in exchange for potassium ions which are secreted from the blood plasma into the tubular fluid to exit the body via the urine.", "The reabsorption of sodium ions from the renal tubular fluid halts further sodium ion losses from the body, and therefore preventing the worsening of hyponatremia.", "The hyponatremia can only be ''corrected'' by the consumption of salt in the diet.", "However, it is not certain whether a \"salt hunger\" can be initiated by hyponatremia, or by what mechanism this might come about.When the plasma sodium ion concentration is higher than normal (hypernatremia), the release of renin from the juxtaglomerular apparatus is halted, ceasing the production of angiotensin II, and its consequent aldosterone-release into the blood.", "The kidneys respond by excreting sodium ions into the urine, thereby normalizing the plasma sodium ion concentration.", "The low angiotensin II levels in the blood lower the arterial blood pressure as an inevitable concomitant response.The reabsorption of sodium ions from the tubular fluid as a result of high aldosterone levels in the blood does not, of itself, cause renal tubular water to be returned to the blood from the distal convoluted tubules or collecting ducts.", "This is because sodium is reabsorbed in exchange for potassium and therefore causes only a modest change in the osmotic gradient between the blood and the tubular fluid.", "Furthermore, the epithelium of the distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts is impermeable to water in the absence of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) in the blood.", "ADH is part of the control of fluid balance.", "Its levels in the blood vary with the osmolality of the plasma, which is measured in the hypothalamus of the brain.", "Aldosterone's action on the kidney tubules prevents sodium loss to the extracellular fluid (ECF).", "So there is no change in the osmolality of the ECF, and therefore no change in the ADH concentration of the plasma.", "However, low aldosterone levels cause a loss of sodium ions from the ECF, which could potentially cause a change in extracellular osmolality and therefore of ADH levels in the blood.===Potassium concentration===High potassium concentrations in the plasma cause depolarization of the zona glomerulosa cells' membranes in the outer layer of the adrenal cortex.", "This causes the release of aldosterone into the blood.Aldosterone acts primarily on the distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts of the kidneys, stimulating the excretion of potassium ions into the urine.", "It does so, however, by activating the basolateral Na+/K+ pumps of the tubular epithelial cells.", "These sodium/potassium exchangers pump three sodium ions out of the cell, into the interstitial fluid and two potassium ions into the cell from the interstitial fluid.", "This creates an ionic concentration gradient which results in the reabsorption of sodium (Na+) ions from the tubular fluid into the blood, and secreting potassium (K+) ions from the blood into the urine (lumen of collecting duct).===Fluid balance===The total amount of water in the body needs to be kept in balance.", "Fluid balance involves keeping the fluid volume stabilized, and also keeping the levels of electrolytes in the extracellular fluid stable.", "Fluid balance is maintained by the process of osmoregulation and by behavior.", "Osmotic pressure is detected by osmoreceptors in the median preoptic nucleus in the hypothalamus.", "Measurement of the plasma osmolality to give an indication of the water content of the body, relies on the fact that water losses from the body, (through unavoidable water loss through the skin which is not entirely waterproof and therefore always slightly moist, water vapor in the exhaled air, sweating, vomiting, normal feces and especially diarrhea) are all hypotonic, meaning that they are less salty than the body fluids (compare, for instance, the taste of saliva with that of tears.", "The latter has almost the same salt content as the extracellular fluid, whereas the former is hypotonic with respect to the plasma.", "Saliva does not taste salty, whereas tears are decidedly salty).", "Nearly all normal and abnormal losses of body water therefore cause the extracellular fluid to become hypertonic.", "Conversely, excessive fluid intake dilutes the extracellular fluid causing the hypothalamus to register hypotonic hyponatremia conditions.When the hypothalamus detects a hypertonic extracellular environment, it causes the secretion of an antidiuretic hormone (ADH) called vasopressin which acts on the effector organ, which in this case is the kidney.", "The effect of vasopressin on the kidney tubules is to reabsorb water from the distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts, thus preventing aggravation of the water loss via the urine.", "The hypothalamus simultaneously stimulates the nearby thirst center causing an almost irresistible (if the hypertonicity is severe enough) urge to drink water.", "The cessation of urine flow prevents the hypovolemia and hypertonicity from getting worse; the drinking of water corrects the defect.Hypo-osmolality results in very low plasma ADH levels.", "This results in the inhibition of water reabsorption from the kidney tubules, causing high volumes of very dilute urine to be excreted, thus getting rid of the excess water in the body.Urinary water loss, when the body water homeostat is intact, is a ''compensatory'' water loss, ''correcting'' any water excess in the body.", "However, since the kidneys cannot generate water, the thirst reflex is the all-important second effector mechanism of the body water homeostat, ''correcting'' any water deficit in the body.===Blood pH===364x364pxThe plasma pH can be altered by respiratory changes in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide; or altered by metabolic changes in the carbonic acid to bicarbonate ion ratio.", "The bicarbonate buffer system regulates the ratio of carbonic acid to bicarbonate to be equal to 1:20, at which ratio the blood pH is 7.4 (as explained in the Henderson–Hasselbalch equation).", "A change in the plasma pH gives an acid–base imbalance.In acid–base homeostasis there are two mechanisms that can help regulate the pH.", "Respiratory compensation a mechanism of the respiratory center, adjusts the partial pressure of carbon dioxide by changing the rate and depth of breathing, to bring the pH back to normal.", "The partial pressure of carbon dioxide also determines the concentration of carbonic acid, and the bicarbonate buffer system can also come into play.", "Renal compensation can help the bicarbonate buffer system.The sensor for the plasma bicarbonate concentration is not known for certain.", "It is very probable that the renal tubular cells of the distal convoluted tubules are themselves sensitive to the pH of the plasma.", "The metabolism of these cells produces carbon dioxide, which is rapidly converted to hydrogen and bicarbonate through the action of carbonic anhydrase.", "When the ECF pH falls (becoming more acidic) the renal tubular cells excrete hydrogen ions into the tubular fluid to leave the body via urine.", "Bicarbonate ions are simultaneously secreted into the blood that decreases the carbonic acid, and consequently raises the plasma pH.", "The converse happens when the plasma pH rises above normal: bicarbonate ions are excreted into the urine, and hydrogen ions released into the plasma.When hydrogen ions are excreted into the urine, and bicarbonate into the blood, the latter combines with the excess hydrogen ions in the plasma that stimulated the kidneys to perform this operation.", "The resulting reaction in the plasma is the formation of carbonic acid which is in equilibrium with the plasma partial pressure of carbon dioxide.", "This is tightly regulated to ensure that there is no excessive build-up of carbonic acid or bicarbonate.", "The overall effect is therefore that hydrogen ions are lost in the urine when the pH of the plasma falls.", "The concomitant rise in the plasma bicarbonate mops up the increased hydrogen ions (caused by the fall in plasma pH) and the resulting excess carbonic acid is disposed of in the lungs as carbon dioxide.", "This restores the normal ratio between bicarbonate and the partial pressure of carbon dioxide and therefore the plasma pH.The converse happens when a high plasma pH stimulates the kidneys to secrete hydrogen ions into the blood and to excrete bicarbonate into the urine.", "The hydrogen ions combine with the excess bicarbonate ions in the plasma, once again forming an excess of carbonic acid which can be exhaled, as carbon dioxide, in the lungs, keeping the plasma bicarbonate ion concentration, the partial pressure of carbon dioxide and, therefore, the plasma pH, constant.===Cerebrospinal fluid===Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) allows for regulation of the distribution of substances between cells of the brain, and neuroendocrine factors, to which slight changes can cause problems or damage to the nervous system.", "For example, high glycine concentration disrupts temperature and blood pressure control, and high CSF pH causes dizziness and syncope.===Neurotransmission===Inhibitory neurons in the central nervous system play a homeostatic role in the balance of neuronal activity between excitation and inhibition.", "Inhibitory neurons using GABA, make compensating changes in the neuronal networks preventing runaway levels of excitation.", "An imbalance between excitation and inhibition is seen to be implicated in a number of neuropsychiatric disorders.===Neuroendocrine system===The neuroendocrine system is the mechanism by which the hypothalamus maintains homeostasis, regulating metabolism, reproduction, eating and drinking behaviour, energy utilization, osmolarity and blood pressure.The regulation of metabolism, is carried out by hypothalamic interconnections to other glands.Three endocrine glands of the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis (HPG axis) often work together and have important regulatory functions.", "Two other regulatory endocrine axes are the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA axis) and the hypothalamic–pituitary–thyroid axis (HPT axis).The liver also has many regulatory functions of the metabolism.", "An important function is the production and control of bile acids.", "Too much bile acid can be toxic to cells and its synthesis can be inhibited by activation of FXR a nuclear receptor.===Gene regulation===At the cellular level, homeostasis is carried out by several mechanisms including transcriptional regulation that can alter the activity of genes in response to changes.===Energy balance===The amount of energy taken in through nutrition needs to match the amount of energy used.", "To achieve energy homeostasis appetite is regulated by two hormones, grehlin and leptin.", "Grehlin stimulates hunger and the intake of food and leptin acts to signal satiety (fullness).A 2019 review of weight-change interventions, including dieting, exercise and overeating, found that body weight homeostasis could not precisely correct for \"energetic errors\", the loss or gain of calories, in the short-term." ], [ "Clinical significance", "Many diseases are the result of a homeostatic failure.", "Almost any homeostatic component can malfunction either as a result of an inherited defect, an inborn error of metabolism, or an acquired disease.", "Some homeostatic mechanisms have inbuilt redundancies, which ensures that life is not immediately threatened if a component malfunctions; but sometimes a homeostatic malfunction can result in serious disease, which can be fatal if not treated.", "A well-known example of a homeostatic failure is shown in type 1 diabetes mellitus.", "Here blood sugar regulation is unable to function because the beta cells of the pancreatic islets are destroyed and cannot produce the necessary insulin.", "The blood sugar rises in a condition known as hyperglycemia.The plasma ionized calcium homeostat can be disrupted by the constant, unchanging, over-production of parathyroid hormone by a parathyroid adenoma resulting in the typically features of hyperparathyroidism, namely high plasma ionized Ca2+ levels and the resorption of bone, which can lead to spontaneous fractures.", "The abnormally high plasma ionized calcium concentrations cause conformational changes in many cell-surface proteins (especially ion channels and hormone or neurotransmitter receptors) giving rise to lethargy, muscle weakness, anorexia, constipation and labile emotions.The body water homeostat can be compromised by the inability to secrete ADH in response to even the normal daily water losses via the exhaled air, the feces, and insensible sweating.", "On receiving a zero blood ADH signal, the kidneys produce huge unchanging volumes of very dilute urine, causing dehydration and death if not treated.As organisms age, the efficiency of their control systems becomes reduced.", "The inefficiencies gradually result in an unstable internal environment that increases the risk of illness, and leads to the physical changes associated with aging.Various chronic diseases are kept under control by homeostatic compensation, which masks a problem by compensating for it (making up for it) in another way.", "However, the compensating mechanisms eventually wear out or are disrupted by a new complicating factor (such as the advent of a concurrent acute viral infection), which sends the body reeling through a new cascade of events.", "Such decompensation unmasks the underlying disease, worsening its symptoms.", "Common examples include decompensated heart failure, kidney failure, and liver failure." ], [ "Biosphere", "In the Gaia hypothesis, James Lovelock stated that the entire mass of living matter on Earth (or any planet with life) functions as a vast homeostatic superorganism that actively modifies its planetary environment to produce the environmental conditions necessary for its own survival.", "In this view, the entire planet maintains several homeostasis (the primary one being temperature homeostasis).", "Whether this sort of system is present on Earth is open to debate.", "However, some relatively simple homeostatic mechanisms are generally accepted.", "For example, it is sometimes claimed that when atmospheric carbon dioxide levels rise, certain plants may be able to grow better and thus act to remove more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.", "However, warming has exacerbated droughts, making water the actual limiting factor on land.", "When sunlight is plentiful and the atmospheric temperature climbs, it has been claimed that the phytoplankton of the ocean surface waters, acting as global sunshine, and therefore heat sensors, may thrive and produce more dimethyl sulfide (DMS).", "The DMS molecules act as cloud condensation nuclei, which produce more clouds, and thus increase the atmospheric albedo, and this feeds back to lower the temperature of the atmosphere.", "However, rising sea temperature has stratified the oceans, separating warm, sunlit waters from cool, nutrient-rich waters.", "Thus, nutrients have become the limiting factor, and plankton levels have actually fallen over the past 50 years, not risen.", "As scientists discover more about Earth, vast numbers of positive and negative feedback loops are being discovered, that, together, maintain a metastable condition, sometimes within a very broad range of environmental conditions." ], [ "Predictive", "Predictive homeostasis is an anticipatory response to an expected challenge in the future, such as the stimulation of insulin secretion by gut hormones which enter the blood in response to a meal.", "This insulin secretion occurs before the blood sugar level rises, lowering the blood sugar level in anticipation of a large influx into the blood of glucose resulting from the digestion of carbohydrates in the gut.", "Such anticipatory reactions are open loop systems which are based, essentially, on \"guess work\", and are not self-correcting.", "Anticipatory responses always require a closed loop negative feedback system to correct the 'over-shoots' and 'under-shoots' to which the anticipatory systems are prone." ], [ "Other fields", "The term has come to be used in other fields, for example:===Risk===An actuary may refer to ''risk homeostasis'', where (for example) people who have anti-lock brakes have no better safety record than those without anti-lock brakes, because the former unconsciously compensate for the safer vehicle via less-safe driving habits.", "Previous to the innovation of anti-lock brakes, certain maneuvers involved minor skids, evoking fear and avoidance: Now the anti-lock system moves the boundary for such feedback, and behavior patterns expand into the no-longer punitive area.", "It has also been suggested that ecological crises are an instance of risk homeostasis in which a particular behavior continues until proven dangerous or dramatic consequences actually occur.===Stress===Sociologists and psychologists may refer to ''stress homeostasis'', the tendency of a population or an individual to stay at a certain level of stress, often generating artificial stresses if the \"natural\" level of stress is not enough.Jean-François Lyotard, a postmodern theorist, has applied this term to societal 'power centers' that he describes in ''The Postmodern Condition'', as being 'governed by a principle of homeostasis,' for example, the scientific hierarchy, which will sometimes ignore a radical new discovery for years because it destabilizes previously accepted norms.===Technology===Familiar technological homeostatic mechanisms include:* A thermostat operates by switching heaters or air-conditioners on and off in response to the output of a temperature sensor.", "* Cruise control adjusts a car's throttle in response to changes in speed.", "* An autopilot operates the steering controls of an aircraft or ship in response to deviation from a pre-set compass bearing or route.", "* Process control systems in a chemical plant or oil refinery maintain fluid levels, pressures, temperature, chemical composition, etc.", "by controlling heaters, pumps and valves.", "* The centrifugal governor of a steam engine, as designed by James Watt in 1788, reduces the throttle valve in response to increases in the engine speed, or opens the valve if the speed falls below the pre-set rate.===Society and Culture===The use of sovereign power, codes of conduct, religious and cultural practices and other dynamic processes in a society can be described as a part of an evolved homeostatic system of regularizing life and maintaining an overall equilibrium that protects the security of the whole from internal and external imbalances or dangers.", "Healthy civic cultures can be said to have achieved an optimal homeostatic balance between multiple contradictory concerns such as in the tension between respect for individual rights and concern for the public good, or that between governmental effectiveness and responsiveness to the interests of citizens." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* electronic-book electronic-" ], [ "External links", "* Homeostasis * Walter Bradford Cannon, Homeostasis (1932)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hockey" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Hockey''''' is a term used to denote a family of various types of both summer and winter team sports which originated on either an outdoor field, sheet of ice, or dry floor such as in a gymnasium.", "While these sports vary in specific rules, numbers of players, apparel, and playing surface, they share broad characteristics of two opposing teams using a stick to propel a ball or disk into a goal.There are many types of hockey.", "Some games make the use of skates, either wheeled or bladed, while others do not.", "In order to help make the distinction between these various games, the word ''hockey'' is often preceded by another word i.e.", "''field hockey'', ''ice hockey'', ''roller hockey'', ''rink hockey'', or ''floor hockey''.In each of these sports, two teams play against each other by trying to manoeuvre the object of play, either a type of ball or a disk (such as a puck), into the opponent's goal using a hockey stick.", "Two notable exceptions use a straight stick and an open disk (still referred to as a ''puck'') with a hole in the center instead.", "The first case is a style of floor hockey whose rules were codified in 1936 during the Great Depression by Canada's Sam Jacks.", "The second case involves a variant which was later modified in roughly the 1970s to make a related game that would be considered suitable for inclusion as a team sport in the newly emerging Special Olympics.", "The floor game of gym ringette, though related to floor hockey, is not a true variant due to the fact that it was designed in the 1990s and modelled off of the Canadian ice skating team sport of ringette, which was invented in Canada in 1963.Ringette was also invented by Sam Jacks, the same Canadian who codified the rules for the open disk style of floor hockey 1936.Certain sports which share general characteristics with the forms of hockey, but are not generally referred to as hockey include lacrosse, hurling, camogie, and shinty." ], [ "Etymology", "The first recorded use of the word ''hockey'' is in the 1773 book ''Juvenile Sports and Pastimes, to Which Are Prefixed, Memoirs of the Author: Including a New Mode of Infant Education'' by Richard Johnson (Pseud.", "Master Michel Angelo), whose chapter XI was titled \"New Improvements on the Game of Hockey\".", "The belief that hockey was mentioned in a 1363 proclamation by King Edward III of England is based on modern translations of the proclamation, which was originally in Latin and explicitly forbade the games \"Pilam Manualem, Pedivam, & Bacularem: & ad Canibucam & Gallorum Pugnam\".", "The English historian and biographer John Strype did not use the word \"hockey\" when he translated the proclamation in 1720, instead translating \"Canibucam\" as \"Cambuck\"; this may have referred to either an early form of hockey or a game more similar to golf or croquet.The word ''hockey'' itself is of unknown origin.", "One supposition is that it is a derivative of ''hoquet'', a Middle French word for a shepherd's stave.", "The curved, or \"hooked\" ends of the sticks used for hockey would indeed have resembled these staves, and similar folk etymologies exist for the bat-and-ball sports of Croquet and Cricket.", "Another supposition derives from the known use of cork bungs (stoppers), in place of wooden balls to play the game.", "The stoppers came from barrels containing \"hock\" ale, also called \"hocky\".===Modern usage=== The word \"hockey\" in Canada, the United States, Russia, and most of Eastern and Northern Europe, typically refers to ice hockey.Sledge hockey (or \"sled hockey\") is now called \"Para ice hockey\".", "It is the only hockey sport on ice created exclusively for participants with physical disabilities.In most of the world, the term ''hockey'' when used without clarification refers to field hockey, while in Canada, the United States, Russia and most of Eastern and Northern Europe, the term usually refers to ice hockey.In more recent history, the word \"hockey\" is used in reference to either the summer Olympic sport of field hockey, which is a stick and ball game, and the winter ice team skating sports of bandy and ice hockey.", "This is due to the fact that field hockey and other stick and ball sports and their related variants preceded games which would eventually be played on ice with ice skates, namely bandy and ice hockey, as well as sports involving dry floors such as roller hockey and floor hockey.", "However, the \"hockey\" referred to in common parlance often depends on locale, geography, and the size and popularity of the sport involved.", "For example, in Europe, \"hockey\" more typically refers to field hockey, whereas in Canada, it typically refers to ice hockey.", "In the case of bandy, the game was initially called \"hockey on the ice\" and preceded the organization and development of ice hockey, but was officially changed to \"bandy\" in the early 20th century in order to avoid confusion with ice hockey, a separate sport.", "Bandy, while related to other hockey games, derives some of its inspiration from Association football.Sledge hockey, a variant of ice hockey designed for players with physical disabilities, was created in the 1960s and has since been renamed, \"Para-ice hockey\"." ], [ "History", "''Bas relief'' approx.", "600 BC, in the National Archaeological Museum of AthensGames played with curved sticks and a ball can be found in the histories of many cultures.", "In Egypt, 4000-year-old carvings feature teams with sticks and a projectile, hurling dates to before 1272 BC in Ireland, and there is a depiction from approximately 600 BC in Ancient Greece, where the game may have been called (κερητίζειν) because it was played with a horn or horn-like stick ('''', κέρας).", "In Inner Mongolia, the Daur people have been playing ''beikou'', a game similar to modern field hockey, for about 1,000 years.Most evidence of hockey-like games during the Middle Ages is found in legislation concerning sports and games.", "The Galway Statute enacted in Ireland in 1527 banned certain types of ball games, including games using \"hooked\" (written \"hockie\", similar to \"hooky\") sticks.By the 19th century, the various forms and divisions of historic games began to differentiate and coalesce into the individual sports defined today.", "Organizations dedicated to the codification of rules and regulations began to form, and national and international bodies sprang up to manage domestic and international competition." ], [ "Subtypes", "===Bandy===Bandy game in SwedenBandy is played with a ball on a football pitch-sized ice arena (bandy rink), typically outdoors, and with many rules similar to association football.", "It is played professionally in Russia and Sweden.", "The sport is recognized by the IOC; its international governing body is the Federation of International Bandy.Bandy has its roots in England in the 19th century, was originally called \"hockey on the ice\", and spread from England to other European countries around 1900; a similar Russian sport can also be seen as a predecessor and in Russia, bandy is sometimes called \"Russian hockey\".", "Bandy World Championships have been played since 1957 and Women's Bandy World Championships since 2004.There are national club championships in many countries and the top clubs in the world play in the Bandy World Cup every year.=== Field hockey ===Field hockey game at Melbourne UniversityField hockey is played on gravel, natural grass, or sand-based or water-based artificial turf, with a small, hard ball approximately 73 mm (2.9 in) in diameter.", "The game is popular among both men and women in many parts of the world, particularly in Europe, Asia, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and Argentina.", "In most countries, the game is played between single-sex sides, although they can be mixed-sex.The governing body is the 126-member International Hockey Federation (FIH).", "Men's field hockey has been played at each Summer Olympic Games since 1908 except for 1912 and 1924, while women's field hockey has been played at the Summer Olympic Games since 1980.Modern field hockey sticks are constructed of a composite of wood, glass fibre or carbon fibre (sometimes both) and are J-shaped, with a curved hook at the playing end, a flat surface on the playing side and a curved surface on the rear side.", "All sticks are right-handed – left-handed sticks are not permitted.While field hockey in its current form appeared in mid-18th century England, primarily in schools, it was not until the first half of the 19th century that it became firmly established.", "The first club was created in 1849 at Blackheath in south-east London.", "Field hockey is the national sport of Pakistan.", "It was the national sport of India until the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports declared in August 2012 that India has no national sport.=== Ice hockey ===Ice hockey game between the Barrie Colts and the Brampton Battalion Ice hockey is played between two teams of skaters on a large flat area of ice, using a three-inch-diameter (76.2 mm) vulcanized rubber disc called a puck.", "This puck is often frozen before high-level games to decrease the amount of bouncing and friction on the ice.", "The game is played all over North America, Europe and to varying extents in many other countries around the world.", "It is the most popular sport in Canada, Finland, Latvia, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia.", "Ice hockey is the national sport of Latvia and the national winter sport of Canada.", "Ice hockey is played at a number of levels, by all ages.The governing body of international play is the 77-member International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF).", "Men's ice hockey has been played at the Winter Olympics since 1924, and was in the 1920 Summer Olympics.", "Women's ice hockey was added to the Winter Olympics in 1998.North America's National Hockey League (NHL) is the strongest professional ice hockey league, drawing top ice hockey players from around the globe.", "The NHL rules are slightly different from those used in Olympic ice hockey over many categories.", "International ice hockey rules were adopted from Canadian rules in the early 1900s.The contemporary sport developed in Canada from European and native influences.", "These included various stick and ball games similar to field hockey, bandy and other games where two teams push a ball or object back and forth with sticks.", "These were played outdoors on ice under the name \"hockey\" in England throughout the 19th century, and even earlier under various other names.", "In Canada, there are 24 reports of hockey-like games in the 19th century before 1875 (five of them using the name \"hockey\").", "The first organized and recorded game of ice hockey was played indoors in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, on March 3, 1875, and featured several McGill University students.Ice hockey sticks are long L-shaped sticks made of wood, graphite, or composites with a blade at the bottom that can lie flat on the playing surface when the stick is held upright and can legally curve either way, for left- or right-handed players.=== Para ice hockey ===Ice sledge hockey, or \"para ice hockey\", is a form of ice hockey designed for players with physical disabilities affecting their lower bodies.", "Players sit on double-bladed sledges and use two sticks; each stick has a blade at one end and small picks at the other.", "Players use the sticks to pass, stickhandle and shoot the puck, and to propel their sledges.", "The rules are very similar to IIHF ice hockey rules.Canada is a recognized international leader in the development of sledge hockey, and much of the equipment for the sport was first developed there, such as sledge hockey sticks laminated with fiberglass, as well as aluminum shafts with hand-carved insert blades and special aluminum sledges with regulation skate blades.====Inline sledge hockey====Based on ice sledge hockey, inline sledge hockey is played to the same rules as inline puck hockey (essentially ice hockey played off-ice using inline skates).", "There is no classification point system dictating who can play inline sledge hockey, unlike the situation with other team sports such as wheelchair basketball and wheelchair rugby.", "Inline sledge hockey is being developed to allow everyone, regardless of whether they have a disability or not, to complete up to world championship level based solely on talent and ability.The first game of organized inline sledge hockey was played at Bisley, Surrey, England, on December 19, 2009, between the Hull Stingrays and the Grimsby Redwings.", "Matt Lloyd is credited with inventing inline sledge hockey, and Great Britain is seen as the international leader in the game's development.=== Roller hockey (inline) ===Inline hockey uses inline skates and a type of either a puck or ball.Inline hockey using a ball is more common in Europe.", "Though inline hockey is considered a variant of roller hockey \"rink hockey\", it was derived from ice hockey instead and uses a type of hockey puck or a ball.", "Both roller games use a type of wheeled skate but inline hockey uses inline skates rather than roller skates or \"quads\".The puck-based inline variant is more commonly played in North America than Europe while the ball-based variant is more popular in Europe.Inline hockey puck variant is played by two teams, consisting of four skaters and one goalie, on a dry rink divided into two halves by a center line, with one net at each end of the rink.", "The game is played in three 15-minute periods with a variation of the ice hockey off-side rule.", "Icings are also called, but are usually referred to as illegal clearing.", "The governing body is the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF), just as it is for ice hockey, but some leagues and competitions do not follow the IIHF regulations, in particular USA Inline and Canada Inline.=== Roller hockey (quad) ===Rink hockey – Rollhockey – Hoquei em Patins'''Roller hockey''', also known as \"quad hockey\", \"international-style ball hockey\", \"rink hockey\" and \"Hoquei em Patins\", is an overarching name for a roller sport that uses quad skates.", "It has existed long before the invention of inline skates.", "The sport is played in over sixty countries and has a worldwide following.", "Roller hockey was a demonstration sport at the 1992 Barcelona Summer Olympics.=== Street hockey ===Also known as road hockey, this is a dry-land variant of ice and roller hockey played year-round on a hard surface (usually asphalt).", "A ball is usually used instead of a puck, and protective equipment is not usually worn." ], [ "Other forms of hockey", "Native Mapuches playing palín, shown in ''Histórica Relación del Reino de Chile'' by Alonso de Ovalle, Rome, 1646Other games derived from hockey or its predecessors include the following:Box Hockey being played in Miami, Florida, 1935* Air hockey is played indoors with a puck on an air-cushion table.", "* Beach hockey, a variation of street hockey, is a common sight on Southern California beaches.", "* Ball hockey is played in a gym using sticks and a ball, often a tennis ball with the felt removed.", "* Box hockey is a schoolyard game played by two people.", "The object of the game is to move a hockey puck from the center of the box out through a hole placed at the end of the box (known as the goal).", "The players kneel facing one another on either side of the box, and each attempts to move the puck to the hole on their left.", "* Broomball is played on an ice hockey rink, but with a ball instead of a puck and a \"broom\" (actually a stick with a small plastic implement on the end) in place of the ice hockey stick.", "Instead of skates, special shoes are used that have very soft rubbery soles to maximize grip while running around.", "* Deck hockey is traditionally played by the Royal Navy on ships' decks, using short wooden L-shaped sticks.", "* Floor hockey: a variety of games with different codes usually played on foot on a flat, smooth floor surface, usually indoors in gymnasiums or similar spaces.", "* Floorball is a form of hockey played in a gymnasium or in a sports hall.", "A whiffle ball is used instead of a plastic ball, and the sticks are only one meter long and made from composite materials.", "* Foot hockey or sock hockey is played using a bald tennis ball or rolled-up pair of socks and using only the feet.", "It is popular in elementary schools in the winter.", "* Gena is a field hockey sport played in Ethiopia, with which the Ethiopian Christmas festival shares its name.", "The equipment consists of a strong stick curved at one end, and a ball of two kinds: either called srur (made out of a rounded piece of hard-wood) or (made by weaving a long strip of leather into a rounded shape).", "* Gym ringette is the off-ice floor variant of the ice skating team sport of ringette rather than ice hockey.", "It is not a direct variant of the style of floor hockey which helped inspire ringette.", "* Gym hockey floor hockey is a form of ice hockey played in a gymnasium.", "It uses sticks with foam ends and a foam ball or a plastic puck.", "* Hurling and Camogie are Irish games bearing some resemblance to – and notable differences from – hockey.", "* Indoor hockey is an indoor variant of field hockey.", "* Mini hockey (or knee-hockey), also known as \"mini-sticks\" is a form of hockey played in the United States and Canada in the basements of houses.", "Players kneel, or crouch, and use a miniature plastic stick, usually about 15 inches (38 cm) long, to manoeuvre a small ball or a soft, fabric-covered mini puck into miniature goals.", "In England 'mini hockey' refers to a seven-a-side version of field hockey for younger players, played on an area equivalent to half a normal pitch.", "* Nok Hockey is a table-top version of hockey played with no defence and a small block in front of the goal.", "* Pond hockey is a simplified form of ice hockey played on naturally frozen ice.", "* Power hockey is a form of hockey for persons requiring the use of an electric (power) wheelchair in daily life.", "* Ringette is primarily a variant of an early 20th century style of floor hockey, but played on ice hockey skates and designed for female players; it uses a straight stick and an air-filled rubber ring in place of a floor hockey puck (open disk).", "Though played on ice hockey rinks, the rules and strategy differ considerably from those of ice hockey and bear a closer resemblance to basketball.", "It should not be confused with gym ringette which is the floor variant of the ice sport.", "* Rink bandy and rinkball are team sports of Scandinavian origin.", "Both were influenced by bandy, but are played on ice hockey rinks and involve fewer players on each team.", "* Rossall hockey is a variation played at Rossall School on the sea shore in the winter months.", "Its rules are a mix of field hockey, rugby and the Eton wall game.", "* Shinny is an informal version of ice hockey.", "* Shinty is a Scottish game now played primarily in the Highlands* Skater hockey is a variant of inline hockey, played with a ball.", "* Spongee is a cross between ice hockey and broomball and is most popular in Manitoba, Canada.", "A stick and puck are used as in hockey (the puck is a softer version called a \"sponge puck\"), and the same soft-soled shoes are worn as in broomball.", "The rules are basically the same as for ice hockey, but one variation has an extra player on the ice called a \"rover\".", "* Table hockey is played indoors on a table.", "* Underwater hockey is played with a weighted puck on the bottom of a swimming pool.", "* Underwater ice hockey is similar to underwater hockey but played with floating puck on the underside of a frozen swimming pool.", "* Unicycle hockey is played on a hard surface using unicycles as the method of player movement.", "There is generally no dedicated goalkeeper." ], [ "Equipment", "===Protection===* Shoulder pads* Genital protection, a jockstrap with cup pocket and protective cup or a \"jill\" for female players.", "* Hockey stick===Footwear=======Roller hockey====Image:Roller skates.jpg\|Two available styles:inline skates and the traditional roller skateImage:Roller-skate.jpg\|Roller skatesImage:Inline-skate-adjustable.jpg\|Inline hockey skates" ], [ "See also", "* ''The Ultimate Book of Hockey Trivia for Kids''" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Bowlsby, Craig.", "''1913: The Year They Invented The Future of Hockey'' (2013)* Ellison, Jenny.", "and Jennifer Anderson, eds.", "''Hockey: Challenging Canada’s Game'' (2018)* * Gruneau, Richard.", "and David Whitson.", "''Hockey Night in Canada: Sport, Identities, and Cultural Politics'' (1993),* Hardy, Stephen and Andrew C. Holman.", "''Hockey: A Global History'' (U of Illinois Press, 2018).", "online review 600 pp* Holzman, Morey, and Joseph Nieforth.", "''Deceptions and Doublecross: How The NHL Conquered Hockey'' (2002), * McKinley, Michael.", "''Putting A Roof on Winter: Hockey’s Rise from Sport Spectacle'' (2000), on Canada and U.S. " ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hawick" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hawick''' ( ; ; ) is a town in the Scottish Borders council area and historic county of Roxburghshire in the east Southern Uplands of Scotland.", "It is south-west of Jedburgh and south-south-east of Selkirk.", "It is one of the furthest towns from the sea in Scotland, in the heart of Teviotdale, and is the biggest town in Roxburghshire.", "The town is at the confluence of the Slitrig Water with the River Teviot.The town was formally established in the 16th century, but was previously the site of historic settlement going back hundreds of years.", "By the late 17th century, the town began to grow significantly, especially during the Industrial Revolution and Victorian era as a centre for the production of textiles, with a focus on knitting and weaving, involving materials such as tweed and cashmere.", "By the late 20th century, textile production had declined but the town remains an important regional centre for shopping, tourism and services.", "Hawick's architecture is distinctive in that it has many sandstone buildings with slate roofs.", "The town has several museums, parks and heritage sites.", "The town hosts the annual Alchemy Film and Moving Image Festival." ], [ "History", "The name Hawick is Old English in origin, first recorded in 1167 and translates as \"enclosed farm\" or \"enclosed hamlet\".", "The origin of the name of Hawick was first researched in the 1860s by James Murray, a local teacher and later the primary editor of the ''Oxford English Dictionary.''", "The town has a long history of habitation being settled at the confluence of Slitrig Water and the River Teviot.", "The west end of the town contains \"the Motte\", the remains of a likely 12th century Scoto-Norman motte-and-bailey castle.On 20 June 1342, as Alexander Ramsay of Dalhousie according to the duty of his office as Sheriff of Teviotsdale was holding court in the church of Hawick, William Douglas, Lord of Liddesdale came with an armed retinue and entered the church.", "He was courteously welcomed.", "Douglas and his men attacked Ramsay and dragged him bleeding and in chains to Hermitage Castle; It is generally assumed because Douglas believed he should be Sheriff of Teviotdale.", "There Ramsay was imprisoned in a dungeon where he died of starvation.The origin of Hawick being formally declared a town are said to originate with the Battle of Hornshole which was fought in 1514 between an English raiding party and young locals from Hawick.", "In 2014, on the 500th anniversary of the battle, some 1,800 children dressed in period costumes re-enacted the battle.", "The oldest official document of the town is a deed dated 11 October 1537 in which the town was re-declared a free burgh since time immemorial.St Mary's and Old Parish Church is the oldest church in the town, being constructed in 1764 on the site of an earlier 13th century church.", "The church was extensively damaged by fire in the late 19th century but was reconstructed in a similar style.", "The cemetery contains 17th and 18th century gravestones, as well as an elaborate ironwork memorial gate given by the town council.Hawick developed in the late 18th and 19th centuries as an important town in the manufacture of textiles and knitwear.", "The first knitting machines were brought to Hawick in 1771 by John Hardie, building on an existing carpet manufacturing trade and with a view to expanding into the production of stockings.", "As a result of a decline in the stocking trade by 1815, some weaving manufacturers had set up in the town using resources from the stocking trade.", "These industries continued to grow in size, when in the early 1830s, the term \"Tweed\" originated from the town as a result of a miscommunication of twill for the River Tweed.", "The town subsequently focused on the manufacturer of different textiles, hosiery and knitwear, including cashmere, adapting to different patterns and materials as fashions changed.", "In the 1930s, over 1200 persons were employed in producing knitwear in the town.", "However, by the late 20th century, changing production methods, costs and tastes resulted in the decline of the textile industries to all but a few small businesses.July 2020 saw the start of work on a £92m flood-defence scheme.", "But in October 2021, with engineering work still in progress, the town was severely affected by heavy rainfall and subsequent flooding." ], [ "Governance", "Hawick Town Hall, High StreetLocal government services for Hawick are provided by Scottish Borders Council.", "There is also a community council covering the town.Hawick was designated a burgh of regality in 1669 and became a police burgh in 1868.Hawick Town Hall on the High Street was built in 1886, designed by James Campbell Walker in the Scottish baronial style.When elected county councils were created in 1890 under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1889, the burgh of Hawick was deemed capable of running its own affairs and so was excluded from the jurisdiction of Roxburghshire County Council.", "Further local government reform in 1930 brought the burgh of Hawick within the area controlled by the county council, with the town being reclassified as a small burgh, ceding most of its functions to the county council.In 1975 local government across Scotland was reformed under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973.The burghs and counties were abolished as administrative areas, replaced with a two-tier system of upper-tier regions and lower-tier districts.", "Hawick therefore became part of the Roxburgh district within the Borders region.", "Roxburgh District Council used Hawick Town Hall as its headquarters.", "Further local government reform in 1996 abolished the regions and districts, since when Hawick has been administered by Scottish Borders Council." ], [ "Monuments", "Hawick High Street has an equestrian statue at the east end, known as \"the Horse\", erected in 1914.Drumlanrig's Tower, now a museum, dates largely from the mid-16th century.In 2009 another monument the ''Turning of the Bull'' (artist, Angela Hunter, Innerleithen) was unveiled in Hawick.", "This monument depicts William Rule turning the wild bull as it was charging King Robert the Bruce, thus saving the king's life and beginning the Scottish Clan of Turnbull.", "A poem written by John Leyden commemorates this historical event.", "\"His arms robust the hardy hunter flung around his bending horns, and upward wrung, with writhing force his neck retorted round, and rolled the panting monster to the ground, crushed, with enormous strength, his bony skull; and courtiers hailed the man who turned the bull.\"" ], [ "Economy", "The companies William Lockie, Hawick Cashmere, Hawick Knitwear, Johnstons of Elgin, Lyle & Scott, Peter Scott, Pringle of Scotland, and Scott and Charters, have had and in many cases still have manufacturing plants in Hawick, producing luxury cashmere and merino wool knitwear.", "Engineering firm Turnbull and Scott had their headquarters in an Elizabethan-style listed building on Commercial Road before moving to Burnfoot.In recent times, unemployment has been an issue in Hawick.", "The rate of unemployment exceeded the average for the Scottish Borders between 2014 and 2017.The closure of once-significant employers, including mills like Peter Scott's and Pringle's have reduced the number of jobs in the town.", "The population has declined partly because of this; at 13,730 in 2016, it was at its lowest since the 1800s.", "Despite efforts to improve the economic situation, unemployment and poverty remain relatively high, with the number of children living in poverty in the town one-tenth higher than the average for the Borders region in 2017.Developments such as a new central business hub, Aldi supermarket, and distillery, all set for opening in 2018–19, are expected to benefit Hawick.", "Despite this, continued business closures, for example that of Homebase and the Original Factory Store in 2018, suggest continued economic decline for the town." ], [ "Transport", "Hawick lies in the centre of the valley of the Teviot.", "The A7 Edinburgh–Carlisle road passes through the town, with main roads also leading to Berwick-upon-Tweed (the A698) and Newcastle upon Tyne (the A6088, which joins the A68 at the Carter Bar, south-east of Hawick).The town lost its rail service in 1969, when, as part of the Beeching Axe, the Waverley Route from Carlisle to Edinburgh via Hawick railway station was closed.", "It was then said to be the farthest large town from a railway station in the United Kingdom, but this changed as a result of the opening of the Borders Railway, which, in 2015, reopened part of the former Waverley Route to Tweedbank, near Galashiels.", "Regular buses serve the railway station at Carlisle, away.", "Reconnecting Hawick to the Borders Railway would require reinstatement of a further approximately of the former Waverley Route from Hawick to Tweedbank station via Hassendean, St Boswells and Melrose, with refurbishment of the four-arch Ale Water viaduct near New Belses.", "Hawick station was on the north bank of the river Teviot, below Wilton Hill Terrace, with a now demolished viaduct (near the Mart Street bridge) carrying the route south towards Carlisle.", "Waverley Walk in Hawick is a footpath along the former railway route, north-eastward from the former station site near Teviotdale Leisure Centre.", "A feasibility study is now underway to evaluate the possible reopening of the southern section of the former Waverley railway to link the Borders Railway terminus at Tweedbank through Hawick to Carlisle.The nearest major airports are at Edinburgh, away, and Newcastle, away." ], [ "Culture and traditions", "The \"Return from Hornshole\" statue, erected in 2014 and funded by the Common Riding Committee of the town.The town hosts the annual Common Riding, which combines the annual riding of the boundaries of the town's common land with the commemoration of a victory of local youths over an English raiding party in 1514.In March 2007, this was described by the ''Rough Guide'' publication ''World Party'' as one of the best parties in the world.People from Hawick call themselves \"Teries\", after a traditional song which includes the line \"Teribus ye teri odin\".Hawick and surrounding border residents are known to possess a dialect and accent slightly different from broader Scots, being classed as Southern Scots or Borders Scots.", "For example, the term a \"Hawick Gill\" is a large measure of spirits, equivalent to 0.28 litre (half a pint).=== Film ===Hawick is home to Alchemy Film & Arts, and its internationally renowned flagship annual event Alchemy Film and Moving Image Festival.", "Investing in film \"as a means of generating discussion, strengthening community, and stimulating creative thought\", Alchemy works with artists and communities within Hawick and the Scottish Borders on a year-round basis.In summer 2019, Alchemy launched its award-winning ''Film Town'' project, which \"aims to work to the benefit of Hawick and its unique communities by widening accessibility and inclusion for audiences, participants and partners, and by challenging social, physical and communication barriers... while contributing to Hawick's economic regeneration through an investment in its cultural identity\".In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, Alchemy delivered the tenth and eleventh editions of its annual film festival as livestream events delivered from Hawick, and assisted in helping the town's communities to digitise their own services, including the production of virtual lectures for the town's 164-year-old Hawick Archaeological Society.=== Sports ===The town is the home of Hawick Rugby Football Club which was founded in 1873.The town has a senior football team, Hawick Royal Albert, who currently play in the East of Scotland Football League.The Hawick baw game was once played here by the \"uppies\" and the \"doonies\" on the first Monday after the new moon in the month of February.", "The river of the town formed an important part of the pitch.", "Although no longer played at Hawick, it is still played at nearby Jedburgh.===Confectionery===''Hawick balls'' or ''baws'', also known as Hills Balls or taffy rock bools, are a peppermint-flavoured boiled sweet that originated in the town.", "They are particularly associated with rugby commentator Bill McLaren who was known to offer them from a bag that he always carried.", "They are now produced in Greenock." ], [ "Community facilities", "Hawick Library, a Carnegie library, built 1904.Hawick Library is a Carnegie funded library that opened in 1904.Teviotdale Leisure Centre is the local public fitness centre, with a gym and swimming pool.", "The previous public baths, now disused were built in 1913 on Commercial Road and closed in the 1980s.The Borders Textile Towerhouse is a local museum focusing on the history of textiles in Hawick and the Borders area.", "Examples of temporary exhibitions held include an exhibit on fashion designer Bernat Klein and a history of shops in the town.", "The museum occupies a restored heritage building, formerly a hotel and inn which incorporates Drumlanrig Tower, a 16th century fortified tower.Wilton Lodge Park is a large public park in the south-west of the town.", "The park is home to Hawick Museum, a public museum focusing on art and local history.", "The museum includes local artwork, some of which was produced by members of Hawick Art Club.The Borders Abbeys Way passes through Hawick.", "A statue of the popular rugby commentator Bill McLaren (1923–2010) is in Wilton Lodge Park, to the west of the town centre.In October 2021, the local council began construction of a new £2m footbridge to link local communities, as part of a broader improvements in the town to create an improved travel network in Hawick, alongside a new flood protection scheme.===Hospital===Hawick Community Hospital is the local hospital for the area, itself replacing Hawick Cottage Hospital in 2005." ], [ "Education", "Hawick High School is a non-denominational secondary school in the town.", "In September 2021, it was announced that a new circa £49 million will be built to replace the current school on its existing site by 2027." ], [ "Media", "Local news and television programmes are provided by BBC Scotland and ITV Border.", "Television signals are received from the Selkirk TV transmitter and the local relay transmitter.", "Local radio stations are BBC Radio Scotland on 93.5 FM, Greatest Hits Radio Scottish Borders and North Northumberland on 96.8 FM and TD9 Radio, an online community based station which broadcast from the town.The town is served by its own local newspaper, ''The Hawick Paper''.", "Other newspapers that cover the town are ''The Border Telegraph'' and ''Southern Reporter''." ], [ "Town twinning", "* Bailleul, Nord, France" ], [ "Notable people", "\"Horn's Hole, Hawick, Scotland\", ca.", "1890 – 1900Maiden Paps.===Arts===Dame Isobel Baillie (1895–1983), singerBrian Balfour-Oatts (born 1966), art dealerBrian Bonsor (1926–2011), composerAndrew Cranston (born 1969), artistWilliam Landles (1923–2016), artistSir John Blackwood McEwen, composerPeter McRobbie (born 1943), actor Will H. Ogilvie (1869–1963), Border poet Anne Redpath (1895–1965), artistJohn Renbourn (1944–2015), musicianHenry Scott Riddell (1798–1870), writerFrancis George Scott (1880–1958), composerDouglas Veitch (born 1960), musician===Journalism===Bill McLaren (1923–2010), sports journalist===Science===James Paris Lee (1831–1904), arms designerSir Andrew Smith (1797–1872), zoologistSir David Wallace (born 1945), physicist===Sports===Sir Chay Blyth (born 1940), yachtsmanStuart Easton (born 1983), motorcycle racerDarcy Graham (born 1997), rugby playerJimmie Guthrie (1897–1937), motorcycle racerSteve Hislop (1962–2003), motorcycle racerStuart Hogg (born 1992), rugby playerMatt Leyden (1904–1975), ice hockey executiveRobert Lindsay-Watson (1886–1956), athleteJim Renwick (born 1952), rugby playerTony Stanger (born 1968), rugby playerJames Storrie (1885–1951), cricket playerWalter Storrie (1875–1945), cricket playerDave Valentine (1926–1976), rugby playerRory Sutherland (born 1992), rugby player===Politics and public life=== John Daykins VC MM (1883–1933), decorated British Army sergeant of the First World War* Helen Wilson Fell was born here in 1849 and became a leading suffragist and philanthropist in Sydney* Nigel Griffiths (born 1955), politician* Tom Jenkins (1797–1859) the United Kingdom's first black schoolteacher* Alison Suttie, Baroness Suttie (born 1968), politician* Francis Walsingham (1577–1647), English Jesuit priest, who assumed the name John Fennell* James Wilson (1805–1860), businessman and politician===Business===* John Inglis (1823–1898), Hawick-born and raised Canadian manufacturer of engines and consumer productsJames Alison (1862-1932), Dalkeith (Eskbank) born architect practising in Hawick" ], [ "See also", "List of places in the Scottish BordersList of places in ScotlandStirchesWilton Dean" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", " Murray, James (1870–72, 1873) The Dialect of the Southern Counties of Scotland, London: Philological Society.", "* Scott, Douglas, ''A Hawick Word Book'' (2002–2022), PDF file" ], [ "External links", "* Old photographs of Hawick and the Scottish Borders* Photos Of Hawick* Picture of the ba game at Hawick dated 1904" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hatfield, Hertfordshire" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hatfield''' is a town and civil parish in Hertfordshire, England, in the borough of Welwyn Hatfield.", "It had a population of 29,616 in 2001, 39,201 at the 2011 Census, and 41,265 at the 2021 Census.", "The settlement is of Saxon origin.", "Hatfield House, home of the Marquess of Salisbury, forms the nucleus of the old town.", "From the 1930s when de Havilland opened a factory, until the 1990s when British Aerospace closed it, aircraft design and manufacture employed more people there than any other industry.", "Hatfield was one of the post-war New Towns built around London and has much modernist architecture from the period.", "The University of Hertfordshire is based there.Hatfield lies north of London beside the A1(M) motorway and has direct trains to London King's Cross railway station, London St Pancras railway station, Finsbury Park and Moorgate.", "There has been a strong increase in commuters who work in London moving into the area.In 2022, TV property expert Phil Spencer named Hatfield as the second best place to live for regular commuters to London, based on train times, house prices and the attractions the town has." ], [ "History", "In the early tenth century Hatfield belonged to a ''vir potens'' (powerful man) called Ordmær and his wife Ealde, who may have been the grandfather of King Edward the Martyr.", "Sometime between 932 and 956 he exchanged the town for land in Devon with Æthelstan Half-King, who then gave it to his sons.", "King Edgar seized the land when he became king on 959, claiming that Ordmær and Ealde had bequeathed it to him, but Æthelstan's sons recovered it after Edgar died.", "Hatfield is recorded in Domesday Book of 1086 as the property of the Abbey of Ely, and unusually the original census data that compilers of Domesday used survives, giving us slightly more information than in the final Domesday record.", "No other records remain until 1226, when Henry III granted the Bishops of Ely rights to an annual four-day fair and a weekly market.", "The town was then called Bishop's Hatfield.Hatfield House is the seat of the Cecil family, the Marquesses of Salisbury.", "Elizabeth Tudor was confined there for three years in what is now known as The Old Palace in Hatfield Park.", "Legend has it that she learnt here of her accession as queen in 1558 while sitting under an oak tree in the Park.", "She held her first Council in the Great Hall (The Old Palace) of Hatfield.", "In 1851 the route of the Great North Road (now the A1000) was altered to avoid cutting through the grounds of Hatfield House.St Etheldreda's Church in Old Hatfield.The town grew up around the gates of Hatfield House.", "Old Hatfield retains many historic buildings, notably the Old Palace, St Etheldreda's Church and Hatfield House.", "The Old Palace was built by the Bishop of Ely, Cardinal Morton, in 1497, during the reign of Henry VII, and the only surviving wing is still used today for Elizabethan-style banquets.St Etheldreda's Church was founded by the monks from Ely, and the first wooden church, built in 1285, was probably sited where the existing building stands overlooking the old town.The church of St Etheldreda, well situated towards the top of the hill, contains an Early English round arch with dog-tooth moulding, but for the rest is Decorated and Perpendicular and largely restored.", "The chapel north of the chancel is known as the Salisbury chapel and was erected by Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, who was buried here.", "It is in a combination of classic and Gothic styles.", "In a private portion of the churchyard is buried, among others of the family, Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury.===Aerospace industry===The Comet; the carving of the pillar is by Eric Kennington; the aircraft is not the original In 1930 the de Havilland airfield and aircraft factory was opened at Hatfield and by 1949 it had become the largest employer in the town, with almost 4,000 staff.", "It was taken over by Hawker Siddeley in 1960 and merged into British Aerospace in 1978.In the 1930s it produced a range of small biplanes.", "During the Second World War it produced the Mosquito fighter bomber and developed the Vampire, the second British production jet aircraft after the Gloster Meteor.", "After the war, facilities were expanded and it developed the Comet airliner (the world's first production jet liner), the Trident airliner, and an early bizjet, the DH125.British Aerospace closed the Hatfield site in 1993 having moved the BAe 146 production line to Woodford Aerodrome.", "The land was used as a film set for Steven Spielberg's movie ''Saving Private Ryan'' and most of the BBC/HBO television drama ''Band of Brothers''.", "It was later developed for housing, higher education, commerce and retail.Today, Hatfield's aviation history is remembered by the names of certain local streets and pubs (e. g. Comet Way, The Airfield, Dragon Road) as well as ''The Comet Hotel'' (now owned by Ramada) built in the 1930s.", "''The Harrier Pub'' (formerly ''The Hilltop'') is actually named after the Harrier bird, not the aircraft, hence the original pub sign showing the bird.", "The de Havilland Aircraft Heritage Centre, at Salisbury Hall in nearby London Colney, preserves and displays many historic de Havilland aeroplanes and related archives.===New Town===Hatfield New Town centre, looking west along its axis.The Abercrombie Plan for London in 1944 proposed a New Town in Hatfield.", "It was designated in the New Towns Act 1946, forming part of the initial Hertfordshire group with nearby Stevenage, Welwyn Garden City and Hemel Hempstead.", "The Government allocated for Hatfield New Town, with a population target of 25,000.", "(By 2001 the population had reached 27,833.)", "The Hatfield Development Corporation, tasked with creating the New Town, chose to build a new town centre, rejecting Old Hatfield because it was on the wrong side of the railway, without space for expansion and \"with its intimate village character, out of scale with the town it would have to serve.\"", "They chose instead St Albans Road on the town's east–west bus route.", "A road pattern was planned that offered no temptation to through traffic to take short cuts through the town and which enabled local traffic to move rapidly.Hatfield retains New Town characteristics, including much modernist architecture of the 1950s and the trees and open spaces that were outlined in the original design.", "As of 2017, a redevelopment of the town centre was planned." ], [ "Governance", "Birchwood Leisure Centre: Combined leisure centre and headquarters of town council.There are three tiers of local government covering Hatfield, at parish, district and county level: Hatfield Town Council, Welwyn Hatfield Borough Council and Hertfordshire County Council.", "Hatfield Town Council has its offices and meeting place at the Birchwood Leisure Centre on Longmead.", "Hatfield town council is currently under a Labour administration led by Cllr Larry Crofton.Old council offices, 16 St Albans Road EastFrom 1894 until 1974 the lower two tiers of local government were Hatfield Parish Council and Hatfield Rural District Council.", "The rural district council built itself a headquarters at 16 St Albans Road East in 1930.The rural district council was abolished in 1974 and its powers transferred to Welwyn Hatfield.Hatfield is twinned with the Dutch port town of Zierikzee.", "Hatfield is part of the Welwyn Hatfield constituency, which also includes Welwyn Garden City.", "The Member of Parliament (MP) for Welwyn Hatfield is Grant Shapps, a Conservative." ], [ "Sport", "Hatfield Town F.C.", "plays Non-League football at Gosling Sports Park.", "The Welwyn Garden City Hockey Club are a field hockey club based in Hatfield.Hatfield Athletic Football Club competes in the Herts Senior County League and plays its games at Lemsford.The town has a public swimming pool and four sports/leisure centres (two with indoor swimming pools)." ], [ "Climate", "Hatfield experiences an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification ''Cfb'') like most of the United Kingdom." ], [ "Culture and recreation", "The south wing of The Galleria with the connecting bridge on the right of the photograph, viewed from its north wing.EE Head Office in Hatfield Business Park.The memorial garden built alongside the East Coast Main Line.Hatfield railway station viewed from the public footbridge.Statue of Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury in front of the park gates of Hatfield House.Hatfield has a nine-screen Odeon cinema, a stately home (Hatfield House), a museum (Mill Green Museum), a contemporary art gallery (Art and Design Gallery), a theatre (The Weston Auditorium) and a music venue (The Forum Hertfordshire).", "There are shopping centres in the new town: the Galleria (indoor shopping centre), The Stable Yard (Hatfield House), and three supermarkets (ASDA, ALDI and Tesco).", "In 2022, Hatfield held its first vegan market, an event held in a number of English towns, at Hatfield House and now holds the market each June and November.", "During Veganuary in 2023, students at the University of Hertfordshire organized their own vegan market." ], [ "Education", "Hatfield contains numerous primary and secondary schools, including St Philip Howard Catholic Primary School, Howe Dell Primary School, Countess Anne School, Onslow St Audrey's School, Bishop's Hatfield Girls' School and the independent day and private boarding girls' school Queenswood School (only to name a few).In addition to the important areas in the town, the University of Hertfordshire is also included by many.", "A large section of the airfield site was purchased by the University and the £120-million de Havilland Campus, incorporating a £15-million Sports Village, was opened in September 2003.The university has closed its sites at Watford and Hertford; faculties situated there have been moved to the de Havilland Campus.The equine branch of the Royal Veterinary College is based in Hatfield." ], [ "Places of interest", "Hatfield HouseHatfield War MemorialThe Forum Hertfordshire (music venue) University of Hertfordshire.", "In 2011, the music video for Ed Sheeran's Lego House, featuring Harry Potter's Rupert Grint, was filmed in Hatfield.", "Filming took place at The Forum venue, located on University of Hertfordshire, College Lane campus.", "Filming of the video took place during Sheeran's performance at the venue on 8 October 2011.Many students were involved during filming, as they made up most of the audience at the Forum that day.", "Mill Green Museum and watermillArt and Design Gallery (contemporary art gallery) University of HertfordshireThe Weston Auditorium (theatre and cinema) University of HertfordshireThe GalleriaHatfield Business Park, the former de Havilland plant, later BAE Systems Hatfield, was used as a location for ''Saving Private Ryan'' (film) and ''Band of Brothers'' (TV series)." ], [ "Transport", "Hatfield is to the north of London.", "It is from London Luton Airport.", "The A1(M) runs through a tunnel beneath the town, which is also close to the M25.In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries it was the northern terminus of the Hatfield and Reading Turnpike that allowed travelers from the north to continue their journey to the west without going through the congestion of London.The East Coast railway line from London to York runs through the town, separating the old and new parts.", "A commuter service connects Hatfield railway station to London King's Cross.", "A new railway station and car park opened in late 2015.The frequent train service runs direct from Hatfield Station to London King's Cross (21 minutes) via Finsbury Park (16 minutes, Victoria Underground Line) on fast trains running two or three times an hour.", "An additional train service calls at all stations to Moorgate in the City of London.Hatfield is well served by buses with regular services to all nearby towns and villages and as far as north London.", "Bus services are run by Uno, Arriva and Centrebus who are all part of the local Intalink Partnership.There was a fatal rail crash at Hatfield in October 2000, which brought track-maintenance deficiencies to public attention.", "A garden beside the East Coast Main Line was built as a memorial to the crash victims.==Local media== The local TV stations are BBC London & ITV London, received from the Crystal Palace TV transmitter and the Hemel Hempstead relay transmitter.", "BBC East and ITV Anglia are also received from the Sandy Heath TV transmitter.", "Local radio stations are BBC Three Counties Radio on 90.4 FM, Heart Hertfordshire on 106.9 and Radio Verulam on 92.6 FM.The Welwyn Hatfield Times is the town’s local weekly newspaper." ], [ "Notable residents", "===Business===Michael Birch (born 1970), founder of the social network BEBO, lived in Hatfield.", "Sir Geoffrey de Havilland (1882–1965), founder of De Havilland Aircraft CompanyJack Olding (Henry John Douglas Olding, fl.", "mid-20th c.), wartime tank and tractor importer, came from Hatfield.===Music and dance===Babe Ruth, a 1970s rock band, came from Hatfield.", "Colin Blunstone (born 1945), of the Zombies lived in Hatfield.", "Martin Carthy (born 1941), folk musician, was born in Hatfield.", "Sandra Conley (born 1943), principal dancer with the Royal Ballet.", "Donovan (born 1946), folk musician, moved to Hatfield at the age of 10 and spent the rest of his childhood there.", "Barbara Gaskin (born 1950), pop singer, No.", "1 with \"It's My Party\".", "George Martin (1926–2016), record producer for the Beatles, lived in Hatfield in the 1950s.", "Alan Shacklock (born 1950), pop musician and record producer, lived in Hatfield.", "Sal Solo (Christopher Scott Stevens, born 1961), rock singer, was born in Hatfield.", "Mick Taylor (born 1949), Rolling Stones guitarist 1969–1974, grew up in Hatfield.", "Tracey Thorn (born 1962), lead singer of Everything But The Girl, was born in Hatfield and attended Bishop's Hatfield Girls' School.===Politics, nobility and royalty===Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury (c. 1563–1612), statesmanRobert Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury (1830–1903), Conservative politician, lived at Hatfield House and was buried at St Etheldreda Church.", "Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 5th Marquess of Salisbury (1893–1972), Conservative politicianWilliam Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne (1779–1848), prime minister, was buried at St Etheldreda Church.", "Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston (1784–1865), prime ministerElizabeth Tudor, later Queen Elizabeth I (1533–1603), lived at Hatfield House (Hatfield Old Palace).", "Malcolm Wicks (1947–2012), Labour Party politician and Minister for Energy, was born in Hatfield.===Religion===Walter Curle (1575–1647), Bishop of Winchester and a close supporter of William Laud, was born in Hatfield.", "John Morton (c. 1420–1500), Cardinal and Bishop of Ely, built Hatfield Old Palace.===Science and scholarship===L. H. Sumanadasa (1910–1986), aviator and university founder, learned to fly at Hatfield.", "John Tradescant the elder (c. 1570s–1638), botanist, gardener and naturalist, was head gardener at Hatfield House.===Sports===Keith Abbis (born 1932), Brighton and Hove Albion footballerSamir Carruthers (born 1993), Sheffield United footballer, is from Hatfield.", "Matthew Connolly (born 1987), QPR defender, lived and attended primary school in Hatfield.", "Iain Dowie (born 1965), West Ham player, QPR manager & BBC pundit, was born and raised in Hatfield and studied mechanical engineering at the University of Hertfordshire.", "Valentine Faithfull (1820–1894), first-class cricketer and clergyman, was born in Hatfield.", "Rodney Marsh (born 1944), QPR footballer, is from Hatfield.", "Francis Pember (1862–1954), first-class cricketer, was born in Hatfield.", "Billy Joe Saunders (born 1989), WBO middleweight world champion boxerKorey Smith (born 1991) Bristol City footballer was born and grew up in Hatfield===Stage, media and film===Sanjeev Bhaskar (born 1963), comedian and broadcaster, lived in Hatfield whilst studying at the University of Hertfordshire.", "John Cazabon (1914–1983), actor on stage, screen and radio, was born in Hatfield.", "Pippa Haywood (born 1961), television, stage and radio actress, was born in Hatfield.", "Diane-Louise Jordan (born 1960), television presenter, grew up in Hatfield.", "David Kossoff (1919–2005), broadcaster and father of Paul Kossoff of the 1960s rock band Free, lived in Hatfield.", "Derek Martin (born 1933), actor known especially for role of Charlie Slater in ''EastEnders''Gerry Northam (born 1947), radio presenter and investigative journalist, was born in Hatfield.", "Guy Ritchie (born 1968), film director famous for ''Snatch'' and ''Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels'', was born in Hatfield.", "Letitia Dean, born in Hatfield.===Writing===Moniza Alvi (born 1954), poet and writer, grew up in Hatfield.", "Barbara Cartland (1901–2000), author of romances, lived in Hatfield.", "Geoffrey Drage (1860–1955), non-fiction writer and politician, was born in Hatfield.", "Nathaniel Lee (c. 1653–1692), poet and playwright, was born in Hatfield, where his father was rector." ], [ "Nearby towns and villages", "Bell BarBorehamwoodBrookmans ParkColney HeathHertfordLemsford, village within Hatfield civil parishLetty GreenLondon ColneyNewgate Street, village within Hatfield civil parishPotters BarSt AlbansStevenageWatfordWelham GreenWelwyn Garden City" ], [ "See also", "Council of Hatfield" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hertfordshire" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hertfordshire''' ( or ; often abbreviated '''Herts''') is a ceremonial county in the East of England and one of the home counties.", "It borders Bedfordshire to the north-west, Cambridgeshire to the north-east, Essex to the east, Greater London to the south, and Buckinghamshire to the west.", "The largest settlement is Watford, and the county town is Hertford.", "The county has an area of and had a population of 1,198,800 at the 2021 census.", "After Watford (131,325), the largest settlements are Hemel Hempstead (95,985), Stevenage (94,470), and the city of St Albans (75,540).", "For local government purposes Hertfordshire is a non-metropolitan county with ten districts.Elevations are higher in the north and west, reaching more than in the Chilterns near Tring.", "The county centres on the headwaters and upper valleys of the rivers Lea and the Colne; both flow south, and each is accompanied by a canal.", "Hertfordshire's undeveloped land is mainly agricultural, and much of the county is covered by the Metropolitan green belt.Since 1903 Letchworth has served as the prototype garden city; Stevenage became the first town to expand under post-war Britain's New Towns Act 1946.Services have become the largest sector of the county's economy." ], [ "History", "The county's landmarks span many centuries, ranging from the Six Hills in Stevenage built by local inhabitants during the Roman period, to Leavesden Film Studios.", "The volume of intact medieval and Tudor buildings surpasses London, in places in well-preserved conservation areas, especially in St Albans, which includes remains of the Roman town of Verulamium.In 913, Hertfordshire was the area assigned to a fortress constructed at Hertford under the rule of Edward the Elder.", "Hertford is derived from the Anglo-Saxon ''heort ford,'' meaning deer crossing (of a watercourse).", "The name Hertfordshire is first recorded in the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' in 1011.Deer feature in many county emblems.", "Many of the names of the current settlements date back to the Anglo-Saxon period, with many featuring standard placename suffixes attributed to the Anglo-Saxons: \"ford\", \"ton\", \"den\", \"bourn\", \"ley\", \"stead\", \"ing\", \"lett\", \"wood\", and \"worth\", are represented in this county by Hertford, Royston, Harpenden, Redbourn, Cuffley, Wheathampstead, Tring, Radlett, Borehamwood and Rickmansworth.There is evidence of human life in Hertfordshire from the Mesolithic period.", "It was first farmed during the Neolithic period and permanent habitation appeared at the beginning of the Bronze Age.", "This was followed by tribes settling in the area during the Iron Age.Following the Roman conquest of Britain in AD 43, the Catuvellauni tribe quickly submitted and adapted to the Roman life; resulting in the development of several new towns, including Verulamium (St Albans) where in the first recorded British martyrdom is traditionally believed to have taken place.", "Saint Alban, a Romano-British soldier, took the place of a Christian priest and was beheaded on Holywell Hill.", "His martyr's cross of a yellow saltire on a blue field is reflected in the flag and coat of arms of Hertfordshire as the yellow field to the stag or Hart representing the county.", "He is the Patron Saint of Hertfordshire.With the departure of the Roman Legions in the early 5th century, the now-unprotected territory was invaded and colonised by the Anglo-Saxons.", "By the 6th century, the majority of the modern county was part of the East Saxon kingdom.", "This relatively short-lived kingdom collapsed in the 9th century, ceding the territory of Hertfordshire to the control of the West Anglians of Mercia.", "The region finally became an English shire in the 10th century, on the merger of the West Saxon and Mercian kingdoms.In the midst of the Norse invasions, Hertfordshire was on the front lines of much of the fighting.", "King Edward the Elder, in his reconquest of Norse-held lands in what was to become England, established a \"burh\" or fort in Hertford, which was to curb Norse activities in the area.", "His father, King Alfred the Great, established the River Lea as a boundary between his kingdom and that of the Norse lord Guthrum, with the north and eastern parts of the county being within the Danelaw.", "There is little evidence however of Norse placenames within this region, and many of the Anglo-Saxon features remained intact to this day.", "The county however suffered from renewed Norse raids in the late 10th to early 11th centuries, as armies led by Danish kings Swein Forkbeard and Cnut the Great harried the country as part of their attempts to undermine and overthrow English king Athelred the Unready.A century later, William of Normandy received the surrender of the surviving senior English Lords and Clergy at Berkhamsted, resulting in a new Anglicised title of William the Conqueror, before entering London unopposed and being crowned at Westminster.", "Hertfordshire was used for some of the new Norman castles at Bishop's Stortford, and at King's Langley, a staging post between London and the royal residence of Berkhamsted.The Domesday Book recorded the county as having nine hundreds.", "Tring and Danais became oneDacorumfrom Danis Corum or Danish rule harking back to a Viking not Saxon past.", "The other seven were Braughing, Stevenage, Cashio, Buntingford, Hertford, Hitchin and Odsey.In the later Plantagenet period, St. Albans Abbey was an initial drafting place of what was to become the Magna Carta.", "And in the later Wars of the Roses, St. Albans was the scene of two major battles between the Lancastrians and the Yorkists.In Tudor times, Hatfield House was often frequented by Queen Elizabeth I. Stuart King James I used the locale for hunting and facilitated the construction of a waterway, the New River, supplying drinking water to London.As London grew, Hertfordshire became conveniently close to the English capital; much of the area was owned by the nobility and aristocracy, this patronage helped to boost the local economy.", "However, the greatest boost to Hertfordshire came during the Industrial Revolution, after which the population rose dramatically.", "In 1903, Letchworth became the world's first garden city and Stevenage became the first town to redevelop under the New Towns Act 1946.The flag of the historic county of HertfordshireThe first shooting-down of a zeppelin over Great Britain during WW1 happened in Cuffley.From the 1920s until the late 1980s, the town of Borehamwood was home to one of the major British film studio complexes, including the MGM-British Studios.", "Many well-known films were made here including the first three ''Star Wars'' movies (IV, V, & VI).", "The studios generally used the name of Elstree.", "American director Stanley Kubrick not only used to shoot in those studios but also lived in the area until his death.", "''Big Brother UK'' and ''Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?''", "have been filmed there.", "''EastEnders'' is filmed at Elstree.", "Hertfordshire has seen development at Warner Bros. Studios, Leavesden; the ''Harry Potter'' series was filmed here and the 1995 James Bond film ''GoldenEye''.On 17 October 2000, the Hatfield rail crash killed four people with over 70 injured.", "The crash exposed the shortcomings of Railtrack, which consequently saw speed restrictions and major track replacement.", "On 10 May 2002, the fourth of the Potters Bar rail accidents occurred killing seven people; the train was at high speed when it derailed and flipped into the air when one of the carriages slid along the platform where it came to rest.In early December 2005, the 2005 Hemel Hempstead fuel depot explosions occurred at the Hertfordshire Oil Storage Terminal." ], [ "Geography", "Hertfordshire is located in the south-eastern part of England and is the county immediately north of London.", "It is officially part of the East of England region, a mainly statistical unit.", "To the east is Essex, to the west is Buckinghamshire and to the north are Bedfordshire and Cambridgeshire.", "A significant minority of the population across all districts commute to Central London.The county's boundaries were roughly fixed by the Counties (Detached Parts) Act 1844 which eliminated exclaves; amended when, in 1965 under the London Government Act 1963, East Barnet Urban District and Barnet Urban District were abolished, their area was transferred to form part of the present-day London Borough of Barnet and the Potters Bar Urban District of Middlesex was transferred to Hertfordshire.The highest point in the county is at (AOD) on the Ridgeway long distance national path, on the border of Hastoe near Tring with Drayton Beauchamp, Buckinghamshire.At the 2011 census, among the county's ten districts, East Hertfordshire had the lowest population density (290 people per km2) and Watford the highest (4210 per km2).", "Compared with neighbouring Bedfordshire and Buckinghamshire, Hertfordshire lacks large towns or cities on the scale of Luton or Milton Keynes, whose populations exceed 200,000, but its overall population (1.2 million in 2021) is greater than those of the two aforementioned counties.The River Lea near Harpenden runs through Wheathampstead, Welwyn Garden City, Hertford, Ware, and Broxbourne before reaching Cheshunt and ultimately the River Thames.", "The far west of the county is the most hilly, with the Chiltern Hills surrounding Tring, Berkhamsted and the Ashridge estate.", "This Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty runs from near Hitchin in the north to Berkshire and Oxfordshire.Many of the county's major settlements are in the central, northern and southern areas, such as Watford, Hemel Hempstead, Kings Langley, Rickmansworth, St. Albans, Harpenden, Redbourn, Radlett, Borehamwood, Potters Bar, Stevenage, Hatfield, Welwyn and Welwyn Garden City, Hitchin, Letchworth and Baldock.", "These are all small to medium-sized locations, featuring a mix of post-WWII new towns and older/more historical locales.", "The City of St. Albans is an example of a historical settlement, as its cathedral and abbey date to the Norman period, and there are ruins from the Roman settlement of Verulamium nearby the current city centre.", "Stevenage is a mix of post-WWII new town planning amidst its prior incarnation as a smaller town.", "The Old Town in Stevenage represents this historic core and has many shops and buildings reflecting its pre-WWII heritage.", "Hitchin also has a historic centre, with many Tudor and Stuart era buildings interspersed amongst more contemporary structures.Hertfordshire's eastern regions are predominantly rural and arable, intermixed with villages and small to medium-sized towns.", "Royston, Buntingford and Bishop's Stortford, along with Ware and the county town of Hertford are major settlements in this regard.", "The physical geography of eastern Hertfordshire is less elevated than the far west, but with lower rising hills and prominent rivers such as the Stort.", "This river rises in Essex and terminates via a confluence with the Lea near to Ware.", "Apart from the Lea and Stort, the River Colne is the major watercourse in the county's west.", "This runs near Watford and Radlett, and has a complex system/drainage area running south into both Greater London and Buckinghamshire.An unofficial status, the purple star-shaped flower with yellow stamens, the Pasqueflower is among endemic county flowers.=== Geology ===The rocks of Hertfordshire belong to the great shallow syncline known as the London Basin.", "The beds dip in a south-easterly direction towards the syncline's lowest point roughly under the River Thames.", "The most important formations are the Cretaceous Chalk, exposed as the high ground in the north and west of the county, forming the Chiltern Hills and the younger Palaeocene, Reading Beds and Eocene, London Clay which occupy the remaining southern part.", "The eastern half of the county was covered by glaciers during the Ice Age and has a superficial layer of glacial boulder clays.=== Natural resources and environment ===Peter de Wint, ''Cornfields near Tring Station, Hertfordshire'', 1847, Princeton University Art MuseumRelief mapMuch of the west – and much more in the east – have richly diverse countryside.", "These range from beech woods of the Chilterns, clayland buffer zone countryside of Braughing and the Hadhams across to ancient hornbeam coppices west of the upper Lea valley.", "The county has sweeping panoramas of chalklands near Royston, Baldock, Hexton and Tring.Large parts of the county are used for agriculture.Some quarrying of sand and gravel occurs around St Albans.", "In the past, clay has supplied local brick-making and still does in Bovingdon, just south-west of Hemel Hempstead.", "The chalk that is the bedrock of much of the county provides an aquifer that feeds streams and is also exploited to provide water supplies for much of the county and beyond.", "Chalk has also been used as a building material and, once fired, the resultant lime was spread on agricultural land to improve fertility.", "The mining of chalk since the early 18th century has left unrecorded underground galleries that occasionally collapse unexpectedly and endanger buildings.Fresh water is supplied to London from Ware, using the New River built by Hugh Myddleton and opened in 1613.Local rivers, although small, supported developing industries such as paper production at Nash Mills.Hertfordshire affords habitat for a variety of flora and fauna.", "A bird once common in the shire is the hooded crow, the old name of which is the eponymous name of the regional newspaper, the ''Royston Crow'' published in Royston.", "A product, now largely defunct, was watercress, based in Hemel Hempstead and Berkhamsted supported by reliable, clean chalk rivers.=== Urban areas ===" ], [ "Economy", "Hatfield Business Park, currently the headquarters of EEThis is a table of trends of regional gross value added of Hertfordshire at current basic prices with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling.", "Year Regional Gross Value Added Agriculture Industry Services 1995 '''11,742''' 96 3,292 8,354 2000 '''18,370''' 77 4,138 14,155 2003 '''20,937''' 82 4,348 16,507Hertfordshire has the main operational and/or headquarters UK site of some very large employers.", "Clockwise from north:In Stevenage (a subsidiary of: BAE Systems, Airbus and Finmeccanica) MBDA, develops missiles.", "In the same town, Airbus (Defence & Space Division) produces satellites.Hatfield was where de Havilland developed the first commercial jet liner, the Comet.", "Now the site is a business park and new campus for the University of Hertfordshire.", "This major employment site notably hosts EE, Computacenter and Ocado groceries and other goods e-commerce.Welwyn Garden City hosts Tesco's UK base, hosts the UK Cereal Partners factory and in pharmaceuticals it hosts Roche UK's headquarters (subsidiary of the Swiss Hoffman-La Roche).", "GlaxoSmithKline has plants in Ware and Stevenage.Hemel Hempstead has large premises of Dixons Carphone.The National Pharmacy Association (NPA), the trade association for UK pharmacies, is based in St Albans.Kings Langley has the plant-office of Pure, making DAB digital radios.Watford hosts national companies such as J D Wetherspoon, Camelot Group, Bathstore, and Caversham Finance (BrightHouse).", "It is also the UK base of multi-nationals Hilton Worldwide, TotalEnergies, TK Maxx, Costco, JJ Kavanagh and Sons, Vinci and Beko.", "The 2006 World Golf Championship and the 2013 Bilderberg Conference, took place at The Grove hotel.", "Warner Bros. owns and runs its main UK base since the 2000s, Warner Studios, in Leavesden, Watford.Rickmansworth hosts Skanska." ], [ "Television", "Local news and television programmes is provided by BBC London & ITV London, however northern parts of the county receive BBC East & ITV Anglia from Norwich." ], [ "Radio", "Local Radio programmes are provided by BBC Three Counties Radio, Tring Radio (Herts Bucks and Beds), Radio Verulam (St. Albans), Community Radio Dacorum (Hemel Hempstead) as well as Heart Hertfordshire" ], [ "Sport", "In 2012, the canoe and kayak slalom events of the 2012 Summer Olympics took place in Waltham Cross, Broxbourne.=== Football ===Vicarage Road stadium in WatfordAs of the 2021–22 season, there are four professional football teams in Hertfordshire: Watford F.C., Stevenage F.C., Arsenal W.F.C.", "and Boreham Wood F.C.Since 1922, Watford play their home games at Vicarage Road.", "The club joined the Football League in 1920 as a founding member of the Third Division and first played in the First Division of English football in 1982, finishing as runners-up to champions Liverpool.", "Watford was promoted to the Premier League at the end of the 2020–2021 season.", "After spending one season in the Premier League, they were relegated to the Championship again for the 2022-2023 season.Stevenage F.C.", "was formed in 1976 as Stevenage Borough and have played at Broadhall Way since 1980.Stevenage was the first club to win a competitive match at the new Wembley Stadium, beating Kidderminster Harriers 3–2 in the 2007 FA Trophy Final.", "The club currently play in the EFL League Two and have been managed by former player Alex Revell since February 2020.Arsenal F.C., whilst based at the Emirates Stadium in the London Borough of Islington, has long held a training ground in the county.", "Until 1999, it held the London Colney University of London facility, until it built a new purpose-built compound adjacent to it.", "Watford FC currently utilises the old Arsenal training area as its training facility.Arsenal W.F.C.", "play at Meadow Park in Borehamwood.", "The club was formed in 1987 and have played in the FA Women's Super League since its inaugural season in 2011.Hertfordshire has many semi-professional and amateur clubs.", "The highest placed are Hemel Hempstead Town and St Albans City, who play in the National League South and Bishop's Stortford F.C.", "who play in the National League North.=== Rugby ======= Rugby league ====Hemel Stags are a rugby league team based in Hemel Hempstead.", "Hemel Stags have played at Pennine Way Stadium since the club's founding in 1981.Until 2018, the club played in league 1, the third tier of the British rugby league system, and now compete in the Conference League South.==== Rugby union ====The Hertfordshire Rugby Football Union is the governing body for rugby union in Hertfordshire and is responsible for any interested parties involved in rugby.Tring Rugby play matches at Cow Lane, Tring.", "The first XV currently play in the Regional 1 South East, League.", "A level 5 league.==== GAA ====Gaelic Football is played within Hertfordshire, with clubs from Oxfordshire all the way to Cambridge playing in the Hertfordshire League and Championship.", "Eire Óg, Oxford are the 2022 County Champions.", "Hurling is played by an amalgamated team, St Declan's CLG, with players contributed from all football teams across Hertfordshire.", "St Declan's currently play in the Warwickshire League and Championship, having previously played in the London GAA championship.", "A number of St Declan's players have also played for the Warwickshire Senior Hurling team, playing in the Lory Meagher and Nicky Rackard competitions, including Patrick Lancaster, Eamon Doherty, Alan Hayes, and Alex Hanley." ], [ "Landmarks", "Cedars ParkSt Albans AbbeySt George's SchoolHatfield HouseBluebells in Dockey WoodThe Warner Bros. ''Making of Harry Potter'' Studio Tour at LeavesdenBelow is a list of notable visitor attractions in Hertfordshire:* Aldenham Country Park* Ashridge – the estate surrounding the neo-Gothic house by James Wyatt (not open to the public) is National Trust land.", "** Bridgewater Monument, built in 1832 in memory of Francis Egerton, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater.", "tall and open to the public to ascend to the top* Berkhamsted Castle* Cedars Park, Broxbourne – historic park once the site of James I's favourite residence, Theobalds Palace.", "Maintained by Broxbourne Services and the Friends of Cedars Park.", "* de Havilland Aircraft Heritage Centre, between London Colney and South Mimms* Frogmore Paper Mill, Apsley* Hatfield Hatfield House – Jacobean house, gardens and park Mill Green Watermill in Hatfield** University of Hertfordshire – a public research university based in Hatfield* Henry Moore Foundation, Much Hadham – sculpture park on the work of Henry Moore* Knebworth House, of country park, venue of many rock and pop festivals* Leavesden Film Studios, home of the Warner Bros. ''Making of Harry Potter'' studio tour* Letchworth Garden City – the world's first Garden City.", "Site of the first planned Green Belt, the UK's first roundabout, and a number of experiments in early town planning and house and factory design** Spirella Building* Magic Roundabout (Hemel Hempstead) – a complex road junction* Royston Cave – in Royston town centre* Rye House Gatehouse in Hoddesdon (part of the Rye House Plot to assassinate King Charles II)* St Albans Beech Bottom Dyke – large-scale Iron Age defensive or boundary ditch Sopwell Nunnery St Albans Cathedral Verulamium – Roman town remains, including museum of Roman life and the remains of a Roman amphitheatre* Scott's Grotto, Ware* Shaw's Corner, Ayot St Lawrence – home of George Bernard Shaw* Stevenage – the first UK New Town** Six Hills Roman barrows site* Therfield Heath – a local nature reserve in the north of the county* Welwyn Roman Baths* Welwyn Viaduct to the north of Welwyn Garden City* Walter Rothschild Zoological Museum, Tring – a museum-annotated collection of dead mammals, birds, reptiles and insects* Watford Museum, fine art and local artefacts=== Main footpaths ===The RidgewayIcknield WayGrand Union Canal WalkHarcamlow WayHertfordshire WayHertfordshire Chain Walk" ], [ "Transport", "M1 and M25 near Hemel HempsteadGovia Thameslink Railway provide frequent train services through Hertfordshire on the Midland Main Line and East Coast Main LineBridge 168 on the Grand Union CanalHertfordshire is a home county with many towns forming part of the London commuter belt and has some of the principal roads in England including the A1, A1(M), A41, A414, M1, M11, and the M25.Four principal national railway lines pass through the county:* the West Coast Main Line from .", "Avanti West Coast operates high speed intercity services via to the Midlands, North Wales, the North West England and Scotland.", "West Midlands Trains provides local commuter and regional services.", "* the East Coast Main Line from .", "Local commuter and regional services are provided by Govia Thameslink Railway.", "London North Eastern Railway runs high speed intercity services via to the east coast of Northern England and Scotland* the Midland Main Line which forms part of the Thameslink route between Bedford and Brighton via Central London with services are provided by Govia Thameslink Railway.", "East Midlands Railway provide intercity services along the line from London St Pancras to the East Midlands and Yorkshire* the West Anglia Main Line from London Liverpool Street.", "Local commuter and regional services are provided by Greater Anglia mainly in the east of the countyA number of other local rail routes also cross Hertfordshire:* the London to Aylesbury Line from London Marylebone runs via Rickmansworth and Chorleywood* the Abbey Line, a local line from Watford to * the Cambridge Line, a branch of the East Coast line which runs via Royston and Letchworth to Three commuter lines operated by Transport for London enter the county:* the Lea Valley Lines, a suburban metro line from Liverpool Street to Cheshunt via Seven Sisters* the Watford DC Line, a suburban metro line from Euston to Watford Junction* five stations on the London Underground Metropolitan lineThe distance travelled by buses in Hertfordshire has reduced by 56.5% since 2017.Stansted Airport and Luton Airport are both within of the county's borders in Essex and Bedfordshire, respectively.", "The commercial airfield at Elstree is for light aircraft.The Grand Union Canal passes through Rickmansworth, Watford, Hemel Hempstead, Berkhamsted and Tring." ], [ "Education", "University of HertfordshireHertfordshire has 26 independent schools and 73 state secondary schools.The state secondary schools are entirely comprehensive, although 7 schools in the south and southwest of the county are partially selective (see Education in Watford).All state schools have sixth forms, and there are no sixth form colleges.The tertiary colleges, each with multiple campuses, are Hertford Regional College, North Hertfordshire College, Oaklands College and West Herts College.The University of Hertfordshire is a modern university based largely in Hatfield.", "It has more than 23,000 students." ], [ "Literature", "Hertfordshire is the location of Jack Worthing's country house in Oscar Wilde's play ''The Importance of Being Earnest''.Jane Austen's novel ''Pride and Prejudice'' is primarily set in Hertfordshire.The location of Mr Jarndyce's Bleak House in Charles Dickens's ''Bleak House'' is near St Albans.The eponymous residence in E. M. Forster's novel ''Howards End'' was based on Rooks Nest House just outside Stevenage.George Orwell based ''Animal Farm'' on Wallington, Hertfordshire, where he lived between 1936 and 1940.Manor Farm and The Great Barn both feature in the novel." ], [ "See also", "* Lord Lieutenant of Hertfordshire* High Sheriff of Hertfordshire* Custos Rotulorum of Hertfordshire – Keeper of the Rolls* Hertfordshire (UK Parliament constituency) – Historical list of MPs for Hertfordshire constituency* List of Jewish communities in Hertfordshire* Hertfordshire GAA* The Hundred Parishes" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Hertfordshire County Council website" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Helene Kröller-Müller" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Helene Kröller-Müller''' (11 February 1869 – 14 December 1939) was a German art collector.", "She was one of the first European women to put together a major art collection.", "She is credited with being one of the first collectors to recognise the genius of Vincent van Gogh.", "Her entire collection was eventually sold to the Dutch government, along with her and her husband, Anton Kröller's, large forested country estate.", "Today it is the Kröller-Müller Museum and sculpture garden and Hoge Veluwe National Park, one of the largest national parks in the Netherlands." ], [ "Life and career", "She was born '''Helene Emma Laura Juliane Müller''' at , Essen, Germany, into a wealthy industrialist family.", "Her father, Wilhelm Müller, owned Wm.", "H. Müller & Co., a prosperous supplier of raw materials to the mining and steel industries.", "She studied under Henk Bremmer in 1906–1907.As she was one of the wealthiest women in the Netherlands at the time, Bremmer recommended that she form an art collection.", "In 1907, she began her collection with the painting ''Train in a Landscape'' by Paul Gabriël.", "Subsequently, Helene Kröller-Müller became an avid art collector, and one of the first people to recognise the genius of Vincent van Gogh.", "She eventually amassed more than 90 van Gogh paintings and 185 drawings, one of the world's largest collections of the artist's work, second only to the Van Gogh Museum in Amsterdam.", "She also bought more than 400 works by Dutch artist Bart van der Leck, but his popularity did not take off like van Gogh's.Georges Seurat, 1889–90, ''Le Chahut'', oil on canvas, 171.5 x 140.5 cm (66 7/8 x 54 3/4 in), Kröller-Müller Museum, Otterlo, NetherlandsKröller-Müller also collected works by modern artists, such as Picasso, Georges Braque, Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Fernand Léger, Diego Rivera, Juan Gris, Piet Mondrian, Gino Severini, Joseph Csaky, Auguste Herbin, Georges Valmier, María Blanchard, Léopold Survage and Tobeen.", "However, Bremmer advised her not to buy ''A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte'' by Georges Seurat, which turned out to be an important icon of 20th-century art.", "She did purchase however ''Le Chahut'' by Seurat, another icon in the history of modern art.", "Also, she steered away from artists of her native Germany, whose work she found \"insufficiently authoritative.", "\"On a trip to Florence in June 1910, she conceived the idea of creating a museum-house.", "From 1913 onwards parts of her collection were open to the public; until the mid-1930s her exhibition hall in The Hague was one of the very rare places where one could see more than a few works of modern art.", "In 1928, Anton and Helene created the Kröller-Müller Foundation to protect the collection and the estates.", "In 1935, they donated to the Dutch people their entire collection totaling approximately 12,000 objects, on condition that a large museum be built in the gardens of her park.", "Held in the care of the Dutch government, the Kröller-Müller Museum was opened in 1938.The Kröller-Müller Museum is nestled in their 75-acre (300,000 m2) forested country estate, today the largest national park in the Netherlands, the Hoge Veluwe National Park near the town of Otterlo and the city of Arnhem.", "A lavish art gallery was planned near their iconic lakeside Jachthuis Sint Hubertus hunting lodge and landscape statue of their close personal friend, the South African Boer General Christian de Wet on the estate.", "Due to threat of war the plans were never implemented in their lifetime but once the war was over a large forest sculpture garden and understated open exhibition extension was opened, housing statues by Rodin and the second largest collection of van Gogh paintings in the world, including the famous Sunflowers." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''Kröller-Müller State Museum, Otterlo''.", "Netherlands: Kröller-Müller State Museum, 1973.", "* Rovers, Eva.", "De eeuwigheid verzameld: Helene Kröller-Müller 1869–1939.Prometheus Bv Vassallucci, Uitgeverij 2010." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hans-Georg Gadamer" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hans-Georg Gadamer''' (; ; 11 February 1900 – 13 March 2002) was a German philosopher of the continental tradition, best known for his 1960 ''magnum opus'', ''Truth and Method'' (''Wahrheit und Methode''), on hermeneutics." ], [ "Life", "===Family and early life===Gadamer was born in Marburg, Germany, the son of Johannes Gadamer (1867–1928), a pharmaceutical chemistry professor who later also served as the rector of the University of Marburg.", "He was raised a Protestant Christian.", "Gadamer resisted his father's urging to take up the natural sciences and became more and more interested in the humanities.", "His mother, Emma Karoline Johanna Geiese (1869–1904) died of diabetes while Hans-Georg was four years old, and he later noted that this may have had an effect on his decision not to pursue scientific studies.", "Jean Grondin describes Gadamer as finding in his mother \"a poetic and almost religious counterpart to the iron fist of his father\".", "Gadamer did not serve during World War I for reasons of ill health and similarly was exempted from serving during World War II due to polio.===Education===He later studied classics and philosophy in the University of Breslau under Richard Hönigswald, but soon moved back to the University of Marburg to study with the Neo-Kantian philosophers Paul Natorp (his doctoral thesis advisor) and Nicolai Hartmann.", "He defended his dissertation ''The Essence of Pleasure in Plato's Dialogues'' () in 1922.Shortly thereafter, Gadamer moved to Freiburg University and began studying with Martin Heidegger, who was then a promising young scholar who had not yet received a professorship.", "He became close to Heidegger, and when Heidegger received a position at Marburg, Gadamer followed him there, where he became one of a group of students such as Leo Strauss, Karl Löwith, and Hannah Arendt.", "It was Heidegger's influence that gave Gadamer's thought its distinctive cast and led him away from the earlier neo-Kantian influences of Natorp and Hartmann.", "Gadamer studied Aristotle both under Edmund Husserl and under Heidegger.===Early career===Gadamer habilitated in 1929 and spent most of the early 1930s lecturing in Marburg.", "Unlike Heidegger, who joined the Nazi Party in May 1933 and continued as a member until the party was dissolved following World War II, Gadamer was silent on Nazism, and he was not politically active during Nazi rule.", "Gadamer did not join the Nazis, and he did not serve in the army because of the polio he had contracted in 1922.He joined the National Socialist Teachers League in August 1933.In 1933 Gadamer signed the ''Vow of allegiance of the Professors of the German Universities and High-Schools to Adolf Hitler and the National Socialistic State''.In April 1937 he became a temporary professor at Marburg, then in 1938 he received a professorship at Leipzig University.", "From an ''SS''-point of view Gadamer was classified as neither supportive nor disapproving in the \"''SD-Dossiers über Philosophie-Professoren\"'' (i.e.", "SD-files concerning philosophy professors) that were set up by the ''SS''-Security-Service (SD).", "In 1946, he was found by the American occupation forces to be untainted by Nazism and named rector of the university.The level of Gadamer's involvement with the Nazis has been disputed in the works of Richard Wolin and Teresa Orozco.", "Orozco alleges, with reference to Gadamer's published works, that Gadamer had supported the Nazis more than scholars had supposed.", "Gadamer scholars have rejected these assertions: Jean Grondin has said that Orozco is engaged in a \"witch-hunt\" while Donatella Di Cesare said that \"the archival material on which Orozco bases her argument is actually quite negligible\".", "Cesare and Grondin have argued that there is no trace of antisemitism in Gadamer's work, and that Gadamer maintained friendships with Jews and provided shelter for nearly two years for the philosopher Jacob Klein in 1933 and 1934.Gadamer also reduced his contact with Heidegger during the Nazi era.===At Heidelberg===Communist East Germany was no more to Gadamer's liking than Nazi Germany, and he left for West Germany, accepting first a position in Goethe University Frankfurt and then the succession of Karl Jaspers in the University of Heidelberg in 1949.He remained in this position, as emeritus, until his death in 2002 at the age of 102.He was also an Editorial Advisor of the journal Dionysius.", "It was during this time that he completed his ''magnum opus'', ''Truth and Method'' (1960), and engaged in his famous debate with Jürgen Habermas over the possibility of transcending history and culture in order to find a truly objective position from which to critique society.", "The debate was inconclusive, but marked the beginning of warm relations between the two men.", "It was Gadamer who secured Habermas's first professorship in the University of Heidelberg.In 1968, Gadamer invited Tomonobu Imamichi for lectures at Heidelberg, but their relationship became very cool after Imamichi alleged that Heidegger had taken his concept of ''Dasein'' out of Okakura Kakuzo's concept of ''das in-der-Welt-sein'' (to be in the being in the world) expressed in ''The Book of Tea'', which Imamichi's teacher had offered to Heidegger in 1919, after having followed lessons with him the year before.", "Imamichi and Gadamer renewed contact four years later during an international congress.In 1981, Gadamer attempted to engage with Jacques Derrida at a conference in Paris but it proved less enlightening because the two thinkers had little in common.", "A last meeting between Gadamer and Derrida was held at the Stift of Heidelberg in July 2001, coordinated by Derrida's students Joseph Cohen and Raphael Zagury-Orly.", "This meeting marked, in many ways, a turn in their philosophical encounter.", "After Gadamer's death, Derrida called their failure to find common ground one of the worst debacles of his life and expressed, in the main obituary for Gadamer, his great personal and philosophical respect.", "Richard J. Bernstein said that \"a genuine dialogue between Gadamer and Derrida has never taken place.", "This is a shame because there are crucial and consequential issues that arise between hermeneutics and deconstruction\".===Honorary doctorates===Gadamer received honorary doctorates from the University of Bamberg, the University of Wrocław, Boston College, Charles University in Prague, Hamilton College, the University of Leipzig, the University of Marburg (1999) the University of Ottawa, Saint Petersburg State University (2001), the University of Tübingen and University of Washington.===Death===On 11 February 2000, the University of Heidelberg celebrated Gadamer's one hundredth birthday with a ceremony and conference.", "Gadamer's last academic engagement was in the summer of 2001 at an annual symposium on hermeneutics that two of Gadamer's American students had organised.", "On 13 March 2002, Gadamer died at Heidelberg's University Clinic at the age of 102.He is buried in the Köpfel cemetery in Ziegelhausen." ], [ "Work", "===Philosophical hermeneutics and ''Truth and Method''===Gadamer's philosophical project, as explained in ''Truth and Method'', was to elaborate on the concept of \"philosophical hermeneutics\", which Heidegger initiated but never dealt with at length.", "Gadamer's goal was to uncover the nature of human understanding.", "In ''Truth and Method'', Gadamer argued that \"truth\" and \"method\" were at odds with one another.", "For Gadamer, \"the experience of art is exemplary in its provision of truths that are inaccessible by scientific methods, and this experience is projected to the whole domain of human sciences.\"", "He was critical of two approaches to the human sciences (''Geisteswissenschaften'').", "On the one hand, he was critical of modern approaches to humanities that modeled themselves on the natural sciences, which simply sought to \"objectively\" observe and analyze texts and art.", "On the other hand, he took issue with the traditional German approaches to the humanities, represented for instance by Friedrich Schleiermacher and Wilhelm Dilthey, who believed that meaning, as an object, could be found within a text through a particular process that allowed for a connection with the author's thoughts that led to the creation of a text (Schleiermacher), or the situation that led to an expression of human inner life (Dilthey).However, Gadamer argued meaning and understanding are not objects to be found through certain methods, but are inevitable phenomena.", "Hermeneutics is not a process in which an interpreter finds a particular meaning, but \"a philosophical effort to account for understanding as an ontological—the ontological—process of man.\"", "Thus, Gadamer is not giving a prescriptive method on how to understand, but rather he is working to examine how understanding, whether of texts, artwork, or experience, is possible at all.", "Gadamer intended ''Truth and Method'' to be a description of what we always do when we interpret things (even if we do not know it): \"My real concern was and is philosophic: not what we do or what we ought to do, but what happens to us over and above our wanting and doing\".As a result of Martin Heidegger's temporal analysis of human existence, Gadamer argued that people have a so-called historically effected consciousness (''wirkungsgeschichtliches Bewußtsein''), and that they are embedded in the particular history and culture that shaped them.", "However the historical consciousness is not an object over and against our existence, but \"a stream in which we move and participate, in every act of understanding.\"", "Therefore, people do not come to any given thing without some form of preunderstanding established by this historical stream.", "The tradition in which an interpreter stands establishes \"prejudices\" that affect how he or she will make interpretations.", "For Gadamer, these prejudices are not something that hinders our ability to make interpretations, but are both integral to the reality of being, and \"are the basis of our being able to understand history at all.\"", "Gadamer criticized Enlightenment thinkers for harboring a \"prejudice against prejudices\".For Gadamer, interpreting a text involves a fusion of horizons (''Horizontverschmelzung'').", "Both the text and the interpreter find themselves within a particular historical tradition, or \"horizon.\"", "Each horizon is expressed through the medium of language, and both text and interpreter belong to and participate in history and language.", "This \"belongingness\" to language is the common ground between interpreter and text that makes understanding possible.", "As an interpreter seeks to understand a text, a common horizon emerges.", "This fusion of horizons does not mean the interpreter now fully understands some kind of objective meaning, but is \"an event in which a world opens itself to him.\"", "The result is a deeper understanding of the subject matter.Gadamer further explains the hermeneutical experience as a dialogue.", "To justify this, he uses Plato's dialogues as a model for how we are to engage with written texts.", "To be in conversation, one must take seriously \"the truth claim of the person with whom one is conversing.\"", "Further, each participant in the conversation relates to one another insofar as they belong to the common goal of understanding one another.", "Ultimately, for Gadamer, the most important dynamic of conversation as a model for the interpretation of a text is \"the give-and-take of question and answer.\"", "In other words, the interpretation of a given text will change depending on the questions the interpreter asks of thetext.", "The \"meaning\" emerges not as an object that lies in the text or in the interpreter, but rather an event that results from the interaction of the two.", "''Truth and Method'' was published twice in English, and the revised edition is now considered authoritative.", "The German-language edition of Gadamer's Collected Works includes a volume in which Gadamer elaborates his argument and discusses the critical response to the book.", "Finally, Gadamer's essay on Celan (entitled \"Who Am I and Who Are You?\")", "has been considered by many—including Heidegger and Gadamer himself—as a \"second volume\" or continuation of the argument in ''Truth and Method''.====Contributions to communication ethics====Gadamer's ''Truth and Method'' has become an authoritative work in the communication ethics field, spawning several prominent ethics theories and guidelines.", "The most profound of these is the formulation of the dialogic coordinates, a standard set of prerequisite communication elements necessary for inciting dialogue.", "Adhering to Gadamer's theories regarding bias, communicators can better initiate dialogic transaction, allowing biases to merge and promote mutual understanding and learning.===Other works===Gadamer also added philosophical substance to the notion of human health.", "In ''The Enigma of Health'', Gadamer explored what it means to heal, as a patient and a provider.", "In this work the practice and art of medicine are thoroughly examined, as is the inevitability of any cure.In addition to his work in hermeneutics, Gadamer is also well known for a long list of publications on Greek philosophy.", "Indeed, while ''Truth and Method'' became central to his later career, much of Gadamer's early life centered on studying Greek thinkers, Plato and Aristotle specifically.", "In the Italian introduction to ''Truth and Method'', Gadamer said that his work on Greek philosophy was \"the best and most original part\" of his career.", "His book ''Plato's Dialectical Ethics'' looks at the ''Philebus'' dialogue through the lens of phenomenology and the philosophy of Martin Heidegger." ], [ "Prizes and awards", ":1971: Pour le Mérite and the :1972: Great Cross of Merit with Star of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany:1979: Sigmund Freud Prize for scientific prose and Hegel Prize:1986: Karl Jaspers Prize:1990: Great Cross of Merit with Star and Sash of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany:1993: Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany:12 January 1996: appointed an honorary member of the Saxon Academy of Sciences in Leipzig===Honorary doctorates===:1995: University of Wrocław:1996: University of Leipzig:1999: Philipps-University Marburg" ], [ "Bibliography", ";Primary''Truth and Method''.", "(1st English ed., 1975, trans.", "by W, Glen-Doepel, ed.", "by John Cumming and Garret Barden)''Hegel's Dialectic: Five Hermeneutical Studies''.", "Trans.", "P. Christopher Smith.", "New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1976.", "''Dialogue and Dialectic: Eight Hermeneutical Studies on Plato''.", "Trans.", "and ed.", "by P. Christopher Smith.", "New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1980.", "''The Idea of the Good in Platonic-Aristotelian Philosophy''.", "Trans.", "P. Christopher Smith.", "New Haven, CT: 1986.", "''Gadamer on Celan: 'Who Am I and Who Are You?'", "and Other Essays''.", "By Hans-Georg Gadamer.", "Trans.", "and ed.", "Richard Heinemann and Bruce Krajewski.", "Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1997.", "''Heidegger's Ways''.", "Trans.", "John W. Stanley.", "New York: SUNY Press, 1994.", "''Literature and Philosophy in Dialogue: Essays in German Literary Theory''.", "Trans.", "Robert H. Paslick.", "New York: SUNY Press, 1993.", "''Philosophical Apprenticeships''.", "Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1985 (Gadamer's memoirs, translated by Robert R.", "Sullivan.", ")''The Enigma of Health: The Art of Healing in a Scientific Age''.", "Trans.", "John Gaiger and Richard Walker.", "Oxford: Polity Press, 1996.", "''Philosophical Hermeneutics''.", "Trans.", "and ed.", "by David Linge.", "Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976.", "''Plato's \"Parmenides\" and Its Influence''.", "''Dionysius'', Volume VII (1983): 3–16''Reason in the Age of Science''.", "Trans.", "by Frederick Lawrence.", "Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1981.", "''The Relevance of the Beautiful and Other Essays''.", "Trans.", "N. Walker.", "ed.", "R. Bernasconi, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.", "''Praise of Theory''.", "Trans.", "Chris Dawson.", "New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998.", "''The Gadamer Reader: A Bouquet of the Later Writings''.", "Ed.", "by Richard E. Palmer.", "Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 2007.;Secondary Arthos, John.", "''The Inner Word in Gadamer's Hermeneutics.''", "South Bend, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2009.", "* Cercel, Larisa (ed.", "), ''Übersetzung und Hermeneutik / Traduction et herméneutique'', Bucharest, Zeta Books, 2009, .", "Davey, Nicholas.", "''Unquiet Understanding: Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics.''", "New York: SUNY Press, 2007, .", "Davey, Nicholas.", "''Unfinished Worlds.", "Hermeneutics, Aesthetics, and Gadamer.''", "Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2013, .", "* Dostal, Robert L. ed.", "''The Cambridge Companion to Gadamer''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.", "* Drechsler, Wolfgang.", "''Gadamer in Marburg''.", "Marburg: Blaues Schloss, 2013.", "* Code, Lorraine.", "ed.", "''Feminist Interpretations of Hans-Georg Gadamer''.", "University Park: Penn State Press, 2003.", "* Coltman, Rodney.", "''The Language of Hermeneutics: Gadamer and Heidegger in Dialogue''.", "Albany: State University Press, 1998.", "* Grondin, Jean.", "''The Philosophy of Gadamer''.", "trans.", "Kathryn Plant.", "New York: McGill-Queens University Press, 2002.", "* Grondin, Jean.", "''Hans-Georg Gadamer: A Biography'' trans.", "Joel Weinsheimer.", "New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004.", "* Kögler, Hans-Herbert.", "''The Power of Dialogue: Critical Hermeneutics after Gadamer and Foucault'' trans.", "Paul Hendrickson.", "MIT Press, 1996.", "* Krajewski, Bruce (ed.", "), ''Gadamer's Repercussions: Reconsidering Philosophical Hermeneutics''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004.", "* Lawn, Chris.", "''Wittgenstein and Gadamer: Towards a Post-Analytic Philosophy of Language'', Continuum Press, 2005* Lawn, Chris.", "''Gadamer: A Guide for the Perplexed''.", "(Guides for the perplexed) London: Continuum, 2006.", "* Lawn, Chris, and Niall Keane, ''The Gadamer Dictionary'', A&C Black.", "2011* Malpas, Jeff, and Santiago Zabala (eds),''Consequences of Hermeneutics: Fifty Years after Truth and Method'', (Northwestern University Press, 2010).", "* Malpas, Jeff, Ulrich Arnswald and Jens Kertscher (eds.).", "''Gadamer's Century: Essays in Honour of Hans-Georg Gadamer''.", "Cambridge, Mass.", ": MIT Press, 2002.", "* Risser, James.", "''Hermeneutics and the Voice of the other: Re-reading Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics''.", "Albany: SUNY Press, 1997.", "* Sullivan, Robert R., ''Political Hermeneutics, The Early Thinking of Hans-Georg Gadamer''.", "Univ.", "Park, Penn State Press,1989.", "* Warnke, Georgia.", "\"Gadamer: Hermeneutics, Tradition and Reason\".", "Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1987.", "* Weinsheimer, Joel.", "''Gadamer's Hermeneutics: A Reading of \"Truth and Method\"''.", "New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985.", "* Wierciński, Andrzej.", "''Gadamer's Hermeneutics and the Art of Conversation'' Germany, Münster: LIT Verlag, 2011.", "* Wright, Kathleen ed.", "''Festivals of Interpretation: Essays on Hans-Georg Gadamer's Work''.", "Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1990.", "* P. Della Pelle, ''La dimensione ontologica dell'etica in Hans-Georg Gadamer'', FrancoAngeli, Milano 2013.", "* P. Della Pelle, ''La filosofia di Platone nell'interpretazione di Hans-Georg Gadamer'', Vita e Pensiero, Milano 2014." ], [ "See also", "* Gadamer–Derrida debate* Limit situation" ], [ "References", "===Citations===" ], [ "Works cited", "* ** * * " ], [ "External links", " https://www.gadamer-gesellschaft.de/en/hans-georg-gadamer-society/ Hans-Georg Gadamer, Jeff Malpas, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy* Hans-Georg Gadamer (1900—2002), Lauren Swayne Barthold, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy* Gadamer's Hermeneutics (introductory lecture by Henk de Berg, 2015)* Chronology (in German)* Works by Gadamer* Hans-Georg Gadamer: Plato as portratist*Miguel Ángel Quintana Paz: \"On Hermeneutical Ethics and Education\", a paper on the relevance of Gadamer's Hermeneutics for our understanding of music, ethics and education in both." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Honeymoon" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''honeymoon''' is a holiday taken by newlyweds after their wedding to celebrate their marriage.", "Today, honeymoons are often celebrated in destinations considered exotic or romantic.", "In a similar context, it may also refer to the phase in a couple's relationship—whether they are in matrimony or not—that exists before getting used to everyday life together." ], [ "History", "Newlyweds leaving for their honeymoon boarding a Trans-Canada Air Lines plane, Montreal, 1946''Bridal Journey in Hardanger'' by Adolph Tidemand and Hans Gude, a romanticized view of the customs of 19th-century Norwegian societyThe custom in Western culture and some westernized countries' cultures of a newlywed couple going on a holiday together originated in early-19th-century Great Britain.", "Upper-class couples would take a \"bridal tour\", sometimes accompanied by friends or family, to visit relatives who had not been able to attend the wedding.", "The practice soon spread to the European continent and was known in France as a ('English-style voyage'), from the 1820s onwards.Honeymoons in the modern sense—a pure holiday voyage undertaken by the couple—became widespread during the ''Belle Époque'', in the late 1800s as one of the first instances of modern mass tourism.According to some sources, the honeymoon is a relic of marriage by capture, based on the practice of the husband going into hiding with his wife to avoid reprisals from her relatives, with the intention that the woman would be pregnant by the end of the month." ], [ "Etymology", "The honeymoon was originally the period following marriage, \"characterized by love and happiness,\" as attested since 1546.The word may allude to \"the idea that the first month of marriage is the sweetest.", "\".According to a different version, of the Oxford English Dictionary:Today, ''honeymoon'' has a positive meaning, but originally it may have referred to the inevitable waning of love, like a phase of the moon.", "In 1552, Richard Huloet wrote:In many modern languages, the word for a honeymoon is a calque (e.g., ) or near-calque.", "Persian has a similar word, , which translates to 'month of honey' or 'moon of honey'.A 19th-century theory claimed that the word alludes to \"the custom of the higher order of the Teutones to drink Mead, or Metheglin, a beverage made with ''honey'', for thirty days after every wedding\", but the theory has been challenged.The first recorded use of the word ''honeymoon'' to refer to the vacation after the wedding appeared in 1791, in a translation of German folk stories.", "The first recorded native-English use of the word appeared in 1804." ], [ "Modern practice", "The modern purpose of honeymooning varies by culture.", "For those in an arranged marriage, a honeymoon is a time to get to know one another.", "For some cultures, it is a time to for the couple to become sexually intimate.", "For other cultures, the purpose of the honeymoon mainly involves spending time to relax, creating a shared memorable experience for the couple, and adjusting to married life.According to the 2023 Global Wedding Report done by ''The Knot'', among the 15 countries surveyed, an average of 75% of couples took a honeymoon.", "Honeymoons are most popular in European countries.", "Fewer than half of couples in India took a honeymoon.", "Beach resorts were the preferred location for many couples.", "=== The United States ===Honeymoons are a $12 billion a year industry.", "In the United States, an average couple spends an average of $4500 for their honeymoon.", "The Niagara Falls was a popular honeymoon destination for Americans in the 1980s, but it has since become less favored due to the decreasing costs of air travel.===Solomoon or unimoon===An emerging 21st-century travel trend is the \"solomoon\" or \"unimoon\", a separate, solo holiday the newlyweds take without their spouse.", "''The New Zealand Herald'' cites a report by ''The New York Times'' that such alternatives to honeymoons are \"particularly suited for couples who just cannot agree on where to go\"." ], [ "Effects", "One 2015 scholarly study concluded that going on a honeymoon is associated with a somewhat lower risk of divorce, regardless of how much or little is spent on the honeymoon itself.", "However, high spending and incurring significant debt on other wedding-related expenses, such as engagement rings and wedding ceremonies, is associated with a high risk of divorce." ], [ "See also", "Marriage leaveVacationHoneymoon rhinitisHoneymoon cystitis" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Harold Kushner" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Harold Samuel Kushner''' (April 3, 1935 – April 28, 2023) was an American rabbi, author, and lecturer.", "He was a member of the Rabbinical Assembly of Conservative Judaism and served as the congregational rabbi of Temple Israel of Natick, in Natick, Massachusetts, for 24 years.", "Kushner gained widespread recognition for his many popular books that simplify complex theological ideas for both Jewish and non-Jewish readers.", "He received numerous awards, including the Christopher Award in 1987 and the Jewish Book Council's Lifetime Achievement Award in 2007.His most prominent works include ''When Bad Things Happen to Good People'', delving into human suffering, divine kindness, and theodicy following his son's death, and ''When All You've Ever Wanted Isn't Enough'', exploring existential themes of life's purpose and the pursuit of fulfillment.Considered to be one of America's most prominent rabbis, Kushner was known for his Reconstructionist views and for his ideological progressiveness within the Conservative movement.", "He argued against the notion of an omnipotent, interventionist God, and instead focused on God's role in offering comfort and solace to those who suffer." ], [ "Early life and education", "Harold Samuel Kushner was born to Conservative Jewish parents Julius and Sarah () Kushner in Brooklyn, New York City.", "When he began elementary school, his family relocated to the Crown Heights neighborhood.", "Kushner was an avid fan of the Brooklyn Dodgers in his early years.", "While his mother was a homemaker, his father owned Playmore Publishing, a shop at Fifth Avenue and 23rd Street that specialized in selling children's books and toys, primarily Bible stories.", "Julius had hoped that his son would take over the business someday, but Harold did not believe he possessed the same level of business acumen as his father.", "After graduating from Erasmus Hall High School, he attended Columbia University, where he initially intended to major in psychology but later switched to literature after being taught by Mark Van Doren, a Pulitzer Prize-winning poet.", "At Columbia, Kushner's extracurricular positions included working for ''Jester of Columbia'' and WKCR, where he eventually became the director of sports broadcasting, and serving as the president of the student Zionist organization.Despite having a strong religious upbringing, Kushner had no plans to become a rabbi until he joined an evening program at the Jewish Theological Seminary in New York City.", "He became certain about his calling to be a rabbi during his junior year at Columbia.", "He completed his bachelor's degree in religious education in 1955, and after completing his master's degree in the social and philosophical foundations of education in 1960, he enrolled full-time at the seminary, where he was ordained that same year.", "Kushner received his doctorate in Hebrew literature in 1972.He also completed a year of graduate work at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and held teaching positions at Clark University and the Rabbinical School of the JTS." ], [ "Rabbinical career", "Following his rabbinic ordination, Kushner went to court to request the waiver of his military exemption.", "He served for two years as a first lieutenant in the Army's Chaplain Corps at Fort Sill in Oklahoma.", "After his discharge from the military, Kushner returned to New York and served as an assistant rabbi at Temple Israel in Great Neck from 1962 to 1966.In 1966, Kushner assumed the position of rabbi at the 450-family congregation Temple Israel in Natick, Massachusetts.", "He fulfilled the role of congregational rabbi there for 24 years while also being a member of the Rabbinical Assembly, the \"clerical arm\" of the Conservative movement.", "From 1972 to 1974, he served as the president of the New England Region of the Rabbinical Assembly.", "Initially serving as Temple Israel's full-time rabbi, he shifted to part-time in 1983 to allocate more time for writing and in 1990, he transitioned to full-time writing and lecturing.", "The synagogue deemed Kushner, who was 55 years old at the time, too young to be appointed as rabbi emeritus, so he was bestowed the title of rabbi laureate in 1983.The title, held by only a few American rabbis, underlined his commitment to maintaining an enduring connection with both his congregants and the rabbinate.", "He attended the synagogue until his death.Kushner's presence in the Conservative movement was described as \"inescapable\".", "In 2001, he co-authored ''Etz Hayim: A Torah Commentary'', the new official Torah commentary of the Conservative movement, in collaboration with Chaim Potok.", "The comprehensive work comprises four layers of commentary, encompassing insights on Conservative observance of Jewish law and traditional and contemporary interpretations of scripture (''midrash''), curated by Kushner.Kushner spoke at the interfaith prayer service for the second inauguration of Bill Clinton.", "He was also a eulogist at the state funeral of Ronald Reagan in the Washington National Cathedral in 2004, where offered a reading from the Book of Isaiah." ], [ "Writing", "With the backing of Rabbi Ira Eisenstein, the founder of the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, Kushner released his inaugural book in 1971 under the title ''When Children Ask About God: A Guide for Parents Who Don't Always Have All the Answers.''", "Rather than reinforcing the notion of God as an all-knowing and all-powerful creator, he aimed to foster a healthy skepticism and encourage questioning as a means of developing a meaningful religious faith.", "The book primarily targeted parents and aimed to address the concerns of people who were seeking a new Jewish belief system more in line with their broader worldview.Kushner is best known for his international best-selling book on the problem of evil, ''When Bad Things Happen to Good People,'' published in 1981''.''", "Written following the death of his son, Aaron, from the premature aging disease progeria, it deals with questions about human suffering, God, omnipotence, and theodicy.", "Kushner aimed to assist individuals in maintaining their belief in God's benevolence despite experiencing personal tragedies.", "His book offers a fresh interpretation of the Book of Job, suggesting that while God may not have the power to prevent suffering, God provides solace to those who are afflicted.", "His contemporary interpretation of theodicy in the book laid the groundwork for the modernist theological literature within the Conservative Jewish community, alongside works by Elliott N. Dorff, Neil Gillman, Harold M. Schulweis, and David Wolpe.", "The book resonated with readers across religions and was translated into at least 12 languages.", "Its success propelled it to the top of ''The New York Times'' Best Seller list, and established Kushner as a well-known author and commentator.", "In 1991, it tied for the ninth position with four other books in the Book of the Month Club's list of the top ten books that had the most significant impact on American lives, based on a nationwide survey.", "The book was described as \"arguably one of the most widely read books written by a rabbi in centuries\" and as \"one of the most widely read Jewish books of our generation\" by Neil Gillman.", "Its popularity was partly attributed to Protestant clergy members promoting it in their sermons and distributing copies to their congregations.", "Four million copies had been sold by the book's 20th anniversary.", "In 1986, Kushner published ''When All You've Ever Wanted Isn't Enough: The Search for a Life That Matters'', delving into existential themes of life's meaning and individual pursuit of happiness within the context of Ecclesiastes.", "Its title was deemed an \"apt summary of Ecclesiastes\".", "Kushner's goal was to dissect the unfulfillment experienced even by achievers, asserting that \"What we miss in our lives, no matter how much we have, is that sense of meaning.\"", "He rejected the notion of a singular answer to life's complexities and contended that such answers are found in daily experiences, relationships, and the quest for integrity.", "Central to his argument was Ecclesiastes, which he called \"the most dangerous book in the Bible\" for its call to contemplation over blind worship, as Kushner contended that life's richness emerges from thoughtful engagement, emphasizing that an unfulfilled life is more daunting than death itself.", "The book earned praise as a \"useful spiritual survival manual\" from ''The Washington Post'' and received the 1987 Christopher Award for its \"contribution to the exaltation of the human spirit.", "\"''Who Needs God,'' published in 1989'','' argued for the ongoing relevance of God in a world characterized by unprecedented human achievements.", "As with Kushner's previous works, Reconstructionist views were apparent in his attempt to make room for religious life and the notion of God without the belief in an all-powerful creator.", "He aimed to bridge the gap between religious fundamentalism and atheism, highlighting that organized religion's greatest offering is not theology but rather the comfort and support of a spiritual community.", "Kushner also asserted that the existence of God endows individuals with the ability to perceive holiness in the world and attain a greater sense of purpose.Kushner authored several other well-received theological books, such as ''How Good Do We Have to Be?''", "and ''To Life!''.", "Works such as ''When All You've Ever Wanted Isn't Enough'', ''Who Needs God?''", "and ''How Good Do We Have to Be?''", "reached a wide readership of millions.", "In 2007, Kushner received a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Jewish Book Council.", "Carolyn Hessel, director of the Jewish Book Council, attributed Kushner's success to his ability to appeal to everyone regardless of their background.", "Burton Cooper, a professor of theology at the Louisville Presbyterian Theological Seminary, argues that Kushner's popularity and significance arise from his skill in reaching individuals with a \"modern consciousness\", a perspective informed by science, and resonating with their longing for religious faith.", "In the fall of 2001, Kushner achieved his sixth best-seller with ''Living a Life That Matters'', focused on Jacob from the Old Testament, the sole figure with a complete biography in the Bible.", "He examines Jacob's complex moral choices, such as deceiving his father to secure his blessing.", "He interprets Jacob's encounter with an angel as an internal struggle, symbolizing the conflict within his soul and his progression towards integrity.", "While Kushner's stance suggests Jacob's victory through loss, the Torah presents an alternate perspective, depicting Jacob as the undisputed winner.Kushner's response to Simon Wiesenthal's question of forgiveness was included in a revised 1997 edition of the book ''The Sunflower: On the Possibilities and Limits of Forgiveness,'' alongside those of 45 other leading intellectuals and commentators.", "Wiesenthal's inquiry emerged from a real-life scenario during the Holocaust, when he confronted a dying Nazi soldier who sought absolution for his heinous deeds, prompting the question: Can such profound wrongdoing be forgiven?", "Kushner conveyed the essence of forgiveness as follows:Forgiving is not something we do for another person, as the Nazi asked Wiesenthal to do for him.", "Forgiving happens inside us.", "It represents a letting go of the sense of grievance, and perhaps most importantly a letting go of the role of victim.", "For a Jew to forgive the Nazis would not mean, God forbid, saying to them \"What you did was understandable, I can understand what led you to it and I don't hate you for it.\"", "It would mean saying \"What you did was thoroughly despicable and puts you outside the category of decent human beings.", "But I refuse to give you the power to define me as a victim.", "I refuse to let your blind hatred define the shape and content of my Jewishness.", "I don't hate you; I reject you.\"", "And then the Nazi would remained chained to his past and to his conscience, but the Jew would be free.Kushner was an editor of the journal ''Conservative Judaism'' from 1980 to 1984''.''", "Kushner frequently used examples from TV shows and movies in his teachings and writings to connect with his audience, as he believed many people are more familiar with these cultural references than with the Bible, although he expressed concern over the semi-literacy of the Bible and found it surprising when people were not familiar with biblical stories." ], [ "Views", "Kushner, affiliated with Conservative Judaism, championed progressive concepts within the movement while deeply influenced by Mordecai Kaplan, his teacher and the founder of Reconstructionist Judaism, whom he regarded as the most influential thinker in American Jewish history.", "During a speech to the Rabbinical Assembly in 1980, he commented that the Conservative movement had faced an ongoing crisis regarding the authority of ''halakhah'' (Jewish law) since its inception.", "He emphasized that the goal of Conservative rabbis was to demonstrate that leading a religious life in the modern era could be fulfilling, without imposing strict observance on less practicing Jews.", "Paraphrasing Jewish theologian Martin Buber, Kushner also once stated that \"people want less theology and more religion.\"", "He rejected the definition of religion \"as an individual experience\", emphasizing its communal aspect.Informed by the teachings of Kaplan, Kushner was a proponent of Jewish religious naturalism.", "Discarding the notion of an omnipotent God, he proposed that God lacks complete dominion over the universe and is not culpable for evil.", "Within this Reconstructionist framework, he identified two core life forces: the randomness of nature and purposeful divine actions.", "He rejected the notion of God causing suffering as punishment, advocating instead for a God who shares in human pain, as evidenced by God's name \"I am with you\" in the Book of Exodus.", "Viewing God as a source of empathy and love, Kushner once recalled being concerned that during Yom Kippur, his synagogue's congregants focused too much on guilt and did not give themselves the chance to experience God's forgiveness.", "His aphorism \"forgiveness benefits us more than the person we forgive\" was one of many adopted by religious leaders of various faiths.", "Drawing from the Reconstructionist tradition, Kushner asserted that God shouldn't be perceived as a distant entity in space, emphasizing that the question of God's existence doesn't necessarily revolve around the concept of a heavenly population.", "Kushner's writing and ideas were popular among Christians, but traditional Jews held mixed opinions.", "He once expressed, \"I always thought Judaism was at its best when it not only looked at text, but when it looked at people.\"", "Kushner's approach, rooted in a focus on human needs, occasionally led him to reinterpret Jewish theology for emotional solace.", "This resulted in some Orthodox Jews feeling defensive of traditional Jewish teachings and accusing him of promoting un-Jewish ideas.", "In ''When Bad Things Happen to Good People'', Kushner reconciled Jewish beliefs in God's omnipotence and benevolence constraining God's influence over random hazards in life.", "He likened God to a benevolent watchmaker who created the world and its natural laws.", "This perspective portrays God as taking pride in his creation while permitting it to operate within these established laws, including the occurrence of random challenges.", "This implies that God intentionally refrains from complete control over every aspect of life, enabling individuals to navigate and respond to various situations while supporting them only with his presence.", "This view contradicts traditional Jewish teaching and led to criticism from Orthodox Jews, although Kushner himself acknowledged that he may have been wrong about God.", "Literary critic and journalist Ron Rosenbaum was not convinced by Kushner's argument in the book, describing Kushner's position as \"diminishing God to something less than an Omnipotent Being – to something more like an eager cheerleader for good, but one decidedly on the sidelines in the struggle against evil.", "\"In line with Kaplan's influence and Reconstructionist theology, Kushner perceived the Torah as a fully human creation that, while acknowledging its human origins, serves to commemorate significant religious experiences in life.", "He sometimes expressed doubt about the reliability of individuals who claim to have heard divine messages, and cited the Binding of Isaac as a problematic narrative that contradicts fundamental religious tenets.", "The story tells of Abraham going to sacrifice his son, Isaac, as an offering to God in obedience to a divine directive.", "Although Kushner believed that Abraham heard the message, he was skeptical that God actually said it." ], [ "Personal life", "In 1960, Kushner married Suzette Estrada and moved to Massachusetts.", "Estrada died in 2022.The couple had a son named Aaron, who died of progeria at the age of 14, a daughter named Ariel, and two grandchildren.", "Kushner's brother Paul was a rabbi in Bellmore and Merrick on Long Island, and died in 2019.In 1995, Christian inspirational group The Christophers included Kushner in their list of \"50 individuals who have made a positive impact on the world over the past 50 years.\"", "He was the recipient of six honorary doctorates.Kushner moved into a senior residence in Canton, Massachusetts in 2017.He died on April 28, 2023, at age 88." ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " Rabbi Kushner's bio at Temple Israel* Rabbi Harold Kushner talks and gives stories in relation to his latest book Overcoming Life's Disappointments (video)* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hotspot" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hotspot''', '''Hot Spot''' or '''Hot spot''' may refer to:" ], [ "Places", "* Hot Spot, Kentucky, a community in the United States" ], [ "Arts, entertainment, and media", "===Fictional entities===* Hot Spot (comics), a name for the DC Comics character Isaiah Crockett* Hot Spot (Transformers), any of several characters===Films ===* ''Hot Spot'' (1941 film), later retitled ''I Wake Up Screaming''* ''Hot Spot'' (1945 film), a Private Snafu film* ''The Hot Spot'', a 1990 neo-noir film===Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media===* ''Hot Spot'' (board game), a 1979 board game published by Metagaming Concepts* \"Hot Spot\" (''Burn Notice''), a television episode* ''Hot Spot'' (musical), 1963* \"Hot Spot\" (song), by Foxy Brown* ''Hotspot'' (album), a 2020 album by Pet Shop Boys* ''The Hot Spot'' (Podcast), a GameSpot podcast" ], [ "Computing", "* Hot spot (computer programming), a compute-intensive region of a program* Hot spot, an area which is customizable by users in software frameworks* Hotspot (Wi-Fi), a wireless network access point or area Connectify Hotspot, a software application for creating a wireless access point Mobile hotspot, sharing of a mobile device's Internet connection* HotSpot (virtual machine), the Java Virtual Machine originally developed by Sun and the current reference implementation of the Java programming language* Screen hotspot, an area enabled for user interactivity on a display" ], [ "Science and healthcare", "* Hotspot (geology), an area of unusually high volcanic activity* Hot spot (veterinary medicine), an irritated skin lesion* Hot spot, a location with a high level of radioactive contamination* Biodiversity hotspot, a region of significant variety and variability of life* Hot spot effect in subatomic physics, regions of high energy density or temperature* Recombination hotspot, a region in a genome" ], [ "Other uses", "* Hot spot (casting), a metal casting defect* Hot Spot (cricket), an infrared tracking system* Airport hot spots, locations where aircraft collisions with ground equipment may occur* Hotspot camp, a refugee camp that serves as an initial reception point* Pyotraumatic dermatitis (also known as hot spots), a common skin dog infection" ], [ "See also", "* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Heapsort" ], [ "Introduction", "In computer science, '''heapsort''' is a comparison-based sorting algorithm which can be thought of as \"an implementation of selection sort using the right data structure.\"", "Like selection sort, heapsort divides its input into a sorted and an unsorted region, and it iteratively shrinks the unsorted region by extracting the largest element from it and inserting it into the sorted region.", "Unlike selection sort, heapsort does not waste time with a linear-time scan of the unsorted region; rather, heap sort maintains the unsorted region in a heap data structure to efficiently find the largest element in each step.Although somewhat slower in practice on most machines than a well-implemented quicksort, it has the advantages of very simple implementation and a more favorable worst-case runtime.", "Most real-world quicksort variants include an implementation of heapsort as a fallback should they detect that quicksort is becoming degenerate.", "Heapsort is an in-place algorithm, but it is not a stable sort.Heapsort was invented by J. W. J. Williams in 1964.The paper also introduced the binary heap as a useful data structure in its own right.", "In the same year, Robert W. Floyd published an improved version that could sort an array in-place, continuing his earlier research into the treesort algorithm." ], [ "Overview", "The heapsort algorithm can be divided into two phases: heap construction, and heap extraction.The heap is an implicit data structure which takes no space beyond the array of objects to be sorted; the array is interpreted as a complete binary tree where each array element is a node and each node's parent and child links are defined by simple arithmetic on the array indexes.", "For a zero-based array, the root node is stored at index 0, and the nodes linked to node are iLeftChild(i) = 2⋅i + 1 iRightChild(i) = 2⋅i + 2 iParent(i) = floor((i−1) / 2) where the floor function rounds down to the preceding integer.", "For a more detailed explanation, see .This binary tree is a max-heap when each node is greater than or equal to both of its children.", "Equivalently, each node is less than or equal to its parent.", "This rule, applied throughout the tree, results in the maximum node being located at the root of the tree.In the first phase, a heap is built out of the data (see ).In the second phase, the heap is converted to a sorted array by repeatedly removing the largest element from the heap (the root of the heap), and placing it at the end of the array.", "The heap is updated after each removal to maintain the heap property.", "Once all objects have been removed from the heap, the result is a sorted array.Heapsort is normally performed in place.", "During the first phase, the array is divided into an unsorted prefix and a heap-ordered suffix (initially empty).", "Each step shrinks the prefix and expands the suffix.", "When the prefix is empty, this phase is complete.", "During the second phase, the array is divided into a heap-ordered prefix and a sorted suffix (initially empty).", "Each step shrinks the prefix and expands the suffix.", "When the prefix is empty, the array is sorted." ], [ "Algorithm", "The heapsort algorithm begins by rearranging the array into a binary max-heap.", "The algorithm then repeatedly swaps the root of the heap (the greatest element remaining in the heap) with its last element, which is then declared to be part of the sorted suffix.", "Then the heap, which was damaged by replacing the root, is repaired so that the greatest element is again at the root.", "This repeats until only one value remains in the heap.The steps are:# Call the function on the array.", "This builds a heap from an array in operations.# Swap the first element of the array (the largest element in the heap) with the final element of the heap.", "Decrease the considered range of the heap by one.# Call the function on the array to move the new first element to its correct place in the heap.# Go back to step (2) until the remaining array is a single element.The operation is run once, and is in performance.", "The function is called times, and requires work each time.", "Therefore, the performance of this algorithm is .The heart of the algorithm is the function.", "This constructs binary heaps out of smaller heaps, and may be thought of in two equivalent ways:* given two binary heaps, and a shared parent node which is not part of either heap, merge them into a single larger binary heap; or* given a \"damaged\" binary heap, where the max-heap property (no child is greater than its parent) holds everywhere ''except'' possibly between the root node and its children, repair it to produce an undamaged heap.To establish the max-heap property at the root, up to three nodes must be compared (the root and its two children), and the greatest must be made the root.", "This is most easily done by finding the greatest child, then comparing that child to the root.", "There are three cases:# If there are no children (the two original heaps are empty), the heap property trivially holds, and no further action is required.# If root is greater than or equal to the greatest child, the heap property holds and likewise, no further action is required.# If the root is less than the greatest child, exchange the two nodes.", "The heap property now holds at the newly-promoted node (it is greater than or equal to both of its children, and in fact greater than any descendant), but may be violated between the newly-demoted ex-root and its new children.", "To correct this, repeat the operation on the subtree rooted at the newly-demoted ex-root.The number of iterations in any one call is bounded by the height of the tree, which is .=== Pseudocode ===The following is a simple way to implement the algorithm in pseudocode.", "Arrays are zero-based and is used to exchange two elements of the array.", "Movement 'down' means from the root towards the leaves, or from lower indices to higher.", "Note that during the sort, the largest element is at the root of the heap at , while at the end of the sort, the largest element is in .", "'''procedure''' heapsort(a, count) '''is''' '''input:''' an unordered array ''a'' of length ''count'' ''(Build the heap in array a so that largest value is at the root)'' heapify(a, count) ''(The following loop maintains the invariants that a0:end−1 is a heap, and'' ''every element aend:count−1 beyond end is greater than everything before it,'' ''i.e.", "aend:count−1 is in sorted order.)''", "end ← count '''while''' end > 1 '''do''' ''(the heap size is reduced by one)'' end ← end − 1 ''(a0 is the root and largest value.", "The swap moves it in front of the sorted elements.)''", "swap(aend, a0) ''(the swap ruined the heap property, so restore it)'' siftDown(a, 0, end)The sorting routine uses two subroutines, and .", "The former is the common in-place heap construction routine, while the latter is a common subroutine for implementing .", "''(Put elements of 'a' in heap order, in-place)'' '''procedure''' heapify(a, count) '''is''' ''(start is initialized to the first leaf node)'' ''(the last element in a 0-based array is at index count-1; find the parent of that element)'' start ← iParent(count-1) + 1 '''while''' start > 0 '''do''' ''(go to the last non-heap node)'' start ← start − 1 ''(sift down the node at index 'start' to the proper place such that all nodes below'' '' the start index are in heap order)'' siftDown(a, start, count) ''(after sifting down the root all nodes/elements are in heap order)'' ''(Repair the heap whose root element is at index 'start', assuming the heaps rooted at its children are valid)'' '''procedure''' siftDown(a, root, end) '''is''' '''while''' iLeftChild(root) 1 '''do''' '''if''' start > 0 '''then''' ''(Heap construction)'' start ← start − 1 '''else''' ''(Heap extraction)'' end ← end − 1 swap(aend, a0) ''(The following is siftDown(a, start, end))'' root ← start '''while''' iLeftChild(root) < end '''do''' child ← iLeftChild(root) ''(If there is a right child and that child is greater)'' '''if''' child+1 < end '''and''' achild < achild+1 '''then''' child ← child + 1 '''if''' aroot < achild '''then''' swap(aroot, achild) root ← child ''(repeat to continue sifting down the child now)'' '''else''' '''break''' ''(return to outer loop)''" ], [ "Variations", "=== Williams' heap construction ===The description above uses Floyd's improved heap-construction algorithm, which operates in time and uses the same primitive as the heap-extraction phase.", "Although this algorithm, being both faster and simpler to program, is used by all practical heapsort implementations, Williams' original algorithm may be easier to understand, and is needed to implement a more general binary heap priority queue.Rather than merging many small heaps, Williams' algorithm maintains one single heap at the front of the array and repeatedly appends an additional element using a primitive.", "Being at the end of the array, the new element is a leaf and has no children to worry about, but may violate the heap property by being greater than its parent.", "In this case, exchange it with its parent and repeat the test until the parent is greater or there is no parent (we have reached the root).", "In pseudocode, this is is: '''procedure''' siftUp(a, end) '''is''' '''input:''' ''a is the array, which heap-ordered up to end-1.''", "''end is the node to sift up.''", "'''while''' end > 0 parent := iParent(end) '''if''' aparent aiLeftChild(j) '''then''' j ← iRightChild(j) '''else''' j ← iLeftChild(j) ''(At the last level, there might be only one child)'' '''if''' iLeftChild(j) leafSearch is used in the modified siftDown routine: '''procedure''' siftDown(a, i, end) '''is''' j ← leafSearch(a, i, end) '''while''' ai > aj '''do''' j ← iParent(j) '''while''' j > i '''do''' swap(ai, aj) j ← iParent(j)Bottom-up heapsort was announced as beating quicksort (with median-of-three pivot selection) on arrays of size ≥16000.A 2008 re-evaluation of this algorithm showed it to be no faster than top-down heapsort for integer keys, presumably because modern branch prediction nullifies the cost of the predictable comparisons which bottom-up heapsort manages to avoid.A further refinement does a binary search in the upward search, and sorts in a worst case of comparisons, approaching the information-theoretic lower bound of comparisons.A variant which uses two extra bits per internal node (''n''−1 bits total for an ''n''-element heap) to cache information about which child is greater (two bits are required to store three cases: left, right, and unknown) uses less than compares.=== Other variations ===Ternary heapsort uses a ternary heap instead of a binary heap; that is, each element in the heap has three children.", "It is more complicated to program, but does a constant number of times fewer swap and comparison operations.", "This is because each sift-down step in a ternary heap requires three comparisons and one swap, whereas in a binary heap two comparisons and one swap are required.", "Two levels in a ternary heap cover 32 = 9 elements, doing more work with the same number of comparisons as three levels in the binary heap, which only cover 23 = 8.This is primarily of academic interest, or as a student exercise, as the additional complexity is not worth the minor savings, and bottom-up heapsort beats both.", "Memory-optimized heapsort improves heapsort's locality of reference by increasing the number of children even more.", "This increases the number of comparisons, but because all children are stored consecutively in memory, reduces the number of cache lines accessed during heap traversal, a net performance improvement.", "The standard implementation of Floyd's heap-construction algorithm causes a large number of cache misses once the size of the data exceeds that of the CPU cache.", "Better performance on large data sets can be obtained by merging in depth-first order, combining subheaps as soon as possible, rather than combining all subheaps on one level before proceeding to the one above.", "Out-of-place heapsort improves on bottom-up heapsort by eliminating the worst case, guaranteeing comparisons.", "When the maximum is taken, rather than fill the vacated space with an unsorted data value, fill it with a sentinel value, which never \"bounces\" back up.", "It turns out that this can be used as a primitive in an in-place (and non-recursive) \"QuickHeapsort\" algorithm.", "First, you perform a quicksort-like partitioning pass, but reversing the order of the partitioned data in the array.", "Suppose (without loss of generality) that the smaller partition is the one greater than the pivot, which should go at the end of the array, but our reversed partitioning step places it at the beginning.", "Form a heap out of the smaller partition and do out-of-place heapsort on it, exchanging the extracted maxima with values from the end of the array.", "These are less than the pivot, meaning less than any value in the heap, so serve as sentinel values.", "Once the heapsort is complete (and the pivot moved to just before the now-sorted end of the array), the order of the partitions has been reversed, and the larger partition at the beginning of the array may be sorted in the same way.", "(Because there is no non-tail recursion, this also eliminates quicksort's stack usage.", ")The smoothsort algorithm is a variation of heapsort developed by Edsger W. Dijkstra in 1981.Like heapsort, smoothsort's upper bound is .", "The advantage of smoothsort is that it comes closer to time if the input is already sorted to some degree, whereas heapsort averages regardless of the initial sorted state.", "Due to its complexity, smoothsort is rarely used.", "Levcopoulos and Petersson describe a variation of heapsort based on a heap of Cartesian trees.", "First, a Cartesian tree is built from the input in time, and its root is placed in a 1-element binary heap.", "Then we repeatedly extract the minimum from the binary heap, output the tree's root element, and add its left and right children (if any) which are themselves Cartesian trees, to the binary heap.", "As they show, if the input is already nearly sorted, the Cartesian trees will be very unbalanced, with few nodes having left and right children, resulting in the binary heap remaining small, and allowing the algorithm to sort more quickly than for inputs that are already nearly sorted.", "* Several variants such as weak heapsort require comparisons in the worst case, close to the theoretical minimum, using one extra bit of state per node.", "While this extra bit makes the algorithms not truly in-place, if space for it can be found inside the element, these algorithms are simple and efficient, but still slower than binary heaps if key comparisons are cheap enough (e.g.", "integer keys) that a constant factor does not matter.", "* Katajainen's \"ultimate heapsort\" requires no extra storage, performs comparisons, and a similar number of element moves.", "It is, however, even more complex and not justified unless comparisons are very expensive." ], [ "Comparison with other sorts", "Heapsort primarily competes with quicksort, another very efficient general purpose in-place unstable comparison-based sort algorithm.Heapsort's primary advantages are its simple, non-recursive code, minimal auxiliary storage requirement, and reliably good performance: its best and worst cases are within a small constant factor of each other, and of the theoretical lower bound on comparison sorts.", "While it cannot do better than for pre-sorted inputs, it does not suffer from quicksort's worst case, either.Real-world quicksort implementations use a variety of heuristics to avoid the worst case, but that makes their implementation far more complex, and implementations such as introsort and pattern-defeating quicksort use heapsort as a last-resort fallback if they detect degenerate behaviour.", "Thus, their worst-case performance is slightly worse than if heapsort had been used from the beginning.Heapsort's primary disadvantages are its poor locality of reference and its inherently serial nature; the accesses to the implicit tree are widely scattered and mostly random, and there is no straightforward way to convert it to a parallel algorithm.The worst-case performance guarantees make heapsort popular in real-time computing, and systems concerned with maliciously chosen inputs such as the Linux kernel.", "The combination of small implementation and dependably \"good enough\" performance make it popular in embedded systems, and generally any application where sorting is not a performance bottleneck.", "heapsort is ideal for sorting a list of filenames for display, but a database management system would probably want a more aggressively optimized sorting algorithm.A well-implemented quicksort is usually 2–3 times faster than heapsort.", "Although quicksort requires fewer comparisons, this is a minor factor.", "(Results claiming twice as many comparisons are measuring the top-down version; see .)", "The main advantage of quicksort is its much better locality of reference: partitioning is a linear scan with good spatial locality, and the recursive subdivision has good temporal locality.", "With additional effort, quicksort can also be implemented in mostly branch-free code, and multiple CPUs can be used to sort subpartitions in parallel.", "Thus, quicksort is preferred when the additional performance justifies the implementation effort.The other major sorting algorithm is merge sort, but that rarely competes directly with heapsort because it is not in-place.", "Merge sort's requirement for extra space (roughly half the size of the input) is usually prohibitive except in the situations where merge sort has a clear advantage:* When a stable sort is required* When taking advantage of (partially) pre-sorted input* Sorting linked lists (in which case merge sort requires minimal extra space)* Parallel sorting; merge sort parallelizes even better than quicksort and can easily achieve close to linear speedup* External sorting; merge sort has excellent locality of reference" ], [ "Example", "The examples sort the values { 6, 5, 3, 1, 8, 7, 2, 4 } in increasing order using both heap-construction algorithms.", "The elements being compared are shown in a '''bold''' font.", "There are typically two when sifting up, and three when sifting down, although there may be fewer when the top or bottom of the tree is reached.=== Heap construction (Williams' algorithm) ===An example of heapsort using Williams' heap-construction algorithm.", "Heap Unsorted Swap elements 6 5, 3, 1, 8, 7, 2, 4 '''6''', '''5''' 3, 1, 8, 7, 2, 4 '''6''', 5, '''3''' 1, 8, 7, 2, 4 6, '''5''', 3, '''1''' 8, 7, 2, 4 6, '''5''', 3, 1, '''8''' 7, 2, 4 5 ↔ 8 '''6''', '''8''', 3, 1, 5 7, 2, 4 6 ↔ 8 '''8''', 6, 3, 1, 5 7, 2, 4 8, 6, '''3''', 1, 5, '''7''' 2, 4 3 ↔ 7 '''8''', 6, '''7''', 1, 5, 3 2, 4 8, 6, '''7''', 1, 5, 3, '''2''' 4 8, 6, 7, '''1''', 5, 3, 2, '''4''' 1 ↔ 4 8, '''6''', 7, '''4''', 5, 3, 2, 1 === Heap construction (Floyd's algorithm) === Unsorted Heap Swap elements 6, 5, 3, 1 8, 7, 2, 4 6, 5, 3 '''1''', 8, 7, 2, '''4''' 1 ↔ 4 6, 5, 3 4, 8, 7, 2, '''1''' 6, 5 '''3''', 4, 8, '''7''', '''2''', 1 3 ↔ 7 6, 5 7, 4, 8, '''3''', 2, 1 6 '''5''', 7, '''4''', '''8''', 3, 2, 1 5 ↔ 8 6 8, 7, 4, '''5''', 3, 2, 1 '''6''', '''8''', '''7''', 4, 5, 3, 2, 1 6 ↔ 8 8, '''6''', 7, '''4''', '''5''', 3, 2, 1 === Heap extraction === Heap Sorted array Swap elements Details '''8''', 6, 7, 4, 5, 3, 2, '''1''' 8 ↔ 1 Add 8 to the sorted array by swapping it with 1 '''1''', '''6''', '''7''', 4, 5, 3, 2 8 1 ↔ 7 Swap 1 and 7 as they are not in order in the heap 7, 6, '''1''', 4, 5, '''3''', '''2''' 8 1 ↔ 3 Swap 1 and 3 as they are not in order in the heap 7, 6, 3, 4, 5, '''1''', 2 8 1 has no children; siftDown complete '''7''', 6, 3, 4, 5, 1, '''2''' 8 7 ↔ 2 Add 7 to the sorted array by swapping it with 2 '''2''', '''6''', '''3''', 4, 5, 1 7, 8 2 ↔ 6 Swap 2 and 6 as they are not in order in the heap 6, '''2''', 3, '''4''', '''5''', 1 7, 8 2 ↔ 5 Swap 2 and 5 as they are not in order in the heap 6, 5, 3, 4, '''2''', 1 7, 8 2 has no children; siftDown complete '''6''', 5, 3, 4, 2, '''1''' 7, 8 6 ↔ 1 Add 6 to the sorted array by swapping it with 1 '''1''', '''5''', '''3''', 4, 2 6, 7, 8 1 ↔ 5 Swap 1 and 5 as they are not in order in the heap 5, '''1''', 3, '''4''', '''2''' 6, 7, 8 1 ↔ 4 Swap 1 and 4 as they are not in order in the heap 5, 5, 3, '''1''', 2 6, 7, 8 1 has no children; siftDown complete '''5''', 4, 3, 1, '''2''' 6, 7, 8 5 ↔ 2 Add 5 to the sorted array by swapping it with 2 '''2''', '''4''', '''3''', 1 5, 6, 7, 8 2 ↔ 4 Swap 2 and 4 as they are not in order in the heap 4, '''2''', 3, '''1''' 5, 6, 7, 8 2 is greater than 1; siftDown complete '''4''', 2, 3, '''1''' 5, 6, 7, 8 Add 4 to the sorted array by swapping it with 1 '''1''', '''2''', '''3''' 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 1 ↔ 3 Swap 1 and 3 as they are not in order in the heap 3, 2, '''1''' 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 1 has no children; siftDown complete '''3''', 2, '''1''' 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 1 ↔ 3 Add 3 to the sorted array by swapping it with 1 '''1''', '''2''' 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 1 ↔ 2 Swap 1 and 2 as they are not in order in the heap 2, '''1''' 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 1 has no children; siftDown complete '''2''', '''1''' 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 2 ↔ 1 Add 2 to the sorted array by swapping it with 1 1 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 Add 1 to the sorted array 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * Chapters 6 and 7 Respectively: Heapsort and Priority Queues* A PDF of Dijkstra's original paper on Smoothsort* Heaps and Heapsort Tutorial by David Carlson, St. Vincent College" ], [ "External links", "* – graphical demonstration* Courseware on Heapsort from Univ.", "Oldenburg – With text, animations and interactive exercises* NIST's Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures: Heapsort* Heapsort implemented in 12 languages* Sorting revisited by Paul Hsieh* A PowerPoint presentation demonstrating how Heap sort works that is for educators.", "* Open Data Structures – Section 11.1.3 – Heap-Sort, Pat Morin" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Heap (data structure)" ], [ "Introduction", "binary max-heap with node keys being integers between 1 and 100In computer science, a '''heap''' is a tree-based data structure that satisfies the '''heap property''': In a ''max heap'', for any given node C, if P is a parent node of C, then the ''key'' (the ''value'') of P is greater than or equal to the key of C. In a ''min heap'', the key of P is less than or equal to the key of C. The node at the \"top\" of the heap (with no parents) is called the ''root'' node.The heap is one maximally efficient implementation of an abstract data type called a priority queue, and in fact, priority queues are often referred to as \"heaps\", regardless of how they may be implemented.", "In a heap, the highest (or lowest) priority element is always stored at the root.", "However, a heap is not a sorted structure; it can be regarded as being partially ordered.", "A heap is a useful data structure when it is necessary to repeatedly remove the object with the highest (or lowest) priority, or when insertions need to be interspersed with removals of the root node.A common implementation of a heap is the binary heap, in which the tree is a complete binary tree (see figure).", "The heap data structure, specifically the binary heap, was introduced by J. W. J. Williams in 1964, as a data structure for the heapsort sorting algorithm.", "Heaps are also crucial in several efficient graph algorithms such as Dijkstra's algorithm.", "When a heap is a complete binary tree, it has the smallest possible height—a heap with ''N'' nodes and ''a'' branches for each node always has log''a'' ''N'' height.Note that, as shown in the graphic, there is no implied ordering between siblings or cousins and no implied sequence for an in-order traversal (as there would be in, e.g., a binary search tree).", "The heap relation mentioned above applies only between nodes and their parents, grandparents, etc.", "The maximum number of children each node can have depends on the type of heap.Heaps are typically constructed in-place in the same array where the elements are stored, with their structure being implicit in the access pattern of the operations.", "Heaps differ in this way from other data structures with similar or in some cases better theoretic bounds such as Radix trees in that they require no additional memory beyond that used for storing the keys." ], [ "Operations", "The common operations involving heaps are:;Basic* ''find-max'' (or ''find-min''): find a maximum item of a max-heap, or a minimum item of a min-heap, respectively (a.k.a.", "''peek'')* ''insert'': adding a new key to the heap (a.k.a., ''push'')* ''extract-max'' (or ''extract-min''): returns the node of maximum value from a max heap or minimum value from a min heap after removing it from the heap (a.k.a., ''pop'')* ''delete-max'' (or ''delete-min''): removing the root node of a max heap (or min heap), respectively* ''replace'': pop root and push a new key.", "This is more efficient than a pop followed by a push, since it only needs to balance once, not twice, and is appropriate for fixed-size heaps.", ";Creation* ''create-heap'': create an empty heap* ''heapify'': create a heap out of given array of elements* ''merge'' (''union''): joining two heaps to form a valid new heap containing all the elements of both, preserving the original heaps.", "* ''meld'': joining two heaps to form a valid new heap containing all the elements of both, destroying the original heaps.", ";Inspection* ''size'': return the number of items in the heap.", "* ''is-empty'': return true if the heap is empty, false otherwise.", ";Internal* ''increase-key'' or ''decrease-key'': updating a key within a max- or min-heap, respectively* ''delete'': delete an arbitrary node (followed by moving last node and sifting to maintain heap)* ''sift-up'': move a node up in the tree, as long as needed; used to restore heap condition after insertion.", "Called \"sift\" because node moves up the tree until it reaches the correct level, as in a sieve.", "* ''sift-down'': move a node down in the tree, similar to sift-up; used to restore heap condition after deletion or replacement." ], [ "Implementation", "Heaps are usually implemented with an array, as follows:* Each element in the array represents a node of the heap, and* The parent / child relationship is defined implicitly by the elements' indices in the array.Example of a complete binary max-heap with node keys being integers from 1 to 100 and how it would be stored in an array.For a binary heap, in the array, the first index contains the root element.", "The next two indices of the array contain the root's children.", "The next four indices contain the four children of the root's two child nodes, and so on.", "Therefore, given a node at index , its children are at indices and , and its parent is at index .", "This simple indexing scheme makes it efficient to move \"up\" or \"down\" the tree.Balancing a heap is done by sift-up or sift-down operations (swapping elements which are out of order).", "As we can build a heap from an array without requiring extra memory (for the nodes, for example), heapsort can be used to sort an array in-place.After an element is inserted into or deleted from a heap, the heap property may be violated, and the heap must be re-balanced by swapping elements within the array.Although different type of heaps implement the operations differently, the most common way is as follows:* '''Insertion:''' Add the new element at the end of the heap, in the first available free space.", "If this will violate the heap property, sift up the new element (''swim'' operation) until the heap property has been reestablished.", "* '''Extraction:''' Remove the root and insert the last element of the heap in the root.", "If this will violate the heap property, sift down the new root (''sink'' operation) to reestablish the heap property.", "* '''Replacement:''' Remove the root and put the ''new'' element in the root and sift down.", "When compared to extraction followed by insertion, this avoids a sift up step.Construction of a binary (or ''d''-ary) heap out of a given array of elements may be performed in linear time using the classic Floyd algorithm, with the worst-case number of comparisons equal to 2''N'' − 2''s''2(''N'') − ''e''2(''N'') (for a binary heap), where ''s''2(''N'') is the sum of all digits of the binary representation of ''N'' and ''e''2(''N'') is the exponent of 2 in the prime factorization of ''N''.", "This is faster than a sequence of consecutive insertions into an originally empty heap, which is log-linear." ], [ "Variants", "* 2–3 heap* B-heap* Beap* Binary heap* Binomial heap* Brodal queue* ''d''-ary heap* Fibonacci heap* K-D Heap* Leaf heap* Leftist heap* Min-max heap* Pairing heap* Radix heap* Randomized meldable heap* Skew heap* Soft heap* Ternary heap* Treap* Weak heap" ], [ "Comparison of theoretic bounds for variants" ], [ "Applications", "The heap data structure has many applications.", "* Heapsort: One of the best sorting methods being in-place and with no quadratic worst-case scenarios.", "* Selection algorithms: A heap allows access to the min or max element in constant time, and other selections (such as median or kth-element) can be done in sub-linear time on data that is in a heap.", "* Graph algorithms: By using heaps as internal traversal data structures, run time will be reduced by polynomial order.", "Examples of such problems are Prim's minimal-spanning-tree algorithm and Dijkstra's shortest-path algorithm.", "Priority queue: A priority queue is an abstract concept like \"a list\" or \"a map\"; just as a list can be implemented with a linked list or an array, a priority queue can be implemented with a heap or a variety of other methods.", "K-way merge: A heap data structure is useful to merge many already-sorted input streams into a single sorted output stream.", "Examples of the need for merging include external sorting and streaming results from distributed data such as a log structured merge tree.", "The inner loop is obtaining the min element, replacing with the next element for the corresponding input stream, then doing a sift-down heap operation.", "(Alternatively the replace function.)", "(Using extract-max and insert functions of a priority queue are much less efficient.)" ], [ "Programming language implementations", "* The C++ Standard Library provides the , and algorithms for heaps (usually implemented as binary heaps), which operate on arbitrary random access iterators.", "It treats the iterators as a reference to an array, and uses the array-to-heap conversion.", "It also provides the container adaptor , which wraps these facilities in a container-like class.", "However, there is no standard support for the replace, sift-up/sift-down, or decrease/increase-key operations.", "* The Boost C++ libraries include a heaps library.", "Unlike the STL, it supports decrease and increase operations, and supports additional types of heap: specifically, it supports ''d''-ary, binomial, Fibonacci, pairing and skew heaps.", "* There is a generic heap implementation for C and C++ with D-ary heap and B-heap support.", "It provides an STL-like API.", "* The standard library of the D programming language includes , which is implemented in terms of D's ranges.", "Instances can be constructed from any random-access range.", "exposes an input range interface that allows iteration with D's built-in statements and integration with the range-based API of the package.", "* For Haskell there is the module.", "* The Java platform (since version 1.5) provides a binary heap implementation with the class in the Java Collections Framework.", "This class implements by default a min-heap; to implement a max-heap, programmer should write a custom comparator.", "There is no support for the replace, sift-up/sift-down, or decrease/increase-key operations.", "* Python has a module that implements a priority queue using a binary heap.", "The library exposes a heapreplace function to support k-way merging.", "* PHP has both max-heap () and min-heap () as of version 5.3 in the Standard PHP Library.", "* Perl has implementations of binary, binomial, and Fibonacci heaps in the distribution available on CPAN.", "* The Go language contains a package with heap algorithms that operate on an arbitrary type that satisfies a given interface.", "That package does not support the replace, sift-up/sift-down, or decrease/increase-key operations.", "* Apple's Core Foundation library contains a structure.", "* Pharo has an implementation of a heap in the Collections-Sequenceable package along with a set of test cases.", "A heap is used in the implementation of the timer event loop.", "* The Rust programming language has a binary max-heap implementation, , in the module of its standard library.", "* .NET has PriorityQueue class which uses quaternary (d-ary) min-heap implementation.", "It is available from .NET 6." ], [ "See also", "* Sorting algorithm* Search data structure* Stack (abstract data type)* Queue (abstract data type)* Tree (data structure)* Treap, a form of binary search tree based on heap-ordered trees" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Heap at Wolfram MathWorld* Explanation of how the basic heap algorithms work*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hierarchy" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''hierarchy''' (from Greek: , from , 'president of sacred rites') is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.)", "that are represented as being \"above\", \"below\", or \"at the same level as\" one another.", "Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as architecture, philosophy, design, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, systematic biology, and the social sciences (especially political science).A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally.", "The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies.", "Hierarchical links can extend \"vertically\" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path.", "All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be \"horizontally\" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again.", "This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority.", "Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy.", "Heterarchy is one such form." ], [ "Nomenclature", "Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary.", "These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:* '''Object''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or concept or element of arrangement or member of a set)* '''System''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)* '''Dimension''': another word for \"system\" from on-line analytical processing (e.g.", "cubes)* '''Member''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)'''Terms about Positioning''''''Rank''': the relative value, worth, complexity, power, importance, authority, level etc.", "of an object'''Level or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance'''Ordering''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels).", "Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure'''Terms about Placement''''''Hierarch''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension.", "The root of an inverted-tree structure'''Member''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached '''Orphan''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member.", "Often the apex of a disconnected branch.", "Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level'''Leaf''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy'''Neighbour''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank).", "Always a peer.", "'''Superior''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)'''Subordinate''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant) '''Collection''': all of the objects at one level (i.e.", "Peers) '''Peer''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level) '''Interaction''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e.", "a superior/inferior pair)* a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a tree, the two objects have a line between them) '''Distance''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be \"crossed\" to trace a path from one object to another** '''Span''': a qualitative description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has'''Terms about Nature'''* '''Attribute''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g.", "''hair-colour'')** '''Attribute-value''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g.", "''Auburn'')In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same.", "For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children.", "In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.===Degree of branching ===Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has.", "Hierarchies can be categorized based on the \"maximum degree\", the highest degree present in the system as a whole.", "Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.In a '''linear hierarchy''', the maximum degree is 1.In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior.", "This is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects.In a '''branching hierarchy''', one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).", "For many people, the word \"hierarchy\" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.", "Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes.", "The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.A '''flat hierarchy''' (also known for companies as flat organization) is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.", "Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span.", "Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all.", "For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.An '''overlapping hierarchy''' is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.", "For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status)." ], [ "Etymology", "Possibly the first use of the English word ''hierarchy'' cited by the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries).", "Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία, ) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy.", "The Greek term ''hierarchia'' means 'rule of a high priest', from (ἱεράρχης, 'president of sacred rites, high-priest') and that from ''hiereus'' (ἱερεύς, 'priest') and ''arche'' (ἀρχή, 'first place or power, rule').", "Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun.Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were \"hierarchical\" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings." ], [ "{{anchor\|Visually representing hierarchies}}Representing hierarchies", "Maslow's hierarchy of human needs.", "This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.", "The hierarchical aspect represented here is that needs at lower levels of the pyramid are considered more basic and must be fulfilled before higher ones are met.A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.", "For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.These pyramids are often diagrammed with a triangle diagram which serves to emphasize the size differences between the levels (but not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid).", "An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right.Another common representation of a hierarchical scheme is as a tree diagram.", "Phylogenetic trees, charts showing the structure of , and playoff brackets in sports are often illustrated this way.More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen.", "Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees." ], [ "Visual hierarchy", "In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy.", "Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.An example of visually representing hierarchy is through nested clusters.", "Nested clusters represent hierarchical relationships using layers of information.", "The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram.", "This structure is most effective in representing simple hierarchical relationships.", "For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder.", "They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking.", "Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right.", "Child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and parent elements are at the top.", "This structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking." ], [ "Informal representation", "In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:# No element is superior to itself, and# One element, the (''apex'' or ''hierarch''), is superior to all of the other elements in the set.The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects." ], [ "Mathematical representation", "Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or ''poset''.", "The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements.", "Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property.", "Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.", "\"Hierarchy\" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity.", "Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order.", "Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem.", "The use of parentheses is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones.", "For example:(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy.", "But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem.", "These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve.", "The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem.", "Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations." ], [ "Subtypes", "===Nested hierarchy===Matryoshka dolls, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''.", "Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached.", "This is the concept of ''nesting''.", "When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets.", "The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls.", "Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll.", "The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on.", "Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level.", "The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:: A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape.", "In this way, it is a hierarchy.", "However, consider the set of polygons using this classification.", "A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications.", "For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''Systema Naturae''), a human can be formulated as:: Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion.", "Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.===Containment hierarchy===A diagram illustrating a containment hierarchy.", "The set of all squares is completely contained in the larger set of quadrilaterals, and so on.A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept.", "All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be \"strict\"—no two sets can be identical.", "The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:: The notation means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to ''y''.A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy.", "A subsumptive hierarchy \"subsumes\" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is \"composed\" of its children.", "A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional.===Subsumptive containment hierarchy===A ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific.", "Other names for this type of hierarchy are \"taxonomic hierarchy\" and \"IS-A hierarchy\".", "The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object \"is a\" member of the higher class.", "The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy.", "Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is a member of the level ''Mammalia'' \"is a\" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human \"is a\" primate, a primate \"is a\" mammal, and so on.", "A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of \"concepts\".", "For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.===Compositional containment hierarchy===A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is \"composed\" of these parts.", "Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life.", "Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms.", "In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale.", "Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.In this particular example, there are also ''emergent properties''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.).", "Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property.", "These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional causation.", "''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children.", "''Downward causation'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions.", "Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''autonomous''." ], [ "Contexts and applications", "Kulish (2002) suggests that almost every system of organization which humans apply to the world is arranged hierarchically.", "Some conventional definitions of the terms \"nation\" and \"government\" suggest that every nation has a government and that every government is hierarchical.", "Sociologists can analyse socioeconomic systems in terms of stratification into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical.", "Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under deities and priesthoods.", "Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership.", "Families can be viewed as hierarchical structures in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.", "), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship).", "All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs - according to Maslow's hierarchy of human needs.", "Learning steps often follow a hierarchical scheme—to master differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on.", "Nature offers hierarchical structures, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document.", "Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent.", "For example, most postal-code systems are hierarchical.", "Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept, the \"postal district\", consists of 18 objects (letters).", "The next level down is the \"zone\", where the objects are the digits 0–9.This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents.", "The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter positions allow 20 objects each).", "Most library classification systems are also hierarchical.", "The Dewey Decimal System is infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree.", "Diagrams like this exemplify organizational charts.===Organizations===Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy.", "In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power or authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority.", "Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, armed forces, militia and organized religions.", "The units or persons within an organization may be depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top.", "This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.=== Biology ===Empirically, when we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure.", "On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity.", "System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would become, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.The theoretical foundations are summarized by thermodynamics.When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in the most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.Other hierarchical representations related to biology include ecological pyramids which illustrate energy flow or trophic levels in ecosystems, and taxonomic hierarchies, including the Linnean classification scheme and phylogenetic trees that reflect inferred patterns of evolutionary relationship among living and extinct species.===Computer-graphic imaging===CGI and computer-animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models.", "On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand.", "This pattern is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.===Linguistics===Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons occur in a hierarchy of salience.", "To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical.", "For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun-phrase to which it refers commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.===Music===The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff).", "The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion.", "The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic \"long-range counterpoint\" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme.=== Examples of other applications ======= Information-based ====* Library classification** Dewey Decimal Classification==== City planning-based ====* Green transport hierarchy* Roads** Streets* Settlement hierarchy As of 2010 As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968)==== Linguistics-oriented ====* Language family tree* Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars* Direct–inverse languages* Structural linguistics Parse tree Formal grammars** Abstract syntax tree* Evolution of basic color terminology in languages==== Power- or authority-based ====* Aristocratic hierarchies In Europe In China* Ecclesiastical hierarchies Catholic Church hierarchy LDS Church hierarchy Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Raëlism Church hierarchy** see also autocephaly* Prussian three-class franchise* Political party hierarchies Nazi Party (''pace'' overlapping fields)* SS* Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Communist Party of the Soviet Union** Chinese Communist Party* Chain of command Military ranks Military units** U.S. Military Combatant Commands* Intraspecial dominance** Pecking order* Social classes Caste system in India Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan White racist hierarchy Hierarchy of Exclusion (Ender's Game)==== Value-related ==== * Hierarchy of genres in art* Evidence* Human needs* Precious substances* Judicial hierarchy of social values==== Perception-based ====* Color wheel Primary colors* Secondary colors**** Tertiary colors==== History-oriented ====* Three-age system* Cyclic theory of civilization Oswald Spengler Arnold J. Toynbee* Spiral dynamics==== Science-focussed ==== * Hierarchy of organization within the Universe* Star systems* Biological classification* Biological organization* Phylogenetic tree* Evolutionary development* Hierarchy of ecological georegions==== Technology-based ====* Memory hierarchy** Cache hierarchy* Clusters* Class constructs* Data organization** Hierarchical query* Data storage** Computer files* Devices* IP addresses* Memory** Virtual memory allocation* Networks* Radio cells* States (configurations)* Web addresses* Structure** Data Structure* Inheritance (object-oriented programming)==== Religion-related ====* Levels of consciousnessChakrasGreat chain of beingG.I.", "GurdjieffTimothy Leary* Levels of spiritual development In Theravada Buddhism In Mahayana Buddhism* Ages in the evolution of society In Astrology In Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion)Dispensations in ProtestantismDispensations in MormonismDegrees of communion between various Christian churchesUFO religions*Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet Deities In Japanese Buddhism In Theosophy* Angels In Christianity In Islam In JudaismKabbalistic* In Zoroastrianism* Devils and DemonsDevilsDemonsHells* In Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell)** In Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell)Religions in society (organizational hierarchies are listed under )===Methods using hierarchy===" ], [ "Criticisms", "In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842 to 1910), Michel Foucault (1926 to 1984) and Hayden White (1928 to 2018), important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced.", "James famously asserts in his work Radical Empiricism that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared.", "But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships.", "Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc.", "These relationships are often viewed as necessary.", "Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity===Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts.", "There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God).", "Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason." ], [ "See also", "===Structure-related concepts===''(For example, in )''* Is-a Hypernymy (and supertype) Hyponymy (and subtype)* Has-a Holonymy Meronymy" ], [ "Footnotes", "===Works cited===* * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * * * * * * * * Also includes full copies of: *" ], [ "External links", " * Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory (archived 7 February 2002)* Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory — S.N.", "Salthe (archived 21 July 2006)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Outline of health sciences" ], [ "Introduction", "The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to health sciences:'''Health sciences''' – those sciences that focus on health, or health care, as core parts of their subject matter.", "Health sciences relate to multiple academic disciplines, including STEM disciplines and emerging patient safety disciplines (such as social care research)." ], [ "Medicine and its branches", "Medicine is an applied science or practice of the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease.", "It encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness.", "Below are some of the branches of medicine.", "Anesthesiology is the brand of medicine that deals with life support and anesthesia during surgery.", "Angiology deals with the diseases of the circulatory system.", "Audiology focuses on preventing and curing hearing damage.", "Bariatrics deals with the causes, prevention, and treatment of obesity.", "Cardiology deals with disorders of the heart and the blood vessels.", "Critical care medicine focuses on life support and the intensive care of the seriously ill.Dentistry is the branch of medicine that consists of the study, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of diseases, disorders, and conditions of the oral cavity, commonly in the dentition but also the oral mucosa, and of adjacent and related structures and tissues, particularly in the maxillofacial (jaw and facial) area.", "Dermatology deals with the skin, its structure, functions, and diseases.", "Emergency medicine focuses on care provided in the emergency department.", "Endocrinology deals with disorders of the endocrine system.", "Family medicine is a medical specialty devoted to comprehensive health care for people of all ages.", "Gastroenterology deals with the study and care of the digestive system.", "General Practice (often called Family Medicine) is a branch of medicine that specializes in primary care.", "Geriatrics is the branch of medicine that deals with the general health and well-being of the elderly.", "Gynecology deals with the health of the female reproductive systems and the breasts.", "Hematology deals with the blood and the circulatory system.", "Hepatology deals with the liver, gallbladder and the biliary system.", "Infectious disease is a branch of medicine that deals with the diagnosis and management of infectious disease, especially for complex cases and immunocompromised patients.", "Kinesiology is the scientific study of human or non-human body movement.", "Laboratory medicine deals with diagnostic laboratory examinations and tests and their interpretation what makes in a medical laboratory.", "Medical physics is the branch of medicine and science that deals with applications of physics concepts, theories, and methods to medicine or health care.", "Neurology deals with the brain and the nervous system.", "Nephrology is the branch of medicine which deals with the kidneys.", "Oncology is the branch of medicine that studies of cancer.", "Ophthalmology deals with the eyes.", "Orthopedics is a branch of surgery concerned with conditions involving the musculoskeletal systemOtolaryngology deals the ears, nose and throat.", "Pathology is the study of diseases, and the causes, processes, nature, and development of the disease.", "Pediatrics is the branch of medicine that deals with the general health and well-being of children.", "Pharmacy is the art and practice of preparing, preserving, compounding, and dispensing medical drugsPharmacology is study and practical application of preparation, use, and effects of drugs and synthetic medicines.", "Public health and preventive medicine is the branch of medicine concerned with the health of populations.", "Pulmonology is the branch of medicine that deals with the respiratory system.", "Psychiatry deals with the study, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental disorders.", "Clinical psychology is a health discipline concerned with the biopsychosocial study of the mind, brain, behavior and the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of psychological disorders.", "Radiology is the branch of medicine that employs medical imaging to diagnose and treat disease.", "Rheumatology deals with the diagnosis and treatment of rheumatic diseases.", "Splanchnology deals with visceral organs.", "Surgery is the branch of medicine that uses operative techniques to investigate or treat both disease and injury, or to help improve bodily function or appearance.", "Urology is the branch of medicine that deals with the urinary system and the male reproductive system.", "Veterinary medicine is the branch of medicine that deals with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of disease, disorder, and injury in nonhuman/animals." ], [ "History of health sciences", " History of medicine" ], [ "General health sciences concepts", "* Disease * Healing * Health * Doctor Dentist Physician Surgeon Veterinarian * Hospital * Nurse * Medication * Operation" ], [ "[[Medical test\|Diagnostic methods]]", "* Physical examination Auscultation Percussion * Medical history * Medical imaging X-ray CT scan PET scan MRI SPECT (Single-photon emission computed tomography) Ultrasound ** Microscopy * Phlebotomy* Rating scales" ], [ "See also", "Academic health science centreBiomedical sciencesList of health sciences topicsList of life sciences" ], [ "External links", "* Links to Health Professions websites* National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences* The US National Library of Medicine" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hour" ], [ "Introduction", "Midnight (or alt=Midnight (or noon) to 1 on a 12-hour clock with an analogue faceMidnight to 1 a.m. on a 24-hour clock with a digital faceAn '''hour''' (symbol: '''h'''; also abbreviated '''hr''') is a unit of time historically reckoned as of a day and defined contemporarily as exactly 3,600 seconds (SI).", "There are 60 minutes in an hour, and 24 hours in a day.The hour was initially established in the ancient Near East as a variable measure of of the night or daytime.", "Such '''seasonal hours''', also known as '''temporal hours''' or '''unequal hours''', varied by season and latitude.", "'''Equal hours''' or '''equinoctial hours''' were taken as of the day as measured from noon to noon; the minor seasonal variations of this unit were eventually smoothed by making it of the mean solar day.", "Since this unit was not constant due to long term variations in the Earth's rotation, the hour was finally separated from the Earth's rotation and defined in terms of the atomic or physical second.In the modern metric system, hours are an accepted unit of time defined as 3,600 atomic seconds.", "However, on rare occasions an hour may incorporate a positive or negative leap second, effectively making it appear to last 3,599 or 3,601 seconds, in order to keep UTC within 0.9 seconds of UT1, the latter of which is based on measurements of the mean solar day." ], [ "Etymology{{anchor\|Etymology\|Names\|Time of Day\|Time of day}}", "''Hour'' is a development of the Anglo-Norman '''' and Middle English '''', first attested in the 13th century.It displaced '''tide''' tīd, 'time' and '''stound''' stund, ''span of time''.", "The Anglo-Norman term was a borrowing of Old French '''', a variant of '''', which derived from Latin '''' and Greek ''hṓrā'' ().Like Old English '''' and '''', ''hṓrā'' was originally a vaguer word for any span of time, including seasons and years.", "Its Proto-Indo-European root has been reconstructed as '''' (\"year, summer\"), making ''hour'' distantly cognate with ''year''.The '''time of day''' is typically expressed in English in terms of hours.", "Whole hours on a 12-hour clock are expressed using the contracted phrase ''o'clock'', from the older ''of the clock''.", "(10 am and 10 pm are both read as \"ten o'clock\".", ")Hours on a 24-hour clock (\"military time\") are expressed as \"hundred\" or \"hundred hours\".", "(1000 is read \"ten hundred\" or \"ten hundred hours\"; 10 pm would be \"twenty-two hundred\".", ")Fifteen and thirty minutes past the hour is expressed as \"a quarter past\" or \"after\" and \"half past\", respectively, from their fraction of the hour.", "Fifteen minutes before the hour may be expressed as \"a quarter to\", \"of\", \"till\", or \"before\" the hour.", "(9:45 may be read \"nine forty-five\" or \"a quarter till ten\".)" ], [ "History", "===Antiquity===The ancient Greeks kept time differently than is done today.", "Instead of dividing the time between one midnight and the next into 24 equal hours, they divided the time from sunrise to sunset into 12 \"seasonal hours\" (their actual duration depending on season), and the time from sunset to the next sunrise again in 12 \"seasonal hours\".", "Initially, only the day was divided into 12 seasonal hours and the night into three or four night watches.By the Hellenistic period the night was also divided into 12 hours.", "The day-and-night () was probably first divided into twenty-four hours by Hipparchus of Nicaea.", "The Greek astronomer Andronicus of Cyrrhus oversaw the construction of a horologion called the Tower of the Winds in Athens during the first century BCE.", "This structure tracked a 24-hour day using both sundials and mechanical hour indicators.The canonical hours were introduced to early Christianity from Second Temple Judaism.By AD 60, the ''Didache'' recommends disciples to pray the Lord's Prayer three times a day; this practice found its way into the canonical hours as well.", "By the second and third centuries, such Church Fathers as Clement of Alexandria, Origen, and Tertullian wrote of the practice of Morning and Evening Prayer, and of the prayers at the third, sixth and ninth hours.In the early church, during the night before every feast, a vigil was kept.", "The word \"Vigils\", at first applied to the Night Office, comes from a Latin source, namely the ''Vigiliae'' or nocturnal watches or guards of the soldiers.", "The night from six o'clock in the evening to six o'clock in the morning was divided into four watches or vigils of three hours each, the first, the second, the third, and the fourth vigil.The ''Horae'' were originally personifications of seasonal aspects of nature, not of the time of day.The list of twelve ''Horae'' representing the twelve hours of the day is recorded only in Late Antiquity, by Nonnus.", "The first and twelfth of the ''Horae'' were added to the original set of ten:# ''Auge'' (first light)# ''Anatole'' (sunrise)# ''Mousike'' (morning hour of music and study)# ''Gymnastike'' (morning hour of exercise)# ''Nymphe'' (morning hour of ablutions)# ''Mesembria'' (noon)# ''Sponde'' (libations poured after lunch)# ''Elete'' (prayer)# ''Akte'' (eating and pleasure)# ''Hesperis'' (start of evening)# ''Dysis'' (sunset)# ''Arktos'' (night sky)===Middle Ages===A 7th-century Saxon tide dial on the porch at Bishopstone in Sussex, with larger crosses marking the canonical hours.Medieval astronomers such as al-Biruni and Sacrobosco, divided the hour into 60 minutes, each of 60 seconds; this derives from Babylonian astronomy, where the corresponding terms denoted the time required for the Sun's apparent motion through the ecliptic to describe one minute or second of arc, respectively.", "In present terms, the Babylonian degree of time was thus four minutes long, the \"minute\" of time was thus four seconds long and the \"second\" 1/15 of a second.", ")In medieval Europe, the Roman hours continued to be marked on sundials but the more important units of time were the canonical hours of the Orthodox and Catholic Church.", "During daylight, these followed the pattern set by the three-hour bells of the Roman markets, which were succeeded by the bells of local churches.", "They rang prime at about 6am, terce at about 9am, sext at noon, nones at about 3pm, and vespers at either 6pm or sunset.", "Matins and lauds precede these irregularly in the morning hours; compline follows them irregularly before sleep; and the midnight office follows that.", "Vatican II ordered their reformation for the Catholic Church in 1963, though they continue to be observed in the Orthodox churches.When mechanical clocks began to be used to show hours of daylight or nighttime, their period needed to be changed every morning and evening (for example, by changing the length of their pendula).", "The use of 24 hours for the entire day meant hours varied much less and the clocks needed to be adjusted only a few times a month.===Modernity===The minor irregularities of the apparent solar day were smoothed by measuring time using the mean solar day, using the Sun's movement along the celestial equator rather than along the ecliptic.", "The irregularities of this time system were so minor that most clocks reckoning such hours did not need adjustment.", "However, scientific measurements eventually became precise enough to note the effect of tidal deceleration of the Earth by the Moon, which gradually lengthens the Earth's days.During the French Revolution, a general decimalisation of measures was enacted, including decimal time between 1794 and 1800.Under its provisions, the French hour () was of the day and divided formally into 100 decimal minutes ('''') and informally into 10 tenths ('''').", "Mandatory use for all public records began in 1794, but was suspended six months later by the same 1795 legislation that first established the metric system.", "In spite of this, a few localities continued to use decimal time for six years for civil status records, until 1800, after Napoleon's Coup of 18 Brumaire.", "The metric system bases its measurements of time upon the second, defined since 1952 in terms of the Earth's rotation in AD1900.Its hours are a secondary unit computed as precisely 3,600 seconds.", "However, an hour of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), used as the basis of most civil time, has lasted 3,601 seconds 27 times since 1972 in order to keep it within 0.9 seconds of universal time, which is based on measurements of the mean solar day at 0° longitude.", "The addition of these seconds accommodates the very gradual slowing of the rotation of the Earth.In modern life, the ubiquity of clocks and other timekeeping devices means that segmentation of days according to their hours is commonplace.", "Most forms of employment, whether wage or salaried labour, involve compensation based upon measured or expected hours worked.", "The fight for an eight-hour day was a part of labour movements around the world.", "Informal rush hours and happy hours cover the times of day when commuting slows down due to congestion or alcoholic drinks being available at discounted prices.", "The hour record for the greatest distance travelled by a cyclist within the span of an hour is one of cycling's greatest honours." ], [ "Counting hours", "Top view of an equatorial sundial.", "The hour lines are spaced equally about the circle, and the shadow of the gnomon (a thin cylindrical rod) rotates uniformly.", "The height of the gnomon is the outer radius of the dial.", "This animation depicts the motion of the shadow from 3 a.m. to 9 p.m. on mid-summer's day, when the Sun is at its highest declination (roughly 23.5°).", "Sunrise and sunset occur at 3 a.m. and 9 p.m. respectively on that day at geographical latitudes near 57.5°, roughly the latitude of Aberdeen or Sitka, Alaska.Planispheric astrolabe designed for the latitude of Varese (Italy)Many different ways of counting the hours have been used.", "Because sunrise, sunset, and, to a lesser extent, noon, are the conspicuous points in the day, starting to count at these times was, for most people in most early societies, much easier than starting at midnight.", "However, with accurate clocks and modern astronomical equipment (and the telegraph or similar means to transfer a time signal in a split-second), this issue is much less relevant.Astrolabes, sundials, and astronomical clocks sometimes show the hour length and count using some of these older definitions and counting methods.=== Counting from dawn ===In ancient and medieval cultures, the counting of hours generally started with sunrise.", "Before the widespread use of artificial light, societies were more concerned with the division between night and day, and daily routines often began when light was sufficient.", "\"Babylonian hours\" divide the day and night into 24 equal hours, reckoned from the time of sunrise.", "They are so named from the false belief of ancient authors that the Babylonians divided the day into 24 parts, beginning at sunrise.", "In fact, they divided the day into 12 parts (called ''kaspu'' or \"double hours\") or into 60 equal parts.==== Unequal hours ====Sunrise marked the beginning of the first hour, the middle of the day was at the end of the sixth hour and sunset at the end of the twelfth hour.", "This meant that the duration of hours varied with the season.", "In the Northern hemisphere, particularly in the more northerly latitudes, summer daytime hours were longer than winter daytime hours, each being one twelfth of the time between sunrise and sunset.", "These variable-length hours were variously known as temporal, unequal, or seasonal hours and were in use until the appearance of the mechanical clock, which furthered the adoption of equal length hours.This is also the system used in Jewish law and frequently called \"Talmudic hour\" (''Sha'a Zemanit'') in a variety of texts.", "The Talmudic hour is one twelfth of time elapsed from sunrise to sunset, day hours therefore being longer than night hours in the summer; in winter they reverse.The Indic day began at sunrise.", "The term ''hora'' was used to indicate an hour.", "The time was measured based on the length of the shadow at day time.", "A ''hora'' translated to 2.5 ''pe''.", "There are 60 ''pe'' per day, 60 minutes per ''pe'' and 60 ''kshana'' (snap of a finger or instant) per minute.", "''Pe'' was measured with a bowl with a hole placed in still water.", "Time taken for this graduated bowl was one ''pe''.", "Kings usually had an officer in charge of this clock.=== Counting from sunset ===Sundial with Italian hours in AstiIn so-called \"Italian time\", \"Italian hours\", or \"old Czech time\", the first hour started with the sunset Angelus bell (or at the end of dusk, i.e., half an hour after sunset, depending on local custom and geographical latitude).", "The hours were numbered from 1 to 24.For example, in Lugano, the sun rose in December during the 14th hour and noon was during the 19th hour; in June the sun rose during the 7th hour and noon was in the 15th hour.", "Sunset was always at the end of the 24th hour.", "The clocks in church towers struck only from 1 to 12, thus only during night or early morning hours.This manner of counting hours had the advantage that everyone could easily know how much time they had to finish their day's work without artificial light.", "It was already widely used in Italy by the 14th century and lasted until the mid-18th century; it was officially abolished in 1755, or in some regions customary until the mid-19th century.The system of Italian hours can be seen on a number of clocks in Europe, where the dial is numbered from 1 to 24 in either Roman or Arabic numerals.", "The St Mark's Clock in Venice, and the Orloj in Prague are famous examples.", "It was also used in Poland, Silesia, and Bohemia until the 17th century.Its replacement by the more practical division into twice twelve (equinoctial) hours (also called small clock or civic hours) began as early as the 16th century.An advantage of the evening counting start was that on a corresponding clock the difference to 24 was easy to see and so one knew how many hours could still be worked in Daylight.The Islamic day begins at sunset.", "The first prayer of the day (maghrib) is to be performed between just after sunset and the end of twilight.", "Until 1968 Saudi Arabia used the system of counting 24 equal hours with the first hour starting at sunset.=== Counting from noon ===For many centuries, up to 1925, astronomers counted the hours and days from noon, because it was the easiest solar event to measure accurately.", "An advantage of this method (used in the Julian Date system, in which a new Julian Day begins at noon) is that the date doesn't change during a single night's observing.=== Counting from midnight ===In the modern 12-hour clock, counting the hours starts at midnight and restarts at noon.", "Hours are numbered 12, 1, 2, ..., 11.Solar noon is always close to 12 noon (ignoring artificial adjustments due to time zones and daylight saving time), differing according to the equation of time by as much as fifteen minutes either way.", "At the equinoxes sunrise is around 6 a.m. (, before noon), and sunset around 6 p.m. (, after noon).In the modern 24-hour clock, counting the hours starts at midnight, and hours are numbered from 0 to 23.Solar noon is always close to 12:00, again differing according to the equation of time.", "At the equinoxes sunrise is around 06:00, and sunset around 18:00." ], [ "History of timekeeping in other cultures", "===Egypt===The ancient Egyptians began dividing the night into '''' at some time before the compilation of the Dynasty V Pyramid Texts in the 24thcenturyBC.", "By 2150BC (Dynasty IX), diagrams of stars inside Egyptian coffin lids—variously known as \"diagonal calendars\" or \"star clocks\"—attest that there were exactly 12 of these.", "Clagett writes that it is \"certain\" this duodecimal division of the night followed the adoption of the Egyptian civil calendar, usually placed BC on the basis of analyses of the Sothic cycle, but a lunar calendar presumably long predated this and also would have had twelve months in each of its years.", "The coffin diagrams show that the Egyptians took note of the heliacal risings of 36 stars or constellations (now known as \"decans\"), one for each of the ten-day \"weeks\" of their civil calendar.", "(12 sets of alternate \"triangle decans\" were used for the 5 epagomenal days between years.)", "Each night, the rising of eleven of these decans were noted, separating the night into twelve divisions whose middle terms would have lasted about 40minutes each.", "(Another seven stars were noted by the Egyptians during the twilight and predawn periods, although they were not important for the hour divisions.)", "The original decans used by the Egyptians would have fallen noticeably out of their proper places over a span of several centuries.", "By the time of (BC), the priests at Karnak were using water clocks to determine the hours.", "These were filled to the brim at sunset and the hour determined by comparing the water level against one of its twelve gauges, one for each month of the year.", "During the New Kingdom, another system of decans was used, made up of 24 stars over the course of the year and 12 within any one night.The later division of the day into 12 hours was accomplished by sundials marked with ten equal divisions.", "The morning and evening periods when the sundials failed to note time were observed as the first and last hours.The Egyptian hours were closely connected both with the priesthood of the gods and with their divine services.", "By the New Kingdom, each hour was conceived as a specific region of the sky or underworld through which Ra's solar barge travelled.", "Protective deities were assigned to each and were used as the names of the hours.", "As the protectors and resurrectors of the sun, the goddesses of the night hours were considered to hold power over all lifespans and thus became part of Egyptian funerary rituals.", "Two fire-spitting cobras were said to guard the gates of each hour of the underworld, and Wadjet and the rearing cobra (uraeus) were also sometimes referenced as '''' from their role protecting the dead through these gates.", "The Egyptian word for astronomer, used as a synonym for priest, was '''', \"one of the ''wnwt''\", as it were \"one of the hours\".", "The earliest forms of '''' include one or three stars, with the later solar hours including the determinative hieroglyph for \"sun\".===East Asia===A Chinese diagram from Su Song's AD1092 ''Xinyi Xiangfa Yao'' illustrating his clocktower at Kaifeng.clepsydra in Beijing's Drum TowerAncient China divided its day into 100 \"marks\" running from midnight to midnight.", "The system is said to have been used since remote antiquity, credited to the legendary Yellow Emperor, but is first attested in Han-era water clocks and in the 2nd-century history of that dynasty.", "It was measured with sundials and water clocks.", "Into the Eastern Han, the Chinese measured their day schematically, adding the 20-''ke'' difference between the solstices evenly throughout the year, one every nine days.", "During the night, time was more commonly reckoned during the night by the \"watches\" of the guard, which were reckoned as a fifth of the time from sunset to sunrise.Imperial China continued to use ''ke'' and ''geng'' but also began to divide the day into 12 \"double hours\" named after the earthly branches and sometimes also known by the name of the corresponding animal of the Chinese zodiac.", "The first ''shi'' originally ran from 11pm to 1am but was reckoned as starting at midnight by the time of the History of Song, compiled during the early Yuan.", "These apparently began to be used during the Eastern Han that preceded the Three Kingdoms era, but the sections that would have covered them are missing from their official histories; they first appear in official use in the Tang-era Book of Sui.", "Variations of all these units were subsequently adopted by Japan and the other countries of the Sinosphere.The 12 ''shi'' supposedly began to be divided into 24 hours under the Tang, although they are first attested in the Ming-era Book of Yuan.", "In that work, the hours were known by the same earthly branches as the ''shi'', with the first half noted as its \"starting\" and the second as \"completed\" or \"proper\" ''shi''.", "In modern China, these are instead simply numbered and described as \"little ''shi''\".", "The modern ''ke'' is now used to count quarter-hours, rather than a separate unit.As with the Egyptian night and daytime hours, the division of the day into twelve ''shi'' has been credited to the example set by the rough number of lunar cycles in a solar year, although the 12-year Jovian orbital cycle was more important to traditional Chinese and Babylonian reckoning of the zodiac.===Southeast Asia===In Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia, the traditional system of noting hours is the six-hour clock.", "This reckons each of a day's 24 hours apart from noon as part of a fourth of the day.", "The first hour of the first half of daytime was 7 am; 1 pm the first hour of the latter half of daytime; 7 pm the first hour of the first half of nighttime; and 1 am the first hour of the latter half of nighttime.", "This system existed in the Ayutthaya Kingdom, deriving its current phrasing from the practice of publicly announcing the daytime hours with a gong and the nighttime hours with a drum.", "It was abolished in Laos and Cambodia during their French occupation and is uncommon there now.", "The Thai system remains in informal use in the form codified in 1901 by King Chulalongkorn.===India===deified Hours of the Greeks and RomansThe Vedas and Puranas employed units of time based on the sidereal day (''nakṣatra ahorātra'').", "This was variously divided into 30 ''muhūrta-s'' of 48 minutes each or 60 ''dandas'' or ''nadī-s'' of 24 minutes each.", "The solar day was later similarly divided into 60 ''ghaṭikás'' of about the same duration, each divided in turn into 60 ''vinadis''.", "The Sinhalese followed a similar system but called their sixtieth of a day a ''peya''." ], [ "Derived measures", "* air changes per hour (ACH), a measure of the replacements of air within a defined space used for indoor air quality* ampere hour (Ah), a measure of electrical charge used in electrochemistry* BTU-hour, a measure of power used in the power industry and for air conditioners and heaters* credit hour, a measure of an academic course's contracted instructional time per week for a semester* horsepower-hour (hph), a measure of energy used in the railroad industry* hour angle, a measure of the angle between the meridian plane and the hour circle passing through a certain point used in the equatorial coordinate system* kilometres per hour (km/h), a measure of land speed* kilowatt-hour (kWh), a measure of energy commonly used as an electrical billing unit* knot (kn), a measure of nautical miles per hour, used for maritime and aerial speed* man-hour, the amount of work performed by the average worker in one hour, used in productivity analysis* metre per hour (m/h), a measure of slow speeds* mile per hour (mph), a measure of land speed* passengers per hour per direction (p/h/d), a measure of the capacity of public transportation systems* pound per hour (PPH), a measure of mass flow rate used for engines' fuel flow* work or working hour, a measure of working time used in various regulations, such as those distinguishing part- and full-time employment and those limiting truck drivers' working hours or hours of service" ], [ "See also", "* Danna* Decimal hour or deciday, a French Revolutionary unit lasting 2h 24min* Equinoctial hours* Golden Hour & Blue Hour in photography* Hexadecimal hour, a proposed unit lasting 1h 30min* Horae, the deified hours of ancient Greece and Rome* Horology* Julian day* Liturgy of the Hours* Metric time* Six-hour day* Temporal hours" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General and cited references", " * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * .", "* " ], [ "Further reading", " * Christopher Walker (ed.", "), ''Astronomy before the Telescope''.", "London: British Museum Press, 1996." ], [ "External links", "* World time zones* Accurate time vs. PC Clock Difference" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hezekiah" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hezekiah''' (; ), or '''Ezekias''' (born , sole ruler ), was the son of Ahaz and the 13th king of Judah according to the Hebrew Bible.In the Biblical narrative, Hezekiah witnessed the destruction of the northern Kingdom of Israel by the Neo-Assyrian Empire under Sargon in and was king of Judah during the Assyrian siege of Jerusalem by Sennacherib in 701 BCE.Hezekiah enacted sweeping religious reforms, including a strict mandate for the sole worship of Yahweh and a prohibition on venerating other deities within the First Temple.", "He is considered a very righteous king in both the Second Book of Kings and the Second Book of Chronicles.", "He is also one of the more prominent kings of Judah mentioned in the Bible and is one of the kings mentioned in the genealogy of Jesus in the Gospel of Matthew.", "\"No king of Judah, among either his predecessors or his successors, could ... be compared to him\", according to 2 Kings 18:5.Isaiah and Micah prophesied during his reign." ], [ "Etymology", "The name Hezekiah means \"Yahweh strengthens\" in Hebrew.", "Alternately it may be translated as \"Yahweh is my strength\"." ], [ "Biblical sources", "The main biblical accounts of Hezekiah's reign are found in 2 Kings, Isaiah, and 2 Chronicles.", "Proverbs 25:1 commences a collection of Solomon's proverbs which were \"copied by the officials of King Hezekiah of Judah\".", "His reign is also referred to in the books of the prophets Jeremiah, Hosea, Micah, and Isaiah.", "The books of Hosea and Micah record that their prophecies were made during Hezekiah's reign.", "The book of Isaiah records when Hezekiah sought Isaiah's help when Judah was under siege by Sennacherib of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.===Dates===Based on Edwin R. Thiele's dating, Hezekiah was born in c. 741 BCE and died in c. 687 BCE at age 54.Thiele and William F. Albright calculated his regnal years arriving at figures very close to each other, c. 715/16 and 686/87 BCE.", "However, Robb Andrew Young dates his reign to 725–696 BCE and Gershon Galil to 726–697/6.===Family and life===Hezekiah was the son of king Ahaz and Abijah (also called Abi), daughter of the high priest Zechariah.", "Hezekiah married Hephzibah and died from natural causes at the age of 54 around 687 BCE and was succeeded by his son Manasseh.===Reign over Judah===Broad Wall of biblical Jerusalem, built during Hezekiah's days against Sennacherib's siegeAccording to the biblical narrative, Hezekiah assumed the throne of Judah at the age of 25 and reigned for 29 years.", "Some writers have proposed that Hezekiah served as coregent with his father Ahaz for about 14 years.", "His sole reign is dated by Albright as 715–687 BCE, and by Thiele as 716–687 BCE (the last ten years being a co-regency with his son Manasseh).===Restoration of the Temple===According to the Bible, Hezekiah purified and repaired the Temple, purged its idols, and reformed the priesthood.", "In an effort to abolish idolatry from his kingdom, he destroyed the high places (or ''bamot'') and the \"bronze serpent\" (or ''Nehushtan''), recorded as being made by Moses, which had become objects of idolatrous worship.", "In place of this, he centralized the worship of God at the Temple in Jerusalem.", "Hezekiah also defeated the Philistines, \"as far as Gaza and its territory\", and resumed the Passover pilgrimage and the tradition of inviting the scattered tribes of Israel to take part in a Passover festival.2 Chronicles 30 (but not the parallel account in 2 Kings) records that Hezekiah sent messengers to Ephraim and Manasseh inviting them to Jerusalem for the celebration of the Passover.", "The messengers, however, were not only not listened to, but were even laughed at, although a few men of the tribes of Asher, Manasseh and Zebulun \"were humble enough to come\" to the city.", "According to the biblical account, the Passover was celebrated with great solemnity and such rejoicing as had not been seen in Jerusalem since the days of Solomon.", "The celebration took place during the second month, Iyar, because not enough priests had consecrated themselves in the first month.Biblical writer H. P. Mathys suggests that Hezekiah, being unable to restore the union of Judah and Israel by political means, used the invitation to the northern tribes as a final religious \"attempt to restore the unity of the cult\".", "He also notes that this account \"is often considered to contain historically reliable elements, especially since negative aspects are also reported on\", although he questions the full extent to which it may be considered historically reliable.===Political moves and Assyrian invasion===Assyrian archersAfter the death of Assyrian king Sargon II in 705 BCE, Sargon's son Sennacherib became king of Assyria.", "In 703 BCE, Sennacherib began a series of major campaigns to quash opposition to Assyrian rule, starting with cities in the eastern part of the realm.", "In 701 BCE, Sennacherib turned toward cities in the west.", "Hezekiah then had to face the invasion of Judah.", "According to the Bible, Hezekiah did not rely on Egypt for support, but relied on God and prayed to Him for deliverance of his capital city Jerusalem.The Assyrians recorded that Sennacherib lifted his siege of Jerusalem after Hezekiah paid Sennacherib tribute.", "The Bible records that Hezekiah paid him three hundred talents of silver and thirty of gold as tribute, even sending the doors of the Temple in Jerusalem to produce the promised amount, but, even after the payment was made, Sennacherib renewed his assault on Jerusalem.", "Sennacherib surrounded the city and sent his Rabshakeh to the walls as a messenger.", "The Rabshakeh addressed the soldiers manning the city wall, asking them to distrust Yahweh and Hezekiah, claiming that Hezekiah's righteous reforms (destroying the idols and high places) were a sign that the people should not trust their god to be favorably disposed.", "2 Kings records that Hezekiah went to the Temple and there he prayed to God.===Hezekiah's construction===Siloam TunnelKnowing that Jerusalem would eventually be subject to siege, Hezekiah had been preparing for some time by fortifying the walls of the capital, building towers, and constructing a tunnel to bring fresh water to the city from a spring outside its walls.", "He made at least two major preparations that would help Jerusalem to resist conquest: the construction of the Siloam Tunnel, and construction of the Broad Wall.Sennacherib was intent on making war against Jerusalem.", "Therefore Hezekiah consulted with his officers about stopping the flow of the springs outside the city.", "Otherwise, they thought, the King of Assyria would come and find water in abundance.The narratives of the Bible state that Sennacherib's army besieged Jerusalem.===Battle with Sennacherib's army===''The Defeat of Sennacherib'', oil on panel by Peter Paul Rubens, seventeenth centuryAccording to the biblical record, Sennacherib sent threatening letters warning Hezekiah that he had not desisted from his determination to take the Judean capital.", "Although they besieged Jerusalem, the biblical accounts state that the Assyrians did not so much as \"shoot an arrow there, ... nor cast up a siege rampart against it\", and that God sent out an angel who, in one night, struck down \"a hundred and eighty-five thousand in the camp of the Assyrians,\" sending Sennacherib back \"with shame of face to his own land\".Sennacherib's inscriptions make no mention of the disaster suffered by his forces.", "But, as Professor Jack Finegan comments: \"In view of the general note of boasting which pervades the inscriptions of the Assyrian kings, ... it is hardly to be expected that Sennacherib would record such a defeat.\"", "The version of the matter that Sennacherib presents, as found inscribed on what is known as the Sennacherib Prism preserved in the University of Chicago Oriental Institute, in part says: \"As to Hezekiah, the Jew, he did not submit to my yoke ... Hezekiah himself ... did send me, later, to Nineveh, my lordly city, together with 30 talents of gold, 800 talents of silver, ...\" This version inflates the number of silver talents sent from 300 to 800; but in other regards it confirms the biblical record and shows that Sennacherib made no claim that he captured Jerusalem.", "However, Sennacherib presents the matter of Hezekiah's paying tribute as having come after the Assyrian threat of a siege against Jerusalem, whereas the Bible states it was paid before.Herodotus mentions the Assyrian army of Sennacherib being overrun by mice when attacking Egypt.", "Josephus gives a quote of Berossus that is quite close to the Biblical account.===Death of Sennacherib===''The Flight of Adrammelech'', Biblical illustration by Arthur MurchOf Sennacherib's death, 2 Kings records:\"It came about as he was worshiping in the house of Nisroch his god, that Adrammelech and Sharezer killed him Sennacherib with the sword; and they escaped into the land of Ararat.", "And Esarhaddon his son became king in his place.", "\"According to Assyrian records, Sennacherib was assassinated in 681 BCE, twenty years after the 701 BCE invasion of Judah.", "A Neo-Babylonian letter corroborates with the biblical account a sentiment from Sennacherib's sons to assassinate him, an event Assyriologists have reconstructed as historical.", "The son Arda-Mulissu, who is mentioned in the letter as killing anyone who would reveal his conspiracy, successfully murders his father in c. 681 BCE, and was most likely the Adrammelech in 2 Kings, though Sharezer is not known elsewhere.", "Assyriologists posit the murder was motivated because Esarhaddon was chosen as heir to the throne instead of Arda-Mulissu, the next eldest son.", "Assyrian and Hebrew biblical history corroborate that Esarhaddon ultimately did succeed the throne.", "Other Assyriologists assert that Sennacherib was murdered in revenge for his destruction of Babylon, a city sacred to all Mesopotamians, including the Assyrians.===Hezekiah's illness and recovery===Hezekiah showing off his wealth to envoys of the Babylonian king, oil on canvas by Vicente López Portaña, 1789Later in his life, Hezekiah was ill with a boil or an inflammation.", "Isaiah told him that the Lord said he should put his house in order because he would die.", "But Hezekiah prayed, and Isaiah returned saying that the Lord had heard his prayer and he would recover.", "Hezekiah asked for a sign, and Isaiah asked him whether the shadow should go forward ten degrees or go back ten degrees.", "Hezekiah said it should go back, and the account states, \"Isaiah the prophet cried unto the LORD: and he brought the shadow ten degrees backward, by which it had gone down in the dial of Ahaz.\"", "The narrative of his sickness and miraculous recovery is found in 2 Kings, 2 Chronicles and Isaiah.Various ambassadors came to congratulate him on his recovery, among them from Merodach-baladan, son of the king of Babylon, \"for he had heard that Hezekiah had been sick\".", "Hezekiah, his vanity flattered by the visit, showed the Babylonian embassy all the wealth, arms and stores of Jerusalem, revealing too much information to Baladan, king of Babylon (or perhaps boasting about his wealth).", "He was then confronted by Isaiah, who foretold that a future generation of the people of Judah would be taken as captives to Babylon.", "Hezekiah was reassured that his own lifetime would see peace and security.According to Isaiah, Hezekiah lived another 15 years after praying to God.", "His son and successor, Manasseh, was born during this time: he was 12 years of age when he succeeded Hezekiah.According to the Talmud, the disease came about because of a dispute between him and Isaiah over who should pay whom a visit and over Hezekiah's refusal to marry and have children, although in the end he married Isaiah's daughter.", "Some Talmudists also considered that it might have come about as a way for Hezekiah to purge his sins or due to his arrogance in assuming his righteousness." ], [ "Extra-biblical records", "Stamped bulla of King Hezekiah; \"Of Hezekiah (son of) Ahaz King of Judah\"; unprovenanced, Israel MuseumExtra-biblical sources specify Hezekiah by name, along with his reign and influence.", "\"Historiographically, his reign is noteworthy for the convergence of a variety of biblical sources and diverse extrabiblical evidence often bearing on the same events.", "Significant data concerning Hezekiah appear in the Deuteronomistic History, the Chronicler, Isaiah, Assyrian annals and reliefs, Israelite epigraphy, and, increasingly, stratigraphy\".", "Archaeologist Amihai Mazar calls the tensions between Assyria and Judah \"one of the best-documented events of the Iron Age\" (172).", "Hezekiah's story is one of the best to cross-reference with the rest of the Mid Eastern world's historical documents.===Archaeological record===Cuneiform Inscription mentioning in detail the tribute sent by Hezekiah, king of Judah, to Sennacherib.", "The British MuseumA lintel inscription, found over the doorway of a tomb, has been ascribed to his secretary, Shebnah.Storage jars with the so-called \"LMLK seal\" may \"demonstrate careful preparations to counter Sennacherib's likely route of invasion\" and show \"a notable degree of royal control of towns and cities which would facilitate Hezekiah's destruction of rural sacrificial sites and his centralization of worship in Jerusalem\".", "Evidence suggests they were used throughout his 29-year reign.There are some bullae from sealed documents that may have belonged to Hezekiah himself.In 2015, Eilat Mazar discovered a bulla that bears an inscription in ancient Hebrew script that translates as: \"Belonging to Hezekiah son of Ahaz king of Judah.\"", "This is the first seal impression of an Israelite or Judean king to come to light in a scientific archaeological excavation.", "While another, unprovenanced bulla of King Hezekiah was known, this was the first time a seal impression of Hezekiah had been discovered in situ in the course of actual excavations.", "Archaeological findings like the Hezekiah seal led scholars to surmise that the ancient Judahite kingdom had a highly developed administrative system.", "In 2018 Mazar published a report discussing the discovery of a bulla which she says may have to have belonged to Isaiah.", "She believes the fragment to have been part of a seal whose complete text might have read \"Belonging to Isaiah the prophet.\"", "Several other biblical archaeologists, including George Washington University's Christopher Rollston have pointed to the bulla being incomplete, and the present inscription not enough to necessarily refer to the biblical figure.====Increase in the power of Judah====According to the work of archaeologists and philologists, the reign of Hezekiah saw a notable increase in the power of the Judean state.", "At this time Judah was the strongest nation on the Assyrian–Egyptian frontier.", "There were increases in literacy and in the production of literary works.", "The massive construction of the Broad Wall was made during his reign, the city was enlarged to accommodate a large influx, and population increased in Jerusalem up to 25,000, \"five times the population under Solomon.\"", "Archaeologist Amihai Mazar explains, \"Jerusalem was a virtual city-state where the majority of the state's population was concentrated,\" in comparison to the rest of Judah's cities (167).", "Archaeologist Israel Finkelstein says, \"The key phenomenon—which cannot be explained solely against the background of economic prosperity—was the sudden growth of the population of Jerusalem in particular, and of Judah in general\" (153).", "He says the cause of this growth must be a large influx of Israelites fleeing from the Assyrian destruction of the northern state.", "It is \"the only reasonable way to explain this unprecedented demographic development\" (154).", "This, according to Finkelstein, set the stage for motivations to compile and reconcile Hebrew history into a text at that time (157).", "Mazar questions this explanation, since, she argues, it is \"no more than an educated guess\" (167).====Siloam inscription====Siloam poolThe Siloam Tunnel was chiseled through 533 meters (1,750 feet) of solid rock in order to provide Jerusalem underground access to the waters of the Gihon Spring or Siloam Pool, which lay outside the city.The Siloam Inscription from the Siloam Tunnel is now in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum.", "It \"commemorates the dramatic moment when the two original teams of tunnelers, digging with picks from opposite ends of the tunnel, met each other\" (564).", "It is \"one of the most important ancient Hebrew inscriptions ever discovered.\"", "Finkelstein and Mazar cite this tunnel as an example of Jerusalem's impressive state-level power at the time.Archaeologists like William G. Dever have pointed at archaeological evidence for the iconoclasm during the period of Hezekiah's reign.", "The central cult room of the temple at Arad (a royal Judean fortress) was deliberately and carefully dismantled, \"with the altars and massebot\" concealed \"beneath a Str.", "8 plaster floor\".", "This stratum correlates with the late 8th century; Dever concludes that \"the deliberate dismantling of the temple and its replacement by another structure in the days of Hezekiah is an archeological fact.", "I see no reason for skepticism here.", "\"====Lachish relief====Part of the Lachish Relief, British Museum.", "Battle scene, showing Assyrian cavalry in action.", "Above, prisoners are led away.Under Rehoboam, Lachish became the second-most important city of the kingdom of Judah.", "During the revolt of king Hezekiah against Assyria, it was captured by Sennacherib despite determined resistance (see Siege of Lachish).As the Lachish relief attests, Sennacherib began his siege of the city of Lachish in 701 BCE.", "The Lachish Relief graphically depicts the battle, and the defeat of the city, including Assyrian archers marching up a ramp and Judahites pierced through on mounted stakes.", "\"The reliefs on these slabs\" discovered in the Assyrian palace at Nineveh \"originally formed a single, continuous work, measuring 8 feet ... tall by 80 feet ... long, which wrapped around the room\" (559).", "Visitors \"would have been impressed not only by the magnitude of the artwork itself but also by the magnificent strength of the Assyrian war machine.", "\"====Sennacherib's Prism of Nineveh====Six-sided clay prism containing narratives of Sennacherib's military campaigns, Oriental Institute Museum of Chicago UniversitySennacherib's Prism was found buried in the foundations of the Nineveh palace.", "It was written in cuneiform, the Mesopotamian form of writing of the day.", "The prism records the conquest of 46 strong towns and \"uncountable smaller places,\" along with the siege of Jerusalem where Sennacherib says he just \"shut him up ... like a bird in a cage,\" subsequently enforcing a larger tribute upon him.The Hebrew Bible states that during the night, the angel of YHWH (Hebrew: יהוה‎) brought death to 185,000 Assyrians troops, forcing the army to abandon the siege, yet it also records a tribute paid to Sennacherib of 300 silver talents following the siege.", "There is no account of the supernatural event in the prism.", "Sennacherib's account records his levying of a tribute from Hezekiah, a payment of 800 silver talents, which suggests a capitulation to end the siege.", "However, inscriptions have been discovered describing Sennacherib's defeat of the Ethiopian forces.", "These say: \"As to Hezekiah, the Jew, he did not submit to my yoke, I laid siege to 46 of his strong cities ... and conquered (them).", "...", "Himself I made a prisoner in Jerusalem, his royal residence, like a bird in a cage.\"", "He does not claim to have captured the city.", "This is consistent with the Bible account of Hezekiah's revolt against Assyria in the sense that neither account seems to indicate that Sennacherib ever entered or formally captured the city.", "Sennacherib in this inscription claims that Hezekiah paid for tribute 800 talents of silver, in contrast with the Bible's 300, however this could be due to boastful exaggeration which was not uncommon amongst kings of the period.", "Furthermore, the annals record a list of booty sent from Jerusalem to Nineveh.", "In the inscription, Sennacherib claims that Hezekiah accepted servitude, and some theorize that Hezekiah remained on his throne as a vassal ruler.", "The campaign is recorded with differences in the Assyrian records and in the biblical Books of Kings; there is agreement that the Assyrian have a propensity for exaggeration.One theory that takes the biblical view posits that a defeat was caused by \"possibly an outbreak of the bubonic plague\".", "Another that this is a composite text which makes use of a 'legendary motif' analogous to that of the Exodus story.", "* Where the 2 Kings account explains giving 300 talents of silver, Sennacherib's prism records 800 talents.", "\"This discrepancy may be the result of differences in the weight of Assyrian and Israelite silver talents, or it may simply be due to the Assyrian propensity for exaggeration\" (558).===Other records===The Greek historian Herodotus (c. 484 BCE – c. 425 BCE) wrote of the invasion and acknowledges many Assyrian deaths, which he claims were the result of a plague of mice.", "The Jewish historian Josephus followed the writings of Herodotus.", "These historians record Sennacherib's failure to take Jerusalem as \"uncontested\".The Talmud (Bava Batra 15a) credits Hezekiah with overseeing the compilation of the biblical books of Isaiah, Proverbs, Song of Songs and Ecclesiastes.According to Jewish tradition, the victory over the Assyrians and Hezekiah's return to health happened at the same time, the first night of Passover." ], [ "Rabbinic literature", "Abi saved the life of her son Hezekiah, whom her godless husband, Ahaz, had designed as an offering to Moloch.", "By anointing him with the blood of the salamander, she enabled him to pass through the fire of Moloch unscathed (Sanh.", "63b).Hezekiah is considered as the model of those who put their trust in the Lord.", "Only during his sickness did he waver in his hitherto unshaken trust and require a sign, for which he was blamed by Isaiah (Lam.", "R.", "i.).", "The Hebrew name \"Ḥizḳiyyah\" is considered by the Talmudists to be a surname, meaning either \"strengthened by Yhwh\" or \"he who made a firm alliance between the Israelites and Yhwh\"; his eight other names are enumerated in Isa.", "ix.", "5 (Sanh.", "94a).", "He is called the restorer of the study of the Law in the schools, and is said to have planted a sword at the door of the bet ha-midrash, declaring that he who would not study the Law should be struck with the weapon (ib.", "94b).Hezekiah's piety, which, according to the Talmudists, alone occasioned the destruction of the Assyrian army and the signal deliverance of the Israelites when Jerusalem was attacked by Sennacherib, caused him to be considered by some as the Messiah (ib.", "99a).", "According to Bar Kappara, Hezekiah was destined to be the Messiah, but the attribute of justice (\"middat ha-din\") protested against this, saying that as David, who sang so much the glory of God, had not been made the Messiah, still less should Hezekiah, for whom so many miracles had been performed, yet who did not sing the praise of God (ib.", "94a).Menachot 109b tells of Hezekiah encouraging others to keep their faith:===Hezekiah and Isaiah===Hezekiah in two scenes: on the left, Isaiah addresses Hezekiah on his deathbed; on the right, healed Hezekiah prays to God with the personification of prayer (προσευχή).", "''Paris Psalter'', f. 446v.Hezekiah's dangerous illness was caused by the discord between him and Isaiah, each of whom desired that the other should pay him the first visit.", "In order to reconcile them God struck Hezekiah with a malady and ordered Isaiah to visit the sick king.", "Isaiah told the latter that he would die, and that his soul also would perish because he had not married and had thus neglected the commandment to perpetuate the human species.", "Hezekiah did not despair, however, holding to the principle that one must always have recourse to prayer.", "He finally married Isaiah's daughter, who bore him Manasseh.", "However, in Gen. R. lxv.", "4, as quoted in Yalḳ., II Kings, 243, it is said that Hezekiah prayed for illness and for recovery in order that he might be warned and be able to repent of his sins.", "He was thus the first who recovered from illness.", "But in his prayer he was rather arrogant, praising himself; and this resulted in the banishment of his descendants.", "R. Levi said that Hezekiah's words, \"and I have done what is good in thy eyes\" (II Kings xx.", "3), refer to his concealing a book of healing.", "According to the Talmudists, Hezekiah did six things, of which three agreed with the dicta of the Rabbis and three disagreed therewith.", "The first three were these: (1) he concealed the book of healing because people, instead of praying to God, relied on medical prescriptions; (2) he broke in pieces the brazen serpent (see Biblical Data, above); and (3) he dragged his father's remains on a pallet, instead of giving them kingly burial.", "The second three were: (1) stopping the water of Gihon; (2) cutting the gold from the doors of the Temple; and (3) celebrating the Passover in the second month.The question that puzzled Heinrich Ewald and others, \"Where was the brazen serpent till the time of Hezekiah?\"", "occupied the Talmudists also.", "They answered it in a very simple way: Asa and Joshaphat, when clearing away the idols, purposely left the brazen serpent behind, in order that Hezekiah might also be able to do a praiseworthy deed in breaking it.The Midrash reconciles the two different narratives of Hezekiah's conduct at the time of Sennacherib's invasion (see Biblical Data, above).", "It says that Hezekiah prepared three means of defense: prayer, presents, and war, so that the two Biblical statements complement each other.", "The reason why Hezekiah's display of his treasures to the Babylonian ambassadors aroused the anger of God was that Hezekiah opened before them the Ark, showing them the tablets of the covenant, and saying, \"It is with this that we are victorious\".Notwithstanding Hezekiah's immense riches, his meal consisted only of a pound of vegetables.", "The honor accorded to him after death consisted, according to R. Judah, in his bier being preceded by 36,000 men whose shoulders were bare in sign of mourning.", "According to R. Nehemiah, a scroll of the Law was placed on Hezekiah's bier.", "Another statement is that a yeshibah was established on his grave—for three days, according to some: for seven, according to others; or for thirty, according to a third authority.", "The Talmudists attribute to Hezekiah the redaction of the books of Isaiah, Proverbs, Song of Solomon, and Ecclesiastes (B.", "B.", "15a)." ], [ "Chronological interpretation", "Understanding the biblically recorded sequence of events in Hezekiah's life as chronological or not is critical to the contextual interpretation of his reign.", "According to scholar Stephen L. Harris, chapter 20 of 2 Kings does not follow the events of chapters 18 and 19 (161).", "Rather, the Babylonian envoys precede the Assyrian invasion and siege.", "Chapter 20 would have been added during the exile, and Harris says it \"evidently took place before Sennacherib's invasion' when Hezekiah was \"trying to recruit Babylon as an ally against Assyria.'", "Consequently, \"Hezekiah ends his long reign impoverished and ruling over only a tiny scrap of his former domain.'", "Likewise, ''The Archaeological Study Bible'' says, \"The presence of these riches' that Hezekiah shows to the Babylonians \"indicates that this event took place before Hezekiah's payment of tribute to Sennacherib in 701 BC\" (564).", "Again, \"Though the king's illness and the subsequent Babylonian mission are described at the end of the accounts of his reign, they must have occurred before the war with Assyria.", "Thus, Isaiah's chastening of Hezekiah is due to his alliances made with other countries during the Assyrian conflict for insurance.", "To a reader who interprets the chapters chronologically, it would appear that Hezekiah ended his reign at a climax, but with a scholarly analysis, his end would contrarily be interpreted as a long fall from where he began\"." ], [ "Other chronological notes", "There has been considerable academic debate about the actual dates of reigns of the Israelite kings.", "Scholars have endeavored to synchronize the chronology of events referred to in the Hebrew Bible with those derived from other external sources.", "In the case of Hezekiah, scholars have noted that the apparent inconsistencies are resolved by accepting the evidence that Hezekiah, like his predecessors for four generations in the kings of Judah, had a coregency with his father, and this coregency began in 729 BCE.As an example of the reasoning that finds inconsistencies in calculations when coregencies are ''a priori'' ruled out, dates the fall of Samaria (the Northern Kingdom) to the 6th year of Hezekiah's reign.", "Albright has dated the fall of the Kingdom of Israel to 721 BCE, while Thiele calculates the date as 723 BCE.", "If Abright's or Thiele's dating are correct, then Hezekiah's reign would begin in either 729 or 727 BCE.", "On the other hand, 2 Kings 18:13 states that Sennacherib invaded Judah in the 14th year of Hezekiah's reign.", "Dating based on Assyrian records date this invasion to 701 BCE, and Hezekiah's reign would therefore begin in 716/715 BCE.", "This dating would be confirmed by the account of Hezekiah's illness in chapter 20, which immediately follows Sennacherib's departure.", "This would date his illness to Hezekiah's 14th year, which is confirmed by Isaiah's statement that he will live fifteen more years (29 − 15 = 14).", "As shown below, these problems are all addressed by scholars who make reference to the ancient Near Eastern practice of coregency.Following the approach of Wellhausen, another set of calculations shows it is probable that Hezekiah did not ascend the throne before 722 BCE.", "By Albright's calculations, Jehu's initial year is 842 BCE (120 years earlier), but between that and Samaria's destruction the total number of years of the kings of Israel in ''II Kings'' is 143 7/12, while for the kings of Judah the number is 165.This discrepancy, amounting in the case of Judah to 45 years (165–120), has been accounted for in various ways; but every one of those theories must allow that Hezekiah's first six years fell before 722 BCE.", "(That Hezekiah began to reign before 722 BCE, however, is entirely consistent with the principle that the Ahaz/Hezekiah coregency began in 729 BCE.)", "Nor is it clearly known how old Hezekiah was when called to the throne, although 2 Kings states he was twenty-five years of age.", "His father died at the age of thirty-six; it is not likely that Ahaz at the age of eleven should have had a son.", "Hezekiah's own son Manasseh ascended the throne twenty-nine years later, at the age of twelve.", "This places his birth in the seventeenth year of his father's reign, or gives Hezekiah's age as forty-two, if he was twenty-five at his ascension.", "It is more probable that Ahaz was twenty-one or twenty-five when Hezekiah was born (and suggesting an error in the text), and that the latter was thirty-two at the birth of his son and successor, Manasseh.Miniature from Chludov PsalterSince Albright and Friedman, several scholars have explained these dating problems on the basis of a coregency between Hezekiah and his father Ahaz between 729 and 716/715 BCE.", "Assyriologists and Egyptologists recognize that coregency was a practice both in Assyria and Egypt.", "After noting that coregencies were only used sporadically in the northern kingdom (Israel), Nadav Na'aman writes,In the kingdom of Judah, on the other hand, the nomination of a co-regent was the common procedure, beginning from David who, before his death, elevated his son Solomon to the throne.", "When taking into account the permanent nature of the co-regency in Judah from the time of Joash, one may dare to conclude that dating the co-regencies accurately is indeed the key for solving the problems of biblical chronology in the eighth century BC.", "\"Among the numerous scholars who have recognized the coregency between Ahaz and Hezekiah are Kenneth Kitchen in his various writings, Leslie McFall, and Jack Finegan.", "McFall, in his 1991 article, argues that if 729 BCE (that is, the Judean regnal year beginning in Tishri of 729) is taken as the start of the Ahaz/Hezekiah coregency, and 716/715 BCE as the date of the death of Ahaz, then all the extensive chronological data for Hezekiah and his contemporaries in the late eighth century BCE are in harmony.", "Further, McFall found that no textual emendations are required among the numerous dates, reign lengths, and synchronisms given in the Hebrew Testament for this period.", "In contrast, those who do not accept the Ancient Near Eastern principle of coregencies require multiple emendations of the Scriptural text, and there is no general agreement on which texts should be emended, nor is there any consensus among these scholars on the resultant chronology for the eighth century BCE.", "This is in contrast with the general consensus among those who accept the biblical and near Eastern practice of coregencies that Hezekiah was installed as coregent with his father Ahaz in 729 BCE, and the synchronisms of 2 Kings 18 must be measured from that date, whereas the synchronisms to Sennacherib are measured from the sole reign starting in 716/715 BCE.", "The two synchronisms to Hoshea of Israel in 2 Kings 18 are then in exact agreement with the dates of Hoshea's reign that can be determined from Assyrian sources, as is the date of Samaria's fall as stated in 2 Kings 18:10.An analogous situation of two ways of measurement, both equally valid, is encountered in the dates given for Jehoram of Israel, whose first year is synchronized to the 18th year of the sole reign of Jehoshaphat of Judah in 2 Kings 3:1 (853/852 BCE), but his reign is also reckoned according to another method as starting in the second year of the coregency of Jehoshaphat and his son Jehoram of Judah (2 Kings 1:17); both methods refer to the same calendrical year.Scholars who accept the principle of coregencies note that abundant evidence for their use is found in the biblical material itself.", "The agreement of scholarship built on these principles with both biblical and secular texts was such that the Thiele/McFall chronology was accepted as the best chronology for the kingdom period in Jack Finegan's encyclopedic ''Handbook of Biblical Chronology''." ], [ "See also", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources" ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Sources===***'''Attribution:'''" ], [ "External links", "* \"Hezekiah.\"", "Encyclopædia Britannica.", "Encyclopædia Britannica Online.", "* King Hezekiah from Jerusalem Mosaic* Hezekiah See all Bible verses pertaining to King Hezekiah* The Reign Of Hezekiah by John F. Brug* Philippe Bobichon, Salomon et Ezéchias dans l'exégèse juive des prophéties royales et messianiques, selon Justin Martyr et les sources rabbiniques* Sennacherib's Invasion of Hezekiah's Judah in 701 BC – by Craig C. Broyles* Interactive Map of Sennacherib's Invasion of Hezekiah's Judah, including the accounts of Sennacherib, Herodotus, 2 Kings, Isaiah and Micah" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Haemophilia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Haemophilia''', or '''hemophilia''' (), is a mostly inherited genetic disorder that impairs the body's ability to make blood clots, a process needed to stop bleeding.", "This results in people bleeding for a longer time after an injury, easy bruising, and an increased risk of bleeding inside joints or the brain.", "Those with a mild case of the disease may have symptoms only after an accident or during surgery.", "Bleeding into a joint can result in permanent damage while bleeding in the brain can result in long term headaches, seizures, or a decreased level of consciousness.There are two main types of haemophilia: haemophilia A, which occurs due to low amounts of clotting factor VIII, and haemophilia B, which occurs due to low levels of clotting factor IX.", "They are typically inherited from one's parents through an X chromosome carrying a nonfunctional gene.", "Most commonly found in men, haemophilia can affect women too, though very rarely.", "A woman would need to inherit two affected X chromosomes to be affected, whereas a man would only need one X chromosome affected.", "It is possible for a new mutation to occur during early development, or haemophilia may develop later in life due to antibodies forming against a clotting factor.", "Other types include haemophilia C, which occurs due to low levels of factor XI, Von Willebrand disease, which occurs due to low levels of a substance called von Willebrand factor, and parahaemophilia, which occurs due to low levels of factor V. Haemophilia A, B, and C prevent the intrinsic pathway from functioning properly; this clotting pathway is necessary when there is damage to the endothelium of a blood vessel.", "Acquired haemophilia is associated with cancers, autoimmune disorders, and pregnancy.", "Diagnosis is by testing the blood for its ability to clot and its levels of clotting factors.Prevention may occur by removing an egg, fertilizing it, and testing the embryo before transferring it to the uterus.", "Human embryos in research can be regarded as the technical object/process.", "Missing blood clotting factors are replaced to treat haemophilia.", "This may be done on a regular basis or during bleeding episodes.", "Replacement may take place at home or in hospital.", "The clotting factors are made either from human blood or by recombinant methods.", "Up to 20% of people develop antibodies to the clotting factors which makes treatment more difficult.", "The medication desmopressin may be used in those with mild haemophilia A.", "Studies of gene therapy are in early human trials.Haemophilia A affects about 1 in 5,000–10,000, while haemophilia B affects about 1 in 40,000 males at birth.", "As haemophilia A and B are both X-linked recessive disorders, females are rarely severely affected.", "Some females with a nonfunctional gene on one of the X chromosomes may be mildly symptomatic.", "Haemophilia C occurs equally in both sexes and is mostly found in Ashkenazi Jews.", "In the 1800s haemophilia B was common within the royal families of Europe.", "The difference between haemophilia A and B was determined in 1952." ], [ "Signs and symptoms", "An illustration of a woman with hemophiliaCharacteristic symptoms vary with severity.", "In general symptoms are internal or external bleeding episodes, which are called \"bleeds\".", "People with more severe haemophilia experience more severe and more frequent bleeds, while people with mild haemophilia usually experience more minor symptoms except after surgery or serious trauma.", "In cases of moderate haemophilia symptoms are variable which manifest along a spectrum between severe and mild forms.In both haemophilia A and B, there is spontaneous bleeding but a normal bleeding time, normal prothrombin time, normal thrombin time, but prolonged partial thromboplastin time.", "Internal bleeding is common in people with severe haemophilia and some individuals with moderate haemophilia.", "The most characteristic type of internal bleed is a joint bleed where blood enters into the joint spaces.", "This is most common with severe haemophiliacs and can occur spontaneously (without evident trauma).", "If not treated promptly, joint bleeds can lead to permanent joint damage and disfigurement.", "Bleeding into soft tissues such as muscles and subcutaneous tissues is less severe but can lead to damage and requires treatment.Children with mild to moderate haemophilia may not have any signs or symptoms at birth, especially if they do not undergo circumcision.", "Their first symptoms are often frequent and large bruises and haematomas from frequent bumps and falls as they learn to walk.", "Swelling and bruising from bleeding in the joints, soft tissue, and muscles may also occur.", "Children with mild haemophilia may not have noticeable symptoms for many years.", "Often, the first sign in very mild haemophiliacs is heavy bleeding from a dental procedure, an accident, or surgery.", "Females who are carriers usually have enough clotting factors from their one normal gene to prevent serious bleeding problems, though some may present as mild haemophiliacs.===Complications===Severe complications are much more common in cases of severe and moderate haemophilia.", "Complications may arise from the disease itself or from its treatment:* '''Deep internal bleeding''', e.g.", "deep-muscle bleeding, leading to swelling, numbness or pain of a limb.", "* '''Joint damage''' from haemarthrosis (haemophilic arthropathy), potentially with severe pain, disfigurement, and even destruction of the joint and development of debilitating arthritis.", "* '''Transfusion transmitted infection''' from blood transfusions that are given as treatment.", "* '''Adverse reactions''' to clotting factor treatment, including the development of an immune inhibitor which renders factor replacement less effective.", "* '''Intracranial haemorrhage''' is a serious medical emergency caused by the buildup of pressure inside the skull.", "It can cause disorientation, nausea, loss of consciousness, brain damage, and death.Haemophilic arthropathy is characterized by chronic proliferative synovitis and cartilage destruction.", "If an intra-articular bleed is not drained early, it may cause apoptosis of chondrocytes and affect the synthesis of proteoglycans.", "The hypertrophied and fragile synovial lining while attempting to eliminate excessive blood may be more likely to easily rebleed, leading to a vicious cycle of hemarthrosis-synovitis-hemarthrosis.", "In addition, iron deposition in the synovium may induce an inflammatory response activating the immune system and stimulating angiogenesis, resulting in cartilage and bone destruction." ], [ "Genetics", "X-linked recessive inheritanceTypically, females possess two X-chromosomes, and males have one X and one Y-chromosome.", "Since the mutations causing the disease are X-linked recessive, a female carrying the defect on one of her X-chromosomes may not be affected by it, as the equivalent dominant allele on her other chromosome should express itself to produce the necessary clotting factors, due to X inactivation.", "Therefore, heterozygous females are just carriers of this genetic disposition.", "However, the Y-chromosome in the male has no gene for factors VIII or IX.", "If the genes responsible for production of factor VIII or factor IX present on a male's X-chromosome are deficient there is no equivalent on the Y-chromosome to cancel it out, so the deficient gene is not masked and the disorder will develop.Since a male receives his single X-chromosome from his mother, the son of a healthy female silently carrying the deficient gene will have a 50% chance of inheriting that gene from her and with it the disease; and if his mother is affected with haemophilia, he will have a 100% chance of being a haemophiliac.", "In contrast, for a female to inherit the disease, she must receive two deficient X-chromosomes, one from her mother and the other from her father (who must therefore be a haemophiliac himself).", "Hence, haemophilia is expressed far more commonly among males than females, while females, who must have two deficient X-chromosomes in order to have haemophilia, are far more likely to be silent carriers, survive childhood and to submit each of her genetic children to an at least 50% risk of receiving the deficient gene.", "However, it is possible for female carriers to become mild haemophiliacs due to lyonisation (inactivation) of the X-chromosomes.", "Haemophiliac daughters are more common than they once were, as improved treatments for the disease have allowed more haemophiliac males to survive to adulthood and become parents.", "Adult females may experience menorrhagia (heavy periods) due to the bleeding tendency.", "The pattern of inheritance is criss-cross type.", "This type of pattern is also seen in colour blindness.A mother who is a carrier has a 50% chance of passing the faulty X-chromosome to her daughter, while an affected father will always pass on the affected gene to his daughters.", "A son cannot inherit the defective gene from his father.", "Genetic testing and genetic counselling is recommended for families with haemophilia.", "Prenatal testing, such as amniocentesis, is available to pregnant women who may be carriers of the condition.As with all genetic disorders, it is also possible for a human to acquire it spontaneously through mutation, rather than inheriting it, because of a new mutation in one of their parents' gametes.", "Spontaneous mutations account for about 33% of all cases of haemophilia A.", "About 30% of cases of haemophilia B are the result of a spontaneous gene mutation.If a female gives birth to a haemophiliac son, either the female is a carrier for the blood disorder or the haemophilia was the result of a spontaneous mutation.", "Until modern direct DNA testing, however, it was impossible to determine if a female with only healthy children was a carrier or not.If a male has the disease and has children with a female who is not a carrier, his daughters will be carriers of haemophilia.", "His sons, however, will not be affected with the disease.", "The disease is X-linked and the father cannot pass haemophilia through the Y-chromosome.", "Males with the disorder are then no more likely to pass on the gene to their children than carrier females, though all daughters they sire will be carriers and all sons they father will not have haemophilia (unless the mother is a carrier)===Severity===There are numerous different mutations which cause each type of haemophilia.", "Due to differences in changes to the genes involved, people with haemophilia often have some level of active clotting factor.", "Individuals with less than 1% active factor are classified as having severe haemophilia, those with 1–5% active factor have moderate haemophilia, and those with mild haemophilia have between 5% and 40% of normal levels of active clotting factor." ], [ "Diagnosis", "Haemophilia can be diagnosed before, during or after birth if there is a family history of the condition.", "Several options are available to parents.", "If there is no family history of haemophilia, it is usually only diagnosed when a child begins to walk or crawl.", "Affected children may experience joint bleeds or easy bruising.Mild haemophilia may only be discovered later, usually after an injury or a dental or surgical procedure.=== Before pregnancy ===Genetic testing and counselling are available to help determine the risk of passing the condition onto a child.", "This may involve testing a sample of tissue or blood to look for signs of the genetic mutation that causes haemophilia.=== During pregnancy ===A pregnant woman with a history of haemophilia in her family can test for the haemophilia gene.", "Such tests include:* chorionic villus sampling (CVS): a small sample of the placenta is removed from the womb and tested for the haemophilia gene, usually during weeks 11–14 of pregnancy* amniocentesis: a sample of amniotic fluid is taken for testing, usually during weeks 15–20 of pregnancyThere is a small risk of these procedures causing problems such as miscarriage or premature labour, so the woman may discuss this with the doctor in charge of her care.=== After birth ===If haemophilia is suspected after a child has been born, a blood test can usually confirm the diagnosis.", "Blood from the umbilical cord can be tested at birth if there's a family history of haemophilia.", "A blood test will also be able to identify whether a child has haemophilia A or B, and how severe it is.===Classification===There are several types of haemophilia: haemophilia A, haemophilia B, haemophilia C, ''parahaemophilia'', ''acquired haemophilia A'', and ''acquired haemophilia B''.Haemophilia A is a recessive X-linked genetic disorder resulting in a deficiency of functional clotting Factor VIII.", "Haemophilia B is also a recessive X-linked genetic disorder involving a lack of functional clotting Factor IX.", "Haemophilia C is an autosomal genetic disorder involving a lack of functional clotting Factor XI.", "Haemophilia C is not completely recessive, as heterozygous individuals also show increased bleeding.The type of haemophilia known as ''parahaemophilia'' is a mild and rare form and is due to a deficiency in factor V. This type can be inherited or acquired.A non-genetic form of haemophilia is caused by autoantibodies against factor VIII and so is known as ''acquired haemophilia A''.", "It is a rare but potentially life-threatening bleeding disorder caused by the development of autoantibodies (inhibitors) directed against plasma coagulation factors.", "Acquired haemophilia can be associated with cancers, autoimmune disorders and following childbirth." ], [ "Management", "There is no long-term cure.", "Treatment and prevention of bleeding episodes is done primarily by replacing the missing blood clotting factors.===Clotting factors===Commercially produced factor concentrates such as \"Advate\", a recombinant Factor VIII, come as a white powder in a vial which must be mixed with sterile water prior to intravenous injection.Clotting factors are usually not needed in mild haemophilia.", "In moderate haemophilia clotting factors are typically only needed when bleeding occurs or to prevent bleeding with certain events.", "In severe haemophilia preventive use is often recommended two or three times a week and may continue for life.", "Rapid treatment of bleeding episodes decreases damage to the body.Factor VIII is used in haemophilia A and factor IX in haemophilia B.", "Factor replacement can be either isolated from human blood serum, recombinant, or a combination of the two.", "Some people develop antibodies (inhibitors) against the replacement factors given to them, so the amount of the factor has to be increased or non-human replacement products must be given, such as porcine factor VIII.If a person becomes refractory to replacement coagulation factor as a result of high levels of circulating inhibitors, this may be partially overcome with recombinant human factor VIII.In early 2008, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved an anti-haemophilic drug completely free of albumin, which made it the first anti-haemophilic drug in the US to use an entirely synthetic purification process.", "Since 1993 recombinant factor products (which are typically cultured in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) tissue culture cells and involve little, if any human plasma products) have been available and have been widely used in wealthier western countries.", "While recombinant clotting factor products offer higher purity and safety, they are, like concentrate, extremely expensive, and not generally available in the developing world.", "In many cases, factor products of any sort are difficult to obtain in developing countries.Clotting factors are either given preventively or on-demand.", "Preventive use involves the infusion of clotting factor on a regular schedule in order to keep clotting levels sufficiently high to prevent spontaneous bleeding episodes.", "On-demand (or episodic) treatment involves treating bleeding episodes once they arise.", "In 2007, a trial comparing on-demand treatment of boys (< 30 months) with haemophilia A with prophylactic treatment (infusions of 25 IU/kg body weight of Factor VIII every other day) in respect to its effect on the prevention of joint-diseases.", "When the boys reached 6 years of age, 93% of those in the prophylaxis group and 55% of those in the episodic-therapy group had a normal index joint-structure on MRI.", "Preventative treatment, however, resulted in average costs of $300,000 per year.", "The author of an editorial published in the same issue of the ''NEJM'' supports the idea that prophylactic treatment not only is more effective than on demand treatment but also suggests that starting after the first serious joint-related haemorrhage may be more cost effective than waiting until the fixed age to begin.", "Most haemophiliacs in third world countries have limited or no access to commercial blood clotting factor products.===Other===Desmopressin (DDAVP) may be used in those with mild haemophilia A. Tranexamic acid or epsilon aminocaproic acid may be given along with clotting factors to prevent breakdown of clots.Pain medicines, steroids, and physical therapy may be used to reduce pain and swelling in an affected joint.", "In those with severe hemophilia A already receiving FVIII, emicizumab may provide some benefit.", "Different treatments are used to help those with an acquired form of hemophilia in addition to the normal clotting factors.", "Often the most effective treatment is corticosteroids which remove the auto-antibodies in half of people.", "As a secondary route of treatment, cyclophosphamide and cyclosporine are used and are proven effective for those who did not respond to the steroid treatments.", "In rare cases a third route or treatment is used, high doses of intravenous immunoglobulin or immunosorbent that works to help control bleeding instead of battling the auto-antibodies.===Contraindications===Anticoagulants such as heparin and warfarin are contraindicated for people with haemophilia as these can aggravate clotting difficulties.", "Also contraindicated are those drugs which have \"blood thinning\" side effects.", "For instance, medicines which contain aspirin, ibuprofen, or naproxen sodium should not be taken because they are well known to have the side effect of prolonged bleeding.Also contraindicated are activities with a high likelihood of trauma, such as motorcycling and skateboarding.", "Popular sports with very high rates of physical contact and injuries such as American football, hockey, boxing, wrestling, and rugby should be avoided by people with haemophilia.", "Other active sports like soccer, baseball, and basketball also have a high rate of injuries, but have overall less contact and should be undertaken cautiously and only in consultation with a doctor." ], [ "Prognosis", "Like most aspects of the disorder, life expectancy varies with severity and adequate treatment.", "People with severe haemophilia who do not receive adequate, modern treatment have greatly shortened lifespans and often do not reach maturity.", "Prior to the 1960s when effective treatment became available, average life expectancy was only 11 years.", "By the 1980s the life span of the average haemophiliac receiving appropriate treatment was 50–60 years.", "Today with appropriate treatment, males with haemophilia typically have a near normal quality of life with an average lifespan approximately 10 years shorter than an unaffected male.Since the 1980s the primary leading cause of death of people with severe haemophilia has shifted from haemorrhage to HIV/AIDS acquired through treatment with contaminated blood products.", "The second leading cause of death related to severe haemophilia complications is intracranial haemorrhage which today accounts for one third of all deaths of people with haemophilia.", "Two other major causes of death include hepatitis infections causing cirrhosis and obstruction of air or blood flow due to soft tissue haemorrhage." ], [ "Epidemiology", "Haemophilia frequency is about 1 instance in every 10,000 births (or 1 in 5,000 male births) for haemophilia A and 1 in 50,000 births for haemophilia B.", "About 18,000 people in the United States have haemophilia.", "Each year in the US, about 400 babies are born with the disorder.", "Haemophilia usually occurs in males and less often in females.", "It is estimated that about 2,500 Canadians have haemophilia A, and about 500 Canadians have haemophilia B." ], [ "History", "===Scientific discovery===The excessive bleeding was known to ancient people.", "The Talmud instructs that a boy must not be circumcised if he had two brothers who died due to complications arising from their circumcisions, and Maimonides says that this excluded paternal half-brothers.", "This may have been due to a concern about hemophilia.", "The first medical professional to describe the disease was Arab surgeon Al-Zahrawi, also known as Abulcasis.", "In the tenth century he described families whose males died of bleeding after only minor traumas.", "While many other such descriptive and practical references to the disease appear throughout historical writings, scientific analysis did not begin until the start of the nineteenth century.In 1803, John Conrad Otto, a Philadelphian physician, wrote an account about \"a hemorrhagic disposition existing in certain families\" in which he called the affected males \"bleeders\".", "He recognised that the disorder was hereditary and that it affected mostly males and was passed down by healthy females.", "His paper was the second paper to describe important characteristics of an X-linked genetic disorder (the first paper being a description of colour blindness by John Dalton who studied his own family).", "Otto was able to trace the disease back to a woman who settled near Plymouth, New Hampshire, in 1720.The idea that affected males could pass the trait onto their unaffected daughters was not described until 1813 when John F. Hay, published an account in ''The New England Journal of Medicine''.In 1924, a Finnish doctor discovered a hereditary bleeding disorder similar to haemophilia localised in Åland, southwest of Finland.", "This bleeding disorder is called \"Von Willebrand Disease\".The term \"haemophilia\" is derived from the term \"haemorrhaphilia\" which was used in a description of the condition written by Friedrich Hopff in 1828, while he was a student at the University of Zurich.", "In 1937, Patek and Taylor, two doctors from Harvard, discovered anti-haemophilic globulin.", "In 1947, Pavlosky, a doctor from Buenos Aires, found haemophilia A and haemophilia B to be separate diseases by doing a lab test.", "This test was done by transferring the blood of one haemophiliac to another haemophiliac.", "The fact that this corrected the clotting problem showed that there was more than one form of haemophilia.===European royalty===Haemophilia in European royaltyHaemophilia has featured prominently in European royalty and thus is sometimes known as 'the royal disease'.", "Queen Victoria passed the mutation for haemophilia B to her son Leopold and, through two of her daughters, Alice and Beatrice, to various royals across the continent, including the royal families of Spain, Germany, and Russia.", "In Russia, Tsarevich Alexei, the son and heir of Tsar Nicholas II, famously had haemophilia, which he had inherited from his mother, Empress Alexandra, one of Queen Victoria's granddaughters.", "The haemophilia of Alexei would result in the rise to prominence of the Russian mystic Grigori Rasputin, at the imperial court.It was claimed that Rasputin was successful at treating Tsarevich Alexei's haemophilia.", "At the time, a common treatment administered by professional doctors was to use aspirin, which worsened rather than lessened the problem.", "It is believed that, by simply advising against the medical treatment, Rasputin could bring visible and significant improvement to the condition of Tsarevich Alexei.In Spain, Queen Victoria's youngest daughter, Princess Beatrice, had a daughter Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg, who later became Queen of Spain.", "Two of her sons were haemophiliacs and both died from minor car accidents.", "Her eldest son, Prince Alfonso of Spain, Prince of Asturias, died at the age of 31 from internal bleeding after his car hit a telephone booth.", "Her youngest son, Infante Gonzalo, died at age 19 from abdominal bleeding following a minor car accident in which he and his sister hit a wall while avoiding a cyclist.", "Neither appeared injured or sought immediate medical care and Gonzalo died two days later from internal bleeding.===Treatment===The method for the production of an antihaemophilic factor was discovered by Judith Graham Pool from Stanford University in 1964, and approved for commercial use in 1971 in the United States under the name ''Cryoprecipitated AHF''.", "Together with the development of a system for transportation and storage of human plasma in 1965, this was the first time an efficient treatment for haemophilia became available.===Blood contamination===Ryan White was an American haemophiliac who became infected with HIV/AIDS through contaminated blood products.Up until late 1985 many people with haemophilia received clotting factor products that posed a risk of HIV and hepatitis C infection.", "The plasma used to create the products was not screened or tested, nor had most of the products been subject to any form of viral inactivation.Tens of thousands worldwide were infected as a result of contaminated factor products including more than 10,000 people in the United States, 3,500 British, 1,400 Japanese, 700 Canadians, 250 Irish, and 115 Iraqis.Infection via the tainted factor products had mostly stopped by 1986 by which time viral inactivation methods had largely been put into place, although some products were shown to still be dangerous in 1987." ], [ "Research", "===Gene therapy===In those with severe haemophilia, gene therapy may reduce symptoms to those that a person with mild or moderate haemophilia might have.", "The best results have been found in haemophilia B.", "In 2016 early stage human research was ongoing with a few sites recruiting participants.", "In 2017 a gene therapy trial on nine people with haemophilia A reported that high doses did better than low doses.", "It is not currently an accepted treatment for haemophilia.In July 2022 results of a gene therapy candidate for haemophilia B called FLT180 were announced, it works using an adeno-associated virus (AAV) to restore the clotting factor IX (FIX) protein, normal levels of the protein were observed with low doses of the therapy but immunosuppression was necessitated to decrease the risk of vector-related immune responses." ], [ "See also", "* Coagulopathy* Purpura secondary to clotting disorders* Von Willebrand disease* World Federation of Hemophilia" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * World Federation of Hemophilia" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hickory (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hickory''' is a type of tree (''Carya'' species) found in North America and East Asia.", "'''Hickory''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Places in the United States", "* Hickory, Alabama, a place in Pickens County* Hickory, Kentucky, a census-designated place* Hickory, Louisiana, a place in St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana* Hickory, Maryland, an unincorporated community* Hickory, Mississippi, a town* Hickory County, Missouri* Hickory, North Carolina, a city** Hickory Motor Speedway* Hickory, Oklahoma, a town* Hickory, Pennsylvania, a census-designated place* Hickory, Tennessee, a place in Sevier County, Tennessee* Hickory, Virginia, an unincorporated community* Hickory Creek (disambiguation)* Hickory Mountain (disambiguation)* Hickory Township (disambiguation)" ], [ "Other uses", "* Hickory High School (disambiguation)* , a United States Coast Guard seagoing buoy tender* Hickory, childhood nickname of Mose Solomon (1900–1966), Major League Baseball player* Hickory Records, a record label* Hickory, a character played by Jack Haley in the 1939 film ''The Wizard of Oz''* Foxcliffe Hickory Wind or Hickory, a dog named Best in Show at the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show in 2011* Hickory cloth, a cotton twill used for North American workshirts and coveralls* Hickory golf, a form of golf played with hickory-shafted golf clubs* \"Hickory\", a song by Iron & Wine from the album ''Around the Well''* Hickory, an early name for Phil Collins's band Flaming Youth" ], [ "See also", "* Old Hickory (disambiguation)* * * The Hickories, Cazenovia, New York, a house on the US National Register of Historic Places" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hemicellulose" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''hemicellulose''' (also known as '''polyose''') is one of a number of heteropolymers (matrix polysaccharides), such as arabinoxylans, present along with cellulose in almost all terrestrial plant cell walls.", "Cellulose is crystalline, strong, and resistant to hydrolysis.", "Hemicelluloses are branched, shorter in length than cellulose, and also show a propensity to crystallize.", "They can be hydrolyzed by dilute acid or base as well as a myriad of hemicellulase enzymes.Most common molecular motif of hemicellulose" ], [ "Composition", "Diverse kinds of hemicelluloses are known.", "Important examples include xylan, glucuronoxylan, arabinoxylan, glucomannan, and xyloglucan.Hemicelluloses are polysaccharides often associated with cellulose, but with distinct compositions and structures.", "Whereas cellulose is derived exclusively from glucose, hemicelluloses are composed of diverse sugars, and can include the five-carbon sugars xylose and arabinose, the six-carbon sugars glucose, mannose and galactose, and the six-carbon deoxy sugar rhamnose.", "Hemicelluloses contain most of the D-pentose sugars, and occasionally small amounts of L-sugars as well.", "Xylose is in most cases the sugar monomer present in the largest amount, although in softwoods mannose can be the most abundant sugar.", "Not only regular sugars can be found in hemicellulose, but also their acidified forms, for instance glucuronic acid and galacturonic acid can be present." ], [ "Structural comparison to cellulose", "Unlike cellulose, hemicelluloses consist of shorter chains – 500–3,000 sugar units.", "In contrast, each polymer of cellulose comprises 7,000–15,000 glucose molecules.", "In addition, hemicelluloses may be branched polymers, while cellulose is unbranched.", "Hemicelluloses are embedded in the cell walls of plants, sometimes in chains that form a 'ground' – they bind with pectin to cellulose to form a network of cross-linked fibres.195x195pxBased on the structural difference, like backbone linkages and side groups, as well as other factors, like abundance and distributions in plants, hemicelluloses can be categorized into four groups as following: 1) xylans, 2) mannans; 3) mixed linkage β-glucans; 4) xyloglucans.===Xylans===Xylans usually consist of a backbone of β-(1→4)-linked xylose residues and can be further divided into homoxylans and heteroxylans.", "Homoxylans have a backbone of D-xylopyranose residues linked by β(1→4) glycosidic linkages.", "Homoxylans mainly have structural functions.", "Heteroxylans such as glucuronoxylans, glucuronoarabinoxylans, and complex heteroxylans, have a backbone of D-xylopyranose and short carbohydrate branches.", "For example, glucuronoxylan has a substitution with α-(1→2)-linked glucuronosyl and 4-O-methyl glucuronosyl residues.", "Arabinoxylans and glucuronoarabinoxylans contain arabinose residues attached to the backbonealt====Mannans===The mannan-type hemicellulose can be classified into two types based on their main chain difference, galactomannans and glucomannans.", "Galactomannans have only β-(1→4) linked D-mannopyranose residues in linear chains.", "Glucomannans consist of both β-(1→4) linked D-mannopyranose and β-(1→4) linked D-glucopyranose residues in the main chains.", "As for the side chains, D-galactopyranose residues tend to be 6-linked to both types as the single side chains with various amount.===Mixed linkage β-glucans===The conformation of the mixed linkage glucan chains usually contains blocks of β-(1→4) D-Glucopyranose separated by single β-(1→3) D-Glucopyranose.", "The population of β-(1→4) and β-(1→3) are about 70% and 30%.", "These glucans primarily consist of cellotriosyl (C18H32O16) and cellotraosyl (C24H42O21)segments in random order.", "There are some study show the molar ratio of cellotriosyl/cellotraosyl for oat (2.1-2.4), barley (2.8-3.3), and wheat (4.2-4.5).alt====Xyloglucans===Xyloglucans have a backbone similar to cellulose with α-D-xylopyranose residues at position 6.To better describe different side chains, a single letter code notation is used for each side chain type.", "G -- unbranched Glc residue; X -- α-d-Xyl-(1→6)-Glc.", "L -- β-Gal , S -- α-l-Araf, F-- α-l-Fuc.", "These are the most common side chains.The two most common types of xyloglucans in plant cell walls are identified as XXXG and XXGG." ], [ "Biosynthesis", "Hemicelluloses are synthesised from sugar nucleotides in the cell's Golgi apparatus.", "Two models explain their synthesis: 1) a '2 component model' where modification occurs at two transmembrane proteins, and 2) a '1 component model' where modification occurs only at one transmembrane protein.", "After synthesis, hemicelluloses are transported to the plasma membrane via Golgi vesicles.Each kind of hemicellulose is biosynthesized by specialized enzymes.Mannan chain backbones are synthesized by cellulose synthase-like protein family A (CSLA) and possibly enzymes in cellulose synthase-like protein family D (CSLD).", "Mannan synthase, a particular enzyme in CSLA, is responsible for the addition of mannose units to the backbone.", "The galactose side-chains of some mannans are added by galactomannan galactosyltransferase.", "Acetylation of mannans is mediated by a mannan O-acetyltransferase, however, this enzyme has not been definitively identified.Xyloglucan backbone synthesis is mediated by cellulose synthase-like protein family C (CSLC), particularly glucan synthase, which adds glucose units to the chain.", "Backbone synthesis of xyloglucan is also mediated in some way by xylosyltransferase, but this mechanism is separate to its transferase function and remains unclear.", "Xylosyltransferase in its transferase function is, however, utilized for the addition of xylose to the side-chain.", "Other enzymes utilized for side-chain synthesis of xyloglucan include galactosyltransferase (which is responsible for the addition of galactose and of which two different forms are utilized), fucosyltransferase (which is responsible for the addition of fucose), and acetyltransferase (which is responsible for acetylation).Xylan backbone synthesis, unlike that of the other hemicelluloses, is not mediated by any cellulose synthase-like proteins.", "Instead, xylan synthase is responsible for backbone synthesis, facilitating the addition of xylose.", "Several genes for xylan synthases have been identified.", "Several other enzymes are utilized for the addition and modification of the side-chain units of xylan, including glucuronosyltransferase (which adds glucuronic acid units), xylosyltransferase (which adds additional xylose units), arabinosyltransferase (which adds arabinose), methyltransferase (responsible for methylation), and acetyltransferase (responsible for acetylation).", "Given that mixed-linkage glucan is a non-branched homopolymer of glucose, there is no side-chain synthesis, only the addition of glucose to the backbone in two linkages, β1-3 and β1-4.Backbone synthesis is mediated by enzymes in cellulose synthase-like protein families F and H (CSLF and CSLH), specifically glucan synthase.", "Several forms of glucan synthase from CSLF and CSLH have been identified.", "All of them are responsible for addition of glucose to the backbone and all are capable of producing both β1-3 and β1-4 linkages, however, it is unknown how much each specific enzyme contributes to the distribution of β1-3 and β1-4 linkages." ], [ "Applications", "In the sulfite pulp process the hemicellulose is largely hydrolysed by the acid pulping liquor ending up in the brown liquor where the fermentable hexose sugars (around 2%) can be used for producing ethanol.", "This process was primarily applied to calcium sulfite brown liquors.", "* '''Arabinogalactan'''Arabinogalactans can be used as emulsifiers, stabilizers and binders according to the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act.", "Arabinogalactans can also be used as bonding agent in sweeteners.", "* '''Xylan'''The films based on xylan show low oxygen permeability and thus are of potential interest as packaging for oxygen-sensitive products.", "* '''Agar'''Agar is used in making jellies and puddings.", "It is also growth medium with other nutrients for microorganisms.A Petri dish with bacterial colonies on an agar-based growth medium* '''Curdlan'''Curdlan can be used in fat replacement to produce diet food while having a taste and a mouth feel of real fat containing products.", "* '''beta-glucan'''b-glucans have an important role in food supplement while b-glucans are also promising in health-related issues, especially in immune reactions and the treatment of cancer.", "* '''Xanthan'''Xanthan, with other polysaccharides can form gels that have high solution viscosity which can be used in the oil industry to thicken drilling mud.", "In the food industry, xanthan is used in products such as dressings and sauces.", "* '''Alginate'''Alginate is an important role in the development of antimicrobial textiles due to its characteristics of environmental friendliness, and high industrialization level as a sustainable biopolymer." ], [ "Natural functions", "Hemicellulose contribution to structural support within plant cellsAs a polysaccharide compound in plant cell walls similar to cellulose, hemicellulose helps cellulose in the strengthening of plant cell walls.", "Hemicellulose interacts with the cellulose by providing cross-linking of cellulose microfibrils: hemicellulose will search for voids in the cell wall during its formation and provide support around cellulose fibrils in order to equip the cell wall with the maximum possible strength it can provide.", "Hemicellulose dominates the middle lamella of the plant cell, unlike cellulose which is primarily found in the secondary layers.", "This allows for hemicellulose to provide middle-ground support for the cellulose on the outer layers of the plant cell.", "In few cell walls, hemicellulose will also interact with lignin to provide structural tissue support of more vascular plants." ], [ "Extraction", "There are many ways to obtain hemicellulose; all of these rely on extraction methods through hardwood or softwood trees milled into smaller samples.", "In hardwoods the main hemicellulose extract is glucuronoxlyan (acetylated xylans), while galactoglucomannan is found in softwoods.", "Prior to extraction the wood typically must be milled into wood chips of various sizes depending on the reactor used.", "Following this, a hot water extraction process, also known as autohydrolysis or hydrothermal treatment, is utilized with the addition of acids and bases to change the yield size and properties.", "The main advantage to hot water extraction is that it offers a method where the only chemical that is needed is water, making this environmentally friendly and cheap.The goal of hot water treatment is to remove as much hemicellulose from the wood as possible.", "This is done through the hydrolysis of the hemicellulose to achieve smaller oligomers and xylose.", "Xylose when dehydrated becomes furfural.", "When xylose and furfural are the goal, acid catalysts, such as formic acid, are added to increase the transition of polysaccharide to monosaccharides.", "This catalyst also has been shown to also utilize a solvent effect to be aid the reaction.One method of pretreatment is to soak the wood with diluted acids (with concentrations around 4%).", "This converts the hemicellulose into monosaccharides.", "When pretreatment is done with bases (for instance sodium or potassium hydroxide) this destroys the structure of the lignin.", "This changes the structure from crystalline to amorphous.", "Hydrothermal pretreatment is another method.", "This offers advantages such as no toxic or corrosive solvents are needed, nor are special reactors, and no extra costs to dispose of hazardous chemicals.The hot water extraction process is done in batch reactors, semi-continuous reactors, or slurry continuous reactors.", "For batch and semi-continuous reactors wood samples can be used in conditions such as chips or pellets while a slurry reactor must have particles as small as 200 to 300 micrometers.", "While the particle size decreases the yield production decreases as well.", "This is due to the increase of cellulose.The hot water process is operated at a temperature range of 160 to 240 degrees Celsius in order to maintain the liquid phase.", "This is done above the normal boiling point of water to increase the solubilization of the hemicellulose and the depolymerization of polysaccharides.", "This process can take several minutes to several hours depending on the temperature and pH of the system.", "Higher temperatures paired with higher extraction times lead to higher yields.", "A maximum yield is obtained at a pH of 3.5.If below, the extraction yield exponentially decreases.", "In order to control pH, sodium bicarbonate is generally added.", "The sodium bicarbonate inhibits the autolysis of acetyl groups as well as inhibiting glycosyl bonds.", "Depending on the temperature and time the hemicellulose can be further converted into oligomers, monomers and lignin." ], [ "See also", "* Cellulose* Lignin* Polysaccharides" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Structure and Properties of Hemicellulose /David Wang's Wood Chemistry Class" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hillbilly" ], [ "Introduction", "Hatfield clan (1897)'''Hillbilly''' is a term for people who dwell in rural, mountainous areas in the United States, primarily in the Appalachian region.", "As people migrated out of the region during the Great Depression, the term spread northward and westward with them.The usage of the term hillbilly as a descriptor receives mixed perceptions, often in part due to the nature in which it is used.", "It may be used in in-groups as a point of pride, while others consider its usage derogatory, especially when used as an insult.The first known instances of \"hillbilly\" in print were in ''The Railroad Trainmen's Journal'' (vol.", "ix, July 1892), an 1899 photograph of men and women in West Virginia labeled \"Camp Hillbilly\", and a 1900 ''New York Journal'' article containing the definition: \"a Hill-Billie is a free and untrammeled white citizen of Alabama, who lives in the hills, has no means to speak of, dresses as he can, talks as he pleases, drinks whiskey when he gets it, and fires off his revolver as the fancy takes him\".", "The stereotype is twofold in that it incorporates both positive and negative traits: \"Hillbillies\" are often considered independent and self-reliant individuals who resist the modernization of society, but at the same time they are also defined as backward and violent.", "Scholars argue this duality is reflective of the split ethnic identities in white America.", "The term's later usage extended beyond solely white communities, exemplified with the \"Hispanic hillbillies of northern New Mexico,\" in reference to the Hispanos of New Mexico." ], [ "Etymology", "The term \"hillbilly\" is Scottish in origin but is not derived from its dialect.", "In Scotland, the term \"hill-folk\" referred to people who preferred isolation from the greater society, and \"billy\" meant \"comrade\" or \"companion\".", "The words \"hill-folk\" and \"Billie\" were combined and applied to the Cameronians who followed the teachings of a militant Presbyterian named Richard Cameron.", "These Scottish Covenanters fled to the hills of southern Scotland in the late 17th century to avoid persecution of their religious beliefs.Many of the early settlers of the Thirteen Colonies were from Scotland and Northern Ireland and were followers of William of Orange, the Protestant king of England.", "In 17th century Ireland, during the Williamite War, Protestant supporters of William III (\"King Billy\") were referred to as \"Billy's Boys\" because 'Billy' is a diminutive of 'William' (common across both Britain and Ireland).", "In time the term hillbilly became synonymous with the Williamites who settled in the hills of North America.Some scholars disagree with this theory.", "Michael Montgomery's ''From Ulster to America: The Scotch-Irish Heritage of American English'' states, \"In Ulster in recent years it has sometimes been supposed that hillbilly was coined to refer to followers of King William III and brought to America by early Ulster emigrants, but this derivation is almost certainly incorrect.", "...", "In America ''hillbilly'' was first attested only in 1898, which suggests a later, independent development.\"" ], [ "History", "The Appalachian Mountains were settled in the 18th century by settlers primarily from England, lowland Scotland, and the province of Ulster in Ireland.", "The settlers from Ulster were mainly Protestants who migrated to Ireland from Lowland Scotland and Northern England during the Plantation of Ulster in the 17th century.", "Many further migrated to the American colonies beginning in the 1730s, and in America became known as the Scots-Irish although this term is inaccurate as they were also of Northern English descent.The term \"hillbilly\" spread in the years following the American Civil War.", "At this time, the country was developing both technologically and socially, but the Appalachian region was falling behind.", "Before the war, Appalachia was not distinctively different from other rural areas of the country.", "Post-war, although the frontier pushed farther west, the region retained frontier characteristics.", "The Appalachian people themselves were perceived as backward, quick to violence, and inbred in their isolation.", "Fueled by news stories of mountain feuds such as that in the 1880s between the Hatfields and McCoys, the hillbilly stereotype developed in the late 19th to early 20th century.The term \"hillbilly\" was used by members of the Planter's Protection Association, a tobacco farmers union that formed in the Black Patch region of Kentucky, to refer to non-union scab farmers who did not join the organization.The \"classic\" hillbilly stereotype reached its current characterization during the years of the Great Depression.", "The period of Appalachian out-migration, roughly from the 1930s through the 1950s, saw many mountain residents moving north to the Midwestern industrial cities of Chicago, Cleveland, Akron, and Detroit.This movement to Northern society, which became known as the \"Hillbilly Highway\", brought these previously isolated communities into mainstream United States culture.", "In response, poor white mountaineers became central characters in newspapers, pamphlets, and eventually, motion pictures.", "Authors at the time were inspired by historical figures such as Davy Crockett and Daniel Boone.", "The mountaineer image transferred over to the 20th century where the \"hillbilly\" stereotype emerged." ], [ "In popular culture", "\"Hillbilly shot glass\" inscribed on a wooden shot glass at a gift shop in Nashville, Indiana.Pop culture has perpetuated the \"hillbilly\" stereotype.", "Scholarly works suggest that the media has exploited both the Appalachian region and people by classifying them as \"hillbillies\".", "These generalizations do not match the cultural experiences of Appalachians.", "Appalachians, like many other groups, do not subscribe to a single identity.", "One of the issues associated with stereotyping is that it is profitable.", "When \"hillbilly\" became a widely used term, entrepreneurs saw a window for potential revenue.", "They \"recycled\" the image and brought it to life through various forms of media.The comics portrayed hillbilly stereotypes, notably in two strips, ''Li'l Abner'' and ''Snuffy Smith''.", "Both characters were introduced in 1934.", "''Hillbilly Elegy: A Memoir of a Family and Culture in Crisis'' (2016) is a memoir by J. D. Vance about the Appalachian values of his upbringing and their relationship to the social problems of his hometown, Middletown, Ohio.", "The book topped ''The New York Times'' Best Seller list in August 2016.A family of \"Hill People\", who are employed as migrant workers on a farm in 1952 Arkansas, have a major role in John Grisham's book ''A Painted House'', with Grisham trying to avoid stereotypes.=== Film and television ===Buddy Ebsen and Irene Ryan from ''The Beverly Hillbillies'' in 1970Television and film have portrayed \"hillbillies\" in both derogatory and sympathetic terms.", "Films such as ''Sergeant York'' or the Ma and Pa Kettle series portrayed the \"hillbilly\" as wild but good-natured.", "Television programs of the 1960s such as ''The Real McCoys'', ''The Andy Griffith Show'', and especially ''The Beverly Hillbillies'', portrayed the \"hillbilly\" as backwards but with enough wisdom to outwit more sophisticated city folk.", "''Gunsmoke'' Festus Haggen was portrayed as intelligent and quick-witted (but lacking \"education\").The popular 1970s television variety show ''Hee Haw'' regularly lampooned the stereotypical \"hillbilly\" lifestyle.", "A darker negative image of the hillbilly was introduced to another generation in the film ''Deliverance'' (1972), based on a novel of the same name by James Dickey, which depicted some \"hillbillies\" as genetically deficient, inbred, and murderous.", "''The Texas Chainsaw Massacre'' and its sequels has Leatherface and his family, the Sawyers, portray a particularly violent \"Hillbilly\" stereotype that is common in horror films.", "The Texas Chainsaw Massacre movie series is thought to have paved the way for the countless horror films featuring deranged and often cannibalistic \"Hillbillies\" that have since become a staple of the horror genre.Similar \"evil hillbilly people\"-type have also been seen in a more comical light in the 1988 horror film ''The Moonlight Sonata'', but the 2010 horror comedy film ''Tucker & Dale vs.", "Evil'' even parodies hillbilly stereotyping.", "More recently, the TV series ''Justified'' (2010–2015) was centered around deputy U. S. Marshal Raylan Givens who was reassigned to his hometown in Harlan, Kentucky where he was in conflict with Boyd Crowder, a drug dealer who had grown up with Raylan.", "The show's plots often included \"hillbilly\" tropes such as dimwitted and easily manipulated men, use of homemade drugs, and snake-handling revivalists.", "\"Hillbillies\" became a frequent gimmick in professional wrestling, usually portrayed as simple but amiable fan favourites.", "An early example of this character was Whiskers Savage (born Edward Civil, 1899–1967) who was promoted as a \"bumpkin\" persona as early as 1928.During the 1960s and 1970s, two superheavyweight wrestlers (and frequent tag team partners) Haystacks Calhoun and Man Mountain Mike both portrayed \"country boys\" in overalls and carrying lucky horseshoes.", "In the WWF in the 1980s, Hillbilly Jim, depicted as a protegé of Hulk Hogan, led a faction of \"hillbillies\" including Uncle Elmer, Cousin Luke and Cousin Junior.", "\"Hillbillies\" were at the center of reality television in the 21st century.", "Network television shows such as ''The Real Beverly Hillbillies'', ''High Life'', and ''The Simple Life'' displayed the \"hillbilly\" lifestyle for viewers in the United States.", "This sparked protests across the country with rural-minded individuals gathering to fight the stereotype.", "The Center for Rural Strategies started a nationwide campaign stating the stereotype was \"politically incorrect\".", "The Kentucky-based organization engaged political figures in the movement such as Robert Byrd and Mike Huckabee.", "Both protestors argued that the discrimination of any other group in United States would not be tolerated, so neither should the discrimination against rural U.S. citizens.", "A 2003 piece published by ''The Cincinnati Enquirer'' read, \"In this day of hypersensitivity to diversity and political correctness, Appalachians have been a group that it is still socially acceptable to demean and joke about...", "But rural folks have spoken up and said 'enough' to the Hollywood mockers.", "\"===Music===Migrant family from Arkansas playing hill-billy songs (1939)''Hillbilly music'' was at one time considered an acceptable label for what is now known as country music.", "The label, coined in 1925 by country pianist Al Hopkins, persisted until the 1950s.The \"hillbilly music\" categorization covers a wide variety of musical genres including bluegrass, country, western, and gospel.", "Appalachian folk song existed long before the \"hillbilly\" label.", "When the commercial industry was combined with \"traditional Appalachian folksong\", \"hillbilly music\" was formed.", "Some argue this is a \"High Culture\" issue where sophisticated individuals may see something considered \"unsophisticated\" as \"trash\".In the early-20th century, artists began to utilize the \"hillbilly\" label.", "The term gained momentum due to Ralph Peer, the recording director of OKeh Records, who heard it being used among Southerners when he went down to Virginia to record the music and labeled all Southern country music as so from then on.", "The York Brothers entitled one of their songs \"Hillbilly Rose\" and the Delmore Brothers followed with their song \"Hillbilly Boogie\".", "In 1927, the Gennett studios in Richmond, Indiana, made a recording of black fiddler Jim Booker.", "The recordings were labeled \"made for Hillbilly\" in the Gennett files and were marketed to a white audience.", "Columbia Records had much success with the \"Hill Billies\" featuring Al Hopkins and Fiddlin' Charlie Bowman.By the late-1940s, radio stations started to use the \"hillbilly music\" label.", "Originally, \"hillbilly\" was used to describe fiddlers and string bands, but now it was used to describe traditional Appalachian music.", "Appalachians had never used this term to describe their own music.", "Popular songs whose style bore characteristics of both hillbilly and African American music were referred to as ''hillbilly boogie'' and ''rockabilly''.", "Elvis Presley was a prominent player of rockabilly and was known early in his career as the \"Hillbilly Cat\".When the Country Music Association was founded in 1958, the term ''hillbilly music'' gradually fell out of use.", "The music industry merged hillbilly music, Western swing, and Cowboy music, to form the current category C&W, Country and Western.Some artists (notably Hank Williams) and fans were offended by the \"hillbilly music\" label.", "While the term is not used as frequently today, it is still used on occasion to refer to old-time music or bluegrass.", "For example, WHRB broadcasts a popular weekly radio show entitled \"Hillbilly at Harvard\".", "The show is devoted to playing a mix of old-time music, bluegrass, and traditional country and western.=== Video games ===Many video games feature plots, subplots or characters that utilize the Hillbilly stereotype for narrative purposes and cultural signifiers.", "Some notable examples of this include the Silent Hill video game series, Fallout 3, Fallout 76, Dead by Daylight, Grand Theft Auto V, Red Dead Redemption 2, Resident Evil 4 and Resident Evil 7." ], [ "Cultural implications", "The hillbilly stereotype is considered to have had a traumatizing effect on some in the Appalachian region.", "Feelings of shame, self-hatred, and detachment are cited as a result of \"culturally transmitted traumatic stress syndrome\".", "Appalachian scholars say that the large-scale stereotyping has rewritten Appalachian history, making Appalachians feel particularly vulnerable.", "\"Hillbilly\" has now become part of Appalachian identity and some Appalachians feel they are constantly defending themselves against this image.The stereotyping also has political implications for the region.", "There is a sense of \"perceived history\" that prevents many political issues from receiving adequate attention.", "Appalachians are often blamed for economic struggles.", "\"Moonshiners, welfare cheats, and coal miners\" are stereotypes stemming from the greater hillbilly stereotype in the region.", "This prejudice has been said to serve as a barrier for addressing some serious issues such as the economy and the environment.Despite the political and social difficulties associated with stereotyping, Appalachians have organized to enact change.", "The War on Poverty is sometimes considered to be an example of one effort that allowed for Appalachian community organization.", "Grassroots movements, protests, and strikes are common in the area, though not always successful." ], [ "Intragroup versus intergroup usage", "The Springfield, Missouri Chamber of Commerce once presented dignitaries visiting the city with an \"Ozark Hillbilly Medallion\" and a certificate proclaiming the honoree a \"hillbilly of the Ozarks\".", "On June 7, 1952, President Harry S. Truman received the medallion after a breakfast speech at the Shrine Mosque for the 35th Division Association.", "Other recipients included US Army generals Omar Bradley and Matthew Ridgway, J. C. Penney, Johnny Olson, and Ralph Story.A customized pickup truck called \"Hillbilly Heaven\", on display in Wheelersburg, OhioHillbilly Days is an annual festival held in mid-April in Pikeville, Kentucky celebrating the best of Appalachian culture.", "The event began by local Shriners as a fundraiser to support the Shriners Children's Hospital.", "It has grown since its beginning in 1976 and now is the second largest festival held in the state of Kentucky.", "Artists and craftspeople showcase their talents and sell their works on display.", "Nationally renowned musicians as well as the best of the regional mountain musicians share six different stages located throughout the downtown area of Pikeville.", "Aspiring hillbillies from across the nation compete to come up with the wildest Hillbilly outfit.", "The event has earned its name as the Mardi Gras of the Mountains.", "Fans of \"mountain music\" come from around the United States to hear this annual concentrated gathering of talent.The term \"Hillbilly\" has been used with pride by a number of people within the region as well as famous persons, such as singer Dolly Parton, chef Sean Brock, and actress Minnie Pearl.", "Positive self-identification with the term generally includes identification with a set of \"hillbilly values\" including love and respect for nature, strong work ethic, generosity toward neighbors and those in need, family ties, self-reliance, resiliency, and a simple lifestyle.However, the term has also been used repeatedly by outsiders to systematically denigrate Appalachian natives and other rural people.", "To many native Appalachians, an outsider calling them \"hillbilly\" is highly offensive and the term is one of the oldest epithets in use in the United States." ], [ "See also", "* Appalachian stereotypes* Country (identity)* Cracker (term)* Hillbilly armor* List of ethnic slurs* Mountain white* Okie* Peckerwood* Redneck* Trailer trash* White trash* Yokel* Zomia (geography)" ], [ "References", "African Banjo Echoes in Appalachia: A Study of Folk Tradition (1995), by Cecelia Conway" ], [ "External links" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Host" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''host''' is a person responsible for guests at an event or for providing hospitality during it.", "'''Host''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Places", "Host, Pennsylvania, a village in Berks County" ], [ "People", "Jim Host (born 1937), American businessmanMichel Host (1942–2021), French writer\"Host\", an author abbreviation in botany for Nicolaus Thomas Host" ], [ "Arts, entertainment, and media", "===Fictional entities===Hosts (''World of Darkness''), fictional characters in game ''Werewolf: The Forsaken''Hosts, alien invaders and overlords in the TV series ''Colony''Avenging Host, a group of characters in Marvel Comics' ''Earth X'' series of comic booksRutan Host, fictional aliens from ''Doctor Who''===Film===* ''Host'' (film), a 2020 horror film directed by Rob Savage===Literature===''Host'', the third novel in the Rogue Mage series by Faith Hunter''Host'', a 1993 book by Peter James''Hosts'' (novel), a 2001 book written by American author F. Paul Wilson===Music===H.O.S.T., an influential hip-hop group in Azerbaijan''Host'' (Critters Buggin album), 1996''Host'' (Paradise Lost album), 1999''Host'' (Cults album), 2020\"Host\", a song from the b-side of the 1999 single \"Cave\" by Muse" ], [ "Computing and technology", "Host (network), a computer providing serviceshosts (file), mapping hostnames to IP addresseshost (Unix), a commandInternet hosting serviceVirtual host, hosting multiple domain names on a single serverIn hardware virtualization a host machine runs a virtual machine* UOL HOST, a webhosting service" ], [ "Groups or formations", "Cossack host, military formations of Eastern EuropeHueste, or host, a type of military force in the Iberian Peninsula and France during the Middle AgesFurious Host or the Wild Hunt, a European folk myth" ], [ "Religion", "Heavenly host, an \"army\" of good angels in HeavenLord of hosts, a common epithet of the God of the Old TestamentSacramental bread, called the host or ''hostia'', used in Christian liturgy" ], [ "Roles", "Host (radio), the presenter or announcer on a radio showTelevision presenter, the host or announcer on a television showCasino hostHost, a paid male companion at a host club offering conversation and entertainment, primarily in East AsiaMaître d'hôtel (Maître d') or head waiter of a restaurant or hotelMaster of ceremoniesTalk show host, a presenter of a TV or radio talk show" ], [ "Science", "Host (biology), an organism harboring another organism or organisms on or in itselfHost (psychology), personality as emphasized in treating dissociative identity disorderHost (astronomy), the interactions and analysis of a star-planet relationship" ], [ "See also", "Hostess (disambiguation)Hosting (disambiguation)*The Host (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia

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