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[ [ "Geography of Finland" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''geography of Finland''' is characterized by its northern position, its ubiquitous landscapes of intermingled boreal forests and lakes, and its low population density.", "Finland can be divided into three areas: archipelagoes and coastal lowlands, a slightly higher central lake plateau and uplands to north and northeast.", "Bordering the Baltic Sea, Gulf of Bothnia, and Gulf of Finland, as well as Sweden, Norway, and Russia, Finland is the northernmost country in the European Union.", "Most of the population and agricultural resources are concentrated in the south.", "Northern and eastern Finland are sparsely populated containing vast wilderness areas.", "Taiga forest is the dominant vegetation type." ], [ "Size and external boundaries", "Map of Finland – click to enlarge.Finland's total area is .", "Of this area 10% is water, 69% forest, 8% cultivated land and 13% other.", "Finland is the eighth largest country in Europe after Russia, France, Ukraine, Spain, Sweden, Norway and Germany.As a whole, the shape of Finland's boundaries resembles a figure of a one-armed human.", "In Finnish, parallels are drawn between the figure and the national personification of Finland – Finnish Maiden (''Suomi-neito'') – and the country as a whole can be referred in the Finnish language by her name.", "Even in official context the area around Enontekiö in northwestern part of the country between Sweden and Norway can be referred to as the \"Arm\" (''käsivarsi'').", "After the Continuation War Finland lost major land areas to Russia in the Moscow Armistice of 1944, and the figure was said to have lost the other of her arms, as well as a hem of her \"skirt\"." ], [ "Relief and geology", "===Geology===Effects of the last ice age: glacial striations in a country without glaciersThe bedrock of Finland belong to the Baltic Shield and was formed by a succession of orogenies in Precambrian time.", "The oldest rocks of Finland, those of Archean age, are found in the east and north.", "These rocks are chiefly granitoids and migmatitic gneiss.", "Rocks in central and western Finland originated or came to place during the Svecokarelian orogeny.", "Following this last orogeny Rapakivi granites intruded various locations of Finland during the Mesoproterozoic and Neoproterozoic, specially at Åland and the southeast.", "So-called Jotnian sediments occur usually together with Rapakivi granites.", "The youngest rocks in Finland are those found in the northwestern arm which belong to Scandinavian Caledonides that assembled in Paleozoic times.", "During the Caledonian orogeny Finland was likely a sunken foreland basin covered by sediments, subsequent uplift and erosion would have eroded all of these sediments.===Relief and hydrography===An aerial view of the Kvarken ArchipelagoAbout one third of Finland lies below 100 m, and about two thirds lies under 200 m. Finland can be divided into three topographical areas; the coastal landscapes, the interior lake plateau also known as Finnish lake district and Upland Finland.", "The coastal landscapes are made up mostly of plains below 20 m. These plains tilt gently towards the sea so that where its irregularities surpasses sea-level groups of islands like the Kvarken Archipelago or the Åland Islands are found.", "Åland is connected to the Finnish mainland by a shallow submarine plateau that does not exceed 20 m in depth.", "Next to the Gulf of Bothnia the landscape of Finland is extremely flat with height differences no larger than 50 m. This region called the Ostrobothnian Plain extends inland about 100 km and constitute the largest plain in the Nordic countries.The interior lake plateau is dominated by undulating hilly terrain with valley to top height differences of 100 or less and occasionally up to 200 m. Only the area around the lakes Pielinen and Päijänne stand with a subtly more pronounced relief.", "The relief of the interior lake plateau bears some resemblance to the Swedish Norrland terrain.", "Upland Finland and areas higher than 200 m are found mostly in the north and east of the country.", "A limited number of hills and mountains exceed 500 m in height in these regions.", "Inselberg plains are common in the northern half of the country.", "In the far north hills reach 200 to 400 m and the landscape is a förfjäll (fore-fell).", "Only the extreme northwest contains a more dramatic mountain landscape.The subdued landscape of Finland is the result of protracted erosion that has leveled down ancient mountain massifs into near-flat landforms called peneplains.", "The last major leveling event resulted in the formation of the Sub-Cambrian peneplain in Late Neoproterozoic time.", "While Finland has remained very close to sea-level since the formation of this last peneplain some further relief was formed by a slight uplift resulting in the carving of valleys by rivers.", "The slight uplift also means that at parts the uplifted peneplain can be traced as summit accordances.", "The Quaternary ice ages resulted in the erosion of weak rock and loose materials by glaciers.", "When the ice masses retreated eroded depressions turned into lakes.", "Fractures in Finland's bedrock were particularly affected by weathering and erosion, leaving as result trace straight sea and lake inlets.The Kuhakoski rapids in UusimaaExcept a few rivers along the coasts most rivers in Finland drain at some stage into one or more lakes.", "The drainage basins drain into various directions.", "Much of Finland drains into the Gulf of Bothnia including the country's largest and longest rivers, Kokemäenjoki and Kemijoki respectively.", "Finland's largest lake drains by Vuoksi River into Lake Ladoga in Russia.", "Upland Finland in the east drains east across Russian Republic of Karelia into the White Sea.", "In the northeast Lake Inari discharges by Paatsjoki into Barents Sea in the Arctic.+Localities in Finland by approximate date of deglaciation Year before presentDeglaciated12,700 Helsinki, Kotka11,000 Turku, Kuopio10,900 Jyväskylä, Mariehamn, Tampere 10,800 Lake Inari10,700 All of Åland10,500Kajaani10,300Vasa, Oulu10,200Rovaniemi10,100Tornio===Quaternary glaciation===The ice sheet that covered Finland intermittently during the Quaternary grew out from the Scandinavian Mountains.", "During the last deglaciation the first parts of Finland to become ice-free, the southeastern coast, did so slightly prior to the Younger Dryas cold-spell 12,700 years before present (BP).", "The retreat of the ice cover occurred simultaneously from the north-east, the east and southeast.", "The retreat was fastest from the southeast resulting in the lower course of Tornio being the last part of Finland to be deglaciated.", "Finally by 10,100 years BP the ice cover had all but left Finland to concentrate in Sweden and Norway before fading away.As the ice sheet became thinner and retreated the land begun to rise by effect of isostacy.", "Much of Finland was under water when the ice retreated and was gradually uplifted in a process that continues today.", "Albeit not all areas were drowned at the same time it is estimated at time or another about 62% has been under water.", "Depending on location in Finland the ancient shoreline reached different maximum heights.", "In southern Finland 150 to 160 m, in central Finland about 200 m and in eastern Finland up to 220 m." ], [ "Climate", "Finland map of Köppen climate classificationLatitude is the principal influence on Finland's climate.", "Because of Finland's northern location, winter is the longest season.", "Only in the south coast is summer as long as winter.", "On the average, winter lasts from early December to mid March in the archipelago and the southwestern coast and from early October to early May in Lapland.", "This means that southern portions of the country are snow-covered about three months of the year and the northern, about seven months.", "The long winter causes about half of the annual of precipitation in the north to fall as snow.", "Precipitation in the south amounts to about annually.", "Like that of the north, it occurs all through the year, though not so much of it is snow.The Atlantic Ocean to the west and the Eurasian continent to the east interact to modify the climate of the country.", "The warm waters of the Gulf Stream and the North Atlantic Drift Current, which warm Norway and Sweden, also warm Finland.", "Westerly winds bring the warm air currents into the Baltic areas and to the country's shores, moderating winter temperatures, especially in the south.", "These winds, because of clouds associated with weather systems accompanying the westerlies, also decrease the amount of sunshine received during the summer.", "By contrast, the continental high pressure system situated over the Eurasian continent counteracts the maritime influences, occasionally causing severe winters and high temperatures in the summer.The highest ever recorded temperature is (Liperi, 29 July 2010).", "The lowest, (Kittilä, 28 January 1999).", "The annual middle temperature is relatively high in the southwestern part of the country (), with quite mild winters and warm summers, and low in the northeastern part of Lapland ().Temperature extremes for every month:Extreme highs:* January: (January 6, 1973, Mariehamn Airport, Jomala, Åland)* February: (February 28, 1943, Ilmala, Helsinki, Uusimaa)* March: (March 27, 2007, Helsinki Airport, Vantaa, Uusimaa)* April: (April 27, 1921, Jyväskylä, Central Finland)* May: (May 30/31, 1995, Ingermaninkylä, Lapinjärvi, Uusimaa)* June: (June 24, 1934, Ähtäri, South Ostrobothnia)* July: (July 29, 2010, Joensuu Airport, Liperi, North Karelia)* August: (August 7, 2010, Heinola, Päijänne Tavastia, and Puumala, South Savo and August 8, 2010, Laune, Lahti, Päijänne Tavastia)* September: (September 6, 1968, Rauma, Satakunta)* October: (October 14, 2018, Oulu Airport, Oulu, North Ostrobothnia)* November: (November 6, 2020, Mariehamn Airport, Jomala, Åland)* December: (December 20, 2015, Kokemäki, Satakunta and Pori, Satakunta)Extreme lows:* January: (January 28, 1999, Pokka, Kittilä, Lapland)* February: (February 5, 1912, Sodankylä, Lapland)* March: (March 1, 1971, Tuntsa, Salla, Lapland)* April: (April 2, 1912, Kuusamo, North Ostrobothnia and April 9, 1912, Sodankylä, Lapland)* May: (May 1, 1971, Kalmankaltio, Enontekiö, Lapland)* June: (June 3, 1962, Laanila, Inari, Lapland)* July: (July 12, 1958, Kilpisjärvi, Enontekiö, Lapland)* August: (August 26, 1980, Naruska, Salla, Lapland)* September: (September 26, 1968, Vuotso, Sodankylä, Lapland)* October: (October 25, 1968, Sodankylä, Lapland)* November: (November 30, 1915, Sodankylä, Lapland)* December: (December 21, 1919, Pielisjärvi, North Karelia)" ], [ "Area and boundaries", "lakes in Finland larger than 500 square metres and 75,818 islands of over 0,5 km2 area.", "'''Area:'''''total:''''land:''''water:'''''Area – comparative:'''slightly smaller than Germany, Montana, and Newfoundland and Labrador'''Land boundaries:'''''total:''''border countries:''Norway , Sweden , Russia An aerial photograph of Naantali Archipelago, Archipelago Sea'''Coastline:''''''Maritime claims:'''''Territorial sea:'', in the Gulf of Finland; there is a stretch of international waters between Finnish and Estonian claims; Bogskär has separate internal waters and 3 nmi of territorial waters''Contiguous zone:''''Exclusive economic zone:''; extends to continental shelf boundary with Sweden, Estonia, and Russia''Continental shelf:'' depth or to the depth of exploitation'''Elevation extremes:'''''lowest point:''Baltic Sea 0 m''highest point:''Haltitunturi" ], [ "Resources and land use", "Lake Inari, LaplandShare of forest area in total land area, top countries (2021).", "Finland has the tenth highest percentage of forest cover in the world.", "'''Natural resources:'''timber, iron ore, copper, lead, zinc, chromite, nickel, gold, silver, limestone'''Land use:'''''agricultural land:'' 7.5% (2018 est.", ")''arable land:'' 7.4% (2018 est.", ")''permanent crops:'' 0% (2018 est.", ")''permanent pasture:'' 0.1% (2018 est.", ")''forest:'' 72.9% (2018 est.", ")''other:'' 19.6% (2018 est.", ")'''Irrigated land:'''690 km2 (2012)'''Total renewable water resources:'''110 billion m3 (2017 est.", ")'''Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):'''''municipal:'' 400 million m3 (2017 est.", ")''industrial:'' 1.417 billion m3 (2017 est.", ")''agricultural:'' 50 million m3 (2017 est.)" ], [ "Environmental concerns", "'''Natural hazards:'''Cold periods in winter pose a threat to the unprepared.", "'''Environment – current issues:'''Air pollution from manufacturing and power plants contributing to acid rain; water pollution from industrial wastes, agricultural chemicals; habitat loss threatens wildlife populations.", "'''Environment – international agreements:'''''party to:''Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Heavy Metals, Air Pollution-Multi-effect Protocol, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants (signed 2001, ratified 2002), Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protection, Antarctic-Marine Living Resources, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol (signed May 1998, ratified together with 14 other EU countries May 31, 2002), Climate Change-Paris Agreement, Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping-London Convention, Marine Dumping-London Protocol, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 2006, Wetlands, Whaling." ], [ "Other miscellaneous information", "*In Finland there are approximately 168,000 lakes of over in size, and 57,000 of over .", "A research project by National Land Survey of Finland is currently (2019) seeking to clarify the definition of 'lake' and the number of lakes in Finland.", "*The Finnish capital, Helsinki, is the northernmost capital city on the mainland of any continent, and ranks as second globally (the Icelandic capital Reykjavik takes the first place globally).", "*At , Finland has the second-longest border with Russia of any European country, surpassed only by Ukraine ().", "*The third largest lake, Lake Inari in the Lapland province of extreme northern Finland, has a surface area of , a total shore length of , a maximum depth of , some 3,318 islands, and a total water volume of .", "Despite its size and numerous recreational opportunities, the lake is scarcely visited sheerly because of its distance from Helsinki, and its daunting distance to other similarly populated areas in the south of the country." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of Finland" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''demographics of Finland''' is monitored by the Statistics Finland (, ).", "Finland has a population of over 5.6 million people, ranking it 19th out of 27 within the European Union.", "The average population density in Finland is , making it the third most sparsely populated country in Europe, after Iceland and Norway.", "Population distribution is extremely uneven, with the majority of the population concentrated in the southern and western regions of the country.", "The majority of the Finnish population - approximately 73% - lives in urban areas.", "Approximately 1.6 million, or almost 30%, reside solely in the Helsinki Metropolitan Area.", "Conversely, the Arctic Lapland region contains only .Finland is a predominantly ethnically homogeneous country with a dominant ethnicity of Finnish descent.", "However, there are notable minority groups in the form of Finland-Swedes, Sámi, and Roma people, with important historical significance.", "The official languages are Finnish and Swedish, with the latter being the mother tongue of roughly 5.2% of the Finnish populace.", "Finland was a part of the Swedish kingdom for around 500 years.Due to recent immigration, significant populations of ethnic Estonians, Russians, Iraqis, Chinese and Somalis now reside in the country.", "Furthermore, by 2023, Ukrainians had become the second-largest ethnic group in the region, following closely behind the Estonian population., Statistics Finland publishes data on the foreign population using three distinct methodologies.", "The Finnish population includes persons of foreign origin and background, who make up 9.1% of the total population.", "In additional calculations, the proportion of persons born outside Finland is 8.6%.", "Individuals who have a first language other than Finnish, Swedish or Sámi account for 8.9%.In the history of Finland, the first human settlement originated approximately 11,000 BC, following the end of the Ice Age.", "The initial settlers of present-day Finland were presumably hunter-gatherers.", "They were later replaced by the Sámi, followed by Finnic populations from the east, south and west.", "The initial dependable population information dates back to 1749 when Swedish officials initially recorded population statistics.", "Finland was a part of the Swedish Kingdom until it became an autonomous state within the Russian Empire in 1809, and finally gained independence in 1917.In the late 19th and 20th centuries, significant emigration, primarily from rural areas, occurred to Sweden and North America, while Finland's primary immigrant source was other European countries.", "Approximately 300,000 Finnish nationals reside abroad and, according to estimates, the number of individuals of Finnish ancestry worldwide ranges from 1.6 to 2 million.", "Currently, Sweden, the United Kingdom, Germany, the United States, and Spain are the preferred destinations for most Finnish emigrants.One of the primary challenges facing society in the future is adapting to demographic changes, particularly the aging of the population.", "The proportion of the working-age population is decreasing, resulting in projected labour shortages.", "However, immigration has significantly increased in recent years.", "If the current trend persists, the population of Finland will continue to increase and could even reach the milestone of 6 million people by 2040." ], [ "Population", ", there are 5,604,558 people in Finland.", "Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2022.", "*One birth every 11 minutes*One death every 9 minutes*One net migrant every 38 minutes*Net gain of one person every 120 minutes=== Historical population ===The first human settlement in Finland originated around 11,000 BC, following the end of the Ice Age.", "The initial inhabitants of modern-day Finland were presumably hunter-gatherers.", "There is no information about the language spoken by the first inhabitants.", "However, it is known that the Finnish and Sámi languages emerged thousands of years later.", "Archaeological, linguistic, and genetic studies support the notion that the country was inhabited from south to north, with a population of a few thousand during prehistoric times.", "The Sámi people then succeeded the previous inhabitants, followed by the influx of Finnic people from the east, west, and south who eventually replaced them.", "Currently, the Sámi people number around 10,000 in Finland as a minority.", "Although they have lived north of the Arctic Circle for 7,000 years, they make up only 5% of the population of the province of Lapland.The reliable population data is available from 1749, when Sweden first compiled population statistics.", "At that time, the population of Finland stood at 410,400 individuals.", "The threshold of one million inhabitants was surpassed subsequent to the Finnish War (1808-1809) in 1811, upon the annexation of the Old Finland region.", "The milestone of five million inhabitants was reached in 1991.Exceeding the million population milestones:# million in 1811# million in 1879# million in 1912# million in 1950# million in 1991Until the beginning of the 20th century, annual population growth fluctuated between 1% and 2%.", "There were a few exceptional years of negative growth during times of war and destruction.", "The significant demographic and economic transformations that took place in Finland post-World War II impacted the composition of Finnish families.", "Over time, family sizes reduced noticeably, declining from an average of 3.6 individuals in 1950 to an average of 2.7 in 1975.Despite this change, family structures remained relatively constant during the 25-year period, with 24.4% of families consisting of a man and a woman, 61.9% comprising a couple and children, 11.8% consisting of a woman with offspring, and 1.9% consisting of a man with offspring.", "There were no substantial differences in percentages compared to 1950.Nonetheless, fewer children were born per family; the average decreased from 2.24 in 1950 to 1.7 in the 1980s.", "Large families were infrequent, with only 2% having four or more children, while 51% had a single child; 38% had two children, and 9% had three children.", "Population growth declined to below 0.5% in the 1970s, and to approximately 0.2% in the 1990s.", "In recent years, however, population growth has recovered partially, rising to approximately 0.5%, partly due to increased immigration.=== Distribution and density ===Population densities in Finland, inhabitants per square kilometre, the population density of Finland was 18.3 persons per square kilometre.", "The region of Uusimaa was the most densely populated region with around 190 persons per square kilometre, while Lapland was the least densely populated region with only around two persons per square kilometre.", "The populace is heavily clustered in the west and south of Finland, where the largest urban centres are situated.", "There are a total of nine cities in Finland with more than 100,000 residents.", "Area Population Of total population (%) Uusimaa 1,733,033 Southwest Finland 485,567 Satakunta 212,556 Kanta-Häme 169,537 Pirkanmaa 532,671 Päijät-Häme 204,528 Kymenlaakso 159,488 South Karelia 125,353 South Savo 130,451 North Savo 247,689 North Karelia 162,540 Central Finland 272,437 South Ostrobothnia 190,774 Ostrobothnia 176,323 Central Ostrobothnia 67,805 North Ostrobothnia 416,543 Kainuu 70,521 Lapland 175,795 Åland 30,359 The geographical center of population (Weber point) of the Finnish population is currently located in Hauho, in the village of Sappee, now part of the town of Hämeenlinna.", "The coordinates of this point are 61' 17\" N, 25' 07\" E.+ Area Population Of total population (%) '''URBAN AREAS''' 4,044,568 Inner urban area 2,104,164\t Outer urban area 1,341,122\t Peri-urban area 599,282 '''RURAL AREAS''' 1,450,534\t Local centres in rural areas 302,264 Rural areas close to urban areas 385,211 Rural heartland areas 503,590 Sparsely populated rural areas 259,469 Unknown 68,868" ], [ "Fertility", "Population pyramid segmented by background.", "Finnish background in color, foreign background in grey., the birth rate dropped to its lowest level on record since 1776 with a total fertility rate of 1.26.A total of 43,320 children were born, and 38,179 (85%) of them were delivered by women who speak Finnish, Swedish or Sámi, the country's national languages.", ", the average age of first-time mothers was 29.7 years old.", "The mean age of women who have given birth to a live child was 31.3 years.", "Area Total fertility rate Gross reproduction rate '''FINLAND''' 1.32 0.64 Uusimaa 1.26 0.61 Southwest Finland 1.27 0.62 Satakunta 1.40 0.68 Kanta-Häme 1.42 0.67 Pirkanmaa 1.23 0.61 Päijät-Häme 1.36 0.66 Kymenlaakso 1.23 0.58 South Karelia 1.28 0.61 South Savo 1.29 0.6 North Savo 1.30 0.65 North Karelia 1.19 0.57 Central Finland 1.28 0.64 South Ostrobothnia 1.57 0.78 Ostrobothnia 1.57 0.78 Central Ostrobothnia 1.73 0.83 North Ostrobothnia 1.58 0.78 Kainuu 1.37 0.67 Lapland 1.34 0.66 Åland 1.45 0.85, people with a foreign background in Finland had higher fertility rates than those with Finnish roots.", "Women of foreign descent, either born abroad (1.7) or in Finland (1.65), had the most substantial total fertility rates, averaging 1.45 for all women in Finland.", "Women of Finnish lineage had a slightly higher fertility rate of 1.4.For men, the total fertility rate was just above 1.3, with Finnish men slightly under the average.", "In contrast, men of foreign origin, whether born abroad or in Finland, exhibited a fertility rate of approximately 1.45 each.", "Since 2018, the most frequent countries of affiliation for women of foreign origin delivering infants have been former Soviet Union countries, Somalia, and Iraq.===Historical fertility rates===In the 18th century, Finland recorded a fertility rate of 5-6 children per woman, but population growth was hindered by high infant mortality, with approximately 1 in 5 infants dying before their first birthday.", "Fertility remained relatively steady in the 19th century, with occasional variations.", "During times of conflict, such as the Finnish war, and periods of famine, birth rates declined, but eventually normalised.", "Presently, some developing countries have fertility rates similar to those of Finland in the 18th and 19th centuries.As the 19th century drew to a close, the traditional agrarian society began to crumble.", "Simultaneously, the industrial and service sectors witnessed a surge in job opportunities, and urban migration intensified.", "Manufacturing plants mushroomed in proximity to rivers.", "Fewer children being born played a role in the rising living standards.", "However, it is important to note that contraceptive methods were limited to the rhythm method and interrupted intercourse.Years 1776 1777 1778 1779 1780 1781 1782 1783 1784 1785 1786 1787 1788 1789 1790 1791 1792 1793 5.42 5.51 5.82 5.91 5.71 5.17 5.74 5.42 5.79 5.39 5.6 5.46 4.86 4.51 4.88 4.66 5.43 5.71 1794 1795 1796 1797 1798 1799 1800 1801 1802 1803 1804 1805 1806 1807 1808 1809 1810 1811 5.41 5.18 5.05 5.2 5.08 5.09 4.92 5.07 5.23 4.78 5.24 5.21 4.84 4.97 4.16 3.69 5.1 4.66 1812 1813 1814 1815 1816 1817 1818 1819 1820 1821 1822 1823 1824 1825 1826 1827 1828 1829 4.95 4.6 4.72 4.84 4.82 4.84 4.78 4.51 4.55 5.34 4.59 5.21 4.84 4.83 4.89 4.77 5.12 4.98 1830 1831 1832 1833 1834 1835 1836 1837 1838 1839 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 1846 1847 4.85 4.58 4.47 3.96 4.75 4.57 4.17 4.17 4.32 4.47 4.59 4.56 4.96 4.77 4.64 4.76 4.39 4.46 1848 1849 1850 1851 1852 1853 1854 1855 1856 1857 1858 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 4.84 4.92 4.78 5.17 4.79 4.8 5.02 4.82 4.86 4.48 4.87 4.74 4.84 5.2 5.03 4.85 5.28 4.79 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 4.46 4.47 3.4 4.52 4.86 4.95 4.87 4.97 5.12 4.95 4.97 5.19 4.81 5.14 5.01 4.79 4.99 4.96 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 5.04 4.79 4.98 5.17 5.07 4.89 4.83 5.04 4.65 4.43 4.59 4.87 4.8 4.77 5.07 4.96The decline in fertility experienced a noteworthy acceleration in the early 20th century.", "In 1900, the fertility rate stood at 4.8, which plummeted to 2.3 by 1933.In the late 1930s, fertility rates experienced an uptick, but it later plummeted due to the war, particularly in 1940 as a result of the Winter War.", "Although the ceasefire caused a spike in births, the resumption of hostilities stalled family planning efforts.", "Post-war in autumn 1944, there was a resurgence in births, leading to a total fertility rate of 3.1 in 1945, reaching a peak of 3.5 in 1947-1948, a record that remains unbroken.", "However, fertility rates began a steady decline, dipping below the generational renewal threshold of 2.1 by 1969.Finnish fertility rates have not recovered to this level since.The decline persisted until 1973, when it hit a historic low of 1.5 children per woman.", "In recent years, there have been fluctuations, with fertility rates fluctuating between 1.7 and 1.9.As of the 2020s, Finland's overall fertility rate has fallen below 1.4.Years 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 4.83 4.92 4.79 4.62 4.85 4.67 4.81 4.76 4.65 4.72 4.60 4.46 4.45 4.15 4.13 3.89 3.69 3.71 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 3.60 2.87 3.76 3.58 3.43 3.44 3.22 3.17 3.02 2.92 2.92 2.83 2.75 2.59 2.46 2.27 2.33 2.37 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 2.31 2.52 2.52 2.56 2.15 2.90 2.00 2.46 2.56 3.07 3.41 3.47 3.47 3.33 3.16 3.01 3.06 2.96 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 2.93 2.93 2.91 2.86 2.68 2.75 2.71 2.65 2.66 2.66 2.58 2.46 2.41 2.32 2.15 1.94 1.83 1.70 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1.59 1.50 1.62 1.69 1.72 1.69 1.65 1.64 1.63 1.65 1.72 1.74 1.70 1.64 1.60 1.59 1.70 1.71 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 1.78 1.79 1.85 1.81 1.85 1.81 1.76 1.75 1.70 1.73 1.73 1.73 1.72 1.76 1.80 1.80 1.84 1.83 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 1.85 1.86 1.87 1.83 1.80 1.75 1.71 1.65 1.57 1.49 1.41 1.35 1.37 1.46 1.32The fertility rate in Finland exceeded that of neighbouring countries for the duration of the 20th century.", "However, since 2010, there has been a significant decline, whereas other Nordic countries have not experienced such a trend until more recently.", "It is a recent development that Sweden and Finland have similar social policies and incomes, however, Finland is the only country experiencing natural population decrease (excluding immigration)." ], [ "Age", "Life expectancy in Finland since 1755Life expectancy in Finland since 1960 by genderLive births and deaths over timeCrude birth rate and death rate over timeThe Finnish population is ageing.", "Life expectancy has also increased in recent decades.", "Population growth has mainly been driven by immigration.", "Furthermore, the population is increasingly concentrated in urban areas in southern and western Finland.", "* , the average age of the Finnish population was 43.7 years, with an average age of 42.4 years for men and 45.0 years for women.", "* , the average age of death for men was 75.3 and 82.1 for women, indicating a margin of 6.9 years.", "* , infant mortality was very low in Finland.", "There were two deaths per thousand live births, with 2.3 deaths per thousand for male infants and 1.8 deaths per thousand for female infants.", "Age Population Of total population (%) Under 4 238,282 5 - 9 285,852 10 - 14 316,194 15 - 19 307,960 20 - 24 304,385 25 - 29 344,950 30 - 34 372,101 35 - 39 363,619 40 - 44 356,657 45 - 49 334,702 50 - 54 326,045 55 - 59 364009 60 - 64 354,703 65 - 69 349,928 70 - 74 343,733 75 - 79 273,662 80 - 84 168,074 Over 85 159,114 === Life expectancy and mortality ===In the mid-18th century, when population statistics were initially recorded, Finland recorded an annual death rate of over 10,000, with yearly fluctuations.", "The overall mortality rate was at 26 and men had a life expectancy of 36.1 years during the 1750s, while women had an expectancy of 38.4 years.", "The gender gap in life expectancy was a few years at that time.The rapid spread of various infectious diseases such as cholera caused mortality up until the 1870s.", "The war years significantly increased mortality rates in the civilian population.", "During this time, the highest mortality rates were recorded during the Finnish War of 1808-09 and the cholera outbreak of 1832-33, which caused the deaths of a significant portion of the population.", "The years 1867-68 were marked as years of high death rates, with the latter year seeing a peak of 137,700 deaths.", "Years17551765177517851795180518151825183518451855186518751878187918801881188237.334.939.433.837.131.835.838.434.740.535.132.141.639.244.939.637.640.41883188418851886188718881889189018911892189318941895189618971898189942.742.841.340.845.545.144.944.642.539.743.345.247.646.548.148.044.3Before the turn of the 20th century, mortality rates were notably high, but they gradually decreased thereafter.", "During that time period, the life expectancy of a newborn saw a significant increase to 42.8 years for men and 45.7 years for women.", "The gender gap in life expectancy already stood at three years.", "Starting from the beginning of the 20th century, improvements in hygiene, prevention of communicable diseases, and advancements in vaccinations and medicines played crucial roles in accelerating the decline in mortality rates, as compared to previous decades.", "On the eve of World War II, life expectancy for males stood at 53.4 years and for females, 59.0 years, constituting a five-year gap between them.", "The life expectancy took almost two centuries to increase by 20 years since the 18th century.", "In contrast, the succeeding two decades only required 40 years to attain the same growth by the mid-20th century.", "Years19001901190219031904190519061907190819091910191119121913191419151916191741.742.846.246.647.246.047.046.746.148.648.548.749.149.049.749.548.046.519181919192019211922192319241925192619271928192919301931193219331934193532.843.147.552.451.952.550.253.453.851.853.751.354.554.955.855.456.054.419361937193819391940194119421943194419451946194719481949195056.257.157.254.646.646.554.056.348.057.260.260.562.061.964.2 Years19711972197319741975197619771978197919801981198219831984198519861987198870,170,871,371,271,772,072,573,373,373,673,974,574,474,774,474,774,874,819891990199119921993199419951996199719981999200020012002200320042005200675,075,075,475,675,976,676,676,977,177,377,577,778,178,378,578,879,079,42007200820092010201120122013201420152016201720182019202020212022*79,479,779,880,080,480,580,981,181,481,381,581,681,981,881,881,2" ], [ "Vital statistics", "Data from Statistics Finland, which is the official agency for the collection of statistics in Finland.Average populationLive birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)Crude migration change (per 1000)Total fertility rate 19002,646,00086,33957,91528,42432.621.910.7 4.83 19012,667,00088,63756,22532,41233.221.112.2 -4.3 4.92 19022,686,00087,08250,99936,08332.419.013.4 -6.3 4.79 19032,706,00085,12049,99235,12831.518.513.0 -5.6 4.62 19042,735,00090,25350,22740,02633.018.414.7 -4.0 4.85 19052,762,00087,84152,77335,06831.819.112.7 -2.8 4.67 19062,788,00091,40150,85740,54432.818.214.5 -5.1 4.81 19072,821,00092,45753,02839,42932.818.814.0 -2.2 4.76 19082,861,00092,14655,30536,84132.219.312.9 1.3 4.65 19092,899,00095,00550,57744,42832.817.415.3 -2.0 4.72 19102,929,00092,98451,00741,97731.717.414.3 -4.0 4.60 19112,962,00091,23851,64839,59030.817.413.4 -2.1 4.46 19122,998,00092,27551,64540,63030.817.213.5 -1.3 4.45 19133,026,00087,25051,87635,37428.817.111.7 -2.3 4.15 19143,053,00087,57750,69036,88728.716.612.1 -3.2 4.13 19153,083,00083,30652,20531,10127.016.910.1 -0.3 3.89 19163,105,00079,65354,57725,07625.717.68.1 -1.0 3.69 19173,124,00081,04658,86322,18325.918.87.1 -1.0 3.71 19183,125,00079,49495,102 -15,60825.430.4 -5.0 5.3 3.60 19193,117,00063,89662,932 96420.520.20.3 -2.9 2.87 19203,133,00084,71453,30431,41027.017.010.0 -4.9 3.76 19213,170,00082,16547,36134,80425.914.911.0 0.8 3.58 19223,211,00080,14049,18030,96025.015.39.6 3.3 3.43 19233,243,00081,96147,55634,40525.314.710.6 -0.6 3.44 19243,272,00078,05753,44224,61523.916.37.5 1.4 3.22 19253,304,00078,26047,49330,76723.714.49.3 0.5 3.17 19263,339,00076,87547,52629,34923.014.28.8 1.8 3.02 19273,368,00075,61151,72723,88422.515.47.1 1.6 2.92 19283,396,00077,52348,71328,81022.814.38.5 -0.2 2.92 19293,424,00076,01154,48921,52222.215.96.3 1.9 2.83 19303,449,00075,23648,24026,99621.814.07.8 -0.5 2.75 19313,476,00071,86648,96822,89820.714.16.6 1.2 2.59 19323,503,00069,35246,70022,65219.813.36.5 1.3 2.46 19333,526,00065,04747,96017,08718.413.64.8 1.8 2.27 19343,549,00067,71346,31821,39519.113.16.0 0.5 2.33 19353,576,00069,94245,37024,57219.612.76.9 1.5 2.37 19363,601,00068,89549,12419,77119.113.65.5 0.7 2.31 19373,626,00072,31946,46625,85319.912.87.1 -0.2 2.52 19383,656,00076,69546,93029,76521.012.88.1 0.2 2.52 19393,686,00078,16452,61425,55021.214.36.9 1x.9 2.56 19403,698,00065,84971,846 -5,99717.819.4-1.6 4.9 2.15 19413,702,00089,56573,33416,23124.219.84.4 -3.3 2.90 19423,708,00061,67256,1415,53116.615.11.5 0.12.00 19433,721,00076,11249,63426,47820.513.3 -3.67.1 2.46 19443,735,00079,44670,5708,87621.318.92.4 1.4 2.56 19453,758,00095,75849,04646,71225.513.112.4 -6.2 3.07 19463,806,000106,07544,74861,32727.911.816.1 -3.3 3.41 19473,859,000108,16846,05362,11528.011.916.1 -2.2 3.47 19483,912,000107,75943,66864,09127.511.216.4 -2.7 3.47 19493,963,000103,51544,50159,01426.111.214.9 -1.9 3.33 19504,009,00098,06540,68157,38424.510.114.3 -2.7 3.16 19514,047,00093,06340,38652,67723.010.013.0 -3.5 3.01 19524,090,00094,31439,02455,29023.19.513.5 -2.9 3.06 19534,139,00090,86639,92550,94122.09.612.3 -0.3 2.96 19544,187,00089,84537,98851,85721.59.112.4 -0.8 2.93 19554,235,00089,74039,57350,16721.29.311.8 -0.3 2.93 19564,282,00088,89638,71350,18320.89.011.7 -0.6 2.91 19574,324,00086,98540,74146,24420.19.410.7 -0.9 2.86 19584,360,00081,14838,83342,31518.68.99.7 -1.4 2.68 19594,395,00083,25338,82744,42618.98.810.1 -2.1 2.75 19604,430,00082,12939,79742,33218.59.09.6 -1.6 2.71 19614,461,00081,99640,61641,38018.49.19.3 -2.3 2.65 19624,491,00081,45442,88938,56518.19.58.6 -1.9 2.66 19634,523,00082,25142,01040,24118.29.38.9 -1.8 2.66 19644,549,00080,42842,51237,91617.79.38.3 -2.6 2.58 19654,564,00077,88544,47333,41217.19.77.3 -4.0 2.46 19664,581,00077,69743,54834,14917.09.57.5 -3.8 2.41 19674,606,00077,28943,79033,49916.89.57.3 -1.8 2.32 19684,626,00073,65445,01328,64115.99.76.2 -1.9 2.15 19694,624,00067,45045,96621,48414.69.94.6 -5.01.94 19704,606,00064,55944,11920,44014.09.64.4 -8.31.83 19714,612,00061,06745,87615,19113.29.93.3 -2.01.70 19724,640,00058,86443,95814,90612.79.53.2 2.91.59 19734,666,00056,78743,41013,37712.29.32.9 2.71.50 19744,691,00062,47244,67617,79613.39.53.8 1.61.62 19754,711,00065,71943,82821,89114.09.34.6 -0.31.69 19764,726,00066,84644,78622,06014.19.54.7 -1.51.72 19774,739,00065,65944,06521,59413.99.34.6 -1.81.69 19784,753,00063,98343,69220,29113.59.24.3 -1.31.65 19794,765,00063,42843,73819,69013.39.24.1 -1.61.64 19804,780,00063,06444,39818,66613.29.33.9 -0.81.63 19814,800,00063,46944,40419,06513.29.34.0 0.21.65 19824,827,00066,10643,40822,69813.79.04.7 0.91.72 19834,856,00066,89245,38821,50413.89.34.4 1.61.74 19844,882,00065,07645,09819,97813.39.24.1 1.31.70 19854,902,00062,79648,19814,59812.89.83.0 1.11.64 19864,918,00060,63247,13513,49712.39.62.7 0.61.60 19874,932,00059,82747,94911,87812.19.72.4 0.41.59 19884,946,00063,31649,06314,25312.89.92.9 -0.11.70 19894,964,00063,34849,11014,23812.89.92.9 0.71.71 19904,998,00065,54950,02815,52113.110.03.1 3.71.78 19915,029,00065,39549,29416,10113.19.83.3 2.91.79 19925,055,00066,73149,84416,88713.39.83.4 1.81.85 19935,078,00064,82650,98813,83812.810.12.7 1.81.81 19945,099,00065,23148,00017,23112.89.43.4 0.71.85 19955,117,00063,06749,28013,78712.39.62.7 0.81.81 19965,132,00060,72349,16711,55611.89.62.3 0.61.76 19975,147,00059,32949,10810,22111.59.62.0 0.91.75 19985,160,00057,10849,2627,84611.19.61.5 1.01.70 19995,171,00057,57449,3458,22911.19.61.6 0.51.73 20005,181,00056,74249,3397,40311.09.51.4 0.51.73 20015,195,00056,18948,5507,63910.89.41.5 1.21.73 20025,206,00055,55549,4186,13710.79.51.2 0.91.72 20035,220,00056,63048,9967,63410.99.41.5 1.21.76 20045,237,00057,75847,60010,15811.09.11.9 1.41.80 20055,256,00057,74547,9289,81711.09.11.9 1.71.80 20065,277,00058,84048,06510,77511.29.12.0 2.01.84 20075,300,00058,72949,0779,65211.19.31.8 2.61.83 20085,326,00059,53049,09410,43611.29.22.0 2.91.85 20095,351,00060,43049,88310,54711.39.32.0 2.71.86 20105,375,00060,98050,88710,19311.49.51.9 2.61.87 20115,401,00059,96150,5859,37611.19.41.7 3.11.83 20125,427,00059,49351,7077,78611.09.61.4 3.41.80 20135,451,00058,13451,4726,66210.79.51.2 3.21.75 20145,472,00057,23252,1865,04610.59.60.9 3.01.71 20155,487,00055,47252,4922,98010.19.60.5 2.21.65 20165,503,00052,81453,923 -1,1099.69.8-0.2 3.11.57 20175,513,00050,32153,722 -3,4019.19.8-0.7 2.51.49 20185,517,91847,57754,527 -6,9508.69.9-1.3 2.21.4120195,525,29245,61353,949 -8,3368.39.8-1.5 2.81.3520205,533,79346,46355,488-9,0258.410.0-1.6 3.11.3720215,548,24149,59457,659 -8,0658.910.4 -1.5 4.11.4620225,563,97044,95163,219 -18,2688.111.3 -3.2 6.01.3220235,604,55843,32061,106-17,786 7.710.9 -3.210.4 1.26===Current vital statistics===+ Period Live births Deaths Natural increase '''January – November 2022''' 41,578 57,024 -15,446 '''January – November 2023''' 39,938 54,958 -15,020 '''Difference''' -1,640 (-3.94%) -2,066 (-3.62%) +426" ], [ "Languages", "=== Official and national languages ===Languages of Finnish municipalities as of 2016.Finland has two official languages (national languages): Finnish and Swedish.", "In addition, there are other languages that are officially recognised by the authorities, but are not national languages.", "The Sámi languages are those of Finland's indigenous people.", "Indigenous languages with a long history in Finland include Finnish Romani (Kalo), Finnish Sign Language, Finnish-Swedish Sign Language and Karelian.", "Finnish, which belongs to the Uralic languages, is spoken by approximately 4.9 million people in Finland as a first language and by more than 0.5 million as a second language.", "It's also spoken in Sweden, Norway, Eastern Karelia, Ingria (Russia), the USA and Australia, with various dialects.", "Written Finnish dates back 500 years.Swedish, an Indo-European language within the North Germanic branch, is spoken by approximately 9 million people worldwide, including 296,000 speakers in Finland.", "Finland Swedish is a regional variety that aims to remain similar to the Swedish spoken in Sweden.", "The Sámi languages, which are indigenous to Europe and closely related to the Finnic languages, have approximately 60,000-100,000 speakers, of whom 10,000 live in Finland.", "There are three Sámi languages in Finland: Inari Sámi, Skolt Sámi and Northern Sámi, each with its own written form.", "Since 1992 they have had official status in certain areas of Lapland.Karelian, spoken in Finland and Russia, is the closest linguistic relative of Finnish.", "There are fewer than 100,000 speakers of Karelian, with approximately 5,000 in Finland.", "Romani, an Indo-European language, belongs to the Indo-Aryan subgroup of the Indo-Iranian branch.", "Finnish Romani is one of the Northern Romani dialects and has been spoken in Finland for approximately 450 years.", "Efforts to preserve it as a literary language began in the 1970s.", "Finnish Sign Language serves as the primary language for 4,000-5,000 deaf Finns and is used as a first or second language by 6,000-9,000 hearing Finns.", "Finnish-Swedish Sign Language, on the other hand, is endangered, with only 90 users left.All mainland municipalities are monolingual in Finnish or bilingual in Finnish and Swedish.", "None is monolingual Swedish.", "However, Swedish is the only official language on the autonomous island of Åland.=== First languages of the foreign population ===, 495,992 people, or 8.9%, live in Finland with a first language other than Finnish, Swedish or Sámi.", "More than 150 foreign languages are spoken in Finland.", "However, most of them have only few speakers.", "Historically, Finland has been a bilingual country where only Finnish or Swedish was spoken.", "This is slowly changing as the rate of immigration has increased in last three decades.", "The majority of the Finnish population is able to communicate in English.", "However, the foreign population is expected to study and speak Finnish or Swedish if they want to integrate into Finnish society., the most common foreign languages are Russian (1.7%), Estonian (0.9%), Arabic (0.7%) and English (0.5%).", "Approximately 70% of the country's foreign speakers live in Finland's six largest cities.MotherlanguageYear 1990 1995 2000 2005 2015 2020 Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Finnish 4,675,223 4,754,787 4,788,497 4,819,819 4,865,628 4,811,067 Swedish 296,738 294,664 291,657 289,675 290,161 287,871 Russian 3,884 15,872 28,205 39,653 72,436 84,190 Estonian 1,394 8,710 10,176 15,336 48,087 49,551 Arabic 1,138 2,901 4,892 7,117 16,713 34,282\t English 3,569 5,324 6,919 8,928 17,784 23,433\t Somali 0 4,057 6,454 8,593 17,871 22,794\t Kurdish 179 1,381 3,115 5,123 11,271 15,368\t Persian 291 803 1,205 3,165 8,745 15,105\t Chinese 790 2,190 2,907 4,613 10,722 13,778 Albanian 0 2,019 3,293 5,076 9,233 12,664 Vietnamese 1,643 2,785 3,588 4,202 8,273 11,562 Thai 244 813 1,458 3,033 8,582 10,553 Turkish 848 1,809 2,435 3,595 7,082 9,492 Spanish 894 1,394 1,946 2,937 7,025 9,151 German 2,427 2,719 3,298 4,114 6,168 6,841 Polish 901 1,129 1,157 1,445 5,695 French 670 1,062 1,585 2,071 4,966 Romanian 94 368 617 909 5,680 Hungarian 573 732 1,089 1,206 Tagalog 118 375 568 764 Bengali 93 373 524 920 Ukrainian 11 113 337 611 Italian 403 574 833 1,177 Portuguese 171 297 433 865 Urdu 79 179 309 594 Bulgarian 230 400 486 629 Bosnian 0 0 0 1,186 Sami 1,734 1.726 1,734 1,752 Hindi 147 239 428 779 Dutch 277 408 650 960 Latvian 20 76 169 391 Japanese 274 386 561 798 Lithuanian 30 94 166 375 Norwegian 402 436 471 540 Danish 290 305 397 456 Hebrew 165 232 263 348 Other 2,534 5,084 8,293 11,825 79,570" ], [ "Immigration", "=== Statistics of foreign population ===, Statistics Finland produces statistics on foreign nationals in three different ways:# Origin and background country: 507,173 people or 9.1%, have a foreign background.# Country of birth: 476,857 people, or 8.6 %, were born in a foreign country.# Language: 495,992 people, or 8.9%, have a first language other than Finnish, Swedish or Sámi.No official statistics exist on ethnicities.", "Nonetheless, the Finnish population statistics are available according to the birth countries of the residents' parents (foreign background/origin statistics).", "International census recommendations define an ethnic group by the perception of its members of historical, regional, or national origin.", "Therefore, data on ethnic status should always be sourced from a person's own statement.", "Due to the fact that Finland's census is registry-based, official statistics regarding ethnic groups cannot be provided.=== Origin and background country ===Origin and background country - the definition used by Statistics Finland includes all individuals with at least one parent born in Finland as being of Finnish background.", "Individuals with both parents or only one known parent born abroad are classified as having foreign heritage.", "If both parents of an individual were born abroad, the mother's country of birth is primarily considered as the background country.", "For all individuals of Finnish heritage, the background country is Finland.+Country or continentYear1990200020102020Population%Population%Population%Population%Europe5,032,79699.6%5,149,52299.1%5,295,96498.1%5,318,74695.9%Finland4,960,86099.2%5,067,87097.8%5,138,21095.6%5,089,76292.0%EU (excluding Finnish origin)5,0030.1%9,2000.2%43,2950.8%38,7530.7%Other Europe17,1140.3%62,2691.2%97,2491.8%191,0993.5%AFRICA1,7200.0%11,8020.2%29,0410.5%57,4961.0%AMERICA3,1560.1%4,4570.1%7,6490.1%13,1690.2%ASIA5,2500.1%20,2120.4%54,5471.0%132,9032.4%OCEANIA1360.0%3590.0%6780.0%1,0420.0%UNKNOWN5,2390.1%4,9460.1%4,6070.1%9,5690.2%Total: Foreign countries37,6180.8%113,2452.2%237,0664.4%444,0318.0%Total4,998,478100%5,181,115100%5,375,276100%5,533,793100%===Country of birth===Population pyramid of Finland by origin groups in 2021Finnish and foreign born population pyramid in 2021Finnish backgroundForeign bornForeign born descendantsThe definition used by Statistics Finland for country of birth is based on the mother's country of permanent residence at the time of birth.", "Consequently, Estonian immigrants born before Estonian independence are recorded as being born in the Soviet Union, and those born in territories ceded by Finland are listed as being born in Finland, regardless of subsequent territorial changes.", "This information reflects the government in power at the time of birth and is devoid of subjective evaluations.", "Country of birth (2022) Population % 5,087,113 91.4% 63,885 1.1% 47,198 0.8% 33,902 0.6% 21,725 0.4% 20,499 0.4% 14,493 0.3% 13,171 0.2% 12,452 0.2% 11,634 0.2% 10,873 0.2% 10,117 0.2% 9,800 0.2% 9,269 0.2% 9,269 0.2% 9,164 0.2% 8,271 0.1% 7,728 0.1% 7,455 0.1% 6,535 0.1% 5,465 0.1% 5,367 0.1% 5,039 0.1% 4,994 0.1% 4,761 0.1% 4,726 0.1% 3,826 0.1% 3,279 0.1% 3,540 0.1% 3,495 0.1% 3,208 0.1% 3,134 0.1% 2,891 0.1%" ], [ "Emigration", "Map of the Finnish diaspora in the world (includes people with Finnish ancestry or citizenship).Historically, Finnish emigration began in the 16th century, when Finns worked in Swedish mines, and continued until the 1970s.", "About 100,000 Finns emigrated to Russia during the Tsarist period, mainly to St Petersburg.", "Large-scale emigration began in the late 19th century, with about 400,000 Finns moving to the United States and Canada by 1980.After the Second World War, many Finns emigrated to Sweden, reaching a peak in 1970 when 41,000 settled there.", "An estimated 250,000 to 300,000 Finns became permanent residents of Sweden after the war.", "However, migration slowed in the 1980s, with more Finns returning than leaving.The impact of emigration on the Finnish labour force and birth rate has been significant.", "Finland has experienced two major waves of emigration: one at the beginning of the 20th century, when more than 300,000 Finns went to North America, and another from the 1950s to the 1970s, when 400,000 Finns moved to Sweden, forming large expatriate communities.Apart from these major flows, there have been smaller migrations around the world and some Finns live in different countries.", "In the 21st century about 14,000 people, mostly of Finnish origin, emigrate every year.", "Many are well-educated and may return to Finland after a few years.", "About 300,000 Finnish citizens live abroad and it's estimated that about 1.5 million people of Finnish origin live overseas." ], [ "Internal migration", "Evacuation on the Karelian Isthmus in the early days of the Winter War.Migration has played an important role in shaping Finnish society throughout its history.", "Notable instances are the Forest Finns' migration to Sweden during the 15th century and the relocation of Ingrians to the present-day St Petersburg region during the 17th century.", "Changes in borders resulted in the formation of Finnish settlements outside its territory.", "Wars and political conflicts led to massive population movements, such as the Karelian evacuation during World War II, which exiled roughly 420,000 individuals within Finland's borders.Until the 1960s, Finland was predominantly an agricultural society.", "However, waves of urbanization and political transitions have contributed to migration movements.", "Currently, urbanization continues to be a significant internal migration pattern, with growth centers and sparsely populated regions.", "Approximately 250,000 people, mainly young adults, make annual municipal moves, which have notable implications for regional development in the 21st century." ], [ "Religion", "Before Christianisation, Finnish paganism prevailed, venerating deities such as Ukko, the god of thunder and sky.", "Currently, most of the Finnish population consider themselves nominal Christians, though the proportion of non-religious individuals has increased since the 1980s.", ", 65.2% of the population were affiliated with the Evangelical Lutheran Church, 1.0% with the Orthodox Church and 1.8% were members of another religious group.", "A total of 32.0% have no religious affiliation.", "The Evangelical Lutheran Church and the Orthodox Church are both entitled to collect church tax.", "There are around 140 registered religious communities, including Islam, Catholicism, and Jehovah's Witnesses.", "In Finland, there are also revival movements, which began as spiritual reform movements and are now organized and active within the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland.", "The historic Finnish revivalist movements emerged in the late 1700s and 1800s and consisted of the Prayer Movement, the Awakened Movement, the Lutheran Evangelical Movement, and the Laestadian Movement.", "These movements laid out an important religious and social influence on Finnish society during this period.Religious freedom is highly valued in Finland and all residents have the right to choose and practice their faith.", "Religious education is mandatory in Finnish schools, customized to a student's registered denomination if there are a minimum of three pupils who profess that religion." ], [ "Education", "The Finnish educational framework encompasses several developmental phases, from early childhood through pre-primary, primary, and lower secondary (basic education), to gymnasium (lukio), vocational, higher, and adult education.", "Compulsory education is mandatory for 6 to 18-year-olds, covering pre-primary to upper secondary levels.", "Upon completion of the nine-year basic education, students may opt between gymnasium, culminating in a matriculation exam, or vocational upper secondary, culminating in a vocational qualification.", "Higher education in Finland consists of universities and universities of applied sciences, which place emphasis on education and research.", "While universities are authorized to grant doctorates, universities of applied sciences offer vocational education and practical research.In 2012 OECD survey, adults aged 16 to 65 in Finland exhibit exceptional literacy, numeracy, and problem-solving skills in technology compared to other countries surveyed.", "Young adults aged 16-24 have above-average literacy, whereas those aged 55-65 perform at an average level, resulting in a massive 37-point age-related gap.", "In contrast, foreign-language immigrants in Finland demonstrate lower literacy proficiency than native Finns, consistent with the international average.", "Low literacy is correlated with poor health, with individuals reporting low literacy being twice as likely to experience health problems.", "Furthermore, in Finland, individuals with advanced skill sets have a significantly higher likelihood of being employed when compared to those with lower skill sets, with a difference of almost double." ], [ "See also", "* Ageing of Europe* Finnish Youth Survey Series" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Findicator – Life expectancy* Findicator – Total fertility rate in 1776-* Findicator – Vital statistics 1749-* Findicator – Age structure of population" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of Finland" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''politics of Finland''' take place within the framework of a parliamentary representative democracy.", "Finland is a republic whose head of state is President Alexander Stubb, who leads the nation's foreign policy and is the supreme commander of the Finnish Defence Forces.", "Finland's head of government is Prime Minister Petteri Orpo, who leads the nation's executive branch, called the Finnish Government.", "Legislative power is vested in the Parliament of Finland (, ), and the Government has limited rights to amend or extend legislation.", "The Constitution of Finland vests power to both the President and Government: the President has veto power over parliamentary decisions, although this power can be overruled by a majority vote in the Parliament.The judiciary is independent of the executive and legislative branches.", "The judiciary consists of two systems: regular courts and administrative courts.", "The judiciary's two systems are headed by the Supreme Court and the Supreme Administrative Court, respectively.", "Administrative courts process cases in which official decisions are contested.", "There is no constitutional court in Finland: the constitutionality of a law can be contested only as applied to an individual court case.The citizens of Finland enjoy many individual and political freedoms, and suffrage is universal at the age of 18; Finnish women became the first in the world to have unrestricted rights both to vote and to run for public office.The country's population is ethnically homogeneous with no sizable immigrant population.", "Few tensions exist between the Finnish-speaking majority and the Swedish-speaking minority, although in certain circles there is an unending debate about the status of the Swedish language.Finland's labor agreements are based on collective bargaining.", "Bargaining is highly centralized, and often the government participates to coordinate fiscal policy.", "Finland has universal validity of collective labour agreements and often, but not always, the trade unions, employers, and the Government reach a national income policy agreement.", "Significant Finnish trade unions include SAK, STTK, AKAVA, and EK.", "According to the V-Dem Democracy indices Finland was 2023 the 13th most electoral democratic country in the world." ], [ "History", "=== Autonomous but under Russian rule ===The assassination of General Governor Nikolay Bobrikov by Eugen Schauman was the culmination of activism of the militant wing of the Fennomans.A Finnish political identity and distinctively Finnish politics first developed under the Russian rule in the country from 1809 to 1917.During the era Finland had an autonomous position within the Russian Empire with its own legislative powers.", "However, all bills had to be signed into law by the Russian Emperor who was the Grand Duke of Finland.", "Also, military power was firmly in Russian hands.", "Previously Finland had been a part of Sweden and did not have any political institutions of its own, rather people of Finnish ethnicity participated in Swedish politics.=== Independence and civil war ===The Finnish Senate issued a declaration of independence on 6 December 1917, after Russia's second revolution in October 1917.The Council of People's Commissars of Soviet Russia, chaired by Lenin, recognized Finland's independence on 31 December 1917, and soon after that many other states followed.On 28 January 1918, a civil war broke out that ended in the victory of German-backed Whites against Bolsheviks-backed Reds.", "In the same year the volunteers made some armed expeditions into Soviet Russia, including Karelia, and also Estonia.", "The Finnish Civil War was part of the First World War.", "The war was fought between the Finnish Senate, i.e.", "the forces led by the government, and the Finnish People's Delegation, from 27 January to 16 May 1918.The Senate forces were called Whites and the People's Delegation forces Reds.=== Second World War ===During the Second World War, Finland fought three wars: the Winter War, the Continuation War and the Lapland War.According to the ceasefire agreement, in addition to the territorial losses following the Winter War, Finland had to hand over Petsamo and lease Porkkala as a base for 50 years.", "War reparations were set at USD 300 million.", "The terms of the ceasefire agreement were finally confirmed in the 1947 Paris Peace Treaty.=== Urho Kekkonen's rule ===After the wars, Finland became a Nordic welfare state.At the beginning of 1973, Kekkonen was exceptionally elected president without elections or candidates, which today is considered by some to be the nadir of Finnish democracy and marked the beginning of the final era for Kekkonen.=== Integration to the West ===In 1982, Mauno Koivisto was elected president, promising to reduce the powers of the president and increase those of the prime minister.The convergence of Finland and the European Community began in the autumn of 1989 with the decision to join the European Economic Area (EEA).Following a positive vote in Parliament, Finland's application for EC membership was submitted on 18 March 1992, and membership negotiations began on 1 February 1993 at the same time as with Sweden and Austria.Finland joined the European Union in 1995.In 2002, the euro replaced the markka as Finland's official currency." ], [ "Constitution", "The current version of the constitution of Finland was written on 1 March 2000.The first iteration of the constitution was adopted on 17 July 1919.The original comprised four constitutional laws and several amendments, which the latter replaced.According to the constitution, the legislative powers are exercised by the Parliament, the governmental powers are exercised by the President of the Republic and the Government, and the judicial powers are exercised by government-independent courts of law.", "The Supreme Court may request legislation that interprets or modifies existing laws.", "Judges are appointed by the President.The constitution of Finland and its place in the judicial system are unusual in that there is no constitutional court and the Supreme Court does not have the explicit right to declare a law unconstitutional.", "In principle, the constitutionality of laws in Finland is verified by a simple vote by Parliament (see ''parliamentary sovereignty'').", "However, the Parliament's Constitutional Law Committee reviews any doubtful bills and recommends changes, if needed.", "In practice, the Constitutional Law Committee fulfils the duties of a constitutional court.", "A Finnish peculiarity is the possibility of making exceptions to the constitution in ordinary laws that are enacted in the same procedure as constitutional amendments.", "An example of such a law is the State of Preparedness Act, which gives the Government certain exceptional powers in cases of national emergency.", "As these powers, which correspond to US executive orders, affect constitutional basic rights, the law was enacted in the same manner as a constitutional amendment.", "However, it can be repealed in the same manner as an ordinary law.", "In addition to preview by the Constitutional Law Committee, all Finnish courts are obligated to give precedence to the constitution when there is an obvious conflict between the constitution and a regular law.", "Such a case is, however, very rare.Some matters are decided by the President of Finland, the Head of State, in plenary meetings with the government, echoing the constitutional history of a privy council.", "The President is otherwise not present in the government, but decides on issues such as personal appointments and pardons on the advice of the relevant minister.", "In the ministries, matters of secondary importance are decided by individual ministers, advised by the minister's State Secretary.", "The Prime Minister and the other ministers in the government are responsible for their actions in office to the Parliament." ], [ "Executive branch", "Finland has a parliamentary system, even if the President of Finland is formally responsible for foreign policy.", "Most executive power lies in the cabinet (the Finnish Government) headed by the prime minister.", "Responsibility for forming the cabinet out of several political parties and negotiating its platform is granted to the leader of the party gaining largest support in the elections for the parliament.", "This person also becomes prime minister of the cabinet.", "Any minister and the cabinet as a whole, however, must have continuing trust of the parliament and may be voted out, resign or be replaced.", "The Government is made up of the prime minister and the ministers for the various departments of the central government as well as an ''ex officio'' member, the Chancellor of Justice.In the official usage, the \"cabinet\" (''valtioneuvosto'') are the ministers including the prime minister and the Chancellor of Justice, while the \"government\" (''hallitus'') is the cabinet presided by the president.", "In the popular usage, ''hallitus'' (with the president) may also refer to ''valtioneuvosto'' (without the president).===President===Though Finland has a primarily parliamentary system, the President has some notable powers.", "The foreign policy is led by the President in co-operation with the government, and the same applies to matters concerning national security.", "The main executive power lies in the cabinet, which is headed by the Prime Minister.", "Before the 2000 constitutional rewrite, the President enjoyed more governing power.Elected for a six-year term, the president:*Handles Finland's foreign affairs in cooperation with the Cabinet, except for certain international agreements and decisions of peace or war, which must be submitted to the parliament*Is Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces;*Has some decree and appointive powers*Approves laws, and may call extraordinary parliamentary sessions*Formally appoints the Prime Minister of Finland selected by the Parliament, and formally appoints the rest of the cabinet (Government) as proposed by the Prime Minister===Government===The Government is made up of the Prime Minister and other ministers for the various ministries of the central government as well as an ''ex officio'' member, the Chancellor of Justice.", "Ministers are not obliged to be members of Parliament and need not be formally identified with any political party.The Government produces most of the material that the Parliament deals with, such as proposals for new laws or legislative reforms, and the annual budget.", "The ministers each direct their ministries with relative independence.", "The current cabinet has 19 ministers in 12 ministries.", "The number of ministers can be decided by the Government.The Prime Minister's Office and eleven other ministries make up the Government of Finland.The head of government is the Prime Minister, currently Petteri Orpo.", "The Prime Minister designate is subject to election by the Parliament and subsequent appointment by the President of Finland.", "All the ministers shall be Finnish citizens, known to be honest and competent.==== Ministries ====The ministries function as administrative and political experts and prepare Government decisions within their mandates.", "They also represent their relevant administrative sectors in domestic and international cooperation.New laws are drafted in ministries.", "There is a tradition of substantial ministerial independence in law drafting.", "The drafts are then reviewed by government and parliament before enactment.", "The final legislative power is vested in Parliament, in conjunction with the President of the Republic, according to the Finnish Constitution.There are 12 ministries in Finland.", "As the government tends to have more ministers than ministries, some ministries, such as the Ministry of Finance, are associated with multiple ministers.", "* Prime Minister's Office* Ministry for Foreign Affairs* Ministry of Justice* Ministry of the Interior* Ministry of Defence* Ministry of Finance* Ministry of Education and Culture* Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry* Ministry of Transport and Communications* Ministry of Employment and the Economy* Ministry of Social Affairs and Health* Ministry of the Environment" ], [ "Parliament", "The 200-member unicameral Parliament of Finland (''Eduskunta'' (Finnish), ''Riksdag'' (Swedish)) is the supreme legislative authority in Finland.", "The parliament may alter the Constitution of Finland, bring about the resignation of the Government, and override presidential vetoes.", "Its acts are not subject to judicial review.", "Legislation may be initiated by the Government, or one of the members of Parliament, who are elected for a four-year term on the basis of proportional representation through open list multi-member districts.", "Persons 18 or older, except military personnel on active duty and a few high judicial officials, are eligible for election.", "The regular parliamentary term is four years; however, the president may dissolve the eduskunta and order new elections at the request of the prime minister and after consulting the speaker of parliament.The parliament has, since equal and common suffrage was introduced in 1906, been dominated by secular Conservatives, the Centre Party (former Agrarian Union), and Social Democrats.", "Nevertheless, none of these has held a single-party majority, with the notable exception of 1916 elections where Social Democrats gained 103 of the 200 seats.", "After 1944, Communists were a factor to consider for a few decades, and the Finnish People's Democratic League, formed by Communists and others to the left of Social Democrats, was the largest party after 1958 elections.", "Support for Communists decreased sharply in the early 1980s, while later in the same decade environmentalists formed the Green League, which is now one of the largest parties.", "The Swedish People's Party represents the Finland-Swedes, especially in language politics.", "The relative strengths of the parties vary only slightly in the elections due to the proportional election from multi-member districts, but there are some visible long-term trends.There is no constitutional court; matters concerning constitutional rights or constitutional law are processed by the Constitutional Committee of the Parliament (''perustuslakivaliokunta'').", "Additionally, the Constitutional Committee has the sole power to refer a case to the High Court of Impeachment (''valtakunnanoikeus'') and to authorize police investigations for this purpose.In addition to the parliament, the Cabinet and President may produce regulations (''asetus'') through a rulemaking process.", "These give more specific instructions on how to apply statutes, which often explicitly delegate regulation of specific details to the government.", "Regulations must be based on existing law, and they can clarify and specify, but not contradict the statute.", "Furthermore, the rights of an individual must always be based on a statute, not a regulation.", "Often the statute and the regulation come in similarly named pairs.", "For example, the law on primary education lists the subjects to be taught, and the regulation specifies the required number of teaching hours.", "Most of regulations are given by the Cabinet, but the President may give regulations concerning national security.", "Before 2000, the President had the right to enact regulations on matters not governed by parliamentary law, but this power was removed, and existing regulations were converted into regular statutes by the Parliament." ], [ "Political parties and elections", "Centre Party (KESK), Social Democratic Party of Finland (SDP), National Coalition Party (KOK), Left Alliance (VAS), Green League (VIHR), Finns Party (PS), Swedish People's Party of Finland (RKP), Christian Democrats (KD).Finland's proportional representation system encourages a multitude of political parties and since about 1980 the trend has been that the same coalition rules for the whole period between elections.Finland elects on national level a head of state—the president—and a legislature.", "The president is elected for a six-year term by the people.", "The Parliament has 200 members, elected for a four-year term by proportional representation in multi-seat constituencies.", "Finland has a multi-party system, with multiple strong parties, in which no one party often has a chance of gaining power alone, and parties must work with each other to form coalition governments.In addition to the presidential and parliamentary elections, there are European Parliament elections every five years, and local municipal elections (held simultaneously in every municipality) every four years." ], [ "Judiciary", "Finland has a civil law system, which is based on Swedish law, with the judiciary exercising limited powers.", "Proceedings are inquisitorial, where judges preside, conduct finding of fact, adjudication and giving of sanctions such as sentences; no juries are used.", "In e.g.", "criminal and family-related proceedings in local courts, the panel of judges may include both lay judges and professional judges, while all appeals courts and administrative courts consist only of professional judges.", "Precedent is not binding, with the exception of Supreme Court and Supreme Administrative Court decisions.The judicial system of Finland is divided between courts with regular civil and criminal jurisdiction and administrative courts with responsibility for litigation between the individuals and the administrative organs of the state and the communities.", "Finnish law is codified and its court system consists of local courts, regional appellate courts, and the Supreme Court.", "The administrative branch of justice consists of administrative courts and the Supreme Administrative Court.", "The administrative process has more popularity as it is cheaper and has lower financial risk to the person making claims.", "In addition to the regular courts, there are a few special courts in certain branches of administration.", "There is also a High Court of Impeachment for criminal charges (for an offence in office) against the President of the Republic, the justices of the supreme courts, members of the Government, the Chancellor of Justice and the Ombudsman of Parliament.Although there is no writ of habeas corpus or bail, the maximum period of pre-trial detention has been reduced to four days.", "For further detention, a court must order the imprisonment.", "One does not have the right for one phonecall: the police officer leading the investigation may inform relatives or similar if the investigation permits.", "However, a lawyer can be invited.", "Search warrants are not strictly needed, and are usually issued by a police officer.", "Wiretapping does need a court order.Finland has a civil law (Roman law) system with an inquisitorial procedure.", "In accordance with the separation of powers, the ''trias politica'' principle, courts of law are independent of other administration.", "They base their decisions solely on the law in force.", "Criminal cases, civil cases and petitionary matters are dealt in 27 district courts, and then, if the decision is not satisfactory to the involved parties, can be applied in six Courts of Appeal.", "The Supreme Court of Finland serves as the court of last instance.", "Appeals against decisions by authorities are considered in six regional administrative courts, with the Supreme Administrative Court of Finland as the court of last instance.", "The President appoints all professional judges for life.", "Municipal councils appoint lay judges to district courts." ], [ "Administrative divisions", "Finland is divided into 313 democratically independent municipalities, which are grouped into 70 sub-regions.As the highest-level division, Finland is divided into 19 counties.A municipality in Finland can choose to call itself either a \"city\" or \"municipality\".", "A municipality is governed by a municipal council (or a city council) elected by proportional representation once every four years.", "Democratic decision-making takes place on either the municipal or national level with few exceptions.Until 2009, the state organization was divided into six provinces.", "However, the provinces were abolished altogether in 2010.Today, state local presence on mainland Finland is provided by 6 regional state administrative agencies (''aluehallintovirasto'', ''avi''), and 15 Centres for Economic Development, Transport and the Environment (''elinkeino-, liikenne- ja ympäristökeskus'', ''ely-keskus'').", "Regional state administrative agencies have mostly law enforcement, rescue and judicial duties: police, fire and rescue, emergency readiness, basic services, environmental permits and enforcement and occupational health and safety protection.", "The Centres implement labor and industrial policy, provide employment and immigration services, and promote culture; maintain highways, other transport networks and infrastructure; and protect, monitor and manage the environment, land use and water resources.Åland is located near the 60th parallel between Sweden and Finland.", "It enjoys local autonomy by virtue of an international convention of 1921, implemented most recently by the Act on Åland Self-Government of 1951.The islands are further distinguished by the fact that they are entirely Swedish-speaking.", "Government is vested in the provincial council, which consists of 30 delegates elected directly by Åland's citizens.=== Regional and local administration ===Finland is divided between six Regional State Administrative Agencies, which are responsible for basic public services and legal permits, such as rescue services and environmental permits.", "The 15 Centres for Economic Development, Transport and the Environment (ELY Centres) are responsible for the regional implementation and development tasks of the central government.The basic units for organising government and public services in Finland are the municipalities.", "As of 2017, there are 311 municipalities, which incorporate the entire country.=== Indirect public administration ===Indirect public administration supplements and supports the authorities in managing the tasks of the welfare society.", "It comprises organisations which are not authorities, but which carry out public tasks or execute public powers.", "Examples of this are issuing hunting licences or carrying out motor vehicle inspection.=== Wellbeing services counties ===Wellbeing services counties are responsible for organising health, social and emergency services.", "There are 21 Wellbeing services counties, and the county structure is mainly based on the region structure.", "Wellbeing services districts are self-governing.", "They do not have the right to levy taxes.", "Their funding is based on central government funding.", "Central government allocates different amounts of funding to the different Wellbeing services counties depending on the structure of their population.The County Council is the highest decision-making body in the county and is responsible for operations, administration and finance.", "The delegates and deputy commissioners of the County Council are elected in county elections for a term of four years.", "The number of delegates varies from 59 to 89.It depends on the population of the county." ], [ "Foreign relations", "After the second world war, Paasikivi–Kekkonen doctrine was the foreign policy doctrine which aimed at Finland's survival as an independent sovereign, democratic, and capitalist country in the immediate proximity of the Soviet Union.", "After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Finland freed itself from the last restrictions imposed on it by the Paris peace treaties of 1947.The Finnish-Soviet Agreement of Friendship, Co-operation, and Mutual Assistance (and the restrictions included therein) was annulled but Finland recognised the Russian Federation as the successor of the USSR and was quick to draft bilateral treaties of goodwill as well as reallocating Soviet debts.Finland deepened her participation in the European integration by joining the European Union with Sweden and Austria in 1995.It could be perhaps said that the country's policy of neutrality has been moderated to \"military non-alignment\" with an emphasis on maintaining a competent independent defence.", "Peacekeeping under the auspices of the United Nations is the only real extra-national military responsibility which Finland undertakes.Finland is highly dependent on foreign trade and actively participates in international cooperation.", "Finland is a member of the European Union, United Nations and World Bank Group and in many of their member organizations.Finland-Russia relations have been under pressure with annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation, which Finland considers illegal.", "Together with the rest of the European Union, Finland enforces sanctions against Russia that followed.", "Still, economic relations have not entirely deteriorated: 11.2% of imports to Finland are from Russia, and 5.7% of exports from Finland are to Russia, and cooperation between Finnish and Russian authorities continues.After almost 30 years of close partnership with NATO, Finland joined the Alliance on 4 April 2023.Finland's partnership with NATO was historically based on its policy of military non-alignment, which changed following Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine in February 2022." ], [ "See also", "*Elections in Finland*Flag of Finland*Foreign relations of Finland*List of cabinet ministers in Finland who have resigned from their office*National income policy agreement*Political parties in Finland*Politics of Åland*Senate of Finland" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Finland in The World Factbook* Finland - Political System ARL" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of Finland" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of Finland''' is a highly industrialised, mixed economy with a per capita output similar to that of western European economies such as France, Germany, and the United Kingdom.", "The largest sector of Finland's economy is its service sector, which contributes 72.7% to the country's gross domestic product (GDP); followed by manufacturing and refining at 31.4%; and concluded with the country's primary sector at 2.9%.Finland's key economic sector is manufacturing.", "The largest industries are electronics (21.6% - very old data), machinery, vehicles and other engineered metal products (21.1%), forest industry (13.1%), and chemicals (10.9%).", "Finland has timber and several mineral and freshwater resources.", "Forestry, paper factories, and the agricultural sector (on which taxpayers spend around 2 billion euro annually) are politically sensitive to rural residents.", "The Greater Helsinki area generates around a third of GDP.In a 2004 OECD comparison, high-technology manufacturing in Finland ranked second largest in the world, after Ireland.", "Investment was below the expected levels.", "The overall short-term outlook was good and GDP growth has been above many of its peers in the European Union.", "Finland has the 4th largest knowledge economy in Europe, behind Sweden, Denmark and the UK.", "The economy of Finland tops the ranking of the Global Information Technology 2014 report by the World Economic Forum for concerted output between the business sector, the scholarly production and the governmental assistance on information and communications technology.Aviapolis, Vantaa is one of the most significant growing economic areas in Finland.Finland is highly integrated in the global economy, and international trade represents a third of the GDP.", "Trade with the European Union represents 60% of the country's total trade.", "The largest trade flows are with Germany, Russia, Sweden, the United Kingdom, the United States, the Netherlands and China.", "The trade policy is managed by the European Union, where Finland has traditionally been among the free trade supporters, except for agriculture.", "Finland is the only Nordic country to have joined the Eurozone; Denmark and Sweden have retained their traditional currencies, whereas Iceland and Norway are not members of the EU at all.Finland has been ranked seventh in the Global Innovation Index of 2023, making it the seventh most innovative country down from 2nd in 2018." ], [ "History", "Being geographically distant from Western and Central Europe in relation to other Nordic countries, Finland struggled behind in terms of industrialization apart from the production of paper, which partially replaced the export of timber solely as a raw material towards the end of the nineteenth century.", "But as a relatively poor country, it was vulnerable to shocks to the economy such as the great famine of 1867–1868, which killed around 15% of the country's population.", "Until the 1930s, the Finnish economy was predominantly agrarian and, as late as in the 1950s, more than half the population and 40% of output were still in the primary sector.===After World War II===Property rights were strong.", "While nationalization committees were set up in France and the United Kingdom, Finland avoided nationalizations.", "Finnish industry recovered quickly after Second World War.", "By the end of 1946, industrial output had surpassed pre-war numbers.", "In the immediate post-war period of 1946 to 1951, industry continued to grow rapidly.", "Many factors contributed to the rapid industrial growth such as war reparations which were largely paid in manufactured products, devaluation of currency in 1945 and 1949, which made dollar rise by 70% against Finnish markka and thus boosted exports to the West as well as rebuilding the country, which increased demand for industrial products.", "In 1951, the Korean War boosted exports.", "Finland practiced an active exchange rate policy and devaluation was used several times to raise the competitiveness of exporting industries.Between 1950 and 1975, Finland's industry was at the mercy of international economic trends.", "The fast industrial growth in 1953-1955 was followed by a period of more moderate growth which started in 1956.The causes for the deceleration of growth were the general strike of 1956, as well as weakened export trends and easing of the strict regulation of Finland's foreign trade in 1957, which compelled industry to compete against ever toughening international challengers.", "An economic recession brought industrial output down by 3.4% in 1958.Industry, however, recovered quickly during the international economic boom that followed the recession.", "One reason for this was the devaluation of the Finnish markka which increased the value of the US dollar up by 39% against the Finnish markka.International economy was stable in the 1960s.", "This trend can be seen in Finland as well, where steady growth of industrial output throughout the decade was recorded.After failed experiments with protectionism, Finland eased restrictions and concluded a free trade agreement with the European Community in 1973, making its markets more competitive.", "Finland's industrial output declined in 1975.The decline was caused by the free trade agreement that was made between Finland and the European Community in 1973.The agreement subjected Finnish industry to ever toughening international competition and a strong contraction duly followed in Finland's exports to the West.", "In 1976 and 1977 growth of industrial output was almost zero, but in 1978 it swung back towards strong growth again.", "In 1978 and 1979 industrial output grew at above average rate.", "The stimuli for this were three devaluations of Finnish markka, which lowered value of the markka by a total of 19%.", "Impacts from the Oil Crisis on Finnish industry were also alleviated by Finland's bilateral trade with the Soviet Union.Local education markets expanded, and an increasing number of Finns also went abroad to study in the United States or Western Europe, bringing back advanced skills.", "There was a quite common, but pragmatic-minded, credit and investment cooperation by state and corporations, though it was considered with suspicion.", "Support for capitalism was widespread.", "On the other hand, communists (Finnish People's Democratic League) have received the most votes (23.2%) in 1958 parliamentary elections.", "Savings rate hovered among the world's highest, at around 8% until the 1980s.", "In the beginning of the 1970s, Finland's GDP per capita reached the level of Japan and the UK.", "Finland's economic development shared many aspects with export-led Asian countries.", "The official policy of neutrality enabled Finland to trade both with Western and Comecon markets.", "Significant bilateral trade was conducted with the Soviet Union, but this did not grow into a dependence.=== Liberalization ===Like other Nordic countries, Finland has liberalized its system of economic regulation since late 1980s.", "Financial and product market regulations were modified.", "Some state enterprises were privatized and some tax rates were altered.In 1991, the Finnish economy fell into a severe recession.", "This was caused by a combination of economic overheating (largely due to a change in the banking laws in 1986 which made credit much more accessible), depressed markets with key trading partners (particularly the Swedish and Soviet markets) as well as local markets, slow growth with other trading partners, and the disappearance of the Soviet bilateral trade.", "Stock market and housing prices declined by 50%.", "The growth in the 1980s was based on debt, and when the defaults began rolling in, GDP declined by 13% and unemployment increased from a virtual full employment to one fifth of the workforce.", "The crisis was amplified by trade unions' initial opposition to any reforms.", "Politicians struggled to cut spending and the public debt doubled to around 60% of GDP.", "Much of the economic growth in the 1980s was based on debt financing, and the debt defaults led to a savings and loan crisis.", "A total of over 10 billion euros were used to bail out failing banks, which led to banking sector consolidation.After devaluations, the depression bottomed out in 1993.===European Union===Finland joined the European Union in 1995.The central bank was given an inflation-targeting mandate until Finland joined the euro zone.", "The growth rate has since been one of the highest of OECD countries and Finland has topped many indicators of national performance.Finland was one of the 11 countries joining the third phase of the Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union, adopting the euro as the country's currency, on 1 January 1999.The national currency markka (FIM) was withdrawn from circulation and replaced by the euro (EUR) at the beginning of 2002." ], [ "Data", "GDP per capita development in Norway, Iceland, Denmark, Sweden and FinlandThe following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2017.Inflation under 2% is in green.", "Estimates begin after 2021.YearGDP(in Bil.", "Euro)GDP per capita(in Euro)GDP(in Bil.", "US$ PPP)GDP(in Bil.", "US$ nominal)GDP growth(real)Inflation rate(in%)Unemployment (in%)Government debt(in % of GDP)198033.77,05945.553.75.7%11.6%5.3%10.9%198138.17,95750.552.61.3%12.0%5.7%11.5%198242.88,90155.353.13.1%9.3%6.1%13.9%198347.89,87059.251.03.1%8.4%6.1%15.4%198454.510,98663.353.03.2%7.0%5.9%15.2%198558.311,91067.656.23.5%5.8%6.0%15.8%198662.712,77670.973.72.7%2.9%6.7%16.4%198767.813,75575.291.83.6%4.1%4.9%17.6%198876.815,54281.9109.35.2%5.1%4.2%16.5%198985.917,34489.5119.15.1%6.6%3.1%14.3%199091.018,29693.0141.70.7%5.0%3.2%13.8%199187.017,39890.5128.2−5.9%4.5%6.7%21.8%199284.916,87389.5113.1−3.3%3.3%11.8%39.3%199385.716,96391.089,3−0.7%3.3%16.5%54.1%199490.817,87596.7103.73.9%1.6%16.7%56.1%199598.619,329102.9134.34.2%0.4%15.5%55.1%1996102.119,946108.6132.23.7%1.0%14.6%55.3%1997110.721,577117.5127.16.3%1.2%12.7%52.2%1998120.423,387125.3134.25.4%1.3%11.5%46.9%1999126.924,599132.6135.44.4%1.3%10.3%44.0%2000136.326,349143.4126.15.6%3.0%9.9%42.5%2001144.427,878150.5129.52.6%2.7%9.2%40.9%2002148.328,545155.4140.31.7%2.0%9.2%40.2%2003151.629,112161.7171.72.0%1.3%9.1%42.7%2004158.530,361172.6197.43.9%0.1%8.9%42.6%2005164.431,392183.0205.02.8%0.8%8.5%39.9%2006172.632,844196.3217.14.1%1.3%7.8%38.1%2007186.635,358212.2256.45.2%1.6%7.0%34.0%2008193.736,545218.0285.70.7%3.9%6.4%32.6%2009181.033,988201.7253.2−8.3%1.6%8.3%41.7%2010187.134,962210.6249.63.0%1.8%8.5%47.1%2011196.936,625220.5275,62.6%3.3%7.8%48.5%2012199.836,990221.3258.5−1.4%3.2%7.7%53.9%2013203.337,470225.7271.4−0.8%2.2%8.2%56.5%2014205.537,693228.1274.9−0.6%1.2%8.7%60.2%2015209.638,307232.9234.60.1%0.2%9.4%63.6%2016215.839,322246.9240.72.1%0.4%8.8%63.0%2017224.340,753262.1255.63.0%0.8%8.7%61.4%2018226.841,142271.4275.81.1%1.2%7.4%64.8632019229.641,609279.7268.61.2%1.1%6.7%64.8922020224.240,576276.7271.7-2.2%0.4%7.8%74.7532021231.041,748298.3297.02.9%2.1%7.6%72.5952022235.842,507324.3283.1n/a7.2%6.8%74.8072023235.942,510335.8305.7n/a5.3%7.5%74.4562024238.943,053347.0316.3n/a2.5%7.5%75.9142025242.143,621358.7327.6n/a2.2%7.4%77.7922026245.344,221371.4339.9n/a2.0%7.3%79.4682027248.444,802384.3351.1n/a2.0%7.2%80.9132028251.545,390397.8362.8n/a2.0%7.1%82.112" ], [ "Agriculture", "An oxeye daisy and a cow in Kyyjärvi, Central Finland.Finland's climate and soils make growing crops a particular challenge.", "The country lies between 60° and 70° north latitude - as far north as Alaska - and has severe winters and relatively short growing seasons that are sometimes interrupted by frosts.", "However, because the Gulf Stream and the North Atlantic Drift Current moderate the climate, and because of the relatively low elevation of the land area, Finland contains half of the world's arable land north of 60° north latitude.", "In response to the climate, farmers have relied on quick-ripening and frost-resistant varieties of crops.", "Most farmland had originally been either forest or swamp, and the soil had usually required treatment with lime and years of cultivation to neutralise excess acid and to develop fertility.", "Irrigation was generally not necessary, but drainage systems were often needed to remove excess water.Until the late nineteenth century, Finland's isolation required that most farmers concentrate on producing grains to meet the country's basic food needs.", "In the fall, farmers planted rye; in the spring, southern and central farmers started oats, while northern farmers seeded barley.", "Farms also grew small quantities of potatoes, other root crops, and legumes.", "Nevertheless, the total area under cultivation was still small.", "Cattle grazed in the summer and consumed hay in the winter.", "Essentially self-sufficient, Finland engaged in very limited agricultural trade.This traditional, almost autarkic, production pattern shifted sharply during the late nineteenth century, when inexpensive imported grain from Russia and the United States competed effectively with local grain.", "At the same time, rising domestic and foreign demand for dairy products and the availability of low-cost imported cattle feed made dairy and meat production much more profitable.", "These changes in market conditions induced Finland's farmers to switch from growing staple grains to producing meat and dairy products, setting a pattern that persisted into the late 1980s.In response to the agricultural depression of the 1930s, the government encouraged domestic production by imposing tariffs on agricultural imports.", "This policy enjoyed some success: the total area under cultivation increased, and farm incomes fell less sharply in Finland than in most other countries.", "Barriers to grain imports stimulated a return to mixed farming, and by 1938 Finland's farmers were able to meet roughly 90% of the domestic demand for grain.The disruptions caused by the Winter War and the Continuation War caused further food shortages, especially when Finland ceded territory, including about one-tenth of its farmland, to the Soviet Union.", "The experiences of the depression and the war years persuaded the Finns to secure independent food supplies to prevent shortages in future conflicts.After the war, the first challenge was to resettle displaced farmers.", "Most refugee farmers were given farms that included some buildings and land that had already been in production, but some had to make do with \"cold farms,\" that is, land not in production that usually had to be cleared or drained before crops could be sown.", "The government sponsored large-scale clearing and draining operations that expanded the area suitable for farming.", "As a result of the resettlement and land-clearing programs, the area under cultivation expanded by about 450,000 hectares, reaching about 2.4 million hectares by the early 1960s.", "Finland thus came to farm more land than ever before, an unusual development in a country that was simultaneously experiencing rapid industrial growth.275x275pxDuring this period of expansion, farmers introduced modern production practices.", "The widespread use of modern inputs—chemical fertilisers and insecticides, agricultural machinery, and improved seed varieties—sharply improved crop yields.", "Yet the modernisation process again made farm production dependent on supplies from abroad, this time on imports of petroleum and fertilisers.", "By 1984 domestic sources of energy covered only about 20% of farm needs, while in 1950 domestic sources had supplied 70% of them.", "In the aftermath of the oil price increases of the early 1970s, farmers began to return to local energy sources such as firewood.", "The existence of many farms that were too small to allow efficient use of tractors also limited mechanisation.", "Another weak point was the existence of many fields with open drainage ditches needing regular maintenance; in the mid-1980s, experts estimated that half of the cropland needed improved drainage works.", "At that time, about 1 million hectares had underground drainage, and agricultural authorities planned to help install such works on another million hectares.", "Despite these shortcomings, Finland's agriculture was efficient and productive—at least when compared with farming in other European countries.===Forestry===Forests play a key role in the country's economy, making it one of the world's leading wood producers and providing raw materials at competitive prices for the crucial wood processing industries.", "As in agriculture, the government has long played a leading role in forestry, regulating tree cutting, sponsoring technical improvements, and establishing long-term plans to ensure that the country's forests continue to supply the wood-processing industries.Finland's wet climate and rocky soils are ideal for forests.", "Tree stands do well throughout the country, except in some areas north of the Arctic Circle.", "In 1980 the forested area totaled about 19.8 million hectares, providing 4 hectares of forest per capita—far above the European average of about 0.5 hectares.", "The proportion of forest land varied considerably from region to region.", "In the central lake plateau and in the eastern and northern provinces, forests covered up to 80% of the land area, but in areas with better conditions for agriculture, especially in the southwest, forests accounted for only 50 to 60% of the territory.", "The main commercial tree species—pine, spruce, and birch—supplied raw material to the sawmill, pulp, and paper industries.", "The forests also produced sizable aspen and elder crops.The heavy winter snows and the network of waterways were used to move logs to the mills.", "Loggers were able to drag cut trees over the winter snow to the roads or water bodies.", "In the southwest, the sledding season lasted about 100 days per year; the season was even longer to the north and the east.", "The country's network of lakes and rivers facilitated log floating, a cheap and rapid means of transport.", "Each spring, crews floated the logs downstream to collection points; tugs towed log bundles down rivers and across lakes to processing centers.", "The waterway system covered much of the country, and by the 1980s Finland had extended roadways and railroads to areas not served by waterways, effectively opening up all of the country's forest reserves to commercial use.Forestry and farming were closely linked.", "During the twentieth century, government land redistribution programmes had made forest ownership widespread, allotting forestland to most farms.", "In the 1980s, private farmers controlled 35% of the country's forests; other persons held 27%; the government, 24%; private corporations, 9%; and municipalities and other public bodies, 5%.", "The forestlands owned by farmers and by other people—some 350,000 plots—were the best, producing 75 to 80% of the wood consumed by industry; the state owned much of the poorer land, especially that in the north.The ties between forestry and farming were mutually beneficial.", "Farmers supplemented their incomes with earnings from selling their wood, caring for forests, or logging; forestry made many otherwise marginal farms viable.", "At the same time, farming communities maintained roads and other infrastructure in rural areas, and they provided workers for forest operations.", "Indeed, without the farming communities in sparsely populated areas, it would have been much more difficult to continue intensive logging operations and reforestation in many prime forest areas.The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry has carried out forest inventories and drawn up silvicultural plans.", "According to surveys, between 1945 and the late 1970s foresters had cut trees faster than the forests could regenerate them.", "Nevertheless, between the early 1950s and 1981, Finland was able to boost the total area of its forests by some 2.7 million hectares and to increase forest stands under 40 years of age by some 3.2 million hectares.", "Beginning in 1965, the country instituted plans that called for expanding forest cultivation, draining peatland and waterlogged areas, and replacing slow-growing trees with faster-growing varieties.", "By the mid-1980s, the Finns had drained 5.5 million hectares, fertilized 2.8 million hectares, and cultivated 3.6 million hectares.", "Thinning increased the share of trees that would produce suitable lumber, while improved tree varieties increased productivity by as much as 30%.Comprehensive silvicultural programmes had made it possible for the Finns simultaneously to increase forest output and to add to the amount and value of the growing stock.", "By the mid-1980s, Finland's forests produced nearly 70 million cubic meters of new wood each year, considerably more than was being cut.", "During the postwar period, the annual cut increased by about 120% to about 50 million cubic meters.", "Wood burning fell to one-fifth the level of the immediate postwar years, freeing up wood supplies for the wood-processing industries, which consumed between 40 million and 45 million cubic meters per year.", "Indeed, industry demand was so great that Finland needed to import 5 million to 6 million cubic meters of wood each year.To maintain the country's comparative advantage in forest products, Finnish authorities moved to raise lumber output toward the country's ecological limits.", "In 1984 the government published the Forest 2000 plan, drawn up by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry.", "The plan aimed at increasing forest harvests by about 3% per year, while conserving forestland for recreation and other uses.", "It also called for enlarging the average size of private forest holdings, increasing the area used for forests, and extending forest cultivation and thinning.", "If successful, the plan would make it possible to raise wood deliveries by roughly one-third by the end of the twentieth century.", "Finnish officials believed that such growth was necessary if Finland was to maintain its share in world markets for wood and paper products." ], [ "Industry", "Since the 1990s, Finnish industry, which for centuries had relied on the country's vast forests, has become increasingly dominated by electronics and services, as globalization lead to a decline of more traditional industries.", "Outsourcing resulted in more manufacturing being transferred abroad, with Finnish-based industry focusing to a greater extent on R&D and hi-tech electronics.===Electronics===The Finnish electronics and electrotechnics industry relies on heavy investment in R&D, and has been accelerated by the liberalisation of global markets.", "Electrical engineering started in the late 19th century with generators and electric motors built by Gottfried Strömberg, now part of the ABB.", "Other Finnish companies – such as Instru, Vaisala and Neles (now part of Metso) - have succeeded in areas such as industrial automation, medical and meteorological technology.", "Nokia was once a world leader in mobile telecommunications.=== Metals, engineering and manufacturing ===Finland has an abundance of minerals, but many large mines have closed down, and most raw materials are now imported.", "For this reason, companies now tend to focus on high added-value processing of metals.", "The exports include steel, copper, chromium, gold, zinc and nickel, and finished products such as steel roofing and cladding, welded steel pipes, copper pipe and coated sheets.", "Outokumpu is known for developing the flash smelting process for copper production and stainless steel.In 2019, the country was the world's 5th largest producer of chromium, the 17th largest world producer of sulfur and the 20th largest world producer of phosphateWith regard to vehicles, the Finnish motor industry consists mostly of manufacturers of tractors (Valtra, formerly Valmet tractor), forest machines (f.ex.", "Ponsse), military vehicles (Sisu, Patria), trucks (Sisu Auto), buses and Valmet Automotive, a contract manufacturer, whose factory in Uusikaupunki produces Mercedes-Benz cars.", "Shipbuilding is an important industry: the world's largest cruise ships are built in Finland; also, the Finnish company Wärtsilä produces the world's largest diesel engines and has market share of 47%.", "In addition, Finland also produces train rolling stock.The manufacturing industry is a significant employer of about 400,000 people.=== Mining ===* Ahmavaara mine (Gold, copper, nickel)* Koivu mine (Titanium)* Konttijärvi mine (Gold, copper, nickel)* Mustavaara mine (Vanadium)* Portimo mine (Gold)* Sokli mine (Phosphates)* Suhanko mine (Gold, copper, nickel)===Chemical industry===The chemical industry is one of the Finland's largest industrial sectors with its roots in tar making in the 17th century.", "It produces an enormous range of products for the use of other industrial sectors, especially for forestry and agriculture.", "In addition, its produces plastics, chemicals, paints, oil products, pharmaceuticals, environmental products, biotech products and petrochemicals.", "In the beginning of this millennium, biotechnology was regarded as one of the most promising high-tech sectors in Finland.", "In 2006 it was still considered promising, even though it had not yet become \"the new Nokia\".===Pulp and paper industry===A freight train departing from a pulp mill in Äänekoski.Forest products has been the major export industry in the past, but diversification and growth of the economy has reduced its share.", "In the 1970s, the pulp and paper industry accounted for half of Finnish exports.", "Although this share has shrank, pulp and paper is still a major industry with 52 sites across the country.", "Furthermore, several of large international corporations in this business are based in Finland.", "Stora Enso and UPM were placed No.", "1 and No.", "3 by output in the world, both producing more than ten million tons.", "M-real and Myllykoski also appear on the top 100 list.===Energy industry===Finland's energy supply is divided as follows: nuclear power 26%, net imports 20%, hydroelectric power 16%, combined production district heat 18%, combined production industry 13%, condensing power 6%.One half of all the energy consumed in Finland goes to industry, one fifth to heating buildings and one fifth to transport.", "Lacking indigenous fossil fuel resources, Finland has been an energy importer.", "This might change in the future since Finland is currently building its fifth nuclear reactor, and approved building permits for its sixth and seventh ones.", "There are some uranium resources in Finland, but to date no commercially viable deposits have been identified for exclusive mining of uranium.", "However, permits have been granted to Talvivaara to produce uranium from the tailings of their nickel-cobalt mine." ], [ "Companies", "Aleksanterinkatu, a commercial street in Helsinki.Notable companies in Finland include Nokia, the former market leader in mobile telephony; Stora Enso, the largest paper manufacturer in the world; Neste Oil, an oil refining and marketing company; UPM-Kymmene, the third largest paper manufacturer in the world; Aker Finnyards, the manufacturer of the world's largest cruise ships (such as Royal Caribbean's ''Freedom of the Seas''); Rovio Mobile, video game developer most notable for creating Angry Birds; KONE, a manufacturer of elevators and escalators; Wärtsilä, a producer of power plants and ship engines; and Finnair, the largest Helsinki-Vantaa based international airline.", "Additionally, many Nordic design firms are headquartered in Finland.", "These include the Fiskars owned Iittala Group, Artek a furniture design firm co-created by Alvar Aalto, and Marimekko made famous by Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis.", "Finland has sophisticated financial markets comparable to the UK in efficiency.", "Though foreign investment is not as high as some other European countries, the largest foreign-headquartered companies included names such as ABB, Tellabs, Carlsberg and Siemens.Around 70-80% of the equity quoted on the Helsinki Stock Exchange are owned by foreign-registered entities.", "The larger companies get most of their revenue from abroad, and the majority of their employees work outside the country.", "Cross-shareholding has been abolished and there is a trend towards an Anglo-Saxon style of corporate governance.", "However, only around 15% of residents have invested in stock market, compared to 20% in France, and 50% in the US.Between 2000 and 2003, early stage venture capital investments relative to GDP were 8.5% against 4% in the EU and 11.5 in the US.", "Later stage investments fell to the EU median.", "Invest in Finland and other programs attempt to attract investment.", "In 2000 FDI from Finland to overseas was 20 billion euro and from overseas to Finland 7 billion euro.", "Acquisitions and mergers have internationalized business in Finland.Although some privatization has been gradually done, there are still several state-owned companies of importance.", "The government keeps them as strategic assets or because they are natural monopoly.", "These include e.g.", "Neste (oil refining and marketing), VR (rail), Finnair, VTT (research) and Posti Group (mail).", "Depending on the strategic importance, the government may hold either 100%, 51% or less than 50% stock.", "Most of these have been transformed into regular limited companies, but some are quasi-governmental (''liikelaitos''), with debt backed by the state, as in the case of VTT.In 2022, the sector with the highest number of companies registered in Finland is Services with 191,796 companies followed by Finance, Insurance, and Real Estate and Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing with 159,158 and 102,452 companies respectively." ], [ "Household income and consumption", "Finland's income is generated by the approximately 1.8 million private sector workers, who make an average 25.1 euro per hour (before the median 60% tax wedge) in 2007.According to a 2003 report, residents worked on average around 10 years for the same employer and around 5 different jobs over a lifetime.", "62% worked for small and medium-sized enterprises.", "Female employment rate was high and gender segregation on career choices was higher than in the US.", "In 1999 part-time work rate was one of the smallest in OECD.Future liabilities are dominated by the pension deficit.", "Unlike in Sweden, where pension savers can manage their investments, in Finland employers choose a pension fund for the employee.", "The pension funding rate is higher than in most Western European countries, but still only a portion of it is funded and pensions exclude health insurances and other unaccounted promises.", "Directly held public debt has been reduced to around 32% in 2007.In 2007, the average household savings rate was -3.8 and household debt 101% of annual disposable income, a typical level in Europe.In 2008, the OECD reported that \"the gap between rich and poor has widened more in Finland than in any other wealthy industrialised country over the past decade\" and that \"Finland is also one of the few countries where inequality of incomes has grown between the rich and the middle-class, and not only between rich and poor.", "\"In 2006, there were 2,381,500 households of average size 2.1 people.", "Forty% of households consisted of single person, 32% two and 28% three or more.", "There were 1.2 million residential buildings in Finland and the average residential space was 38 square metres per person.", "The average residential property (without land) cost 1,187 euro per square metre and residential land on 8.6 euro per square metre.", "Consumer energy prices were 8-12 euro cent per kilowatt hour.", "74% of households had a car.", "There were 2.5 million cars and 0.4 other vehicles.Around 92% have mobile phones and 58% Internet connection at home.", "The average total household consumption was 20,000 euro, out of which housing at around 5500 euro, transport at around 3000 euro, food and beverages excluding alcoholic at around 2500 euro, recreation and culture at around 2000 euro.", "Upper-level white-collar households (409,653) consumed an average 27,456 euro, lower-level white-collar households (394,313) 20,935 euro, and blue-collar households (471,370) 19,415 euro." ], [ "Unemployment", "The unemployment rate was 10.3% in 2015.The employment rate is (persons aged 15–64) 66.8%.", "Unemployment security benefits for those seeking employment are at an average OECD level.", "The labor administration funds labour market training for unemployed job seekers, the training for unemployed job seeker can last up to 6 months, which is often vocational.", "The aim of the training is to improve the channels of finding employment." ], [ "Gross domestic product", "===Euro Membership===The American economist and ''The New York Times'' columnist Paul Krugman has suggested that the short term costs of euro membership to the Finnish economy outweigh the large gains caused by greater integration with the European economy.", "Krugman notes that Sweden, which has yet to join the single currency, had similar rates of growth compared to Finland for the period since the introduction of the euro.Membership of the euro protects Finland from currency fluctuations, which is particularly important for small member states of the European Union like Finland that are highly integrated into the larger European economy.", "If Finland had retained its own currency, unpredictable exchange rates would prevent the country from selling its products at competitive prices on the European market.", "In fact, business leaders in Sweden, which is obliged to join the euro when its economy has converged with the eurozone, are almost universal in their support for joining the euro.", "Although Sweden's currency is not officially pegged to the euro like Denmark's currency the Swedish government maintains an unofficial peg.", "This exchange rate policy has in the short term benefited the Swedish economy in two ways; (1) much of Sweden's European trade is already denominated in euros and therefore bypasses any currency fluctuation and exchange rate losses, (2) it allows Sweden's non-euro-area exports to remain competitive by dampening any pressure from the financial markets to increase the value of the currency.Maintaining this balance has allowed the Swedish government to borrow on the international financial markets at record low interest rates and allowed the Swedish central bank to quantitatively ease into a fundamentally sound economy.", "This has led Sweden's economy to prosper at the expense of less sound economies who have been impacted by the 2008 financial crisis.", "Sweden's economic performance has therefore been slightly better than Finland's since the financial crisis of 2008.Much of this disparity has, however, been due to the economic dominance of Nokia, Finland's largest company and Finland's only major multinational.", "Nokia supported and greatly benefited from the euro and the European single market, particularly from a common European digital mobile phone standard (GSM), but it failed to adapt when the market shifted to mobile computing.One reason for the popularity of the euro in Finland is the memory of a 'great depression' which began in 1990, with Finland not regaining it competitiveness until approximately a decade later when Finland joined the single currency.", "Some American economists like Paul Krugman claim not to understand the benefits of a single currency and allege that poor economic performance is the result of membership of the single currency.", "These economists do not, however, advocate separate currencies for the states of the United States, many of which have quite disparate economies." ], [ "Public policy", "Finnish politicians have often emulated other Nordics and the Nordic model.", "Nordic's have been free-trading and relatively welcoming to skilled migrants for over a century, though in Finland immigration is a relatively new phenomenon.", "This is due largely to Finland's less hospitable climate and the fact that the Finnish language shares roots with none of the major world languages, making it more challenging than average for most to learn.", "The level of protection in commodity trade has been low, except for agricultural products.As an economic environment, Finland's judiciary is efficient and effective.", "Finland is highly open to investment and free trade.", "Finland has top levels of economic freedom in many areas, although there is a heavy tax burden and inflexible job market.", "Finland is ranked 16th (ninth in Europe) in the 2008 Index of Economic Freedom.", "Recently, Finland has topped the patents per capita statistics, and overall productivity growth has been strong in areas such as electronics.", "While the manufacturing sector is thriving, OECD points out that the service sector would benefit substantially from policy improvements.", "The IMD World Competitiveness Yearbook 2007 ranked Finland 17th most competitive, next to Germany, and lowest of the Nordics.", "while the World Economic Forum report has ranked Finland the most competitive country.", "Finland is one of the most fiscally responsible EU countries.===Product market===Economists attribute much growth to reforms in the product markets.", "According to OECD, only four EU-15 countries have less regulated product markets (UK, Ireland, Denmark and Sweden) and only one has less regulated financial markets (Denmark).", "Nordic countries were pioneers in liberalising energy, postal, and other markets in Europe.", "The legal system is clear and business bureaucracy less than most countries.", "For instance, starting a business takes an average of 14 days, compared to the world average of 43 days and Denmark's average of 6 days.", "Property rights are well protected and contractual agreements are strictly honored.", "Finland is rated one of the least corrupted countries in Corruption Perceptions Index.", "Finland is rated 13th in the Ease of Doing Business Index.", "It indicates exceptional ease to trade across borders (5th), enforce contracts (7th), and close a business (5th), and exceptional hardship to employ workers (127th) and pay taxes (83rd).===Job market===According to the OECD, Finland's job market is the least flexible of the Nordic countries.", "Finland increased job market regulation in the 1970s to provide stability to manufacturers.", "In contrast, during the 1990s, Denmark liberalised its job market, Sweden moved to more decentralised contracts, whereas Finnish trade unions blocked many reforms.", "Many professions have legally recognized industry-wide contracts that lay down common terms of employment including seniority levels, holiday entitlements, and salary levels, usually as part of a Comprehensive Income Policy Agreement.", "Those who favor less centralized labor market policies consider these agreements bureaucratic, inflexible, and along with tax rates, a key contributor to unemployment and distorted prices.", "Centralized agreements may hinder structural change as there are fewer incentives to acquire better skills, although Finland already enjoys one of the highest skill-levels in the world." ], [ "Taxation", "Tax is collected mainly from municipal income tax, state income tax, state value added tax, customs fees, corporate taxes and special taxes.", "There are also property taxes, but municipal income tax pays most of municipal expenses.", "Taxation is conducted by a state agency, Verohallitus, which collects income taxes from each paycheck, and then pays the difference between tax liability and taxes paid as tax rebate or collects as tax arrears afterward.", "Municipal income tax is a flat tax of nominally 15-20%, with deductions applied, and directly funds the municipality (a city or rural locality).", "The state income tax is a progressive tax; low-income individuals do not necessarily pay any.", "The state transfers some of its income as state support to municipalities, particularly the poorer ones.", "Additionally, the state churches - Finnish Evangelical Lutheran Church and Finnish Orthodox Church - are integrated to the taxation system in order to tax their members.The middle income worker's tax wedge is 46% and effective marginal tax rates are very high.", "Value-added tax is 24% for most items.", "Capital gains tax is 30-34% and corporate tax is 20%, about the EU median.", "Property taxes are low, but there is a transfer tax (1.6% for apartments or 4% for individual houses) for home buyers.", "There are high excise taxes on alcoholic beverages, tobacco, automobiles and motorcycles, motor fuels, lotteries, sweets and insurances.", "For instance, McKinsey estimates that a worker has to pay around 1600 euro for another's 400 euro service - restricting service supply and demand - though some taxation is avoided in the black market and self-service culture.", "Another study by Karlson, Johansson & Johnsson estimates that the fraction of the buyer's income entering the service vendor's wallet (inverted tax wedge) is slightly over 15%, compared to 10% in Belgium, 25% in France, 40% in Switzerland and 50% in the United States.", "Tax cuts have been in every post-depression government's agenda and the overall tax burden is now around 43% of GDP compared to 51.1% in Sweden, 34.7% in Germany, 33.5% in Canada, and 30.5% in Ireland.High income workers, for instance someone making 10000€/month gross, living in the city of Vantaa and using 3000€/year on commuting to work, pay 60% income tax plus 8.65% social security payments (this varies mildly depending on the age of the worker, but for someone born in 1975, it is currently in the year 2022, 8.65%).", "This means that 68.65% of the gross income goes to taxes and tax like payments.State and municipal politicians have struggled to cut their consumption, which is very high at 51.7% of GDP compared to 56.6% in Sweden, 46.9 in Germany, 39.3 in Canada, and 33.5% in Ireland.", "Much of the taxes are spent on public sector employees, which amount to 124,000 state employees and 430,000 municipal employees.", "That is 113 per 1000 residents (over a quarter of workforce) compared to 74 in the US, 70 in Germany, and 42 in Japan (8% of workforce).", "The Economist Intelligence Unit's ranking for Finland's e-readiness is high at 13th, compared to 1st for United States, 3rd for Sweden, 5th for Denmark, and 14th for Germany.", "Also, early and generous retirement schemes have contributed to high pension costs.", "Social spending such as health or education is around OECD median.", "Social transfers are also around OECD median.", "In 2001 Finland's outsourced proportion of spending was below Sweden's and above most other Western European countries.", "Finland's health care is more bureaucrat-managed than in most Western European countries, though many use private insurance or cash to enjoy private clinics.", "Some reforms toward more equal marketplace have been made in 2007–2008.In education, child nurseries, and elderly nurseries private competition is bottom-ranking compared to Sweden and most other Western countries.", "Some public monopolies such Alko remain, and are sometimes challenged by the European Union.", "The state has a programme where the number of jobs decreases by attrition: for two retirees, only one new employee is hired." ], [ "Occupational and income structure", "Finland's export-dependent economy continuously adapted to the world market; in doing so, it changed Finnish society as well.", "The prolonged worldwide boom, beginning in the late 1940s and lasting until the first oil crisis in 1973, was a challenge that Finland met and from which it emerged with a highly sophisticated and diversified economy, including a new occupational structure.", "Some sectors kept a fairly constant share of the work force.", "Transportation and construction, for example, each accounted for between 7 and 8% in both 1950 and 1985, and manufacturing's share rose only from 22 to 24%.", "However, both the commercial and the service sectors more than doubled their share of the work force, accounting, respectively, for 21 and 28% in 1985.The greatest change was the decline of the economically active population employed in agriculture and forestry, from approximately 50% in 1950 to 10% in 1985.The exodus from farms and forests provided the labour power needed for the growth of other sectors.Studies of Finnish mobility patterns since World War II have confirmed the significance of this exodus.", "Sociologists have found that people with a farming background were present in other occupations to a considerably greater extent in Finland than in other West European countries.", "Finnish data for the early 1980s showed that 30 to 40% of those in occupations not requiring much education were the children of farmers, as were about 25% in upper-level occupations, a rate two to three times that of France and noticeably higher than that even of neighboring Sweden.", "Finland also differed from the other Nordic countries in that the generational transition from the rural occupations to white-collar positions was more likely to be direct, bypassing manual occupations.The most important factor determining social mobility in Finland was education.", "Children who attained a higher level of education than their parents were often able to rise in the hierarchy of occupations.", "In the Helsinki Metropolitan Area, those who are more educated, in the long-run, will move to newer centrally located buildings.", "A tripling or quadrupling in any one generation of the numbers receiving schooling beyond the required minimum reflected the needs of a developing economy for skilled employees.", "Obtaining advanced training or education was easier for some than for others, however, and the children of white-collar employees still were more likely to become white-collar employees themselves than were the children of farmers and blue-collar workers.", "In addition, children of white-collar professionals were more likely than not to remain in that class.The economic transformation also altered income structure.", "A noticeable shift was the reduction in wage differentials.", "The increased wealth produced by an advanced economy was distributed to wage earners via the system of broad income agreements that evolved in the postwar era.", "Organized sectors of the economy received wage hikes even greater than the economy's growth rate.", "As a result, blue-collar workers' income came, in time, to match more closely the pay of lower level white-collar employees, and the income of the upper middle class declined in relation to that of other groups.The long trend of growth in living standards paired with diminishing differences between social classes was dramatically reversed during the 1990s.", "For the first time in the history of Finland income differences have sharply grown.", "This change has been mostly driven by the growth of income from capital to the wealthiest segment of the population." ], [ "See also", "* Finnish maritime cluster* Economy of Europe* List of Finnish companies* List of banks in Finland" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Current statistics from Statistics Finland* Economic indicators from Findicator* Tariffs applied by Finland as provided by ITC's Market Access Map, an online database of customs tariffs and market requirements.", "* Finland Exports, Imports and Trade Balance" ] ]
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[ [ "Telecommunications in Finland" ], [ "Introduction", "Map of Finland, 1920, with telephone and telegraph lines marked.", "'''Telecommunications in Finland''', as indicated by a 2022 European Commission index, highlight the country's significant role in the EU's digital sector.", "Finland has a high concentration of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) specialists and robust training programs, leading to notable expertise in technologies like AI and cloud computing.", "The nation has also made significant advancements in 5G technology.", "Additionally, Finland stands out for its high adoption of digital public services.", "The Finnish digital sector benefits from both the technology industry's contributions and government policies aimed at enhancing digital infrastructure and cybersecurity." ], [ "Internet and digital progress", "=== Fixed broadband ===In the European Commission's 2022 Digital Economy and Society Index (DESI) report, Finland is ranked 8th in connectivity among 27 EU countries, but it faces challenges in its digital infrastructure.", "Fixed broadband adoption stands at 61%, below the EU average of 78%.", "Very High Capacity Network (VHCN) coverage is 68%, slightly lower than the EU's 70%, with rural areas affected, having only 12.4% VHCN coverage.", "Fiber to the Premises (FTTP) coverage is at 40%, compared to the EU average of 50%.", "To address these issues, the Finnish government plans to expand VHCN coverage through national broadband and digital infrastructure initiatives.", "Despite funding challenges, the government allocated EUR 16 million from the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD) in 2021 for fiber network development.=== Mobile broadband ===Finland's mobile broadband performance is strong, with 72% 5G coverage, surpassing the EU average of 66%, and a 96% mobile broadband adoption rate, exceeding the EU average of 87%.", "This achievement can be attributed to extensive 4G and 5G availability, covering 72% of populated areas.", "The early allocation of 5G pioneer bands (700 MHz in 2016, 3.6 GHz in 2018, and 26 GHz in 2020) has played a key role in achieving this widespread coverage.", "Recent frequency usage changes near Russia are expected to further improve 5G services in those regions.=== Integration of digital technology ===The country ranks at the forefront of digital technology integration within the EU.", "Notably, 82% of Finnish small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) exhibit basic digital intensity, higher than the EU average of 55%.", "Finland distinguishes itself in the adoption of advanced technologies, with 22% using big data, 66% of companies utilizing cloud solutions, and 16% implementing artificial intelligence (AI)—figures that are higher than the EU averages of 14%, 34%, and 8%, respectively.", "Further, 83% of Finnish companies have adopted e-invoices in contrast to the EU's average of 32%.On the aspect of ICT for environmental sustainability, 77% of Finnish enterprises report medium or high intensity of green action through ICT, which exceeds the EU average of 66%.=== Digital public services ===Finland has established itself as a leader in digital public services within the EU, as evidenced by the DESI 2022 report, which notes that 92% of Finnish internet users engage with e-government services compared to the EU average of 65%.", "This high level of engagement is attributed to Finland's progress in digital services, as seen in the My Kanta portal, which promotes digital health by providing citizens with secure access to their medical records and health services online.In the areas of open data and artificial intelligence (AI), Finland achieves scores of 90 and 93 out of 100 for providing digital services to citizens and businesses, respectively, surpassing the EU averages of 75 and 82.An example of Finland's application of AI to enhance public services is the AuroraAI program, which is designed to facilitate personalized access to a range of public services.", "Additionally, Finland is enhancing its digital identity infrastructure to offer a secure, unified electronic identification system, improving access to digital services across sectors.", "The Ministerial Working Group on \"Digitalisation, Data Economy, and Public Administration\" is tasked with both advancing and safeguarding Finland's digital framework, which includes a focus on cybersecurity." ], [ "Telephones", "Telephones – main lines in use: 2.368 million (2004)Telephones – mobile cellular: 4.988 million (2004)Telephone system: General Assessment: Modern system with excellent service.Domestic: Digital fiber-optic fixed-line network and an extensive cellular network provide domestic needs.", "There are three major cellular network providers with independent networks (Elisa Oyj, Telia Finland and DNA Oyj).", "There are several smaller providers which may have independent networks in smaller areas, but are generally dependent on rented networks.", "There is a great variety of cellular providers and contracts, and competition is particularly fierce.International: Country code – 358; 2 submarine cable (Finland-Estonia and Finland-Sweden Connection); satellite earth stations – access to Intelsat transmission service via a Swedish satellite earth station, 1 Inmarsat (Atlantic and Indian Ocean regions); note – Finland shares the Inmarsat earth station with the other Nordic countries (Denmark, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden)." ], [ "Radio and television", "There is a national public radio and television company Yleisradio (Yle), which was previously funded by television license fees, but nowadays via the YLE tax.", "and two major private media companies, Alma Media and Sanoma, with national TV channels.", "Yle maintains four TV channels YLE1, YLE2, Teema and FST5.There are four commercial, national channels: Alma Media has MTV3 and SubTV, and Sanoma has Nelonen and Jim.", "There are also a lot of pay-TV channels.", "News Corporation introduced itself to the market in 2012 with the Fox channel, which was preceded by Finnish-owned SuomiTV.===Radio broadcast stations===AM 2, FM 186, shortwave 1 (1998)===Television broadcast stations===120 (plus 431 repeaters) (1999)Television is broadcast as digital (DVB-T) only since August 2007.On cable, only digital (DVB-C) will be broadcast from 2008 on." ], [ "See also", "* Finland* Media of Finland" ], [ "Further reading", "* Cheung, Zeerim, Eero Alto and Pavi Nevalainen.", "2020.\"", "Institutional Logics and the Internationalization of a State-Owned Enterprise: Evaluation of International Venture Opportunities by Telecom Finland 1987–1998.\"", "Journal of World Business" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* ThisisFINLAND – Media Moves" ] ]
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[ [ "Transport in Finland" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''transport system of Finland''' is well-developed.", "Factors affecting traffic include the sparse population and long distance between towns and cities, and the cold climate with waterways freezing and land covered in snow for winter.The extensive road system is utilized by most internal cargo and passenger traffic.", ", the country's network of main roads has a total length of around and all public roads .", "The motorway network totals with additional reserved only for motor traffic.", "Road network expenditure of around €1 billion is paid with vehicle and fuel taxes that amount to around €1.5 billion and €1 billion, respectively.The main international passenger gateway is Helsinki-Vantaa Airport with over 20 million passengers in 2018.About 25 airports have scheduled passenger services.", "They are financed by competitive fees and rural airport may be subsidized.", "The Helsinki-Vantaa based Finnair (known for an Asia-focused strategy), Nordic Regional Airlines provide air services both domestically and internationally.", "Helsinki has an optimal location for great circle routes between Western Europe and the Far East.", "Hence, many international travelers visit Helsinki on a stop-over between Asia and Europe.Despite low population density, taxpayers spend annually around €350 million in maintaining railway tracks even to many rural towns.", "Operations are privatized and currently the only operator is the state-owned VR.", "It has 5 percent passenger market share (out of which 80 percent are urban trips in Greater Helsinki) and 25 percent cargo market share.", "Helsinki has an urban rail network.Icebreakers keep the 23 ports open all year round.", "There is passenger traffic from Helsinki and Turku, which have ferry connections to Tallinn, Mariehamn, Sweden and several other destinations." ], [ "Roads", "Road transport in Finland is the most popular method of transportation, particularly in rural areas where the railway network does not extend to.", "there are of public roads, of which are paved.", "The main road network comprises over of road.===Highways===Arriving in Tampere from Helsinki along Highway 3 (E12)64% of all traffic on public roads takes place on main roads, which are divided into class I (''/'') and class II (''/'') main roads.", "Motorways have been constructed in the country since the 1960s, but they are still reasonably rare because traffic volumes are not large enough to motivate their construction.", "There are of motorways.", "Longest stretches are Helsinki–Turku (Main road 1/E18), Vantaa–Ylöjärvi (Main road 3/E12), Helsinki–Heinola (Main road 4/E75), and Helsinki–Vaalimaa (Main road 7/E18).", "The world's northernmost motorway is also located in Finland between Keminmaa and Tornio (Main road 29/E8).There are no toll roads in Finland.===Speed limits===Office buildings line Kehä I in Pohjois-Haaga, Helsinki.Speed limits change depending on the time of the year; the maximum speed limit on motorways is in the summer and in the winter.", "The main roads usually have speed limits of either 100 km/h or .", "Speed limits in urban areas range between and .", "If no other speed limit is signposted, the general speed limit in Finland is in built-up areas and outside.===Vehicles===, there are 4,95 million registered automobiles, of which 2,58 million cars.", "Average age of cars (museum cars excluded) is 12,5 years (in some regions even 15 years), and typically the cars are destroyed in age of 24 years.", "In 2015, ca.", "123 000 new vehicles were registered in Finland.", "About 550,000–600,000 used automobiles are sold each year in Finland.", "During 2011–2014 the most sold car brand was Volkswagen.", "It had a market share of 12% of new cars.=== Public transport ===Electric Articulated bus 570 to airport operated by HSL in Vantaa, Finland in 2022 December.A Finnair bus rushes passengers to Helsinki-Vantaa AirportCoaches are mainly operated by private companies and provide services widely across the country.", "There is a large network of ExpressBus services with connections to all major cities and the most important rural areas as well as a burgeoning OnniBus 'cheap bus' network.", "Coach stations are operated by Matkahuolto.Local bus services inside cities and towns have often been tightly regulated by the councils.", "Many councils also have their own bus operators, such as Tampere City Transit (TKL), which operates some bus lines on a commercial basis in competition with privately owned providers.", "Regional bus lines have been regulated by the provincial administration to protect old transit companies, leading to cartel situations like TLO in the Turku region, but strong regional regulating bodies, like the Helsinki Regional Transport Authority (HSL/HRT), whose routes are put out to tender exist as well and will become the norm after the transitional period during the 2010s.=== Accidents ===In 2015, number of road traffic accidents involving personal injury was 5,164.In them, 266 persons were killed.", "The number of road deaths per million inhabitants is just below the European average.", "Traffic safety has improved significantly since the early 1970s, when more than one thousand people died in road traffic every year.=== Parking ===Underground parking of noticeable size near Tikkurila railway stationMunicipal law 30-31 § gives right to Referendum since year 1990.Citizens of Turku collected 15,000 names in one month for referendum against the underground car park.", "Politicians with in the elections unknown financing from the parking company neglected the citizens opinion.", "According to International Association of Public Transport UITP parking places are among the most effective ways to promote private car use in the city.", "Therefore, many European cities have cancelled the expensive underground car parking after the 1990s.", "The EU recommended actions cover develop guidance for concrete measures for the internalisation of external costs for car traffic also in urban areas.", "In Finland the shops routinely offer free parking for private cars." ], [ "Cycling", "Light traffic thoroughfare BaanaIn Finland, where 13% of the population reports cycling as their primary form of movement.", "In 2016, the first Bicycle-sharing system, Helsinki City Bikes was opened in Finland." ], [ "Rail transport", "=== Railways ===A double-decker InterCity 2 train at Hämeenlinna.VR Class Sr1 train at Kuopio.The Finnish railway network consists of a total of of railways built with .", "of track is electrified.", "In 2010, passengers made 13.4 million long-distance voyages and 55.5 million trips in local traffic.", "On the same year, over of freight were transported.Finland's first railway was opened between Helsinki and Hämeenlinna in 1862, and today it forms part of the Finnish Main Line (''päärata''), which is more than 800 kilometers long.", "Nowadays, passenger trains are operated by the state-owned VR.", "They serve all the major cities and many rural areas, complemented by bus connections where needed.", "Most passenger train services originate or terminate at Helsinki Central railway station, and a large proportion of the passenger rail network radiates out of Helsinki.", "High-speed Pendolino services are operated from Helsinki to other major cities like Jyväskylä, Joensuu, Kuopio, Oulu, Tampere and Turku.", "Modern InterCity services complement the Pendolino network, and cheaper and older long and short-distance trains operate in areas with fewer passengers.The Helsinki area has three urban rail systems: a tramway, a metro, and a commuter rail system.", "Light rail systems are currently being planned for Helsinki and also for Turku and Tampere, two of the country's other major urban centres.===Metro===HKL Class M300 use on the Helsinki MetroThe Helsinki metro is a 43-kilometer broad-gauge metro system that connects the center of Helsinki with the eastern districts and the western Espoo.", "The capital region has the northernmost metro system in the world and the only one in Finland.", "The Helsinki metro was opened on August 2, 1982, initially between Rautatientori and Itäkeskus.", "On November 18, 2017, Länsimetro extended the metro lines from the inner city to the west, via Lauttasaari to Tapiola and Matinkylä, and on December 3, 2022, all the way to Kivenlahti.===High-speed rail===There are plans to link Helsinki to Turku and Tampere by high-speed lines resulting in journey times of an hour between the capital and the two cities.", "A link to Kouvola is also planned.", "The estimated cost of these lines is €10 billion.=== Trams and light rail ===In Finland there have been four cities with trams: Helsinki, Turku, Viipuri and Tampere.", "Of the older systems only Helsinki has retained its tramway network.", "The trams in Viipuri, having been lost to Soviet Union in 1945, ceased operations in 1957, while the Turku tramway network shut down in 1972.In November 2016, Tampere city council approved the construction of a new light rail system.", "Construction of phase 1 begun late 2016 and finished in 2021.Tampere trams are already operating but the official opening date is 9 August 2021.Turku also has preliminary plans for new tram system, but no decision to build it has been made.Helsinki currently operates 10 tramlines on a network of approximately of track in passenger service.", "The trams have annually 57 million passengers.Image:Artic (tram) in Helsinki.jpg|New Škoda Artic tram in HelsinkiForCity Smart Artic X54 in Helsinki city centre, 2021 November.jpg|NewThe Artic XL tram in HelsinkiRaitiovaunu Hämeenkadulla.jpg|New Škoda Artic tram in TampereKakola Funicular 3.jpg|Funicular in Turku" ], [ "Air transport", "Airbus A320There are 148 airfields, 74 of which have paved runways.", "21 airports are served by scheduled passenger flights.", "By far the largest airport is Helsinki-Vantaa Airport, and the second largest by passenger volume is Oulu Airport.", "The larger airports are managed by the state-owned Finavia (formerly the Finnish Civil Aviation Administration).", "Finnair, Nordic Regional Airlines and Norwegian Air Shuttle are the main carriers for domestic flights.Helsinki-Vantaa airport is Finland's global gateway with scheduled non-stop flights to such places as Bangkok, Beijing, Guangzhou, Nagoya, New York, Osaka, Shanghai, Hong Kong and Tokyo.", "Helsinki has an optimal location for great circle airline traffic routes between Western Europe and the Far East.", "The airport is located approximately 19 kilometers north of Helsinki's downtown in the city of Vantaa, thus the name Helsinki-Vantaa.Other airports with regular scheduled international connections are Kokkola-Pietarsaari Airport, Mariehamn Airport, Tampere-Pirkkala Airport, Turku Airport and Vaasa Airport." ], [ "Water transport", "Icebreaker Sampo in Port of KemiRaumaPort of Hamina-KotkaViking Line is one of several companies operating ferry service between Helsinki and Tallinn.The Finnish Maritime Administration is responsible for the maintenance of Finland's waterway network.", "Finland's waterways includes some of coastal fairways and of Finland waterways (on rivers, canals, and lakes).", "Saimaa Canal connects Lake Saimaa, and thus much of the inland waterway system of Finland, with the Baltic Sea at Vyborg (Viipuri).", "However, the lower part of the canal is currently located in Russia.", "To facilitate through shipping, Finland leases the Russian section of the canal from Russia (the original agreement with the Soviet Union dates to 1963).The largest general port is Port of Hamina-Kotka.", "Port of Helsinki is the busiest passenger harbour, and it also has significant cargo traffic.", "By cargo tons, the five busiest ports are Hamina-Kotka, Helsinki, Rauma, Kilpilahti and Naantali.Icebreakers keep 23 ports open for traffic even in winter.", "The ports in Gulf of Bothnia need icebreakers in average six months a year, while in Gulf of Finland icebreakers are needed for three months a year.Frequent ferry service connects Finland with Estonia and Sweden.", "Baltic cruise liners regularly call on theport of Helsinki as well.", "In domestic service, ferries connect Finland's islands with the mainland.", "Finland's cargo portsmove freight both for Finland's own needs and for transshipment to Russia.===Waterways/Canals===Timber floating on JoensuuFinland's canals are primarily located in inland waters.", "The canals of the Finnish sea area are mostly made for small boating.", "In terms of water traffic, a significant reason for canalization has been floating operations.", "For water management, canals have been built especially for Log driving and hydropower projects.", "In order to lower and drain Lake Pohjalanjärvi, the depression of Rautajoki was deepened by canalization.", "The Finnish Waterways Association was founded in 1981 to promote the development of waterways and the construction of canals." ], [ "See also", "* Finnish models of public transport* Plug-in electric vehicles in Finland" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* VR (The main site of the Finnish railway company)* Search engine for all public transit in Finland * Finnish Maritime Administration* Finnish Road Administration * Transport statistics at Findicator" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Finnish Defence Forces" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Finnish Defence Forces (FDF)''' (, ) are the military of Finland.", "The Finnish Defence Forces consist of the Finnish Army, the Finnish Navy, and the Finnish Air Force.", "In wartime, the Finnish Border Guard becomes part of the Finnish Defence Forces.Universal male conscription is in place, under which all mentally and physically capable men serve for 165, 255, or 347 days, from the year they turn 18 until the year they turn 29.Alternative non-military service for men and voluntary service for women is available.Finland's official policy states that a wartime military strength of 280,000 personnel constitutes a sufficient deterrent.", "The army consists of a highly mobile field army backed up by local defence units.", "The army defends the national territory and its military strategy employs the use of the heavily forested terrain and numerous lakes to wear down an aggressor, instead of attempting to hold the attacking army on the frontier.Finland's defence budget for 2022 equals approximately €5.8 billion.", "The voluntary overseas service is highly popular and troops serve around the world in UN, NATO, and EU missions.", "With an arsenal of 700 howitzers, 700 heavy mortars and 100 multiple rocket launchers, Finland has the largest artillery capability in western Europe.", "Homeland defence willingness against a superior enemy is at 83%, one of the highest rates in Europe.The Finnish Defence Forces cooperate closely with the Finnish Border Guard.", "The Finnish Border Guard has its own yearly and long term investment budget." ], [ "History", "===Civil War===Establishment of the first headquarters of the Finnish Defence Forces on 2 February 1918After Finland's declaration of independence on 6 December 1917, the Civic Guards were proclaimed the troops of the government on 25 January 1918 and then Lieutenant General of the Russian Imperial Army Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim was appointed as Commander-in-Chief of these forces the next day.", "Fighting between the White Guards (as the Civic Guards were commonly known) and the Red Guards had already broken out about a week before around Viipuri, in what became known as the Finnish Civil War.In the war, the Whites were victorious in large part thanks to the leadership of General Mannerheim and the lead by example offensive mindedness of 1,800 German-trained Finnish Jägers, who brought with them German tactical doctrine and military culture.", "The post-war years were characterized by the Volunteer Campaigns that came to an end in 1920 with the signing of the Treaty of Tartu, which ended the state of war between Finland and Soviet Russia and defined the internationally recognized borders of Finland.===Interwar years===After winning the Civil War, the Finnish peacetime army was organized as three divisions and a brigade by professional German officers.", "It became the basic structure for the next 20 years.", "The coast was guarded by former czarist coastal fortifications and ships taken as prizes of war.", "The Air Force had already been formed in March 1918, but remained a part of the Army and did not become a fully independent fighting force until 1928.The White Guard (''Suojeluskunta'') played a key role in interwar Finnish defence policy, as they essentially served as local/territorial militia forces, and some had higher readiness and training for quick mobilization.The new government instituted conscription after the Civil War and also introduced a mobilization system and compulsory refresher courses for reservists.", "An academy providing basic officer training (''Kadettikoulu'') was established in 1919, the founding of a General Staff College (''Sotakorkeakoulu'') followed in 1924, and in 1927 a tactical training school (''Taistelukoulu'') for company-grade and junior officers and NCOs was set up.", "The requirement of one year of compulsory service was greater than that imposed by any other Scandinavian country in the 1920s and the 1930s, but political opposition to defense spending left the military badly equipped to resist an attack by the Soviet Union, the only security threat in Finnish eyes.===World War II===Finnish soldier equipped with Lahti-Saloranta M-26 during the Winter War.When the Soviets invaded in November 1939, the Finns, led by Marshal Mannerheim, defeated the Red Army on numerous occasions, including at the crucial Battle of Suomussalmi.", "These successes were in large part thanks to the application of motti tactics.", "Finland successfully defended its independence but ceded 9% of its territory per the Moscow Peace Treaty.", "During the war, the Finns lost 25,904 men, while the Soviet losses were 167,976 dead.Finnish troops equipped with Panzerfaust antitank weapons walk past a destroyed Soviet T-34 tank during the Battle of Tali-Ihantala.", "The lead soldier is also armed with a Suomi KP/-31.Finland fought in the Continuation War alongside Germany from 1941 to 1944.Thanks to Nazi-German aid, the army was much better equipped, and the period of conscription was increased to two years, making possible the formation of sixteen infantry divisions.", "Having initially deployed on the defensive, the Finns took advantage of the weakened Soviet positions as a consequence of Operation Barbarossa, swiftly recovering their lost territories and invading Soviet territory in Karelia, after settling into defensive positions in December 1941.The Soviet offensive of June 1944 undid these Finnish gains and, while failing in its objective of destroying the Finnish army and forcing Finland's unconditional surrender, forced Finland out of the war.", "The Finns were able to preserve their independence with key defensive victories over the Red Army, the Battle of Tali-Ihantala being very significant.These conflicts involving Finland had a significant impact on the modern Finnish defense force.", "While other European militaries have reduced their forces, Finland has maintained a large conscript-based reserve army.", "As a Swedish report stated: \"The reason why the FDF chose to maintain this model while its Nordic neighbors jumped on the expeditionary bandwagon is not hard to see.", "Sharing a 1340km border with Russia, the need for large ground forces is self-explanatory.", "Furthermore, memories of World War II – in which over 2 percent of the population perished in two brutal wars with the Soviet Union – are very much alive in Finland\".", "This same aspect has been highlighted even more strongly after the Russian invasion of Ukraine and Finland's decision to join NATO.", "With quotes like; \"After World War II, having thwarted the advance of the mighty Red Army in the Winter War of 1939-40 and then seeking to recapture the territory the Soviets eventually claimed, Finland had to settle for neutrality imposed by Moscow.", "But to almost everyone's surprise, it succeeded in this degrading task, too, building up armed forces that were highly capable and were energetically supported by civil society—while at the same time managing to maintain dialogue with Moscow.", "\", \"Finland still has compulsory military service.", "Finland would be in a position to mobilize an army of 280,000 soldiers.", "That's quite a big army in modern Europe,\", with similar views being expressed elsewhere as well, often referring to the fact that Finland has kept its conscript-based armed force or other readiness-related units, contrasting with other European countries that now have to re-arm, such as Germany as an example.", "During the events of 2022 all this has received attention internationally as well.===Cold War===The demobilization and regrouping of the Finnish Defence Forces were carried out in late 1944 under the supervision of the Soviet-dominated Allied Control Commission.", "Following the Treaty of Paris in 1947, which imposed restrictions on the size and equipment of the armed forces and required disbandment of the Civic Guard, Finland reorganized its defense forces.", "The fact that the conditions of the peace treaty did not include prohibitions on reserves or mobilization made it possible to contemplate an adequate defense establishment within the prescribed limits.", "The reorganization resulted in the adoption of the brigade -in place of the division- as the standard formation.For the first two decades after the Second World War, the Finnish Defence Forces relied largely on obsolete wartime material.", "Defence spending remained minimal until the early 1960s.", "During the peak of the Cold War, the Finnish government made a conscious effort to increase defence capability.", "This resulted in the commissioning of several new weapons systems and the strengthening of the defence of Finnish Lapland by the establishment of new garrisons in the area.", "From 1968 onwards, the Finnish government adopted the doctrine of territorial defence, which requires the use of large land areas to delay and wear out a potential aggressor.", "The doctrine was complemented by the concept of total defence which calls for the use of all resources of society for national defence in case of a crisis.", "From the mid-1960s onwards the Finnish Defence Forces also began to specifically prepare to defeat a strategic strike, the kind which the Soviet Union employed successfully to topple the government of Czechoslovakia in 1968.In an all-out confrontation between the two major blocs, Finnish objective would have been to prevent any military incursions to Finnish territory and thereby keep Finland outside the war.===Recent history=== The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 did not eliminate the military threat perceived by the government, but the nature of the threat had changed.", "While the concept of total, territorial defence was not dropped, military planning has moved towards the capability to prevent and frustrate a strategic attack toward the vital regions of the country.The end of the Cold War also allowed new opportunities which would have previously been seen as breaking Finland's stance of neutrality, such as participation in the War in Afghanistan and the Nordic Battlegroup.With the change in the European security environment brought by the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Finnish government officials began voicing increasingly strong support for joining NATO, buttressed by polls showing a rapid increase in Finnish citizens' willingness to join NATO.", "NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg voiced his support in April 2022 for the inclusion of Finland into the Euro-Atlantic defence alliance and stated that NATO member countries would likely enthusiastically support a Finland bid for membership.On 11 May 2022, British Prime Minister Boris Johnson and Finnish President Sauli Niinistö signed a new mutual defence agreement \"to reinforce their security and fortify northern Europe's defences, in the face of renewed threats.\"", "This has helped to address concerns within Finland that the delay between application and acceptance to NATO, during which time Finland would not yet be able to invoke NATO Article 5 and may present an opportunity for a Russian invasion.On 12 May 2022, President Sauli Niinistö and Prime Minister Sanna Marin issued a joint statement supporting Finland's application for membership of NATO, saying \"As a member of NATO, Finland would strengthen the entire defence alliance.", "Finland must apply for NATO membership without delay.\"", "On 17 May 2022, the Parliament of Finland voted overwhelmingly to apply for membership of NATO, with 188 votes in favour of the motion and 8 against.", "The following morning, the Finnish ambassador to NATO, Klaus Korhonen, formally submitted Finland's application to NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg.", "Sweden also submitted its application at the same time.On 29 June 2022, 30 NATO countries extended a formal invitation for Finland along with Sweden to join NATO.", "Both nations received the status of aspiring members while attending the annual NATO summit in Madrid as guest nations.", "Finland became a full NATO member on 4 April 2023." ], [ "Future", "The Defence Forces are currently undergoing key procurement programmes for all the three branches.", "The Navy is scheduled to get its largest vessels since the WW2-era ''Väinämöinen'' class with the new ''Pohjanmaa'' class.", "The Air Force has made the decision to acquire the Lockheed Martin F-35A to replace all McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet fighter jets for 10€ billion.", "Meanwhile, the Army is planning to complement the modernized Patria Pasi armoured vehicles with the Finnish Patria 6×6.The standard issue assault rifle RK 62 is also being upgraded to a new variant.", "A new high altitude air defence missile system was selected in April 2023, Rafael's David's Sling system." ], [ "Organization", "Finnish soldiers taking the Finnish Defence Forces military oath.The Finnish Defence Forces are under the command of the Chief of Defence, who is directly subordinate to the President of the Republic in matters related to the military command.", "Decisions concerning military orders are made by the President of the Republic in consultation with the Prime Minister and the Minister of Defence.Apart from the Defence Command (, ), the military branches are the Finnish Army (, ), the Finnish Navy (, ) and the Finnish Air Force (, ).", "The Border Guard (, ) (including the coast guard) is under the authority of the Ministry of the Interior, but can be incorporated fully or in part into the defence forces when required by defence readiness.", "All logistical duties of the Defence Forces are carried out by the Defence Forces Logistics Command (), which includes three logistics regiments.The Army is divided into eight brigade-level units ().", "Under the brigades, there were 12 military districts, which were responsible for carrying out the draft, training and crisis-time activation of reservists and for planning and executing territorial defence of their areas.", "The military districts were disbanded in 2014, as a part of the 800 million euro savings the Finnish Defence Forces had to carry out.", "Their duties are now carried out by regional offices ().The Navy consists of headquarters and four brigade-level units: Coastal Fleet (), Coastal Brigade (), Nyland Brigade (, ), and Naval Academy ().", "The Coastal Fleet includes all the surface combatants of the Navy, while Coastal Brigade and Nyland Brigade train coastal troops.The Air Force consists of headquarters and four brigade-level units: Satakunta, Lapland and Karelian Air Commands () and Air Force Academy ().", "They are responsible for securing the integrity of the Finnish airspace during peace and for conducting aerial warfare independently during a crisis.The military training of the reservists is primarily the duty of the Defence Forces, but it is assisted by the National Defence Training Association of Finland ().", "This association provides reservists with personal, squad, platoon and company level military training.", "Most of the 2,000 instructors of the association are volunteers certified by the Defence Forces, but when Defence Forces materiel is used, the training always takes place under the supervision of career military personnel.", "Annually, the Defence Forces requests the Association to run specialized exercises for some 8,500 personnel placed in reserve units, and an additional 16,500 reservists participate in military courses where the participants are not directly selected by the Defence Forces.", "The legislation concerning the association will require that the chairman and the majority of the members of its board are chosen by the Finnish Government.", "The other board members are chosen by NGOs active in the national defence." ], [ "General Officers", "=== The Finnish Defence Forces ==='''Chief of Defence'''General Timo Kivinen=== Defence Command ==='''Chief of Defence Command Finland'''Lieutenant General Vesa Virtanen'''Deputy Chief of Staff, Logistics and Armaments'''Lieutenant General Mikko Heiskanen'''Deputy Chief of Staff, Strategy'''Lieutenant General Janne Jaakkola'''Deputy Chief of Staff, Operations'''Major General Kari Nisula'''Deputy Chief of Staff, Personnel'''Major General Rami Saari'''Chief of Planning'''Brigadier General Tero Ylitalo'''Assistant Chief of Staff Operations'''Commodore Janne Huusko'''Defence Command Chief of C5'''Brigadier General Jarmo Vähätiitto'''Chief of Personnel (J1)'''Commodore Tuomas Tiilikainen'''Chief of Logistics'''Brigadier General Timo Saarinen'''Assistant Chief of Staff, Training (J7)'''Brigadier General Manu Tuominen'''Defence Command Chief of Intelligence'''Brigadier General Pekka Turunen'''Chief Surgeon'''Commodore Medical Juha-Petri Ruohola'''Field Bishop'''Jukka Pekka Asikainen=== Army ==='''Commander of the Finnish Army'''Lieutenant General Pasi Välimäki'''Chief of Staff, Army'''Major General Jukka Jokinen'''Chief of Operations, Army Command'''Brigadier General Sami-Antti Takamaa'''Commander of Karelia Brigade'''Brigadier General Jyri Raitasalo'''Commander of Kainuu Brigade'''Brigadier General Ari Laaksonen'''Commander of Pori Brigade'''Brigadier General Vesa Valtonen=== Navy ==='''Commander of the Finnish Navy'''Rear Admiral Jori Harju'''Chief of Staff, Navy'''Commodore Jukka Anteroinen=== Air Force ==='''Commander of the Finnish Air Force'''Major General Juha-Pekka Keränen'''Chief of Staff, Air Force'''Brigadier General Timo Herranen=== National Defence University ==='''Rector of The National Defence University'''Major General Mika Kalliomaa=== Special Assignments ==='''Military Representative to The EU and NATO'''Lieutenant General Kim Jäämeri'''Ministry of Defence, Director, National Defence Unit'''Brigadier General Sami Nurmi=== Defence Forces Logistics Command ==='''Chief of Finnish Defence Forces Logistics Command'''Major General Jari Mikkonen'''Deputy Manager, Logistic Command'''Brigadier General Engineering Juha-Matti Ylitalo" ], [ "Conscription", "Figure illustrating the organization of Finnish conscript training.The Finnish defence forces is based on universal male conscription.", "All men above 18 years of age are liable to serve either six, nine, or 12 months.", "Some 27,000 conscripts are trained annually.", "80% of Finnish men complete their service.", "The conscripts at first receive basic training, after which they are assigned to various units for special training.", "Privates who are trained for tasks not requiring special skills serve for six months.", "In technically demanding tasks the time of service is nine, or in some cases 12 months.", "Those selected for NCO (non-commissioned officer) or officer training serve 12 months.", "At the completion of the service, the conscripts receive a reserve military rank of private, lance corporal, corporal, sergeant or second lieutenant, depending on their training and accomplishments.", "After their military service, the conscripts are placed in reserve until the end of their 50th or 60th living year, depending on their military rank.", "During their time in reserve, the reservists are liable to participate in military refresher exercises for a total of 40, 75 or 100 days, depending on their military rank.", "In addition, all reservists are liable for activation in a situation where the military threat against Finland has seriously increased, in full or partial mobilization or in a large-scale disaster or a virulent epidemic.", "The males who do not belong to the reserve may only be activated in case of full mobilization, and those rank-and-file personnel who have fulfilled 50 years of age only with a specific parliamentary decision.Military service can be started after turning 18.The service can be delayed due to studies, work or other personal reasons until the 28th birthday, but these reasons do not result in exemptions.", "In addition to lodging, food, clothes and health care the conscripts receive between 5 and 11.70 euros per day, depending on the time they have served.", "The state also pays for any rental and electricity bills the conscripts incur during their service.", "If the conscripts have families, they are entitled to benefits as well.", "It is illegal to fire an employee due to military service or due to a refresher exercise or activation.", "Voluntary females in military service receive a small additional benefit, because they are expected to provide their own underwear and other personal items.The military service consists of lessons, practical training, various cleaning and maintenance duties and field exercises.", "Most weekends conscripts can leave the barracks on Friday and are expected to return by midnight on Sunday.", "A small force of conscripts are kept in readiness on weekends to aid civil agencies in various types of emergency situations, to guard the premises and to maintain defence in case of a sudden military emergency.", "Field exercises can go on regardless of the time of day or week.The training of conscripts is based on ''joukkotuotanto''-principle (lit.", "English ''troop production'').", "In this system, 80% of the conscripts are trained to fulfill a specific role in a specific wartime military unit.", "Each brigade-level unit is responsible for producing specified reserve units from the conscripts it has been allocated.", "As the reservists are discharged, they receive a specific wartime placement in the unit with which they have trained during their conscription.", "As the conscripts age, their unit is given new, different tasks and materiel.", "Typically, reservists are placed for the first five years in first-line units, then moved to military formations with less demanding tasks, while the reservists unable to serve in the unit are substituted with reservists from the reserve without specific placement.", "In refresher exercises, the unit is then given new training for these duties, if the defence funding permits this.The inhabitants of the demilitarized Åland islands are exempt from military service.", "By the Conscription act of 1950, they are however required to serve a time at a local institution, like the coast guard instead.", "However, until such service has been arranged, they are freed from service obligation.", "The non-military service of Åland islands has not been arranged since the introduction of the act, and there are no plans to institute it.", "The inhabitants of Åland islands can also volunteer for military service on the mainland.", "Jehovah's Witnesses were exempt until February 2019.It is also possible to serve either weapon-free military service of 255 or 347 days or undergo a 12-month-long non-military service.", "Finnish law requires that men who do not want to serve the defense of the country in any capacity (so-called total objectors) be sentenced to a prison term of 173 days.", "As of 1995, women were permitted to serve on a voluntary basis and pursue careers as officers.", "In conscription, women have consideration time of six weeks, during which they have the choice to halt their service without any other specific reason.", "After the said six weeks, all the same laws and jurisdictions apply to them as to men.", "Unlike in many other countries, women are allowed to serve in all combat arms including front-line infantry and special forces." ], [ "Military ranks", "Finnish Navy Master Chief Petty Officer (machine branch).The Finnish military ranks follow the Western usage in the officer ranks.", "As a Finnish peculiarity, the rank of lieutenant has three grades: 2nd lieutenant, lieutenant and senior lieutenant.", "The 2nd lieutenant is a reserve officer rank, active commissioned officers beginning their service as lieutenants.The basic structure of the NCO ranks is a variant of the German rank structure, but the rank system has some peculiarities due to different personnel groups.", "The duties carried out by NCOs in most Western armed forces are carried out by*warrant officers (opistoupseeri) serving in the ranks from lieutenant to captain.", "This personnel group is being phased out.", "*career NCOs serving in the ranks from enlistee (''sotilasammattihenkilö''), sergeant, staff sergeant, sergeant first class (gunnery sergeant is equivalent), master sergeant and sergeant major (''sotilasmestari'').", "Career NCO's with rank of sergeant have a sword symbol in their insignia to distinguish them from conscript sergeants.", "*contractual military personnel (''sopimussotilas'') serving in the ranks of corporal, sergeant and 2nd lieutenant (reserve officers)*conscripts in the ranks of corporal, officer student, sergeant and officer candidate.In a case of war, most of the NCO duties would be carried out by reserve NCOs who have received their training during conscription.The rank and file of the Finnish Defence Forces is composed of conscripts serving in the ranks of private, lance corporal and NCO student." ], [ "Equipment", "Finnish Defence Forces Materiel and equipment photos.Finnish Leopard 2A4 battle tank on parade, Riihimäki, Finland.F-18C Hornet.", "Equipment NumbersMain battle tanksInfantry fighting vehiclesArmoured personnel carriersArmoured vehicle-launched bridgesHeavy mine breaching vehiclesMobile surface-to-air missile launchersMANPADSAnti-aircraft artilleryAnti-tank guided missile launchersRecoilless riflesArtillerySelf-propelled artilleryMortarsMultiple rocket launchers Assault rifles Fighter aircraftCombat-capable advanced trainer aircraftHelicoptersUAVs Transport aircraftFinland does not have attack helicopters or submarines.", "Legislation forbids nuclear weapons entirely.In early March 2012 Finland decided to purchase advanced Joint Air-to-Surface Standoff Missiles (AGM-158 JASSM) from the United States.", "Other non-USA operators for the JASSM are Australia, Poland and South Korea.Deal also included other sophisticated bombs like glidebomp AGM-154 Joint Standoff Weapon and JDAM (Joint Direct Attack Munition).Finland has updated its M270 Multiple Launch Rocket System (MLRS.", "In Finnish 298 RSRAKH 06) to be able to fire the ATACMS tactical ballistic missile).===Uniform===M05 with parachute troops beretThe main field uniform is the M05 uniform, introduced in 2005, which is green camouflage uniform used by the army.", "M05 has cold weather and snow camouflage variants, which are gray-green and white with green flecks, respectively.", "Older green camouflage uniforms are M91 and M62.The M83 light service uniform remains in use as a service uniform for permanent personnel such as officers and as a dress uniform, but is not commonly issued to troops.", "This is gray for army, blue for the air force and dark blue for the navy.", "The navy has separate naval uniforms, while the air force uses army-pattern uniforms.", "There are also four separate full dress uniforms depending on the dress code." ], [ "Peacekeeping operations", "Finnish soldiers at a polling station during operation EUFOR RD Congo in 2006.Finland has taken part in peacekeeping operations since 1956 (the number of Finnish peacekeepers who have served since 1956 amounts to 43,000).", "In 2003 over a thousand Finnish peacekeepers were involved in peacekeeping operations, including UN and NATO led missions.", "According to the Finnish law the maximum simultaneous strength of the peacekeeping forces is limited to 2,000 soldiers.Since 1956, 39 Finnish soldiers have died while serving in peacekeeping operations.Since 1996 the Pori Brigade has trained parts of the Finnish Rapid Deployment Force (FRDF), which can take part in international crisis management/peacekeeping operations at short notice.", "The Nyland/Uusimaa Brigade has started training the Amphibious Task Unit (ATU) in recent years, a joint Swedish-Finnish international task unit.Since 2006, Finland has participated in the formation of European Union Battlegroups.", "Finland participated in two European Union Battlegroups in 2011.Finnish IFOR troops with their Sisu XA-180 Armored Personnel Carrier.International operations Finland is participating in by deploying military units (personnel strength in parentheses):* Operation Inherent Resolve in Kurdistan Region (50)* UNIFIL in Lebanon (350)Other international operations Finland is participating in with staff personnel, military observers and similar (personnel strength in parentheses):*EUFOR Althea in Bosnia and Herzegovina (8)*EUNAVFOR/OPERATION ATALANTA in Gulf of Aden Somalian coast (6)*European Union Training Mission Somalia (6)*European Union Training Mission in Mali (11)*EUNAVFOR MED - OPERATION SOPHIA (8)*KFOR in Kosovo (20)*UNTSO (19)*UNMOGIP in India and Pakistan (6)*MINUSMA in Mali (5)" ], [ "Total defence", "The Finnish military doctrine is based on the concept of total defence.", "The term total means that all sectors of the government and economy are involved in the defence planning.", "In principle, each ministry has the responsibility for planning its operations during a crisis.", "There are no special emergency authorities, such as the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) or Russian Ministry of Emergency Situations.", "Instead, each authority regularly trains for crises and has been allocated a combination of normal and emergency powers it needs to keep functioning in any conceivable situation.", "In a war, all resources of society may be diverted to ensure the survival of the nation.", "The legal basis for such measures is found in the Readiness Act and in the State of Defence Act, which would come into force through a presidential decision verified by parliament in the case of a crisis.The main objective of the doctrine is to establish and maintain a military force capable of deterring any potential aggressor from using Finnish territory or applying military pressure against Finland.", "To accomplish this, the defence is organised on the doctrine of territorial defence.", "The stated main principles of the territorial defence doctrine are* general conscription,* territorial defence,* training of conscripts for wartime units,* dispersed mobilisation, and* flexible readiness in responding to military threats of various degree.The defence planning is organised to counteract three threat situations:* A regional crisis that may have effects on Finland.", "* Political, economic and military pressure, which may include a threat of using military force and its restricted use.", "* Use of military force in the form of a strategic strike or an attack beginning with a strategic strike aimed at seizing territory.A figure illustrating the principle of territorial defence.", "The enemy is worn down from the border onwards, and the invasion force is stopped before it captures vital areas.", "On the sea border, the invasion is stopped on the coast.", "All services are used jointly to repel the aggressor.In all cases, the national objective is to keep the vital areas, especially the capital area in Finnish possession.", "In other areas, the size of the country is used to delay and wear down the invader, until the enemy may be defeated in an area of Finnish choosing.", "The Army carries most of the responsibility for this task.The key wartime army units in 2015 are:* 3 Readiness brigades*2 Jaeger brigades* 2 mechanised battle groups* 6 Infantry brigades (regional)*14 independent battalions / battlegroups (regional)*28 Territorial Forces (Finland) / company sized (regional)* Helicopter battalion* Special Jaeger battalionThe total number of territorial and regional units is undisclosed.The army units are mostly composed of reservists, the career soldiers manning the command and specialty positions.The role of the Navy is to repel all attacks carried out against Finnish coasts and to safeguard the territorial integrity during peacetime and the \"gray\" phase of the conflict.", "The maritime defence relies on combined use of coastal artillery, missile systems and naval mines to wear down the attacker.", "The Air Force is used to deny the invader the air superiority and to protect most important troops and objects of national importance in conjunction with the ground-based air defence.", "As the readiness of the Air Force and the Navy is high even during the peacetime, the career personnel have a much more visible role in the wartime duties of these defence branches.The Border Guard has the responsibility for border security in all situations.", "During a war, it will contribute to the national defence partially integrated into the army, its total mobilized strength being some 11,600 troops.", "One of the projected uses for the Border Guard is guerrilla warfare in areas temporarily occupied by enemy." ], [ "Key wartime units", "The army is organised into operative forces, which consist of approximately 61,000 persons, and territorial forces, which consist of 176,000 persons.", "The following list is the wartime organisation of the Finnish army from January 2008.===Army===*3 readiness brigades*2 Jaeger brigades*2 Mechanized battlegroups*1 Helicopter battalion*1 Special jaeger battalion*1 Anti-aircraft missile and anti-aircraft unitTerritorial forces:*6 infantry brigades (regional)*14 independent battalions / battlegroups (regional)*28 Territorial Forces (Finland) / company sized (regional)===Navy===*2 Battle groups (fleet)*3 Battle groups (coastal)*Battle group (coastal Jaeger)===Air Force===*3 fighter squadrons*4 Main operating bases" ], [ "Gallery", "Image:Missile_boat_Pori_South_Harbor_1.JPG|''Pori'', a ''Hamina''-class fast attack craft of the Finnish Navy.Image:Finnish mortar squad.jpg|Finnish 81 KRH 71 Y mortar squad equipped with Rk 95 Tp assault rifles.Image:Finnish Army NH-90.jpg|Finnish NH90 in action.Image:Finnish Army 130 mm Gun M-46 direct fire.png|Finnish artillery crew firing an M-46.Image:Finnish BMP-2.jpg|Finnish BMP-2 on parade.Image:CV9030 finnish.png|Finnish CV9030FIN Infantry Fighting Vehicle.Image:Winter war.jpg|Finnish troops at machine-gun post during the Winter War.Image:STU 40.jpg|Finnish assault gun during the Continuation War.Image:Finnish-gun-crew-1942.jpg|Finnish troops man an antitank gun during the Continuation War.Image:Mortar4.jpg|Finnish mortar crew during the Continuation War.Image:Finnish soldier observing targets.jpg|Spotter from a sniper team observing targets." ], [ "See also", "* Finnish Defence Intelligence Agency* Finnish military ranks* Finnish Rapid Deployment Force* Hybrid warfare* Military history of Finland during World War II* Military of the Grand Duchy of Finland* Nordic Battlegroup* List of active Finnish Navy ships* List of equipment of the Finnish Army* List of military aircraft of Finland* List of senior officers of the Finnish Defence Forces* Total defence" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Kronlund, Jarl (project leader) ''Suomen Puolustuslaitos 1918-1939'', Porvoo: WSOY, 1988, ." ], [ "External links", "* Finnish Defence Forces website* Finnish Peacekeeping Operations * One for all, all for one?", "New Nordic Defence Partnership?", "Publication from the Nordic Council of Ministers.", "Free download.", "* Findicator - Participation in military crisis management operations* Findicator - Participants in military service and refresher courses for reservists* Findicator - Willingness to defend the country" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of Finland" ], [ "Introduction", "Embassy of Finland to the United States in Washington D.C.The '''foreign relations of Finland''' are the responsibility of the president of Finland, who leads foreign policy in cooperation with the government.", "Implicitly the government is responsible for internal policy and decision making in the European Union.", "Within the government, preparative discussions are conducted in the government committee of foreign and security policy (''ulko- ja turvallisuuspoliittinen ministerivaliokunta''), which includes the Prime Minister and at least the Minister of Foreign Affairs and the Minister of Defence, and at most four other ministers as necessary.", "The committee meets with the President as necessary.", "Laws concerning foreign relations are discussed in the parliamentary committee of foreign relations (''ulkoasiainvaliokunta, utrikesutskottet'').", "The Ministry of Foreign Affairs implements the foreign policy.During the Cold War, Finland's foreign policy was based on official neutrality between the Western powers and the Soviet Union, while simultaneously stressing Nordic cooperation in the framework of the Nordic Council and cautious economic integration with the West as promoted by the Bretton-Woods Agreement and the free trade treaty with the European Economic Community.", "Finland shares this history with close neighbour Sweden, which Finland was a part of until the split of the Swedish empire in 1809.Finland did not join the Soviet Union's economic sphere (Comecon) but remained a free-market economy and conducted bilateral trade with the Soviet Union.", "After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Finland unilaterally abrogated the last restrictions imposed on it by the Paris peace treaties of 1947 and the Finno-Soviet Agreement of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance.", "The government filed an application for membership in the European Union (EU) three months after the dissolution of the Soviet Union and became a member in 1995.Finland did not attempt to join NATO, even though post-Soviet countries on the Baltic Sea and elsewhere joined.", "Nevertheless, defence policymakers quietly converted to NATO equipment and contributed troops.President Martti Ahtisaari and the coalition governments led Finland closer to the core EU in the late 1990s.", "Finland was considered a cooperative model state, and Finland did not oppose proposals for a common EU defence policy.", "This was reversed in the 2000s, when Tarja Halonen and Erkki Tuomioja made Finland's official policy to resist other EU members' plans for common defense.", "However, Halonen allowed Finland to join European Union Battlegroups in 2006 and the NATO Response Force in 2008.Relations with Russia are cordial and common issues include bureaucracy (particularly at the Vaalimaa border crossing), airspace violations, development aid Finland gives to Russia (especially in environmental problems that affect Finland), and Finland's energy dependency on Russian gas and electricity.", "Behind the scenes, the administration witnessed a resurrection of Soviet-era tactics as recently as 2017.The Finnish Security Intelligence Service, the nation's security agency, says the known number of Russian agents from Foreign Intelligence Service (SVR) and GRU now exceeds Cold War levels and there are unknown numbers of others.", "Russian Foreign Ministry spokeswoman Maria Zakharova said in March 2022 that her government would have to respond if Finland became a NATO member.As of March 2011 Finland maintains diplomatic relations with all UN member states.All NATO countries approved Finland's accession to the military alliance by April 1, 2023, and it officially joined on April 4.The move was the final process in Finland's transition from conducting a foreign policy of neutrality to clearly standing as an official part of the Western bloc." ], [ "History", "President of Latvia Jānis Čakste and President of Finland Lauri Kristian Relander during Relander's 1926 official visit to Latvia.", "In the background, the Foreign Minister of Finland Eemil Nestor Setälä to the right.After the Second World War, J. K Paasikivi (in the middle), the 7th President of Finland, was remembered as a main architect of Finland's foreign policy, especially with the Soviet Union.Yugoslavian President Josip Broz Tito with the Finnish president Urho Kekkonen in Helsinki 1964Finnish President Sauli Niinistö with Russian President Vladimir Putin in 2016Finnish President Niinistö with US President Donald Trump in 2017After independence from Russia in 1917, the Finnish Civil War, including interventions by Imperial Germany and Soviet Russia, and failure of the Communist revolution, resulted in the official ban on Communism, and strengthening relations with Western countries.", "Overt alliance with Germany was not possible due to the result of the First World War, but in general the period of 1918 to 1939 was characterised by economic growth and increasing integration to the Western world economy.", "Relations with Soviet Russia from 1918 to 1939 were icy; voluntary expeditions to Russia called heimosodat ended only in 1922, four years after the conclusion of the Finnish Civil War.", "However, attempts to establish military alliances were unsuccessful.", "Thus, when the Winter War broke out, Finland was left alone to resist the Soviet attack.", "Later, during the Continuation War, Finland declared \"co-belligerency\" with Nazi Germany, and allowed Northern Finland to be used as a German attack base.", "For 872 days, the German army, aided indirectly by Finnish forces, besieged Leningrad, the Soviet Union's second-largest city.", "The peace settlement in 1944 with the Soviet Union led to the Lapland War in 1945, where Finland fought Germans in northern Finland.From the end of the Continuation War with the Soviet Union in 1944 until 1991, the policy was to avoid superpower conflicts and to build mutual confidence with the Western powers and the Soviet Union.", "Although the country was culturally, socially, and politically Western, Finns realised they had to live in peace with the Soviets and so could take no action that might be interpreted as a security threat.", "The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 opened up dramatic new possibilities for Finland and has resulted in the Finns actively seeking greater participation in Western political and economic structures.", "The popular support for the strictly self-defensive doctrine remains.===2000 constitution===In the 2000 constitution, where diverse constitutional laws were unified into one statute, the leading role of the President was slightly moderated.", "However, because the constitution still stipulates only that the President leads foreign policy and the government internal policy, the responsibility over European Union affairs is not explicitly resolved.", "Implicitly this belongs to the powers of the government.", "In a cohabitation situation as with Matti Vanhanen's recent second government right-wing government and left-wing President Tarja Halonen, there can be friction between government ministers and the president.The arrangement has been criticised by Risto E. J. Penttilä for not providing a simple answer of who's in charge." ], [ "Multilateral relations", "Finnish foreign policy emphasises its participation in multilateral organisations.", "Finland joined the United Nations in 1955 and the European Union in 1995.As noted, the country also is a member of NATO's Partnership for Peace as well as an observer in the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council.", "The military has been prepared to be more compatible with NATO, as co-operation with NATO in peacekeeping is needed, but military alliance does not have popular support.", "Political scientist Teija Tiilikainen has attributed tensions like this one to the importance that Finland's political identity places on sovereignty and the (sometimes competing) stress it places on international cooperation.In the European Union, Finland is a member of the Eurozone, and in addition, the Schengen treaty abolishing passport controls.", "60% of foreign trade is to the EU.", "Other large trade partners are Russia and the United States.Finland is well represented in the UN civil service in proportion to its population and belongs to several of its specialised and related agencies.", "Finnish troops have participated in United Nations peacekeeping activities since 1956, and the Finns continue to be one of the largest per capita contributors of peacekeepers in the world.", "Finland is an active participant in the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and in early 1995 assumed the co-chairmanship of the OSCE's Minsk Group on the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict.Cooperation with the other Scandinavian countries also is important to Finland, and it has been a member of the Nordic Council since 1955.Under the council's auspices, the Nordic countries have created a common labor market and have abolished immigration controls among themselves.", "The council also serves to coordinate social and cultural policies of the participating countries and has promoted increased cooperation in many fields.In addition to the organisations already mentioned, Finland is a member of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the International Monetary Fund, the World Trade Organization, the International Finance Corporation, the International Development Association, the Bank for International Settlements, the Asian Development Bank, the Inter-American Development Bank, the Council of Europe, and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Finland has moved steadily towards integration into Western institutions and abandoned its formal policy of neutrality, which has been recast as a policy of military nonalliance coupled with the maintenance of a credible, independent defence.", "Finland's 1994 decision to buy 64 F-18 Hornet fighter planes from the United States signalled the abandonment of the country's policy of balanced arms purchases from Communist countries and Western countries.In 1994, Finland joined NATO's Partnership for Peace; the country is also an observer in the North Atlantic Cooperation Council.", "Finland became a full member of the EU in January 1995, at the same time acquiring observer status in the EU's defence arm, the Western European Union.In 2003, Anneli Jäätteenmäki of the Centre Party won the elections after she had accused her rival Paavo Lipponen, who was prime minister at the time, of allying neutral Finland with the United States in the war in Iraq during a meeting with President George W. Bush, and thus associated Finland with what many Finns considered an illegal war of aggression.", "Lipponen denied the claims and declared that \"We support the UN and the UN Secretary-General.\"", "Jäätteenmäki resigned as prime minister after 63 days in office amid accusations that she had lied about the leak of the documents about the meeting between Bush and Lipponen.", "This series of events was considered scandalous and it is named Iraq leak or Iraq-gate.Generally, Finland has abided by the principle of neutrality and has good relations with nearly all countries, as evidenced by the freedom of travel that a Finnish passport gives; though relations with Russia remain strained and are often tense due to past historical grievances, including Russian threats and past invasion.After almost 30 years of close partnership with NATO, Finland joined the Alliance on 4 April 2023.Finland’s partnership with NATO was historically based on its policy of military non-alignment, which changed following Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine in February 2022." ], [ "Diplomatic relations list", "List of countries which Finland maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425px#CountryDate1 3 4 5 6 7 8 13 16 17 18 20 21 22 26 28 32 33 34 36 37 39 404142 44 45 47 48 50 52 55 56 57 62 63 65 70 71 72 74 75 76 77 84 85 87 88 90 92 95 100101106 110 113 114 115 116 117 124 130 132 145 158—===Multilateral=== Organization Formal Relations BeganNotesSee Permanent Representative of Finland to the United Nations Former Prime Minister of Finland Jyrki Katainen in Nordic Council back in 2011* Helsinki Treaty signed in 1962* Ilkka-Christian Björklund Secretary-General of the Nordic Council 1982 – 1987\t* Gehard af Schultén was Secretary-General of the Nordic Council 1987 – 1989* Jan-Erik Enestam was Secretary-General of the Nordic Council from 1 August 2007 – 2013See Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe Minister of Foreign Affairs Olavi J. Mattila, Prime Minister Keijo Liinamaa and President Urho Kekkonen.", "* Helsinki Accords signed in 1975* Paris Charter signed in 1990See 1995 enlargement of the European Union Minister Sanna Marin and President of the European Commission Ursula von der Leyen meeting in Helsinki 3.2.2022* European Economic Area (EEA), Agreement since 1994* European Free Trade Association (EFTA), Former member 1986-1994* Council of Europe, member state since 1989 See Finland–NATO relations The Finnish ambassador hands the NATO membership application to Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg* Partnership for Peace Previous member 1994-2023" ], [ "Africa", " Country Formal Relations BeganNotes* Algeria has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Finland has an embassy in Algiers.", "* Angola is represented in Finland through its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.", "* Finland is represented in Angola through its embassy in Maputo, Mozambique.", "* Finland also has an honorary consulate in Luanda.", "* Botswana is represented in Finland through its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.", "* Finland is represented in Botswana through its embassy in Pretoria, South Africa.", "* Finland has an honorary consulate in Gaborone.", "* Burkina Faso is represented in Finland through its embassy in Copenhagen, Denmark.", "* Burundi is represented in Finland through its embassy in Oslo, Norway.", "* Finland is represented in Burundi through its embassy in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.Comoros is represented in Finland by its embassy in Paris, France.", "*Finland is represented in Djibouti through its embassy in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.", "*Djibouti is represented in Finland through its embassy in Moscow, Russia.", "* Finland recognised Egypt on February 15, 1947.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Finland has an embassy in Cairo.July 17, 1959See Ethiopia–Finland relationsEthiopia is represented in Finland through its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.", "Finland has an embassy in Addis Ababa.", "Ethiopia is one of Finland's long-term development partners and in the water and education sectors.", "On April 29, 2009, the Ministry of Finance and Economic Development announced that the Finnish government had made a grant of 11.4 million euros to enable the Benishangul-Gumuz Region to upgrade its capacity to plan and manage its rural water supply and sanitation program to achieve universal access for all Ethiopians.", "* Finnish Ministry for Foreign Affairs: relations with Ethiopia* Finland recognised Kenya on December 13, 1963.", "* Kenya is represented in Finland through its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.", "* Finland has an embassy in Nairobi and an honorary consulate in Mombasa.", "* Finnish Ministry for Foreign Affairs: relations with Kenya* Finland recognised Morocco's independence on June 8, 1956.", "* Finland has an embassy in Rabat, an honorary consulate general in Casablanca, and other honorary consulates in Agadir, Kenitra, Marrakech, Safi, and Tangiers.", "* Morocco has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Finnish Ministry for Foreign Affairs: relations with Morocco* Finland recognised Mozambique on July 4, 1975.", "* Mozambique is represented in Finland through its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.", "* Finland has an embassy in Maputo.", "* Finnish Ministry for Foreign Affairs: relations with MozambiqueSee Finland–Namibia relationsFinland recognised Namibia on March 21, 1990.Both countries established diplomatic relations on the same day.Namibia is represented in Finland through its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.", "Finland has an embassy in Windhoek and an honorary consulate in Walvis Bay.See Finland – South Africa relationsA South African legation was established in 1967 and relations were then upgraded to ambassadorial level in March 1991.Finland has an embassy in Pretoria, a general consulate in Johannesburg, and a consulate in Cape Town.", "South Africa is accredited to Finland from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.", "During World War II South Africa declared war on Finland.Finland was a strong supporter of the dismantling of Apartheid in South Africa.South African exports to Finland include fresh and dried fruits, wine, pulp, paper, iron, steel, and coal.", "South Africa imports telecommunication equipment, paper, board products, and machinery from Finland.", "* Finnish Ministry for Foreign Affairs: relations with South Africa * South African Department of Foreign Affairs: relations with Finland* Finland recognised Tanganyika on December 9, 1961.", "* Tanzania is represented in Finland through its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.", "* Finland has an embassy in Dar es Salaam.", "* Finnish Ministry for Foreign Affairs: relations with Tanzania* Finland recognised Tunisia's independence on June 8, 1956.", "* Since 1994 Finland has an embassy in Tunis.", "Previously Finland was represented in Tunisia through its embassies in Algiers, Algeria, and Rome, Italy.", "* Tunisia has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Finnish Ministry for Foreign Affairs: relations with Tunisia * Finland recognised Zambia on October 29, 1964.", "* Zambia is represented in Finland through its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.", "* Finland has an embassy in Lusaka.", "* Finnish Ministry for Foreign Affairs: relations with Zambia" ], [ "Americas", " Country Formal Relations BeganNotes* Finland's embassy in Mexico City, Mexico attends to consular matters relating to Antigua and Barbuda.See Argentina–Finland relations* Argentina has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Finland has an embassy in Buenos Aires and five honorary consulates (in Córdoba, Mendoza, Oberá, Rosario, and Ushuaia).", "* Argentine Ministry of Foreign Relations: list of bilateral treaties with Finland (in Spanish only)* Finnish Ministry of Foreign Affairs: relations with Argentina* Finland's embassy in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada attends to consular matters relating to The Bahamas.", "* Finland also has an honorary consulate in Nassau.", "* Barbados is represented in Finland by their embassy in Brussels, Belgium.", "* Finland has an honorary consulate general in Christ Church.", "* Finland's embassy in Mexico City, Mexico attends to consular matters relating to Belize.", "* Finland also has an honorary consulate in Belize City.", "* Bolivia is accredited to Finland from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.", "* Finland is accredited to Bolivia from its embassy in Lima, Peru.See Brazil–Finland relations President Tarja Halonen together with Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, the President of Brazil in Helsinki 2007* Brazil has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Finland has an embassy in Brasília.See Canada–Finland relations Prime Minister Sanna Marin and Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau* Canada has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Finland has an embassy in Ottawa.See Chile–Finland relationsChile recognised Finland's independence on June 17, 1919.Diplomatic relations between them were established in 1931 and have been continuously maintained, despite pressures at times to discontinue them.", "The two countries maintain resident ambassadors in both capitals.", "* Chile has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Finland has an embassy in Santiago.", "* Colombia has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Finland has an embassy in Bogotá.The relations between Colombia and Finland are harmonious as both countries share a similar ideology based on democracy, human rights and a lasting peace.", "It's because of this that Colombia has decided to open an embassy in Helsinki.", "Colombia also defines Finland as a key player on Colombia's accession into the OECD and the ratification of the Colombia-European Union Trade Agreement.", "* Costa Rica is represent in Finland by their embassy in Oslo, Norway.", "* Finland's embassy in Mexico City, Mexico attends to consular matters relating to Costa Rica.", "* Finland also has an honorary consulate general and honorary vice-consulate in San José.", "* Cuba has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Finland's embassy in Mexico City, Mexico attends to consular matters relating to Cuba.", "* Finland also has an honorary consulate general in Havana.", "* Finland has an honorary consulate in Roseau.", "* The Dominican Republic is accredited to Finland from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.", "* Finland has an honorary consulate general in Santo Domingo.", "* Ecuador is accredited to Finland from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.", "* Finland's embassy in Lima, Peru attends to consular matters relating to Ecuador.", "* Finland has an honorary consulate in Guayaquil and Quito.", "* El Salvador is accredited to Finland from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.", "* Finland's embassy in Mexico City, Mexico attends to consular matters relating to El Salvador.", "* Finland has an honorary consulate and an honorary vice-consulate in San Salvador.", "* Grenada is represented in Finland by their embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.", "* Finland has an honorary consulate in St.", "George's.", "* Guatemala is accredited to Finland from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium.", "* Finland has an honorary consulate in Guatemala City.", "*Both countries established diplomatic relations on April 2, 1979.", "* Guyana is represented in Finland by their embassy in Brussels, Belgium.", "* Finland also has an honorary consulate general in Georgetown.", "* Finland's embassy in Mexico City, Mexico attends to consular matters relating to Haiti.", "* Finland has an honorary consulate general in Port-au-Prince.", "* Honduras is represented in Finland by their embassy in Brussels, Belgium.", "* Finland's embassy in Mexico City, Mexico attends to consular matters relating to Honduras.", "* Finland has an honorary consulate general in Tegucigalpa and an honorary consulate in San Pedro Sula.", "* Jamaica is represented in Finland by their embassy in London, United Kingdom.", "* Finland has an honorary consulate general in Kingston.See Finland–Mexico relationsPresident Sauli Niinistö meeting with President Enrique Peña Nieto in 2015Mexico recognized the independence of Finland in July 1920.", "* Finland has an embassy in Mexico City.", "* Mexico has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Finnish Ministry for Foreign Affairs: Relations with MexicoSee Finland–Nicaragua relations* Finland is accredited to Nicaragua from its embassy in Mexico City, Mexico.", "* Nicaragua has an honorary consulate in Helsinki.", "* Panama is accredited to Finland from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.", "* Finland's embassy in Bogota, Colombia attends to consular matters relating to Panama.", "* Finland has an honorary consulate general in Panama City.", "* Paraguay is accredited to Finland from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.", "* Finland's embassy in Buenos Aires, Argentina attends to consular matters relating to Paraguay.", "* Finland has an honorary consulate in Asunción.", "Minister of Foreign Affairs Erkki Tuomioja with Embajador Fernando Rojas in 2014* Peru has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Finland has an embassy in Lima.", "* Finland has an honorary consulate in Basseterre.", "* Finland has an honorary consulate in Castries.", "*Finland is represented in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines through a roving ambassador.", "*Finland has an honorary consulate in Kingstown.", "*Saint Vincent and the Grenadines is represented in Finland through its embassy in London.", "* Finland's embassy in Brasília, Brazil attends to consular matters relating to Suriname.", "* Finland has an honorary consulate in Paramaribo.", "* Trinidad and Tobago is accredited to Finland from its embassy in London, United Kingdom.", "* Finland has an honorary consulate general in Barataria.See Finland–United States relations President Ronald Reagan meeting with President Mauno Koivisto in 1988 President Donald J. Trump with President Sauli Niinistö of Finland at the Mäntyniemi Residence, July 16, 20185-25-1988 President Reagan meeting with President Mauno Henrik Koivisto during a trip to Finland at the Helsinki airport in VantaaRelations between the United States and Finland are warm.", "Some 200,000 US citizens visit Finland annually, and about 3,000 US citizens are resident there.", "The US has an educational exchange program in Finland that is comparatively large for a Western European country of Finland's size.", "It is financed in part from a trust fund established in 1976 from Finland's final repayment of a US loan made in the aftermath of World War I.Finland is bordered on the east by Russia and, as one of the former Soviet Union's neighbours, has been of particular interest and importance to the US both during the Cold War and in its aftermath.", "Before the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991, longstanding US policy was to support Finnish neutrality and to maintain and reinforce Finland's historic, cultural, and economic ties with the West.", "The US has welcomed Finland's increased participation since 1991 in Western economic and political structures.Economic and trade relations between Finland and the United States are active and were bolstered by the F-18 purchase.", "US-Finland trade totals almost $5 billion annually.", "The US receives about 7% of Finland's exports – mainly wood pulp and paper, ships, machinery, electronics and instruments and refined petroleum products – and provides about 7% of its imports – principally computers, semiconductors, aircraft, and machinery.", "* Finland has an embassy in Washington, D.C., and consulates-general in Los Angeles and New York City.", "* United States has an embassy in Helsinki.See Finland–Uruguay relations* Finland's embassy in Buenos Aires, Argentina accredited to Uruguay and maintains an honorary consulate in Montevideo.", "* Uruguay has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Finland is accredited to Venezuela from its embassy in Bogotá, Colombia.", "* Venezuela is accredited to Finland from its embassy in Oslo, Norway." ], [ "Asia", " Country Formal Relations BeganNotes * Afghanistan recognised the independence of Finland on July 17, 1928.", "* Afghanistan is accredited to Finland through its embassy in Oslo, Norway.", "* Finland opened a liaison office in Kabul in 2002.It converted into an embassy on January 1, 2006.", "* Finnish Ministry for Foreign Affairs: relations with Afghanistan See Armenia–Finland relations* Finland recognised Armenia on December 30, 1991.", "* Armenia is represented in Finland by a non-resident ambassador (based in Yerevan at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs).", "* Finland is represented in Armenia by a non-resident ambassador (based in Helsinki at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs) and an honorary consulate in Yerevan.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.", "* Finnish Ministry of Foreign Affairs: relations with Armenia See Azerbaijan–Finland relations* Finland recognised Azerbaijan on March 24, 1992.", "* Azerbaijan is represented in Finland through its embassy in Stockholm (Sweden) and an honorary consulate in Helsinki.", "* Finland is represented in Azerbaijan by a non-resident ambassador (based in Helsinki at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs) and an honorary consulate in Baku.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.20 January 1970 Prime Minister Sanna Marin and Prime Minister Hun Sen*Finland recognized Cambodia on 19 December 1969.Diplomatic relations established on 20 January 1970, re-established 9 August 1976.", "*Cambodia is represented in Finland through its embassy in London, England*Finland is represented in Cambodia through its embassy in Bangkok, ThailandOctober 28, 1950See China–Finland relationsThe two international trade organisations are the Finland-China Trade Association and the China Council for Promotion of International Trade (CCPIT).", "One of the fastest growing areas of trade between the two countries is in environmental protection.", "and information technology.", "Nokia is the largest Finnish investor in China.", "* China has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Finland has an embassy in Beijing and consulates-general in Hong Kong and Shanghai.See Finland–Georgia relations President Sauli Niinistö with President of Georgia Salome Zourabichvili in 2019* Finland recognised Georgia on March 27, 1992.", "* Finland is represented in Georgia by a non-resident ambassador (based in Helsinki at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs) and an honorary consulate in Tbilisi.", "* Georgia is represented in Finland through its embassy in Stockholm (Sweden) and an honorary consulate in Helsinki.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.", "* On April 22, 2009, the Georgian Foreign Minister visited Finland.", "* Finnish Ministry of Foreign Affairs: relations with Georgia* Georgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: relations with Finland See Finland–India relations The Prime Minister, Dr. Manmohan Singh and the Prime Minister Matti Vanhanen in Helsinki on 2006.", "* Finland has an embassy in New Delhi and three honorary consulates in Kolkata, Chennai, and Mumbai.", "* India has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Finnish Ministry of Foreign Affairs: relations with India * Finland recognised the independence of Indonesia on February 10, 1950.", "* Finland has an embassy in Jakarta and honorary consulates in Denpasar and Medan.", "* Indonesia has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Finnish Ministry for Foreign Affairs: relations with IndonesiaSee Finland–Iran relations Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and the Farah Pahlavi visit to Espoo, Finland.", "To their right, the Finnish president Urho Kekkonen in 1970Photograph of the Shah and the Shahbanu during their visit to Tapiola residencial area in Espoo, Finland.", "To their right, the Finnish president Urho Kekkonen.", "* Finland has an embassy in Tehran.", "* Iran has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Finland recognised Iraq on May 15, 1959.", "* Finland has an embassy in Baghdad.", "* Iraq has an embassy in Helsinki.", "See Finland–Israel relations* Finland recognised Israel on March 18, 1949.", "* Finland has an embassy in Tel Aviv.", "* Israel has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Both countries are full members of the Union for the Mediterranean.", "* Along with the rest of the European Union, Finland has not recognized the State of Palestine.", "* See also History of the Jews in Finland* Finnish Ministry of Foreign Affairs: relations with IsraelSee Finland–Japan relations Sauli Niinistö and Shinzo Abe* Japan recognised Finland on May 23, 1919.", "* Finland has an embassy in Tokyo and honorary consulate general in Osaka and other honorary consulates in Kitakyushu, Nagano, Nagoya, and Sapporo.", "* Japan has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Finnish Ministry of Foreign Affairs: relations with Japan* Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs: relations with FinlandSee Finland–Kazakhstan relations* Finland recognized Kazakhstan upon its independence from the Soviet Union.", "* Finland has an embassy in Nur-Sultan.", "* Kazakhstan has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Finland recognized Kazakhstan upon its independence from the Soviet Union.", "See Finland–Malaysia relations* Finland has an embassy in Kuala Lumpur.", "* Malaysia has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Finland recognised Nepal on December 14, 1955.", "* Finland has an embassy in Kathmandu.", "* Nepal is represented in Finland through its embassy in Copenhagen, Denmark.", "* Finnish Ministry for Foreign Affairs: relations with NepalSee Finland–North Korea relations* Finland recognized the People's Democratic Republic of Korea on April 13, 1973.", "* Finland condemns North Korean nuclear tests and fully agrees with EU foreign policy statements on this matter.", "* International trade has been irregular and sporadic, and it is controlled by UN and EU sanctions.", "* Finland has contributed to humanitarian assistance to North Korea through the Red Cross and the World Food Programme.", "* Neither Finland nor North Korea currently have resident ambassadors.", "North Korea is represented by the North Korean embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.", "Finland is represented by the Finnish embassy in Seoul, South Korea.Northern Cyprus has a Representative Office in Helsinki.January 12, 1951See Finland–Pakistan relations* Finland is accredited to Pakistan from its Ministry of Foreign Affairs based in Helsinki.", "* Pakistan is accredited to Finland from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.July 14, 1995* Finland has an embassy in Manila.", "* Philippines is accredited to Finland from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.", "* Finland has an embassy in Riyadh and an honorary consulate general in Jeddah.", "* Saudi Arabia will open an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Finnish Ministry for Foreign Affairs: relations with Saudi Arabia * The establishment of diplomatic relations between the Republic of Finland and the South Korea began on 1973-08-24.", "* Finland recognised South Korea on April 13, 1973.", "* Finland has an embassy in Seoul.", "* South Korea has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Finland had an embassy in Damascus and two honorary consulates general in Aleppo and Latakia.", "* Syria is represented in Finland through its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.", "* Finnish Ministry for Foreign Affairs: relations with Syria* Thailand, previously known as Siam, recognised Finland's independence on October 9, 1919.", "* Siam was the second non-European state after the United States and the first Asian state to recognise Finland's independence.", "* Finland has an embassy in Bangkok, its honorary consulate general in Phuket and its honorary consulate in Chiang Mai.", "* Thailand has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Finnish Ministry for Foreign Affairs: relations with ThailandSee Finland–Turkey relations* Turkey recognised the independence of Finland on February 21, 1918.", "* Finland has an embassy in Ankara and an honorary consulate general in Istanbul and other honorary consulates in Belek, Bodrum and İzmir.", "* Turkey has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe and of NATO.", "* Finland is an EU member and Turkey is an EU candidate.", "Finland supports Turkey's accession negotiations to the EU, although negotiations have now been suspended.", "* See also Turks in Finland* Turkey's Ministry of Foreign Affairs: political, economic and commercial relations with Finland* Finnish Ministry for Foreign Affairs: relations with Turkey See Finland–United Arab Emirates relations* Finland recognised United Arab Emirates on February 21, 1975.", "* Finland has an embassy in Abu Dhabi.", "* United Arab Emirates has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Finland recognised Vietnam on December 28, 1972.", "* Finland has an embassy in Hanoi and an honorary consulate in Ho Chi Minh City.", "* Vietnam has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland about Vietnam" ], [ "Europe", " Country Formal Relations BeganNotesFinnish Prime Minister Sanna Marin and Albanian Prime Minister Edi Rama* Albania is accredited to Finland from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.", "* Finland is accredited to Albania from its embassy in Athens, Greece.", "* Albania is an EU candidate and Finland is an member.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO.See Austria–Finland relations Finnish Prime Minister Sanna Marin and President of Austria Alexander Van der Bellen in 2023* Austria has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Finland has an embassy in Vienna.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union.", "Finnish Prime Minister Sanna Marin and Sviatlana Tsikhanouskaya in 2021* Finland recognised the independence of Belarus on 30 December 1991.", "* Finland is represented in Belarus through its embassy in Vilnius, Lithuania, which also operates a liaison office in Minsk.", "* Belarus opened an embassy in Helsinki on 5 December 2011.", "* Belgium has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Finland has an embassy in Brussels.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Bulgaria–Finland relationsFinnish Prime Minister Petteri Orpo and Mariya Gabriel in 2023* In 1963, the diplomatic representations of the two countries were upgraded to the level of embassy.", "* Bulgaria has an embassy in Helsinki and an honorary consulate in Kemi.", "* Finland has an embassy in Sofia and an honorary consulate in Varna.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "* Finnish Ministry of Foreign Affairs: relations with BulgariaSee Croatia–Finland relationsPrime Minister Sanna Marin and Croatian Prime Minister Andrej Plenković* Croatia has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Finland has an embassy in Zagreb.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Cyprus–Finland relations* Finland recognised Cyprus on August 16, 1960.", "* Cyprus has an embassy in Helsinki and an honorary consulate in Vantaa.", "* Finland has an embassy in Nicosia.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union.", "* Cypriot Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with Finland Prime Minister Sanna Marin and Prime Minister of Czech Republic Petr Fiala in 2022* Czech Republic has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Finland has an embassy in Prague.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Denmark–Finland relations Prime Minister Sanna Marin and Prime Minister of Denmark Mette Frederiksen in 2022* Denmark has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Finland has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "* Denmark officially recognized Finland's independence in 1918.", "* Both countries are full members of the Nordic Council and the Nordic Passport Union, with no border controls or limitations on travel and residence.", "On cases concerning an individual, authorities must arrange translations between Finnish and Danish, if necessary.", "* Both countries are members of the European Union, NATO and the Council of the Baltic Sea States.", "* Both countries are full members of Joint Expeditionary Force (JEF).Denmark and Finland share a long history, where Danish Vikings settled in Finland and made crusades.", "Both countries were also part of the Kalmar Union.", "Denmark was the first country along with Sweden to recognize Finland's Independence.There are 3,000 Finns living in Denmark, and 1,235 Danes living in Finland.", "During Winter War, over 1,000 Danish volunteers came to help Finland.", "During the Winter war and the Continuation war, Denmark took 4,200 Finnish war children.", "Exports to Denmark value at 1.380 billion euros, and imports from Denmark value at 1.453 billion, making Denmark Finland's 10th largest import-trading partner.", "The Nordic Culture Fund and the Finnish-Danish Cultural Fund support projects of artists in both countries.", "Many tourists from Finland visit Denmark, 206,000 in 2017, and vice versa: 113,000 Danish tourists visited Finland in 2017.In 1918 Mannerheim visited Copenhagen, asking if Prince Aage would have wanted to become the King of Finland.", "* Bilateral relations between Denmark and Finland See Estonia–Finland relationsPrime Minister Sanna Marin and Prime Minister of Estonia Kaja Kallas in 2022Finland's main language, Finnish, is related to Estonian, and there is and has been a certain feeling of kinship.", "76% of Finns have visited Estonia and in 2004, 1.8 million Finns reported visiting Estonia.", "Finnish and Swedish investors are the largest foreign investors in Estonia.", "Finland and Estonia are members of the European Union and the Schengen agreement, freeing international travel and trade between the countries.Finland's government recognised Estonia's independence in 1920.In response to the Soviet invasion, diplomatic missions were ''de facto'' removed.", "However, when Estonia declared independence, this \"temporary obstruction\" was resolved.", "Both countries restored diplomatic relations on August 29, 1991.", "* Estonia has an embassy in Helsinki and five honorary consulates in Oulu, Turku, Raseborg, Tampere and Kotka.", "* Finland has an embassy in Tallinn and an honorary consulate in Tartu.", "Finland contributed and continues to contribute military aid to Estonia, e.g., training of officers, provision of equipment.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "* Both countries are full members of Joint Expeditionary Force (JEF).See Finland–France relations Prime Minister Petteri Orpo with President of France Emmanuel Macron in Paris 2023* France was one of the first countries which recognised Finland's independence on January 4, 1918.", "* Finland has an embassy in Paris and 18 honorary consulates (in Ajaccio, Bordeaux, Brest, Caen, Cherbourg, Dijon, Lille, Lyons, Marseille, Monaco, Nancy, Nice, Reims, Rouen, Sète, Strasbourg, Toulouse and Papeete in Tahiti).", "* France has an embassy in Helsinki and its honorary consulates in Hämeenlinna, Joensuu, Jyväskylä, Kuopio, Oulu, Pori, Rovaniemi, Tampere and Turku.", "* There are an estimated 6,000 Finns living in France.", "* French Ministry for Foreign Affairs: relations with Finland * Finnish Ministry for Foreign Affairs: relations with France * History of the relations of Finland and France on Finnish Embassy in Paris websites * Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Finland–Germany relationsC.G.E.", "Mannerheim, Adolf Hitler and Risto Ryti in June 4th 1942 during Hitler's visit in FinlandPrime Minister Sanna Marin and Chancellor Olaf Scholz* Germany recognised Finland's independence on January 4, 1918.", "* Germany gave direct military support to Finnish independence by training Finnish Jägers and successfully intervened in Finnish Civil War in favor of the nationalist Whites.", "* During World War II, the secret protocol in Molotov–Ribbentrop pact enabled Winter War (1939–40), a Soviet attack on Finland.", "Finland and Nazi Germany were \"co-belligerents\" against Soviet Union during Continuation War (1941–44), but a separate peace with Soviet Union led to the Finnish-German Lapland War (1944–45).", "* The Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic (West and East Germany) were both recognised on January 7, 1972, by Finland.", "* Diplomatic relations between Finland and West Germany were established on January 7, 1973.", "* Finland has an embassy in Berlin, and consulate general in Hamburg, two honorary consulates general in Düsseldorf and Munich and other honorary consulates in Bremen, Dresden, Frankfurt am Main, Hanover, Kiel, Lübeck, Rostock, Stuttgart, and Wilhelmshaven.", "* Germany has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* German Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Germany: relations with Finland* Finnish Ministry for Foreign Affairs: relations with Germany * Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "See Finland–Greece relations Prime Minister Sanna Marin with Prime Minister of Greece Kyriakos Mitsotakis in 2022* Greece recognised Finland's independence on January 5, 1918.", "* Finland has an embassy in Athens.", "* Greece has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Finland–Hungary relations* Hungary recognised Finland on August 23, 1920.Finland recognised Hungary on September 10, 1920.", "* Finland broke off diplomatic relations on September 20, 1944.", "* Diplomatic relations were re-established on May 20, 1947.", "* Both national languages, Finnish and Hungarian, are Uralic languages, which has led to cultural exchange albeit at a much smaller scale compared to the third major Uralic-speaking country, Estonia.", "* Finland has an embassy in Budapest and an honorary consulate in Pécs.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Helsinki and four honorary consulates (in Turku, Mariehamn, Tampere and Joensuu).", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "* Finnish Ministry of Foreign Affairs: relations with HungarySee Finland–Iceland relationsSanna Marin met the Prime Minister of Iceland Katrín Jakobsdóttir in Kesäranta on 2022* Finland has an embassy in Reykjavík.", "* Iceland has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Both countries are full members of the Nordic Council and the Nordic Passport Union, with no border controls or limitations on travel and residence.", "On cases concerning an individual, authorities must arrange translations between Finnish and Icelandic, if necessary.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO and Joint Expeditionary Force (JEF).Prime Minister Sanna Marin with Taoiseach, Prime Minister of Ireland Micheál Martin in 2022* Finland has an embassy in Dublin and three honorary consulates (in Cork, Dublin and Limerick).", "* Ireland has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Both countries are full members of Council of Europe and of the European Union.", "* Finnish Ministry of Foreign Affairs: relations with IrelandSee Finland–Italy relationsFinnish President Sauli Niinistö with Italian President Sergio Mattarella* Italy recognised Finland's independence on June 27, 1919.", "* Finland has an embassy in Rome and two honorary consulate generals in Milan and Venice and other honorary consulates in Genoa, Bari, Cagliari, Catania, Florence, Livorno, Messina, Naples, Palermo, Rimini, Trieste and Turin.", "* Italy has an embassy in Helsinki and its honorary consulates in Hanko, Jyväskylä, Kotka, Kuopio, Oulu, Pori, Rovaniemi, Tampere, Turku and Vaasa.", "* Finnish Ministry for Foreign Affairs: relations with Italy * Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.Finland recognised Kosovo March 7, 2008.Finland maintains an embassy in Pristina.See Finland–Latvia relations Prime Minister Sanna Marin met Latvia’s Prime Minister Krišjānis Kariņš 12 February 2020* Finland recognised Latvia's independence de facto on September 24, 1919, and de jure on January 21, 1921.", "* Finland has an embassy in Riga.", "* Latvia has an embassy in Helsinki and four honorary consulates (in Åland, Satakunta, Kymenlaakso and Oulu).", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of the Baltic Sea States, the European Union, NATO and Joint Expeditionary Force (JEF).", "* Finnish Ministry for Foreign Affairs: relations with Latvia* Latvian Ministry for Foreign Affairs: relations with FinlandSee Finland–Lithuania relations Tarja Halonen talk with the President of Lithuania Dalia Grybauskaitė in 2011* Finland recognised Lithuania's independence de facto on November 14, 1919, and de jure on October 14, 1921.", "* Finland has an embassy in Vilnius and an honorary consulate in Klaipėda.", "* Lithuania has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of the Baltic Sea States, the European Union, NATO, Joint Expeditionary Force (JEF).", "* Finnish Ministry for Foreign Affairs: relations with LithuaniaSanna Marin and Prime Minister of Luxembourg Xavier Bettel in 2022* Luxembourg recognised Finland's independence on October 25, 1921.", "* Finland has an embassy in Luxembourg City.", "* Luxembourg is accredited to Finland through its embassy in Copenhagen.", "* Finnish Ministry for Foreign Affairs: relations with Luxembourg * Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "Sanna Marin met the Prime Minister of Montenegro Dritan Abazović, on 2022* Finland recognised Montenegro 29 June 2006.", "* Finland is an EU member and Montenegro is an candidate.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO.See Finland–Netherlands relations Queen Juliana and Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld on their way to Palace, October 24, 1972* The Netherlands recognised Finland's independence on January 28, 1918.", "* Finland has an embassy in The Hague and honorary consulate general in Amsterdam and other honorary consulates in Rotterdam and Terneuzen.", "* The Netherlands has an embassy in Helsinki and consulates (in Kuopio, Mariehamn, Oulu, Rovaniemi, Tampere, Turku and Vaasa).", "* Dutch Ministry for Foreign Affairs: relations with Finland* Finnish Ministry for Foreign Affairs: relations with the Netherlands * Both countries are full members of the European Union, NATO and Joint Expeditionary Force (JEF).Finnish Prime Minister Sanna Marin with North Makedonian President Stevo Pendarovski in 2022 * Finland is an EU member and North Macedonia is an candidate.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO.See Finland–Norway relations* Norway recognised Finland's independence on January 10, 1918.", "* Finland has an embassy in Oslo and other honorary consulates in Bergen, Bodø, Drammen, Farsund, Grimstad, Halden, Hamar, Hammerfest, Haugesund, Horten, Kirkenes, Kristiansand, Kristiansund, Larvik, Moss, Narvik, Sarpsborg, Stavanger, Tromsø, Trondheim, Vadsø, and Ålesund.", "* Norway has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Both countries are full members of the Nordic Council and the Nordic Passport Union, with no border controls or limitations on travel and residence.", "On cases concerning an individual, authorities must arrange translations between Finnish and Norwegian, if necessary.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of the Baltic Sea States, Council of Europe, NATO and Joint Expeditionary Force (JEF).", "* Finnish Ministry for Foreign Affairs: relations with NorwaySee Finland–Poland relations Prime Minister Sanna Marin and Prime Minister of Poland Mateusz Morawiecki in 2022* Finland has an embassy in Warsaw and an honorary consulate in Gdynia.", "* Poland has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of the Baltic Sea States, the European Union, and NATO.", "* Finnish Ministry of Foreign Affairs: relations with Poland * Portugal recognised Finland's independence on December 19, 1919.", "* Finland has an embassy in Lisbon and honorary consulates in Faro, Lisbon, Porto, Vila Real de Santo António, Ponta Delgada in the Azores and Funchal in Madeira.", "* Portugal has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "* Finnish Ministry for Foreign Affairs: relations with Portugal* Romania recognised Finland on April 8, 1920.", "* Finland has an embassy in Bucharest and two honorary consulates (in Bucharest and Constanţa).", "* Romania has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union, NATO, and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.", "* Finnish Ministry of Foreign Affairs: relations with Romania* Romanian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: relations with Finland Nikita Khrushchev speaking, Urho Kekkonen, Leonid Brezhnev, Nikolai Podgorny, Jorma Vanamo and Kustaa Loikkanen in 1963Vladimir Putin and Sauli Niinistö in 2017Relations with Russia are peaceful and friendly.", "Finland imports a lot of goods and basic necessities, such as fuel, and the two nations are agreeing on issues more than disagreeing on them.Finland was a part of the Russian Empire for 108 years, after being annexed from the Swedish empire.", "Discontent with Russian rule, Finnish national identity, and World War I eventually caused Finland to break away from Russia, taking advantage of the fact that Russia was withdrawing from World War I and a revolution was starting in earnest.", "Following the Finnish Civil War and October Revolution, Russians were virtually equated with Communists and due to official hostility to Communism, Finno-Soviet relations in the period between the world wars remained tense.", "Voluntary activists arranged expeditions to Karelia (''heimosodat''), which ended when Finland and the Soviet Union signed the Treaty of Tartu in 1920.However, the Soviet Union did not abide by the treaty when they blockaded Finnish naval ships.", "Finland was attacked by the Soviet Union in 1939.Finland fought the Winter War and the Continuation War against the Soviets in World War II.", "During the wars, the Finns suffered 90,000 casualties and inflicted severe casualties on the Russians (120,000 dead in the Winter War and 200,000 in the Continuation War).Contemporary issues include problems with border controls causing persistent truck queues at the border, airspace violations, pollution of the Baltic Sea, and Russian duties on exported wood to Finland's pulp and paper industry.", "Russia also considered large swathes of land near the Finnish border as special security area where foreign land ownership is forbidden.", "A similarly extensive restriction does not apply to Russian citizens.", "The Finnish Defence Forces and Finnish Security Intelligence Service have suspected that Russians have made targeted land purchases near military and other sensitive installations for intelligence or special operations purposes.", "Right-wing commentators accuse the government of continuing the policy of Finlandisation.Recently, Finland-Russia relations have been under pressure with annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation, which Finland considers illegal.", "Together with the rest of the European Union, Finland enforces sanctions against Russia that followed.", "Still, economic relations have not entirely deteriorated: 11.2% of imports to Finland are from Russia, and 5.7% of exports from Finland are to Russia, and cooperation between Finnish and Russian authorities continues.", "* Finland has an embassy in Moscow and a consulate-general in Saint Petersburg.", "* Russia has an embassy in Helsinki, a consulate-general in Turku and consulates in Lappeenranta and Mariehamn.", "* Finland has an embassy in Belgrade.", "* Serbia has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Finland is an EU member and Serbia is an candidate.", "* Finnish Ministry of Foreign Affairs: relations with Serbia* Serbian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: relations with Finland Prime Minister Sanna Marin and Prime Minister of Slovakia Eduard Heger in 2022*Finland recognised the independence of Slovakia on January 1, 1993.", "* Finland has an embassy and an honorary consulate in Bratislava.", "* Slovakia has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "* Finnish Ministry for Foreign Affairs: relations with SlovakiaPresident Sauli Niinistö and Prime Minister of Slovenia Robert Golob meet up in 2023 Vilnius summit* Finland recognised Slovenia on January 17, 1992.", "* Finland has an embassy in Ljubljana.", "* Slovenia has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.Tensions between the countries rose in late 2008 when a news program on Finland's national broadcasting company station YLE accused Finnish weapons manufacturer Patria of bribing Slovenian officials to secure an arms deal.", "Slovenian Prime Minister Janez Janša formally complained to the Finnish ambassador in Ljubljana.", "This controversy became known as the Patria case.", "* Finnish Ministry of Foreign Affairs: relations with SloveniaSee Finland–Spain relations Prime Minister Sanna Marin and Spanish Prime Minister Pedro Sánchez in Stockholm on 2 February 2023* Spain recognised Finland's independence on February 21, 1918.", "* Finland has an embassy in Madrid and two honorary consulates general in Barcelona and Sevilla and other honorary consulates in A Coruña, Benidorm, Bilbao, Gijón, Málaga, Palma de Mallorca, Pilar de la Horadada, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Santander, Valencia and Vigo.", "* Spain has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "* Finnish Ministry for Foreign Affairs: relations with SpainPresident Urho Kekkonen, Swedish Queen Silvia, director Åke Wolfram of Wärtsilä, and king Carl XVI Gustaf in Turku on 28 April 1981Prime Minister Sanna Marin and Swedish Prime Minister Ulf Kristersson in Stockholm on 2 February 2023Finland and Sweden have always had very close relations, resulting from shared history, numerous commonalities in society and politics, and close trade relations.", "A newly appointed Foreign Minister makes his or her first state visit to Sweden.", "Finnish politicians often consider Sweden's reaction to international affairs first as a base for further actions, and thus finally both countries often agree on such issues.", "If there has ever been any dissonance between the two countries those were the Åland question in the early 1920s and the Swedish declaration of non-belligerent status during the Winter War.", "Finland and Sweden are members of the European Union and the Schengen agreement, freeing international travel and trade between the countries.", "Furthermore, both participate in the Nordic Council, which grants Swedish nationals slightly more extensive rights than the EU/Schengen treaties alone.", "* Finland has an embassy in Stockholm.", "* Sweden has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Finland recognised Switzerland on January 29, 1926.", "* Finland has an embassy in Bern.", "* Switzerland has an embassy in Helsinki.See Turkey in Asia Above* See Finland–Turkey relationsSee Finland–Ukraine relations Finnish Prime Minister Sanna Marin meets with Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy, Kyiv, Ukraine, 26 May 2022* In 1918, Finland was one of the first countries which recognised Ukraine in 1918 and opened its diplomatic mission in Kyiv.", "* Finland recognised Ukraine on December 30, 1991.", "* Finland has an embassy in Kyiv.", "* Ukraine has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Finnish Ministry of Foreign Affairs: relations with Ukraine * Finland has an embassy in London and honorary consulates in Aberdeen, Belfast, Birmingham, Bristol, Cardiff, Dover, Dundee, Edinburgh, Gibraltar, Glasgow, Hamilton, Harwich, Hull, Immingham, Leeds, Lerwick, Liverpool, Manchester, Middlesbrough, Newcastle upon Tyne, Nottingham, Plymouth, Rochester, Sheffield, Southampton and St Helier.", "* The United Kingdom has an embassy in Helsinki and honorary consulates in Jyväskylä, Kotka, Kuopio, Oulu, Rovaniemi, Turku, Tampere, Vaasa and Åland.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO and the Council of Europe.", "* Both countries are full members of Joint Expeditionary Force (JEF)." ], [ "Oceania", " Country Formal Relations BeganNotesDiplomatic relations were established on May 31, 1949.", "* Australia is accredited to Finland from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.", "* Finland has an embassy in Canberra and a consulate in Sydney.Prime Minister Sanna Marin and New Zealand Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern* Finland is accredited to New Zealand from its embassy in Canberra, Australia.", "* New Zealand is accredited to Finland from its embassy in The Hague, Netherlands." ], [ "International organization participation", "*AfDB*AsDB*Australia Group*BIS*CBSS*CCC*CE*CERN*EAPC*EBRD*ECE*EIB*ESA**21px FAO*G-9*IADB*21px IAEA*IBRD*21px ICAO*ICC*21px ICC*21px ICRM*IDA*IEA*IFAD*IFC*21px IFRCS*IHO*21px ILO*IMF*21px IMO*ITUC*Interpol**IOM*ISO*ITU*MINURSO*21px NATO*21px NC*NEA*21px NIB*NSG*21px OAS (observer)*OECD*OPCW*21px OSCE*21px PCA*PFP**UNCTAD*21px UNESCO* UNHCR*UNIDO*UNIKOM*UNITAR*UNMEE*UNMIBH*UNMIK*UNMOGIP*UNMOP*UNOMIG*UNTAET*UNTSO*21px UPU*21px WEU (observer)*WFTU*21px WHO*WIPO*21px WMO*WTrO*Zangger Committee===Sub-national government participation===21px '''Aland Islands'''* Unrepresented United Nations" ], [ "See also", "*List of diplomatic missions in Finland*Ministry for Foreign Affairs (Finland)*Politics of Finland*Pulp mill conflict between Argentina and Uruguay (for the conflict over the installation of a pulp mill by the Finnish company Botnia in Uruguay, across the Uruguay River)*Visa requirements for Finnish citizens*Arctic policy of Finland" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Finland in the ''CIA World Factbook''* A Eurosceptic big bang: Finland's EU policy in hindsight of the 2011 elections—The Finnish Institute of International Affairs* Finland in the United Nations: Consistent and Credible Constructivism —The Finnish Institute of International Affairs* From Cold War to Common Currency: A personal perspective on Finland and the EU —The Finnish Institute of International Affairs" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Telecommunications in France" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Telecommunications in France''' are highly developed.", "France is served by an extensive system of automatic telephone exchanges connected by modern networks of fiber-optic cable, coaxial cable, microwave radio relay, and a domestic satellite system; cellular telephone service is widely available, expanding rapidly, and includes roaming service to foreign countries." ], [ "Fixed-line telephony", "The telephony system employs an extensive system of modern network elements such as digital telephone exchanges, mobile switching centres, media gateways and signalling gateways at the core, interconnected by a wide variety of transmission systems using fibre-optics or Microwave radio relay networks.", "The access network, which connects the subscriber to the core, is highly diversified with different copper-pair, optic-fibre and wireless technologies.", "The fixed-line telecommunications market is dominated by the former state-owned monopoly France Telecom.", "'''Telephones – main lines in use:''' 36.441 million; 35.5 million (metropolitan France) (2009)'''Telephones – mobile cellular:''' 60.95 million; 59.543 million (metropolitan France) (2009)===International connection===Satellite earth stations – 2 Intelsat (with total of 5 antennas – 2 for Indian Ocean and 3 for Atlantic Ocean), NA Eutelsat, 1 Inmarsat (Atlantic Ocean region); HF radiotelephone communications with more than 20 countries" ], [ "Radio", "'''Radio stations:''' AM 41, FM about 3,500 (this figure is an approximation and includes many repeaters), shortwave 2 (1998)'''Radios:''' 55.3 million (1997)" ], [ "Television", "'''Television stations:''' 584 (plus 9,676 repeaters) (1995)'''Televisions:''' 34.8 million (1997)" ], [ "Internet", "'''Internet country code:''' .fr'''Internet service providers (ISPs):''' 62 (2000)'''Internet hosts:''' 15,182,001; 15.161 million (metropolitan France) (2010)'''Internet users:''' 45.262 million; 44.625 million (metropolitan France) (2009)" ], [ "Mobile networks", "France currently has 4 mobile networks, Orange, SFR, Bouygues Telecom and Free all of which are licensed for UMTS.", "All except Free are also licensed for GSM.", "In 2016 Q3, Orange had 28.966 million mobile phone customers, SFR had 14.577 million, Bouygues had 12.660 million, Free Mobile had 12.385 million, and the MVNOs had 7.281 million.Before the launch of Free Mobile in January 2012, the number of physical mobile phone operators was very limited.", "For example, Sweden currently has 4 licensed operators with their own networks despite a smaller and sparser population than France's, making improved coverage less economically rewarding.", "However, France has a number of MVNOs which increases competition.However, Free Mobile obtained its licence in December 2009 and operates since January 2012.In France, the satellite telecommunications system TELECOM 1 (TC1) will provide high-speed, broadband transfer of digital data between different sections of subscribing companies.", "Conventional telecommunications links between continental France and its overseas departments will also be supplied." ], [ "Overseas departments and regions", "* Telecommunications in French Guiana* Telecommunications in French Polynesia* Telecommunications in Guadeloupe* Telecommunications in New Caledonia* Telecommunications in Saint Barthélemy* Telecommunications in Saint Martin" ], [ "See also", "* France* Media of France* List of newspapers in France* List of mobile network operators of Europe* Autorité de Régulation des Communications Électroniques, des Postes et de la Distribution de la Presse" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Communications in France – at ''Discover France'' (English)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in France" ], [ "Introduction", "Travel times by road in Metropolitan France from ParisTwo high-speed TGV trains at Paris-Gare de l'Est'''Transportation in France''' relies on one of the densest networks in the world with 146 km of road and 6.2 km of rail lines per 100 km2.It is built as a web with Paris at its center.", "Rail, road, air and water are all widely developed forms of transportation in France." ], [ "History", "The first important human improvements were the Roman roads linking major settlements and providing quick passage for marching armies.All through the Middle Ages improvements were few and second rate.", "Transport became slow and awkward to use.", "The early modern period saw great improvements.", "There was a very quick production of canals connecting rivers.", "It also saw great changes in oceanic shipping.", "Rather than expensive galleys, wind powered ships that were much faster and had more room for cargo became popular for coastal trade.", "Transatlantic shipping with the New World turned cities such as Nantes, Bordeaux, Cherbourg-Octeville and Le Havre into major ports.SNCF freight train running on the ''\"Grande ceinture complémentaire\"'' network inter yard in suburb of Paris.", "Here, the train is passing along the closed Villemomble yard in direction of Valenton." ], [ "Railways", "double-decker TGV train in ToulonThere is a total of of railway in France, mostly operated by SNCF (Société nationale des chemins de fer français), the French national railway company.", "Like the road system, the French railways are subsidised by the state, receiving €13.2 billion in 2013.The railway system is a small portion of total travel, accounting for less than 10% of passenger travel.From 1981 onwards, a newly constructed set of high-speed ''Lignes à Grande Vitesse'' (LGV) lines linked France's most populous areas with the capital, starting with Paris-Lyon.", "In 1994, the Channel Tunnel opened, connecting France and Great Britain by rail under the English Channel.", "The TGV has set many world speed records, the most recent on 3 April 2007, when a new version of the TGV dubbed the V150 with larger wheels than the usual TGV, and a stronger engine, broke the world speed record for conventional rail trains, reaching 574.8 km/h (357.2 mph).Trains, unlike road traffic, drive on the left (except in Alsace-Moselle).", "Metro and tramway services are not thought of as trains and usually follow road traffic in driving on the right (except the Lyon Metro).France was ranked 7th among national European rail systems in the 2017 European Railway Performance Index for intensity of use, quality of service and safety performance, a decrease from previous years.Gare Saint Lazare station The French non-TGV intercity service (TET) is in decline, with old infrastructure and trains.", "It is likely to be hit further as the French government is planning to remove the monopoly that rail currently has on long-distance journeys by letting coach operators compete.", "Travel to the UK through the Channel Tunnel has grown in recent years, and from May 2015 passengers have been able to travel direct to Marseille, Avignon and Lyon.", "Eurostar is also introducing new Class 374 trains and refurbishing the current Class 373s.The French government are making plans to privatise the French railway network, following a similar model Great Britain used from the 1990s until the 2020s.Train at Strasbourg.=== Rapid transit ===Six cities in France currently have a rapid transit service (frequently known as a 'metro').", "Full metro systems are in operation in Paris (16 lines), Lyon (4 lines) and Marseille (2 lines).", "Light metro (VAL-type) systems are in use in Lille (2 lines), Toulouse (2 lines) and Rennes (2 lines).===Trams===In spite of the closure of most of France's first generation tram systems in earlier years, a fast-growing number of France's major cities have modern tram or light rail networks, including Paris, Lyon (Lyon having the biggest one), Toulouse, Montpellier, Saint-Étienne, Strasbourg and Nantes.", "Recently the tram has seen a very big revival with many experiments such as ground level power supply in Bordeaux, or trolleybuses pretending to be trams in Nancy.This way of travelling started disappearing in France at the end of the 1930s.", "Only Lille, Marseille and Saint-Étienne have never given up their tram systems.", "Since the 1980s, several cities have re-introduced it.Brest station.The following French towns and cities run light rail or tram systems:*Angers - since 2011;*Besançon - since 2014;*Bordeaux - since 2003; *Brest - since 2012; *Caen - since 2002 as a 'trams on tyres' system, replaced 2019 by conventional trams;*Clermont-Ferrand - since 2006, 'trams on tyres'; *Grenoble - since 1987; *Île-de-France (Paris metropolitan area) - since 1992*Lille, Roubaix and Tourcoing - non-stop since 1909; *Lyon - since 2001; *Le Mans - since 2007; *Marseille - since 2007; *Montpellier - since 2000; *Mulhouse - since 2006*Nancy - since 2000, 'trams on tyres' system featuring a single guide rail while running on tyres; *Nice - since 2007; *Nantes - since 1985; *Orléans - since 2000;*Reims - since 2011;*Rouen - since 1994; *Saint-Étienne - non-stop since 1881; *Strasbourg - since 1994*Toulouse - since 2010 (previously existed from 1906 to 1952)*Valenciennes - since 2006*Dijon - since 2012*Le Havre - since 2012Tram systems are planned or under construction in Tours, and Fort-de-France.Eurotram in StrasbourgThe revival of tram networks in France has brought about a number of technical developments both in the traction systems and in the styling of the cars:: ''APS third rail'': The Alstom APS system uses a third rail placed between the running rails, divided electrically into eight-metre segments with three metre neutral sections between.", "Each tram has two power collection skates, next to which are antennas that send radio signals to energise the power rail segments as the tram passes over them.", "At any one time no more than two consecutive segments under the tram should actually be live.", "Alstrom developed the system primarily to avoid intrusive power supply cables in sensitive area of the old city of Bordeaux.", ":''Modern styling'': The Eurotram, used in Strasbourg has a modern design that makes it look almost as much like a train as a tram, and has large windows along its entire length.", ":''Modular design'': The Citadis tram, flagship of the French manufacturer Alstom, enjoys an innovative design combining lighter bogies with a modular concept for carriages providing more choices in the types of windows and the number of cars and doors.", "The recent Citadis-Dualis, intended to run at up to 100 km/h, is suitable for stop spacings ranging from 500 m to 5 km.", "Dualis is a strictly modular partial low-floor car, with all doors in the low-floor sections.Prominent bi-articulated \"tram-like\" Van Hool vehicles (Mettis) are used in Metz since 2013.They work as classic trams but without needing rails and catenaries, and can transport up to 155 passengers while being ecological thanks to a diesel-electric hybrid engine.", "In the starting up, batteries feed the engine of the bus, which can then roll 150 meters before the diesel engine takes over." ], [ "Roads", "The ring road in Paris.French autoroute networkThere are ~ of roads in France.", "The French motorway network or autoroute system consists largely of toll roads, except around large cities and in parts of the north.", "It is a network totalling of motorways operated by private companies such as Sanef (Société des autoroutes du Nord et de l'Est de la France).", "It has the 8th largest highway network in the world, trailing only the United States, China, India, Russia, Japan, Canada, Spain and Germany.France currently counts 30,500 km of major trunk roads or routes nationales and state-owned motorways.", "By way of comparison, the ''routes départementales'' cover a total distance of 365,000 km.", "The main trunk road network reflects the centralising tradition of France: the majority of them leave the gates of Paris.", "Indeed, trunk roads begin on the parvis of Notre-Dame of Paris at Kilometre Zero.", "To ensure an effective road network, new roads not serving Paris were created.France is believed to be the most car-dependent country in Europe.", "In 2005, 937 billion vehicle kilometres were travelled in France (85% by car).In order to overcome this dependence, in France and many more countries the long-distance coaches' market has been liberalised.", "Since 2015, with the law Macron, the market has exploded: the increasing demand lead to a higher supply of bus services and coach companies.Black Saturday refers, in France, to the day of the year when road traffic is most dense due to the many departures on holiday.", "(Traffic problems are exacerbated by France's extreme centralisation, with Paris being the hub of the entire national highway network.)", "This Saturday is usually at the end of July, though in 2007 both the last Saturday of July and the first Saturday of August are designated as Black Saturdays.", "The Autoroute du Soleil, the highway to the south of France and Spain, is usually particularly busy.", "In 2004 there was more than in accumulated traffic congestion.", "The black colour is the qualification with which the French government web site ''Bison Futé'' designates a day with ''extrêmement dense'' (extremely busy) traffic.", "The French newspapers call this day ''samedi noir'' after Bison Futé's designation.", "Usually, the French call these days ''les jours de grands départs'' (days of great departures).", "In Dutch, this French phenomenon was known as ''zwarte zaterdag'' long before the French adopted the term ''samedi noir'', both meaning (literally) Black Saturday.The term Black Saturday may also refer to Saturday July 31, 1982, when the worst road accident in French history happened.", "Around 1:45 AM, a coach collided into passenger cars near Beaune in dense holiday traffic during rainfall.", "The collision and subsequent fire killed 53 people, among which 46 were children.", "After this crash, a regulation was enforced to prohibit the transportation of groups of children during this part of the year.=== Electric roads ===Bordeaux tramway with Alstom ground-level power supply, a technology that as of 2022 is being considered for electric roads.France plans to invest 30 to 40 billion euro by 2035 in an electric road system spanning 8,800 kilometers that recharges electric cars, buses and trucks while driving.", "Two projects for assessment of electric road technologies were announced in 2023.Three technologies are being considered: inductive charging, overhead lines, and ground-level power supply.", "Inductive charging is not considered a mature technology as it delivers the least power, loses 20%-25% of the supplied power when installed on trucks, and its health effects have yet to be documented.", "Overhead lines is the most mature technology, but the catenaries and overhead wires pose safety and maintenance issues.", "Ground-level power supply technologies, provided by Alstom, Elonroad, and others, are considered the most likely candidate for electric roads.", "A working group of the French Ministry of Ecology recommended adopting a European electric road standard formulated with Sweden, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Poland, and others.The first standard for electrical equipment on-board a vehicle powered by a rail electric road system (ERS), CENELEC Technical Standard 50717, has been approved in late 2022.Following standards, encompassing \"full interoperability\" and a \"unified and interoperable solution\" for ground-level power supply, are scheduled to be published by the end 2024, detailing complete \"specifications for communication and power supply through conductive rails embedded in the road\".Alstom has developed a ground-level power supply (alimentation par le sol - APS) system for use with buses and other vehicles.", "The system has been tested for compatibility with snow plows and for safety under exposure to snow, ice, salting, and saturated brine.", "Alstom will trial its electric road system (ERS) on the public road RN205 in the Rhône-Alpes region between 2024 and 2027.Vinci will test two electric road systems (ERS) from 2023 to 2027.Both technologies will initially be tested in laboratory conditions, and upon meeting the test requirements they will be installed along 2 kilometers each on the A10 autoroute south of Paris.", "Wireless ERS by Electreon will be tested for durability under highway traffic, and will attempt to reach 200kW of power delivery per truck using multiple receivers.", "Rail ERS by Elonroad, which supplies 350kW of power per receiver, will be tested for skid effects on motorcycles.", "Both systems will be interoperable with cars, buses, and trucks.=== Bus transport in France ===Bus in 201x201pxIn most, if not all, French cities, urban bus services are provided at a flat-rate charge for individual journeys.", "Many cities have bus services that operate well out into the suburbs or even the country.", "Fares are normally cheap, but rural services can be limited, especially on weekends.Trains have long had a monopoly on inter-regional buses, but in 2015 the French government introduced reforms to allow bus operators to travel these routes." ], [ "Waterways/Canals", "Barge on the Canal Saint-DenisThe French natural and man-made waterways network is the largest in Europe extending to over of which ('''VNF''', ), the French navigation authority, manages the navigable sections.", "Some of the navigable rivers include the Loire, Seine and Rhône.", "The assets managed by VNF comprise of waterways, made up of of canals and of navigable rivers, 494 dams, 1595 locks, 74 navigable aqueducts, 65 reservoirs, 35 tunnels and a land area of .", "Two significant waterways not under VNF's control are the navigable sections of the River Somme and the Brittany Canals, which are both under local management.Approximately 20% of the network is suitable for commercial boats of over 1000 tonnes and the VNF has an ongoing programme of maintenance and modernisation to increase depth of waterways, widths of locks and headroom under bridges to support France's strategy of encouraging freight onto water." ], [ "Marine transport", "Container terminal at Port of Le HavreFrance has an extensive merchant marine, including 55 ships of size Gross register tonnage 1,000 and above.", "The country also maintains a captive register for French-owned ships in Iles Kerguelen (French Southern and Antarctic Lands).French companies operate over 1,400 ships of which 700 are registered in France.", "France's 110 shipping firms employ 12,500 personnel at sea and 15,500 on shore.", "Each year, 305 million tonnes of goods and 15 million passengers are transported by sea.", "Marine transport is responsible for 72% of France's imports and exports.France also boasts a number of seaports and harbours, including Bayonne, Bordeaux, Boulogne-sur-Mer, Brest, Calais, Cherbourg-Octeville, Dunkerque, Fos-sur-Mer, La Pallice, Le Havre, Lorient, Marseille, Nantes, Nice, Paris, Port-la-Nouvelle, Port-Vendres, Roscoff, Rouen, Saint-Nazaire, Saint-Malo, Sète, Strasbourg and Toulon.Train station of ''Aéroport Charles de Gaulle 2 TGV''" ], [ "Air travel", "Charles de Gaulle Airport, ParisThere are approximately 478 airports in France (1999 est.)", "and by a 2005 estimate, there are three heliports.", "288 of the airports have paved runways, with the remaining 199 being unpaved.Among the airspace governance authorities active in France, one is Aéroports de Paris, which has authority over the Paris region, managing 14 airports including the two busiest in France, Charles de Gaulle Airport and Orly Airport.", "The former, located in Roissy near Paris, is the fifth busiest airport in the world with 60 million passenger movements in 2008, and France's primary international airport, serving over 100 airlines.The national carrier of France is Air France, a full service global airline which flies to 20 domestic destinations and 150 international destinations in 83 countries (including Overseas departments and territories of France) across all 6 major continents." ], [ "See also", "* Rail transport in France* Black Saturday, a day of extreme road congestion in France* Réseau Ferré National" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "French Armed Forces" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''French Armed Forces''' () are the military forces of France.", "They consist of four military branches – the Army, the Navy, the Air and Space Force and the National Gendarmerie.", "The National Guard serves as the French Armed Forces' military reserve force.", "As stipulated by France's constitution, the president of France serves as commander-in-chief of the French military.", "France has the eighth largest defence budget in the world and the second largest in the European Union (EU).", "It also has the largest military by size in the EU.", "A 2015 Credit Suisse report ranked the French Armed Forces as the world's sixth most powerful military." ], [ "History", "The military history of France encompasses an immense panorama of conflicts and struggles extending for more than 2,000 years across areas, including modern France, greater Europe, and French territorial possessions overseas.", "According to British historian Niall Ferguson, the French participated in 50 of the 125 major European wars that have been fought since 1495; more than any other European state.", "They are followed by the Austrians who fought in 47 of them, the Spanish in 44 and the English (and later British) who were involved in 43.In addition, out of all recorded conflicts which occurred since the year 387 BC, France has fought in 168 of them, won 109, lost 49 and drawn 10.The Gallo-Roman conflict predominated from 60 BC to 50 BC, with the Romans emerging victorious in the conquest of Gaul by Julius Caesar.", "After the decline of the Roman Empire, a Germanic tribe known as the Franks took control of Gaul by defeating competing tribes.", "The \"land of Francia,\" from which France gets its name, had high points of expansion under kings Clovis I and Charlemagne.", "In the Middle Ages, rivalries with England and the Holy Roman Empire prompted major conflicts such as the Norman Conquest and the Hundred Years' War.", "With an increasingly centralized monarchy, the first standing army since Roman times, and the use of artillery, France expelled the English from its territory and came out of the Middle Ages as the most powerful nation in Europe, only to lose that status to Spain following defeat in the Italian Wars.", "The Wars of Religion crippled France in the late 16th century, but a major victory over Spain in the Thirty Years' War made France the most powerful nation on the continent once more.", "In parallel, France developed its first colonial empire in Asia, Africa, and in the Americas.", "Under Louis XIV, France achieved military supremacy over its rivals, but escalating conflicts against increasingly powerful enemy coalitions checked French ambitions and left the kingdom bankrupt at the opening of the 18th century.Free French Legionnaires at the Battle of Bir Hakeim (1942)Resurgent French armies secured victories in dynastic conflicts against the Spanish, Polish, and Austrian crowns.", "At the same time, France was fending off attacks on its colonies.", "As the 18th century advanced, global competition with Great Britain led to the Seven Years' War, where France lost its North American holdings.", "Consolation came in the form of dominance in Europe and the American Revolutionary War, where extensive French aid in the form of money and arms, and the direct participation of its army and navy led to America's independence.", "Internal political upheaval eventually led to 23 years of nearly continuous conflict in the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars.", "France reached the zenith of its power during this period, dominating the European continent in an unprecedented fashion under Napoleon Bonaparte, but by 1815 it had been restored to its pre-Revolutionary borders.", "The rest of the 19th century witnessed the growth of the Second French colonial empire as well as French interventions in Belgium, Spain, and Mexico.", "Other major wars were fought against Russia in the Crimea, Austria in Italy, and Prussia within France itself.Following defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, Franco-German rivalry erupted again in the First World War.", "France and its allies were victorious this time.", "Social, political, and economic upheaval in the wake of the conflict led to the Second World War, in which the Allies were defeated in the Battle of France and the French government surrendered and was replaced with an authoritarian regime.", "The Allies, including the government in exile's Free French Forces and later a liberated French nation, eventually emerged victorious over the Axis powers.", "As a result, France secured an occupation zone in Germany and a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council.The imperative of avoiding a third Franco-German conflict on the scale of those of two world wars paved the way for European integration starting in the 1950s.", "France became a nuclear power with its first test of an atomic bomb in Algeria in 1960 Since the 1990s its military action is most often seen in cooperation with NATO and its European partners." ], [ "International stance", "Today, French military doctrine is based on the concepts of national independence, nuclear deterrence (''see Force de dissuasion''), and military self-sufficiency.", "France is a charter member of NATO, and has worked actively with its allies to adapt NATO—internally and externally—to the post-Cold War environment.", "In December 1995, France announced that it would increase its participation in NATO's military wing, including the Military Committee (France withdrew from NATO's military bodies in 1966 whilst remaining full participants in the Organisation's political Councils).", "France remains a firm supporter of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe and other cooperative efforts.", "Paris hosted the May 1997 NATO-Russia Summit which sought the signing of the Founding Act on Mutual Relations, Cooperation and Security.", "Outside of NATO, France has actively and heavily participated in both coalition and unilateral peacekeeping efforts in Africa, the Middle East, and the Balkans, frequently taking a lead role in these operations.", "France has undertaken a major restructuring to develop a professional military that will be smaller, more rapidly deployable, and better tailored for operations outside of mainland France.", "Key elements of the restructuring include: reducing personnel, bases and headquarters, and rationalisation of equipment and the armaments industry.Since the end of the Cold War, France has placed a high priority on arms control and non-proliferation.", "French Nuclear testing in the Pacific, and the sinking of the ''Rainbow Warrior'' strained French relations with its Allies, South Pacific states (namely New Zealand), and world opinion.", "France agreed to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1992 and supported its indefinite extension in 1995.After conducting a controversial final series of six nuclear tests on Mururoa in the South Pacific, the French signed the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty in 1996.Since then, France has implemented a moratorium on the production, export, and use of anti-personnel landmines and supports negotiations leading toward a universal ban.", "The French are key players in the adaptation of the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe to the new strategic environment.", "France remains an active participant in: the major programs to restrict the transfer of technologies that could lead to the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction: the Nuclear Suppliers Group, the Australia Group (for chemical and biological weapons), and the Missile Technology Control Regime.", "France has also signed and ratified the Chemical Weapons Convention.===White Papers=======2008====On 31 July 2007, President Nicolas Sarkozy ordered M. Jean-Claude Mallet, a member of the Council of State, to head up a thirty-five member commission charged with a wide-ranging review of French defence.", "The commission issued its White Paper in early 2008.Acting upon its recommendations, President Sarkozy began making radical changes in French defense policy and structures starting in the summer of 2008.In keeping with post-Cold War changes in European politics and power structures, the French military's traditional focus on territorial defence will be redirected to meet the challenges of a global threat environment.", "Under the reorganisation, the identification and destruction of terrorist networks both in metropolitan France and in francophone Africa will be the primary task of the French military.", "Redundant military bases will be closed and new weapons systems projects put on hold to finance the restructuring and global deployment of intervention forces.", "In a historic change, Sarkozy furthermore has declared that France \"will now participate fully in NATO,\" four decades after former French president General Charles de Gaulle withdrew from the alliance's command structure and ordered American troops off French soil.====2013====In May 2014, high ranking defence chiefs of the French Armed Forces threatened to resign if the defence budget received further cuts on top of those already announced in the 2013 White Paper.", "They warned that further cuts would leave the armed forces unable to support operations abroad.===Recent operations===There are currently 36,000 French troops deployed in foreign territories—such operations are known as \"OPEX\" for ''Opérations Extérieures'' (\"External Operations\").", "Among other countries, France provides troops for the United Nations force stationed in Haiti following the 2004 Haiti rebellion.", "France has sent troops, especially special forces, into Afghanistan to help the United States and NATO forces fight the remains of the Taliban and Al Qaeda.", "In Opération Licorne a force of a few thousand French soldiers is stationed in Ivory Coast on a UN peacekeeping mission.", "These troops were initially sent under the terms of a mutual protection pact between France and the Ivory Coast, but the mission has since evolved into the current UN peacekeeping operation.", "The French Armed Forces have also played a leading role in the ongoing UN peacekeeping mission along the Lebanon-Israel border as part of the cease-fire agreement that brought the 2006 Lebanon War to an end.", "Currently, France has 2,000 army personnel deployed along the border, including infantry, armour, artillery and air defence.", "There are also naval and air personnel deployed offshore.The French Joint Force and Training Headquarters (État-Major Interarmées de Force et d'Entraînement) at Air Base 110 near Creil maintains the ability to command a medium or large-scale international operation, and runs exercises .", "In 2011, from 19 March, France participated in the enforcement of a no-fly zone over northern Libya, during the Libyan Civil war, in order to prevent forces loyal to Muammar Gaddafi from carrying out air attacks on Anti-Gaddafi forces.", "This operation was known as Opération Harmattan and was part of France's involvement in the conflict in the NATO-led coalition, enforcing UN Security Council Resolution 1973.On 11 January 2013 France begun Operation Serval to fight Islamists in Mali and the Sahal Region with African support but without NATO involvement and launched Operation Barkhane to combat terror in African Sahal from 2014 to 2022.===Exercises===A Dassault Rafale refuels from a USAF KC-10 Extender France participates in several recurring exercises with other nations, including:* CRUZEX, joint aerial combat training exercises in Brazil.", "* Caraibe 2013, every two years in the Caribbean, centering on Martinique and Guadeloupe.", "* Croix du Sud, in New Caledonia every two years with Australia, New Zealand, the United States and other Pacific nations.", "* Varuna, an annual naval exercise with India.", "* NATO Air Defender 2023, the largest deployment exercise in NATO's history.In 2023, Exercise Orion, the largest in decades, is to be held in the Champagne-Ardenne region.", "About 10,000 soldiers are expected to take part, along with the French navy and possibly forces from Belgium, Britain, and the United States." ], [ "Personnel", "Hexagone Balard, the headquarters of the French Armed ForcesThe head of the French armed forces is the President of the Republic, in his role as ''chef des armées''.", "However, the Constitution puts civil and military government forces at the disposal of the ''gouvernement'' (the executive cabinet of ministers chaired by the Prime Minister, who are not necessarily of the same political side as the president).", "The Minister of the Armed Forces oversees the military's funding, procurement and operations.", "Historically, France relied a great deal on conscription to provide manpower for its military, in addition to a minority of professional career soldiers.", "Following the Algerian War, the use of non-volunteer draftees in foreign operations was ended; if their unit was called up for duty in war zones, draftees were offered the choice between requesting a transfer to another unit or volunteering for the active mission.", "In 1996, President Jacques Chirac's government announced the end of conscription and in 2001, conscription formally was ended.", "Young people must still, however, register for possible conscription (should the situation call for it).", "As of 2017 the French Armed Forces have total manpower of 426,265, and has an active personnel of 368,962 (with the Gendarmerie Nationale).It breaks down as follows (2022):* The French Army; 118,600 personnel.", "* The French Air and Space Force; 43,597 personnel.", "* The French Navy; 36,044 personnel.", "* Tri-service DHS, SEO, and DGA; 17,647 personnel in medical, support and administrative roles, and in the acquisition of weapon systems.The reserve element of the French Armed Forces consists of two structures; the Operational Reserve and the Citizens Reserve.", "As of 2022 the strength of the Operational Reserve is 25,785 personnel.Apart from the three main service branches, the French Armed Forces also includes a fourth military branch called the National Gendarmerie.", "It had a reported strength of 103,000 active personnel and 25,000 reserve personnel in 2018.They are used in everyday law enforcement, and also form a coast guard formation under the command of the French Navy.", "There are however some elements of the Gendarmerie that participate in French external operations, providing specialised law enforcement and supporting roles.Historically the National Guard functioned as the Army's reserve national defense and law enforcement militia.", "After 145 years since its disbandment, due to the risk of terrorist attacks in the country, the Guard was officially reactivated, this time as a service branch of the Armed Forces, on 12 October 2016.Since 2019 young French citizens can fulfill the mandatory service ''Service national universel (SNU)'' within the Armed Forces in the service branch of their choice." ], [ "Organisation and service branches", "Placed under the command of the staffs, the French armed forces include the five service branches, the Army, the National Navy, the Air and Space Force, the National Gendarmerie, and the National Guard, as well as the support services and joint organizations:===French Army (''Armée de terre'')===* Special Forces* Airborne Units (''Troupes aéroportées'')* Infantry (''Infanterie'')* Armoured Cavalry (''Arme blindée cavalerie'')* Artillery (''Artillerie'')* Foreign Legion (''Légion étrangère'')* Troupes de Marine* French Army Light Aviation (''Aviation légére de l'armée de terre'', ''ALAT'')* Engineers (''Génie'')* Paris Fire Brigade (brigade des sapeurs-pompiers de Paris)* Signal Corps (''Transmissions'')* Transport and logistics (''Train'')* Matériel (''Supply'')* Intelligence (''Renseignement'')File:SETC France’s Defensive Operations Lane (41661152745).jpg|A Leclerc tank during manoeuvresFile:Bastille Day Parade 2017, VBCI of the 16th battalion of chasseurs.jpg|Bastille Day military parade in Paris, 2017File:Exercise Wessex Storm 2020 MOD 45167356.jpg|French soldier with a FAMAS rifleFile:AMX-10 RC, nouvelles couleurs Armée de terre (14 juillet 2021) (2).jpg|AMX-10 RC armoured fighting vehicleFile:FRF2 Afghanistan.JPG|Sniper with the FR F2 rifleFile:French, US forces continue working side by side.jpg|A Eurocopter Tiger attack helicopter===National Navy (''Marine nationale'')===* Parachute Units of the French Navy** Naval Infantry and Naval Commandos (''Fusiliers Marins'')* Naval Air Arm (''Aviation navale'')* Submarine Force (''Forces sous-marines'')* Naval Action Force (''Force d'action navale'')* The Marseille Marine Fire BattalionIn addition, the National Gendarmerie form a Coast Guard force called the Gendarmerie Maritime which is commanded by the French Navy.File:Temeraire1048.jpg|''Triomphant'' class nuclear ballistic missile submarineFile:French aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle (R91) underway on 24 April 2019 (190424-M-BP588-1005).jpg|The aircraft carrier ''Charles de Gaulle'' (R91)File:French Frigate Forbin participates in Formidable Shield 2021 - 6665647.jpg|The destroyer ''Forbin'' (D620)File:French frigate Auvergne (D654) underway in the Arabian Gulf on 19 September 2017 (170919-N-WM647-0667).JPG|The destroyer ''Auvergne'' (D654)File:FS Casabianca 03.jpg|Nuclear submarine ''Casabianca'' (S603)File:French amphibious assault ship Dixmude (L9015) underway off Cadiz in May 2015.JPG|French amphibious assault ship ''Dixmude'' (L9015)===French Air and Space Force (''Armée de l'Air et de l'Espace'')===* French Space Command* Parachute Units of the French Air and Space Force** Air and space force ground troops (''Fusiliers Commandos de l'Air'')** Paratroopers/Special forces (''Commando parachutiste de l'air'')* Territorial Air DefenceFile:A French air force Rafale aircraft breaks formation after refueling from a U.S. Air Force KC-135 Stratotanker aircraft assigned to the 351st Expeditionary Air Refueling Squadron (EARS) over an undisclosed 130317-F-BY961-185.jpg|A Rafale multirole fighter aircraftFile:Mirage 2000D (cropped).jpg|A Mirage 2000D fighter-bomber aircraftFile:Boeing E-3F Sentry (3).jpg|Boeing E-3F Sentry AWACS aircraftFile:Airbus A330 MRTT F-UJCG - French Air Force.jpg|A330 MRTT strategic aerial refueling aircraftFile:French Air Force, F-RBAN, Airbus A400M-180 (49580307822).jpg|Airbus A400M Atlas transport aircraftFile:MQ-9 Reaper in flight (2007).jpg|MQ-9 Reaper combat UAV===National Gendarmerie (''Gendarmerie nationale'')===* Parachute Units of the National Gendarmerie* Gendarmerie Départementale (GD) – territorial police force* Gendarmerie Mobile (GM) – anti-riot unit and counter-terrorism group (GIGN)* Garde républicaine – republican guard of France* Gendarmerie des Transports Aériens – airport security force* Gendarmerie de l'Air – used for Air and Space Force security* Gendarmerie Maritime – coast guard unit* Provost Gendarmerie – provides military police services to French Armed Forces personnel in deployments outside France* Overseas Gendamerie – provides military police services in the French overseas dependencies and territories, as well as to embassies of France abroadThe National Gendarmerie is primarily a military and airborne capable police force which serves as a rural and general purpose police force.===National Guard (''Garde nationale'')===Reactivated in 2016, the National Guard serves as the official primary military and police reserve service of the Armed Forces.", "It is placed under the jurisdiction of Ministry of the Armed Forces and serves as a reserve force.", "It also doubles as a force multiplier for law enforcement personnel during contingencies and to reinforce military personnel whenever being deployed within France and abroad." ], [ "See also", "* Bastille Day Military Parade* Combined Joint Expeditionary Force (CJEF)* Foreign Legion* Troupes de Marine* Military history of France* National Office for Veterans and Victims of War* The Lancaster House Treaties (2010)* List of equipment of the French Army* List of active military aircraft of the French Armed Forces" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Official site of the French Ministry of Defence* French Military Strategy and NATO Reintegration—Council on Foreign Relations* French Army rank insignia" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of France" ], [ "Introduction", "In the 19th century France built a new French colonial empire second only to the British Empire.", "It was humiliated in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, which marked the rise of Germany to dominance in Europe.", "France allied with Great Britain and Russia and was on the winning side of the First World War.", "Although it was initially easily defeated early in the Second World War, Free France, through its Free French Forces and the Resistance, continued to fight against the Axis powers as an Allied nation and was ultimately considered one of the victors of the war, as the allocation of a French occupation zone in Germany and West Berlin testifies, as well as the status of permanent member of the United Nations Security Council.", "It fought losing colonial wars in Indochina (ending in 1954) and Algeria (ending in 1962).", "The Fourth Republic collapsed and the Fifth Republic began in 1958 to the present.", "Under Charles De Gaulle it tried to block American and British influence on the European community.", "Since 1945, France has been a founding member of the United Nations, of NATO, and of the European Coal and Steel Community (the European Union's predecessor).", "As a charter member of the United Nations, France holds one of the permanent seats in the Security Council and is a member of most of its specialized and related agencies.France is also a founding member of the Union for the Mediterranean and the La Francophonie and plays a key role, both in regional and in international affairs." ], [ "Fifth Republic since 1981", "===François Mitterrand: 1981–1995===François Mitterrand, a Socialist, emphasized European unity and the preservation of France's special relationships with its former colonies in the face of \"Anglo-Saxon influence.\"", "A part of the enacted policies was formulated in the Socialist Party's 110 Propositions for France, the electoral program for the 1981 presidential election.", "He had a warm and effective relationship with the conservative German Chancellor Helmut Kohl.", "They promoted French-German bilateralism in Europe and strengthened military cooperation between the two countries.According to Wayne Northcutt, certain domestic circumstances helped shape Mitterrand's foreign policy in four ways: he needed to maintain a political consensus; he kept an eye on economic conditions; he believed in the nationalistic imperative for French policy; and he tried to exploit Gaullism and its heritage that is on political advantage.===Jacques Chirac===Chrirac's foreign policy featured continuity.", "His most prominent move was a break with Washington.", "Along with his friend Vladimir Putin of Russia, Hu Jintao of China, and Gerhard Schröder of Germany, Chirac emerged as a leading voice against the Iraq War of 2003.They opposed George W. Bush (U.S.) and Tony Blair (Britain) during the organisation and deployment of a \"Coalition of the willing\" to forcibly remove the government of Iraq controlled by the Ba'ath Party under the dictatorship of Saddam Hussein.", "Despite British and American pressure, Chirac threatened to veto a resolution in the UN Security Council that would authorise the use of military force to rid Iraq of alleged weapons of mass destruction.", "He rallied other governments to his position.", "\"Iraq today does not represent an immediate threat that justifies an immediate war\", Chirac said on 18 March 2003.Future Prime Minister Dominique de Villepin acquired much of his popularity for his speech against the war at the United Nations (UN).===Nicolas Sarkozy===Shortly after taking office, President Sarkozy began negotiations with Colombian president Álvaro Uribe and the left-wing guerrilla FARC, regarding the release of hostages held by the rebel group, especially Franco-Colombian politician Ingrid Betancourt.", "According to some sources, Sarkozy himself asked for Uribe to release FARC's \"chancellor\" Rodrigo Granda.", "Furthermore, he announced on 24 July 2007, that French and European representatives had obtained the extradition of the Bulgarian nurses detained in Libya to their country.", "In exchange, he signed with Gaddafi security, health care and immigration pacts – and a $230 million (168 million euros) MILAN antitank missile sale.", "The contract was the first made by Libya since 2004, and was negotiated with MBDA, a subsidiary of EADS.", "Another 128 million euros contract would have been signed, according to Tripoli, with EADS for a TETRA radio system.", "The Socialist Party (PS) and the Communist Party (PCF) criticized a \"state affair\" and a \"barter\" with a \"Rogue state\".", "The leader of the PS, François Hollande, requested the opening of a parliamentary investigation.On 8 June 2007, during the 33rd G8 summit in Heiligendamm, Sarkozy set a goal of reducing French CO2 emissions by 50% by 2050 in order to prevent global warming.", "He then pushed forward the important Socialist figure of Dominique Strauss-Kahn as European nominee to the International Monetary Fund (IMF).", "Critics alleged that Sarkozy proposed to nominate Strauss-Kahn as managing director of the IMF to deprive the Socialist Party of one of its more popular figures.Sarkozy normalised what had been strained relations with NATO.", "In 2009, France again was a fully integrated NATO member.", "François Hollande has continued the same policy.===François Hollande===François Hollande and Vladimir Putin in December 2014Socialist François Hollande won election in 2012 as president.", "He adopted a generally hawkish foreign-policy, in close collaboration with Germany in regard to opposing Russian moves against Ukraine, and in sending the military to fight radical Islamists in Africa.", "He took a hard line with regard to the Greek debt crisis.", "François Hollande launched two military operations in Africa: Operation Serval in Mali (the French armed forces stopped an Islamist takeover of Bamako, the nation's capital city); and Operation Sangaris (to restore peace there as tensions between different religious communities had turned into a violent conflict).", "France was also the first European nation to join the United States in bombing the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant.", "Under President Hollande, France's stances on the civil war in Syria and Iran's nuclear program have been described as \"hawkish\".===Emmanuel Macron, 2017–present===Emmanuel Macron and Donald Trump in April 2018 Emmanuel Macron and Joe Biden in December 2022Sophie Meunier in 2017 ponders whether France is still relevant in world affairs::France does not have as much relative global clout as it used to.", "Decolonization ... diminished France's territorial holdings and therefore its influence.", "Other countries acquired nuclear weapons and built up their armies.", "The message of \"universal\" values carried by French foreign policy has encountered much resistance, as other countries have developed following a different political trajectory than the one preached by France.", "By the 1990s, the country had become, in the words of Stanley Hoffmann, an \"ordinary power, neither a basket case nor a challenger.\"", "Public opinion, especially in the United States, no longer sees France as an essential power.", "The last time that its foreign policy put France back in the world spotlight was at the outset of the Iraq intervention...with France's refusal to join the US-led coalition....In reality, however, France is still a highly relevant power in world affairs....France is a country of major military importance nowadays...., France also showed it mattered in world environmental affairs with....the Paris Agreement, a global accord to reduce carbon emissions.", "The election of Trump in 2016 may reinforce demands for France to step in and lead global environmental governance if the US disengages, as the new president has promised, from a variety of policies.In July 2019, the UN ambassadors from 22 nations, including France, signed a joint letter to the UNHRC condemning China's mistreatment of the Uyghurs as well as its mistreatment of other minority groups, urging the Chinese government to close the Xinjiang re-education camps.On 31 May 2022, due to the reforms pushed by the president and perceived lack of recognition, the French diplomats will go on a strike for the first time in 20 years.", "This is a bad timing for President Emmanuel Macron as the France is holding the EU Presidency until the end of June.In November 2023, France's President Emmanuel Macron welcomed the announcement of a significant agreement between Israel and Hamas.", "The agreement focused on the release of hostages and the implementation of a humanitarian truce." ], [ "International organization participation", "ACCT, AfDB, AsDB, Australia Group, BDEAC, BIS, CCC, CDB (non-regional), CE, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECA (associate), ECE, ECLAC, EIB, EMU, ESA, ESCAP, EU, FAO, FZ, G-5, G-7, G-10, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, International Maritime Organization, Inmarsat, InOC, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, ITUC, MINURSO, MIPONUH, MONUC, NAM (guest), NATO, NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, SPC, UN, UN Security Council, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIFIL, UNIKOM, UNITAR, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNOMIG, UNRWA, UNTSO, UNU, UPU, WADB (nonregional), WEU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, Zangger Committee" ], [ "International border disputes", "*Madagascar claims Bassas da India, Europa Island, Glorioso Islands and Juan de Nova Island*Comoros claims Mayotte*Mauritius claims Tromelin Island*territorial dispute on the boundary between Suriname and French Guiana*territorial claim in Antarctica (Adelie Land) under the Antarctic Treaty System*Matthew and Hunter Islands east of New Caledonia claimed by France and Vanuatu" ], [ "Middle East", "The French colonial empire in 1920France established relations with the Middle East during the reign of Louis XIV.", "To keep Austria from intervening into its plans regarding Western Europe he lent limited support to the Ottoman Empire, though the victories of Prince Eugene of Savoy destroyed these plans.", "In the nineteenth century France together with Great Britain tried to strengthen the Ottoman Empire, the now \"Sick man of Europe\", to resist Russian expansion, culminating in the Crimean War.France also pursued close relations with the semi-autonomous Egypt.", "In 1869 Egyptian workers -under the supervision of France- completed the Suez Canal.", "A rivalry emerged between France and Britain for control of Egypt, and eventually Britain emerged victorious by buying out the Egyptian shares of the company before the French had time to act.After the unification of Germany in 1871, Germany successfully attempted to co-opt France's relations with the Ottomans.", "In World War I the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, and was defeated by France and Britain.", "After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire France and Britain divided the Middle East between themselves.", "France received Syria and Lebanon.===1945–1958===Smoke rises from oil tanks beside the Suez Canal hit during the initial Anglo-French assault on Egypt, 5 November 1956These colonies were granted independence after 1945, but France still tried to forge cultural and educational bonds between the areas, particularly with Lebanon.", "Relationships with Syria are more strained, due to the policies of that country.", "In 2005, France, along with the United States, pressured Syria to evacuate Lebanon.In the post-World War II era French relations with the Arab Middle East reached a very low point.", "The war in Algeria between Muslim fighters and French colonists deeply concerned the rest of the Muslim world.", "The Algerian fighters received much of their supplies and funding from Egypt and other Arab powers, much to France's displeasure.Most damaging to Franco-Arab relations, however, was the Suez Crisis.", "It greatly diminished France's reputation in the region.", "France openly supported the Israeli attack on the Sinai peninsula, and was working against Nasser, then a popular figure in the Middle East.", "The Suez Crisis also made France and the United Kingdom look again like imperialist powers attempting to impose their will upon weaker nations.", "Another hindrance to France's relations with the Arab Middle East was its close alliance with Israel during the 1950s.===De Gaulle's policies===This all changed with the coming of Charles de Gaulle to power.", "De Gaulle's foreign policy was centered around an attempt to limit the power and influence of both superpowers, and at the same time increase France's international prestige.", "De Gaulle hoped to move France from being a follower of the United States to becoming the leading nation of a large group of non-aligned countries.", "The nations de Gaulle looked at as potential participants in this group were those in France's traditional spheres of influence: Africa and the Middle East.", "The former French colonies in eastern and northern Africa were quite agreeable to these close relations with France.", "These nations had close economic and cultural ties to France, and they also had few other suitors amongst the major powers.", "This new orientation of French foreign policy also appealed strongly to the leaders of the Arab nations.", "None of them wanted to be dominated by either of the superpowers, and they supported France's policy of trying to balance the US and the USSR and to prevent either from becoming dominant in the region.", "The Middle Eastern leaders wanted to be free to pursue their own goals and objectives, and did not want to be chained to either alliance bloc.", "De Gaulle hoped to use this common foundation to build strong relations between the nations.", "He also hoped that good relations would improve France's trade with the region.", "De Gaulle also imagined that these allies would look up to the more powerful French nation, and would look to it in leadership in matters of foreign policy.The end of the Algerian conflict in 1962 accomplished much in this regard.", "France could not portray itself as a leader of the oppressed nations of the world if it still was enforcing its colonial rule upon another nation.", "The battle against the Muslim separatists that France waged in favour of the minority of French settlers was an extremely unpopular one throughout the Muslim world.", "With the conflict raging it would have been close to impossible for France to have had positive relations with the nations of the Middle East.", "The Middle Eastern support for the FLN guerillas was another strain on relations that the end of the conflict removed.", "Most of the financial and material support for the FLN had come from the nations of the Middle East and North Africa.", "This was especially true of Nasser's Egypt, which had long supported the separatists.", "Egypt is also the most direct example of improved relations after the end of hostilities.", "The end of the war brought an immediate thaw to Franco-Egyptian relations, Egypt ended the trial of four French officers accused of espionage, and France ended its trade embargo against Egypt.In 1967 de Gaulle completely overturned France's Israel policy.", "De Gaulle and his ministers reacted very harshly to Israel's actions in the Six-Day War.", "The French government and de Gaulle condemned Israel's treatment of refugees, warned that it was a mistake to occupy the West Bank and Gaza Strip, and also refused to recognize the Israeli control of Jerusalem.", "The French government continued to criticize Israel after the war and de Gaulle spoke out against other Israeli actions, such as the operations against the Palestine Liberation Organization in Lebanon.", "France began to use its veto power to oppose Israel in the UN, and France sided with the Arab states on almost all issues brought to the international body.", "Most importantly of all, however, de Gaulle's government imposed an arms embargo on the Israeli state.", "The embargo was in fact applied to all the combatants, but very soon France began selling weaponry to the Arab states again.", "As early as 1970 France sold Libya a hundred Dassault Mirage fighter jets.", "However, after 1967 France continued to support Israel's right to exist, as well as Israel's many preferential agreements with France and the European Economic Community.===Foreign aid===In the second half of the 20th century, France increased its expenditures in foreign aid greatly, to become second only to the United States in total aid amongst the Western powers and first on a per capita basis.", "By 1968 France was paying out $855 million per year in aid far more than either West Germany or the United Kingdom.", "The vast majority of French aid was directed towards Africa and the Middle East, usually either as a lever to promote French interests or to help with the sale of French products (e.g.", "arms sales).", "France also increased its expenditures on other forms of aid sending out skilled individuals to developing countries to provide technical and cultural expertise.The combination of aid money, arms sales, and diplomatic alignments helped to erase the memory of the Suez Crisis and the Algerian War in the Arab world and France successfully developed amicable relationships with the governments of many of the Middle Eastern states.", "Nasser and de Gaulle, who shared many similarities, cooperated on limiting American power in the region.", "Nasser proclaimed France as the only friend of Egypt in the West.", "France and Iraq also developed a close relationship with business ties, joint military training exercises, and French assistance in Iraq's nuclear program in the 1970s.", "France improved relations with its former colony Syria, and eroded cultural links were partially restored.In terms of trade France did receive some benefits from the improved relations with the Middle East.", "French trade with the Middle East increased by over fifty percent after de Gaulle's reforms.", "The weaponry industries benefited most as France soon had lucrative contracts with many of the regimes in the Middle East and North Africa, though these contracts account for a negligible part of France's economy.De Gaulle had hoped that by taking a moderate path and not strongly supporting either side France could take part in the Middle East peace process between Israel and the Arab nations.", "Instead it has been excluded from any major role.Nicolas de Rivière, the Permanent Representative of France to the United Nations, thanked to Mesdames Bahous, Russell and Kanem for their briefings in Israel-Hamas war, and to reiterate France's full support for UN Women, UNICEF and UNFPA in their engagement to help the people of Gaza.", "Furthermore, France welcomed the agreement, which lead to the release of dozens of hostages and a truce.=== Modern history ===The Middle East has been a major factor of France's foreign policy.", "Over a decade since 2000, France successfully built an influential presence across the MENA region where the major focus had been on Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and Qatar.", "The Middle East policy of France was essential from the strategic, cultural and economic point of view, where the focus remained on proving itself as an international power.", "The country invested years in maintaining a strong foothold in the region on the lines of trade, security interests, and cultural and social exchanges.", "As Emmanuel Macron became the president in 2017, he gave a clear picture about the French relations with the Middle East and its importance, both in his foreign policy speeches and his initiatives.", "His predecessors, on the other hand, had mostly picked the option of \"reassurance\" with the region's governments.", "Gradually, France began to show increasing interest in Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, particularly.", "The country became actively supportive towards the two Arab nations in their involvement in the Yemen civil war, becoming one of the crucial arms suppliers.", "There had been a number of calls from the human rights organizations for France to halt their arms sales to both Saudi and the UAE, which were known for causing a humanitarian crisis in Yemen.", "Even in 2021, Macron continued taking initiatives towards strengthening relations with the Kingdom and the Emirates.", "During his visit to the region in November 2021, Macron signed a weapons deal worth 16 billion euros with the UAE.", "The agreement involved transfer of 80 upgraded Rafale warplanes, along with 12 Airbus-built combat helicopters.", "While France viewed it as a way to deepen ties with the Emirates, rights organizations criticized and raised concerns around the UAE's involvement in the Yemen and Libyan wars.", "They objected the deal stating that the Gulf leaders have reflected a constant failure in improving their human rights records.Despite the improving relations between the Emirates and France, the UAE made extensive efforts towards to showcase its image in a positive light.", "In light of it, a Franco-Tunisian businessman, Elyes Ben Chedly reportedly ran promotion for two of the Emirates' cultural campaigns.", "Reports revealed that the middleman worked to promote the UAE's \"Year of Tolerance\" campaign, and was also involved in running the \"year Zayed\" program in Paris.", "Reports also revealed that Ben Chedly also used his network of arms contracts to mediate weapons deal between the UAE and other nations.A report in March 2023 by Mediapart revealed that the UAE had been interfering in France by the means of a Switzerland-based intelligence firm Alp Services.", "A French journalist, Roland Jacquard connected Alp's head Mario Brero with the Emirati secret services client, identified as Mohammed.", "Jacquard maintained a close contact with a network of politicians and diplomats.", "He was directly in contact with Mohammed, whose emails revealed that Jacquard was supplying the UAE with information from the security services, Emmanuel Macron and the Élysée." ], [ "Diplomatic relations", "List of countries which France maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425px#CountryDate1234–s56789101112131415161718192021222324252627282930313233343536373839404142434445464748495051525354555657585960616263646566676869707172737475767778798081828384858687888990919293949596979899100101102103104105106107108109110111112113114115116117118119120121122123124125126127128129130131132133134135136137138139140141142143144145146147148149150151152153154155156157158159160161162163164165166167168169170171172173174175176177178179180181182183184185186187–188189–190– or before" ], [ "Bilateral relations", "===Africa===France plays a significant role in Africa, especially in its former colonies, through extensive aid programs, commercial activities, military agreements, and cultural impact.", "In those former colonies where the French presence remains important, France contributes to political, military, and social stability.", "Many think that French policy in Africa – particularly where British interests are also involved – is susceptible to what is known as 'Fashoda syndrome'.", "Others have criticized the relationship as neocolonialism under the name ''Françafrique'', stressing France's support of various dictatorships, among others: Omar Bongo, Idriss Déby, and Denis Sassou Nguesso.", "Country Formal relations beganNotesSee Algeria–France relationsRelations between post-colonial Algeria and France have remained close throughout the years, although sometimes difficult.", "In 1962, the Évian Accords peace treaty laid the foundations of a new Franco-Algerian relationship.", "In exchange for a generous ''coopération'' regime (massive financial, technical and cultural aid), France secured a number of economic and military privileges.", "Economically, France enjoyed a preferential treatment vis-à-vis the Saharan wealth of hydrocarbons.", "Militarily, it could keep the Mers-el-Kébir base for 15 years and use the Saharan nuclear test-sites for another five years.", "France had used these sites to carry out its first nuclear tests (''Gerboise bleue'') in 1960.90% or more of the Europeans established in Algeria (''pieds-noirs'') left the country in a massive exodus creating a difficult void in the bureaucratic, economic and educational structure of Algeria.", "On the other hand, the issue of the ''harkis'', the Arabs who had fought on the French side during the war, was still to be resolved at the turn of the 21st century, being somehow ignored by the French while seen as outright traitors by the Algerian people.", "On the economical level, Algeria remained for some time the fourth largest importer of French goods, conducting all its transactions with France in the Franc zone.", "Many Algerians were encouraged by French authorities and businessmen to migrate to France in order to provide workforce during the ''Trente Glorieuses'' (Thirty Glorious) growth.", "Relations between France and Algeria have remained closely intertwined, and France could not entirely escape from the chaos which threatened Algeria during the civil war in the nineties.Ahmed Ben Bella, the first President of Algeria was reported in a 2001 interview as saying that \"The Algerian people have lived with blood.", "We brought de Gaulle to his knees.", "We struggled against French rule for 15 years under the leadership of Emir Abdel-Kader Al-Jazairi.", "The Algerian population was then four million.", "French repression cost us two million lives.", "It was genocide.", "We survived as a people.", "Barbaric French atrocities did not subdue our fighting spirit.", "\"On 23 February 2005, the French law on colonialism was an act passed by the Union for a Popular Movement (UMP) conservative majority, which imposed on high-school (lycée) teachers to teach the \"positive values\" of colonialism to their students (article 4).", "The law created a public uproar and opposition from the whole of the left-wing, and was finally repealed by president Jacques Chirac (UMP) at the beginning of 2006, after accusations of historical revisionism from various teachers and historians.Algerians feared that the French law on colonialism would hinder the task the French confronting the dark side of their colonial rule in Algeria because article 4 of the law decreed among other things that \"School programmes are to recognise in particular the positive role of the French presence overseas, especially in North Africa, ...\" Benjamin Stora a leading specialist on French Algerian history and an opponent of the French law on colonialism, said \"France has never taken on its colonial history.", "It is a big difference with the Anglo-Saxon countries, where post-colonial studies are now in all the universities.", "We are phenomenally behind the times.\"", "In his opinion, although the historical facts were known to academics, they were not well known by the French public and this led to a lack of honesty in France over French colonial treatment of the Algerian people.During the period that the French law on colonialism was in force, several Algerians and others raised issues and made comments to emphasise that there were many aspects of French colonial rule that were not widely known in France.", "A senior Algerian official Mohamed El Korso said that \"French repentance is seen by the Algerian people as a ''sine qua non'' before any Franco-Algerian friendship treaty can be concluded.\"", "and with reference to the Setif massacre that \"French and international public opinion must know that France committed a real act of genocide in May 1945\" The Algerian president Abdelaziz Bouteflika said Algeria had \"never ceased waiting for an admission from France of all the acts committed during the colonial period and the war of liberation.\"", "and drew comparisons between the burning of the bodies of the victims of the Setif massacre with the crematoria in the Nazi death camps.", "More recently on 17 April 2006, Bouteflika emphasised Algeria's point of view when said in a speech in Paris that \"Colonization brought the genocide of our identity, of our history, of our language, of our traditions\".French authorities responded to the claims by President Bouteflika and others by playing down the comments, urging \"mutual respect\" French Foreign Minister Michel Barnier told Algeria in an official visit to make a common effort to search history \"in order to establish a common future and overcome the sad pages\".", "In an interview with El Vatan, an Algerian newspaper, Barnier said that \"Historians from two sides must be encouraged to work together.", "They must work on the common past\".", "French authorities asked president Abdelaziz Bouteflika to study with France the disarmed 150,000 Harkis killed without another reason that revenge, by his party, the National Liberation Front (FLN).French President Jacques Chirac, upon harsh reactions to the law encouraging the good sides of the French colonial history, made the statement, \"Writing history is the job of the historians, not of the laws.\"", "According to Prime Minister, Dominique de Villepin, \"speaking about the past or writing history is not the job of the parliament.", "\"The issue of the French human rights record in Algeria is also politically sensitive in Turkey.", "France recognized Armenian genocide by the Turks in 1998.In response to the action of the French parliament, making it an offense to deny the existence of such a genocide, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey drafted a bill in October 2006 to make it illegal to deny that the French committed genocide in Algeria.", "Turkish party leaders, including CHP, MHP, BBP and ANAP called on France to recognize what they called \"Algerian genocide\".", "However, the draft never became an official law.", "* Algeria has an embassy in Paris and several consulates-general throughout the country.", "* France has an embassy in Algiers and consulates-general in Annaba and Oran.See Angola–France relationsRelations between the two countries have not always been cordial due to the former French government's policy of supporting militant separatists in Angola's Cabinda province and the international Angolagate scandal embarrassed both governments by exposing corruption and illicit arms deals.", "Following French President Nicolas Sarkozy's visit in 2008, relations have improved.", "* Angola has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Luanda.", "* Benin has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Cotonou.See Burkina Faso–France relationsPresent day Burkina Faso was formerly part of a French colony called French Upper Volta.", "France has special forces stationed in Burkina Faso.", "* Burkina Faso has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Ouagadougou.In January 2023, Burkina Faso's military junta asked France to recall its ambassador amid a surge of anti-French sentiment as the country moved to develop closer ties to RussiaSee France–Burundi relations* Burundi has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Bujumbura.", "* Cameroon has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Yaoundé and a consulate-general in Douala.See Cape Verde–France relations* Cape Verde has an embassy in Paris and consulate-general in Nice.", "* France has an embassy in Praia.See Central African Republic–France relations* Central African Republic has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Bangui.See Chad–France relationsThe French military has been present in Chad since 1986 in the frame of Operation Epervier.", "* Chad has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in N'djamena.See Republic of the Congo–France relations* Congo has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Brazzaville.", "* Comoros has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Moroni.France and Germany decided on a concerted military operation in the Democratic Republic of Congo.", "This operation included sending 1500 European troops to the DRC to support fair and regular presidential elections in June 2006.While Germany leads the mission, both France and Germany provide 500 soldiers each, with the rest of the soldiers coming from other European countries.Many scholars of the European Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) question whether the mission is of great use, and argue that it is rather symbolic in character.", "With 17,000 United Nations forces already deployed in the DRC the purpose of such a small operation remains questionable.", "The European troops will be stationed in the capital-city Kinshasa only.", "It is probable however, that the expertise of former peace-building missions on the Balkans will be useful in order to prevent any major escalation during the elections.In 2013, France's then president on his visit to DRC suggested that prisoners Joshua French and Tjostolv Moland should be moved out of the situation of their six-man prison cell; five days later the two prisoners shared a cell of their own.", "* DR Congo has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Kinshasa.See Djibouti–France relations* Djibouti has an embassy in Paris* France has an embassy in Djibouti City.See Egypt–France relations* Egypt has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Cairo and a consulate-general in Alexandria.", "* Equatorial Guinea has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Malabo.", "* Ethiopia has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Addis Ababa.See France–Gabon relationsSince independence, Gabon has been \"one of France's closest allies in Africa\".", "As of 2008, around 10,000 French nationals lived and worked in Gabon, while the 6th Marine Infantry Battalion of the French military is also stationed there.", "* France has an embassy in Libreville.", "* Gabon has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Accra.", "* Ghana has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Conakry.", "* Guinea has an embassy in Paris.See France–Ivory Coast relationsIn 2002 and 2003, France participated in military interventions in Côte d'Ivoire in Opération Licorne and UNOCI.", "Liberia and the Democratic Republic of Congo helped in the evacuation of foreign residents and the protection of civilians from warring factions.", "* Côte d'Ivoire has an embassy in Paris and a consulate-general in Lyon.", "* France has an embassy in Abidjan.See France–Kenya relations* France has an embassy in Nairobi.", "* Kenya has an embassy in Paris.1852See France–Liberia relations* France has an embassy in Monrovia.", "* Liberia has an embassy in Paris.See France–Libya relationsIn the 1980s, Libyan-French discord centered on the situation in Chad.", "As mentioned, the two countries found themselves supporting opposite sides in the Chadian Civil War.", "In late 1987, there were some French troops in Chad, but French policy did not permit its forces to cross the sixteenth parallel.", "Thus, direct clashes with Libyan soldiers seemed unlikely.On 10 March 2011, France was the first country in the world to recognise the National Transitional Council as the legitimate government of Libya, in the context of the 2011 Libyan civil war against Muammar Gaddafi.See France–Madagascar relations* France has an embassy in Antananarivo.", "* Madagascar has an embassy in Paris and consulates-general in Marseille and Saint-Denis.See France–Mali relations* France has an embassy in Bamako.", "* Mali has an embassy in Paris.See France–Mauritania relationsThe relations date back to the colonial era when Mauritania was part of French West Africa.", "* France has an embassy in Nouakchott.", "* Mauritania has an embassy in Paris.See France–Mauritius relations* France has an embassy in Port Louis.", "* Mauritius has an embassy in Paris.See France–Morocco relations* France has an embassy in Rabat and several consulates-general throughout the country.", "* Morocco has an embassy in Paris and several consulates-general throughout the country.See France–Mozambique relations* France has an embassy in Maputo.", "* Mozambique has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Windhoek.", "* Namibia has an embassy in Paris.See France–Niger relationsThe relations between France and the Republic of Niger are based on a long shared history and the more than sixty year rule of Niger by French colonial empire beginning with the French conquest in 1898.Niger obtained independence from France in 1960, and a history of French influenced culture and French language have been a point of commonality in the creation of a distinctive Nigerien culture from the diverse pre-colonial nationalities which make up modern Niger.", "France benefited economically from their time as a colonial power, and still relies on imports from Niger for elements of their economy.", "* France has an embassy in Niamey.", "* Niger has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Abuja and a consulate-general in Lagos.", "* Nigeria has an embassy in Paris.See France–Rwanda relationsIn the period from 1990, until the Rwandan genocide, France (under Mitterrand) took a role sympathetic to the Habyarimana government.", "* France has an embassy in Kigali.", "* Rwanda has an embassy in Paris.See France–Senegal relations* France has an embassy in Dakar.", "* Senegal has an embassy in Paris and consulates-general in Bordeaux, Lyon and in Marseille and a consular agency in Le Havre.", "* France has an embassy in Victoria.", "* Seychelles has an embassy in Paris.See France–Somalia relationsBilateral relations between France and Somalia were established shortly after Somalia's independence.", "The French government opened an embassy in Mogadishu, and its Somalian counterpart likewise maintained an embassy in Paris.", "Following a significantly improved security situation, the Government of France in January 2014 appointed Remi Marechaux as the new French ambassador to Somalia.France has had a long history as one of Sudan's principal commercial partners.", "A French company was one of the prime contractors on the ill-fated Jonglei Canal.", "In the early 1980s, Sudan awarded a concession to the French oil company, TotalFinaElf, for development of the oil reserves in Block Five in South Sudan.", "Although the company stopped work there following the resumption of civil war, it retained the concession and initiated steps in 2004 to return.", "France also sided with the government of Sudan in 2004 when it asserted that the situation in Darfur should not be described as genocide.", "Chad, a former French colony and in recent years a country with which it had close relations, tended to influence France's view of the situation in Darfur.", "French policy on Darfur became more critical following the election in 2007 of President Nicolas Sarkozy.", "France hosted in June 2007 the United States, China, and some 15 other countries at a major conference intended to launch a new international effort to end the atrocities in Darfur.", "The government of Sudan, angry that it was not consulted, boycotted the conference.", "In recent years, France has shown less interest in Sudan while its policy seemed to depend on which official was speaking.", "French oil companies have a continuing interest in the development of oil in South Sudan.", "* France has an embassy in Khartoum.", "* Sudan has an embassy in Paris.See France–South Africa relations* France has an embassy in Pretoria and consulates-general in Cape Town and Johannesburg.", "* South Africa has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Dar es Salaam.", "* Tanzania has an embassy in Paris.See France–Togo relations* France has an embassy in Lomé.", "* Togo has an embassy in Paris.See France–Tunisia relations* France has an embassy in Tunis.", "* Tunisia has an embassy in Paris and several consulates-general throughout the country.", "* France has an embassy in Kampala.", "* Uganda has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Harare.", "* Zimbabwe has an embassy in Paris.===Americas=== Country Formal relations beganNotes1829See Argentina–France relations* Argentina has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Buenos Aires.", "* List of Treaties ruling the relations Argentina and France (Argentine Foreign Ministry, in Spanish)* French Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relations with Argentina See Barbados–France relations* Barbados is accredited to France from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium.", "* France is accredited to Barbados from its embassy in Castries, Saint Lucia and maintains an honorary consulate in Bridgetown.", "* Both countries established diplomatic relations in November 1981.", "* Belize is accredited to France from its high commission in London, United Kingdom.", "* France is accredited to Belize from its embassy in San Salvador, El Salvador.", "* Bolivia has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in La Paz.See Brazil–France relationsFrance has recognized Brazil as its special partner in South America and as a global player in international affairs.", "The two countries are committed to strengthening their bilateral cooperation in the areas for which working groups have been created: nuclear energy, renewable energies, defence technologies, technological innovation, joint cooperation in African countries and space technologies, medicines and the environment.", "Recently, France announced its support to the Brazilian bid for a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council.", "* Brazil has an embassy in Paris and consulates-general in Marseille and in Cayenne and Saint-Georges, French Guiana.", "* France has an embassy in Brasília and consulates-general in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo and a consulate in Recife.See Canada–France relations* Canada has an embassy in Paris.", "Quebec also maintains a paradiplomatic Government Office called ''Délégation générale du Québec à Paris''.", "* France has an embassy in Ottawa and consulates-general in Moncton, Montreal, Quebec City, Toronto and Vancouver.1846See Chile–France relations* Chile has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Santiago.1830See Colombia–France relationsRelations with Colombia have been dimmed, by the Ingrid Betancourt issue from 2002 to 2008; in 2002, Ingrid Betancourt, a Colombian and French citizen and the green party candidate to the presidency of Colombia, was kidnapped by the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), France pushed the Colombian government to free FARC prisoners to get Mrs Betancourt back; Colombia once consented with these efforts and on 4 June 2007; 30 FARC members were liberated, including the leader Rodrigo Granda.On 2 July 2008 Ingrid Betancourt was rescued by the Colombian authorities in Operation Jaque.", "France had urged Colombia not to attempt to free Betancourt.", "* Colombia has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Bogotá.", "* Costa Rica has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in San José.See Cuba–France relations* Cuba has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Havana.See Commonwealth of Dominica–France relations* The Commonwealth of Dominica has an embassy in London.", "* France has a regional embassy in Castries, Saint Lucia.", "* Dominican Republic has an embassy in Paris and consulates-general in Marseille and Pointe-à-Pitre.", "* France has an embassy in Santo Domingo.", "* Ecuador has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Quito.See El Salvador–France relations* El Salvador has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in San Salvador.", "* France has an embassy in Guatemala City.", "* Guatemala has an embassy in Paris.", "*Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 June 1967.", "* France is accredited to Guyana from its embassy in Paramaribo, Suriname and maintains an honorary consulate in Georgetown, Guyana.", "* Guyana is accredited to France from its high commission in London, United Kingdom.", "* Both countries have passed a number of bilateral treaties.1825See France–Haiti relations* France has an embassy in Port-au-Prince.", "* Haiti has an embassy in Paris and consulates-general in Cayenne, French Guiana and in Pointe-à-Pitre, Guadeloupe.", "* France has an embassy in Tegucigalpa.", "* Honduras has an embassy in Paris.See France–Mexico relations* France has an embassy in Mexico City and a consulate-general in Monterrey.", "* Mexico has an embassy in Paris and a liaison office in Strasbourg.", "* Both countries are members of the OECD and the G-20.", "* French Ministry of Foreign Affairs on relations with Mexico* Mexican Ministry of Foreign Affairs on historical bilateral relations with France* France has an embassy in Managua.", "* Nicaragua has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Panama City.", "* Panama has an embassy in Paris and a consulate-general in Marseille.1853* Both countries has diplomatic relations since the Treaty of Friendship, Trade and Navigation signed in 1853.", "* France has an embassy in Asunción.", "* Paraguay has an embassy in Paris.", "* French Ministry of Foreign Relations about relations with Paraguay* Paraguayan Ministry of Foreign Relations about relations with France1826See France–Peru relations* France has an embassy in Lima.", "* Peru has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Castries.", "* Saint Lucia has a consulate in Fort-de-France, Martinique.See France–Suriname relations* France has an embassy in Paramaribo.", "* Suriname has an embassy in Paris, a consulate-general in Cayenne and a consulate in Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni, French Guiana.See France–Trinidad and Tobago relationsBilateral relations between the countries France and Trinidad and Tobago have existed for about two hundred years.", "Currently, France has an embassy in Port of Spain.", "Trinidad and Tobago is represented in France through its embassy in Brussels (Belgium).", "Trinidad and Tobago also has bilateral investment agreements with France.", "* France has an embassy in Port of Spain.", "* Trinidad and Tobago is accredited to France from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium.See France–United States relationsRelations between the United States and France are active and cordial.", "Mutual visits by high-level officials are conducted on a regular basis and bilateral contact at the cabinet level is active.", "France and the United States cooperate closely on some issues (such as anti-terrorism) but differ on others (such as the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and a number of trade issues).", "Differences are discussed frankly.", "The largest current fallout between the United States and France involves the Iraq War, and some aspects of the post-11 September War on Terror, e.g., CIA \"extraordinary renditions\".", "* France has an embassy in Washington, D.C. and consulates-general in Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New Orleans, New York City and San Francisco.", "* United States has an embassy in Paris and consulates-general in Marseille and Strasbourg.1825See France–Uruguay relations* France has an embassy in Montevideo.", "* Uruguay has an embassy in Paris and honorary consulates in Bordeaux, Marseille and Toulouse.", "* French Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Uruguay See France–Venezuela relations* France has an embassy in Caracas* Venezuela has an embassy in Paris.===Asia===France has extensive political and economical relations with Asian countries, including China, India, Japan, South Korea and Southeast Asia as well as an increasing presence in regional fora.", "France was instrumental in launching the Asia–Europe Meeting (ASEM) process which could eventually emerge as a competitor to APEC.", "France is seeking to broaden its commercial presence in China and will pose a competitive challenge to U.S. business, particularly in aerospace, high-tech, and luxury markets.", "In Southeast Asia, France was an architect of the Paris Peace Accords.France does not have formal diplomatic relationships with North Korea.", "North Korea however maintains a ''delegation'' (not an embassy nor a consulate) near Paris.", "As most countries, France does not recognize, nor have formal diplomatic relationships with Taiwan, due to its recognition of China; however, Taiwan maintains a representation office in Paris which is similar to an embassy.", "Likewise, the French Institute in Taipei has an administrative consular section that delivers visas and fulfills other missions normally dealt with by diplomatic outposts.", "Country Formal relations beganNotes1922See Afghanistan–France relations* Afghanistan has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Kabul, but its activities have been suspended since 2 September 2021.See Armenia–France relations* Armenia has an embassy in Paris and consulates-general in Lyon and Marseille.", "* France has an embassy in Yerevan.", "* France recognized the Armenian genocide in 1998.See Azerbaijan-France relations* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Baku.", "See Cambodia–France relations* Cambodia has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Phnom Penh.See China–France relationsDuring the 1990s, France and the PRC repeatedly clashed as a result of the PRC's One China Policy.", "France sold weapons to Taiwan, angering the Beijing government.", "This resulted in the temporary closure of the French Consulate-General in Guangzhou.", "France eventually agreed to prohibit local companies from selling arms to Taiwan, and diplomatic relations resumed in 1994.Since then, the two countries have exchanged a number of state visits.", "Today, Sino-French relations are primarily economic.", "Bilateral trade reached new high levels in 2000.Cultural ties between the two countries are less well represented, though France is making an effort to improve this disparity.", "* China has an embassy in Paris and consulates-general in Lyon, Marseille, Papeete, Saint-Denis and Strasbourg.", "* France has an embassy in Beijing and consulates-general in Chengdu, Guangzhou, Hong Kong, Shanghai, Shenyang and Wuhan.See France–Georgia relations* France has an embassy in Tbilisi.", "* Georgia has an embassy in Paris.See France–India relationsThe Indian Air Force has the second largest fleet of France's Mirage 2000H after Armée de l'Air.France and India established diplomatic relationships soon after India achieved independence in 1947.India's strong diplomatic ties with France resulted in the peaceful cession of Pondichéry to India on 1 November 1954 without any military opposition from France.France was the only country that did not condemn India's decision to go nuclear in 1998.In 2003, France became the largest supplier of nuclear fuel and technology to India and remains a large military and economic trade partner.", "India's permanent member aspirations in the UN Security Council have found very strong support from former French President Chirac.The decision by the Indian government to purchase French s worth US$3 billion and 43 Airbus aircraft for Indian Airlines worth US$2.5 billion has further cemented the strategic, military and economic co-operation between India and France.France also became the first country to do nuclear trade with India after NSG waiver on 30 September 2008.", "* France has an embassy in New Delhi and consulates-generals in Bengaluru, Pondicherry, Mumbai and kolkata.", "* India has an embassy in Paris and consulates-general in Reunion island.See France–Indonesia relationsThe relations between France and Indonesia have been increasing of late, while Indonesia has become increasingly strategic to the government and people of France.", "Not only because of economic development (there are 110 French multinational companies operated in Indonesia), it also because France viewed Indonesia has been playing an increasingly significant international role.The relations between two nations are important as both are democratic republics and both holds significant geopolitical influences in each regions, France is indispensable member of European Union, as well as Indonesia for Association of Southeast Asian Nations.", "The diplomatic relation between France and Indonesia is also a key element for developing relations between Indonesia and the European Union and between France and the ASEAN.", "Both nations are the member of G-20 major economies.", "* France has an embassy in Jakarta.", "* Indonesia has an embassy in Paris.See France–Iran relationsIran has generally enjoyed a friendly relationship with France since the Middle Ages.", "The travels of Jean-Baptiste Tavernier are particularly well known to Safavid Persia.", "Relations between France and Iran also remained friendly under French President Jacques Chirac.", "Recently however, relations have soured over Iran's refusal to halt uranium enrichment and France supporting the referral of Iran to the United Nations Security Council.", "* France has an embassy in Tehran.", "* Iran has an embassy in Paris.See France–Iraq relationsBefore Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1991, France enjoyed friendly relations with former Iraqi president Saddam Hussein, however the relationship turned sour once Iraq entered Kuwaiti soil and soon France cut off ties with Iraq.", "Following thirteen years, France resumed relations with Iraq in 2003.France and Germany opposed the American-British invasion of 2003 to 2011.", "* France has an embassy in Baghdad.", "* Iraq has an embassy in Paris.See France–Israel relations* France has an embassy in Tel Aviv and consulates-general in Haifa and Jerusalem.", "* Israel has an embassy in Paris and a consulate-general in Marseille.See France–Japan relationsRecently France has been very involved in trade and cultural exchange initiatives with Japan.", "Some people see this as being a result of French leader Jacques Chirac being a Japanophile.", "Chirac has visited Japan over 40 times, probably more than any other world leader outside Japan, and is an expert on the country.", "France has started the export promotion campaign \"Le Japon, c'est possible\" and the international liaison personnel exchange JET Programme.", "Together they built the ''Maison de la Culture du Japon à Paris''.France and Japan have also worked together to improve dire health situations from AIDS and underdevelopment in Djibouti, Madagascar, Uganda, and other countries.Japan and France are also known to share ideas with each other in the realms of art and cooking.", "Japan has been heavily influenced by French cuisine within the past few decades, as seen on the television show Iron Chef.", "Anime is popular in France, and French historical figures and settings from medieval, Renaissance, Napoleonic, and World War eras have served as models for certain popular stories in Japanese entertainment.", "The purity of Japanese painting and illustration, and likewise the modernity and elegance of French visual arts has resulted in hybrid styles in those creative fields.", "* France has an embassy in Tokyo and consulate-general in Kyoto.", "* Japan has an embassy in Paris.See France–Kazakhstan relations* France has an embassy in Nur-Sultan and a consulate-general in Almaty.", "* Kazakhstan has an embassy in Paris.", "* Over 140 enterprises with French capital operate in Kazakhstan, including Total, Areva, Danone, Vicat, Peugeot, Alstom, etc.", "* France has an embassy in Kuwait City.", "* Kuwait has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Vientiane.", "* Laos has an embassy in Paris.See France–Lebanon relations* France has an embassy in Beirut.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Paris and a consulate-general in Marseille.1957See France–Malaysia relations* France has an embassy in Kuala Lumpur.", "* Malaysia has an embassy in Paris.", "* The relations started after the Federation of Malaya achieved independence in 1957, although the first Malayan ambassador to France only arrived in Paris in 1959.During the administration of Jacques Chirac and Mahathir Mohamad, the relations significantly improved especially in economics, politics and culturally aspects.See France–Myanmar relationsFollowing the end of World War II, ambassador-level diplomatic relationships between France and Burma were established in 1948, soon after the Burmese nation became an independent republic on 4 January 1948, as ''Union of Burma'', with Sao Shwe Thaik as its first President and U Nu as its first Prime Minister.", "* France has an embassy in Yangon.", "* Myanmar has an embassy in Paris.See France–North Korea relationsRelations between the France and North Korea are officially non-existent.", "France is one of the two European Union members not to recognise North Korea, the other being Estonia.", "France therefore officially recognises South Korean sovereignty over the Korean peninsula.", "There is no French embassy, nor any other type of French diplomatic representation, in Pyongyang, and no DPRK embassy in Paris.", "There is, however, a North Korean diplomatic office in Neuilly sur Seine, near Paris.See France–Pakistan relationsPakistan and France have high levels of diplomatic meetings and enjoy very friendly bilateral relations.", "However, these good relations haven't been around very long due to a variety of reasons.", "Trade between the two countries is generally increasing with time.See also Pakistanis in France, Musa Javed Chohan: former ambassador of Pakistan to France and recipient of the Ordre National du Merite for the promotion of bilateral cooperation between France and Pakistan.", "* France has an embassy in Islamabad.", "* Pakistan has an embassy in Paris.See France–Philippines relationsThe France–Philippines relations refers to the foreign relations between France and the Philippines.", "In 1947, France and the Philippines signed a Treaty of Amity which established diplomatic relations with the two countries.", "* France has an embassy in Manila.", "* Philippines has an embassy in Paris.See France–Qatar relationsQatar is dependent on France for around 80% of its military imports.", "The first bilateral agreement between the two countries was signed in 1974.A defense pact was signed in 1994.Qatar's sovereign wealth fund has stakes in numerous French companies, including Paris Saint-Germain, Vivendi, and Vinci SA.", "* France has an embassy in Doha.", "* Qatar has an embassy in Paris.See France–Saudi Arabia relations* France has an embassy in Riyadh and a consulate-general in Jeddah..* Saudi Arabia has an embassy in Paris.See France–Singapore relations* France has an embassy in Singapore.", "* Singapore has an embassy Paris.See France–South Korea relationsThe establishment of diplomatic relations between France and South Korea began on 4 June 1886.France and South Korea maintain very good relations.", "They collaborate on many topics and issues that are facing the world today.", "This was seen especially on the question of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK) which is of course a matter of great importance for both countries Besides bilateral cooperation France and South Korea also work together in international organizations such as the United Nations, UNESCO, the OECD, etc.", "On the matter of North Korea, France is one of the few European countries (EU/EEA) to not have official diplomatic relations with North Korea.", "France has supported the Six-party talks as well as the role of the IAEA in finding solutions to the nuclear issue.", "The French Government had made an agreement of the Working Holiday Visa program with South Korea.", "* France has an embassy in Seoul.", "* South Korea has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Colombo.", "* Sri Lanka has an embassy in Paris.See France–Syria relationsFrance recognized the SNC on 21 November 2011.See France–Thailand relationsFrance–Thailand relations cover a period from the 16th century until modern times.", "Relations started in earnest during the reign of Louis XIV with numerous reciprocal embassies, and a major attempt by France to Christianize Siam (modern Thailand) and establish a French protectorate, which failed when the country revolted against foreign intrusions in 1688.France would only return more than a century and a half later as a modernized colonial power, engaging in a struggle for territory and influence against Thailand in the Indochinese Peninsula, which would last until the 20th century.", "* France has an embassy in Bangkok.", "* Thailand has an embassy in Paris.See France–Turkey relations* France has an embassy in Ankara and a consulate-general in Istanbul.", "* Turkey has an embassy in Paris.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO.", "* France opposes Turkey's EU membership.See France–Turkmenistan relations* France has an embassy in Ashgabat.", "* Turkmenistan has an embassy in Paris.See France–United Arab Emirates relations* France has an embassy in Abu Dhabi and a consulate-general in Dubai.", "* United Arab Emirates has an embassy in Paris.See France–Vietnam relationsFrance–Vietnam relations started as early as the 17th century with the mission of the Jesuit father Alexandre de Rhodes.", "Various traders would visit Vietnam during the 18th century, until the major involvement of French forces under Pigneau de Béhaine to help establish the Nguyễn dynasty from 1787 to 1789.France was heavily involved in Vietnam in the 19th century under the pretext of protecting the work of Catholic missionaries in the country.", "France progressively carved for itself a huge colony, which would form French Indochina in 1887.France continued to rule Vietnam as a colony until France's defeat in the First Indochina War and the proclamation of Vietnam's independence in 1954.", "* France has an embassy in Hanoi and a consulate-general in Ho Chi Minh City.", "* Vietnam has an embassy in Paris.France began to show increasing interest in Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, particularly.", "The country became actively supportive towards the two Arab nations in their involvement in the Yemen civil war, becoming one of the crucial arms suppliers.", "There had been a number of calls from the human rights organizations for France to halt their arms sales to both Saudi and the UAE, which were known for causing a humanitarian crisis in Yemen.===Europe===France has maintained its status as key power in Western Europe because of its size, location, strong economy, membership in European organizations, strong military posture and energetic diplomacy.", "France generally has worked to strengthen the global economic and political influence of the EU and its role in common European defense and collective security.France supports the development of a European Security and Defence Identity (ESDI) as the foundation of efforts to enhance security in the European Union.", "France cooperates closely with Germany and Spain in this endeavor.", "Country Formal relations beganNotesSee Albania–France relationsAutonomous Albanian Republic of Korçë* Albania has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Tirana.See Andorra–France relations* Andorra has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Andorra la Vella.See Austria–France relations* Austria has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Vienna.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and of the Council of Europe.", "* Belarus has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Minsk.See Belgium–France relations* Belgium has an embassy in Paris and consulates-general in Marseille and Strasbourg.", "* France has an embassy in Brussels.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.France was the first country to open embassy in besieged Sarajevo in January 1993.Centre André Malraux and French primary school are located in Sarajevo and French Institute and French Cultural Centre offices are present in Banja Luka, Mostar and Tuzla.", "Since October 2010 Bosnia and Herzegovina is an observer on the Francophonie.", "* Bosnia and Herzegovina has an embassy in Paris * France has an embassy in Sarajevo.See Bulgaria–France relations* Bulgaria has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Sofia.", "* Both nations are members of the European Union, NATO and of the Council of Europe.", "* Bulgaria is a full member of the Francophonie since 1993.French president Nicolas Sarkozy, has been essential for the liberation of the Bulgarian nurse in the HIV trial in Libya.", "* French Foreign Ministry about relations with Bulgaria See Croatia–France relations* Croatia has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Zagreb.", "* Both nations are members of the European Union, NATO and of the Council of Europe.", "* Croatia was an autonomous state of the first French Republic* Cyprus has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Nicosia.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and of the Council of Europe.See Czech Republic–France relations* Czech Republic has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Prague.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Denmark–France relations* Denmark has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "* Estonia has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Tallinn.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Finland–France relations* Finland has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Both nations are members of the European Union, NATO and of the Council of Europe.See France–Germany relationsFranco-German cooperation is widely seen as the engine of European integration.", "* France has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Munich, Saarbrücken and Stuttgart.", "* Germany has an embassy in Paris and consulates-general in Bordeaux, Lyon, Marseille and Strasbourg.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "1833 See France-Greece relationsEmbassy level relations were enstablished since 1833 (only three years after the Greek independence).The two countries share membership of the European Union and NATO and maintain special relations.", "They were allies during both World Wars, Korean War and the Cold War and have never been adversaries of each other.", "Greece is a member of La Francophonie.", "* France has an embassy in Athens.", "* Greece has an embassy in Paris.", "* Both nations are members of the European Union, NATO and of the Council of Europe.See France–Holy See relations* The Holy See has an Apostolic Nunciature in Paris.", "* France has an embassy to the Holy See based in Rome.See France–Hungary relations* France has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Paris.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See France–Iceland relations* France has an embassy in Reykjavík.", "* Iceland has an embassy in Paris and 7 honorary consulates in Bordeaux, Caen, Dieppe, Lyon, Marseille, Nice, Strasbourg.", "* Both countries are NATO members.", "* France Foreign Affairs Ministry about relations with Iceland1922See France–Ireland relations* France has an embassy in Dublin.", "* Ireland has an embassy in Paris and a consulate-general in Lyon.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and of the Council of Europe.", "* Both countries, throughout history, were very friendly with each other, and both fought against Great Britain cooperatively, especially during the 1798 Uprising* French Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with IrelandSee France–Italy relations* France has an embassy in Rome and consulates-general in Milan and Naples.", "* Italy has an embassy in Paris and consulates-general in Lyon, Marseille, Metz and Nice.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "''See France–Kosovo relations''When Kosovo declared its independence from Serbia on 17 February 2008, France became one of the first countries to announce official recognition of sovereign Kosovo.", "* France has an embassy in Pristina.", "* Kosovo has an embassy in Paris.", "* France recognized Latvia on 26 January 1921.France has never recognised the annexation of Latvia by the former Soviet Union.", "France re-recognized Latvia on 27 August 1991.", "* France has an embassy in Riga.", "* Latvia has an embassy in Paris and 9 honorary consulates (in Bordeaux, Calais, Lyon, Marseille, Nancy, Nantes, Saint-Étienne, Strasbourg and Toulouse).", "* Both countries are full members of NATO and of the European Union.", "Since 2008, Latvia is an observer on the Francophonie.", "* French Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Latvia* Latvian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with France* France has an embassy in Vilnius.", "* Lithuania has an embassy in Paris and 5 honorary consulates (in Bordeaux, Marseille, Rouen, Troyes and Valence).", "* Both countries are full members of NATO and of the European Union.", "Since 1999, Lithuania is an observer on the Francophonie.", "* French Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Lithuania* Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Poland (in Lithuanian only) See France–Luxembourg relations* France has an embassy in Luxembourg City.", "* Luxembourg has an embassy in Paris and a consulate-general in Strasbourg.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "* The former president of France, Nicolas Sarkozy went to Malta on a private trip just after his election in May 2007.", "* French Foreign Ministry about relations with Malta * France has an embassy in Valletta.", "* Malta has an embassy in Paris.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and of the Council of Europe.", "* France opened an Embassy in Chişinău.", "* Moldova has an embassy in Paris.See France–Monaco relations* France has an embassy in Monte Carlo.", "* Monaco has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Podgorica.", "* Montenegro has an embassy in Paris.", "* French Foreign Ministry about relations with Montenegro * France is an EU member and Montenegro is an EU candidate.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO.See France–Netherlands relations* Both countries fought in the Franco-Dutch War.", "* The two countries share a border in the Caribbean island of Saint Martin, to which the northern part of the island is a French overseas collectivity known as the Collectivity of Saint Martin, while the southern part of the island is a Dutch constituent country known as Sint Maarten.", "* France has an embassy in The Hague with consulates in Amsterdam, Groningen, Maastricht, Middelburg, Rotterdam, 's-Hertogenbosch, and Utrecht.", "* The Netherlands maintains an embassy in Paris with consulates in Ajaccio, Bordeaux, Brest, Calais, Le Havre, Lille, Lyon, Marseille, Montpellier, Nice, Strasbourg, and Toulouse.", "* Both nations are members of the European Union, NATO and of the Council of Europe.See France–Norway relations* France has an embassy in Oslo.", "* Norway has an embassy in Paris.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO.See France–Poland relationsPolish-French relations date several centuries, although they became really relevant only with times of French Revolution and reign of Napoleon I.", "Poles have been allies of Napoleon; large Polish community settled in France in the 19th century, and Poles and French were also allies during the interwar period.", "The official relations, having cooled down during the Cold War, have improved since the fall of communism.", "Currently both countries are part of the European Union and NATO.", "* France has an embassy in Warsaw and a consulate-general in Kraków.", "* Poland has an embassy in Paris and a consulate-general in Lyon.", "* Both nations are members of the European Union, NATO and of the Council of Europe.See France–Portugal relations* France has an embassy in Lisbon.", "* Portugal has an embassy in Paris and consulates-general in Bordeaux, Lyon, Marseille, Strasbourg and a vice-consulate in Toulouse.", "* Both nations are members of the European Union, NATO and of the Council of Europe.1396 See France–Romania relations* France has an embassy in Bucharest.", "* Romania has an embassy in Paris.", "* Both nations are members of the European Union, NATO and of the Council of Europe.See France–Russia relationsAfter the breakup of the USSR in 1991, bilateral relations between France and Russia were warm.", "On 7 February 1992, France signed a bilateral treaty, recognizing Russia as a successor of the USSR.", "Good relations ended in 2022 as France gave strong support to Ukraine when Russia invaded.", "* France has an embassy in Moscow and consulates-general in Saint Petersburg and Yekaterinburg.", "* Russia has an embassy in Paris and consulates-general in Marseille and Strasbourg.See France–Serbia relations* France has an embassy in Belgrade.", "* Serbia has an embassy in Paris and 2 consulates (in Lyon and Strasbourg).", "* France is an EU member and Serbia is an EU candidate.", "* Since 2006, Serbia is an observer on the Francophonie.", "* There are between 70,000 and 100,000 people of Serbian descent living in France.", "* French Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Serbia * Serbian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with France 1993* France has an embassy in Bratislava.", "* Slovakia has an embassy in Paris and 4 honorary consulates (in Grenoble, Lille, Toulouse and Saint-Pol-de-Léon).", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "* French Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relation with Slovakia* France has an embassy in Ljubljana.", "* Slovenia has an embassy in Paris.", "* Since 1999, Slovenia is an observer on the Francophonie.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "* French Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with SloveniaSee France–Spain relations* France has an embassy in Madrid and consulates-general in Barcelona, Bilbao and Seville.", "* Spain has an embassy in Paris and maintains several consulates-general throughout France.", "* Both nations are members of the European Union, NATO and of the Council of Europe.See France–Sweden relations* France has an embassy in Stockholm.", "* Sweden has an embassy in Paris.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and of the Council of Europe.", "* France supports Sweden's NATO membership.1798See France–Switzerland relations* France has an embassy in Bern and consulates-general in Geneva and Zürich.", "* Switzerland has an embassy in Paris and consulates-general in Lyon, Marseille and Strasbourg.See France–Ukraine relations* France has an embassy in Kyiv.", "* Ukraine has an embassy in Paris.", "* Since 2006, Ukraine has been an observer on the Francophonie organisation.", "* French Foreign Ministry about relations with Ukraine See France–United Kingdom relations* France has an embassy in London and a consulate-general in Edinburgh.", "* United Kingdom has an embassy in Paris and consulates in Bordeaux and Marseille and a trade office in Lyon.France and Scotland were military allies in the late Middle Ages through the Auld Alliance.", "From the Middle Ages onwards, France and England were often enemies, and occasionally allies.", "However, in the beginning of the 20th century a policy of ''entente cordiale'' (cordial agreement) was started.", "France and the United Kingdom became allies, and despite occasional tensions (such as: the perception among ''some'' in France that the British abandoned France in 1940; see Battle of France and Attack on Mers-el-Kébir), remain so to the present day.A chronic point of contention is the future of the European Union.", "Under French president Charles de Gaulle France opposed on several occasions the UK joining the European Economic Community (as the EU was then called).", "De Gaulle argued that the UK had extensive alliances outside Europe, especially with the United States, and was famously suspicious of its European neighbours.", "After the UK joined the EEC, British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher argued for and won a reduction of its contributions to the EEC budget.", "As Prime Minister, Tony Blair expressed scepticism at French economic policies, but forged an alliance with President Nicolas Sarkozy.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO.===Oceania=== Country Formal relations beganNotesSee Australia–France relationsIn August 2009, Nicolas Sarkozy became the first serving French leader to visit Australia.", "The ''Courier Mail'' reported that \"serious bilateral issues\" for Sarkozy and Kevin Rudd to discuss included \"the war in Afghanistan and global warming\".", "* Australia has an embassy in Paris and consulates-general in Nouméa and Papeete.", "* France has an embassy in Canberra and a consulate-general in Sydney.See Fiji–France relationsRelations between France and Fiji are currently strained, due to France's condemnation of the coup d'état in Fiji in December 2006.Previously, Franco-Fiji bilateral relations had primarily been centred on military cooperation, with France assisting Fiji in surveiling its maritime zone, and on development aid.", "French military assistance was suspended after the coup.", "French aid to Fiji includes the providing of equipment for poor and isolated areas, and assistance in the development of renewable energy.", "France also provides Fiji with translations into English of French scientific documents pertaining to the Pacific area.", "France promotes French culture and the French language in Fiji through the presence of the Alliance Française and by encouraging the teaching of French in schools and at the University of the South Pacific.", "The French embassy in Suva is accredited to Kiribati, Nauru, Tonga and Tuvalu.", "* Fiji is accredited to France from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium.", "* France has an embassy in Suva.See France–Kiribati relationsThe two countries maintain official diplomatic relations, but no diplomatic presence on each other's territory; the French embassy in Suva is accredited to Kiribati.In 1995, Nauru broke off relations diplomatic relations with France to protest French nuclear testing in the Pacific.", "Relations were resumed in 1997.Nauruan President Ludwig Scotty paid a State visit to Paris in June 2006, when he attended a France-Oceania multilateral summit.See France–New Zealand relationsRelations between France and New Zealand have been rocky at the best of times, but more recently become much closer.", "Bilateral relations have been good since World War I and World War II, with both countries working extremely closely during either conflicts, but the relationship was severely jeopardised by the sinking of the Rainbow Warrior in Auckland on 10 July 1985 by French ''Direction Générale de la Sécurité Extérieure'' (DGSE) agents.", "New Zealand was put under fierce economic strain by France following the attack with French Government demanding the agents who carried out the attack to be released by the New Zealand government.", "Since then there has been some animosity among New Zealanders towards the French, but since the 20th anniversary of the bombing in 2005, there were signs that New Zealand had begun to warm to the French.", "There has been speculation that this acceptance of the French by the New Zealand people has a lot to do with the historic rivalry between both countries' Rugby teams.", "* France has an embassy in Wellington.", "* New Zealand has an embassy in Paris.1976See France–Papua New Guinea relationsRelations between the French Republic and the Independent State of Papua New Guinea are limited but cordial.", "Papua New Guinea is a member of the United Nations' Special Committee on Decolonization.", "The French government has noted what it calls Port Moresby's \"moderate\" attitude on the issue of the decolonisation of New Caledonia – which, like Papua New Guinea, is located in Melanesia.", "The French National Assembly maintains a Friendship Group with Papua New Guinea.", "* France has an embassy in Port Moresby.", "* Papua New Guinea is accredited to France from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium.Relations between both countries are very limited.", "See France–Vanuatu relationsVanuatu, then known as the New Hebrides, was a Franco-British Condominium from 1906 to 1980, and maintained formal relations with both of its former colonial masters after gaining independence.", "Franco–ni-Vanuatu relations were rocked by a series of crises in the 1980s, and broke down completely on several occasions, with Vanuatu expelling the French ambassador in 1981, in 1984 and in 1987.Relations improved from the 1990s onwards, and, today, France provides development aid to Vanuatu.", "The two countries also share amicable economic and cultural relations; both are members of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie.", "* France has an embassy in Port Vila.", "* Vanuatu has consulate-general in Nouméa, New Caledonia." ], [ "See also", "* Deployments of the French military* Evolution of the French Empire* French colonial empire* French colonisation of the Americas* Francization, use of the language* History of France* International relations, 1648–1814* International relations (1814–1919)* Causes of World War I* French entry into World War I* International relations (1919–1939)* List of diplomatic missions in France* List of diplomatic missions of France* Visa requirements for French citizens" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading" ], [ "External links", "* France and the UN, fact sheet on the official website of France" ] ]
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[ [ "French Guinea" ], [ "Introduction", "'''French Guinea''' () was a French colonial possession in West Africa.", "Its borders, while changed over time, were in 1958 those of the current independent nation of Guinea.French Guinea was established by France in 1891, within the same borders as its previous colony known as Rivières du Sud (1882–1891).", "Prior to 1882, the coastal portions of French Guinea were part of the French colony of Senegal.In 1891, Rivières du Sud was placed under the colonial lieutenant governor at Dakar, who had authority over the French coastal regions east to Porto-Novo (modern Benin).", "In 1894 Rivières du Sud, Cote d'Ivoire and Dahomey were separated into 'independent' colonies, with Rivières du Sud being renamed as the '''Colony of French Guinea'''.", "In 1895, French Guinea was made one of several dependent colonies and its Governor became one of several Lieutenant Governors who reported to a Governor-General in Dakar.", "In 1904, this federation of colonies was formalised as French West Africa.", "French Guinea, Senegal, Dahomey, Cote d'Ivoire and Upper Senegal and Niger, were each ruled by a lieutenant governor, under the Governor General in Dakar." ], [ "Colonial history", "Guinea was ruled by France until 1958.It became independent from France in 1958 following its voters' rejection of Charles de Gaulle's Constitution of 1958.At the time French Guinea was the only colony to reject the new constitution.", "French Guinea became the modern-day country of Guinea, keeping French as its official language." ], [ "See also", "* Guinea* History of Guinea* French West Africa* List of French possessions and colonies* Timeline of Conakry" ], [ "References", "*Jean Suret-Canale.", "''French Colonialism in Tropical Africa 1900–1945''.", "Trans.", "Pica Press (1971) *Jean Suret-Canale.", "''Guinea in the Colonial System, in Essays on African History''.", "Translated, Hurst (1980)" ] ]
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[ [ "French Polynesia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''French Polynesia''' ( ; ; ) is an overseas collectivity of France and its sole overseas country.", "It comprises 121 geographically dispersed islands and atolls stretching over more than in the South Pacific Ocean.", "The total land area of French Polynesia is , with a population of 278,786 (Aug. 2022 census) of which at least 205,000 live in the Society Islands and the remaining population lives in the rest of the archipelago.French Polynesia is divided into five groups of islands: # the Society Islands archipelago, comprising the Windward Islands and the Leeward Islands# the Tuamotu Archipelago# the Gambier Islands# the Marquesas Islands# the Austral Islands.Among its 121 islands and atolls, 75 were inhabited at the 2017 census.", "Tahiti, which is in the Society Islands group, is the most populous island, being home to nearly 69% of the population of French Polynesia .", "Papeete, located on Tahiti, is the capital of French Polynesia.", "Although not an integral part of its territory, Clipperton Island was administered from French Polynesia until 2007.Hundreds of years after the Great Polynesian Migration, European explorers began traveling through the region, visiting the islands of French Polynesia on several occasions.", "Traders and whaling ships also visited.", "In 1842, the French took over the islands and established a French protectorate that they called '''' (French Establishments/Settlements of Oceania).In 1946, the '''' became an overseas territory under the constitution of the French Fourth Republic, and Polynesians were granted the right to vote through citizenship.", "In 1957, the '''' were renamed French Polynesia.", "In 1983 French Polynesia became a member of the Pacific Community, a regional development organization.", "Since 28 March 2003, French Polynesia has been an overseas collectivity of the French Republic under the constitutional revision of article 74, and later gained, with law 2004-192 of 27 February 2004, an administrative autonomy, two symbolic manifestations of which are the title of the President of French Polynesia and its additional designation as an overseas country." ], [ "History", "Floréal'' in November 2002, at anchor in Bora Bora lagoonAnthropologists and historians believe the Great Polynesian Migration commenced around 1500 BC as Austronesian peoples went on a journey using celestial navigation to find islands in the South Pacific Ocean.", "The first islands of French Polynesia to be settled were the Marquesas Islands in about 200 BC.", "The Polynesians later ventured southwest and discovered the Society Islands around AD 300.European encounters began in 1521 when Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan, sailing at the service of the Spanish Crown, sighted Puka-Puka in the Tuāmotu-Gambier Archipelago.", "In 1606 another Spanish expedition under Pedro Fernandes de Queirós sailed through Polynesia sighting an inhabited island on 10 February which they called Sagitaria (or Sagittaria), probably the island of Rekareka to the southeast of Tahiti.", "In 1722, Dutchman Jakob Roggeveen while on an expedition sponsored by the Dutch West India Company, charted the location of six islands in the Tuamotu Archipelago and two islands in the Society Islands, one of which was Bora Bora.British explorer Samuel Wallis became the first European navigator to visit Tahiti in 1767.French explorer Louis Antoine de Bougainville also visited Tahiti in 1768, while British explorer James Cook arrived in 1769, and observed the transit of Venus.", "He would stop in Tahiti again in 1773 during his second voyage to the Pacific, and once more in 1777 during his third and last voyage before being killed in Hawaii.In 1772, the Spanish Viceroy of Peru Don Manuel de Amat ordered a number of expeditions to Tahiti under the command of Domingo de Bonechea who was the first European to explore all of the main islands beyond Tahiti.", "A short-lived Spanish settlement was created in 1774, and for a time some maps bore the name ''Isla de Amat'' after Viceroy Amat.", "Christian missions began with Spanish priests who stayed in Tahiti for a year.", "Protestants from the London Missionary Society settled permanently in Polynesia in 1797.Society Island kingdomsKing Pōmare II of Tahiti was forced to flee to Mo'orea in 1803; he and his subjects were converted to Protestantism in 1812.French Catholic missionaries arrived on Tahiti in 1834; their expulsion in 1836 caused France to send a gunboat in 1838.In 1842, Tahiti and Tahuata were declared a French protectorate, to allow Catholic missionaries to work undisturbed.", "The capital of Papeetē was founded in 1843.In 1880, France annexed Tahiti, changing the status from that of a protectorate to that of a colony.", "The island groups were not officially united until the establishment of the French protectorate in 1889.After France declared a protectorate over Tahiti in 1842 and fought a war with Tahiti (1844–1847), the British and French signed the Jarnac Convention in 1847, declaring that the kingdoms of Raiatea, Huahine and Bora Bora were to remain independent from both powers and that no single chief was to be allowed to reign over the entire archipelago.", "France eventually broke the agreement, and the islands were annexed and became a colony in 1888 (eight years after the Windward Islands) after many native resistances and conflicts called the Leewards War, lasting until 1897.In the 1880s, France claimed the Tuamotu Archipelago, which formerly belonged to the Pōmare Dynasty, without formally annexing it.", "Having declared a protectorate over Tahuata in 1842, the French regarded the entire Marquesas Islands as French.", "In 1885, France appointed a governor and established a general council, thus giving it the proper administration for a colony.", "The islands of Rimatara and Rūrutu unsuccessfully lobbied for British protection in 1888, so in 1889 they were annexed by France.", "Postage stamps were first issued in the colony in 1892.The first official name for the colony was (Establishments in Oceania); in 1903 the general council was changed to an advisory council and the colony's name was changed to (French Establishments in Oceania).In 1940, the administration of French Polynesia recognised the Free French Forces and many Polynesians served in World War II.", "Unknown at the time to the French and Polynesians, the Konoe Cabinet in Imperial Japan on 16 September 1940 included French Polynesia among the many territories which were to become Japanese possessions, as part of the \"Eastern Pacific Government-General\" in the post-war world.", "However, in the course of the war in the Pacific the Japanese were not able to launch an actual invasion of the French islands.A two-franc World War II emergency-issue banknote (1943), printed in Papeete, and depicting the outline of Tahiti on the reverseIn 1946, Polynesians were granted French citizenship and the islands' status was changed to an overseas territory; the islands' name was changed in 1957 to (French Polynesia).", "In 1962, France's early nuclear testing ground in Algeria was no longer usable when Algeria became independent and the Moruroa atoll in the Tuamotu Archipelago was selected as the new testing site; tests were conducted underground after 1974.In 1977, French Polynesia was granted partial internal autonomy; in 1984, the autonomy was extended.", "French Polynesia became a full overseas collectivity of France in 2003.In September 1995, France stirred up widespread protests by resuming nuclear testing at Fangataufa atoll after a three-year moratorium.", "The last test was on 27 January 1996.On 29 January 1996, France announced that it would accede to the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, and no longer test nuclear weapons.French Polynesia was relisted in the United Nations list of non-self-governing territories in 2013, making it eligible for a UN-backed independence referendum.", "The relisting was made after the indigenous opposition was voiced and supported by the Polynesian Leaders Group, Pacific Conference of Churches, Women's International League for Peace and Freedom, Non-Aligned Movement, World Council of Churches, and Melanesian Spearhead Group." ], [ "Governance", "Under the terms of Article 74 of the French constitution and the Organic Law 2014–192 on the statute of autonomy of French Polynesia, politics of French Polynesia takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic French overseas collectivity, whereby the President of French Polynesia is the head of government, and of a multi-party system.", "Executive power is exercised by the government.", "Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Assembly of French Polynesia (the territorial assembly).Political life in French Polynesia was marked by great instability from the mid-2000s to the mid-2010s.", "The anti-independence right-wing president of French Polynesia, Gaston Flosse, who had been in power since 1991, had supported the resumption of the French nuclear weapons tests in 1995, and had obtained from his longtime friend and political ally Jacques Chirac, then president of France, a status of expanded autonomy for French Polynesia in 2004, failed to secure an absolute majority in the 2004 French Polynesian legislative election, resulting in deadlock at the Assembly of French Polynesia.", "Flosse's longtime opponent, the pro-independence leader Oscar Temaru, whose pro-independence coalition had won one less seat than Flosse's party in the Assembly, was nonetheless elected president of French Polynesia by the Assembly in June 2004 thanks to the votes of two non-aligned Assembly members.", "This resulted in several years of political instability, as neither the pro- nor the anti-independence camps were assured of a majority, depending on the votes of smaller non-aligned parties representing the interests of the distant islands of French Polynesia (as opposed to Tahiti).", "Temaru was toppled from the presidency of French Polynesia in October 2004, succeeded by Flosse who was toppled in March 2005, succeeded by Temaru again who was toppled in December 2006, succeeded by Gaston Tong Sang, a close ally of Flosse.On 14 September 2007, the pro-independence leader Oscar Temaru was elected president of French Polynesia for the third time in three years (with 27 of 44 votes cast in the territorial assembly).", "He replaced former president Gaston Tong Sang, opposed to independence, who lost a no-confidence vote in the Assembly of French Polynesia on 31 August after the longtime former president of French Polynesia, Gaston Flosse, hitherto opposed to independence, sided with his long enemy Oscar Temaru to topple the government of Gaston Tong Sang.", "Oscar Temaru, however, had no stable majority in the Assembly of French Polynesia, and new territorial elections were held in February 2008 to solve the political crisis.The Assembly of French PolynesiaThe party of Gaston Tong Sang won the territorial elections, but that did not solve the political crisis: the two minority parties of Oscar Temaru and Gaston Flosse, who together had one more member in the territorial assembly than the political party of Gaston Tong Sang, allied to prevent Gaston Tong Sang from becoming president of French Polynesia.", "Gaston Flosse was then elected president of French Polynesia by the territorial assembly on 23 February 2008 with the support of the pro-independence party led by Oscar Temaru, while Oscar Temaru was elected speaker of the territorial assembly with the support of the anti-independence party led by Gaston Flosse.", "Both formed a coalition cabinet.", "Many observers doubted that the alliance between the anti-independence Gaston Flosse and the pro-independence Oscar Temaru, designed to prevent Gaston Tong Sang from becoming president of French Polynesia, could last very long.At the French municipal elections held in March 2008, several prominent mayors who were member of the Flosse-Temaru coalition lost their offices in key municipalities of French Polynesia, which was interpreted as a disapproval of the way Gaston Tong Sang, whose party French Polynesian voters had placed first in the territorial elections the month before, had been prevented from becoming president of French Polynesia by the last minute alliance between Flosse and Temaru's parties.", "Eventually, on 15 April 2008 the government of Gaston Flosse was toppled by a constructive vote of no confidence in the territorial assembly when two members of the Flosse-Temaru coalition left the coalition and sided with Tong Sang's party.", "Tong Sang's majority in the territorial assembly was very narrow, and he was toppled in February 2009, succeeded by Temaru (supported again by Flosse).Oscar Temaru's return to power was brief as he fell out with Gaston Flosse and was toppled in November 2009, succeeded by Gaston Tong Sang.", "Tong Sang remained in power for a year and a half before being toppled in a vote of no confidence in April 2011, and succeeded by Temaru.", "Oscar Temaru's fifth stint as president of French Polynesia lasted two years, during which he campaigned for the re-inscription of French Polynesia on the United Nations list of non-self-governing territories.", "Temaru lost the 2013 French Polynesian legislative election by a wide margin, only two weeks before the United Nations re-registered French Polynesia on its list of non-self governing territories.", "This was interpreted by political analysts as a rejection by French Polynesian voters of Temaru's push for independence as well as the consequence of the socioeconomic crisis affecting French Polynesia after years of political instability and corruption scandals.Gaston Flosse, whose anti-independence party was the big winner of the 2013 election, succeeded Oscar Temaru as president of French Polynesia in May 2013, but he was removed from office in September 2014 due to a corruption conviction by France's highest court.", "Flosse was replaced as president of French Polynesia by his second-in-command in the anti-independence camp, Édouard Fritch, who was also Flosse's former son-in-law (divorced from Flosse's daughter).", "Fritch fell out with Flosse in 2015 as both leaders were vying for control of the anti-independence camp, and Fritch was excluded from Gaston Flosse's party in September 2015, before founding his own anti-independence party, Tapura Huiraatira, in February 2016.His new party managed to keep a majority in the Assembly of French Polynesia, and Fritch remained president of French Polynesia.Political stability has returned in French Polynesia since the split of the anti-independence camp in 2015–2016.Tapura Huiraatira won 70% of the seats in the Assembly of French Polynesia at the 2018 French Polynesian legislative election, defeating both Oscar Temaru's pro-independence party and Gaston Flosse's anti-independence party, and Édouard Fritch was re-elected president of French Polynesia by the Assembly in May 2018.By 2022, Édouard Fritch was the longest-serving president of French Polynesia since Gaston Flosse in the 1990s and early 2000s.=== Administration ===Bora BoraBetween 1946 and 2003, French Polynesia had the status of an overseas territory ('''', or ''TOM'').", "In 2003, it became an overseas collectivity ('''', or COM).", "Its statutory law of 27 February 2004 gives it the particular designation of ''overseas country inside the Republic'' ('''', or POM), but without legal modification of its status.=== Relations with mainland France ===High Commission of the French Fifth RepublicDespite a local assembly and government, French Polynesia is not in a free association with France, like the Cook Islands with New Zealand.", "As a French overseas collectivity, the local government has no competence in justice, university education, security and defense.", "Services in these areas are directly provided and administered by the Government of France, including the National Gendarmerie (which also polices rural and border areas in metropolitan France), and French military forces.", "The collectivity government retains control over primary and secondary education, health, town planning, and the environment.", "The highest representative of the State in the territory is the High Commissioner of the Republic in French Polynesia ().French Polynesia also sends three deputies to the French National Assembly in three constituencies, the 1st representing Papeete and its north-eastern suburbs, plus the commune (municipality) of Mo'orea-Mai'ao, the Tuāmotu-Gambier administrative division, and the Marquesas Islands administrative division, the 2nd representing much of Tahiti outside Papeete and the Austral Islands administrative subdivision, and the 3rd representing the Leeward Islands administrative subdivision and the south-western suburbs of Papeete.", "French Polynesia also sends two senators to the French Senate.=== Defence ===The defence of the collectivity is the responsibility of the French Armed Forces.", "Some 900 military personnel are deployed in the territory – incorporating the Pacific-Polynesian Marine Infantry Regiment (RIMaP-P) – along with modest air transport and surveillance assets.", "The latter include three Falcon 200 Gardian maritime surveillance aircraft from French Naval Aviation, which are to be replaced by the more modern Falcon 2000 Albatros starting in 2025.The former is composed of two CN-235 tactical transport aircraft drawn from the Air Force's ET 82 \"Maine\" transport squadron.Three principal French Navy vessels are based in the territory, including: the surveillance frigate , the patrol and support ship ''Bougainville'' and the coast guard vessel ''Arago''.", "As of 2021, two smaller port and coastal tugs (RPCs), ''Maroa'' and ''Manini'', were also operational in the territory.", "Flottille 35F of French naval aviation deploys a detachment of three AS 365N Dauphin helicopters in Tahiti.", "The helicopters carry out a variety of roles in the territory or may be embarked on ''Prairial'' as required.", "In late 2023 or early 2024, ''Arago'' is to be replaced by ''Teriieroo to Teriierooiterai'', a vessel of the new ''Félix Éboué'' class of patrol vessels.", "The French Navy will further reinforce its offshore patrol capabilities in the region by deploying a second vessel of the class (''Philip Bernardino'') to Tahiti by 2025.The National Gendarmerie deploys some 500 active personnel and civilians, plus around 150 reservists, in French Polynesia.", "The patrol boat ''Jasmin'' of the Maritime Gendarmerie is also based in the territory and is to be replaced by a new PCG-NG patrol boat in about 2025–2026." ], [ "Geography", "Map of French PolynesiaBora Bora, Leeward IslandsThe islands of French Polynesia make up a total land area of , scattered over more than of ocean.", "There are 121 islands in French Polynesia and many more islets or ''motus'' around atolls.", "The highest point is Mount Orohena on Tahiti.It is made up of five archipelagos.", "The largest and most populated island is Tahiti, in the Society Islands.", "The archipelagos are:+ Islands of French Polynesia Name Land area (km2) Population 2022 Census Density (per km2)2022 Notes Marquesas Islands 1,049.3 9,478 9 12 high islands; administratively making the Marquesas Islands subdivisionSociety Islands \t1,597.6 245,987 154 administratively subdivided into the Windward Islands subdivision (4 high islands and 1 atoll) and the Leeward Islands subdivision (5 high islands and 4 atolls)Tuamotu Archipelago 698.7 \t15,159 22 80 atolls, grouping over 3,100 islands or islets; administratively part of the Tuamotu-Gambier subdivision Gambier Islands 27.8 \t1,570 56 6 high islands and 1 atoll; administratively part of the Tuamotu-Gambier subdivision Austral Islands 147.8 \t6,592 45 5 high islands and 1 atoll; administratively part of the Austral Islands subdivision '''TOTAL''' '''3,521.2''' '''278,786''' '''79''' 121 high islands and atolls (75 inhabited at the 2017 census; 46 uninhabited)Aside from Tahiti, some other important atolls, islands, and island groups in French Polynesia are: Ahē, Bora Bora, Hiva 'Oa, Huahine, Mai'ao, Maupiti, Meheti'a, Mo'orea, Nuku Hiva, Raiatea, Taha'a, Tetiaroa, Tupua'i and Tūpai.French Polynesia is home to four terrestrial ecoregions: Marquesas tropical moist forests, Society Islands tropical moist forests, Tuamotu tropical moist forests, and Tubuai tropical moist forests." ], [ "Administrative divisions", "communes of French Polynesia.French Polynesia is divided in five administrative subdivisions (''''):* Marquesas Islands ( or officially '''')* Leeward Islands ( or officially '''') (the two '''' Windward Islands and Leeward Islands are part of the Society Islands)* Windward Islands ( or officially '''') (the two '''' Windward Islands and Leeward Islands are part of the Society Islands)* Tuāmotu-Gambier ( or officially '''') (the Tuamotus and the Gambier Islands)* Austral Islands ( or officially '''') (including the Bass Islands)The five administrative subdivisions are not local councils; they are solely deconcentrated subdivisions of the French central State.", "At the head of each administrative subdivision is an '''' (\"State administrator\"), generally simply known as '''', also sometimes called '''' (\"head of the administrative subdivision\").", "The '''' is a civil servant under the authority of the High Commissioner of the French Republic in French Polynesia in Papeete.Four administrative subdivisions (Marquesas Islands, Leeward Islands, Tuamotu-Gambier, and Austral Islands) each also form a deconcentrated subdivision of the government of French Polynesia.", "These are called '''' (\"districts\").", "The head of a '''' is the '''', known as '''' in French (\"territorial administrator\"), but the Tahitian title '''' is most often used.", "The '''' is the direct representative of the president of French Polynesia's government who appoints him or her.", "The Windward Islands, due to their proximity to Papeete, do not form a deconcentrated subdivision of the government of French Polynesia.The 5 administrative subdivisions are themselves divided in 48 communes.", "Like all other communes in the French Republic, these are municipalities in which local residents with either a French or another EU citizenship elect a municipal council and a mayor in charge of managing local affairs within the commune.", "Municipal elections occur every six years on the same date as in the rest of the French Republic (the last municipal elections took place in 2020).+ Top three largest communes Commune Island Population(2022) Faaa Tahiti 29,826 Punaauia Tahiti 28,781 Papeete Tahiti 26,65430 communes are further subdivided in 98 associated communes which have each a delegate mayor and a registry office.", "These 30 communes were subdivided in associated communes either because they have a large land territory (particularly in the larger islands such as Tahiti or Nuku Hiva) or because they are made up of atolls distant from each other (particularly in the Tuamotu archipelago), which led to the creation of associated communes for each inhabited atoll.17 communes (out of French Polynesia's 48 communes) have banded together in three separate communities of communes.", "These indirectly elected intercommunal councils are still relatively new in French Polynesia, and unlike in metropolitan France and its overseas regions it is not mandatory for the communes in French Polynesia to join an intercommunal council.", "The three intercommunal councils in existence as of 2022, all formed on a voluntary basis, were:* community of communes of the Marquesas Islands (in French: ''communauté de communes des îles Marquises'', or CODIM), formed in 2010 by all the communes in the administrative subdivision of the Marquesas Islands* community of communes Hava'i (in French: ''communauté de communes Hava'i'', or CCH), formed in 2012 by all the communes in the administrative subdivision of the Leeward Islands, with the exception of Bora-Bora which preferred to remain separate for financial reasons* community of communes Terehēamanu (in French: ''communauté de communes Terehēamanu''), formed in 2021 by 5 exurban and rural communes on the eastern side of the island of Tahiti: Hitiaa O Te Ra, Taiarapu-Est, Taiarapu-Ouest, Teva I Uta, and Papara.These communities of communes, as elsewhere in the French Republic, are not full-fledged territorial collectivities, but only federations of communes.", "From a legal standpoint, the only territorial collectivities in French Polynesia are the overseas collectivity of French Polynesia and the 48 communes." ], [ "Demographics", "Tahitian girls, c. 1860–1879Total population was 278,786 according to the August 18, 2022 census, 68.7% of whom lived on the island of Tahiti alone.", "The urban area of Papeete, the capital city, has 136,771 inhabitants (2017 census).At the 2017 census, 89.0% of people living in French Polynesia had been born there (up from 87.3% in 2007); 8.1% had been born in Metropolitan France (down from 9.3% in 2007); 1.2% were born elsewhere in overseas France (down from 1.4% in 2007); and 1.7% were from foreign countries (down from 2.0% in 2007).", "The population of natives of Metropolitan France living in French Polynesia has declined in relative terms since the 1980s, but in absolute terms their population peaked at the 2007 census, when 24,265 lived in French Polynesia (not counting their children born there).", "With the local economic crisis, their population declined to 22,278 at the 2012 census, and 22,387 at the 2017 census.", "Place of birth of residents of French Polynesia(at the 1983, 1988, 1996, 2002, 2007, 2012, and 2017 censuses) '''Census''' '''Born inFrench Polynesia''' '''Born inMetropolitan France''' '''Born inOverseas France''' '''Born in foreigncountries with Frenchcitizenship at birth¹''' '''Immigrants²''' 2017 89.0% 8.1% 1.2% 0.9% 0.8% 2012 88.7% 8.3% 1.3% 0.9% 0.8% 2007 87.3% 9.3% 1.4% 1.1% 0.9% 2002 87.2% 9.5% 1.4% 1.2% 0.8% 1996 86.9% 9.3% 1.5% 1.3% 0.9% 1988 86.7% 9.2% 1.5% 1.5% 1.0% 1983 86.1% 10.1% 1.0% 1.5% 1.3% ¹Persons born abroad of French parents, such as Pieds-Noirs and children of French expatriates.²An immigrant is by French definition a person born in a foreign country and who didn't have French citizenship at birth.", "Note that an immigrant may have acquired French citizenship since moving to France, but is still listed as an immigrant in French statistics.", "On the other hand, persons born in France with foreign citizenship (the children of immigrants) are not listed as immigrants.", "Source: ISPF,At the 1988 census, the last census which asked questions regarding ethnicity, 66.5% of people were ethnically unmixed Polynesians, 7.1% were ethnically Polynesians with light European or East Asian mixing, 11.9% were Europeans (mostly French), 9.3% were people of mixed European and Polynesian descent, the so-called Demis (literally meaning \"Half\"), and 4.7% were East Asians (mainly Chinese).Chinese, Demis, and the white populace are essentially concentrated on the island of Tahiti, particularly in the urban area of Papeete, where their share of the population is thus much greater than in French Polynesia overall.", "Despite a long history of ethnic mixing, ethnic tensions have been growing in recent years, with politicians using a xenophobic discourse and fanning the flame of nationalism.=== Historical population ===" ], [ "Culture", "=== Languages ===All the indigenous languages of French Polynesia are Polynesian.", "French Polynesia has been linguistically diverse since ancient times, with each community having its own local speech variety.", "These dialects can be grouped into seven languages on the basis of mutual intelligibility: Tahitian, Tuamotuan, Rapa, Austral, North Marquesan, South Marquesan, and Mangarevan.", "Some of these, especially Tuamotuan, are really dialect continua formed by a patchwork of different dialects.", "The distinction between languages and dialects is notoriously difficult to establish, and so some authors may view two varieties as dialects of the same language, while others may view them as distinct languages.", "In this way, North and South Marquesan are often grouped together as a single Marquesan language, and Rapa is often viewed as part of Austral subfamily.", "At the same time, Ra'ivavae is often viewed as distinct from them.French is the sole official language of French Polynesia.", "An organic law of 12 April 1996 states that \"French is the official language, Tahitian and other Polynesian languages can be used.\"", "At the 2017 census, among the population whose age was 15 and older, 73.9% of people reported that the language they spoke the most at home was French (up from 68.6% at the 2007 census), 20.2% reported that the language they spoke the most at home was Tahitian (down from 24.3% at the 2007 census), 2.6% reported Marquesan and 0.2% the related Mangareva language (same percentages for both at the 2007 census), 1.2% reported any of the Austral languages (down from 1.3% at the 2007 census), 1.0% reported Tuamotuan (down from 1.5% at the 2007 census), 0.6% reported a Chinese dialect (41% of which was Hakka) (down from 1.0% at the 2007 census), and 0.4% another language (more than half of which was English) (down from 0.5% at the 2007 census).At the same census, 95.2% of people whose age was 15 or older reported that they could speak, read and write French (up from 94.7% at the 2007 census), whereas only 1.3% reported that they had no knowledge of French (down from 2.0% at the 2007 census).", "86.5% of people whose age was 15 or older reported that they had some form of knowledge of at least one Polynesian language (up from 86.4% at the 2007 census but down from 87.8% at the 2012 census), whereas 13.5% reported that they had no knowledge of any of the Polynesian languages (down from 13.6% at the 2007 census but up from 12.2% at the 2012 census).=== Music ===French Polynesia appeared in the world music scene in 1992, recorded by French musicologist Pascal Nabet-Meyer with the release of The Tahitian Choir's recordings of unaccompanied vocal Christian music called himene tārava.", "This form of singing is common in French Polynesia and the Cook Islands, and is notable for a unique drop in pitch at the end of the phrases, a characteristic formed by several different voices, accompanied by a steady grunting of staccato, nonlexical syllables.=== Religion ===TuāmotuChristianity is the main religion of the islands.", "A majority of 54% belongs to various Protestant churches, especially the Maohi Protestant Church, which is the largest and accounts for more than 50% of the population.", "It traces its origins to Pōmare II, the king of Tahiti, who converted from traditional beliefs to the Reformed tradition brought to the islands by the London Missionary Society.Catholics constitute a large minority of 38.3% of the population (2019) which has its own ecclesiastical province, comprising the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Papeete and its only suffragan, the Diocese of Taiohae.", "The number and proportion of Catholics has increased significantly since 1950, when they represented 21.6% of the total population.Data from 1991 revealed that Catholics were in the majority in the Tuamotu Islands, Gambier Islands and the Marquesas Islands, while Protestants formed the majority in the Austral Islands and several of the Society Islands such as Tahiti.", "This diversity is due to the fact that Protestant missionaries (from England and the United States) first came to one group of islands, and after French colonisation the Catholic Church spread to several more scattered islands, but also to the main island of Tahiti.The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints had 28,147 members .", "Community of Christ, another denomination within the Latter-Day Saint tradition, claimed 9,256 total French Polynesian members as of 2018 including Mareva Arnaud Tchong who serves in the church's governing Council of Twelve Apostles.", "There were about 3,000 Jehovah's Witnesses in Tahiti , and an estimated 500 Muslims in French Polynesia.===Cuisine===Due to the island location and the fact that the French Polynesia produce a significant array of fruits and vegetables, natural local produce, especially coconut, features in many of the dishes of the islands as does fresh seafood.foods like Faraoa 'ipo, Poisson cru and Rēti'a.=== Sports ===Va'a (traditional Polynesian outrigger canoe) during the Hawaiki Nui Va'a race==== Football ====The sport of football in the island of Tahiti is run by the Fédération Tahitienne de Football.==== Va'a ====The Polynesian traditional sport va'a is practiced in all the islands.", "French Polynesia hosts the an international race between Tahiti, Huahine and Bora Bora.==== Surfing ====French Polynesia is famous for its reef break waves.", "Teahupo'o is probably the most renowned, regularly ranked in the best waves of the world.", "This site hosts the annual Billabong Pro Tahiti surf competition, the 7th stop of the World Championship Tour, and is scheduled to host the surfing events of the 2024 Summer Olympics.==== Kitesurfing ====There are many spots to practice kitesurfing in French Polynesia, with Tahiti, Moorea, Bora-Bora, Maupiti and Raivavae being among the most iconic.Fakarava atoll, south pass==== Diving ====French Polynesia is internationally known for diving.", "Each archipelago offers opportunities for divers.", "Rangiroa and Fakarava in the Tuamotu islands are the most famous spots in the area.==== Rugby ====Rugby is also popular in French Polynesia, specifically Rugby union.=== Television ===Television channels with local programming include Polynésie la 1ère (established in 1965) and Tahiti Nui Television (established in 2000).", "Channels from metropolitan France are also available." ], [ "Economy and infrastructure", "Tourism is an important source of income for French Polynesia.The legal tender of French Polynesia is the CFP franc which has a fixed exchange rate with the euro.", "The nominal gross domestic product (or GDP) of French Polynesia in 2019 was 6.01 billion U.S. dollars at market exchange rates, the seventh-largest economy in Oceania after Australia, New Zealand, Hawaii, Papua New Guinea, New Caledonia, and Guam.", "The GDP per capita was US$21,615 in 2019 (at market exchange rates, not at PPP), lower than in Hawaii, Australia, New Zealand, Guam, and New Caledonia, but higher than in all other independent insular states and dependent territories of Oceania.French Polynesia was severely affected by the Global Financial Crisis of 2008 and subsequent Great Recession, and experienced as a result 4 years of recession from 2009 to 2012.French Polynesia renewed with economic growth in 2013, and experienced strong economic growth in the 2nd half of the 2010s, with an average real GDP growth rate of +2.8% per year from 2016 to 2019, before being affected by the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, which has led to another recession.French Polynesia has a moderately developed economy, which is dependent on imported goods, tourism, and the financial assistance of mainland France.", "Tourist facilities are well developed and are available on the major islands.", "Main agricultural productions are coconuts (copra), vegetables and fruits.", "French Polynesia exports noni juice, a high quality vanilla, and the famous black Tahitian pearls which accounted for 55% of exports (in value) in 2008.French Polynesia's seafloor contains rich deposits of nickel, cobalt, manganese, and copper that are not exploited.In 2008, French Polynesia's imports amounted to 2.2 billion U.S. dollars and exports amounted to 0.2 billion U.S. dollars.=== Transportation ===There are 53 airports in French Polynesia; 46 are paved.", "Fa'a'ā International Airport is the only international airport in French Polynesia.", "Each island has its own airport that serves flights to other islands.", "Air Tahiti is the main airline that flies around the islands.=== Communication ===In 2017, Alcatel Submarine Networks, a unit of Nokia, launched a project to connect many of the islands in French Polynesia with underwater fiber optic cable.", "The project, called NATITUA, is intended to improve French Polynesian broadband connectivity by linking Tahiti to 10 islands in the Tuamotu and Marquesas archipelagos.", "In August 2018, a celebration was held to commemorate the arrival of a submarine cable from Papeete to the atoll of Hao, extending the network by about 1000 kilometres." ], [ "Notable people", "Two Women of Tahiti'' by Paul Gauguin|thumb* Taïna Barioz (born 1988), World Champion skier representing France.", "* Billy Besson, Olympic sailor representing France* Michel Bourez (born 1985), professional surfer.", "* Cheyenne Brando (1970–1995), model, daughter of Marlon Brando and Tarita Teriipaia.", "* Jacques Brel (1929–1978), Belgian musician who lived in French Polynesia near the end of his life.", "* Jean Gabilou (born 1944), singer, represented France in the 1981 Eurovision Song Contest.", "*Chantal Galenon (born 1956), politician and women's rights activist.", "* Paul Gauguin (1848–1903), French post-impressionist painter who spent the last years of his life in French Polynesia.", "* Conrad Hall (1926–2003), American cinematographer.", "* Vaitiare Hirson-Asars (born 1964), actress.", "* Ella Koon (born 1979), singer, actress and model.", "* Karina Lombard (born 1969), French-American model and actress.", "* Pouvāna'a 'Ō'opa (1895–1977), politician and Tahitian nationalist.", "* Fabrice Santoro (born 1972), professional tennis player.", "* Tarita Teriipaia (born 1941), actress, third wife of Marlon Brando.", "* Marama Vahirua (born 1980), footballer, cousin of Pascal Vahirua.", "* Pascal Vahirua (born 1966), French former international footballer.", "* Célestine Hitiura Vaite (born 1966), writer." ], [ "See also", "* Outline of French Polynesia* Index of French Polynesia-related articles*List of colonial and departmental heads of French Polynesia*French colonial empire*List of French possessions and colonies* Lists of islands" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "** * ***** James Rogers and Luis Simón.", "The Status and Location of the Military Installations of the Member States of the European Union and Their Potential Role for the European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP).", "Brussels: European Parliament, 2009.25 pp.", "* Jean-Marc Régnault, ''Le pouvoir confisqué en Polynésie française.", "L'affrontement Temaru-Flosse''.", "Les Indes savantes, 2005.", "*" ], [ "External links", "; Government* High Commission of the Republic in French Polynesia* Presidency of French Polynesia* Assembly of French Polynesia* Legal publication service in French Polynesia* Administrative Subdivisions of French Polynesia; General information* Encyclopédie collaborative du patrimoine culturel et naturel polynésien* French Polynesia.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", "* French Polynesia at ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''**; Travel* Official Tourism Website" ] ]
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[ [ "Geography of French Polynesia" ], [ "Introduction", "Map of French Polynesia'''French Polynesia''' is located in Oceania.", "It is a group of six archipelagos in the South Pacific Ocean, about halfway between South America and Australia.", "Its area is about 4,167 km2 (around 130 islands), of which 3,827 km2 is land and 340 km2 is (inland) water.", "It has a coastline of 2,525 km but no land borders with other countries." ], [ "Physical geography", "There are 118 islands in French Polynesia (and many more islets or ''motus'' around atolls).", "Four of the islands are volcanic and one island is coral.", "Makatea in French Polynesia is one of the three great phosphate rock islands in the Pacific Ocean – the others are Banaba (Ocean Island) in Kiribati and Nauru.", "The terrain consists of a mixture of rugged high islands and low islands with reefs.It is made up of six archipelagos.", "The largest and most populated island is Tahiti, in the Society Islands.The archipelagos are:* Marquesas Islands – administratively making the Marquesas Islands subdivision (12 high islands and 1 atoll)* Society Islands – administratively subdivided into the Windward Islands subdivision (5 high islands) and the Leeward Islands District (5 atolls)* Tuamotu Archipelago – administratively part of the Tuamotu-Gambier subdivision (80 atolls, grouping over 3,100 islands or islets)* Gambier Islands – administratively part of the Tuamotu-Gambier subdivision (2 atolls in genesis)* Austral Islands – administratively part of the Austral Islands subdivision (5 atolls)* Bass Islands – administratively part of the Austral Islands subdivision (2 atolls)Aside from Tahiti, some other important atolls, islands, and island groups in French Polynesia are: Ahē, Bora Bora, Hiva 'Oa, Huahine, Mai'ao, Maupiti, Meheti'a, Mo'orea, Nuku Hiva, Raiatea, Taha'a, Tetiaroa, Tupua'i, and Tūpai.", "The country's highest point is Mont Orohena on Tahiti at 2,241 meters high." ], [ "Climate", "The country has a tropical, but moderate climate." ], [ "Statistics", ";Maritime claims:* Territorial sea: 12 nautical miles:* Exclusive economic zone: 200 nautical miles; Natural resources: Timber, fish, cobalt, hydropowerHatiheu Bay on the island of Nuku Hiva; Land use:* Arable land: 0.68%:* Permanent crops: 6.28%:* Other: 93.03% (2012); Irrigated land: 10 km2 (2003)" ], [ "See also", "*French Polynesia" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Demographics of French Polynesia" ], [ "Introduction", "Demographic features of the population of French Polynesia include population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects.==Births and deaths== YearPopulationLive birthsDeathsNatural increaseCrude birth rateCrude death rateRate of natural increaseTFR 1984 169,841 5,206 881 4,325 30.7 5.2 25.5 3.763 1985 174,342 5,417 980 4,437 31.1 5.6 25.5 3.792 1986 178,903 5,413 962 4,451 30.3 5.4 24.9 3.645 1987 183,435 5,418 1,040 4,378 29.5 5.7 23.8 3.527 1988 187,940 5,802 976 4,826 30.9 5.2 25.7 3.675 1989 192,235 5,513 1,077 4,436 28.7 5.6 23.1 3.418 1990 196,398 5,570 974 4,596 28.4 5.0 23.4 3.393 1991 200,535 5,409 1,010 4,399 27.0 5.0 22.0 3.213 1992 204,510 5,313 1,049 4,264 26.0 5.1 20.9 3.104 1993 208,408 5,299 1,051 4,248 25.4 5.0 20.4 3.049 1994 212,185 5,110 1,070 4,040 24.1 5.0 19.1 2.902 1995 215,736 4,904 1,097 3,807 22.7 5.1 17.6 2.734 1996 219,150 4,847 1,019 3,828 22.1 4.6 17.5 2.681 1997 222,878 4,702 1,079 3,623 21.1 4.8 16.3 2.567 1998 226,851 4,564 1,102 3,462 20.1 4.9 15.2 2.458 1999 230,921 4,835 1,005 3,830 20.9 4.4 16.5 2.564 2000 235,213 4,933 1,020 3,913 21.0 4.3 16.7 2.574 2001 239,451 4,873 1,154 3,719 20.4 4.8 15.6 2.494 2002 243,241 4,759 1,108 3,651 19.6 4.6 15.0 2.404 2003 246,555 4,497 1,109 3,388 18.3 4.5 13.8 2.235 2004 249,714 4,426 1,106 3,320 17.7 4.4 13.3 2.180 2005 252,794 4,461 1,224 3,237 17.7 4.8 12.9 2.166 2006 255,945 4,591 1,134 3,457 18.0 4.4 13.6 2.197 2007 258,929 4,426 1,190 3,236 17.1 4.6 12.5 2.104 2008 261,252 4,629 1,168 3,461 17.7 4.5 13.2 2.183 2009 263,117 4,542 1,262 3,280 17.3 4.8 12.5 2.140 2010 264,916 4,581 1,261 3,320 17.3 4.8 12.5 2.151 2011 266,639 4,357 1,242 3,115 16.3 4.7 11.6 2.037 2012 268,153 4,284 1,360 2,924 16.0 5.1 10.9 2.004 2013 269,714 4,182 1,445 2,737 15.5 5.4 10.1 1.950 2014 271,439 4,155 1,442 2,713 15.3 5.3 10.0 1.945 2015 273,043 3,892 1,409 2,483 14.2 5.2 9.0 1.828 2016 274,570 3,972 1,394 2,578 14.5 5.1 9.4 1.867 2017 275,696 3,824 1,609 2,215 13.9 5.8 8.1 1.806 2018 276,276 3,776 1,615 2,161 13.6 5.8 7.8 1.804 2019 276,672 3,557 1,563 1,994 12.8 5.6 7.2 1.724 2020 276,938 3,587 1,678 1,909 12.9 6.0 6.9 1.755 2021 276,814 3,489 2,271 1,218 12.5 8.1 4.4 1.726 2022 276,630 3,604 1,587 2,017 13.0 5.7 7.3 1.802===Structure of the population===Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 141 479 137 970 279 448 100 0–4 8 334 7 742 16 076 5.75 5–9 10 391 9 721 20 112 7.20 10–14 11 259 10 710 21 969 7.86 15–19 11 055 10 655 21 710 7.77 20–24 10 126 9 582 19 708 7.05 25–29 9 892 9 878 19 770 7.07 30–34 11 185 11 240 22 424 8.02 35–39 10 934 11 189 22 123 7.92 40–44 10 019 9 915 19 934 7.13 45–49 9 807 9 623 19 430 6.95 50–54 9 960 9 466 19 426 6.95 55–59 8 621 8 165 16 785 6.01 60–64 6 804 6 348 13 152 4.71 65-69 5 425 5 156 10 581 3.79 70-74 3 299 3 338 6 636 2.37 75-79 2 353 2 478 4 831 1.73 80-84 1 274 1 539 2 813 1.01 85-89 573 874 1 446 0.52 90-94 145 262 407 0.15 95-99 22 79 101 0.04 100+ 1 12 13 <0.01Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 29 984 28 173 58 157 20.81 15–64 98 403 96 059 194 462 69.59 65+ 13 092 13 738 26 830 9.60" ], [ "CIA World Factbook demographic statistics", "The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.===Age structure===*0–14 years: 21.69% (male 32,920/female 31,100)*15–24 years: 14.72% (male 22,640/female 20,793)*25–54 years: 44.24% (male 66,921/female 63,636)*55–64 years: 10.31% (male 15,610/female 14,823)*65 years and over: 9.04% (male 12,854/female 13,824) (2020 est.", ")===Population growth rate===*0.73%===Birth rate===*13.47 births/1,000 population===Death rate===*5.59 deaths/1,000 population===Net migration rate===*-0.63 migrant(s)/1,000 population===Sex ratio===*At birth: 1.05 male(s)/female*0–14 years: 1.06 male(s)/female*15–24 years: 1.09 male(s)/female*25–54 years: 1.05 male(s)/female*55–64 years: 1.05 male(s)/female*65 years and over: 0.79 male(s)/female*total population: 1.05 male(s)/female===Infant mortality rate===*Total: 4.4 deaths/1,000 live births*Male: 5.3 deaths/1,000 live births*Female: 3.46 deaths/1,000 live births (2022 est.", ")===Life expectancy at birth===*Total population: 78.43 years*Male: 76.11 years*Female: 80.86 years (2022 est.", ")===Total fertility rate===*1.81 children born/woman===Nationality===*noun: French Polynesian(s)*adjective: French Polynesian===Ethnic groups===*Polynesian 78%*Chinese 12%*local French 6%*metropolitan French 4%===Religions===*Protestant 54%*Roman Catholic 30%*Other 10%*No religion 6%===Languages===*French (official) 73,5%*Tahitian (official) 20,1%*Marquesan 2,6%*Austral languages 1,2%*Paumotu 1%*other 1,6%" ], [ "See also", "*French Polynesia*Europeans in Oceania* Demographics of France" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Politics of French Polynesia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Politics of French Polynesia''' takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic French overseas collectivity, whereby the President of French Polynesia is the head of government, and of a multi-party system.", "Executive power is exercised by the government.", "Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Assembly of French Polynesia.Between 1946 and 2003, French Polynesia had the status of an overseas territory (French: ''territoire d'outre-mer'', or ''TOM'').", "In 2003 it became an overseas collectivity (French: ''collectivité d'outre-mer'', or COM).", "Its statutory law of 27 February 2004 gives it the particular designation of \"overseas country\" to underline the large autonomy of the territory." ], [ "Executive branch", "|High CommissionerÉric Spitz''Non-Partisan''23 Sept 2022President of French PolynesiaMoetai BrothersonTāvini Huiraʻatira12 Mai 2023President of the AssemblyAntony GérosTāvini Huiraʻatira11 mai 2023The President of the French Republic is represented by the High Commissioner of the Republic in French Polynesia (''Haut-Commissaire de la République en Polynésie française'').", "The government is headed by the President of French Polynesia.", "He submits as Council of Ministers a list of members of the Territorial Assembly, the Assembly of French Polynesia (''Assemblée de la Polynésie française''), for approval by them to serve as ministers." ], [ "Legislative branch", "French Polynesia elects the Assembly of French Polynesia (''Assemblée de la Polynésie française''), the unicameral legislature on the territorial level.", "The Assembly of French Polynesia has 57 members, elected for a five-year term by proportional representation in multi-seat constituencies.", "Since the territorial elections of March 6, 2001, the parity bill now binds that the number of women matches the number of men at the Assembly." ], [ "Political parties and elections", "PartyFirst roundSecond roundVotes%Votes%Seats+/–Tapura Huiraatira53,79043.0466,72548.1838NewTahoera'a Huiraatira36,74729.4037,60627.7211–27Tavini Huiraatira25,89020.7231,35723.118–3Te Ora Api o Porinetia4,6043.68E Reo Manahune2,5032.00Popular Republican Union1,4431.15'''Total''''''124,975''''''100''''''135,688''''''100''''''57''''''0'''Valid votes124,97598.31135,68898.33Blank votes1,0910.861,1280.89Invalid votes1,0560.831,0060.79'''Total''''''127,122''''''100''''''137,990''''''100'''Registered voters/turnout206,66261.51206,52066.82Source: Haut-Commissariat ( first round, second round)The members of the Assembly of French Polynesia are elected in 6 different electoral districts or electoral circumscriptions () which slightly differ from the administrative subdivisions (''subdivisions administratives'') on the Tuamotus and the Gambier Islands.", "The 6 electoral circumscriptions (''circonscriptions électorales'') are:* electoral circumscription of the Windward Islands (''circonscription des Îles du Vent'') (37 members)* electoral circumscription of the Leeward Islands (''circonscription des Îles Sous-le-Vent'') (8 members)* electoral circumscription of the Austral Islands (''circonscription des Îles Australes'') (3 members)* electoral circumscription of the Gambier Islands and the Islands Tuamotu-East (''circonscription des Îles Gambier et Tuamotu Est'') (3 members)* electoral circumscription of the Islands Tuamotu-West (''circonscription des Îles Tuamotu Ouest'') (3 members)* electoral circumscription of the Marquesas Islands (''circonscription des Îles Marquises'') (3 members)" ], [ "Judicial branch", "Court of Appeal or Cour d'Appel; Court of the First Instance or Tribunal de Premiere Instance; Court of Administrative Law or Tribunal Administratif." ], [ "Administrative divisions", "French Polynesia has 5 administrative subdivisions ():* Windward Islands ( or officially ''subdivision administrative des Îles du Vent'') (the two ''subdivisions administratives'' Windward Islands and Leeward Islands are part of the Society Islands)* Leeward Islands ( or officially ''subdivision administrative des Îles Sous-le-Vent'') (the two ''subdivisions administratives'' Windward Islands and Leeward Islands are part of the Society Islands)* Marquesas Islands ( or officially ''subdivision administrative des (Îles) Marquises'')* Austral Islands ( or officially ''subdivision administrative des (Îles) Australes'') (including the Bass Islands)* Tuamotu-Gambier ( or officially ''subdivision administrative des (Îles) Tuamotu-Gambier'') (the Tuamotus and the Gambier Islands)''note:'' Clipperton Island (), just off the coast of Mexico, was administered by France from French Polynesia." ], [ "International organization participation", "ESCAP (associate), FZ, ITUC, SPC, WMO" ], [ "See also", "* 2004 French Polynesian legislative election" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* francepolitique.free.fr* CIA World Factbook – French Polynesia*" ] ]
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[ [ "Economy of French Polynesia" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of French Polynesia''' is one of a developed country with a service sector accounting for 75%.", "French Polynesia's GDP per capita is around $22,000, one of the highest in the Pacific region." ], [ "History", "=== Past economy ===Before French colonisation, the Polynesian islands that constitute nowadays French Polynesia, relied on a subsistence economy.", "Work was heavily organised and performed by the community as a whole under the direction of the Arii ruling class and the priests.", "Mountains were terraced for agriculture production, river banks were contained by stone walls, artificial soil was created on atolls in large trenches, and large systems made out of coral stone walls trapped and stocked live fish.", "Production outputs were divided by the ruling class between the population.After the contact was established with European ships, foreign diseases killed large portions of the populations, and Christian beliefs and clergy produced a huge shift in the culture of those islands.", "With fewer population to feed, more land per capita was available, and the land use switched toward the limited production required by a family to live.", "Habitations moved toward seashores as the population relied more on the lagoon and sea trade.", "European ships stopped in those islands to purchase water, salt pork meat, dried fish and fresh fruits.As French, English and Americans settled, part of the agriculture moved towards exports of oranges, coprah, coffee, cotton, and vanilla.", "They also exported Tahitian black pearls and sandalwood.", "Santal wood nearly disappeared, cotton production was short-lived, as the US's south recovered from the American Civil War, and coffee and orange trees suffered from imported diseases that stopped those exports.", "Coprah and vanilla prices and competition worldwide impacted heavily those productions in the second half of the 20th century, although they still exist.", "The guano mining at Makatea started in 1917 and stopped in 1966 when the stocks were depleted.In 1962, France stationed military personnel in the region and started nuclear experimentations in Moruroa.", "French Polynesia's economy switched to services to support the military and the growing tourist industry.=== 21st century ===Tourism accounts nowadays for about 13% of the GDP, and is a primary source of foreign currency earnings.", "The tourist industry was heavily impacted after the 9/11 terrorist attacks and the 2008 economic crises, and never really recovered since.", "There are around 160,000 tourists per year.", "The local government mostly focuses its action at developing a high-end market with luxurious hotels built with foreign investment and French tax cut incentives, but many of these investments close after a few years.", "The subsidized air company Air Tahiti Nui brings tourists from France, Los Angeles, Japan and China.", "Other companies also operate, like Air France and Air New Zealand.The small manufacturing sector primarily processes agricultural products.", "Vanilla and pearls are its main exports.The public administration is an important part of the GDP and a provider of stable employment.", "The French republic finances the functionaries working in education, justice, hospitals, gendarmerie (military police), and military.", "The local government controls its own administration, like the ministry of agriculture, and oversees the administration and buildings of some sectors like schools.", "The local government also influence a large part of the economy through subsidies and development programs.Some parts of the economy involve quasi-monopolistic groups due to the small economy size, the challenges of a country of small islands spread in a huge oceanic space, and the action of the government through subsidies and public companies.", "Some sectors show an important horizontal and vertical integration trend.", "Recently, the local government tries to maintain a healthy competition and regulate the growth of the biggest groups, but face many challenges.", "For example, it was unable to prevent a major supermarket group to develop its own vegetable production, ending its supplying contracts with local farmers.", "But it blocked the merger of two local shipping companies to avoid a monopoly on some trade routes.", "The price of shipping goods between islands is fixed by the government, and subsidies are provided for transporting some items like farming products or construction materials.Some products' price margins are controlled by the local government to reduce the disparity of prices between the different archipelagos.", "Import taxes and VAT are fixed and collected by the local government that also control what imports are allowed to protect its agriculture and nature from diseases and invasive species.The majority of the population is of mixed Polynesian and European origin.", "Around 5% of the population is of Asian origin, descending from farm workers imported in the 19th century to work in the cotton fields.", "They are present in the administration and trading sector of the economy.", "The recent metropolitan population is mostly involved in the state administration and in small and medium-sized enterprises." ], [ "Agriculture", "Most Polynesians in agriculture farm traditional products like taro, ufi, casava and sweet potato to feed themselves and small surplus are sold for monetary income alongside a small fishing activity.", "Farmers of Asian origin tends to produce European and Asian vegetables for the local market.The Moorea island developed pineapple production for local market and supplying the juice factory.", "Maupiti and Huahine produce watermelons.", "Tahiti and Tahaa have a small production of sugarcane for rum distillery.Tahiti produces a small quantity of fresh milk, mostly for the local yogurt factory, as most of the population is used to drinking UHT and powdered milk from France and New Zealand.", "French Polynesia has a single slaughterhouse treating beef, pork, and chickens.", "The local beef meat production is very limited and mostly used to supply the local corned beef factory.", "Most of the meat comes from New Zealand, amounting to around 10% of the exports of fresh meat of this country.", "Two charcuteries produce ham, sausages, and pâtés from local and imported pork.The copra production is heavily subsidized as the local government treats it as a form of social support for the remote islands with a limited range of economic activities possibilities like Tuamotu atolls.", "The copra is milled by the Huilerie de Tahiti to produce coconut oil mostly used for the monoi.", "The coconut cake residue is used as a cattle and pork feed, and surplus used to be exported to New Zealand.", "Vanilla production depends heavily on the situation in Madagascar.", "When a typhoon hit this main supplier of vanilla, the market price increased worldwide and the local Polynesian government started a heavy program of subsidies and loans to develop vanilla farms.", "As the Polynesian production increased and Madagascar recovered, prices dropped and a lot of Polynesian farmers stopped caring for their vanilla plants.", "The plants are fragile and require regular care of experienced farmers.", "Diseases and insects can heavily reduce the production, and the cost of chemical products used impact the farmer harder when the vanilla prices are low.", "As the vanilla production falls, the price increase and the government started a new program of development, starting a new cycle.", "Despite the high price of Tahitian dried vanilla on the international market, it usually still finds buyers in the high-end market because of the specificities of its cultivar and quality.In the 1990s, the commercial production of Noni started because of the supposed benefits of the juice of this fruit.", "Exports were mostly directed toward the North American market.", "But this production was short-lived, falling quickly from 7000 tonnes in 2005 down to 2000 tonnes in 2008, as the plant can be easily farmed in any tropical climate, especially in countries with lower labor costs and more land.A small vineyard production exists in Rangiroa atoll and is aimed at the high-end market, capitalizing on its rarity and specificity of a vine grown on coral soil in a tropical island." ], [ "Electricity", "French Polynesia's electricity production in 2004 was 477 GWh.", "In 1998 59.72% of French Polynesia's electricity came from fossil fuel with the remainder from hydropower." ], [ "Currency", "French Polynesia uses the Comptoirs Francais du Pacifique franc (CFPF), with 1 CFP franc subdivided into 100 centimes.", "The CFP franc was formerly linked at the exact official rate of 0.055 French francs to one Pacifique franc.", "When France switched its currency to the euro in 1999 this static link remained true, so that the rate is now about 119.26 Pacifique franc to one euro (1 euro being exactly 6.55957 French francs).", "In 2016 the exchange rate was 110.2 CFP francs per US dollar." ], [ "References" ], [ "See also", "* Economy of France in: French Guiana, French Polynesia, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Mayotte, New Caledonia, Réunion, Saint Barthélemy, Saint Martin, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, Wallis and Futuna* Taxation in France* Economic history of France* Poverty in France" ] ]
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[ [ "Telecommunications in French Polynesia" ], [ "Introduction", "This article is about communications systems in French Polynesia.", "The Honotua fiber optic cable connected Tahiti to Hawaii in 2010, increasing Internet speeds to 20 gigabits per second from 500 megabits per second.", "The cable will also connect to Moorea and the Leeward Islands of Huahine, Raiatea and Bora Bora." ], [ "Telephone", "'''Main lines in use:''' 32,000 (1995)'''Mobile cellular:''' 4,000 (1995)'''Telephone system:'''Domestic:N/AInternational:Satellite Earth station—1 Intelsat (Pacific Ocean)" ], [ "Radio", "'''Radio stations:'''AM 2, FM 14, shortwave 2 (1998)'''Radios:'''128,000 (1997)" ], [ "Television", "'''Television stations:'''7 (plus 17 low-power repeaters) (1997)'''Televisions:'''40,000 (1997)" ], [ "Internet", "'''Internet Service Providers (ISPs):'''OPT (national operator),'''Country code (Top Level Domain):''' PF'''ITU Prefix:''' F'''Amateur radio prefix''' (Designated by France): FO" ], [ "Notes" ] ]
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[ [ "Transport in French Polynesia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Railways:'''0 km'''Highways:'''''total:''2590 km''paved:''1735 km''unpaved:''855 km (1999)'''Ports and harbours:'''Mataura, Papeete, Rikitea, Uturoa'''Merchant marine:'''''total:''10 ships ( or over) totaling / ''ships by type:''cargo ship 3, passenger ship 2, passenger/cargo 3, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off ship 1 (2003 est.", ")'''Airports:'''49 (2003 est.", ")'''Airports - with paved runways:'''''total:''37''over 3,047 m:''2''1,524 to 2,437 m:''5''914 to 1,523 m:''23''under 914 m:''3 (2004 est.", ")'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''''total:''13''914 to 1,523 m:''5''under 914 m:''8 (2004 est.", ")'''Heliports'''1 (2003 est.)" ], [ "See also", "* French Polynesia* List of airports in French Polynesia" ], [ "External links" ] ]
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[ [ "French Southern and Antarctic Lands" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''French Southern and Antarctic Lands''' (, '''TAAF''') is an overseas territory ( or ) of France.", "It consists of:# ''Adélie Land'' (), the French claim on the continent of Antarctica.# Crozet Islands (), a group in the southern Indian Ocean, south of Madagascar.# Kerguelen Islands (), a group of volcanic islands in the southern Indian Ocean, southeast of Africa.# Saint Paul and Amsterdam Islands (), a group to the north of the Kerguelen Islands.# Scattered Islands (), a dispersed group of islands around the coast of Madagascar.The territory is sometimes referred to as the '''French Southern Lands''' () or the '''French Southern Territories''', usually to emphasize non-recognition of French sovereignty over Adélie Land as part of the Antarctic Treaty System.The entire territory has no known permanently settled inhabitants.", "Approximately 150 (in the winter) to 310 (in the summer) people are usually present in the French Southern and Antarctic Lands at any time, but they are mainly made up of military personnel, officials, scientific researchers and support staff.On 5 July 2019, the Crozet Islands, the Kerguelen Islands, and the Saint Paul and Amsterdam Islands were inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site as the \"French Austral Lands and Seas\" because of their pristine wilderness, biodiversity, and enormous bird colonies." ], [ "History", "=== Discovery ===The islands began to be discovered in the sixteenth century, when the Spanish discovered Amsterdam Island on 18 March 1522, which was later claimed and named by the Dutch.", "Saint Paul Island was discovered in 1559 by the Portuguese.", "The Crozet islands were discovered on 24 January 1772 by French explorer Marc-Joseph Marion du Fresne during an expedition.", "Adelie Land was the last to be discovered, in 1840 by the French during an expedition led by Jules Dumont d'Urville, who would later have a research station on the island named after him.The islands were officially recognized by law on 6 August 1956.This overruled the law passed in 1924 that tied the territory with the Government General of France in Madagascar" ], [ "Administration", "The French Southern and Antarctic Lands have formed a (an overseas territory) of France since 1955.Formerly, they were administered from Paris by an assisted by a secretary-general; since December 2004, however, their administrator has been a ''préfet'', currently Florence Jeanblanc-Risler, with headquarters in Saint Pierre on Réunion Island.The TAAF administration, the French Polar Institute Paul-Émile Victor (IPEV) and the French Navy jointly operate the icebreaker ''Astrolabe'' which is based out of Reunion.", "The vessel is used both to bring personnel and supplies to the Dumont d'Urville Station and for research and patrol duties.", "The territory is divided into five districts: District Administrative centre Population Area EEZ Winter Summer (km2) ''Adélie Land'' ''Dumont d'Urville Station'' 30 110 ''432,000'' — Crozet Islands Alfred Faure 25 45 352 567,475 Kerguelen Islands Port-aux-Français 70 110 7,215 563,869 Saint Paul and Amsterdam Islands Martin-de-Viviès 25 45 61 502,533 Scattered Islandsa Saint Pierreb, Réunion 56 56 38.4 640,400 '''TAAF''' Saint Pierrec, Réunion 206 366 ''439,666.4'' 2,274,277Each district is headed by a district chief, who has powers similar to those of a French mayor (including recording births and deaths and being an officer of judicial police).Because there is no permanent population, there is no elected assembly, nor does the territory send representatives to the national parliament." ], [ "Geography", "Map of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands.Kerguelen cabbages on Île Mayès, KerguelenThe territory includes the Crozet Islands, the Kerguelen Islands, and the Saint Paul and Amsterdam Islands in the southern Indian Ocean near 43°S, 67°E, along with Adélie Land, the sector of Antarctica claimed by France, named by the French explorer Jules Dumont d'Urville after his wife.Adélie Land (about ) and the islands, totaling , have no indigenous inhabitants, though in 1997 there were about 100 researchers whose numbers varied from winter (July) to summer (January).Amsterdam Island and Saint Paul Island are extinct volcanoes and have been delineated as the Amsterdam and Saint-Paul Islands temperate grasslands ecoregion.", "The highest point in the territory is Mont Ross on Kerguelen Island at .", "There are very few airstrips on the islands, only existing on islands with weather stations, and the of coastline have no ports or harbors, only offshore anchorages.Volcan du Diable on Grande Terre, KerguelenThe islands in the Indian Ocean are supplied by the special ship ''Marion Dufresne'' sailing out of Le Port in Réunion Island.", "Terre Adélie is supplied by ''L'Astrolabe'' sailing out of Hobart in Tasmania.However, the territory has a merchant marine fleet totaling (in 1999) 2,892,911 GRT/, including seven bulk carriers, five cargo ships, ten chemical tankers, nine container ships, six liquefied gas carriers, 24 petroleum tankers, one refrigerated cargo ship, and ten roll-on/roll-off (RORO) carriers.", "This fleet is maintained as a subset of the French register that allows French-owned ships to operate under more liberal taxation and manning regulations than permissible under the main French register.", "This register, however, is to vanish, replaced by the International French Register (''Registre International Français'', RIF)." ], [ "Flora and fauna", "Due to their isolation, the French islands in the southern Indian Ocean comprise one of the last remaining large wilderness areas on Earth.", "Furthermore, the islands are positioned along the Antarctic Convergence, where upwelling creates nutrient-rich waters.", "As a result, birds and marine mammals gather on the islands in great abundance.", "More than 50 million birds of 47 species breed on the islands, including more than half the breeding population of 16 different species.", "The largest populations of king penguins and the endangered Indian yellow-nosed albatross on Earth are found on the Crozet Islands and Amsterdam Island, respectively.", "Other threatened bird species with important populations on the islands include Eaton's pintail, MacGillivray's prion, and the Amsterdam albatross, which is one of four bird species endemic to the island group.", "The French Southern Lands also hold the second largest population of southern elephant seals on Earth, numbering roughly 200,000, and the third largest population of the Antarctic fur seal.", "Because of their isolation and subpolar location, the French Southern Lands are relatively depauperate of vegetation, with both Saint-Paul and Crozet having no native tree or shrub species.", "However, eight of the 36 higher plant species are endemic.", "Some species of endemic invertebrates have also been recorded on the islands, including moths and flies which have lost their wings in the absence of predators." ], [ "Economy", "A proportional representation of French Southern and Antarctic Lands exports, 2019The territory's natural resources are limited to fish and crustaceans.", "Economic activity is limited to servicing meteorological and geophysical research stations and French and other fishing fleets.The main fish resources are Patagonian toothfish and spiny lobster.", "Both are poached by foreign fleets; because of this, the French Navy, and occasionally other services, patrol the zone and arrest poaching vessels.", "Such arrests can result in heavy fines and/or the seizure of the ship.France previously sold licenses to foreign fisheries to fish the Patagonian toothfish; because of overfishing, it is now restricted to a small number of fisheries from Réunion Island.The territory takes in revenues of about €16 million a year." ], [ "Locations and Scientific Stations", "In the territory there is no permanent population but there are some areas that contain research stations.", "'''Ile Amsterdam''' has a meteorological station.", "'''Iles Crozet''' contains the Alfred Faure research station that contains about 20-30 people.", "One of the most populous research stations is the '''Iles Kerguelen''' which contains 50-100 researchers at Port-aux-Francais.", "The '''Iles Eparses''' contains a French military garrison and is a spot for meteorology.", "The '''Dumont d’Urville station''' is a vital area for studying wildlife, the atmosphere and the ice caps." ], [ "Codes", "The French Southern Territories (i.e.", "the TAAF excluding Adélie Land) have been given the following country codes: FS (FIPS) and TF (ISO 3166-1 alpha-2)." ], [ "See also", "* Administrative divisions of France* * French colonial empire* French Fifth Republic* * List of French islands in the Indian and Pacific oceans* List of French possessions and colonies* Outline of France* Overseas France*" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * French Southern and Antarctic Lands – official French website * French Southern and Antarctic Lands.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", "* * Southern & Antarctic Territories* Crozet Archipelago* Kerguelen Archipelago* Terre Adélie" ] ]
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[ [ "History of French Guiana" ], [ "Introduction", "Map of French Guiana by cartographer Jacques-Nicolas Bellin (1763)The '''history of French Guiana''' dates back to the period prior to European colonization.", "Prior to the arrival of the first Europeans, there was no written history in the territory.", "It was originally inhabited by a number of Native American peoples, among them the Kalina (Caribs), Arawak, Galibi, Palikur, Teko, Wayampi (also known as Oyampi), and Wayana.", "The first Europeans arrived in the expeditions of Christopher Columbus, shortly before 1500." ], [ "Beginnings of European involvement", "Rumours online proclaim that in 1498, French Guiana was visited by Europeans when Christopher Columbus sailed to the Guiaiean coast, which he named the \"Land of Pariahs\".", "Columbus had actually sailed to the coast of Venezuela from Trinidad, and he named the coastline “Ysla Sancta”, as from his view the far away coast appeared to be an island.", "The term “Land of Pariahs” comes from the Gulf of Paria, the water that the lands Columbus had discovered were facing.In 1608, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany sent an expedition to the area in order to create an Italian colony for the commerce of Amazonian products to Renaissance Italy, but the sudden death of Ferdinando I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, stopped it.", "In 1624, the French attempted to settle in the area but were forced to abandon it in the face of hostility from the Portuguese, who viewed it as a violation of the Treaty of Tordesillas.", "However, French settlers returned in 1630 and in 1643 managed to establish a settlement at Cayenne along with some small-scale plantations.", "This second attempt would again be abandoned following Amerindian attacks.", "In 1658, the Dutch West Indies Company seized French territory to establish the Dutch colony of Cayenne.", "The French returned once more in 1664, and founded a second settlement at Sinnamary (this was attacked by the Dutch in 1665).In 1667, the English seized the area.", "Following the Treaty of Breda on 31 July 1667, the area was given back to France.", "The Dutch briefly occupied it for a period in 1676." ], [ "Consolidation of French rule", "After the Treaty of Paris in 1763, which deprived France of almost all her possessions in the Americas other than Guiana and a few islands, Louis XV sent thousands of settlers to Guiana who were lured there with stories of plentiful gold and easy fortunes to be made.", "Instead they found a land filled with hostile natives and tropical diseases.", "One and a half years later only a few hundred survived.", "These fled to three small islands which could be seen off shore and named them the Iles de Salut (or \"Islands of Salvation\").", "The largest was called Royal Island, another St. Joseph (after the patron saint of the expedition), and the smallest of the islands, surrounded by strong currents, Île du Diable (the infamous \"Devil's Island\").", "When the survivors of this ill-fated expedition returned home, the terrible stories they told of the colony left a lasting impression in France.In 1776, Pierre-Victor Malouet was appointed to the Colony, who brought in Jean Samuel Guisan to establish agriculture in the colony.", "The relatively good period ended in 1792 during the French Revolution, when the first prison for priests and political enemies opened in Sinnamary which set a precedent.During the French Revolution, the National Convention voted to abolish the French slave trade and slavery in France's overseas colonies in February 1794, months after enslaved Haitians had started a slave rebellion in the colony of Saint-Domingue.", "However, the 1794 decree was only implemented in Saint-Domingue, Guadeloupe, and French Guiana, while the colonies of Senegal, Mauritius, Réunion and Martinique, and French India resisted the imposition of these laws.In 1794, after the execution of Maximilien Robespierre, 193 of his followers were sent to French Guiana.", "In 1797, the republican general Pichegru and many deputies and journalists were also sent to the colony.", "When they arrived, they found that only 54 of the 193 deportées sent out three years earlier were left; 11 had escaped and the rest had died of tropical fevers and other diseases.", "Pichegru managed to escape to the United States and then returned to France where he was eventually executed for plotting against Napoleon.Later on, slaves were brought out from Africa, and plantations were established along the more disease-free rivers.", "Exports of sugar, hardwood, Cayenne pepper, and other spices brought a certain prosperity to the colony for the first time.", "Cayenne, the capital, was surrounded by plantations, some of which had several thousand slaves." ], [ "1800s and the Penal Era", "In 1809, an Anglo-Portuguese naval squadron took French Guiana (ousting governor Victor Hugues) and gave it to the Portuguese in Brazil.", "However, with the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1814, the region was handed back to the French, though a Portuguese presence remained until 1817.In 1848, France abolished slavery and the ex-slaves fled into the rainforest, setting up communities similar to the ones they had come from in Africa.", "Subsequently, called Maroons, they formed a sort of buffer zone between the Europeans (who settled along the coast and main rivers) and the unconquered (and often hostile) Native American tribes of the inland regions.", "Deprived of slave labor the plantations were soon taken over by the jungle, and the planters ruined.In 1850, several shiploads of Indians, Malays, and Chinese were brought out to work the plantations but, instead, they set up shops in Cayenne and other settlements.", "\"Quartier – Disciplinaire\", Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni, 1954In 1852, the first shiploads of chained convicts arrived from France.", "In 1885, to get rid of habitual criminals and to increase the number of colonists, the French Parliament passed a law that anyone, male or female, who had more than three sentences for theft of more than three months each, would be sent to French Guiana as a ''relégué''.", "This '' relégués'' was to be kept in prison there for six months but then freed to become settlers in the colony.", "However, this experiment failed dismally.", "The ex-prisoners, unable to make a living off the land, found themselves forced to revert to crime or to eke out a hand-to-mouth existence until they died.", "In fact, transportation to French Guiana as a ''relégué'' amounted to a life sentence, and usually, a short life sentence, as most of the ''relégués'' died very quickly from disease and malnutrition.The prisoners would arrive at St Laurent du Maroni before being transported to various camps throughout the country.", "The Iles du Salut was used to house political prisoners and for solitary confinement.", "The islands became notorious for the brutality of life there, centering on the notorious Devil's Island.", "Famous figures sent to the islands included Alfred Dreyfus (in 1895) and Henri Charrière (in the 1930s).", "Charrière managed to escape and later wrote a best-selling book called ''Papillon''.", "\"Quartier Spécial\" – Condemned men's block, St. Laurent, 1954 (the guillotine stood at the spot where the photographer took the photo).In 1853, gold was discovered in the interior, precipitating border disputes with Brazil and Suriname (these were later settled in 1891, 1899, and 1915, although a small region of the border with Suriname remains in dispute).", "The Republic of Independent Guyana, in French ''La République de la Guyane indépendante'' and commonly referred to by the name of the capital \"Counani\", was created in the area which was disputed by France (as part of French Guiana) and Brazil in the late 19th century." ], [ "20th century", "The territory of Inini, consisting of most of the interior of French Guiana, was created in 1930.It was abolished in 1946.During World War II the local government declared its allegiance to the Vichy government, despite widespread support for Charles de Gaulle.", "This government was removed on 22 March 1943.French Guiana became an overseas ''département'' of France on 19 March 1946.The infamous penal colonies, including Devil's Island, were gradually phased out and then formally closed in 1951.At first, only those freed prisoners who could raise the fare for their return passage to France were able to go home, so French Guiana was haunted after the official closing of the prisons by numerous freed convicts leading an aimless existence in the colony.Visitors to the site in December 1954 reported being deeply shocked by the conditions and the constant screams from the cell block still in use for convicts who had gone insane and which had only tiny ventilation slots at the tops of the walls under the roof.", "Food was pushed in and bodies removed once a day.In 1961, Brazilian president Jânio Quadros planned the annexation of French Guiana, but resigned, likely in a failed move to gain more political power, before he could execute the operation.In 1964, Kourou was chosen to be the launch site for rockets, largely due to its favourable location near the equator.", "The Guiana Space Centre was built and became operational in 1968.This has provided some local employment and the mainly foreign technicians, and hundreds of troops stationed in the region to prevent sabotage, bring a little income to the local economy.The 1970s saw the settlement of Hmong refugees from Laos in the county, primarily to the towns of Javouhey and Cacao.", "The Green Plan (''Le Plan Vert'') of 1976 aimed to improve production, though it had only limited success.", "A movement for increased autonomy from France gained momentum in the 70s and 80s, along with the increasing success of the Parti Socialiste Guyanais.Protests by those calling for more autonomy from France have become increasingly vocal.", "Protests in 1996, 1997, and 2000 all ended in violence.", "While many Guianese wish to see more autonomy, support for complete independence is low." ], [ "21st century", "In a 2010 referendum, French Guianans voted against autonomy.On 20 March 2017, French Guianans began going on strike and demonstrating for more resources and infrastructure.", "28 March 2017 saw the largest demonstration ever held in French Guiana.The first woman to be elected to the Senate was Marie-Laure Phinéra-Horth in 2020." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Belbenoit, René.", "1940.", "''Hell on Trial''.", "Translated from the Original French Manuscript by Preston Rambo.", "E. P Dutton & Co.", "Reprint by Blue Ribbon Books, New York, 1941.", "* Belbenoit, René.", "1938.", "''Dry Guillotine: Fifteen years among the living dead''.", "Reprint: Berkley (1975).", ".", "Reprint: Bantam Books, 1971.", "* Charrière, Henri.", "''Papillon''.", "Reprints: Hart-Davis Macgibbon Ltd.", "1970.", "(hbk); Perennial, 2001.", "* Tissot, Jean-Michel: ''La Guyane telle quelle'', Paris (Le Créations du Pélican) 1998." ], [ "Further reading", "* Kurlansky, Mark.", "1992.", "''A Continent of Islands: Searching for the Caribbean Destiny''.", "Addison-Wesley Publishing.", "." ], [ "External links", "* History of French Guiana – History from the European Space Agency." ] ]
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[ [ "Geography of French Guiana" ], [ "Introduction", "'''French Guiana''' is an overseas region of France, located on the northern coast of South America between Suriname and Brazil.", "The country is part of Caribbean South America and borders the North Atlantic Ocean.", "It has low-lying plains with small mountains to the south.", "Its climate is split between tropical rainforest and tropical monsoon.", "French Guiana is mostly unsettled and has low land use.French Guiana is situated on the northeast coast of South America between 2° and 5° latitude north and covers an area of 35,135 square miles.", "It is separated from Surinam (Dutch Guiana) by the Maroni River and two of its tributaries, the Aoua and Itany, in the west, and from Brazil by the Tumuc Humac Mountains in the south and the Oyapock River in the east.", "Its 200-mile Atlantic coastline is bordered by several rocky islands – the Iles du Salut (Devil's Island, Royale and Saint-Joseph), the Père and Mère Islands, Malingre Island and Rémire Island, and the two Connétables—which are all part of French Guiana." ], [ "Statistics", "=== Area ===Total: 91,000 km2Land: 89,150 km2Water: 1,850 km2=== Land boundaries ===Total: 1,183 kmBorder countries: Brazil 673 km, Suriname 510 km (disputed)Coastline: 378 km===Maritime claims===Exclusive economic zone: territorial sea: .===Land use===Arable land: 0%Other: 10% (1996 est.", ")Irrigated land: 20 km2 (1993 est.", ")Geography – note: mostly an unsettled wilderness.===Natural resources===Bauxite, timber, gold (widely scattered), cinnabar, kaolin, fish, shrimp, rice, bananas.434x434px" ], [ "Climate", "French Guiana's climate is tropical and hot with a Köppen climate classification of tropical rainforest (A''f'') throughout most of the country.", "Heavy showers, severe thunderstorms, and floodings are frequent, as is intense heat and humidity.Although French Guiana is very close to the equator, the trade winds which blow almost the year round refresh the coastal region and prevent the formation of great tropical storms.", "The annual mean temperature on the coast is .", "There are two principal seasons: \"summer\" from July to December and the \"rainy season\" the rest of the year, broken only by a Short \"March Summer.\"" ], [ "Terrain", "French Guiana extends almost 250 miles into the continent and is divided into two natural zones: a small, low, swampy coastal area called the \"Terres Basses,\" varying from ten to thirty miles in width, and a granite peneplain called the \"Terres Hautes,\" worn down by erosion into steps forming a series of low steep hills.", "Almost the entire country is covered by rain forest and its many large rivers and streams, although their courses are broken by rapids, constitute the only natural means of penetration into the interior.", "The main rivers, flowing in a general south–north direction, are the Maroni, the Mana, the Iracoubo, the Sinnamary, the Kourou, the Mahury, the Approuague and the Oyapock." ], [ "Extreme Points", "* Northernmost point – Pointe Isère* Southernmost point – border with Brazil, Maripasoula* Westernmost point – disputed, see France–Suriname relations** assuming France's claim: tripoint with Suriname and Brazil, Maripasoula** assuming Suriname's claim: point on Maroni, Apatou* Easternmost point – mouth of Oyapock, Saint-Georges commune (but near the village of Ouanary)* Highest point – Bellevue de l'Inini: 851 m* Lowest point – Atlantic Ocean: 0 m" ], [ "See also", "* Geography of Suriname* Guiana Shield" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Demographics of French Guiana" ], [ "Introduction", " The Demographics of French Guiana are characterized by a young population with 44% below the age of 20 as of 2017.The total population stood at 268,700 as of January 1, 2017.The demographic profile is a reflection of the territory's high fertility rates.", "Regarding nationality, as of 2010, 64.5% of the population had French nationality, while 35.5% were of foreign nationality with significant communities from Suriname, Haiti, and Brazil among others." ], [ "Population", "According to INSEE the population of French Guiana was 268,700 as of January 1, 2017.The population is very young: 44% are below the age of 20, while only 1.7% are 75 years or older.", "The age distribution is a reflection of the high fertility rates of French Guiana.===Nationality===On January 1, 2010, 64.5% of the population had French nationality, while 35.5% had a foreign nationality.", "Of these, Surinamese (13.8% of the total population), Haitians (8.8%) and Brazilians (8.7%) were the largest groups.", "Smaller groups included people with nationality of Guyana (1.7%), Colombia (1.0%), China (0.5%), the Dominican Republic (0.4%) and Peru (0.2%)." ], [ "Vital statistics", "The total fertility rate in French Guiana has remained high and is today considerably higher than in metropolitan France, and also higher than the average of the French overseas departments.", "It is largely responsible for the high population growth of French Guiana.Average population Live birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)Total fertility rate 1936 24,000 355 554-19914.823.1-8.3 1937 24,000 408 487-7917.020.3-3.3 1938 24,000 381 649-26815.927.0-11.2 1939 24,000 333 499-16613.920.8-6.9 1940 24,000 436 505-6918.221.0-2.9 1941 24,000 437 626-18918.226.1-7.9 1942 24,000 453 733-28018.930.5-11.7 1943 24,000 422 702-28017.629.3-11.7 1944 24,000 474 627-15319.826.1-6.4 1945 24,000 620 539 8125.822.53.4 1946 24,000 515 596-8121.524.8-3.4 1947 24,000 539 623-8422.526.0-3.5 1948 25,000 529 547-1821.221.9-0.7 1949 25,000 607 471 13624.318.85.4 1950 25,000 590 384 20623.615.48.2 1951 26,000 558 383 17521.514.76.7 1952 27,000 781 462 31930.017.812.3 1953 27,000 720 426 29426.715.810.9 1954 28,000 900 378 52232.113.518.6 1955 29,000 941 377 56432.613.019.5 1956 29,000 949 411 53832.113.918.2 1957 30,000 993 426 56733.014.218.8 1958 31,000 940 404 53630.913.317.6 1959 31,0001,043 460 58334.115.019.1 1960 32,0001,026 451 57531.413.817.6 1961 34,0001,066 487 57931.814.517.3 1962 35,0001,041 410 63130.111.818.2 1963 36,0001,118 446 67231.112.418.7 1964 38,0001,213 399 81432.010.521.5 1965 39,0001,161 403 75829.010.119.0 1966 41,0001,244 401 84329.59.520.0 1967 43,0001,281 376 90529.28.620.6 1968 45,0001,390 408 98230.48.921.5 1969 47,0001,424 431 99330.09.120.9 1970 49,0001,584 3851,19932.27.824.4 1971 50,0001,600 4001,20031.47.823.5 1972 52,0001,670 3991,27131.77.624.1 1973 54,0001,473 4181,05527.17.719.4 1974 55,0001,529 4351,09427.47.819.6 1975 57,0001,476 4081,06825.67.118.5 1976 59,0001,439 4151,02424.27.017.2 1977 61,0001,476 4631,01324.07.516.4 1978 63,0001,568 4701,09824.57.417.2 1979 65,0001,704 4541,25025.76.918.9 1980 68,0001,933 4681,46528.16.821.3 1981 71,0002,092 4281,66429.36.023.3 1982 74,0002,379 4921,88731.66.525.1 1983 78,0002,314 4891,82528.96.122.8 1984 83,0002,319 4911,82827.35.821.5 1985 87,0002,482 5011,98127.65.622.0 1986 93,0002,392 4911,90125.25.220.0 1987 99,0002,700 5502,15027.25.621.7 1988 105,0003,000 5502,45028.55.223.2 1989 111,0003,300 5502,75029.64.924.7 1990 113,3513,606 5943,01230.85.125.7 1991 117,3273,922 5833,33932.24.827.4 1992 121,4694,045 5683,47732.04.527.5 1993 125,7864,113 5783,53531.54.427.1 1994 130,2824,188 6183,57031.54.626.8 1995 134,9684,264 5403,67130.73.926.8 1996 139,8484,331 5563,77530.43.826.6 1997 144,9374,426 5983,82830.13.826.3 1998 150,2424,696 6074,08930.64.026.63.83 1999 155,7604,907 6484,25930.94.126.83.87 2000 162,0185,149 6354,51431.23.827.43.94 2001 168,6145,140 6604,48029.93.926.03.79 2002 176,6385,276 6694,60729.43.725.73.73 2003 184,7925,553 7214,83229.73.925.83.77 2004 193,1675,312 7194,59327.33.723.63.47 2005 199,2065,998 7055,29329.73.526.23.79 2006 205,9546,276 7115,56530.13.426.73.80 2007 213,0316,386 6905,69629.83.226.63.74 2008 219,2666,247 7625,48528.43.524.93.57 2009 224,4696,171 6995,47227.43.124.33.50 2010 229,0406,082 7735,30926.33.323.03.37 2011 237,5496,259 7145,54526.43.023.43.42 2012 239,6486,609 7895,82027.23.224.03.60 2013 244,1186,4747675,70726.13.123.03.47 2014 252,3386,5917865,80525.93.122.83.44 2015 259,8656,8068345,97226.23.223.03.44 2016 269,3527,2709016,36926.93.323.63.61 2017 268,7008,0579647,09329.63.526.13.92 2018 276,1287,9958997,09628.73.225.53.82 2019 281,6788,1041,0207,08428.63.625.03.82 2020 286,0327,9929907,00227.83.424.43.72 2021 290,5288,1271,3656,76227.74.723.03.70 2022 294,4367,7181,2106,50825.43.821.63.38 2023 ===Structure of the population===Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 113 824 116 617 230 441 100 0-4 14 591 13 849 28 440 12.34 5-9 14 090 13 618 27 708 12.02 10-14 12 843 12 024 24 867 10.79 15-19 10 729 10 672 21 401 9.29 20-24 7 728 8 478 16 206 7.03 25-29 7 281 9 109 16 390 7.11 30-34 7 692 8 676 16 368 7.10 35-39 7 877 8 865 16 742 7.27 40-44 7 415 7 650 15 065 6.54 45-49 6 698 6 582 13 280 5.76 50-54 5 397 5 148 10 545 4.58 55-59 4 207 4 107 8 314 3.61 60-64 2 931 2 684 5 615 2.44 65-69 1 740 1 693 3 433 1.49 70-74 1 083 1 260 2 343 1.02 75-79 752 974 1 726 0.75 80-84 433 619 1 052 0.46 85-89 225 402 627 0.27 90-94 77 144 221 0.10 95+ 35 63 98 0.04Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0-14 41 524 39 491 81 015 35.16 15-64 67 955 71 971 139 926 60.72 65+ 4 345 5 155 9 500 4.12Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 128 973 130 892 259 865 100 0–4 14 800 14 161 28 961 11.14 5–9 15 050 14 512 29 563 11.38 10–14 14 151 14 085 28 237 10.87 15–19 12 158 11 784 23 941 9.21 20–24 8 960 9 569 18 529 7.13 25–29 8 674 9 890 18 563 7.14 30–34 9 230 9 846 19 077 7.34 35–39 9 068 9 326 18 394 7.08 40–44 8 701 8 949 17 650 6.79 45–49 7 357 7 359 14 715 5.66 50–54 6 042 6 091 12 133 4.67 55–59 5 010 4 941 9 951 3.83 60–64 3 959 3 790 7 749 2.98 65-69 2 574 2 464 5 038 1.94 70-74 1 496 1 570 3 066 1.18 75-79 860 999 1 859 0.72 80-84 479 758 1 237 0.48 85-89 257 466 723 0.28 90-94 102 254 356 0.14 95-99 32 68 100 0.04 100+ 13 10 23 0.01Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 44 001 42 758 86 759 33.39 15–64 79 159 81 545 160 704 61.84 65+ 5 813 6 589 12 402 4.77Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 140 463 150 065 290 528 100 0–4 15 210 15 355 30 565 10.52 5–9 15 253 15 368 30 621 10.54 10–14 15 265 15 006 30 271 10.42 15–19 13 697 13 899 27 596 9.50 20–24 10 402 10 901 21 303 7.33 25–29 8 367 10 345 18 712 6.44 30–34 9 119 11 051 20 170 6.94 35–39 9 170 10 909 20 079 6.91 40–44 8 884 9 650 18 534 6.38 45–49 7 891 8 787 16 678 5.74 50–54 7 211 7 412 14 623 5.03 55–59 6 107 6 372 12 479 4.30 60–64 5 009 5 165 10 174 3.50 65-69 3 714 3 705 7 419 2.55 70-74 2 440 2 545 4 985 1.72 75-79 1 394 1 559 2 953 1.02 80-84 744 1 012 1 756 0.60 85-89 397 539 936 0.32 90-94 118 297 415 0.14 95-99 42 142 184 0.06 100+ 29 46 75 0.03Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 45 728 45 729 91 457 31.48 15–64 85 857 94 491 180 348 62.08 65+ 8 878 9 845 18 723 6.44===Infant mortality rate===The infant mortality in French Guiana is higher than in metropolitan France:* 2007-2009: 12.0* 2008-2010: 11.6* 2009-2011: 10.1===Life expectancy===At birth, life expectancy is 76.2 years for male children, and 82.8 for female (figures for 2011)." ], [ "Ethnic groups", "Estimates of the percentages of French Guiana ethnic composition vary, a situation compounded by the large proportion of immigrants.Creoles, or Mulattoes (people of mixed African and French ancestry), are the largest ethnic group, though estimates vary as to the exact percentage, depending upon whether the large Haitian community is included as well.", "Generally the Creole population is judged to be about 60 to 70% of the total population if Haitians (comprising roughly one-third of Creoles) are included, and 30 to 50% without.Roughly 41,000 people or 14% of the population of French Guiana is of European ancestry.", "The vast majority of these are of French heritage, though there are also people of Dutch, British, Spanish and Portuguese ancestry.The main Asian communities are the Chinese (about 3-4%, primarily from Zhejiang province in mainland China and Hong Kong) and Hmong from Laos (1-2%).", "There are also smaller groups from various Caribbean islands, mainly Saint Lucia as well as Dominica.", "Other Asian groups include East Indians, Lebanese and Vietnamese.The main groups living in the interior are the Maroons (formerly called \"Bush Negroes\") who are from African descent, and Amerindians.", "The Maroons, descendants of escaped African slaves, live primarily along the Maroni River.", "The main Maroon groups are the Saramaka, Ndyuka (both of whom also live in Suriname), and Boni (Aluku).", "The Maroons are the fastest growing ethnic group, and as of 2018 constitute about one-third of the total population with an estimated population of close to 100,000 people.The main Amerindian groups (estimated population about 10,000) are the Arawak, Carib, Teko (previously called Emerillon), Galibi (now called the Kaliña), Palikur, Wayampi and Wayana.", "The estimated population for the beginning of the 17th century was 30,000 people.", "Until the middle of the 20th century, there was a sharp decline in population to almost 1,200 people in 1961 which was mainly caused by European diseases.", "Improved health care managed to turn the tide." ], [ "Languages", "French and French Guianese Creole are the most widely spoken languages.", "There are also several native languages, including Arawakan (Arawak and Palikúr), Cariban (Carib and Wayana), and Tupi-Guarani (Emerillon and Wayampi) languages.", "Other languages spoken include Hakka Chinese and Javanese.The official language, like for all overseas departments and territories of France, is French." ], [ "Religion", "The dominant religion of French Guiana is Roman Catholicism; some of the Maroons and Amerindian people maintain their own religions, however large tribes like the Kalina, Ndyuka have been Christianized." ], [ "See also", "* Demographics of France" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of French Guiana" ], [ "Introduction", "French Guiana is not a separate territory but is both an overseas région and overseas department of France, with the same government institutions as areas on the French mainland.", "The administrative center is Cayenne.The President of France appoints a prefect (resident at the prefecture building in Cayenne) as his representative to head the local government of French Guiana.", "The Assembly of French Guiana replaced the General Council and the Regional Council in 2016.As of 2020 the prefect is Thierry Queffelec.", "The President of the Guianese Assembly since 2021 is Gabriel Serville." ], [ "Key issues and players", "Politics in French Guiana are dominated by the Guianese Socialist Party, which has a close association with the Socialist Party in mainland France.A chronic issue affecting French Guiana is the influx of illegal immigrants and clandestine gold prospectors from Brazil and Suriname.", "The border between the department and Suriname is formed by the Maroni River, which flows through rain forest and is difficult for the Gendarmerie and the French Foreign Legion to patrol.There have been several phases launched by the French government to combat illegal gold mining in French Guiana, beginning with Operation Anaconda beginning in 2003, followed by Operation Harpie in 2008, 2009 and Operation Harpie Reinforce in 2010.Colonel François Müller, the commander of French Guiana's gendarme, believes these operations have been successful.", "However, after each operation ends, Brazilian miners, known as garimpeiros, return.", "Soon after Operation Harpie Reinforce began, an altercation took place between French authorities and Brazilian miners.", "On March 12, 2010, a team of French soldiers and border police were attacked while returning from a successful operation, during which \"the soldiers had arrested 15 miners, confiscated three boats, and seized 617 grams of gold... currently worth about $22,317\".", "Garimpeiros returned to retrieve the lost loot and colleagues.", "\"The soldiers fired warning shots and rubber \"flash balls\" but the miners managed to retake one of their boats and about 500 grammes of gold.", "\"The violent reaction by the garimpeiros can be explained by the exceptional take of 617 grammes of gold, about 20 percent of the quantity seized in 2009 during the battle against illegal mining\", said Phillipe Duporge, the director of French Guiana's border police, at a press conference the next day.\"" ], [ "General Council of French Guiana", "The General Council of French Guiana is the deliberative executive assembly and is composed of 19 members who are elected by popular vote to serve six-year terms.", "It is led by the President of the General Council of French Guiana.===Composition=== Party seats•Miscellaneous Left 7•Guianese Socialist Party 3Independents 3Miscellaneous Right 3Union for a Popular Movement 3•Walwari 1" ], [ "Regional Council of Guiana", "The interior chamber of the Regional Council.The Regional Council of French Guiana is the elected assembly or regional council and is composed of 31 members who are elected by popular vote to serve six-year terms.===Composition=== Party seats•Guianese Socialist Party 29Union for a Popular Movement 7Walwari 7" ], [ "Parliamentary representation", "Guiana elects two senators to the French Senate.", "The first woman to be elected to the Senate was Marie-Laure Phinéra-Horth in 2020.===Current deputies===Guiana also elects two deputies to the French National Assembly.", "The last elections were held in June 2007.The Walwari has one deputy, Christiane Taubira, and the PSG has one deputy, Chantal Berthelot, who defeated long-time UMP incumbent Léon Bertrand.ConstituencyMemberParty 1st Christiane Taubira Walwari 2nd Chantal Berthelot PSG" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of French Guiana" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of French Guiana''' is tied closely to that of mainland France through subsidies and imports.", "Besides the French space center at Kourou, fishing and forestry are the most important economic activities in French Guiana.", "The large reserves of tropical hardwoods, not fully exploited, support an expanding sawmill industry which provides saw logs for export.", "Cultivation of crops is limited to the coastal area, where the population is largely concentrated; rice and manioc are the major crops.", "French Guiana is heavily dependent on imports of food and energy.", "Unemployment is a serious problem, particularly among younger workers.", "Projects about this contry in schools are popular, especially in Europe.", "'''Budget:'''''revenues:''$135,5 million''expenditures:''$135,5 million, including capital expenditures of $105 million (1996)'''Electricity - production:'''465,2 GWh (2003)'''Electricity - production by source:'''''fossil fuel:''100%''hydro:''0%''nuclear:''0%''other:''0% (1998)'''Electricity - consumption:'''432,6 GWh (2003)'''Electricity - exports:'''0 kWh (2003)'''Electricity - imports:'''0 kWh (2003)A combined power plant with 55 MW solar, 3 MW hydrogen fuel cell, 20MW/38MWh battery and 16 MW hydrogen electrolyser with 88MWh storage began construction in 2021.", "'''Agriculture - products:'''rice, manioc (tapioca), sugar, cocoa, vegetables, bananas; cattle, pigs, poultry'''Currency:'''Euro'''Fiscal year:'''calendar year" ], [ "References", "\"The economic accounts of Guyana in 2006: first results\" (PDF).", "Retrieved 2008-01-14." ], [ "See also", "* Economy of France in: French Guiana, French Polynesia, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Mayotte, New Caledonia, Réunion, Saint Barthélemy, Saint Martin, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, Wallis and Futuna* Montagne d'Or mine* Taxation in France* Economic history of France* Poverty in France" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Telecommunications in French Guiana" ], [ "Introduction", "There are telecommunications in French Guiana." ], [ "Telephones", "In 1923, there were 117 telephones in use, with 241 miles of wire.", "The number of telephones was approximately 6,800 by 1975, approximately 13,700 by 1982 and 18,100 by 1989.There were 47,000 telephone main lines in use in 1995, and 51,000 in 2001.There were 138,200 mobile cellular phones in 2002.", "'''Telephone system:'''''domestic:''fair open wire and microwave radio relay system''international:''satellite earth station – 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)" ], [ "Telegraphs", "In 1923, there were nine telegraph offices, with 205 miles of wire." ], [ "Radio", "Radio Cayenne began to broadcast on 9 June 1951, with regular broadcasts from January 1953.In 1998, radio stations were broadcast on AM 2, FM 14 (including 6 repeaters) and shortwave 6 (including 5 repeaters).", "There were 7,100 radio receivers by 1975.There were 104,000 radios in 1997." ], [ "Television", "The were three television stations (plus eight low-power repeaters) in 1997.There were 3,000 television receivers by 1975.There were 30,000 televisions in 1997." ], [ "Internet", "There number of internet users was 2,000 in 2000, and 3,200 in 2002.There were two internet service providers in 2000.The top-level domain country code is .gf." ], [ "See also", "* French Guiana* Telecommunications in France" ], [ "References", "*Robert Ladel, \"French Guiana — Telecommunications\" (1956) 10 The Caribbean (Port-of-Spain) 33 to 34 (No 2, September 1956)*\"Broadcasting and Communications\" in \"French Guiana\".", "South America, Central America and the Caribbean 2003.11th Edition.", "Europa Publications.", "2002.p 416.", "*\"Telecommunications\" in \"French Guiana\".", "Caribbean Basin Profile.", "Caribbean Publishing Company.", "1998.p 202.Google*Donald G Moore.", "\"French Guiana\".", "The Importance of Telecommunications to a Modern Latin America.", "Michigan State University, Department of Telecommunication.", "1982.pp 441 to 448.See also pp 370, 384, 457, 461 and 462.Google*A Guide to Telecommunications Markets in Latin America and the Caribbean.", "US Department of Commerce.", "1996.p 144, 291 and 292.Google*Peter Curwen and Jason Whalley.", "Mobile Telecommunications in a High-Speed World.", "Gower Publishing.", "2010.Routledge.", "2016.pp 46 and 66.", "*\"French Guiana\".", "Global Connect!", "pp 180 and 181.See also pp 7, 19 and 34.", "*Louise Gagne (ed).", "Telecommunications Directory.", "17th Edition.", "Thomson Gale.", "2007.Volume 2 (International).", "pp 634, 690, 697, 700, 709 and 775.", "*Minago et al.", "\"3.8 French Guiana\" in \"Revision of the 5G Concept Rollout and Its Application in Smart Cities\".", "Proceedings of the 7th Brazilian Technology Symposium.", "p 234.See also p 237.", "*Telephone and Telegraph Statistics of American Republics.", "1925.Google*Berg.", "Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today.", "McFarland.", "2008.Pages 44, 51, 58, 112, 117, 142, 182, 250, 276, 284, 309, 328, 361 and 402." ], [ "External links", "* Interreg Caribbean* French Guiana, SubmarineCableMap.com" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in French Guiana" ], [ "Introduction", "Map of French Guiana'''Transport in French Guiana''' consists of transport by road, boat, bus, and airplane.", "There is a railway line within the Guiana Space Centre to transport spacecraft.", "The road network is mainly concentrated in the coastal region.", "The interior of Guiana is accessed by plane or boat.", "There is one main airport, however there are several smaller airstrips in the interior." ], [ "Highways", "RN1 near CayenneAs of 2018, there are 440 kilometres of national roads, 408 kilometres of departmental road, and 1,311 kilometres of municipal roads.", "There is no motorway.Following a treaty between France and Brazil signed in July 2005, the Oyapock River Bridge over the Oyapock River was built and completed in 2011, becoming the first land crossing ever between French Guiana and the rest of the world (there is a ferry crossing to Albina, Suriname).", "The bridge was officially opened on 18 March 2017, however the border post introduction on the Brazilian caused additional delays.", "As of 2020, it possible to drive uninterrupted from Cayenne to Macapá, the capital of the state of Amapá in Brazil." ], [ "Railways", "The railway in the Guiana Space CentreA short railway is used within the Guiana Space Centre (this short railway is for transporting spacecraft inside the base to the launch pad, not for passenger use).", "The railway is double tracked and used by unpowered rail cars (tanker cars, flatcars and launch table transporter platforms fitted with bogies) and are towed by rubber wheeled vehicles with railway wheels or bogies to ride along the rail tracks (Road–rail vehicles).From 1880s to sometime after 1926 a steam narrow gauge railway was used for gold mines in Saint-Elie and two other lines were partially built and never used.Two prison railways were built in the 1890s.", "One line connected Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni to Saint-Jean-du-Maroni.", "Another line went to Charvein.", "The railway lines were abandoned after prisons closed and disappeared sometime after 1946.There are no other railways in French Guiana and none have existed for revenue passenger service, and there are no connections to neighbouring countries.", "Some maps - including some on Wikipedia - depicting railway density give the impression of railways existing in French Guyana due to conflating the existing railways in the metropole with the lack of same in French Guyana, thus creating a statistical artifact." ], [ "Airports", "CASA/IPTN CN-235 taking off from Maripasoula AirportThe main international airport of French Guiana is Cayenne – Félix Eboué Airport.", "The secondary international airport is the Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni Airport.In October 2020, the Camopi Airport was upgraded for regular passenger transport.There are six smaller restricted airports:* Grand-Santi Airport* Maripasoula Airport* Régina Airport* Saint-Georges-de-l'Oyapock Airport* Saül Airport* Sinnamary Airport" ], [ "Public transport", "The CACL (Communauté d’Agglomération du Centre Littoral) provides bus service for the urban area of Cayenne and its suburbs.", "As of 2021, there are six urban bus lines.", "School transport is also handled by CACL.Since early 2010, an agreement was established between the General Council, responsible for organizing transport between the towns, and Taxi Co.", "The new public service became known as TIG (Long Distance Transport of Guyana).", "As of 2021, TIG provides nine bus lines to towns outside the urban area of Cayenne." ], [ "Harbours", "Degrad des CannesThe main harbour is Degrad des Cannes.", "The harbour was built in 1972, and handles all international cargo from and to French Guiana.", "In 2007, the port handled about 700,000 tonnes of cargo.", "The port also includes as a marina.Other harbours include Cayenne, Kourou, Larivot in Matoury, and Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Routes SMTC (Cayenne)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "François Truffaut" ], [ "Introduction", "'''François Roland Truffaut''' ( , ; ; 6 February 1932 – 21 October 1984) was a French filmmaker, actor, and critic.", "He is widely regarded as one of the founders of the French New Wave.", "With a career of more than 25 years, he is an icon of the French film industry.", "Truffaut's film ''The 400 Blows'' (1959) is a defining film of the French New Wave movement, and has four sequels: ''Antoine et Colette'' (1962), ''Stolen Kisses'' (1968), ''Bed and Board'' (1970), and ''Love on the Run'' (1979).", "Truffaut's 1973 film ''Day for Night'' earned him critical acclaim and several awards, including the BAFTA Award for Best Film and the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film.", "His other notable films include ''Shoot the Piano Player'' (1960), ''Jules and Jim'' (1962), ''The Soft Skin'' (1964), ''The Wild Child'' (1970), ''Two English Girls'' (1971), ''The Last Metro'' (1980), and ''The Woman Next Door'' (1981).", "He played one of the main roles in Steven Spielberg's ''Close Encounters of the Third Kind'' (1977).", "Truffaut wrote the book ''Hitchcock/Truffaut'' (1966), based on his interviews with film director Alfred Hitchcock during the 1960s." ], [ "Early life", "Truffaut was born in Paris on 6 February 1932.His mother was Janine de Montferrand.", "His mother's future husband, Roland Truffaut, accepted him as an adopted son and gave him his surname.", "He was passed around to live with various nannies and his grandmother for a number of years.", "His grandmother instilled in him her love of books and music.", "He lived with her until her death, when Truffaut was eight years old.", "It was only after her death that he lived with his parents.", "Truffaut's biological father's identity is unknown, but a private detective agency in 1968 revealed that its inquiry into the matter led to a Roland Levy, a Jewish dentist from Bayonne.", "Truffaut's mother's family disputed the finding but Truffaut believed and embraced it.Truffaut often stayed with friends and tried to be out of the house as much as possible.", "He knew Robert Lachenay from childhood, and they were lifelong best friends.", "Lachenay was the inspiration for the character René Bigey in ''The 400 Blows'' and worked as an assistant on some of Truffaut's films.", "Cinema offered Truffaut the greatest escape from an unsatisfying home life.", "He was eight years old when he saw his first movie, Abel Gance's ''Paradis Perdu'' (''Paradise Lost'', 1939), beginning his obsession.", "He frequently skipped school and snuck into theaters because he lacked the money for admission.", "After being expelled from several schools, at age 14 he decided to become self-taught.", "Two of his academic goals were to watch three movies a day and read three books a week.Truffaut frequented Henri Langlois's Cinémathèque Française, where he was exposed to countless foreign films, becoming familiar with American cinema and directors such as John Ford, Howard Hawks and Nicholas Ray, as well as those of British director Alfred Hitchcock." ], [ "Career", "===André Bazin===After starting his own film club in 1948, Truffaut met André Bazin, who had a great effect on his professional and personal life.", "Bazin was a critic and the head of another film society at the time.", "He became a personal friend of Truffaut's and helped him out of various financial and criminal situations during his formative years.Truffaut joined the French Army in 1950, aged 18, but spent the next two years trying to escape.", "He was arrested for attempting to desert the army and incarcerated in military prison.", "Bazin used his political contacts to get Truffaut released and set him up with a job at his new film magazine, ''Cahiers du cinéma''.===''Cahiers du Cinéma''===Over the next few years, Truffaut became a critic (and later editor) at ''Cahiers'', where he became notorious for his brutal, unforgiving reviews.", "He was called \"The Gravedigger of French Cinema\" and was the only French critic not invited to the 1958 Cannes Film Festival.", "He supported Bazin in developing one of the most influential theories of cinema, the auteur theory.In 1954, Truffaut wrote an article in ''Cahiers du cinéma'', \"Une Certaine Tendance du Cinéma Français\" (\"A Certain Trend of French Cinema\"), in which he attacked the state of French films, lambasting certain screenwriters and producers, and listing eight directors he considered incapable of devising the kinds of \"vile\" and \"grotesque\" characters and storylines he called characteristic of the mainstream French film industry: Jean Renoir, Robert Bresson, Jean Cocteau, Jacques Becker, Abel Gance, Max Ophuls, Jacques Tati and Roger Leenhardt.", "The article caused a storm of controversy, and landed Truffaut an offer to write for the nationally circulated, more widely read cultural weekly ''Arts-Lettres-Spectacles''.", "Truffaut wrote more than 500 film articles for that publication over the next four years.Truffaut later devised the auteur theory, according to which the director was the \"author\" of his work and great directors such as Renoir or Hitchcock have distinct styles and themes that permeate their films.", "Although his theory was not widely accepted then, it gained some support in the 1960s from American critic Andrew Sarris.", "In 1967, Truffaut published his book-length interview of Hitchcock, ''Hitchcock/Truffaut'' (New York: Simon and Schuster).===Short films===After having been a critic, Truffaut decided to make films.", "He began with the short film ''Une Visite'' (1955) and followed it with ''Les Mistons'' (1957).===''The 400 Blows''===After seeing Orson Welles's ''Touch of Evil'' at the Expo 58, Truffaut made his feature film directorial debut with ''The 400 Blows'' (1959), which received considerable critical and commercial acclaim.", "He won the Best Director award at the 1959 Cannes Film Festival.", "The film follows the character of Antoine Doinel through his perilous misadventures in school, an unhappy home life and later reform school.", "The film is highly autobiographical.", "Both Truffaut and Doinel were only children of loveless marriages; they both committed petty crimes of theft and truancy from the military.", "Truffaut cast Jean-Pierre Léaud as Doinel.", "Léaud was seen as an ordinary boy of 14 who auditioned for the role after seeing a flyer, but interviews after the film's release (one is included on the Criterion DVD of the film) reveal Léaud's natural sophistication and an instinctive understanding of acting for the camera.", "Léaud and Truffaut collaborated on several films over the years.", "Their most noteworthy collaboration was the continuation of Doinel's story in a series of films called \"The Antoine Doinel Cycle\".The primary focus of ''The 400 Blows'' is Doinel's life.", "The film follows him through his troubled adolescence.", "He is caught in between an unstable parental relationship and an isolated youth.", "From birth Truffaut was thrown into a troublesome situation.", "As he was born out of wedlock, his birth had to remain a secret because of the stigma of illegitimacy.", "He was registered as \"a child born to an unknown father\" in hospital records and looked after by a nurse for an extended period of time.", "His mother eventually married and her husband gave François his surname, Truffaut.Although he was legally accepted as a legitimate child, his parents did not accept him.", "The Truffauts had another child, who died shortly after birth.", "This experience saddened them greatly and as a result they despised François because of the regret he represented (Knopf 4).", "He was an outcast from his earliest years, dismissed as an unwanted child.", "François was sent to live with his grandparents.", "When his grandmother died, his parents took him in, much to his mother's dismay.", "His experiences with his mother were harsh.", "He recalled being treated badly by her but found comfort in his father's laughter and spirit.", "François had a very depressing childhood after moving in with his parents.", "They left him at home, by himself, when they took vacations.", "He even recalled being alone during Christmas.", "Being left alone forced François into independence, often doing various tasks around the house to improve it, such as painting or changing the electric outlets.", "Sadly, these kind gestures often resulted in catastrophic events, causing him to get scolded by his mother.", "His father mostly laughed them off.", "''The 400 Blows'' marked the beginning of the French New Wave movement, which gave directors such as Jean-Luc Godard, Claude Chabrol and Jacques Rivette a wider audience.", "The New Wave dealt with a self-conscious rejection of traditional cinema structure.", "This was a topic on which Truffaut had been writing for years.===''Shoot the Piano Player''===alt=Truffaut and actress Françoise Dorléac during a visit to Israel, 1963|Truffaut and actress Françoise Dorléac during a visit to Israel, 1963Following the success of ''The 400 Blows'', Truffaut featured disjunctive editing and seemingly random voiceovers in his next film, ''Shoot the Piano Player'' (1960), starring Charles Aznavour.", "Truffaut has said that in the middle of filming, he realized that he hated gangsters.", "But since gangsters were a main part of the story, he toned up the comical aspect of the characters and made the movie more to his liking.Even though ''Shoot the Piano Player'' was much appreciated by critics, it performed poorly at the box office.", "While the film focused on two of the French New Wave's favourite elements, American film noir and themselves, Truffaut never again experimented as heavily.===''Jules and Jim'' and ''The Soft Skin''===Truffaut during his visit to Helsinki, Finland on 21 December 1964In 1962, Truffaut directed his third movie, ''Jules and Jim'', a romantic drama starring Jeanne Moreau.", "The film was very popular and highly influential.In 1963, Truffaut was approached to direct the American film ''Bonnie and Clyde'', with a treatment written by ''Esquire'' journalists David Newman and Robert Benton intended to introduce the French New Wave to Hollywood.", "Although he was interested enough to help in script development, Truffaut ultimately declined, but not before interesting Jean-Luc Godard and American actor and would-be producer Warren Beatty, who proceeded with the film with director Arthur Penn.The fourth movie Truffaut directed was ''The Soft Skin'' (1964).", "It was not acclaimed on its release.===''Fahrenheit 451''===Truffaut's first non-French film was a 1966 adaptation of Ray Bradbury's classic science fiction novel ''Fahrenheit 451'', showcasing Truffaut's love of books.", "His only English-speaking film, made on location in England, was a great challenge for Truffaut, because he barely spoke English himself.", "Shot by cinematographer Nicolas Roeg, this was Truffaut's first film in colour.", "The larger-scale production was difficult for Truffaut, who had worked only with small crews and budgets.", "The shoot was also strained by a conflict with lead actor Oscar Werner, who was unhappy with his character and stormed off set, leaving Truffaut to shoot scenes using a body double shot from behind.", "The film was a commercial failure, and Truffaut never worked outside France again.", "The film's cult standing has steadily grown, although some critics remain dubious of it as an adaptation.", "A 2014 consideration of the film by Charles Silver praises it.Truffaut and Claude Jade at the première of ''Love on the Run'' in Luxembourg, April 1979===Thrillers and ''Stolen Kisses''===''Stolen Kisses'' (1968) was a continuation of the Antoine Doinel Cycle starring Claude Jade as Antoine's fiancée and later wife Christine Darbon.", "During its filming Truffaut fell in love with Jade and was briefly engaged to her.", "It was a big hit on the international art circuit.", "A short time later Jade made her Hollywood debut in Hitchcock's ''Topaz''.Truffaut worked on projects with varied subjects.", "''The Bride Wore Black'' (1968), a brutal tale of revenge, is a stylish homage to the films of Alfred Hitchcock (once again starring Moreau).", "''Mississippi Mermaid'' (1969), with Catherine Deneuve and Jean-Paul Belmondo, is an identity-bending romantic thriller.", "Both films are based on novels by Cornell Woolrich.", "''The Wild Child'' (1970) included Truffaut's acting debut in the lead role of 18th-century physician Jean Marc Gaspard Itard.===Doinel marries Christine===''Bed and Board'' (1970) was another Antoine Doinel film, also with Jade, now Léaud's on-screen-wife.", "''Two English Girls'' (1971) is the female reflection of the same love story as \"Jules et Jim\".", "It is based on a story by Henri-Pierre Roché, who wrote ''Jules and Jim'', about a man who falls equally in love with two sisters, and their love affair over a period of years.", "''Such a Gorgeous Kid Like Me'' (1972) was a screwball comedy that was not well received.===''Day for Night''===''Day for Night'' won Truffaut a Best Foreign Film Oscar.", "The film is probably his most reflective work.", "It is the story of a film crew trying to finish a film while dealing with the personal and professional problems that accompany making a movie.", "Truffaut plays the director of the fictional film being made.", "This film features scenes from his previous films.", "It is considered his best film since his earliest work.", "''Time'' magazine placed it on its list of 100 Best Films of the Century (along with ''The 400 Blows'').In 1975, Truffaut gained more notoriety with ''The Story of Adèle H.''; Isabelle Adjani in the title role earned a nomination for an Academy Award for Best Actress.", "His 1976 film ''Small Change'' was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Language Film.===The late 1970s and the last Doinel===''The Man Who Loved Women'' (1977), a romantic drama, was a minor hit.Truffaut also appeared in Steven Spielberg's 1977 ''Close Encounters of the Third Kind'' as scientist Claude Lacombe.", "''The Green Room'' (1978) starred Truffaut in the lead.", "It was a box-office flop, so he made ''Love on the Run'' (1979) starring Léaud and Jade as the final movie of the Doinel Cycle.===''The Last Metro''===One of Truffaut's final films gave him an international revival.", "''The Last Metro'' (1980) garnered 12 César Award nominations and 10 wins, including Best Director.===Final films and legacy===Truffaut's last film was shot in black and white, giving his career a sense of having bookends.", "''Confidentially Yours'' is Truffaut's tribute to his favourite director, Hitchcock.", "It deals with numerous Hitchcockian themes, such as private guilt versus public innocence, a woman investigating a murder, and anonymous locations.A keen reader, Truffaut adapted many literary works, including two novels by Henri-Pierre Roché, Ray Bradbury's ''Fahrenheit 451'', Henry James's \"The Altar of the Dead\", filmed as ''The Green Room'', and several American detective novels.Truffaut's other films were from original screenplays, often co-written by the screenwriters Suzanne Schiffman or Jean Gruault.", "They featured diverse subjects, the sombre ''The Story of Adèle H.'' inspired by the life of the daughter of Victor Hugo, with Isabelle Adjani; ''Day for Night'', shot at the Victorine Studios, depicting the ups and downs of filmmaking; and ''The Last Metro'', set during the German occupation of France during World War II, a film rewarded by ten César Awards.Known as a lifelong cinephile, Truffaut once (according to the 1993 documentary film ''François Truffaut: Stolen Portraits'') threw a hitchhiker out of his car after learning that he didn't like films.Many filmmakers admire Truffaut, and tributes to his work have appeared in films such as ''Almost Famous'', ''Face'' and ''The Diving Bell and the Butterfly'', as well as novelist Haruki Murakami's ''Kafka on the Shore''.", "In conversation with Michael Ondaatje, film editor Walter Murch mentions the influence Truffaut had on him as a young man, saying he was \"electrified\" by the freeze-frame at the end of ''The 400 Blows'', and that Godard's ''Breathless'' and Truffaut's ''Shoot the Piano Player'' reinforced the idea that he could make films.Roger Ebert included ''The 400 Blows'' in his canon of Great Movies, and concludes: \"one of his most curious, haunting films is ''The Green Room'' (1978), based on the Henry James story 'The Altar of the Dead,' about a man and a woman who share a passion for remembering their dead loved ones.", "Jonathan Rosenbaum, who thinks ''The Green Room'' may be Truffaut's best film, told me he thinks of it as the director's homage to the auteur theory.", "That theory, created by Bazin and his disciples (Truffaut, Godard, Resnais, Chabrol, Rohmer, Malle), declared that the director was the true author of a film—not the studio, the screenwriter, the star, the genre.", "If the figures in the green room stand for the great directors of the past, perhaps there is a shrine there now to Truffaut.", "One likes to think of the ghost of Antoine Doinel lighting a candle before it.\"" ], [ "Commentary of other filmmakers", "Truffaut expressed his admiration for filmmakers such as Luis Buñuel, Ingmar Bergman, Robert Bresson, Roberto Rossellini, and Alfred Hitchcock.", "He wrote ''Hitchcock/Truffaut'', a book about Hitchcock, based on a lengthy series of interviews.Of Jean Renoir, he said: \"I think Renoir is the only filmmaker who's practically infallible, who has never made a mistake on film.", "And I think if he never made mistakes, it's because he always found solutions based on simplicity—human solutions.", "He's one film director who never pretended.", "He never tried to have a style, and if you know his work—which is very comprehensive, since he dealt with all sorts of subjects—when you get stuck, especially as a young filmmaker, you can think of how Renoir would have handled the situation, and you generally find a solution\".Truffaut called German filmmaker Werner Herzog \"the most important film director alive.", "\"Truffaut and Jean-Luc Godard, his colleague from ''Les Cahiers du Cinéma'', worked together closely during their start as film directors although they had different working methods.", "Tensions came to the surface after May 68: Godard wanted a more political, specifically Marxist cinema, Truffaut was critical of creating films for primarily political purposes.", "In 1973, Godard wrote Truffaut a lengthy and raucous private letter peppered with accusations and insinuations, several times stating that as a filmmaker \"you're a liar\" and that his latest film (''Day for Night'') had been unsatisfying, lying and evasive: \"You're a liar, because the scene between you and Jacqueline Bisset last week at ''Francis'' a Paris restaurant isn't included in your movie, and one also can't help wondering why the director is the only guy who isn't sleeping around in ''Day for Night''\" (Truffaut directed the film, wrote it and played the director on the film set in the film).", "Godard also implied that Truffaut had gone commercial and easy.Truffaut replied with an angry 20-page letter in which he accused Godard of being a radical-chic hypocrite, a man who believed everyone to be \"equal\" in theory only.", "\"The Ursula Andress of militancy—like Brando—a piece of shit on a pedestal.\"", "Godard later tried to reconcile with Truffaut, but they never spoke to or saw each other again.", "After Truffaut's death, Godard wrote the introduction to a generous selection of his correspondence, and included his own 1973 letter.", "He also offered a long tribute in his film ''Histoire(s) du cinéma''." ], [ "Personal life", "Truffaut was married to Madeleine Morgenstern from 1957 to 1965, and they had two daughters, Laura (born 1959) and Eva (born 1961).", "Madeleine was the daughter of Ignace Morgenstern, managing director of one of France's largest film distribution companies, Cocinor, and was largely responsible for securing funding for Truffaut's first films.In 1968, Truffaut was engaged to actress Claude Jade (''Stolen Kisses'', ''Bed and Board'', ''Love on the Run''); he and Fanny Ardant (''The Woman Next Door'', ''Confidentially Yours'') lived together from 1981 to 1984 and had a daughter, Joséphine Truffaut (born 28 September 1983).Truffaut was an atheist, but had great respect for the Catholic Church and requested a Requiem Mass for his funeral." ], [ "Death", "Truffaut's grave in Montmartre Cemetery, ParisIn July 1983, following his first stroke and being diagnosed with a brain tumour, Truffaut rented France Gall's and Michel Berger's house outside Honfleur, Normandy.", "He was expected to attend his friend Miloš Forman's ''Amadeus'' premiere when he died on 21 October 1984, aged 52, at the American Hospital of Paris in Neuilly-sur-Seine in France.At the time of his death, he was said to have numerous further films in preparation.", "He is buried in Montmartre Cemetery." ], [ "Filmography", "=== Short film === Year Title Director Writer Notes 1955 ''Une Visite'' 1957 ''Les Mistons'' 1961 ''A Story of Water'' Co-directed with Jean-Luc Godard 1962 ''Antoine and Colette'' Segment from ''Love at Twenty''===Feature film=== Year Title Director Writer Producer Notes 1959 ''The 400 Blows'' 1960 ''Breathless'' ''Shoot the Piano Player'' ''The Army Game'' Co-directed with Claude de Givray 1962 ''Jules and Jim'' 1964 ''The Soft Skin'' 1966 ''Fahrenheit 451'' English debut 1968 ''The Bride Wore Black'' ''Stolen Kisses'' 1969 ''Mississippi Mermaid'' 1970 ''The Wild Child'' ''Bed and Board'' 1971 ''Two English Girls'' 1972 ''Such a Gorgeous Kid Like Me'' 1973 ''Day for Night'' 1975 ''The Story of Adèle H.'' 1976 ''Small Change'' 1977 ''The Man Who Loved Women'' 1978 ''The Green Room'' 1979 ''Love on the Run'' 1980 ''The Last Metro'' 1981 ''The Woman Next Door'' 1983 ''Confidentially Yours'' 1988 ''The Little Thief'' Posthumous release'''TV writer (Posthumous releases)''' Year Title Notes 1995 ''Belle Époque'' Miniseries 2019–2022 ''Lire'' 3 episodes=== Acting roles=== Year Title Role Notes1956 ''Fool's Mate'' Party guest Uncredited ''La sonate à Kreutzer'' 1959 ''The 400 Blows'' Man in Funfair Uncredited1963 ''À tout prendre'' Himself 1964 ''The Soft Skin'' Petrol pump attendant (Voice)1970 ''The Wild Child'' Dr. Jean Itard ''Bed and Board'' Newspaper vendor Voice, Uncredited1971 ''Two English Girls'' Récitant / Narrator 1972 ''Such a Gorgeous Kid Like Me'' 1973 ''Day for Night'' Ferrand, the film director 1975 ''The Story of Adèle H.'' Officer Uncredited1976 ''Small Change'' Martine's Father 1977 ''The Man Who Loved Women'' Man at Funeral ''Close Encounters of the Third Kind'' Claude Lacombe 1978 ''The Green Room'' Julien Davenne Lead role1981 ''The Woman Next Door'' Cameo Uncredited" ], [ "Awards and nominations", "'''Academy Awards''' Year Title Category Result Ref.", "1959 ''The 400 Blows'' Best Original Screenplay 1968 ''Stolen Kisses'' Best Foreign Language Film 1973 ''Day for Night'' Best Director Best Original Screenplay 1980 ''The Last Metro'' Best Foreign Language Film '''BAFTA Awards''' Year Title Category Result 1973 ''Day for Night'' Best Film Best Direction 1977 ''Close Encounters of the Third Kind'' Best Actor in a Supporting Role '''Berlin International Film Festival''' Year Title Category Result Ref.", "1976 ''Small Change'' Golden Bear 1977 ''The Man Who Loved Women'' 1979 ''Love on the Run'' '''Cannes Film Festival''' Year Title Category Result 1959 ''The 400 Blows'' Palme d'Or Best Director 1964 ''The Soft Skin'' Palme d'Or '''César Awards''' Year Title Category Result 1975 ''The Story of Adèle H.'' Best Director 1980 ''The Last Metro'' Best Film Best Director Best Writing 1983 ''Confidentially Yours'' Best Director '''Mar del Plata International Film Festival''' Year Title Category Result 1962 ''Jules and Jim'' Best Film Best Director '''Venice International Film Festival''' Year Title Category Result 1966 ''Fahrenheit 451'' Golden Lion" ], [ "Bibliography", "* ''Les 400 Coups'' (1960) with M. Moussy (English translation: ''The 400 Blows'')* ''Le Cinéma selon Alfred Hitchcock'' (1967, second edition 1983) (English translation: ''Hitchcock'' and ''Hitchcock/Truffaut'' with the collaboration of Helen G. Scott)* ''Les Aventures d'Antoine Doinel'' (1970) (English translation: ''Adventures of Antoine Doinel''; translated by Helen G. Scott)* ''Jules et Jim'' (film script) (1971) (English translation: ''Jules and Jim''; translated by Nicholas Fry)* ''La Nuit américaine et le Journal de Fahrenheit 451'' (1974)* ''Le Plaisir des yeux'' (1975)* ''L'Argent de poche'' (1976) (English title: ''Small Change: A Film Novel''; translated by Anselm Hollo)* ''L'Homme qui aimait les femmes'' (1977)* ''Les Films de ma vie'' (1981) (English translation: ''The Films in My Life'', translated by Leonard Mayhew)* '''' (1988) (English translation: ''Correspondence, 1945–1984''; translated by Gilbert Adair, released posthumously)* ''Le Cinéma selon François Truffaut'' (1988) edited by Anne Gillain (released posthumously)* ''Belle époque'' (1996) with Jean Gruault (released posthumously)" ], [ "See also", "* François Truffaut Award* ''Paris Belongs to Us''* ''Two in the Wave'', a 2010 documentary film about Truffaut's relationship with Jean-Luc Godard* La Cinémathèque Française will offer a full retrospective and an exhibition of François Truffaut's work in 2014 / 2015" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * ''New Wave Film Encyclopedia'': \"François Truffaut\" an extensive biography* ''François Truffaut complete biography'': \"François Truffaut\" * François Truffaut bibliography via the UC Berkeley Media Resources Center* Francois Truffaut at ''The Guardian Film''* Francois Truffaut at ''The New York Times Movies''* * Legendary interview with Truffaut from 1970* AllMovie.com Biography" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fair use" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fair use''' is a doctrine in United States law that permits limited use of copyrighted material without having to first acquire permission from the copyright holder.", "Fair use is one of the limitations to copyright intended to balance the interests of copyright holders with the public interest in the wider distribution and use of creative works by allowing as a defense to copyright infringement claims certain limited uses that might otherwise be considered infringement.", "The US \"fair use doctrine\" is generally broader than the \"fair dealing\" rights known in most countries that inherited English Common Law.", "The fair use right is a general exception that applies to all different kinds of uses with all types of works.", "In the U.S., fair use right/exception is based on a flexible proportionality test, that examines the purpose of the use, the amount used, and the impact on the market of the original work.The doctrine of \"fair use\" originated in common law during the 18th and 19th centuries as a way of preventing copyright law from being too rigidly applied and \"stifling the very creativity which copyright law is designed to foster.\"", "Though originally a common law doctrine, it was enshrined in statutory law when the U.S. Congress passed the Copyright Act of 1976.The U.S. Supreme Court has issued several major decisions clarifying and reaffirming the fair use doctrine since the 1980s, the most recent being in the 2021 decision ''Google LLC v. Oracle America, Inc.''" ], [ "History", "The 1710 Statute of Anne, an act of the Parliament of Great Britain, created copyright law to replace a system of private ordering enforced by the Stationers' Company.", "The Statute of Anne did not provide for legal unauthorized use of material protected by copyright.", "In ''Gyles v Wilcox'', the Court of Chancery established the doctrine of \"fair abridgement\", which permitted unauthorized abridgement of copyrighted works under certain circumstances.", "Over time, this doctrine evolved into the modern concepts of fair use and fair dealing.", "Fair use was a common-law (i.e.", "created by judges as a legal precedent) doctrine in the U.S. until it was incorporated into the Copyright Act of 1976, .The term \"fair use\" originated in the United States.", "Although related, the limitations and exceptions to copyright for teaching and library archiving in the U.S. are located in a different section of the statute.", "A similar-sounding principle, fair dealing, exists in some other common law jurisdictions but in fact it is more similar in principle to the enumerated exceptions found under civil law systems.", "Civil law jurisdictions have other limitations and exceptions to copyright.In response to perceived over-expansion of copyrights, several electronic civil liberties and free expression organizations began in the 1990s to add fair use cases to their dockets and concerns.", "These include the Electronic Frontier Foundation (\"EFF\"), the American Civil Liberties Union, the National Coalition Against Censorship, the American Library Association, numerous clinical programs at law schools, and others.", "The \"Chilling Effects\" archive was established in 2002 as a coalition of several law school clinics and the EFF to document the use of cease and desist letters.", "In 2006 Stanford University began an initiative called \"The Fair Use Project\" (FUP) to help artists, particularly filmmakers, fight lawsuits brought against them by large corporations." ], [ "U.S. fair use factors{{anchor|Use rationale|17 USC § 107}}<!-- a considerable number of Wikipedia's copyright templates link to this section.-->", "Examples of fair use in United States copyright law include commentary, search engines, criticism, parody, news reporting, research, and scholarship.", "Fair use provides for the legal, unlicensed citation or incorporation of copyrighted material in another author's work under a four-factor test.The U.S. Supreme Court has traditionally characterized fair use as an affirmative defense, but in ''Lenz v. Universal Music Corp.'' (2015) (the \"dancing baby\" case), the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit concluded that fair use was not merely a defense to an infringement claim, but was an expressly authorized right, and an exception to the exclusive rights granted to the author of a creative work by copyright law: \"Fair use is therefore distinct from affirmative defenses where a use infringes a copyright, but there is no liability due to a valid excuse, e.g., misuse of a copyright.", "\"Joseph Story wrote the opinion in ''Folsom v. Marsh''.The four factors of analysis for fair use set forth above derive from the opinion of Joseph Story in ''Folsom v. Marsh'', in which the defendant had copied 353 pages from the plaintiff's 12-volume biography of George Washington in order to produce a separate two-volume work of his own.", "The court rejected the defendant's fair use defense with the following explanation:The statutory fair use factors quoted above come from the Copyright Act of 1976, which is codified at .", "They were intended by Congress to restate, but not replace, the prior judge-made law.", "As Judge Pierre N. Leval has written, the statute does not \"define or explain fair use's contours or objectives.\"", "While it \"leaves open the possibility that other factors may bear on the question, the statute identifies none.\"", "That is, courts are entitled to consider other factors in addition to the four statutory factors.=== 1.Purpose and character of the use ===The first factor is \"the purpose and character of the use, including whether such use is of a commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes.\"", "To justify the use as fair, one must demonstrate how it either advances knowledge or the progress of the arts through the addition of something new.In the 1841 copyright case ''Folsom v. Marsh'', Justice Joseph Story wrote:A key consideration in later fair use cases is the extent to which the use is ''transformative''.", "In the 1994 decision ''Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music Inc'', the U.S. Supreme Court held that when the purpose of the use is transformative, this makes the first factor more likely to favor fair use.", "Before the ''Campbell'' decision, federal Judge Pierre Leval argued that transformativeness is central to the fair use analysis in his 1990 article, Toward a Fair Use Standard.", "''Blanch v. Koons'' is another example of a fair use case that focused on transformativeness.", "In 2006, Jeff Koons used a photograph taken by commercial photographer Andrea Blanch in a collage painting.", "Koons appropriated a central portion of an advertisement she had been commissioned to shoot for a magazine.", "Koons prevailed in part because his use was found transformative under the first fair use factor.The ''Campbell'' case also addressed the subfactor mentioned in the quotation above, \"whether such use is of a commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes.\"", "In an earlier case, ''Sony Corp. of America v. Universal City Studios, Inc.'', the Supreme Court had stated that \"every commercial use of copyrighted material is presumptively ...", "unfair.\"", "In ''Campbell'', the court clarified that this is not a \"hard evidentiary presumption\" and that even the tendency that commercial purpose will \"weigh against a finding of fair use ... will vary with the context.\"", "The ''Campbell'' court held that hip-hop group 2 Live Crew's parody of the song \"Oh, Pretty Woman\" was fair use, even though the parody was sold for profit.", "Thus, having a commercial purpose does not preclude a use from being found fair, even though it makes it less likely.Likewise, the noncommercial purpose of a use makes it more likely to be found a fair use, but it does not make it a fair use automatically.", "For instance, in ''L.A.", "Times v. Free Republic'', the court found that the noncommercial use of ''Los Angeles Times'' content by the Free Republic website was not fair use, since it allowed the public to obtain material at no cost that they would otherwise pay for.", "Richard Story similarly ruled in ''Code Revision Commission and State of Georgia v. Public.Resource.Org, Inc.'' that despite the fact that it is a non-profit and did not sell the work, the service profited from its unauthorized publication of the Official Code of Georgia Annotated because of \"the attention, recognition, and contributions\" it received in association with the work.Another factor is whether the use fulfills any of the preamble purposes, also mentioned in the legislation above, as these have been interpreted as \"illustrative\" of transformative use.In determining that Prince's appropriation art could constitute fair use and that many of his works were transformative fair uses of Cariou's photographs, the Second Circuit in ''Cariou v. Prince'', 714 F.3d 694 (2d.", "Cir.", "2013) shed light on the lens which transformative use is determined from.", "\"What is critical is how the work in question appears to the reasonable observer, not simply what an artist might say about a particular piece or body of work.\"", "Yet, the district court based its conclusion that Prince's work was not transformative in large part on Prince's deposition testimony that he \"doesn't really have a message,\" and that he was not \"trying to create anything with a new meaning or a new message.\"", "However, the artist's subjective message \"is not dispositive.\"", "Instead, how the artworks are \"reasonably be perceived\" is the focus of the transformative use inquiry.The transformativeness inquiry is a deceptively simple test to determine whether a new work has a different purpose and character from an original work.", "However, courts have not been consistent in deciding whether something is transformative.", "For instance, in Seltzer v. Green Day, Inc., 725 F.3d 1170 (9th Cir.", "2013), the court found that Green Day's use of Seltzer's copyrighted Scream Icon was transformative.", "The court held that Green Day's modifications to the original Scream Icon conveyed new information and aesthetics from the original piece.Conversely, the Second Circuit came to the opposite conclusion in a similar situation in Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts, Inc. v. Goldsmith, 11 F.4th 26 (2d.", "Cir.", "2021).", "In that case, the Warhol Foundation sought a declaratory judgment that Warhol's use of one of Goldsmith's celebrity photographs was fair use.", "The court held that Warhol's use was not transformative because Warhol merely imposed his own style on Goldsmith's photograph and retained the photograph's essential elements.=== 2.Nature of the copyrighted work ===The unpublished nature of J. D. Salinger's letters was a key issue in the court's analysis of the second fair use factor in ''Salinger v. Random House''.Although the Supreme Court has ruled that the availability of copyright protection should not depend on the artistic quality or merit of a work, fair use analyses consider certain aspects of the work to be relevant, such as whether it is fictional or non-fictional.To prevent the private ownership of work that rightfully belongs in the public domain, facts and ideas are not protected by copyright—only their particular expression or fixation merits such protection.", "On the other hand, the social usefulness of freely available information can weigh against the appropriateness of copyright for certain fixations.", "The Zapruder film of the assassination of President Kennedy, for example, was purchased and copyrighted by ''Time'' magazine.", "Yet its copyright was not upheld, in the name of the public interest, when ''Time'' tried to enjoin the reproduction of stills from the film in a history book on the subject in ''Time Inc v. Bernard Geis Associates''.In the decisions of the Second Circuit in ''Salinger v. Random House'' and in ''New Era Publications Int'l v. Henry Holt & Co'', the aspect of whether the copied work has been previously published was considered crucial, assuming the right of the original author to control the circumstances of the publication of his work or preference not to publish at all.", "However, Judge Pierre N. Leval views this importation of certain aspects of France's ''droit moral d'artiste'' (moral rights of the artist) into American copyright law as \"bizarre and contradictory\" because it sometimes grants greater protection to works that were created for private purposes that have little to do with the public goals of copyright law, than to those works that copyright was initially conceived to protect.", "This is not to claim that unpublished works, or, more specifically, works not intended for publication, do not deserve legal protection, but that any such protection should come from laws about privacy, rather than laws about copyright.", "The statutory fair use provision was amended in response to these concerns by adding a final sentence: \"The fact that a work is unpublished shall not itself bar a finding of fair use if such finding is made upon consideration of all the above factors.", "\"=== 3.Amount and substantiality ===The Ninth Circuit has held that the use of thumbnails in image search engines is fair use.The third factor assesses the amount and substantiality of the copyrighted work that has been used.", "In general, the less that is used in relation to the whole, the more likely the use will be considered fair.Using most or all of a work does not bar a finding of fair use.", "It simply makes the third factor less favorable to the defendant.", "For instance, in ''Sony Corp. of America v. Universal City Studios, Inc.'' copying entire television programs for private viewing was upheld as fair use, at least when the copying is done for the purposes of time-shifting.", "In ''Kelly v. Arriba Soft Corporation'', the Ninth Circuit held that copying an entire photo to use as a thumbnail in online search results did not even weigh against fair use, \"if the secondary user only copies as much as is necessary for his or her intended use\".However, even the use of a small percentage of a work can make the third factor unfavorable to the defendant, because the \"substantiality\" of the portion used is considered in addition to the amount used.", "For instance, in ''Harper & Row v. Nation Enterprises'', the U.S. Supreme Court held that a news article's quotation of fewer than 400 words from President Ford's 200,000-word memoir was sufficient to make the third fair use factor weigh against the defendants, because the portion taken was the \"heart of the work\".", "This use was ultimately found not to be fair.=== 4.Effect upon work's value ===The fourth factor measures the effect that the allegedly infringing use has had on the copyright owner's ability to exploit his original work.", "The court not only investigates whether the defendant's specific use of the work has significantly harmed the copyright owner's market, but also whether such uses in general, if widespread, would harm the potential market of the original.", "The burden of proof here rests on the copyright owner, who must demonstrate the impact of the infringement on commercial use of the work.For example, in ''Sony Corp v. Universal City Studios'', the copyright owner, Universal, failed to provide any empirical evidence that the use of Betamax had either reduced their viewership or negatively impacted their business.", "In ''Harper & Row,'' the case regarding President Ford's memoirs, the Supreme Court labeled the fourth factor \"the single most important element of fair use\" and it has enjoyed some level of primacy in fair use analyses ever since.", "Yet the Supreme Court's more recent announcement in ''Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music Inc'' that \"all four factors are to be explored, and the results weighed together, in light of the purposes of copyright\" has helped modulate this emphasis in interpretation.In evaluating the fourth factor, courts often consider two kinds of harm to the potential market for the original work.", "* First, courts consider whether the use in question acts as a direct market substitute for the original work.", "In ''Campbell'', the Supreme Court stated that \"when a commercial use amounts to mere duplication of the entirety of the original, it clearly supersedes the object of the original and serves as a market replacement for it, making it likely that cognizable market harm to the original will occur\".", "In one instance, a court ruled that this factor weighed against a defendant who had made unauthorized movie trailers for video retailers, since his trailers acted as direct substitutes for the copyright owner's official trailers.", "* Second, courts also consider whether potential market harm might exist beyond that of direct substitution, such as in the potential existence of a licensing market.", "This consideration has weighed against commercial copy shops that make copies of articles in course-packs for college students, when a market already existed for the licensing of course-pack copies.Courts recognize that certain kinds of market harm do not negate fair use, such as when a parody or negative review impairs the market of the original work.", "Copyright considerations may not shield a work against adverse criticism.=== Additional factors ===As explained by Judge Leval, courts are permitted to include additional factors in their analysis.One such factor is acknowledgement of the copyrighted source.", "Giving the name of the photographer or author may help, but it does not automatically make a use fair.", "While plagiarism and copyright infringement are related matters, they are not identical.", "Plagiarism (using someone's words, ideas, images, etc.", "without acknowledgment) is a matter of professional ethics, while copyright is a matter of law, and protects exact expression, ''not'' ideas.", "One can plagiarize even a work that is not protected by copyright, for example by passing off a line from Shakespeare as one's own.", "Conversely, attribution prevents accusations of plagiarism, but it does not prevent infringement of copyright.", "For example, reprinting a copyrighted book without permission, while citing the original author, would be copyright infringement but not plagiarism.=== U.S. fair use procedure and practice ===The U.S. Supreme Court described fair use as an affirmative defense in ''Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc.'' This means that in litigation on copyright infringement, the defendant bears the burden of raising and proving that the use was fair and not an infringement.", "Thus, fair use need not even be raised as a defense unless the plaintiff first shows (or the defendant concedes) a case of copyright infringement.", "If the work was not copyrightable, the term had expired, or the defendant's work borrowed only a small amount, for instance, then the plaintiff cannot make out a case of infringement, and the defendant need not even raise the fair use defense.", "In addition, fair use is only one of many limitations, exceptions, and defenses to copyright infringement.", "Thus, a case can be defeated without relying on fair use.", "For instance, the Audio Home Recording Act establishes that it is legal, using certain technologies, to make copies of audio recordings for non-commercial personal use.Some copyright owners claim infringement even in circumstances where the fair use defense would likely succeed, in hopes that the user will refrain from the use rather than spending resources in their defense.", "Strategic lawsuit against public participation (SLAPP) cases that allege copyright infringement, patent infringement, defamation, or libel may come into conflict with the defendant's right to freedom of speech, and that possibility has prompted some jurisdictions to pass anti-SLAPP legislation that raises the plaintiff's burdens and risk.Although fair use ostensibly permits certain uses without liability, many content creators and publishers try to avoid a potential court battle by seeking a legally unnecessary license from copyright owners for ''any'' use of non-public domain material, even in situations where a fair use defense would likely succeed.", "The simple reason is that the license terms negotiated with the copyright owner may be much less expensive than defending against a copyright suit, or having the mere possibility of a lawsuit threaten the publication of a work in which a publisher has invested significant resources.Fair use rights take precedence over the author's interest.", "Thus the copyright holder cannot use a non-binding disclaimer, or notification, to revoke the right of fair use on works.", "However, binding agreements such as contracts or licence agreements may take precedence over fair use rights.The practical effect of the fair use doctrine is that a number of conventional uses of copyrighted works are not considered infringing.", "For instance, quoting from a copyrighted work in order to criticize or comment upon it or teach students about it, is considered a fair use.", "Certain well-established uses cause few problems.", "A teacher who prints a few copies of a poem to illustrate a technique will have no problem on all four of the above factors (except possibly on amount and substantiality), but some cases are not so clear.", "All the factors are considered and balanced in each case: a book reviewer who quotes a paragraph as an example of the author's style will probably fall under fair use even though they may sell their review commercially; but a non-profit educational website that reproduces whole articles from technical magazines will probably be found to infringe if the publisher can demonstrate that the website affects the market for the magazine, even though the website itself is non-commercial.Fair use is decided on a case-by-case basis, on the entirety of circumstances.", "The same act done by different means or for a different purpose can gain or lose fair use status." ], [ "Fair use in particular areas", "=== Computer code ===The ''Oracle America, Inc. v. Google, Inc.'' case revolves around the use of application programming interfaces (APIs) used to define functionality of the Java programming language, created by Sun Microsystems and now owned by Oracle Corporation.", "Google used the APIs' definition and their structure, sequence and organization (SSO) in creating the Android operating system to support the mobile device market.", "Oracle had sued Google in 2010 over both patent and copyright violations, but after two cycles, the case matter was narrowed down to whether Google's use of the definition and SSO of Oracle's Java APIs (determined to be copyrightable) was within fair use.", "The Federal Circuit Court of Appeals has ruled against Google, stating that while Google could defend its use in the nature of the copyrighted work, its use was not transformative, and more significantly, it commercially harmed Oracle as they were also seeking entry to the mobile market.", "However, the U.S. Supreme Court reversed this decision, deciding that Google's actions satisfy all four tests for fair use, and that granting Oracle exclusive rights to use Java APIs on mobile markets \"would interfere with, not further, copyright's basic creativity objectives.", "\"=== Documentary films ===In April 2006, the filmmakers of the ''Loose Change'' series were served with a lawsuit by Jules and Gédéon Naudet over the film's use of their footage, specifically footage of the firefighters discussing the collapse of the World Trade Center.With the help of an intellectual property lawyer, the creators of Loose Change successfully argued that a majority of the footage used was for historical purposes and was significantly transformed in the context of the film.", "They agreed to remove a few shots that were used as B-roll and served no purpose to the greater discussion.", "The case was settled and a potential multimillion-dollar lawsuit was avoided.", "''This Film Is Not Yet Rated'' also relied on fair use to feature several clips from copyrighted Hollywood productions.", "The director had originally planned to license these clips from their studio owners but discovered that studio licensing agreements would have prohibited him from using this material to criticize the entertainment industry.", "This prompted him to invoke the fair use doctrine, which permits limited use of copyrighted material to provide analysis and criticism of published works.=== File sharing ===In 2009, fair use appeared as a defense in lawsuits against filesharing.", "Charles Nesson argued that file-sharing qualifies as fair use in his defense of alleged filesharer Joel Tenenbaum.", "Kiwi Camara, defending alleged filesharer Jammie Thomas, announced a similar defense.However, the Court in the case at bar rejected the idea that file-sharing is fair use.=== Internet publication ===A U.S. court case from 2003, ''Kelly v. Arriba Soft Corp.,'' provides and develops the relationship between thumbnails, inline linking, and fair use.", "In the lower District Court case on a motion for summary judgment, Arriba Soft's use of thumbnail pictures and inline linking from Kelly's website in Arriba Soft's image search engine was found not to be fair use.", "That decision was appealed and contested by Internet rights activists such as the Electronic Frontier Foundation, who argued that it was fair use.On appeal, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals found in favor of the defendant, Arriba Soft.", "In reaching its decision, the court utilized the statutory four-factor analysis.", "First, it found the purpose of creating the thumbnail images as previews to be sufficiently transformative, noting that they were not meant to be viewed at high resolution as the original artwork was.", "Second, the photographs had already been published, diminishing the significance of their nature as creative works.", "Third, although normally making a \"full\" replication of a copyrighted work may appear to violate copyright, here it was found to be reasonable and necessary in light of the intended use.", "Lastly, the court found that the market for the original photographs would not be substantially diminished by the creation of the thumbnails.", "To the contrary, the thumbnail searches could increase the exposure of the originals.", "In looking at all these factors as a whole, the court found that the thumbnails were fair use and remanded the case to the lower court for trial after issuing a revised opinion on July 7, 2003.The remaining issues were resolved with a default judgment after Arriba Soft had experienced significant financial problems and failed to reach a negotiated settlement.In August 2008, Judge Jeremy Fogel of the Northern District of California ruled in ''Lenz v. Universal Music Corp.'' that copyright holders cannot order a deletion of an online file without determining whether that posting reflected \"fair use\" of the copyrighted material.", "The case involved Stephanie Lenz, a writer and editor from Gallitzin, Pennsylvania, who made a home video of her thirteen-month-old son dancing to Prince's song \"Let's Go Crazy\" and posted the video on YouTube.", "Four months later, Universal Music, the owner of the copyright to the song, ordered YouTube to remove the video under the Digital Millennium Copyright Act.", "Lenz notified YouTube immediately that her video was within the scope of fair use, and she demanded that it be restored.", "YouTube complied after six weeks, rather than the two weeks required by the Digital Millennium Copyright Act.", "Lenz then sued Universal Music in California for her legal costs, claiming the music company had acted in bad faith by ordering removal of a video that represented fair use of the song.", "On appeal, the Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit ruled that a copyright owner must affirmatively consider whether the complained of conduct constituted fair use before sending a takedown notice under the Digital Millennium Copyright Act, rather than waiting for the alleged infringer to assert fair use.", "801 F.3d 1126 (9th Cir.", "2015).", "\"Even if, as Universal urges, fair use is classified as an 'affirmative defense,' we hold—for the purposes of the DMCA—fair use is uniquely situated in copyright law so as to be treated differently than traditional affirmative defenses.", "We conclude that because 17 U.S.C.", "§ 107 created a type of non-infringing use, fair use is \"authorized by the law\" and a copyright holder must consider the existence of fair use before sending a takedown notification under § 512(c).", "\"In June 2011, Judge Philip Pro of the District of Nevada ruled in ''Righthaven v. Hoehn'' that the posting of an entire editorial article from the ''Las Vegas Review-Journal'' in a comment as part of an online discussion was unarguably fair use.", "Judge Pro noted that \"Noncommercial, nonprofit use is presumptively fair.", "... Hoehn posted the Work as part of an online discussion.", "...", "This purpose is consistent with comment, for which 17 U.S.C.", "§ 107 provides fair use protection.", "...", "It is undisputed that Hoehn posted the entire work in his comment on the Website.", "... wholesale copying does not preclude a finding of fair use.", "... there is no genuine issue of material fact that Hoehn's use of the Work was fair and summary judgment is appropriate.\"", "On appeal, the Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit ruled that Righthaven did not even have the standing needed to sue Hoehn for copyright infringement in the first place.=== Professional communities ===In addition to considering the four fair use factors, courts deciding fair use cases also look to the standards and practices of the professional community where the case comes from.", "Among the communities are documentarians, librarians, makers of Open Courseware, visual art educators, and communications professors.Such codes of best practices have permitted communities of practice to make more informed risk assessments in employing fair use in their daily practice.", "For instance, broadcasters, cablecasters, and distributors typically require filmmakers to obtain errors and omissions insurance before the distributor will take on the film.", "Such insurance protects against errors and omissions made during the copyright clearance of material in the film.", "Before the ''Documentary Filmmakers' Statement of Best Practices in Fair Use'' was created in 2005, it was nearly impossible to obtain errors and omissions insurance for copyright clearance work that relied in part on fair use.", "This meant documentarians had either to obtain a license for the material or to cut it from their films.", "In many cases, it was impossible to license the material because the filmmaker sought to use it in a critical way.", "Soon after the best practices statement was released, all errors and omissions insurers in the U.S. shifted to begin offering routine fair use coverage.=== Music sampling ===Before 1991, sampling in certain genres of music was accepted practice and the copyright considerations were viewed as largely irrelevant.", "The strict decision against rapper Biz Markie's appropriation of a Gilbert O'Sullivan song in the case ''Grand Upright Music, Ltd. v. Warner Bros. Records Inc.'' changed practices and opinions overnight.", "Samples now had to be licensed, as long as they rose \"to a level of legally cognizable appropriation.\"", "This left the door open for the ''de minimis'' doctrine, for short or unrecognizable samples; such uses would not rise to the level of copyright infringement, because under the ''de minimis'' doctrine, \"the law does not care about trifles.\"", "However, three years later, the Sixth Circuit effectively eliminated the ''de minimis'' doctrine in the ''Bridgeport Music, Inc. v. Dimension Films'' case, holding that artists must \"get a license or do not sample\".", "The Court later clarified that its opinion did not apply to fair use, but between ''Grand Upright'' and ''Bridgeport'', practice had effectively shifted to eliminate unlicensed sampling.=== Parody ===Producers or creators of parodies of a copyrighted work have been sued for infringement by the targets of their ridicule, even though such use may be protected as fair use.", "These fair use cases distinguish between parodies, which use a work in order to poke fun at or comment on the work itself, and satire, which comments on something else.", "Courts have been more willing to grant fair use protections to parodies than to satires, but the ultimate outcome in either circumstance will turn on the application of the four fair use factors.For example, when Tom Forsythe appropriated Barbie dolls for his photography project \"Food Chain Barbie\" (depicting several copies of the doll naked and disheveled and about to be baked in an oven, blended in a food mixer, and the like), Mattel lost its copyright infringement lawsuit against him because his work effectively parodies Barbie and the values she represents.", "In ''Rogers v. Koons'', Jeff Koons tried to justify his appropriation of Art Rogers' photograph \"Puppies\" in his sculpture \"String of Puppies\" with the same parody defense.", "Koons lost because his work was not presented as a parody of Rogers' photograph in particular, but as a satire of society at large.", "This was insufficient to render the use fair.In ''Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music Inc'' the U.S. Supreme Court recognized parody as a potential fair use, even when done for profit.", "Roy Orbison's, Acuff-Rose Music, had sued 2 Live Crew in 1989 for their use of Orbison's \"Oh, Pretty Woman\" in a mocking rap version with altered lyrics.", "The Supreme Court viewed 2 Live Crew's version as a ridiculing commentary on the earlier work, and ruled that when the parody was itself the product rather than mere advertising, commercial nature did not bar the defense.", "The ''Campbell'' court also distinguished parodies from satire, which they described as a broader social critique not intrinsically tied to ridicule of a specific work and so not deserving of the same use exceptions as parody because the satirist's ideas are capable of expression without the use of the other particular work.A number of appellate decisions have recognized that a parody may be a protected fair use, including the Second (''Leibovitz v. Paramount Pictures Corp.''); the Ninth (''Mattel v. Walking Mountain Productions''); and the Eleventh Circuits (''Suntrust Bank v. Houghton Mifflin Co.'').", "In the 2001 ''Suntrust Bank'' case, Suntrust Bank and the Margaret Mitchell estate unsuccessfully brought suit to halt the publication of ''The Wind Done Gone'', which reused many of the characters and situations from ''Gone with the Wind'' but told the events from the point of view of the enslaved people rather than the slaveholders.", "The Eleventh Circuit, applying ''Campbell'', found that ''The Wind Done Gone'' was fair use and vacated the district court's injunction against its publication.Cases in which a satirical use was found to be fair include ''Blanch v. Koons'' and ''Williams v. Columbia Broadcasting Systems''.=== Text and data mining ===The transformative nature of computer based analytical processes such as text mining, web mining and data mining has led many to form the view that such uses would be protected under fair use.", "This view was substantiated by the rulings of Judge Denny Chin in ''Authors Guild, Inc. v. Google, Inc.'', a case involving mass digitisation of millions of books from research library collections.", "As part of the ruling that found the book digitisation project was fair use, the judge stated \"Google Books is also transformative in the sense that it has transformed book text into data for purposes of substantive research, including data mining and text mining in new areas\".Text and data mining was subject to further review in ''Authors Guild v. HathiTrust'', a case derived from the same digitization project mentioned above.", "Judge Harold Baer, in finding that the defendant's uses were transformative, stated that 'the search capabilities of the HathiTrust Digital Library have already given rise to new methods of academic inquiry such as text mining.", "\"=== Reverse engineering ===There is a substantial body of fair use law regarding reverse engineering of computer software, hardware, network protocols, encryption and access control systems.=== Social media ===In May 2015, artist Richard Prince released an exhibit of photographs at the Gagosian Gallery in New York, entitled \"New Portraits\".", "His exhibit consisted of screenshots of Instagram users' pictures, which were largely unaltered, with Prince's commentary added beneath.", "Although no Instagram users authorized Prince to use their pictures, Prince argued that the addition of his own commentary the pictures constituted fair use, such that he did not need permission to use the pictures or to pay royalties for his use.", "One of the pieces sold for $90,000.With regard to the works presented by Painter, the gallery where the pictures were showcased posted notices that \"All images are subject to copyright.\"", "Several lawsuits were filed against Painter over the New Portraits exhibit." ], [ "Influence internationally", "While U.S. fair use law has been influential in some countries, some countries have fair use criteria drastically different from those in the U.S., and some countries do not have a fair use framework at all.", "Some countries have the concept of fair dealing instead of fair use, while others use different systems of limitations and exceptions to copyright.", "Many countries have some reference to an exemption for educational use, though the extent of this exemption varies widely.Sources differ on whether fair use is fully recognized by countries other than the United States.", "American University's ''infojustice.org'' published a compilation of portions of over 40 nations' laws that explicitly mention fair use or fair dealing, and asserts that some of the fair dealing laws, such as Canada's, have evolved (such as through judicial precedents) to be quite close to those of the United States.", "This compilation includes fair use provisions from Bangladesh, Israel, South Korea, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Uganda, and the United States.", "However, Paul Geller's 2009 ''International Copyright Law and Practice'' says that while some other countries recognize similar exceptions to copyright, only the United States and Israel fully recognize the concept of fair use.The International Intellectual Property Alliance (IIPA), a lobby group of U.S. copyright industry bodies, has objected to international adoption of U.S.-style fair use exceptions, alleging that such laws have a dependency on common law and long-term legal precedent that may not exist outside the United States.=== Israel ===In November 2007, the Israeli Knesset passed a new copyright law that included a U.S.-style fair use exception.", "The law, which took effect in May 2008, permits the fair use of copyrighted works for purposes such as private study, research, criticism, review, news reporting, quotation, or instruction or testing by an educational institution.", "The law sets up four factors, similar to the U.S. fair use factors (see above), for determining whether a use is fair.On September 2, 2009, the Tel Aviv District court ruled in ''The Football Association Premier League Ltd. v. Ploni'' that fair use is a user right.", "The court also ruled that streaming of live soccer games on the Internet is fair use.", "In doing so, the court analyzed the four fair use factors adopted in 2007 and cited U.S. case law, including ''Kelly v. Arriba Soft Corp.'' and ''Perfect 10, Inc. v. Amazon.com, Inc.''.=== Malaysia ===An amendment in 2012 to the section 13(2)(a) of the Copyright Act 1987 created an exception called 'fair dealing' which is not restricted in its purpose.", "The four factors for fair use as specified in US law are included.=== Poland ===Fair use exists in Polish law and is covered by the Polish copyright law articles 23 to 35.Compared to the United States, Polish fair use distinguishes between private and public use.", "In Poland, when the use is public, its use risks fines.", "The defendant must also prove that his use was private when accused that it was not, or that other mitigating circumstances apply.", "Finally, Polish law treats all cases in which private material was made public as a potential copyright infringement, where fair use can apply, but has to be proven by reasonable circumstances.=== Singapore ===Section 35 of the Singaporean Copyright Act 1987 has been amended in 2004 to allow a 'fair dealing' exception for any purpose.", "The four fair use factors similar to US law are included in the new section 35.=== South Korea ===The Korean Copyright Act was amended to include a fair use provision, Article 35–3, in 2012.The law outlines a four-factor test similar to that used under U.S. law:" ], [ "Fair dealing", "Fair dealing allows specific exceptions to copyright protections.", "The open-ended concept of fair use is generally not observed in jurisdictions where fair dealing is in place, although this does vary.", "Fair dealing is established in legislation in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Singapore, India, South Africa and the United Kingdom, among others.=== Australia ===While Australian copyright exceptions are based on the Fair Dealing system, since 1998 a series of Australian government inquiries have examined, and in most cases recommended, the introduction of a \"flexible and open\" Fair Use system into Australian copyright law.", "From 1998 to 2017 there have been eight Australian government inquiries which have considered the question of whether fair use should be adopted in Australia.", "Six reviews have recommended Australia adopt a \"Fair Use\" model of copyright exceptions: two enquiries specifically into the Copyright Act (1998, 2014); and four broader reviews (both 2004, 2013, 2016).", "One review (2000) recommended against the introduction of fair use and another (2005) issued no final report.", "Two of the recommendations were specifically in response to the stricter copyright rules introduced as part of the Australia–United States Free Trade Agreement (AUSFTA), while the most recent two, by the Australian Law Reform Commission (ALRC) and the Productivity Commission (PC) were with reference to strengthening Australia's \"digital economy\".=== Canada ===The ''Copyright Act of Canada'' establishes fair dealing in Canada, which allows specific exceptions to copyright protection.", "In 1985, the Sub-Committee on the Revision of Copyright rejected replacing fair dealing with an open-ended system, and in 1986 the Canadian government agreed that \"the present fair dealing provisions should not be replaced by the substantially wider 'fair use' concept\".", "Since then, the Canadian fair dealing exception has broadened.", "It is now similar in effect to U.S. fair use, even though the frameworks are different.", "''CCH Canadian Ltd v. Law Society of Upper Canada'' 2004 1 S.C.R.", "339, is a landmark Supreme Court of Canada case that establishes the bounds of fair dealing in Canadian copyright law.", "The Law Society of Upper Canada was sued for copyright infringement for providing photocopy services to researchers.", "The Court unanimously held that the Law Society's practice fell within the bounds of fair dealing.=== United Kingdom ===Within the United Kingdom, fair dealing is a legal doctrine that provides an exception to the nation's copyright law in cases where the copyright infringement is for the purposes of non-commercial research or study, criticism or review, or for the reporting of current events." ], [ "Policy arguments about fair use", "A balanced copyright law provides an economic benefit to many high-tech businesses such as search engines and software developers.", "Fair use is also crucial to non-technology industries such as insurance, legal services, and newspaper publishers.On September 12, 2007, the Computer and Communications Industry Association (CCIA), a group representing companies including Google Inc., Microsoft Inc., Oracle Corporation, Sun Microsystems, Yahoo!", "and other high-tech companies, released a study that found that fair use exceptions to US copyright laws were responsible for more than $4.5 trillion in annual revenue for the United States economy representing one-sixth of the total US GDP.", "The study was conducted using a methodology developed by the World Intellectual Property Organization.The study found that fair use dependent industries are directly responsible for more than eighteen percent of US economic growth and nearly eleven million American jobs.", "\"As the United States economy becomes increasingly knowledge-based, the concept of fair use can no longer be discussed and legislated in the abstract.", "It is the very foundation of the digital age and a cornerstone of our economy,\" said Ed Black, President and CEO of CCIA.", "\"Much of the unprecedented economic growth of the past ten years can actually be credited to the doctrine of fair use, as the Internet itself depends on the ability to use content in a limited and unlicensed manner.\"" ], [ "Fair Use Week", "Fair Use Week is an international event that celebrates fair use and fair dealing.", "Fair Use Week was first proposed on a Fair Use Allies listserv, which was an outgrowth of the Library Code of Best Practices Capstone Event, celebrating the development and promulgation of ARL's ''Code of Best Practices in Fair Use for Academic and Research Libraries''.", "While the idea was not taken up nationally, Copyright Advisor at Harvard University, launched the first ever Fair Use Week at Harvard University in February 2014, with a full week of activities celebrating fair use.", "The first Fair Use Week included blog posts from national and international fair use experts, live fair use panels, fair use workshops, and a Fair Use Stories Tumblr blog, where people from the world of art, music, film, and academia shared stories about the importance of fair use to their community.", "The first Fair Use Week was so successful that in 2015 ARL teamed up with Courtney and helped organize the Second Annual Fair Use Week, with participation from many more institutions.", "ARL also launched an official Fair Use Week website, which was transferred from Pia Hunter, who attended the Library Code of Best Practices Capstone Event and had originally purchased the domain name fairuseweek.org." ], [ "See also", "* Abandonware* Berne three-step test* Copyright limitations, exceptions, and defenses in the U.S.* Copyfraud* Creative Commons* Derivative work* Fair use (U.S. trademark law)* Scènes à faire doctrine* TEACH Act, an additional law for educational and governmental institutions that provides some additional copyright exceptions" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * United States.", "Congress.", "House of Representatives (2014).", "The Scope of Fair Use: Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Courts, Intellectual Property, and the Internet of the Committee on the Judiciary, House of Representatives, One Hundred Thirteenth Congress, Second Session, January 28, 2014." ], [ "External links", "* U.S.", "Copyright Office Fair Use Index, a database of fair use cases in U.S. federal courts* The Fair Use/Fair Handbook, a compilation of national statutes that refer to fair use or fair dealing* CHEER, a repository of copyright educational resources for higher education" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Flying car" ], [ "Introduction", "Convair Model 118, a prototype flying car from 1947, in flightThe Waterman Arrowbile at the SmithsonianJess Dixon's flying automobile c. 1940Fulton Airphibian FA-3-101Moulton Taylor's Aerocar IIIMizar by Advanced Vehicle Engineers, August 1973A '''flying car''' or '''roadable aircraft''' is a type of vehicle which can function both as a road vehicle and as an aircraft.", "As used here, this includes vehicles which drive as motorcycles when on the road.", "The term \"flying car\" is also sometimes used to include hovercars and/or VTOL personal air vehicles.", "Many prototypes have been built since the early 20th century, using a variety of flight technologies.", "Most have been designed to take off and land conventionally using a runway.", "Although VTOL projects are increasing, none has yet been built in more than a handful of numbers.Their appearance is often predicted by futurologists, and many concept designs have been promoted.", "Their failure to become a practical reality has led to the catchphrase \"Where's my flying car?", "\", as a paradigm for the failure of predicted technologies to appear.", "Flying cars are also a popular theme in fantasy and science fiction stories." ], [ "History", "===Early 20th century===In the late 1800s, American immigrant Gustave Whitehead designed aircraft with wheels and a gasoline-powered engine, including his no.21 model built in 1901.Consensus among historians is that Whitehead's no.", "21 did not achieve sustained self-powered flight.", "Some historians continue to assert Whitehead's craft flew at various dates prior to the Wright Brothers' craft, based on a series of unverifiable and contradictory eye-witness accounts.Aircraft designer Glenn Curtiss built his Autoplane in 1917.It had a pusher propeller for flight, with removable flight surfaces including a triplane wing, canard foreplane and twin tails.", "It was able to hop, but not fly.In 1935, Constantinos Vlachos built a prototype of a 'tri-phibian' vehicle with a circular wing, but it caught fire after the engine exploded while he was demonstrating it in Washington, D.C. Vlachos was badly injured and spent several months in hospital.", "The machine is most notable for a newsreel that captured the incident.The Autogiro Company of America AC-35 was a prototype roadable autogyro, flown on 26 March 1936 by test pilot James G. Ray.", "Forward thrust was initially provided by twin counter-rotating propellers for thrust, later replaced with a single propeller.", "On 26 October 1936, the aircraft was converted to roadable configuration.", "Ray drove it to the main entrance of the Commerce Building, Washington, D.C., where it was accepted by John H. Geisse, chief of the Aeronautics Branch.", "Although it had been successfully tested, it did not enter production.The first fixed wing roadable aircraft to fly was built by Waldo Waterman.", "Waterman was associated with Curtiss while Curtiss was pioneering amphibious aircraft at North Island on San Diego Bay in the 1910s.", "On 21 March 1937, Waterman's Arrowbile first took to the air.", "The Arrowbile was a development of Waterman's tailless aircraft, the Whatsit.", "It had a wingspan of and a length of .", "On the ground and in the air it was powered by a Studebaker engine.", "It could fly at and drive at .In 1942, the British army built the Hafner Rotabuggy, an experimental roadable autogyro that was developed with the intention of producing a way of air-dropping off-road vehicles.", "Although initial tests showed that the Rotabuggy was prone to severe vibration at speeds greater than , with improvements the Rotabuggy achieved a flight speed of .", "However, the introduction of gliders that could carry vehicles (such as the Waco Hadrian and Airspeed Horsa) led to the project's cancellation.===Late 20th century===Although several designs (such as the ConVairCar) have flown, none have enjoyed commercial success, and those that have flown are not widely known by the general public.", "The most successful example, in that several were made and one is still flying, is the 1949 Taylor Aerocar.In 1946, the Fulton FA-2 Airphibian was an American made flying car designed by Robert Edison Fulton Jr., it was an aluminum-bodied car, built with independent suspension, aircraft-sized wheels, and a six-cylinder 165 hp engine.", "The fabric wings were easily attached to the fuselage, converting the car into a plane.", "Four prototypes were built.", "Charles Lindbergh flew it 1950 and, although it was not a commercial success (financial costs of airworthiness certification forced him to relinquish control of the company, which never developed it further), it is now in the Smithsonian.1949 Aerocar with wings folded, at the EAA AirVenture MuseumThe Aerocar, designed and built by Molt Taylor, made a successful flight in December 1949, and in following years versions underwent a series of road and flying tests.", "Chuck Berry featured the concept in his 1956 song \"You Can't Catch Me\", and in December 1956 the Civil Aviation Authority approved the design for mass production, but despite wide publicity and an improved version produced in 1989, Taylor did not succeed in getting the flying car into production.", "In total, six Aerocars were built.", "It is considered to be one of the first practical flying cars.One notable design was Henry Smolinski's Mizar, made by mating the rear end of a Cessna Skymaster with a Ford Pinto, but it disintegrated during test flights killing Smolinski and the pilot.Moller began developing VTOL craft in the late 1960s, but no Moller vehicle has ever achieved free flight out of ground effect.", "The Moller Skycar M400 was a project for a personal VTOL (vertical take-off and landing) aircraft which is powered by four pairs of in-tandem Wankel rotary engines.", "The proposed Autovolantor model had an all-electric version powered by Altairnano batteries.", "The company has been dormant since 2015.In the mid-1980s, former Boeing engineer Fred Barker founded Flight Innovations Inc. and began the development of the Sky Commuter, a small duct fans-based VTOL aircraft.", "It was a compact, two-passenger and was made primarily of composite materials.", "In 2008, the remaining prototype was sold for £86k on eBay.===21st century===Parajet Skycar prototype seen at the Sport and Leisure Aviation Show (SPLASH), Birmingham, UK, November 2008Prototype Terrafugia Transition at the N.Y. Int'l Auto Show in April 2012Super Sky CycleMaverick Flying Dune BuggyPlane Driven PD-1 Roadable GlastarIn 2009 the U.S., the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) initiated the $65 million Transformer program to develop a four-person roadable aircraft by 2015.The vehicle was to have had VTOL capability and a range.", "AAI Corporation and Lockheed Martin were awarded contracts.", "The program was cancelled in 2013.The Parajet Skycar utilises a paramotor for propulsion and a parafoil for lift.", "The main body consists of a modified dune buggy.", "It has a top speed of and a maximum range of in flight.", "On the ground it has a top speed of and a maximum range of .", "Parajet flew and drove its prototype from London to Timbuktu in January 2009.The Maverick Flying Dune Buggy was designed by the Indigenous People's Technology and Education Center of Florida as an off-road vehicle that could unfurl an advanced parachute and then travel by air over impassable terrain when roadways were no longer usable.", "The 'Maverick' vehicle is powered by a engine that can also drive a five-bladed pusher propeller.", "It was initially conceived in order to help minister to remote Amazon rainforest communities, but will also be marketed for visual pipeline inspection and other similar activities in desolate areas or difficult terrain.The Plane Driven PD-1 Roadable Glastar is a modification to the Glastar Sportsman GS-2 to make a practical roadable aircraft.", "The approach is novel in that it uses a mostly stock aircraft with a modified landing gear \"pod\" that carries the engine for road propulsion.", "The wings fold along the side, and the main landing gear and engine pod slide aft in driving configuration to compensate for the rearward center of gravity with the wings folded, and provide additional stability for road travel.The Super Sky Cycle was an American homebuilt roadable gyroplane designed and manufactured by The Butterfly Aircraft LLC.", "It is a registered motorcycle.At the 2014 Pioneers Festival at Wien (Austria) AeroMobil presented their version 3.0 of their flying car.", "The prototype was conceived as a vehicle that can be converted from an automobile to an aircraft.", "The version 2.5 proof-of-concept took 20 years to develop and first flew in 2013.CEO Juraj Vaculik said that the company planned to move flying cars to market: \"the plan is that in 2017 we'll be able to announce ... the first flying roadster.\"", "In 2016, AeroMobil was test-flying a prototype that obtained Slovak ultralight certification.", "When the final product will be available or how much it will cost is not yet specified.", "In 2018, it unveiled a concept that resembled a flying sportscar with VTOL capability.", "The Aeromobil 2.5 has folding wings and a Rotax 912 engine.", "It can travel at with a range of , and flew for the first time in 2013.On 29 October 2014, Slovak startup AeroMobil s.r.o.", "unveiled AeroMobil 3.0 at Vienna Pioneers Festival.Klein Vision in Slovakia have developed a prototype AirCar, which drives like a sports car and for flight has a pusher propeller with twin tailbooms, and foldout wings.", "In June 2021, the prototype carried out a 35-minute flight between airports.", "It was type certified as an aircraft in January 2022.The Terrafugia Transition is a roadable aircraft intended to be classed as a Personal Air Vehicle.", "It can fold its wings in 30 seconds and drive the front wheels, enabling it to operate both as a traditional road vehicle and as a general aviation aeroplane with a range of .", "An operational prototype was displayed at Oshkosh in 2008 and its first flight took place on 2009-03-05.It will carry two people plus luggage and its Rotax 912S engine operates on premium unleaded gas.", "It was approved by the FAA in June 2010.The production-ready single-engine, roadable PAL-V Liberty autogyro, or gyrocopter, debuted at the Geneva Motor Show in March 2018, then became the first flying car in production, and was set to launch in 2020, with full production scheduled for 2021 in Gujarat, India.", "The PAL-V ONE is a hybrid of a gyrocopter with a leaning 3-wheel motorcycle.", "It has two seats and a 160 kW flight certified gasoline engine.", "It has a top speed of on land and in air, and weighs max.On 15 April 2021, Los Altos, California, became home to the world's first consumer flying car showroom.", "However, as yet there are no certified flying cars in production.In 2023 Doroni Aerospace earned an official FAA Airworthiness Certification.", "It is powered by ten independent propulsion systems.", "They company claimed a top speed of 140 mph and a 60-mile range.", "It includes two electric motors with patented ducted propellers.", "The machine is 23 ft long and 14 ft wide." ], [ "Design", "A flying car must be capable of safe and reliable operation both on public roads and in the air.", "For mass adoption, it will also need to be environmentally friendly, able to fly without a fully qualified pilot at the controls, and come at affordable purchase and running costs.Design configurations vary widely, from modified road vehicles such as the AVE Mizar at one extreme to modified aircraft such as the Plane Driven PD-1 at the other.", "Most are dedicated flying car designs.", "While wheeled propulsion is necessary on the road, in the air lift may be generated by fixed wings, helicopter rotors or direct engine power.", "The Alef Model A project offers an unusual configuration in which the body of the car is hollow and the sides are slabs; in the air it rolls sideways so that the slabs become a biplane wing.", "The cabin remains upright.===Lift===Like other aircraft, lift in flight is provided by a fixed wing, spinning rotor or direct powered lift.", "The powered helicopter rotor and direct lift both offer VTOL capability, while the fixed wing and autogyro rotor take off conventionally from a runway.The simplest and earliest approach was to take a driveable car and attach removable flying surfaces and propeller.", "However, when on the road, such a design must either tow its removable parts on a separate trailer or leave them behind and drive back to them before taking off again.Other conventional takeoff fixed-wing designs, such as the Terrafugia Transition, include folding wings that the car carries with it when driven on the road.Vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) is attractive, as it avoids the need for a runway and greatly increases operational flexibility.", "Typical designs include rotorcraft and ducted fan powered lift configurations.", "Most design concepts have inherent problems.Rotorcraft include helicopters with powered rotors and autogyros with free-spinning rotors.", "For road use, a rotor must, like many naval helicopters, be either two-bladed or foldable.", "The quadcopter requires only a simple control system with no tail.", "The autogyro relies on a separate thrust system to build up airspeed, spin the rotor and generate lift.", "However, some autogyros have rotors that can be spun up on the ground and then disengaged, allowing the aircraft to jump-start vertically.", "The PAL-V Liberty is an example of the autogyro type.Ducted-fan aircraft such as the Moller Skycar tend to easily lose stability and have been unable to travel at greater than 30–40 knots.===Power===The flying car places unique demands on the vehicle power train.", "For a given all-up weight, an aero engine must deliver higher power than its typical road equivalent.", "However, on the road the vehicle must handle well and not be overpowered.", "Power must also be diverted between the airborne and road drive mechanisms.", "Some designs therefore have multiple engines, with the road engine being supplemented, or even replaced by, additional flight engines.As with other vehicles, power has traditionally been supplied by internal combustion engines, but electric power is undergoing rapid development.", "It is coming into increasing use on road vehicles, but the weight of the batteries currently makes it unsuited to aircraft.", "However its low environmental signature makes it attractive for the short trips and dense urban environments envisaged for the flying car.On the road, most flying cars drive the road wheels in the conventional way.", "A few use the aircraft propeller in similar manner to an airboat, but this is inefficient.In the air, a flying car will typically obtain forward thrust from one or more propellers or ducted fans.", "A few have a powered helicopter rotor.", "Jet engines are not used due to the ground hazard posed by the hot, high-velocity exhaust stream.===Safety===In order to operate safely, a flying car must be certified independently as both a road vehicle and an aircraft, by the respective authorities.", "The person controlling the vehicle must also be licensed as both driver and pilot, and the vehicle maintained according to both regimes.Mechanically, the requirements of powered flight are so challenging that every opportunity must be taken to keep weight to a minimum.", "A typical airframe is therefore lightweight and easily damaged.", "On the other hand, a road vehicle must be able to withstand significant impact loads from casual incidents while stationary, as well as low-speed and high-speed impacts, and the high strength this demands can add considerable weight.", "A practical flying car must be both strong enough to pass road safety standards and light enough to fly.", "Any propeller or rotor blade also creates a hazard to passers-by when on the ground, especially if it is spinning; they must be permanently shrouded, or folded away on landing.For widespread adoption, as envisaged in the near future, it will not be practicable for every driver to qualify as a pilot and the rigorous maintenance currently demanded for aircraft will be uneconomic.", "Flying cars will have to become largely autonomous and highly reliable.", "The density of traffic will require automated routing and collision-avoidance systems.", "To manage the inevitable periodic failures and emergency landings, there will need to be sufficient designated landing sites across built-up areas.", "In addition, poor weather conditions could make the craft unsafe to fly.Regulatory regimes are being developed in anticipation of a large increase in the numbers of autonomous flying cars and personal air vehicles in the near future, and compliance with these regimes will be necessary for safe flight.===Control===A basic flying car requires the person at the controls to be both a qualified road driver and aircraft pilot.", "This is impractical for the majority of people and so wider adoption will require computer systems to de-skill piloting.", "These skills include aircraft manoeuvring, navigation and emergency procedures, all in potentially crowded airspace.", "The onboard control system will also need to interact with other systems such as air traffic control and collision-risk monitoring.", "A practical flying car may need to be capable of full autonomy, in which people are present only as passengers.===Environment===A flying car capable of widespread use must operate acceptably within a heavily populated urban environment.", "The lift and propulsion systems must be quiet enough not to cause a nuisance, and must not create excessive pollution.", "For example, pollution emissions standards for road vehicles must be met.The clear environmental benefits of electric power are a strong incentive for its development.===Cost===The needs for the propulsion system to be both small and powerful, the vehicle structure both light and strong, and the control systems fully integrated and autonomous, can only be met at present, if at all, using advanced and expensive technologies.", "This may prove a significant barrier to widespread adoption.Flying cars are used for relatively short distances at high frequency.", "They travel at lower speeds and altitudes than conventional passenger aircraft.", "However optimal fuel efficiency for aeroplanes is obtained at higher speeds and altitudes, so a flying car's energy efficiency will be lower than that of a conventional aircraft.", "Similarly, the flying car's road performance is compromised by the requirements of flight and the need to carry around the various extra parts, so it is also less economical than a conventional motor car." ], [ "Industry groups", "In April 2012, the International Flying Car Association was established to be the \"central resource center for information and communication between the flying car industry, news networks, governments, and those seeking further information worldwide\".", "Because flying cars need practical regulations that are mostly dealt with on a regional level, several regional associations were established as well, with the European Flying Car Association (EFCA) representing these national member associations on a pan-European level (51 independent countries, including the European Union Member States, the Accession Candidates and Russia, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine).", "The associations are also organizing racing competitions for roadable aircraft in Europe, the European Roadable Aircraft Prix (ERAP), mainly to increase awareness about this type of aircraft among a broader audience." ], [ "List of flying cars", " Aerauto PL.5C Italy Folding wings 1949 Flown 1 Aerocar US Detachable wings 1946 Flown 5 4 Aerocars and one Aerocar III built (The Mk.", "II was not a flying car).", "Aerocar 2000 US Detachable wings 2000 approx.", "Flown AeroMobil Slovakia Folding wings 2013 Flown v3.0 crashed.", "4.0 under development Alef Model A US Tilting biplane 2023 Unbuilt 0 Attracted significant investment.", "Audi Pop.Up Next Germany Quadcopter 2018 Unbuilt 1 Autogiro Company of America AC-35 US Autogyro 1935 Flown 1 AVE Mizar US Detachable wings 1971 Flown 1 Bel Geddes' \"Motorcar No.", "9.\"", "US Folding wings 1945 Unbuilt Concept Bryan Autoplane US Folding wings 1953 Flown 2 Model II converted to Model III.", "Butterfly Super Sky Cycle US Flown 2009 Flown Homebuild autogyro.", "Registered motorcycle Convair Model 116 ConVairCar US Detachable wings 1946 Flown 1 Convair Model 118 ConVairCar US Detachable wings 1947 Flown 2 Second vehicle re-used the aircraft section from the first.", "Curtiss Autoplane US Detachable wings 1917 Not flown 1 Achieved short hops Dixon Flying Ginny US Helicopter 1940 Flown 1 Co-axial rotor.", "Ford Volante US Ducted fan 1958 Unbuilt Concept.", "Fulton Airphibian US Detachable wings 1946 Flown 4 Hafner Rotabuggy UK Detachable rotor 1942 Flown Willys MB jeep, air-towed as a rotor kite.", "I-TEC Maverick US Parafoil 2008 Flown Klein Vision AirCar Slovakia Folding wings 2021 Flown 1 Production model in development.", "Lebouder Autoplane France Detachable wings 1973 Flown 1 Won prizes.", "Moller M400 Skycar US Vectored fan 1960s Not flown Unsuccessful as of 2019 ''Monster Garage'' \"Red Baron\" US Detachable wings 2005 Flown 1 Based on a Panoz Esperante sports car, with detachable airframe.", "PAL-V Liberty Netherlands Autogyro 2012 Flown Production model under development.", "Parajet Skycar UK Parafoil 2008 Flown 1 Piasecki VZ-8 Airgeep US Ducted rotor 1959 Flown VTOL \"flying jeep\".", "Plane Driven PD-1 US Folding wings 2010 Flown 2 Modified Glasair Sportsman 2+2 aircraft.", "The second prototype is designated the PD-2.Samson Switchblade US Folding wings 2023 Flown 1 Scaled Composites Model 367 BiPod US Detachable wings 2011 Not flown 1 Twin-fuselage technology development vehicle.", "Not flown.", "Skroback Roadable Airplane US Multiplane 1925 Not flown 1 SkyRider X2R US Unbuilt Taylor Aerocar See ''Aerocar'' Terrafugia Transition US Folding wings 2009 Flown Terrafugia TF-X US Hybrid Unbuilt VTOL convertiplane with folding wings and rotors.", "Urban Aeronautics X-Hawk Israel Unbuilt VTOL.", "Under development.", "Vlachos Triphibian US 1936 Wagner Aerocar Germany Helicopter 1965 Flown Waterman Arrowbile US Folding wings 1935 Flown 1 Whitehead No.", "21 US Folding wings 1901 Not flown 1" ], [ "Popular culture", "The flying car was and remains a common feature of conceptions of the future, both predicted and imaginary.===Anticipation===Flying cars have been under development since the early days of motor transport and aviation, and many futurologists have predicted their imminent arrival.", "Aircraft manufacturer Glenn Curtiss unveiled his unflyable Autoplane in 1917.In 1940, vehicle manufacturer Henry Ford predicted that; \"Mark my word: a combination airplane and motorcar is coming.", "You may smile, but it will come.”From 1945, industrial designer Norman Bel Geddes promoted his concept for a streamlined flying car with folding wings.", "In the late 1950s, Ford's Advanced Design studio publicised a 3/8 scale concept car model, the Volante Tri-Athodyne.", "It featured three ducted fans, each with its own motor, that would lift it off the ground and move it through the air.", "Ford admitted that \"the day where there will be an aero-car in every garage is still some time off\", also suggesting that \"the Volante indicates one direction that the styling of such a vehicle would take\".===Where's my flying car?===Despite a century of anticipation, no flying car has yet proved a practical proposition and they remain an experimental curiosity.", "This long-term failure to make any impact on society has led to the meme, \"Where's my flying car?", "\"The question \"Where's my flying car?\"", "has become emblematic of the wider failure of many modern technologies to match futuristic visions that were promoted in earlier decades.===Fictional flying cars===''Blade Runner'' Spinner prop car at Disney/MGM StudiosThe time machine DeLorean of ''Back to the Future'' in flying configuration with doors openThe flying car has been depicted in many works of fantasy and science fiction.", "Some notable examples include:*Supercar starred in its own children's TV show in the UK, between 1961 and 1962.It was jet-powered with VTOL capability, and on the road it hovered rather than used wheels.", "Created by Gerry Anderson, it was the first show to credit his ''supermarionation'' puppet technology.", "*''The Jetsons'' American animated cartoon sitcom was originally aired from 1962 to 1963.It featured flying cars as ubiquitous.", "They typically had a large bubble roof, the design being inspired by a Ford concept road car from 1954, the FX-Atmos.", "*The film Chitty Chitty Bang Bang (1968) features a car that flies via magic.", "*A flying 1974 AMC Matador coupe features in ''The Man with the Golden Gun'' (1974), the ninth in the ''James Bond'' film series.", "The Matador coupe is transformed into an aeroplane in similar manner to the AVE Mizar, by attaching a large wing with engine and tail unit to the car.", "In aircraft configuration it is long, in span and high.", "The film prop was not airworthy and a -long remote control model was used for the aerial sequences.", "*In the ''Blade Runner'' (original 1982) films, flying cars are called spinners.", "They have vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) capability.", "The vehicle was conceived and designed by Syd Mead who described it as an \"aerodyne\"—a vehicle which directs air downward to create lift, though press kits for the film stated that the spinner was propelled by three engines: \"conventional internal combustion, jet, and anti-gravity\" A Spinner prop is on permanent exhibit at the Science Fiction Museum and Hall of Fame in Seattle, Washington.", "*In the ''Back to the Future'' (1985) films, the DeLorean time machine car was modified to be capable of normal flight.", "*In the film ''The Fifth Element'' (1997), as with ''The Jetsons'', flying cars are the main means of personal transport.", "The production design for the film was developed by French comics creators Jean Giraud and Jean-Claude Mézières.", "Director Luc Besson had been inspired by Mézières' book ''The Circles of Power''." ], [ "See also", "* Amphibious automobile* Intermodal passenger transport" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* BBC News Flying cars in 25 years, BBC News Online, 22 September 2004.", "* Brown, Stuart F. Why We're Not Driving the Friendly Skies, ''The New York Times'' online, 22 August 2014, and in print on 24 August 2014, on p. AU1 of the New York edition.", "* Feltman, Rachel.", "Why Don't We Have Flying Cars?, ''Popular Mechanics'', 21 February 2013.", "* Hakim, Danny.", "A Helicopter of One's Own, ''The New York Times'' online, 16 June 2014, and in print on 17 June 2014, p. D2 of the New York edition.", "* Hodgdon, Theodore, A.; Onosko, Tim (ed.)", "\"At Last —a Convertible Auto-Plane\", in ''Wasn't the Future Wonderful?", ": A View of Trends and Technology from the 1930s'', Dutton, 1979, pp.", "152–153, , ." ], [ "External links", "* ''Roadable Times'', pictures and descriptions of over 70 designs of flying cars and roadable aircraft past and present.", "* How Flying Cars Will Work at HowStuffWorks." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Film editing" ], [ "Introduction", "A film editor at work in 1946'''Film editing''' is both a creative and a technical part of the post-production process of filmmaking.", "The term is derived from the traditional process of working with film which increasingly involves the use of digital technology.", "When putting together some sort of video composition, typically, you would need a collection of shots and footages that vary from one another.", "The act of adjusting the shots you have already taken, and turning them into something new is known as film editing.The '''film editor''' works with raw footage, selecting shots and combining them into sequences which create a finished motion picture.", "Film editing is described as an art or skill, the only art that is unique to cinema, separating filmmaking from other art forms that preceded it, although there are close parallels to the editing process in other art forms such as poetry and novel writing.", "Film editing is an extremely important tool when attempting to intrigue a viewer.", "When done properly, a film's editing can captivate a viewer and fly completely under the radar.", "Because of this, film editing has been given the name “the invisible art.”On its most fundamental level, film editing is the art, technique and practice of assembling shots into a coherent sequence.", "The job of an editor is not simply to mechanically put pieces of a film together, cut off film slates or edit dialogue scenes.", "A film editor must creatively work with the layers of images, story, dialogue, music, pacing, as well as the actors' performances to effectively \"re-imagine\" and even rewrite the film to craft a cohesive whole.", "Editors usually play a dynamic role in the making of a film.", "An editor must select only the most quality shots, removing all unnecessary frames to ensure the shot is clean.", "Sometimes, auteurist film directors edit their own films, for example, Akira Kurosawa, Bahram Beyzai, Steven Soderbergh, and the Coen brothers.According to “Film Art, An Introduction”, by Bordwell and Thompson, there are four basic areas of film editing that the editor has full control over.", "The first dimension is the graphic relations between a shot A and shot B.", "The shots are analyzed in terms of their graphic configurations, including light and dark, lines and shapes, volumes and depths, movement and stasis.", "The director makes deliberate choices regarding the composition, lighting, color, and movement within each shot, as well as the transitions between them.", "There are several techniques used by editors to establish graphic relations between shots.", "These include maintaining overall brightness consistency, keeping important elements in the center of the frame, playing with color differences, and creating visual matches or continuities between shots.The second dimension is the rhythmic relationship between shot A and shot B.", "The duration of each shot, determined by the number of frames or length of film, contributes to the overall rhythm of the film.", "The filmmaker has control over the editing rhythm by adjusting the length of shots in relation to each other.", "Shot duration can be used to create specific effects and emphasize moments in the film.", "For example, a brief flash of white frames can convey a sudden impact or a violent moment.", "On the other hand, lengthening or adding seconds to a shot can allow for audience reaction or to accentuate an action.", "The length of shots can also be used to establish a rhythmic pattern, such as creating a steady beat or gradually slowing down or accelerating the tempo.The third dimension is the spatial relationship between shot A and shot B.", "Editing allows the filmmaker to construct film space and imply a relationship between different points in space.", "The filmmaker can juxtapose shots to establish spatial holes or construct a whole space out of component parts.", "For example, the filmmaker can start with a shot that establishes a spatial hole and then follow it with a shot of a part of that space, creating an analytical breakdown.The final dimension that an editor has control over is the temporal relation between shot A and shot B.", "Editing plays a crucial role in manipulating the time of action in a film.", "It allows filmmakers to control the order, duration, and frequency of events, thus shaping the narrative and influencing the audience's perception of time.", "Through editing, shots can be rearranged, flashbacks and flash-forwards can be employed, and the duration of actions can be compressed or expanded.", "The main point is that editing gives filmmakers the power to control and manipulate the temporal aspects of storytelling in film.Between graphic, rhythmic, spatial, and temporal relationships between two shots, an editor has various ways to add a creative element to the film, and enhance the overall viewing experience.With the advent of digital editing in non-linear editing systems, film editors and their assistants have become responsible for many areas of filmmaking that used to be the responsibility of others.", "For instance, in past years, picture editors dealt only with just that—picture.", "Sound, music, and (more recently) visual effects editors dealt with the practicalities of other aspects of the editing process, usually under the direction of the picture editor and director.", "However, digital systems have increasingly put these responsibilities on the picture editor.", "It is common, especially on lower budget films, for the editor to sometimes cut in temporary music, mock up visual effects and add temporary sound effects or other sound replacements.", "These temporary elements are usually replaced with more refined final elements produced by the sound, music and visual effects teams hired to complete the picture.", "The importance of an editor has become increasingly pivotal to the quality and success of a film due to the multiple roles that have been added to their job." ], [ "History", "Early films were short films that were one long, static, and locked-down shot.", "Motion in the shot was all that was necessary to amuse an audience, so the first films simply showed activity such as traffic moving along a city street.", "There was no story and no editing.", "Each film ran as long as there was film in the camera.Screenshot from ''The Four Troublesome Heads'', one of the first films to feature multiple exposures.The use of film editing to establish continuity, involving action moving from one sequence into another, is attributed to British film pioneer Robert W. Paul's ''Come Along, Do!", "'', made in 1898 and one of the first films to feature more than one shot.", "In the first shot, an elderly couple is outside an art exhibition having lunch and then follow other people inside through the door.", "The second shot shows what they do inside.", "Paul's 'Cinematograph Camera No.", "1' of 1896 was the first camera to feature reverse-cranking, which allowed the same film footage to be exposed several times and thereby to create super-positions and multiple exposures.", "One of the first films to use this technique, Georges Méliès's ''The Four Troublesome Heads'' from 1898, was produced with Paul's camera.The further development of action continuity in multi-shot films continued in 1899–1900 at the Brighton School in England, where it was definitively established by George Albert Smith and James Williamson.", "In that year, Smith made ''As Seen Through a Telescope'', in which the main shot shows street scene with a young man tying the shoelace and then caressing the foot of his girlfriend, while an old man observes this through a telescope.", "There is then a cut to close shot of the hands on the girl's foot shown inside a black circular mask, and then a cut back to the continuation of the original scene.James WilliamsonEven more remarkable was James Williamson's ''Attack on a China Mission Station'', made around the same time in 1900.The first shot shows the gate to the mission station from the outside being attacked and broken open by Chinese Boxer rebels, then there is a cut to the garden of the mission station where a pitched battle ensues.", "An armed party of British sailors arrived to defeat the Boxers and rescue the missionary's family.", "The film used the first \"reverse angle\" cut in film history.James Williamson concentrated on making films taking action from one place shown in one shot to the next shown in another shot in films like ''Stop Thief!''", "and ''Fire!", "'', made in 1901, and many others.", "He also experimented with the close-up, and made perhaps the most extreme one of all in ''The Big Swallow'', when his character approaches the camera and appears to swallow it.", "These two filmmakers of the Brighton School also pioneered the editing of the film; they tinted their work with color and used trick photography to enhance the narrative.", "By 1900, their films were extended scenes of up to five minutes long.The Great Train Robbery'' (1903), directed by Edwin Stanton PorterOther filmmakers then took up all these ideas including the American Edwin S. Porter, who started making films for the Edison Company in 1901.Porter worked on a number of minor films before making ''Life of an American Fireman'' in 1903.The film was the first American film with a plot, featuring action, and even a closeup of a hand pulling a fire alarm.", "The film comprised a continuous narrative over seven scenes, rendered in a total of nine shots.", "He put a dissolve between every shot, just as Georges Méliès was already doing, and he frequently had the same action repeated across the dissolves.", "His film, ''The Great Train Robbery'' (1903), had a running time of twelve minutes, with twenty separate shots and ten different indoor and outdoor locations.", "He used cross-cutting editing method to show simultaneous action in different places.These early film directors discovered important aspects of motion picture language: that the screen image does not need to show a complete person from head to toe and that splicing together two shots creates in the viewer's mind a contextual relationship.", "These were the key discoveries that made all non-live or non live-on-videotape narrative motion pictures and television possible—that shots (in this case, whole scenes since each shot is a complete scene) can be photographed at widely different locations over a period of time (hours, days or even months) and combined into a narrative whole.", "That is, ''The Great Train Robbery'' contains scenes shot on sets of a telegraph station, a railroad car interior, and a dance hall, with outdoor scenes at a railroad water tower, on the train itself, at a point along the track, and in the woods.", "But when the robbers leave the telegraph station interior (set) and emerge at the water tower, the audience believes they went immediately from one to the other.", "Or that when they climb on the train in one shot and enter the baggage car (a set) in the next, the audience believes they are on the same train.Sometime around 1918, Russian director Lev Kuleshov did an experiment that proves this point.", "(See Kuleshov Experiment) He took an old film clip of a headshot of a noted Russian actor and intercut the shot with a shot of a bowl of soup, then with a child playing with a teddy bear, then with a shot an elderly woman in a casket.", "When he showed the film to people they praised the actor's acting—the hunger in his face when he saw the soup, the delight in the child, and the grief when looking at the dead woman.", "Of course, the shot of the actor was years before the other shots and he never \"saw\" any of the items.", "The simple act of juxtaposing the shots in a sequence made the relationship.The original editing machine: an upright Moviola.===Film editing technology===Before the widespread use of digital non-linear editing systems, the initial editing of all films was done with a positive copy of the film negative called a film workprint (cutting copy in UK) by physically cutting and splicing together pieces of film.", "Strips of footage would be hand cut and attached together with tape and then later in time, glue.", "Editors were very precise; if they made a wrong cut or needed a fresh positive print, it cost the production money and time for the lab to reprint the footage.", "Additionally, each reprint put the negative at risk of damage.", "With the invention of a splicer and threading the machine with a viewer such as a Moviola, or \"flatbed\" machine such as a K.-E.-M. or Steenbeck, the editing process sped up a little bit and cuts came out cleaner and more precise.", "The Moviola editing practice is non-linear, allowing the editor to make choices faster, a great advantage to editing episodic films for television which have very short timelines to complete the work.", "All film studios and production companies who produced films for television provided this tool for their editors.", "Flatbed editing machines were used for playback and refinement of cuts, particularly in feature films and films made for television because they were less noisy and cleaner to work with.", "They were used extensively for documentary and drama production within the BBC's Film Department.", "Operated by a team of two, an editor and assistant editor, this tactile process required significant skill but allowed for editors to work extremely efficiently.Modern film editing has evolved significantly since it was first introduced to the film and entertainment industry.", "Some other new aspects of editing have been introduced such as color grading and digital workflows.", "As mentioned earlier, over the course of time, new technology has exponentially enhanced the quality of pictures in films.", "One of the most important steps in this process was transitioning from analog to digital filmmaking.", "By doing this, it gives the ability editors to immediately playback scenes, duplication and much more.", "Additionally digital has simplified and reduced the cost of filmmaking.", "Digital film is not only cheaper, but lasts longer, is safer, and is overall more efficient.", "Color grading is a post production process, where the editor manipulates or enhances the color of images, or environments in order to create a color tone.", "Doing this can alter the setting, tone, and mood of the entirety of scenes, and can enhance reactions that would otherwise have the possibility of being dull or out of place.", "Color grading is vital to the film editing process, and is technology that allows editors to enhance a story.", "Acmade Picsynch for sound and picture coordinationToday, most films are edited digitally (on systems such as Media Composer, Final Cut Pro X or Premiere Pro) and bypass the film positive workprint altogether.", "In the past, the use of a film positive (not the original negative) allowed the editor to do as much experimenting as he or she wished, without the risk of damaging the original.", "With digital editing, editors can experiment just as much as before except with the footage completely transferred to a computer hard drive.When the film workprint had been cut to a satisfactory state, it was then used to make an edit decision list (EDL).", "The negative cutter referred to this list while processing the negative, splitting the shots into rolls, which were then contact printed to produce the final film print or answer print.", "Today, production companies have the option of bypassing negative cutting altogether.", "With the advent of digital intermediate (\"DI\"), the physical negative does not necessarily need to be physically cut and hot spliced together; rather the negative is optically scanned into the computer(s) and a cut list is confirmed by a DI editor.=== Women in film editing ===In the early years of film, editing was considered a technical job; editors were expected to \"cut out the bad bits\" and string the film together.", "Indeed, when the Motion Picture Editors Guild was formed, they chose to be \"below the line\", that is, not a creative guild, but a technical one.", "Women were not usually able to break into the \"creative\" positions; directors, cinematographers, producers, and executives were almost always men.", "Editing afforded creative women a place to assert their mark on the filmmaking process.", "The history of film has included many women editors such as Dede Allen, Anne Bauchens, Margaret Booth, Barbara McLean, Anne V. Coates, Adrienne Fazan, Verna Fields, Blanche Sewell and Eda Warren." ], [ "Post-production", "Post-production editing may be summarized by three distinct phases commonly referred to as the editor's cut, the director's cut, and the final cut.There are several editing stages and the editor's cut is the first.", "An editor's cut (sometimes referred to as the \"Assembly edit\" or \"Rough cut\") is normally the first pass of what the final film will be when it reaches picture lock.", "The film editor usually starts working while principal photography starts.", "Sometimes, prior to cutting, the editor and director will have seen and discussed \"dailies\" (raw footage shot each day) as shooting progresses.", "As production schedules have shortened over the years, this co-viewing happens less often.", "Screening dailies give the editor a general idea of the director's intentions.", "Because it is the first pass, the editor's cut might be longer than the final film.", "The editor continues to refine the cut while shooting continues, and often the entire editing process goes on for many months and sometimes more than a year, depending on the film.", "The editor's cut is an opportunity for the editor to shape the story and present their vision of how the film should unfold.", "It provides a solid foundation for further collaboration with the director, allowing them to assess the initial assembly and provide feedback or guidance on the creative direction.When shooting is finished, the director can then turn his or her full attention to collaborating with the editor and further refining the cut of the film.", "This is the time that is set aside where the film editor's first cut is molded to fit the director's vision.", "In the United States, under the rules of the Directors Guild of America, directors receive a minimum of ten weeks after completion of principal photography to prepare their first cut.", "While collaborating on what is referred to as the \"director's cut\", the director and the editor go over the entire movie in great detail; scenes and shots are re-ordered, removed, shortened and otherwise tweaked.", "Often it is discovered that there are plot holes, missing shots or even missing segments which might require that new scenes be filmed.", "Because of this time working closely and collaborating – a period that is normally far longer and more intricately detailed than the entire preceding film production – many directors and editors form a unique artistic bond.", "The goal is to align the film with the director's artistic vision and narrative objectives.", "The director's cut typically involves multiple iterations and discussions until both the director and editor are satisfied with the overall direction of the film.Often after the director has had their chance to oversee a cut, the subsequent cuts are supervised by one or more producers, who represent the production company or movie studio.", "There have been several conflicts in the past between the director and the studio, sometimes leading to the use of the \"Alan Smithee\" credit signifying when a director no longer wants to be associated with the final release.", "The final cut is the last stage of post-production editing and represents the definitive version of the film.", "It is the result of the collaborative efforts between the director, editor, and other key stakeholders.", "The final cut reflects the agreed-upon creative decisions and serves as the basis for distribution and exhibition." ], [ "Mise en Scene vs Editing", "Mise en scene is the term used to describe all of the lighting, music, placement, costume design, and other elements of a shot.", "Film editing and Mise en scene go hand in hand with one another.", "A major part of film editing is the use of filters and adjusting the lighting in a shot.", "Film editing contributes to the mise en scene of a given shot.", "When shooting a film, you typically get shots from multiple angles.", "The angles at which you shoot from are all part of the film's mise en scene." ], [ "Methods of montage", "In motion picture terminology, a montage (from the French for \"putting together\" or \"assembly\") is a film editing technique.There are at least three senses of the term:# In French film practice, \"montage\" has its literal French meaning (assembly, installation) and simply identifies editing.# In Soviet filmmaking of the 1920s, \"montage\" was a method of juxtaposing shots to derive new meaning that did not exist in either shot alone.# In classical Hollywood cinema, a \"montage sequence\" is a short segment in a film in which narrative information is presented in a condensed fashion.Although film director D. W. Griffith was not part of the montage school, he was one of the early proponents of the power of editing — mastering cross-cutting to show parallel action in different locations, and codifying film grammar in other ways as well.", "Griffith's work in the teens was highly regarded by Lev Kuleshov and other Soviet filmmakers and greatly influenced their understanding of editing.Kuleshov was among the first to theorize about the relatively young medium of the cinema in the 1920s.", "For him, the unique essence of the cinema — that which could be duplicated in no other medium — is editing.", "He argues that editing a film is like constructing a building.", "Brick-by-brick (shot-by-shot) the building (film) is erected.", "His often-cited Kuleshov Experiment established that montage can lead the viewer to reach certain conclusions about the action in a film.", "Montage works because viewers infer meaning based on context.", "Sergei Eisenstein was briefly a student of Kuleshov's, but the two parted ways because they had different ideas of montage.", "Eisenstein regarded montage as a dialectical means of creating meaning.", "By contrasting unrelated shots he tried to provoke associations in the viewer, which were induced by shocks.", "But Eisenstein did not always do his own editing, and some of his most important films were edited by Esfir Tobak.A montage sequence consists of a series of short shots that are edited into a sequence to condense narrative.", "It is usually used to advance the story as a whole (often to suggest the passage of time), rather than to create symbolic meaning.", "In many cases, a song plays in the background to enhance the mood or reinforce the message being conveyed.", "One famous example of montage was seen in the 1968 film ''2001: A Space Odyssey'', depicting the start of man's first development from apes to humans.", "Another example that is employed in many films is the sports montage.", "The sports montage shows the star athlete training over a period of time, each shot having more improvement than the last.", "Classic examples include Rocky and the Karate Kid.The word's association with Sergei Eisenstein is often condensed—too simply—into the idea of \"juxtaposition\" or into two words: \"collision montage,\" whereby two adjacent shots that oppose each other on formal parameters or on the content of their images are cut against each other to create a new meaning not contained in the respective shots: Shot a + Shot b = New Meaning c.The association of collision montage with Eisenstein is not surprising.", "He consistently maintained that the mind functions dialectically, in the Hegelian sense, that the contradiction between opposing ideas (thesis versus antithesis) is resolved by a higher truth, synthesis.", "He argued that conflict was the basis of ''all'' art, and never failed to see montage in other cultures.", "For example, he saw montage as a guiding principle in the construction of \"Japanese hieroglyphics in which two independent ideographic characters ('shots') are juxtaposed and ''explode'' into a concept.", "Thus:: Eye + Water = Crying: Door + Ear = Eavesdropping: Child + Mouth = Screaming: Mouth + Dog = Barking: Mouth + Bird = Singing.", "\"He also found montage in Japanese haiku, where short sense perceptions are juxtaposed and synthesized into a new meaning, as in this example:: A lonely crow:: On a leafless bough::: One autumn eve.", "(枯朶に烏のとまりけり秋の暮)— Matsuo BashoAs Dudley Andrew notes, \"The collision of attractions from line to line produces the unified psychological effect which is the hallmark of haiku and montage.\"" ], [ "Continuity editing and alternatives", "Continuity editing, developed in the early 1900s, aimed to create a coherent and smooth storytelling experience in films.", "It relied on consistent graphic qualities, balanced composition, and controlled editing rhythms to ensure narrative continuity and engage the audience.", "For example, whether an actor's costume remains the same from one scene to the next, or whether a glass of milk held by a character is full or empty throughout the scene.", "Because films are typically shot out of sequence, the script supervisor will keep a record of continuity and provide that to the film editor for reference.", "The editor may try to maintain continuity of elements, or may intentionally create a discontinuous sequence for stylistic or narrative effect.The technique of continuity editing, part of the classical Hollywood style, was developed by early European and American directors, in particular, D.W. Griffith in his films such as ''The Birth of a Nation'' and ''Intolerance''.", "The classical style embraces temporal and spatial continuity as a way of advancing the narrative, using such techniques as the 180 degree rule, Establishing shot, and Shot reverse shot.", "The 180-degree system in film editing ensures consistency in shot composition by keeping relative positions of characters or objects in the frame consistent.", "It also maintains consistent eye-lines and screen direction to avoid disorientation and confusion for the audience, allowing for clear spatial delineation and a smooth narrative experience.", "Often, continuity editing means finding a balance between literal continuity and perceived continuity.", "For instance, editors may condense action across cuts in a non-distracting way.", "A character walking from one place to another may \"skip\" a section of floor from one side of a cut to the other, but the cut is constructed to appear continuous so as not to distract the viewer.Early Russian filmmakers such as Lev Kuleshov (already mentioned) further explored and theorized about editing and its ideological nature.", "Sergei Eisenstein developed a system of editing that was unconcerned with the rules of the continuity system of classical Hollywood that he called Intellectual montage.Alternatives to traditional editing were also explored by early surrealist and Dada filmmakers such as Luis Buñuel (director of the 1929 ''Un Chien Andalou'') and René Clair (director of 1924's ''Entr'acte'' which starred famous Dada artists Marcel Duchamp and Man Ray).Filmmakers have explored alternatives to continuity editing, focusing on graphic and rhythmic possibilities in their films.", "Experimental filmmakers like Stan Brakhage and Bruce Conner have used purely graphic elements to join shots, emphasizing light, texture, and shape rather than narrative coherence.", "Non-narrative films have prioritized rhythmic relations among shots, even employing single-frame shots for extreme rhythmic effects.", "Narrative filmmakers, such as Busby Berkeley and Yasujiro Ow, have occasionally subordinated narrative concerns to graphic or rhythmic patterns, while films influenced by music videos often feature pulsating rhythmic editing that de-emphasizes spatial and temporal dimensions.The French New Wave filmmakers such as Jean-Luc Godard and François Truffaut and their American counterparts such as Andy Warhol and John Cassavetes also pushed the limits of editing technique during the late 1950s and throughout the 1960s.", "French New Wave films and the non-narrative films of the 1960s used a carefree editing style and did not conform to the traditional editing etiquette of Hollywood films.", "Like its Dada and surrealist predecessors, French New Wave editing often drew attention to itself by its lack of continuity, its demystifying self-reflexive nature (reminding the audience that they were watching a film), and by the overt use of jump cuts or the insertion of material not often related to any narrative.", "Three of the most influential editors of French New Wave films were the women who (in combination) edited 15 of Godard's films: Francoise Collin, Agnes Guillemot, and Cecile Decugis, and another notable editor is Marie-Josèphe Yoyotte, the first black woman editor in French cinema and editor of ''The 400 Blows''.Since the late 20th century Post-classical editing has seen faster editing styles with nonlinear, discontinuous action." ], [ "Significance", "Vsevolod Pudovkin noted that the editing process is the one phase of production that is truly unique to motion pictures.", "Every other aspect of filmmaking originated in a different medium than film (photography, art direction, writing, sound recording), but editing is the one process that is unique to film.", "Filmmaker Stanley Kubrick was quoted as saying: \"I love editing.", "I think I like it more than any other phase of filmmaking.", "If I wanted to be frivolous, I might say that everything that precedes editing is merely a way of producing a film to edit.", "\"Film editing is significant because it shapes the narrative structure, visual and aesthetic impact, rhythm and pacing, emotional resonance, and overall storytelling of a film.", "Editors possess a unique creative power to manipulate and arrange shots, allowing them to craft a cinematic experience that engages, entertains, and emotionally connects with the audience.", "Film editing is a distinct art form within the filmmaking process, enabling filmmakers to realize their vision and bring stories to life on the screen.According to writer-director Preston Sturges: There is a law of natural cutting and that this replicates what an audience in a legitimate theater does for itself.", "The more nearly the film cutter approaches this law of natural interest, the more invisible will be his cutting.", "If the camera moves from one person to another at the exact moment that one in the legitimate theatre would have turned his head, one will not be conscious of a cut.", "If the camera misses by a quarter of a second, one will get a jolt.", "There is one other requirement: the two shots must be approximate of the same tone value.", "If one cuts from black to white, it is jarring.", "At any given moment, the camera must point at the exact spot the audience wishes to look at.", "To find that spot is absurdly easy: one has only to remember where one was looking at the time the scene was made." ], [ "Assistant editors", "Assistant editors aid the editor and director in collecting and organizing all the elements needed to edit the film.", "The Motion Picture Editors Guild defines an assistant editor as \"a person who is assigned to assist an Editor.", "His or her duties shall be such as are assigned and performed under the immediate direction, supervision, and responsibility of the editor.\"", "When editing is finished, they oversee the various lists and instructions necessary to put the film into its final form.", "Editors of large budget features will usually have a team of assistants working for them.", "The first assistant editor is in charge of this team and may do a small bit of picture editing as well, if necessary.", "Assistant editors are responsible for collecting, organizing, and managing all the elements needed for the editing process.", "This includes footage, sound files, music tracks, visual effects assets, and other media assets.", "They ensure that everything is properly labeled, logged, and stored in an organized manner, making it easier for the editor to access and work with the materials efficiently.", "Assistant editors serve as a bridge between the editing team and other departments, facilitating communication and collaboration.", "They often work closely with the director, editor, visual effects artists, sound designers, and other post-production professionals, relaying information, managing deliverables, and coordinating schedules.", "Often assistant editors will perform temporary sound, music, and visual effects work.", "The other assistants will have set tasks, usually helping each other when necessary to complete the many time-sensitive tasks at hand.", "In addition, an apprentice editor may be on hand to help the assistants.", "An apprentice is usually someone who is learning the ropes of assisting.Television shows typically have one assistant per editor.", "This assistant is responsible for every task required to bring the show to the final form.", "Lower budget features and documentaries will also commonly have only one assistant.", "Higher budget films and shows tend to have more than one assistant editor, and in some cases, there can be a full team of assistants.The organizational aspects job could best be compared to database management.", "When a film is shot, every piece of picture or sound is coded with numbers and timecode.", "It is the assistant's job to keep track of these numbers in a database, which, in non-linear editing, is linked to the computer program.", "The editor and director cut the film using digital copies of the original film and sound, commonly referred to as an \"offline\" edit.", "When the cut is finished, it is the assistant's job to bring the film or television show \"online\".", "They create lists and instructions that tell the picture and sound finishers how to put the edit back together with the high-quality original elements.", "Assistant editing can be seen as a career path to eventually becoming an editor.", "Many assistants, however, do not choose to pursue advancement to the editor, and are very happy at the assistant level, working long and rewarding careers on many films and television shows." ], [ "See also", "* 180-degree rule* 30-degree rule* Footage (A Roll)* B-roll* Cinematic techniques*Clapperboard* Compositing (keying)* Cut (transition), for the director's call ''Cut!''", "or stop** Axial cut** Cross-cutting** Fast cutting** Jump cut** Long take** Match cut** Slow cutting* Cutaway* ''The Cutting Edge: The Magic of Movie Editing''* Edit decision list (EDL)* '''Film transition'''** Dissolve** L cut (split edit)** Wipe* Filmmaking* Index of articles related to motion pictures* Kuleshov effect* Motion Picture Editors Guild (MPEG)* Moviola* Negative cutting* Outline of film* Re-edited film* Scene* Sequence* '''Shot'''** Crane shot** Establishing shot** Insert** Master shot** Point-of-view shot** Shot reverse shot* Video editing" ], [ "References", "'''Notes''''''Bibliography'''* Dmytryk, Edward (1984).", "''On Film Editing: An Introduction to the Art of Film Construction''.", "Focal Press, Boston.", "* Translation of Russian language works by Eisenstein, who died in 1948.", "*Knight, Arthur (1957).", "''The Liveliest Art''.", "Mentor Books.", "New American Library.", "'''Further reading'''* Morales, Morante, Luis Fernando (2017).", "'Editing and Montage in International Film and Video: Theory and Technique, Focal Press, Taylor & Francis * Murch, Walter (2001).", "''In the Blink of an Eye: a Perspective on Film Editing''.", "Silman-James Press.", "2d rev.", "ed.." ], [ "External links", "* Demonstration of Picsync machine by former BBC film editors* Demonstration of editing 16mm film using a Steenbeck editing table* Discussion and demonstration of a 16mm edit suite and the working environment within it'''Wikibooks'''* Mewa Film User's Guide* Movie Making Manual'''Wikiversity'''* Portal:Filmmaking" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Freestyle" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Freestyle''' may refer to:" ], [ "Brands", "* Reebok Freestyle, a women's athletic shoe* Ford Freestyle, an SUV automobile* Coca-Cola Freestyle, a vending machine* Abbott FreeStyle, a blood glucose monitor by Abbott Laboritories" ], [ "Media", "* ''FreeStyle'', a television show on HGTV* ''Free Style'' (film), a 2009 American film* ''Freestyle'' (radio program), a radio program on CBC's Radio One* FreeStyleGames, a UK video game developer* Freestyle Releasing, an independent film studio* Freestyle (software), a renderer for non-photorealistic line drawing from 3D scenes* ''Freestyle: The Art of Rhyme'', a 2000 documentary film about freestyle rap" ], [ "Music", "* Freestyle music* Freestyle rap===Performers and groups===* Freestyle (American band), an American electro-funk band on the compilation album ''Street Sounds Electro 10''* Freestyle (Filipino band), an alternative-soul jazz-RnB band from the Philippines* Freestyle (Russian group), a Soviet group with frontman Vadim Kazachenko* Freestyle (rapper), member of Arsonists* Freestyle (Swedish band), a short-lived Swedish electronic band* Freestylers, a British electronic music group=== Albums ===''Freestyle'' (album), album by Karin Krog og John Surman, 1981===Songs===* \"Freestyle\", by Just-Ice from ''Gun Talk'', 1993* \"Freestyler\" (song), 1999* \"Freestyle\", by P.O.D.", "from ''The Fundamental Elements of Southtown'', 1999* \"Freestyle\", by DJ Kay Slay from ''The Streetsweeper, Vol.", "1'', 2003* \"Freestyle\" (Lady Antebellum song), 2014* \"Freestyle\", by Kanye West from ''The Life of Pablo'', 2016* \"Freestyle\" (Lil Baby song), 2017* \"Freestyle\" (Rod Wave song), 2020" ], [ "Sports", "* Freestyle aerobics* Freestyle BMX* Freestyle chess* Freestyle dressage* Freestyle fighting* Freestyle footbag* Freestyle football* Freestyle frisbee* Freestyle kayaking* Freestyle (monster trucks)* Freestyle motocross* Freestyle nunchaku* Freestyle scootering* Freestyle skateboarding* Freestyle skiing* Freestyle skydiving* Freestyle slalom skating* Freestyle snowboarding* Freestyle swimming* Freestyle wrestling* Musical canine freestyle" ], [ "Other", "* Freestyle (art exhibition)* Freestyle dance* Freestyle (roller coaster)* Freestyle Music Park, South Carolina, US* Skyjam ST-Freestyle, a Swiss powered paraglider* Freestyle, NATO reporting name for the Yakovlev Yak-141, a Soviet VTOL aircraft" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Friedrich Wöhler" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Friedrich Wöhler''' () FRS(For) HonFRSE (31 July 180023 September 1882) was a German chemist known for his work in both organic and inorganic chemistry, being the first to isolate the chemical elements beryllium and yttrium in pure metallic form.", "He was the first to prepare several inorganic compounds, including silane and silicon nitride.Wöhler is also known for seminal contributions in organic chemistry, in particular, the Wöhler synthesis of urea.", "His synthesis of the organic compound urea in the laboratory from inorganic substances contradicted the belief that organic compounds could only be produced by living organisms due to a \"life force\".", "However, the exact extent of Wöhler's role in diminishing the belief in vitalism is considered by some to be questionable." ], [ "Biography", "Friedrich Wöhler was born in Eschersheim, Germany, and was the son of a veterinarian.", "As a boy, he showed interest in mineral collecting, drawing, and science.", "His secondary education was at the Frankfurt Gymnasium.", "During his time at the gymnasium, Wöhler began chemical experimentation in a home laboratory provided by his father.", "He began his higher education at Marburg University in 1820.On 2 September 1823, Wöhler passed his examinations as a Doctor of Medicine, Surgery, and Obstetrics at Heidelberg University, having studied in the laboratory of chemist Leopold Gmelin.", "Gmelin encouraged him to focus on chemistry and arranged for Wöhler to conduct research under the direction of chemist Jacob Berzelius in Stockholm, Sweden.", "Wöhler's time in Stockholm with Berzelius marked the beginning of a long personal and professional relationship between the two scientists.", "Wöhler translated many of Berzelius's scientific writings into German for international publication.", "In his lifetime, Wöhler wrote about 275 books, editions, and papers.From 1826 to 1831, Wöhler taught chemistry at the Polytechnic School in Berlin.", "From 1831 until 1836, he taught at the Polytechnic School at Kassel.", "In the spring of 1836, Wöhler became Friedrich Stromeyer's successor as an Ordinary Professor of Chemistry at the University of Göttingen, where he occupied the chair of chemistry for 46 years, until his death in 1882.During his time at Göttingen approximately 8000 research students were trained in his laboratory.", "In 1834, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences." ], [ "Contributions to chemistry", "===Inorganic chemistry===A sample of aluminiumA sample of beryllium in elemental formSamples of yttrium in elemental formAugust Anton Wöhler, father of Friedrich WöhlerWöhler investigated more than twenty‐five chemical elements during his career.", "Hans Christian Ørsted was the first to separate the element aluminium in 1825, using a reduction of aluminium chloride with a potassium amalgam.", "Although Ørsted published his findings on the isolation of aluminium in the form of small particles, no other investigators successfully replicated his findings until 1936.Ørsted is now credited with discovering aluminium.", "Ørsted's findings on aluminium preparation were developed further by Wöhler, with Ørsted's permission.", "Wöhler modified Ørsted's methods, substituting potassium metal for potassium amalgam for the reduction of aluminium chloride.", "Using this improved method, Wöhler isolated aluminium powder in pure form on 22 October 1827.He showed that the aluminium powder could convert to solid balls of pure metallic aluminium in 1845.For this work, Wöhler is credited with the first isolation of aluminium metal in pure form.In 1828 Wöhler was the first to isolate the element beryllium in pure metallic form (also independently isolated by Antoine Bussy).", "In the same year, he became the first to isolate the element yttrium in pure metallic form.", "He achieved these preparations by heating the anhydrous chlorides of beryllium and yttrium with potassium metal.In 1850, Wöhler determined that what was believed until then to be metallic titanium was a mixture of titanium, carbon, and nitrogen, from which he derived the purest form isolated to that time.", "(Elemental titanium was later isolated in completely pure form in 1910 by Matthew A.", "Hunter.)", "He also developed a chemical synthesis of calcium carbide and silicon nitride.Wöhler, working with French chemist Sainte Claire Deville, isolated the element boron in a crystalline form.", "He also isolated the element silicon in a crystalline form.", "Crystalline forms of these two elements were previously unknown.", "In 1856, working with Heinrich Buff, Wöhler prepared the inorganic compound silane (SiH4).", "He prepared the first samples of boron nitride by melting together boric acid and potassium cyanide.", "He also developed a method for the preparation of calcium carbide.Wöhler had an interest in the chemical composition of meteorites.", "He showed that some meteoric stones contain organic matter.", "He analyzed meteorites, and for many years wrote the digest on the literature of meteorites in the ''Jahresberichte über die Fortschritte der Chemie''.", "Wöhler accumulated the best private collection of meteoric stones and irons that existed.===Organic chemistry===In 1832, lacking his own laboratory facilities at Kassel, Wöhler worked with Justus Liebig in his Giessen laboratory.", "In that year, Wöhler and Liebig published an investigation of the oil of bitter almonds.", "Through their detailed analysis of the chemical composition of this oil, they proved by their experiments that a group of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms can behave chemically as if it were the equivalent of a single atom, take the place of an atom in a chemical compound, and be exchanged for other atoms in chemical compounds.", "Specifically, their research on the oil of bitter almonds showed that a group of elements with the chemical composition C7H5O can be thought of as a single functional group, which came to be known as a benzoyl radical.", "In this way, the investigations of Wöhler and Liebig established a new concept in organic chemistry referred to as compound radicals, which had a profound influence on the development of organic chemistry.", "Many more functional groups were later identified by subsequent investigators with wide utility in chemistry.Liebig and Wöhler explored the concept of chemical isomerism, the idea that two chemical compounds with identical chemical compositions could be different substances because of different arrangements of the atoms in the chemical structure.", "Aspects of chemical isomerism originated in the research of Berzelius.", "Liebig and Wöhler investigated silver fulminate and silver cyanate.", "These two compounds have the same chemical composition yet are chemically different.", "Silver fulminate is explosive, while silver cyanate is a stable compound.", "Liebig and Wöhler recognized these as examples of structural isomerism, which was a significant advance in understanding chemical isomerism.Wöhler has also been regarded as a pioneering researcher in organic chemistry as a result of his 1828 demonstration of the laboratory synthesis of urea from ammonium cyanate, in a chemical reaction that came to be known as the \"Wöhler synthesis\".", "Urea and ammonium cyanate are further examples of structural isomers of chemical compounds.", "Heating ammonium cyanate converts it into urea, which is its isomer.", "In a letter to Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius the same year, he wrote, 'In a manner of speaking, I can no longer hold my chemical water.", "I must tell you that I can make urea without the use of kidneys of any animal, be it man or dog.", "'Wöhler synthesis of urea by heating ammonium cyanate.", "The Δ sign indicates the addition of heat.Wöhler's demonstration of urea synthesis has become regarded as a refutation of vitalism, the hypothesis that living things are alive because of some special \"vital force\".It was the beginning of the end for one popular vitalist hypothesis, the idea that \"organic\" compounds could be made only by living things.In responding to Wöhler, Jöns Jakob Berzelius acknowledged that Wöhler's results were highly significant for the understanding of organic chemistry, calling the findings a \"jewel\" for Wöhler's \"laurel wreath\".", "Both scientists also recognized the work's importance to the study of isomerism, a new area of research.Wöhler's role in overturning vitalism is said to have become exaggerated over time.", "This tendency can be traced back to Hermann Kopp's ''History of Chemistry'' (in four volumes, 1843–1847).", "He emphasized the importance of Wöhler's research as a refutation of vitalism but ignored its importance in understanding chemical isomerism, setting a tone for subsequent writers.The notion that Wöhler single-handedly overturned vitalism also gained popularity after it appeared in a popular history of chemistry published in 1931, which, \"ignoring all pretense of historical accuracy, turned Wöhler into a crusader\".Contrary to what was thought in Wöhler's time, cyanate is not a purely inorganic anion, as it is formed in various metabolic pathways.", "Thus the conversion of ammonium cyanate into urea was not an example of production of an organic compound from an inorganic precursor." ], [ "Education Reform", "Once Wöhler became a professor at the University of Göttingen, students traveled from around the world to be instructed by him.", "Wöhler saw particular success in his students after giving them hands-on experience in the lab.", "This practice was later adopted around the world, becoming the chemistry lab co-requisite that is required at most universities today.Wöhler also allowed his students to participate and aid him in his research, which was not typical at the time.", "This practice became nearly universal, normalizing the undergraduate and graduate-level research that is a requirement for numerous degrees today." ], [ "Final days and legacy", "German postal stamp honoring Friedrich Wöhler on the 100th anniversary of his deathWöhler's discoveries had a significant influence on the theoretical basis of chemistry.", "The journals of every year from 1820 to 1881 contain his original scientific contributions.", "The ''Scientific American'' supplement for 1882 stated that \"for two or three of his researches he deserves the highest honor a scientific man can obtain, but the sum of his work is overwhelming.", "Had he never lived, the aspect of chemistry would be very different from that it is now\".Wöhler's notable research students included chemists Georg Ludwig Carius, Heinrich Limpricht, Rudolph Fittig, Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe, Albert Niemann, Vojtěch Šafařík, Wilhelm Kühne, and Augustus Voelcker.Wöhler was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1854.He was an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.", "In 1862, Wöhler was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society.", "''The Life and Work of Friedrich Wöhler (1800–1882)'' (2005) by Robin Keen is considered to be \"the first detailed scientific biography\" of Wöhler.On the 100th anniversary of Wöhler's death, the West German government issued a stamp depicting the structure of urea with its synthesis formula listed directly below." ], [ "Family", "Grave of Friedrich WöhlerFriedrich-Wöhler-Gymnasium in Singen-HaupteingangWöhler's first marriage was in 1828, to his cousin Franziska Maria Wöhler (1811–1832).", "The couple had two children, a son (August) and a daughter (Sophie).", "After Franziska's death, he married Julie Pfeiffer (1813–1886) in 1834, with whom he had four daughters: Fanny, Helene, Emilie, and Pauline." ], [ "Further works", "Further works from Wöhler:* ''Lehrbuch der Chemie'', Dresden, 1825, 4 vols, * ''Grundriss der Anorganischen Chemie'', Berlin, 1830, * ''Grundriss der Chemie'', Berlin, 1837–1858 Vol.1&2 Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf* ''Grundriss der Organischen Chemie'', Berlin, 1840* ''Praktische Übungen in der Chemischen Analyse'', Berlin, 1854, * ''Early Recollections of a Chemist'', 1875* ''Nuovo Cimento'', 1855-1868 Vol.", "1-28" ], [ "See also", "* Benzoin condensation* History of aluminium* Stanley Miller* Hilaire Marin Rouelle* Kassel* Structural Isomer" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Johannes Valentin: ''Friedrich Wöhler''.", "Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft Stuttgart (\"Grosse Naturforscher\" 7) 1949.", "* Georg Schwedt: ''Der Chemiker Friedrich Wöhler''.", "Hischymia 2000." ], [ "External links", "* * * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Funk" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Funk''' is a music genre that originated in African-American communities in the mid-1960s when musicians created a rhythmic, danceable new form of music through a mixture of various music genres that were popular among African-Americans in the mid-20th century.", "It deemphasizes melody and chord progressions and focuses on a strong rhythmic groove of a bassline played by an electric bassist and a drum part played by a percussionist, often at slower tempos than other popular music.", "Funk typically consists of a complex percussive groove with rhythm instruments playing interlocking grooves that create a \"hypnotic\" and \"danceable\" feel.", "It uses the same richly colored extended chords found in bebop jazz, such as minor chords with added sevenths and elevenths, and dominant seventh chords with altered ninths and thirteenths.Funk originated in the mid-1960s, with James Brown's development of a signature groove that emphasized the downbeat—with a heavy emphasis on the first beat of every measure (\"The One\"), and the application of swung 16th notes and syncopation on all basslines, drum patterns, and guitar riffs.", "Rock- and psychedelia-influenced musicians Sly and the Family Stone and Parliament-Funkadelic fostered more eclectic examples of the genre beginning in the late 1960s.", "Other musical groups developed Brown's innovations during the 1970s and the 1980s, including Kool and the Gang, Ohio Players, Fatback Band, Jimmy Castor Bunch, Earth, Wind & Fire, B.T.", "Express, Shalamar, One Way, Lakeside, Dazz Band, The Gap Band, Slave, Aurra, Roger Troutman & Zapp, Con Funk Shun, Cameo, Bar-Kays and Chic.", "Funk derivatives include avant-funk, an avant-garde strain of funk; boogie, a hybrid of electronic music and funk; funk metal; G-funk, a mix of gangsta rap and psychedelic funk; Timba, a form of funky Cuban dance music; and funk jam.", "It is also the main influence of Washington go-go, a funk subgenre.", "Funk samples and breakbeats have been used extensively in hip hop and electronic dance music." ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''funk'' initially referred (and still refers) to a strong odor.", "It is originally derived from Latin \"fumigare\" (which means \"to smoke\") via Old French ''\"fungiere\"'' and, in this sense, it was first documented in English in 1620.In 1784, \"funky\" meaning \"musty\" was first documented, which, in turn, led to a sense of \"earthy\" that was taken up around 1900 in early jazz slang for something \"deeply or strongly felt\".", "Even though in white culture, the term \"funk\" can have negative connotations of odor or being in a bad mood (\"in a funk\"), in African communities, the term \"funk\", while still linked to body odor, had the positive sense that a musician's hard-working, honest effort led to sweat, and from their \"physical exertion\" came an \"exquisite\" and \"superlative\" performance.In early jam sessions, musicians would encourage one another to \"get down\" by telling one another, \"Now, put some ''stank'' on it!\"", "At least as early as 1907, jazz songs carried titles such as ''Funky''.", "The first example is an unrecorded number by Buddy Bolden, remembered as either \"Funky Butt\" or \"Buddy Bolden's Blues\", with improvised lyrics that were, according to Donald M. Marquis, either \"comical and light\" or \"crude and downright obscene\" but, in one way or another, referring to the sweaty atmosphere at dances where Bolden's band played.", "As late as the 1950s and early 1960s, when \"funk\" and \"funky\" were used increasingly in the context of jazz music, the terms still were considered indelicate and inappropriate for use in polite company.", "According to one source, New Orleans-born drummer Earl Palmer \"was the first to use the word 'funky' to explain to other musicians that their music should be made more syncopated and danceable.\"", "The style later evolved into a rather hard-driving, insistent rhythm, implying a more ''carnal quality''.", "This early form of the music set the pattern for later musicians.", "The music was identified as slow, sexy, loose, riff-oriented and danceable.The meaning of \"funk\" continues to captivate the genre of black music, feeling, and knowledge.", "Recent scholarship in black studies has taken the term \"funk\" in its many iterations to consider the range of black movement and culture.", "In particular, L.H.", "Stallings's ''Funk the Erotic: Transaesthetics and Black Sexual Cultures'' explores these multiple meanings of \"funk\" as a way to theorize sexuality, culture, and western hegemony within the many locations of \"funk\": \"street parties, drama/theater, strippers and strip clubs, pornography, and self-published fiction.\"" ], [ "Characteristics", "=== Rhythm and tempo===The rhythm section of a funk band—the electric bass, drums, electric guitar and keyboards--is the heartbeat of the funk sound.", "Pictured here is the Meters.Like soul, funk is based on dance music, so it has a strong \"rhythmic role\".", "The sound of funk is as much based on the \"spaces between the notes\" as the notes that are played; as such, rests between notes are important.", "While there are rhythmic similarities between funk and disco, funk has a \"central dance beat that's slower, sexier and more syncopated than disco\", and funk rhythm section musicians add more \"subtextures\", complexity and \"personality\" onto the main beat than a programmed synth-based disco ensemble.Before funk, most pop music was based on sequences of eighth notes, because the fast tempos made further subdivisions of the beat infeasible.", "The innovation of funk was that by using slower tempos (surely influenced by the revival of blues at early 60s), funk \"created space for further rhythmic subdivision, so a bar of 4/4 could now accommodate possible 16 note placements.\"", "Specifically, by having the guitar and drums play in \"motoring\" sixteenth-note rhythms, it created the opportunity for the other instruments to play \"more syncopated, broken-up style\", which facilitated a move to more \"liberated\" basslines.", "Together, these \"interlocking parts\" created a \"hypnotic\" and \"danceable feel\".A great deal of funk is rhythmically based on a two-celled onbeat/offbeat structure, which originated in sub-Saharan African music traditions.", "New Orleans appropriated the bifurcated structure from the Afro-Cuban mambo and conga in the late 1940s, and made it its own.", "New Orleans funk, as it was called, gained international acclaim largely because James Brown's rhythm section used it to great effect.Simple kick and snare funk motif.", "The kick first sounds two onbeats, which are then answered by two offbeats.", "The snare sounds the backbeat.=== Harmony ===A thirteenth chord (E 13, which also contains a flat 7th and a 9th) Funk uses the same richly colored extended chords found in bebop jazz, such as minor chords with added sevenths and elevenths, or dominant seventh chords with altered ninths.", "Some examples of chords used in funk are minor eleventh chords (e.g., F minor 11th); dominant seventh with added sharp ninth and a suspended fourth (e.g., C7 (#9) sus 4); dominant ninth chords (e.g., F9); and minor sixth chords (e.g., C minor 6).", "The six-ninth chord is used in funk (e.g., F 6/9); it is a major chord with an added sixth and ninth.", "In funk, minor seventh chords are more common than minor triads because minor triads were found to be too thin-sounding.", "Some of the best known and most skillful soloists in funk have jazz backgrounds.", "Trombonist Fred Wesley and saxophonists Pee Wee Ellis and Maceo Parker are among the most notable musicians in the funk music genre, having worked with James Brown, George Clinton and Prince.Unlike bebop jazz, with its complex, rapid-fire chord changes, funk virtually abandoned chord changes, creating static single chord vamps (often alternating a minor seventh chord and a related dominant seventh chord, such as A minor to D7) with melodo-harmonic movement and a complex, driving rhythmic feel.", "Even though some funk songs are mainly one-chord vamps, the rhythm section musicians may embellish this chord by moving it up or down a semitone or a tone to create chromatic passing chords.", "For example, \"Play That Funky Music\" (by Wild Cherry) mainly uses an E ninth chord, but it also uses F#9 and F9.The chords used in funk songs typically imply a Dorian or Mixolydian mode, as opposed to the major or natural minor tonalities of most popular music.", "Melodic content was derived by mixing these modes with the blues scale.", "In the 1970s, jazz music drew upon funk to create a new subgenre of jazz-funk, which can be heard in recordings by Miles Davis (''Live-Evil'', ''On the Corner''), and Herbie Hancock (''Head Hunters'').===Improvisation===Funk continues the African musical tradition of improvisation, in that in a funk band, the group would typically \"feel\" when to change, by \"jamming\" and \"grooving\", even in the studio recording stage, which might only be based on the skeleton framework for each song.", "Funk uses \"collective improvisation\", in which musicians at rehearsals would have what was metaphorically a musical \"conversation\", an approach which extended to the onstage performances.===Instruments=======Bass Guitar====Bootsy Collins performing in 1996 with a star-shaped bassFunk creates an intense groove by using strong guitar riffs and basslines played on electric bass.", "Like Motown recordings, funk songs use basslines as the centerpiece of songs.", "Indeed, funk has been called the style in which the bassline is most prominent in the songs, with the bass playing the \"hook\" of the song.", "Early funk basslines used syncopation (typically syncopated eighth notes), but with the addition of more of a \"driving feel\" than in New Orleans funk, and they used blues scale notes along with the major third above the root.", "Later funk basslines use sixteenth note syncopation, blues scales, and repetitive patterns, often with leaps of an octave or a larger interval.This funky bassline includes percussive slapping, rhythmic ghost notes, and glissando effects.Funk basslines emphasize repetitive patterns, locked-in grooves, continuous playing, and slap and popping bass.", "Slapping and popping uses a mixture of thumb-slapped low notes (also called \"thumped\") and finger \"popped\" (or plucked) high notes, allowing the bass to have a drum-like rhythmic role, which became a distinctive element of funk.", "Notable slap and funky players include Bernard Edwards (Chic), Robert \"Kool\" Bell, Mark Adams (Slave), Johnny Flippin (Fatback) and Bootsy Collins.", "While slap and funky is important, some influential bassists who play funk, such as Rocco Prestia (from Tower of Power), did not use the approach, and instead used a typical fingerstyle method based on James Jamerson's Motown playing style.", "Larry Graham from Sly and the Family Stone is an influential bassist.Funk bass has an \"earthy, percussive kind of feel\", in part due to the use of muted, rhythmic ghost notes (also called \"dead notes\").", "Some funk bass players use electronic effects units to alter the tone of their instrument, such as \"envelope filters\" (an auto-wah effect that creates a \"gooey, slurpy, quacky, and syrupy\" sound) and imitate keyboard synthesizer bass tones (e.g., the Mutron envelope filter) and overdriven fuzz bass effects, which are used to create the \"classic fuzz tone that sounds like old school Funk records\".", "Other effects that are used include the flanger and bass chorus.", "Collins also used a Mu-Tron Octave Divider, an octave pedal that, like the Octavia pedal popularized by Hendrix, can double a note an octave above and below to create a \"futuristic and fat low-end sound\".====Drums====Funk drumming creates a groove by emphasizing the drummer's \"feel and emotion\", which including \"occasional tempo fluctuations\", the use of swing feel in some songs (e.g., \"Cissy Strut\" by The Meters and \"I'll Take You There\" by The Staple Singers, which have a half-swung feel), and less use of fills (as they can lessen the groove).", "Drum fills are \"few and economical\", to ensure that the drumming stays \"in the pocket\", with a steady tempo and groove.", "These playing techniques are supplemented by a set-up for the drum kit that often includes muffled bass drums and toms and tightly tuned snare drums.", "Double bass drumming sounds are often done by funk drummers with a single pedal, an approach which \"accents the second note... and deadens the drumhead's resonance\", which gives a short, muffled bass drum sound.The drum groove from \"Cissy Strut\"James Brown used two drummers such as Clyde Stubblefield and John 'Jabo' Starks in recording and soul shows.", "By using two drummers, the JB band was able to maintain a \"solid syncopated\" rhythmic sound, which contributed to the band's distinctive \"Funky Drummer\" rhythm.In Tower of Power drummer David Garibaldi's playing, there are many ghost notes and rim shots.", "A key part of the funk drumming style is using the hi-hat, with opening and closing the hi-hats during playing (to create \"splash\" accent effects) being an important approach.", "Two-handed sixteenth notes on the hi-hats, sometimes with a degree of swing feel, is used in funk.Jim Payne states that funk drumming uses a \"wide-open\" approach to improvisation around rhythmic ideas from Latin music, ostinatos, that are repeated \"with only slight variations\", an approach which he says causes the \"mesmerizing\" nature of funk.", "Payne states that funk can be thought of as \"rock played in a more syncopated manner\", particularly with the bass drum, which plays syncopated eighth-note and sixteenth-note patterns that were innovated by drummer Clive Williams (with Joe Tex); George Brown (with Kool & the Gang) and James \"Diamond\" Williams (with The Ohio Players).", "As with rock, the snare provides backbeats in most funk (albeit with additional soft ghost notes).====Electric guitar====In funk, guitarists often mix playing chords of a short duration (nicknamed \"stabs\") with faster rhythms and riffs.", "Guitarists playing rhythmic parts often play sixteenth notes, including with percussive ghost notes.", "Chord extensions are favored, such as ninth chords.", "Typically, funk uses \"two interlocking electric guitar parts\", with a rhythm guitarist and a \"tenor guitarist\" who plays single notes.", "The two guitarists trade off their lines to create a \"call-and-response, intertwined pocket.\"", "If a band only has one guitarist, this effect may be recreated by overdubbing in the studio, or, in a live show, by having a single guitarist play both parts, to the degree that this is possible.In funk bands, guitarists typically play in a percussive style, using a style of picking called the \"chank\" or \"chicken scratch\", in which the guitar strings are pressed lightly against the fingerboard and then quickly released just enough to get a muted \"scratching\" sound that is produced by rapid rhythmic strumming of the opposite hand near the bridge.", "Earliest examples of that technic used on rhythm and blues is listened on Johnny Otis song \"Willie and the Hand Jive\" in 1957, with the future James Brown band guitar player Jimmy Nolen.", "The technique can be broken down into three approaches: the \"chika\", the \"chank\" and the \"choke\".", "With the \"chika\" comes a muted sound of strings being hit against the fingerboard; \"chank\" is a staccato attack done by releasing the chord with the fretting hand after strumming it; and \"choking\" generally uses all the strings being strummed and heavily muted.", "Guitarist Nile Rodgers is best known for his performances with Chic.The result of these factors was a rhythm guitar sound that seemed to float somewhere between the low-end thump of the electric bass and the cutting tone of the snare and hi-hats, with a rhythmically melodic feel that fell deep in the pocket.", "Guitarist Jimmy Nolen, longtime guitarist for James Brown, developed this technique.", "On Brown's \"Give It Up or Turnit a Loose\" (1969), however, Jimmy Nolen's guitar part has a bare bones tonal structure.", "The pattern of attack-points is the emphasis, not the pattern of pitches.", "The guitar is used the way that an African drum, or idiophone would be used.", "Nolen created a \"clean, trebly tone\" by using \"hollow-body jazz guitars with single-coil P-90 pickups\" plugged into a Fender Twin Reverb amp with the mid turned down low and the treble turned up high.Funk guitarists playing rhythm guitar generally avoid distortion effects and amp overdrive to get a clean sound, and given the importance of a crisp, high sound, Fender Stratocasters and Telecasters were widely used for their cutting treble tone.", "The mids are often cut by guitarists to help the guitar sound different from the horn section, keyboards and other instruments.", "Given the focus on providing a rhythmic groove, and the lack of emphasis on instrumental guitar melodies and guitar solos, sustain is not sought out by funk rhythm guitarists.", "Funk rhythm guitarists use compressor volume-control effects to enhance the sound of muted notes, which boosts the \"clucking\" sound and adds \"percussive excitement to funk rhythms\" (an approach used by Nile Rodgers).Guitarist Eddie Hazel from Funkadelic is notable for his solo improvisation (particularly for the solo on \"Maggot Brain\") and guitar riffs, the tone of which was shaped by a Maestro FZ-1 Fuzz-Tone pedal.", "Hazel, along with guitarist Ernie Isley of the Isley Brothers, was influenced by Jimi Hendrix's improvised, wah-wah infused solos.", "Ernie Isley was tutored at an early age by Hendrix, when Hendrix was a part of the Isley Brothers backing band and temporarily lived in the Isleys' household.", "Funk guitarists use the wah-wah sound effect along with muting the notes to create a percussive sound for their guitar riffs.", "The phaser effect is often used in funk and R&B guitar playing for its filter sweeping sound effect, an example being the Isley Brothers' song \"Who's That Lady\".", "Michael Hampton, another P-Funk guitarist, was able to play Hazel's virtuosic solo on \"Maggot Brain\", using a solo approach that added in string bends and Hendrix-style feedback.====Keyboards====Isaac Hayes playing keyboards in 1973A range of keyboard instruments are used in funk.", "Acoustic piano is used in funk, including in \"September\" by Earth Wind & Fire and \"Will It Go Round in Circles\" by Billy Preston.", "The electric piano is used on songs such as Herbie Hancock's \"Chameleon\" (a Fender Rhodes) and \"Mercy, Mercy, Mercy\" by Joe Zawinul (a Wurlitzer).", "The clavinet is used for its percussive tone, and it can be heard in songs such as Stevie Wonder's \"Superstition\" and \"Higher Ground\" and Bill Withers' \"Use Me\".", "The Hammond B-3 organ is used in funk, in songs such as \"Cissy Strut\" by The Meters and \"Love the One You're With\" (with Aretha Franklin singing and Billy Preston on keyboards).Bernie Worrell's range of keyboards from his recordings with Parliament Funkadelic demonstrate the wide range of keyboards used in funk, as they include the Hammond organ (\"Funky Woman\", \"Hit It and Quit It\", \"Wars of Armageddon\"); RMI electric piano (\"I Wanna Know If It's Good to You?", "\", \"Free Your Mind\", \"Loose Booty\"); acoustic piano (\"Funky Dollar Bill\", \"Jimmy's Got a Little Bit of Bitch in Him\"); clavinet (\"Joyful Process\", \"Up for the Down Stroke\", \"Red Hot Mama\"); Minimoog synthesizer (\"Atmosphere\", \"Flash Light\", \"Aqua Boogie\", \"Knee Deep\", \"Let's Take It to the Stage\"); and ARP string ensemble synth (\"Chocolate City\", \"Give Up the Funk (Tear the Roof off the Sucker)\", \"Undisco Kidd\").Synthesizers were used in funk both to add to the deep sound of the electric bass, or even to replace the electric bass altogether in some songs.", "Funk synthesizer bass, most often a Minimoog, was used because it could create layered sounds and new electronic tones that were not feasible on electric bass.===Vocals and lyrics===In the 1970s, funk used many of the same vocal styles that were used in African-American music in the 1960s, including singing influences from blues, gospel, jazz and doo-wop.", "Like these other African-American styles, funk used \"yells, shouts, hollers, moans, humming, and melodic riffs\", along with styles such as call and response and narration of stories (like the African oral tradition approach).", "The call and response in funk can be between the lead singer and the band members who act as backup vocalists.As funk emerged from soul, the vocals in funk share soul's approach; however, funk vocals tend to be \"more punctuated, energetic, rhythmically percussive, and less embellished\" with ornaments, and the vocal lines tend to resemble horn parts and have \"pushed\" rhythms.", "Funk bands such as Earth, Wind & Fire have harmony vocal parts.", "Songs like \"Super Bad\" by James Brown included \"double-voice\" along with \"yells, shouts and screams\".", "Funk singers used a \"black aesthetic\" to perform that made use of \"colorful and lively exchange of gestures, facial expressions, body posture, and vocal phrases\" to create an engaging performance.Charlie WilsonThe lyrics in funk music addressed issues faced by the African American community in the United States during the 1970s, which arose due to the move away from an industrial, working-class economy to an information economy, which harmed the Black working class.", "Funk songs by The Ohio Players, Earth, Wind & Fire, and James Brown raised issues faced by lower-income Blacks in their song lyrics, such as poor \"economic conditions and themes of poor inner-city life in the black communities\".The Funkadelic song \"One Nation Under A Groove\" (1978) is about the challenges that Blacks overcame during the 1960s civil rights movement, and it includes an exhortation for Blacks in the 1970s to capitalize on the new \"social and political opportunities\" that had become available in the 1970s.", "The Isley Brothers song \"Fight the Power\" (1975) has a political message.", "Parliament's song \"Chocolate City\" (1975) metaphorically refers to Washington, D.C., and other US cities that have a mainly Black population, and it draws attention to the potential power that Black voters wield and suggests that a Black President be considered in the future.The political themes of funk songs and the aiming of the messages to a Black audience echoed the new image of Blacks that was created in Blaxploitation films, which depicted \"African-American men and women standing their ground and fighting for what was right\".", "Both funk and Blaxploitation films addressed issues faced by Blacks and told stories from a Black perspective.", "Another link between 1970s funk and Blaxploitation films is that many of these films used funk soundtracks (e.g., Curtis Mayfield for ''Superfly''; James Brown and Fred Wesley for ''Black Caesar'' and War for ''Youngblood'').Funk songs included metaphorical language that was understood best by listeners who were \"familiar with the black aesthetic and black vernacular\".", "For example, funk songs included expressions such as \"shake your money maker\", \"funk yourself right out\" and \"move your boogie body\".", "Another example is the use of \"bad\" in the song \"Super Bad\" (1970), which black listeners knew meant \"good\" or \"great\".In the 1970s, to get around radio obscenity restrictions, funk artists would use words that sounded like non-allowed words and double entendres to get around these restrictions.", "For example, The Ohio Players had a song entitled \"Fopp\" which referred to \"Fopp me right, don't you fopp me wrong/We'll be foppin' all night long...\".", "Some funk songs used made-up words which suggested that they were \"writing lyrics in a constant haze of marijuana smoke\", such as Parliament's \"Aqua Boogie (A Psychoalphadiscobetabioaquadoloop)\", which includes words such as \"bioaquadooloop\".", "The mainstream white listener base was often not able to understand funk's lyrical messages, which contributed to funk's lack of popular music chart success with white audiences during the 1970s.===Other instruments===Horn section arrangements with groups of brass instruments are often used in funk songs.", "Funk horn sections could include saxophone (often tenor sax), trumpet, trombone, and for larger horn sections, such as quintets and sextets, a baritone sax.", "Horn sections played \"rhythmic and syncopated\" parts, often with \"offbeat phrases\" that emphasize \"rhythmic displacement\".", "Funk song introductions are an important place for horn arrangements.Funk horn sections typically include saxophones and trumpets.", "Larger horn sections often add a second instrument for one of the saxes or trumpets, and a trombone or bari sax may also be used.", "Pictured is the Earth, Wind and Fire horn section.Funk horn sections performed in a \"rhythmic percussive style\" that mimicked the approach used by funk rhythm guitarists.", "Horn sections would \"punctuate\" the lyrics by playing in the spaces between vocals, using \"short staccato rhythmic blasts\".", "Notable funk horn players included Alfred \"PeeWee\" Ellis, trombonist Fred Wesley, and alto sax player Maceo Parker.", "Notable funk horn sections including the Phoenix Horns (with Earth, Wind & Fire), the Horny Horns (with Parliament), the Memphis Horns (with Isaac Hayes), and MFSB (with Curtis Mayfield).The instruments in funk horn sections varied.", "If there were two horn players, it could be trumpet and sax, trumpet and trombone, or two saxes.", "A standard horn trio would consist of trumpet, sax, and trombone, but trios of one trumpet with two saxes, or two trumpets with one sax, were also fairly common.", "A quartet would be set up the same as a standard horn trio, but with an extra trumpet, sax, or (less frequently) trombone player.", "Quintets would either be a trio of saxes (typically alto/tenor/baritone, or tenor/tenor/baritone) with a trumpet and a trombone, or a pair each of trumpets and saxes with one trombone.", "With six instruments, the horn section would usually be two trumpets, three saxes, and a trombone.", "Notable songs with funk horn sections include:* \"Cold Sweat\" (James Brown & the Famous Flames), 1967* \"Superstition\" (Stevie Wonder), 1972* \"Funky Stuff\" (Kool & The Gang), 1973* \"What Is Hip?\"", "(Tower of Power), 1973* \"Pick Up the Pieces\" (Average White Band)* \"Up For The Down Stroke\" (Parliament), 1974* \"Hair\" (Graham Central Station), 1974* \"Too Hot to Stop\" (The Bar-Kays), 1976* \"Getaway\" (Earth, Wind & Fire), 1976In bands or shows where hiring a horn section is not feasible, a keyboardist can play the horn parts on a synthesizer with brass patches; however, choosing an authentic-sounding synthesizer and brass patch is important.", "In the 2010s, with micro-MIDI synths, it may even have been possible to have another instrumentalist play the keyboard brass parts, thus enabling the keyboardist to continue to comp throughout the song.===Costumes and style===Funk bands in the 1970s adopted Afro-American fashion and style, including \"Bell-bottom pants, platform shoes, hoop earrings, Afros hairstyles, leather vests,... beaded necklaces\", dashiki shirts, jumpsuits and boots.", "In contrast to earlier bands such as The Temptations, which wore \"matching suits\" and \"neat haircuts\" to appeal to white mainstream audiences, funk bands adopted an \"African spirit\" in their outfits and style.", "George Clinton and Parliament are known for their imaginative costumes and \"freedom of dress\", which included bedsheets acting as robes and capes." ], [ "History", "Funk was formed through a mixture of various music genres that were popular among African Americans in the mid-20th century.", "Musicologist Anne Danielsen wrote that funk might be placed in the lineage of rhythm and blues, jazz, and soul.", "Sociologist Darby E. Southgate wrote that funk is \"an amalgam of gospel, soul, jazz fusion, rhythm and blues, and black rock.", "\"The distinctive characteristics of African-American musical expression are rooted in sub-Saharan African music traditions, and find their earliest expression in spirituals, work chants/songs, praise shouts, gospel, blues, and \"body rhythms\" (hambone, patting juba, and ring shout clapping and stomping patterns).Like other styles of African-American musical expression including jazz, soul music and R&B, funk music accompanied many protest movements during and after the Civil Rights Movement.", "=== New Orleans ===Gerhard Kubik notes that with the exception of New Orleans, early blues lacked complex polyrhythms, and there was a \"very specific absence of asymmetric time-line patterns (key patterns) in virtually all early twentieth century African-American music ... only in some New Orleans genres does a hint of simple time line patterns occasionally appear in the form of transient so-called 'stomp' patterns or stop-time chorus.", "These do not function in the same way as African time lines.", "\"In the late 1940s this changed somewhat when the two-celled time line structure was brought into New Orleans blues.", "New Orleans musicians were especially receptive to Afro-Cuban influences precisely at the time when R&B was first forming.", "Dave Bartholomew and Professor Longhair (Henry Roeland Byrd) incorporated Afro-Cuban instruments, as well as the clave pattern and related two-celled figures in songs such as \"Carnival Day\" (Bartholomew 1949) and \"Mardi Gras In New Orleans\" (Longhair 1949).", "Robert Palmer reports that, in the 1940s, Professor Longhair listened to and played with musicians from the islands and \"fell under the spell of Perez Prado's mambo records.\"", "Professor Longhair's particular style was known locally as ''rumba-boogie''.One of Longhair's great contributions was his particular approach of adopting two-celled, clave-based patterns into New Orleans rhythm and blues (R&B).", "Longhair's rhythmic approach became a basic template of funk.", "According to Dr. John (Malcolm John \"Mac\" Rebennack Jr.), the Professor \"put funk into music ... Longhair's thing had a direct bearing I'd say on a large portion of the funk music that evolved in New Orleans.\"", "In his \"Mardi Gras in New Orleans\", the pianist employs the 2-3 clave onbeat/offbeat motif in a rumba-boogie \"guajeo\".The syncopated, but straight subdivision feel of Cuban music (as opposed to swung subdivisions) took root in New Orleans R&B during this time.", "Alexander Stewart states: \"Eventually, musicians from outside of New Orleans began to learn some of the rhythmic practices of the Crescent City.", "Most important of these were James Brown and the drummers and arrangers he employed.", "Brown's early repertoire had used mostly shuffle rhythms, and some of his most successful songs were 12/8 ballads (e.g.", "\"Please, Please, Please\" (1956), \"Bewildered\" (1961), \"I Don't Mind\" (1961)).", "Brown's change to a funkier brand of soul required 4/4 metre and a different style of drumming.\"", "Stewart makes the point: \"The singular style of rhythm & blues that emerged from New Orleans in the years after World played an important role in the development of funk.", "In a related development, the underlying rhythms of American popular music underwent a basic, yet generally unacknowledged transition from triplet or shuffle feel to even or straight eighth notes.", "\"=== 1960s =======James Brown====James Brown, a progenitor of funk musicJames Brown credited Little Richard's 1950s R&B road band, The Upsetters from New Orleans, as \"the first to put the funk into the rhythm\" of rock and roll.", "Following his temporary exit from secular music to become an evangelist in 1957, some of Little Richard's band members joined Brown and the Famous Flames, beginning a long string of hits for them in 1958.By the mid-1960s, James Brown had developed his signature groove that emphasized the downbeat—with heavy emphasis on the first beat of every measure to etch his distinctive sound, rather than the backbeat that typified African-American music.", "Brown often cued his band with the command \"On the one!,\" changing the percussion emphasis/accent from the one-'''''two'''''-three-'''''four''''' backbeat of traditional soul music to the '''''one'''''-two-three-four downbeat – but with an even-note syncopated guitar rhythm (on quarter notes two and four) featuring a hard-driving, repetitive brassy swing.", "This one-three beat launched the shift in Brown's signature music style, starting with his 1964 hit single, \"Out of Sight\" and his 1965 hits, \"Papa's Got a Brand New Bag\" and \"I Got You (I Feel Good)\".Brown's style of funk was based on interlocking, contrapuntal parts: syncopated basslines, 16th beat drum patterns, and syncopated guitar riffs.", "The main guitar ostinatos for \"Ain't it Funky\" (c. late 1960s) are an example of Brown's refinement of New Orleans funk— an irresistibly danceable riff, stripped down to its rhythmic essence.", "On \"Ain't it Funky\" the tonal structure is barebones.", "Brown's innovations led to him and his band becoming the seminal funk act; they also pushed the funk music style further to the forefront with releases such as \"Cold Sweat\" (1967), \"Mother Popcorn\" (1969) and \"Get Up (I Feel Like Being A) Sex Machine\" (1970), discarding even the twelve-bar blues featured in his earlier music.", "Instead, Brown's music was overlaid with \"catchy, anthemic vocals\" based on \"extensive vamps\" in which he also used his voice as \"a percussive instrument with frequent rhythmic grunts and with rhythm-section patterns ... resembling West African polyrhythms\" – a tradition evident in African-American work songs and chants.", "Throughout his career, Brown's frenzied vocals, frequently punctuated with screams and grunts, channeled the \"ecstatic ambiance of the black church\" in a secular context.After 1965, Brown's bandleader and arranger was Alfred \"Pee Wee\" Ellis.", "Ellis credits Clyde Stubblefield's adoption of New Orleans drumming techniques, as the basis of modern funk: \"If, in a studio, you said 'play it funky' that could imply almost anything.", "But 'give me a New Orleans beat' – you got exactly what you wanted.", "And Clyde Stubblefield was just the epitome of this funky drumming.\"", "Stewart states that the popular feel was passed along from \"New Orleans—through James Brown's music, to the popular music of the 1970s.\"", "Concerning the various funk motifs, Stewart states that this model \"...is different from a time line (such as clave and tresillo) in that it is not an exact pattern, but more of a loose organizing principle.", "\"In a 1990 interview, Brown offered his reason for switching the rhythm of his music: \"I changed from the upbeat to the downbeat ...", "Simple as that, really.\"", "According to Maceo Parker, Brown's former saxophonist, playing on the downbeat was at first hard for him and took some getting used to.", "Reflecting back to his early days with Brown's band, Parker reported that he had difficulty playing \"on the one\" during solo performances, since he was used to hearing and playing with the accent on the second beat.==== Parliament-Funkadelic ====George Clinton and Parliament Funkadelic in 2006A new group of musicians began to further develop the \"funk rock\" approach.", "Innovations were prominently made by George Clinton, with his bands Parliament and Funkadelic.", "Together, they produced a new kind of funk sound heavily influenced by jazz and psychedelic rock.", "The two groups shared members and are often referred to collectively as \"Parliament-Funkadelic\".", "The breakout popularity of Parliament-Funkadelic gave rise to the term \"P-Funk\", which referred to the music by George Clinton's bands, and defined a new subgenre.", "Clinton played a principal role in several other bands, including Parlet, the Horny Horns, and the Brides of Funkenstein, all part of the P-Funk conglomerate.", "\"P-funk\" also came to mean something in its quintessence, of superior quality, or ''sui generis''.Following the work of Jimi Hendrix in the late 1960s, artists such as Sly and the Family Stone combined the psychedelic rock of Hendrix with funk, borrowing wah pedals, fuzz boxes, echo chambers, and vocal distorters from the former, as well as blues rock and jazz.", "In the following years, groups such as Clinton's Parliament-Funkadelic continued this sensibility, employing synthesizers and rock-oriented guitar work.=== Late 1960s – early 1970s ===Other musical groups picked up on the rhythms and vocal style developed by James Brown and his band, and the funk style began to grow.", "Dyke and the Blazers, based in Phoenix, Arizona, released \"Funky Broadway\" in 1967, perhaps the first record of the soul music era to have the word \"funky\" in the title.", "In 1969 Jimmy McGriff released ''Electric Funk'', featuring his distinctive organ over a blazing horn section.", "Meanwhile, on the West Coast, Charles Wright & the Watts 103rd Street Rhythm Band was releasing funk tracks beginning with its first album in 1967, culminating in the classic single \"Express Yourself\" in 1971.Also from the West Coast area, more specifically Oakland, California, came the band Tower of Power (TOP), which formed in 1968.Their debut album, ''East Bay Grease'', released 1970, is considered a milestone in funk.", "Throughout the 1970s, TOP had many hits, and the band helped to make funk music a successful genre, with a broader audience.In 1970, Sly & the Family Stone's \"Thank You (Falettinme Be Mice Elf Agin)\" reached #1 on the charts, as did \"Family Affair\" in 1971.Notably, these afforded the group and the genre crossover success and greater recognition, yet such success escaped comparatively talented and moderately popular funk band peers.", "The Meters defined funk in New Orleans, starting with their top ten R&B hits \"Sophisticated Cissy\" and \"Cissy Strut\" in 1969.Another group who defined funk around this time were the Isley Brothers, whose funky 1969 #1 R&B hit, \"It's Your Thing\", signaled a breakthrough in African-American music, bridging the gaps of the jazzy sounds of Brown, the psychedelic rock of Jimi Hendrix, and the upbeat soul of Sly & the Family Stone and Mother's Finest.", "The Temptations, who had previously helped to define the \"Motown Sound\" – a distinct blend of pop-soul – adopted this new psychedelic sound towards the end of the 1960s as well.", "Their producer, Norman Whitfield, became an innovator in the field of psychedelic soul, creating hits with a newer, funkier sound for many Motown acts, including \"War\" by Edwin Starr, \"Smiling Faces Sometimes\" by the Undisputed Truth and \"Papa Was A Rollin' Stone\" by the Temptations.", "Motown producers Frank Wilson (\"Keep On Truckin'\") and Hal Davis (\"Dancing Machine\") followed suit.", "Stevie Wonder and Marvin Gaye also adopted funk beats for some of their biggest hits in the 1970s, such as \"Superstition\" and \"You Haven't Done Nothin'\", and \"I Want You\" and \"Got To Give It Up\", respectively.=== 1970s ===The Original Family Stone live, 2006.Jerry Martini, Rose Stone, and Cynthia RobinsonThe 1970s were the era of highest mainstream visibility for funk music.", "In addition to Parliament Funkadelic, artists like Sly and the Family Stone, Rufus & Chaka Khan, Bootsy's Rubber Band, the Isley Brothers, Ohio Players, Con Funk Shun, Kool and the Gang, the Bar-Kays, Commodores, Roy Ayers, Curtis Mayfield, and Stevie Wonder, among others, got radio play.", "Disco music owed a great deal to funk.", "Many early disco songs and performers came directly from funk-oriented backgrounds.", "Some disco music hits, such as all of Barry White's hits, \"Kung Fu Fighting\" by Biddu and Carl Douglas, Donna Summer's \"Love To Love You Baby\", Diana Ross' \"Love Hangover\", KC and the Sunshine Band's \"I'm Your Boogie Man\", \"I'm Every Woman\" by Chaka Khan (also known as the Queen of Funk), and Chic's \"Le Freak\" conspicuously include riffs and rhythms derived from funk.", "In 1976, Rose Royce scored a number-one hit with a purely dance-funk record, \"Car Wash\".", "Even with the arrival of disco, funk became increasingly popular well into the early 1980s.Funk music was also exported to Africa, and it melded with African singing and rhythms to form Afrobeat.", "Nigerian musician Fela Kuti, who was heavily influenced by James Brown's music, is credited with creating the style and terming it \"Afrobeat\".=== Jazz funk ===Jazz-funk is a subgenre of jazz music characterized by a strong back beat (groove), electrified sounds and an early prevalence of analog synthesizers.", "The integration of funk, soul, and R&B music and styles into jazz resulted in the creation of a genre whose spectrum is quite wide and ranges from strong jazz improvisation to soul, funk or disco with jazz arrangements, jazz riffs, and jazz solos, and sometimes soul vocals.", "Jazz-funk is primarily an American genre, where it was popular throughout the 1970s and the early 1980s, but it also achieved noted appeal on the club circuit in England during the mid-1970s.", "Similar genres include soul jazz and jazz fusion, but neither entirely overlap with jazz-funk.", "Notably jazz-funk is less vocal, more arranged and featured more improvisation than soul jazz, and retains a strong feel of groove and R&B versus some of the jazz fusion production.=== 1980s synth-funk ===In the 1980s, largely as a reaction against what was seen as the over-indulgence of disco, many of the core elements that formed the foundation of the P-Funk formula began to be usurped by electronic instruments, drum machines and synthesizers.", "Horn sections of saxophones and trumpets were replaced by synth keyboards, and the horns that remained were given simplified lines, and few horn solos were given to soloists.", "The classic electric keyboards of funk, like the Hammond B3 organ, the Hohner Clavinet and/or the Fender Rhodes piano, began to be replaced by the new digital synthesizers such as the Prophet-5, Oberheim OB-X, and Yamaha DX7.Electronic drum machines such as the Roland TR-808, Linn LM-1, and Oberheim DMX began to replace the \"funky drummers\" of the past, and the slap and pop style of bass playing were often replaced by synth keyboard basslines.", "Lyrics of funk songs began to change from suggestive double entendres to more graphic and sexually explicit content.Influenced by Kraftwerk, the Afroamerican rap DJ Afrika Bambaataa developed electro-funk, a minimalist machine-driven style of funk with his single \"Planet Rock\" in 1982.Also known simply as electro, this style of funk was driven by synthesizers and the electronic rhythm of the TR-808 drum machine.", "The single \"Renegades of Funk\" followed in 1983.Michael Jackson was also influenced by electro-funk.", "In 1980, techno-funk music used the TR-808 programmable drum machine, while Kraftwerk's sound influenced later electro-funk artists such as Mantronix.Rick James was the first funk musician of the 1980s to assume the funk mantle dominated by P-Funk in the 1970s.", "His 1981 album ''Street Songs'', with the singles \"Give It to Me Baby\" and \"Super Freak\", resulted in James becoming a star, and paved the way for the future direction of explicitness in funk.Prince was an influential multi-instrumentalist, bandleader, singer and songwriter.Prince formed the Time, originally conceived as an opening act for him and based on his \"Minneapolis sound\", a hybrid mixture of funk, R&B, rock, pop and new wave.", "Eventually, the band went on to define their own style of stripped-down funk based on tight musicianship and sexual themes.Similar to Prince, other bands emerged during the P-Funk era and began to incorporate uninhibited sexuality, dance-oriented themes, synthesizers and other electronic technologies to continue to craft funk hits.", "These included Cameo, Zapp, the Gap Band, the Bar-Kays, and the Dazz Band, who all found their biggest hits in the early 1980s.", "By the latter half of the 1980s, pure funk had lost its commercial impact; however, pop artists from Michael Jackson to Culture Club often used funk beats.=== Late 1980s to 2000s nu-funk ===While funk was driven away from radio by slick commercial hip hop, contemporary R&B and new jack swing, its influence continued to spread.", "Artists like Steve Arrington and Cameo still received major airplay and had huge global followings.", "Rock bands began adopting elements of funk into their sound, creating new combinations of \"funk rock\" and \"funk metal\".", "Extreme, Red Hot Chili Peppers, Living Colour, Jane's Addiction, Prince, Primus, Urban Dance Squad, Fishbone, Faith No More, Rage Against the Machine, Infectious Grooves, and Incubus spread the approach and styles garnered from funk pioneers to new audiences in the mid-to-late 1980s and the 1990s.", "These bands later inspired the underground mid-1990s funkcore movement and current funk-inspired artists like Outkast, Malina Moye, Van Hunt, and Gnarls Barkley.In the 1990s, artists like Me'shell Ndegeocello, Brooklyn Funk Essentials and the (predominantly UK-based) acid jazz movement—including artists and bands such as Jamiroquai, Incognito, Galliano, Omar, Los Tetas and the Brand New Heavies—carried on with strong elements of funk.", "However, they never came close to reaching the commercial success of funk in its heyday—with the exception of Jamiroquai, whose album ''Travelling Without Moving'' sold about 11.5 million units worldwide and remains the best-selling funk album in history.", "Meanwhile, in Australia and New Zealand, bands playing the pub circuit, such as Supergroove, Skunkhour and the Truth, preserved a more instrumental form of funk.Me'shell Ndegeocello playing electric bassSince the late 1980s, hip hop artists have regularly sampled old funk tunes.", "James Brown is said to be the most sampled artist in the history of hip hop, while P-Funk is the second most sampled artist; samples of old Parliament and Funkadelic songs formed the basis of West Coast G-funk.Original beats that feature funk-styled bass or rhythm guitar riffs are also not uncommon.", "Dr. Dre (considered the progenitor of the G-funk genre) has freely acknowledged to being heavily influenced by George Clinton's psychedelia: \"Back in the 70s that's all people were doing: getting high, wearing Afros, bell-bottoms and listening to Parliament-Funkadelic.", "That's why I called my album ''The Chronic'' and based my music and the concepts like I did: because his shit was a big influence on my music.", "Very big\".", "Digital Underground was a large contributor to the rebirth of funk in the 1990s by educating their listeners with knowledge about the history of funk and its artists.", "George Clinton branded Digital Underground as \"Sons of the P\", as their second full-length release is also titled.", "DU's first release, ''Sex Packets'', was full of funk samples, with the most widely known, \"The Humpty Dance\", sampling Parliament's \"Let's Play House\".", "A very strong funk album of DU's was their 1996 release ''Future Rhythm''.", "Much of contemporary club dance music, drum and bass in particular has heavily sampled funk drum breaks.Funk is a major element of certain artists identified with the jam band scene of the late 1990s and 2000s.", "In the late 1990s, the band Phish developed a live sound called \"cow funk\" (a.k.a.", "\"space funk\"), which consisted of extended danceable deep bass grooves, and often emphasized heavy \"wah\" pedal and other psychedelic effects from the guitar player and layered Clavinet from the keyboard player.", "Phish began playing funkier jams in their sets around 1996, and 1998's ''The Story of the Ghost'' was heavily influenced by funk.", "While Phish's funk was traditional in the sense that it often accented beat 1 of the 4/4 time signature, it was also highly exploratory and involved building jams towards energetic peaks before transitioning into highly composed progressive rock and roll.Medeski Martin & Wood, Robert Randolph & the Family Band, Galactic, Jam Underground, Soulive, and Karl Denson's Tiny Universe all drew heavily from the funk tradition.", "Dumpstaphunk builds upon the New Orleans tradition of funk, with their gritty, low-ended grooves and soulful four-part vocals.", "Since the mid-1990s the nu-funk or funk revivalist scene, centered on the deep funk collectors scene, is producing new material influenced by the sounds of rare funk 45s.", "Labels include Desco, Soul Fire, Daptone, Timmion, Neapolitan, Bananarama, Kay-Dee, and Tramp.", "These labels often release on 45 rpm records.", "Although specializing in music for rare funk DJs, there has been some crossover into the mainstream music industry, such as Sharon Jones' 2005 appearance on ''Late Night with Conan O'Brien''.", "Those who mix acid jazz, acid house, trip hop, and other genres with funk include Tom Tom Club, Brainticket, Groove Armada, et al.===2010s funktronica===During the 2000s and early 2010s, some punk funk bands such as Out Hud and Mongolian MonkFish performed in the indie rock scene.", "Indie band Rilo Kiley, in keeping with their tendency to explore a variety of rockish styles, incorporated funk into their song \"The Moneymaker\" on the album ''Under the Blacklight''.", "Prince, with his later albums, gave a rebirth to the funk sound with songs like \"The Everlasting Now\", \"Musicology\", \"Ol' Skool Company\", and \"Black Sweat\".", "Particle, for instance, is part of a scene which combined the elements of digital music made with computers, synthesizers, and samples with analog instruments, sounds, and improvisational and compositional elements of funk." ], [ "Derivatives", "From the early 1970s onwards, funk has developed various subgenres.", "While George Clinton and the Parliament were making a harder variation of funk, bands such as Kool and the Gang, Ohio Players and Earth, Wind and Fire were making disco-influenced funk music.=== Funk rock ===Funk rock (also written as ''funk-rock'' or ''funk/rock'') fuses funk and rock elements.", "Its earliest incarnation was heard in the late '60s through the mid-'70s by musicians such as Jimi Hendrix, Frank Zappa, Gary Wright, David Bowie, Mother's Finest, and Funkadelic on their earlier albums.Many instruments may be incorporated into funk rock, but the overall sound is defined by a definitive bass or drum beat and electric guitars.", "The bass and drum rhythms are influenced by funk music but with more intensity, while the guitar can be funk- or rock-influenced, usually with distortion.", "Prince, Jesse Johnson, Red Hot Chili Peppers and Fishbone are major artists in funk rock.===Avant-funk===The term \"avant-funk\" has been used to describe acts who combined funk with art rock's concerns.", "Simon Frith described the style as an application of progressive rock mentality to rhythm rather than melody and harmony.", "Simon Reynolds characterized avant-funk as a kind of psychedelia in which \"oblivion was to be attained not through rising above the body, rather through immersion in the physical, self loss through animalism.", "\"Talking Heads combined funk with elements of art rock.Acts in the genre include German krautrock band Can, American funk artists Sly Stone and George Clinton, and a wave of early 1980s UK and US artists (including Public Image Ltd, Talking Heads, the Pop Group, Gang of Four, Bauhaus, Cabaret Voltaire, Defunkt, A Certain Ratio, and 23 Skidoo) who embraced black dance music styles such as disco and funk.", "The artists of the late 1970s New York no wave scene also explored avant-funk, influenced by figures such as Ornette Coleman.", "Reynolds noted these artists' preoccupations with issues such as alienation, repression and technocracy of Western modernity.===Go-go===Go-go originated in the Washington, D.C., area with which it remains associated, along with other spots in the Mid-Atlantic.", "Inspired by singers such as Chuck Brown, the \"Godfather of Go-go\", it is a blend of funk, rhythm and blues, and early hip hop, with a focus on lo-fi percussion instruments and in-person jamming in place of dance tracks.", "As such, it is primarily a dance music with an emphasis on live audience call and response.", "Go-go rhythms are also incorporated into street percussion.=== Boogie ===Boogie is an electronic music mainly influenced by funk and post-disco.", "The minimalist approach of boogie, consisting of synthesizers and keyboards, helped to establish electro and house music.", "Boogie, unlike electro, emphasizes the slapping techniques of bass guitar but also bass synthesizers.", "Artists include Vicky \"D\", Komiko, Peech Boys, Kashif, and later Evelyn King.=== Electro funk ===Electro funk is a hybrid of electronic music and funk.", "It essentially follows the same form as funk, and retains funk's characteristics, but is made entirely (or partially) with a use of electronic instruments such as the TR-808.Vocoders or talkboxes were commonly implemented to transform the vocals.", "The pioneering electro band Zapp commonly used such instruments in their music.", "Bootsy Collins also began to incorporate a more electronic sound on later solo albums.", "Other artists include Herbie Hancock, Afrika Bambaataa, Egyptian Lover, Vaughan Mason & Crew, Midnight Star and Cybotron.=== Funk metal ===Funk metal (sometimes typeset differently such as ''funk-metal'') is a fusion genre of music which emerged in the 1980s, as part of the alternative metal movement.", "It typically incorporates elements of funk and heavy metal (often thrash metal), and in some cases other styles, such as punk and experimental music.", "It features hard-driving heavy metal guitar riffs, the pounding bass rhythms characteristic of funk, and sometimes hip hop-style rhymes into an alternative rock approach to songwriting.", "A primary example is the all-African-American rock band Living Colour, who have been said to be \"funk-metal pioneers\" by ''Rolling Stone''.", "During the late 1980s and early 1990s, the style was most prevalent in California – particularly Los Angeles and San Francisco.=== G-funk ===Dr.", "Dre (pictured in 2011) was one of the influential creators of G-funk.G-funk is a fusion genre of music which combines gangsta rap and funk.", "It is generally considered to have been invented by West Coast rappers and made famous by Dr. Dre.", "It incorporates multi-layered and melodic synthesizers, slow hypnotic grooves, a deep bass, background female vocals, the extensive sampling of P-Funk tunes, and a high-pitched portamento saw wave synthesizer lead.", "Unlike other earlier rap acts that also utilized funk samples (such as EPMD and the Bomb Squad), G-funk often used fewer, unaltered samples per song.=== Timba funk ===Timba is a form of funky Cuban popular dance music.", "By 1990, several Cuban bands had incorporated elements of funk and hip-hop into their arrangements, and expanded upon the instrumentation of the traditional conjunto with an American drum set, saxophones and a two-keyboard format.", "Timba bands like La Charanga Habanera or Bamboleo often have horns or other instruments playing short parts of tunes by Earth, Wind and Fire, Kool and the Gang or other U.S. funk bands.", "While many funk motifs exhibit a clave-based structure, they are created intuitively, without a conscious intent of aligning the various parts to a guide-pattern.", "Timba incorporates funk motifs into an overt and intentional clave structure." ], [ "Social impact", "=== Women and funk ===Chaka Khan (born 1953) has been called the \"Queen of Funk\".Despite funk's popularity in modern music, few people have examined the work of funk women.", "Notable funk women include Chaka Khan, Labelle, Brides of Funkenstein, Klymaxx, Mother's Finest, Lyn Collins, Betty Davis and Teena Marie.", "As cultural critic Cheryl Keyes explains in her essay \"She Was Too Black for Rock and Too Hard for Soul: (Re)discovering the Musical Career of Betty Mabry Davis\", most of the scholarship around funk has focused on the cultural work of men.", "She states that \"Betty Davis is an artist whose name has gone unheralded as a pioneer in the annals of funk and rock.", "Most writing on these musical genres has traditionally placed male artists like Jimi Hendrix, George Clinton (of Parliament-Funkadelic), and bassist Larry Graham as trendsetters in the shaping of a rock music sensibility.", "\"In ''The Feminist Funk Power of Betty Davis and Renée Stout'', Nikki A. Greene notes that Davis' provocative and controversial style helped her rise to popularity in the 1970s as she focused on sexually motivated, self-empowered subject matter.", "Furthermore, this affected the young artist's ability to draw large audiences and commercial success.", "Greene also notes that Davis was never made an official spokesperson or champion for the civil rights and feminist movements of the time, although more recently her work has become a symbol of sexual liberation for women of color.", "Davis' song \"If I'm In Luck I Just Might Get Picked Up\", on her self-titled debut album, sparked controversy, and was banned by the Detroit NAACP.", "Maureen Mahan, a musicologist and anthropologist, examines Davis' impact on the music industry and the American public in her article \"They Say She's Different: Race, Gender, Genre, and the Liberated Black Femininity of Betty Davis\".Laina Dawes, the author of ''What Are You Doing Here: A Black Woman's Life and Liberation in Heavy Metal'', believes respectability politics is the reason artists like Davis do not get the same recognition as their male counterparts: \"I blame what I call respectability politics as part of the reason the funk-rock some of the women from the '70s aren't better known.", "Despite the importance of their music and presence, many of the funk-rock females represented the aggressive behavior and sexuality that many people were not comfortable with.", "\"Janelle Monáe (born 1985) is part of a new wave of female funk artists.According to Francesca T. Royster, in Rickey Vincent's book ''Funk: The Music, The People, and The Rhythm of The One'', he analyzes the impact of Labelle but only in limited sections.", "Royster criticizes Vincent's analysis of the group, stating: \"It is a shame, then, that Vincent gives such minimal attention to Labelle's performances in his study.", "This reflects, unfortunately, a still consistent sexism that shapes the evaluation of funk music.", "In ''Funk'', Vincent's analysis of Labelle is brief—sharing a single paragraph with the Pointer Sisters in his three-page sub chapter, 'Funky Women.'", "He writes that while 'Lady Marmalade' 'blew the lid off of the standards of sexual innuendo and skyrocketed the group's star status,' the band's 'glittery image slipped into the disco undertow and was ultimately wasted as the trio broke up in search of solo status\" (Vincent, 1996, 192).", "Many female artists who are considered to be in the genre of funk, also share songs in the disco, soul, and R&B genres; Labelle falls into this category of women who are split among genres due to a critical view of music theory and the history of sexism in the United States.In recent years, artists like Janelle Monáe have opened the doors for more scholarship and analysis on the female impact on the funk music genre.", "Monáe's style bends concepts of gender, sexuality, and self-expression in a manner similar to the way some male pioneers in funk broke boundaries.", "Her albums center on Afro-futuristic concepts, centering on elements of female and black empowerment and visions of a dystopian future.", "In his article \"Janelle Monáe and Afro-sonic Feminist Funk\", Matthew Valnes writes that Monae's involvement in the funk genre is juxtaposed with the traditional view of funk as a male-centered genre.", "Valnes acknowledges that funk is male-dominated, but provides insight to the societal circumstances that led to this situation.Monáe's influences include her mentor Prince, Funkadelic, Lauryn Hill, and other funk and R&B artists, but according to Emily Lordi, \"Betty Davis is seldom listed among Janelle Monáe's many influences, and certainly the younger singer's high-tech concepts, virtuosic performances, and meticulously produced songs are far removed from Davis's proto-punk aesthetic.", "But... like Davis, she also is closely linked with a visionary male mentor (Prince).", "The title of Monáe's 2013 album, ''The Electric Lady'', alludes to Hendrix's ''Electric Ladyland'', but it also implicitly cites the coterie of women that inspired Hendrix himself: that group, called the Cosmic Ladies or Electric Ladies, was together led by Hendrix's lover Devon Wilson and Betty Davis.\"" ], [ "See also", "* Chanking" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Danielsen, Anne (2006).", "''Presence and pleasure: The funk grooves of James Brown and Parliament''.", "Wesleyan University Press.", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Frequency" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Frequency''' (symbol ), most often measured in ''hertz'' (symbol: Hz), is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit of time.", "It is also occasionally referred to as ''temporal frequency'' for clarity and to distinguish it from ''spatial frequency''.", "'''Ordinary frequency''' is related to ''angular frequency'' (symbol ''ω'', with SI unit radian per second) by a factor of 2.The '''period''' (symbol ''T'') is the interval of time between events, so the period is the reciprocal of the frequency: .Frequency is an important parameter used in science and engineering to specify the rate of oscillatory and vibratory phenomena, such as mechanical vibrations, audio signals (sound), radio waves, and light.For example, if a heart beats at a frequency of 120 times per minute (2 hertz), the period—the interval between beats—is half a second (60 seconds divided by 120 beats)." ], [ "Definitions and units {{anchor|Definitions|Units|Definition|Unit}}", "A pendulum with a period of 2.8 s and a frequency of 0.36 HzFor cyclical phenomena such as oscillations, waves, or for examples of simple harmonic motion, the term ''frequency'' is defined as the number of cycles or repetitions per unit of time.", "The conventional symbol for frequency is ''f'' or ''ν'' (the Greek letter nu) is also used.", "The ''period'' ''T'' is the time taken to complete one cycle of an oscillation or rotation.", "The frequency and the period are related by the equationThe term ''temporal frequency'' is used to emphasise that the frequency is characterised by the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit time.The SI unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz), named after the German physicist Heinrich Hertz by the International Electrotechnical Commission in 1930.It was adopted by the CGPM (Conférence générale des poids et mesures) in 1960, officially replacing the previous name, ''cycle per second'' (cps).", "The SI unit for the period, as for all measurements of time, is the second.", "A traditional unit of frequency used with rotating mechanical devices, where it is termed ''rotational frequency'', is revolution per minute, abbreviated r/min or rpm.", "60 rpm is equivalent to one hertz." ], [ "Period versus frequency", "As a matter of convenience, longer and slower waves, such as ocean surface waves, are more typically described by wave period rather than frequency.", "Short and fast waves, like audio and radio, are usually described by their frequency.", "Some commonly used conversions are listed below: Frequency Period 1 mHz (10−3 Hz) 1 ks (103 s) 1 Hz (100 Hz) 1 s (100 s) 1 kHz (103 Hz) 1 ms (10−3 s) 1 MHz (106 Hz) 1 μs (10−6 s) 1 GHz (109 Hz) 1 ns (10−9 s) 1 THz (1012 Hz) 1 ps (10−12 s)" ], [ "Related quantities", "Diagram of the relationship between the different types of frequency and other wave properties.", "In this diagram, ''x'' is the input to the function represented by the arrow.", "* Rotational frequency, usually denoted by the Greek letter ''ν'' (nu), is defined as the instantaneous rate of change of the number of rotations, ''N'', with respect to time: it is a type of frequency applied to rotational motion.", "* Angular frequency, usually denoted by the Greek letter ''ω'' (omega), is defined as the rate of change of angular displacement (during rotation), ''θ'' (theta), or the rate of change of the phase of a sinusoidal waveform (notably in oscillations and waves), or as the rate of change of the argument to the sine function: : : The unit of angular frequency is the radian per second (rad/s) but, for discrete-time signals, can also be expressed as radians per sampling interval, which is a dimensionless quantity.", "Angular frequency is frequency multiplied by 2.", "* Spatial frequency, denoted here by ''ξ'' (xi), is analogous to temporal frequency, but with a spatial measurement replacing time measurement, e.g.", ": ** Spatial period or wavelength is the spatial analog to temporal period." ], [ "In wave propagation {{anchor|Frequency of waves}}", "For periodic waves in nondispersive media (that is, media in which the wave speed is independent of frequency), frequency has an inverse relationship to the wavelength, ''λ'' (lambda).", "Even in dispersive media, the frequency ''f'' of a sinusoidal wave is equal to the phase velocity ''v'' of the wave divided by the wavelength ''λ'' of the wave:In the special case of electromagnetic waves in vacuum, then , where ''c'' is the speed of light in vacuum, and this expression becomesWhen monochromatic waves travel from one medium to another, their frequency remains the same—only their wavelength and speed change." ], [ "Measurement", "Measurement of frequency can be done in the following ways:=== Counting ===Calculating the frequency of a repeating event is accomplished by counting the number of times that event occurs within a specific time period, then dividing the count by the period.", "For example, if 71 events occur within 15 seconds the frequency is:If the number of counts is not very large, it is more accurate to measure the time interval for a predetermined number of occurrences, rather than the number of occurrences within a specified time.", "The latter method introduces a random error into the count of between zero and one count, so on average half a count.", "This is called ''gating error'' and causes an average error in the calculated frequency of , or a fractional error of where is the timing interval and is the measured frequency.", "This error decreases with frequency, so it is generally a problem at low frequencies where the number of counts ''N'' is small.=== Stroboscope ===An old method of measuring the frequency of rotating or vibrating objects is to use a stroboscope.", "This is an intense repetitively flashing light (strobe light) whose frequency can be adjusted with a calibrated timing circuit.", "The strobe light is pointed at the rotating object and the frequency adjusted up and down.", "When the frequency of the strobe equals the frequency of the rotating or vibrating object, the object completes one cycle of oscillation and returns to its original position between the flashes of light, so when illuminated by the strobe the object appears stationary.", "Then the frequency can be read from the calibrated readout on the stroboscope.", "A downside of this method is that an object rotating at an integer multiple of the strobing frequency will also appear stationary.=== Frequency counter ===Modern frequency counterHigher frequencies are usually measured with a frequency counter.", "This is an electronic instrument which measures the frequency of an applied repetitive electronic signal and displays the result in hertz on a digital display.", "It uses digital logic to count the number of cycles during a time interval established by a precision quartz time base.", "Cyclic processes that are not electrical, such as the rotation rate of a shaft, mechanical vibrations, or sound waves, can be converted to a repetitive electronic signal by transducers and the signal applied to a frequency counter.", "As of 2018, frequency counters can cover the range up to about 100 GHz.", "This represents the limit of direct counting methods; frequencies above this must be measured by indirect methods.=== Heterodyne methods ===Above the range of frequency counters, frequencies of electromagnetic signals are often measured indirectly utilizing heterodyning (frequency conversion).", "A reference signal of a known frequency near the unknown frequency is mixed with the unknown frequency in a nonlinear mixing device such as a diode.", "This creates a heterodyne or \"beat\" signal at the difference between the two frequencies.", "If the two signals are close together in frequency the heterodyne is low enough to be measured by a frequency counter.", "This process only measures the difference between the unknown frequency and the reference frequency.", "To reach higher frequencies, several stages of heterodyning can be used.", "Current research is extending this method to infrared and light frequencies (optical heterodyne detection)." ], [ "Examples", "=== Light ===Complete spectrum of electromagnetic radiation with the visible portion highlightedVisible light is an electromagnetic wave, consisting of oscillating electric and magnetic fields traveling through space.", "The frequency of the wave determines its color: 400 THz ( Hz) is red light, 800 THz () is violet light, and between these (in the range 400–800 THz) are all the other colors of the visible spectrum.", "An electromagnetic wave with a frequency less than will be invisible to the human eye; such waves are called infrared (IR) radiation.", "At even lower frequency, the wave is called a microwave, and at still lower frequencies it is called a radio wave.", "Likewise, an electromagnetic wave with a frequency higher than will also be invisible to the human eye; such waves are called ultraviolet (UV) radiation.", "Even higher-frequency waves are called X-rays, and higher still are gamma rays.All of these waves, from the lowest-frequency radio waves to the highest-frequency gamma rays, are fundamentally the same, and they are all called electromagnetic radiation.", "They all travel through vacuum at the same speed (the speed of light), giving them wavelengths inversely proportional to their frequencies.where ''c'' is the speed of light (''c'' in vacuum or less in other media), ''f'' is the frequency and ''λ'' is the wavelength.In dispersive media, such as glass, the speed depends somewhat on frequency, so the wavelength is not quite inversely proportional to frequency.=== Sound ===The sound wave spectrum, with rough guide of some applicationsSound propagates as mechanical vibration waves of pressure and displacement, in air or other substances.", "In general, frequency components of a sound determine its \"color\", its timbre.", "When speaking about the frequency (in singular) of a sound, it means the property that most determines its pitch.The frequencies an ear can hear are limited to a specific range of frequencies.", "The audible frequency range for humans is typically given as being between about 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz (20 kHz), though the high frequency limit usually reduces with age.", "Other species have different hearing ranges.", "For example, some dog breeds can perceive vibrations up to 60,000 Hz.In many media, such as air, the speed of sound is approximately independent of frequency, so the wavelength of the sound waves (distance between repetitions) is approximately inversely proportional to frequency.=== Line current ===In Europe, Africa, Australia, southern South America, most of Asia, and Russia, the frequency of the alternating current in household electrical outlets is 50 Hz (close to the tone G), whereas in North America and northern South America, the frequency of the alternating current in household electrical outlets is 60 Hz (between the tones B and B; that is, a minor third above the European frequency).", "The frequency of the 'hum' in an audio recording can show in which of these general regions the recording was made." ], [ "Aperiodic frequency", "'''Aperiodic frequency''' is the rate of incidence or occurrence of non-cyclic phenomena, including random processes such as radioactive decay.", "It is expressed with the unit of reciprocal second (s−1) or, in the case of radioactivity, becquerels.It is defined as a rate, ''f'' = ''N''/Δ''t'', involving the number of entities counted or the number of events happened (''N'') during a given time duration (Δ''t''); it is a physical quantity of type temporal rate." ], [ "See also", "* Audio frequency* Bandwidth (signal processing)* Chirp* Cutoff frequency* Downsampling* Electronic filter* Fourier analysis* Frequency band* Frequency converter* Frequency domain* Frequency distribution* Frequency extender* Frequency grid* Frequency level* Frequency modulation* Frequency spectrum* Interaction frequency* Least-squares spectral analysis* Natural frequency* Negative frequency* Periodicity (disambiguation)* Pink noise* Preselector* Radar signal characteristics* Signaling (telecommunications)* Spread spectrum* Spectral component* Transverter* Upsampling* Orders of magnitude (frequency)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * *" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Keyboard frequencies = naming of notes – The English and American system versus the German system* A frequency generator with sound, useful for hearing tests" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Film festival" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''film festival''' is an organized, extended presentation of films in one or more cinemas or screening venues, usually in a single city or region.", "Increasingly, film festivals show some films outdoors.", "Films may be of recent date and, depending upon the festival's focus, can include international and domestic releases.", "Some film festivals focus on a specific filmmaker, genre of film (e.g.", "horror films), or subject matter.", "Several film festivals focus solely on presenting short films of a defined maximum length.", "Film festivals are typically annual events.", "Some film historians, including Jerry Beck, do not consider film festivals as official releases of the film.The oldest film festival in the world is the Venice Film Festival.", "The most prestigious film festivals in the world, known as the \"'''Big Five'''\", are (listed chronologically according to the date of foundation): Venice, Cannes, Berlin (the original ''Big Three''), Toronto, and Sundance." ], [ "History", "The 215x215pxThe Venice Film Festival in Italy began in 1932 and is the oldest film festival still running.Mainland Europe's biggest independent film festival is ÉCU The European Independent Film Festival, which started in 2006 and takes place every spring in Paris, France.", "Edinburgh International Film Festival is the longest-running festival in Great Britain as well as the longest continually running film festival in the world.Australia's first and longest-running film festival is the Melbourne International Film Festival (1952), followed by the Sydney Film Festival (1954).North America's first and longest-running short film festival is the Yorkton Film Festival, established in 1947.The first film festival in the United States was the Columbus International Film & Video Festival, also known as The Chris Awards, held in 1953.According to the Film Arts Foundation in San Francisco, \"''The Chris Awards'' (is) one of the most prestigious documentaries, educational, business and informational competitions in the U.S; (it is) the oldest of its kind in North America and celebrating its 54th year\".", "It was followed four years later by the San Francisco International Film Festival, held in March 1957, which emphasized feature-length dramatic films.", "The festival played a major role in introducing foreign films to American audiences.", "Films in the first year included Akira Kurosawa's ''Throne of Blood'' and Satyajit Ray's .Today, thousands of film festivals take place around the world—from high-profile festivals such as Sundance Film Festival and Slamdance Film Festival (Park City, Utah), to horror festivals such as Terror Film Festival (Philadelphia), and the Park City Film Music Festival, the first U.S. film festival dedicated to honoring music in film.Film Funding competitions such as Writers and Filmmakers were introduced when the cost of production could be lowered significantly and internet technology allowed for the collaboration of film production.Film festivals have evolved significantly since the COVID-19 pandemic.", "Many festivals opted for virtual or hybrid festivals.", "The film industry, which was already in upheaval due to streaming options, has faced another major shift and movies that are showcased at festivals have an even shorter runway to online launches." ], [ "Notable film festivals<span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Notable_festivals\"></span>", "Traverse City Film Festival and their giant inflatable movie screen.Belgian-French film ''Rosetta'' at the Midnight Sun Film Festival in Sodankylä, Finland, in 2005.The \"Big Five\" film festivals are considered to be Venice, Cannes, Berlin, Toronto and Sundance.In North America, the Toronto International Film Festival is the most popular festival.", "''Time'' wrote it had \"grown from its place as the most influential fall film festival to the most influential film festival, period\".The Seattle International Film Festival is credited as being the largest film festival in the United States, regularly showing over 400 films in a month across the city.=== Competitive feature films ===The festivals in Berlin, Cairo, Cannes, Goa, Karlovy Vary, Locarno, Mar del Plata, Moscow, San Sebastián, Shanghai, Tallinn, Tokyo, Venice, and Warsaw are accredited by the International Federation of Film Producers Associations (FIAPF) in the category of competitive feature films.", "As a rule, for films to compete, they must first be released during the festivals and not in any other previous venue beforehand.=== Experimental films ===Ann Arbor Film Festival started in 1963.It is the oldest continually operated experimental film festival in North America, and has become one of the premier film festivals for independent and, primarily, experimental filmmakers to showcase work.=== Independent films ===In the U.S., Telluride Film Festival, Sundance Film Festival, Austin Film Festival, Austin's South by Southwest, NYC's Tribeca Festival, and Slamdance Film Festival are all considered significant festivals for independent film.", "The Zero Film Festival is significant as the first and only festival exclusive to self-financed filmmakers.", "The biggest independent film festival in the UK is Raindance Film Festival.", "The British Urban Film Festival (which specifically caters to Black and minority interests) was officially recognized in the 2020 New Year Honours list.=== Subject specific films ===A few film festivals have focused on highlighting specific issue topics or subjects.", "These festivals have included both mainstream and independent films.", "Some examples include military films, health-related film festivals, and human rights film festivals.There are festivals, especially in the US, that highlight and promote films that are made by or are about various ethnic groups and nationalities or feature the cinema from a specific foreign country.", "These include African-Americans, Asian-Americans, Mexican-Americans, Arabs, Jews, Italian, German, French, Palestinian, and Native American.", "The Deauville American Film Festival in France is devoted to the cinema of the United States.LGBTQ+ and Women's film festivals are also popular.=== North American film festivals ===The San Francisco International Film Festival, founded by Irving \"Bud\" Levin started in 1957, is the oldest continuously annual film festival in the United States.", "It highlights current trends in international filmmaking and video production with an emphasis on work that has not yet secured U.S. distribution.The Vancouver International Film Festival, founded in 1958, is one of the largest film festivals in North America.", "It focuses on East Asian film, Canadian film, and nonfiction film.", "In 2016, there was an audience of 133,000 and 324 films.The Toronto International Film Festival, founded by Bill Marshall, Henk Van der Kolk and Dusty Cohl, is regarded as North America's most important film festival, and is the most widely attended.The Ottawa Canadian Film Festival, abbreviated OCanFilmFest, was co-founded by Ottawa-based filmmakers Jith Paul, Ed Kucerak and Blair Campbell in 2015, and features films of various durations and genres from filmmakers across Canada.The Sundance Film Festival founded by Sterling Van Wagenen (then head of Wildwood, Robert Redford's company), John Earle, and Cirina Hampton Catania (both serving on the Utah Film Commission at the time) is a major festival for independent film.The Woodstock Film Festival was launched in 2000 by filmmakers Meira Blaustein and Laurent Rejto to bring high-quality independent films to the Hudson Valley region of New York.", "In 2010, Indiewire named the Woodstock Film Festival among the top 50 independent film festivals worldwide.The Regina International Film Festival and Awards (RIFFA) founded by John Thimothy, one of the top leading international film festivals in western Canada (Regina, Saskatchewan) represented 35 countries in 2018 festival.", "RIFFA annual Award show and red carpet arrival event is getting noticed in the contemporary film and fashion industries in Western Canada.Toronto's Hot Docs founded by filmmaker Paul Jay, is a North American documentary film festival.", "Toronto has the largest number of film festivals in the world, ranging from cultural, independent, and historic films.The Seattle International Film Festival, which screens 270 features and approximately 150 short films, is the largest American film festival in terms of the number of feature productions.The Expresión en Corto International Film Festival is the largest competitive film festival in Mexico.", "It specializes in emerging talent, and is held in the last week of each July in the two colonial cities of San Miguel de Allende and Guanajuato.Other Mexican festivals include the Guadalajara International Film Festival in Guadalajara, Oaxaca Film Fest, the Morelia International Film Festival in Morelia, Michoacan Mexico, and the Los Cabos International Film Festival founded by Scott Cross, Sean Cross, and Eduardo Sanchez Navarro, in Los Cabos, Baja Sur, Mexico are considered the most important film festivals in Latin America.", "In 2015, ''Variety'' called the Los Cabos International Film Festival the \"Cannes of Latin America\".=== South American film festivals ===Swedish director and screenwriter Johannes Nyholm (right) presenting ''Koko-di Koko-da'' at Buenos Aires International Festival of Independent Cinema 2019.The Cartagena Film Festival, founded by Victor Nieto in 1960, is the oldest in Latin America.", "The Festival de Gramado (or Gramado Film Festival) Gramado, Brazil.The Lima Film Festival is the main film festival of Peru and one of the most important in Latin America.", "It is focused in Latinamerican cinema and is organized each year by the Pontifical Catholic University of Peru.The Valdivia International Film Festival is held annually in the city of Valdivia.", "It is arguable the most important film festival in Chile.", "There is also Filmambiente, held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, an international festival on environmental films and videos.=== The Caribbean ===For Spanish-speaking countries, the Dominican International Film Festival takes place annually in Puerto Plata, Dominican Republic.", "As well as the Havana Film Festival was founded in 1979 and is the oldest continuous annual film festival in the Caribbean.", "Its focus is on Latin American cinema.The Trinidad and Tobago Film Festival, founded in 2006, is dedicated to screening the newest films from the English-, Spanish, French- and Dutch-speaking Caribbean, as well as the region's diaspora.", "It also seeks to facilitate the growth of Caribbean cinema by offering a wide-ranging industry programme and networking opportunities.The Lusca Fantastic Film Fest (formerly Puerto Rico Horror Film Fest) was also founded in 2006 and is the first and only international fantastic film festival in the Caribbean devoted to sci-fi, thriller, fantasy, dark humor, bizarre, horror, anime, adventure, virtual reality, and animation in short and feature films.=== European festivals ===Tampere Film Festival, an international festival for short films, in 2011.|220x220pxThe most important European film festivals are the Venice Film Festival (late summer to early autumn), the Cannes Film Festival (late spring to early summer), and the Berlin International Film Festival (late winter to early spring), founded in 1932, 1946, and 1951 respectively.", "The Edinburgh International Film Festival, founded in 1946, is the world's oldest continually running film festival.=== Animation ===Many film festivals are dedicated exclusively to animation.", "* Annecy International Animated Film Festival (f. 1960—the oldest)* Zagreb (f. 1972)* Ottawa (f. 1976)* Hiroshima (f. 1985)* KROK (f. 1989)* Anima Mundi (f. 1992)* Fredrikstad Animation Festival (f. 1994)* Animac (f. 1996)A variety of regional festivals happen in various countries.", "Austin Film Festival is accredited by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences, which makes all their jury award-winning narrative short and animated short films eligible for an Academy Award.=== African festivals ===Some of the ttendees of the 14th edition of Cairo International Film Festival, including Youssef Chahine (far right), Ahmed Zaki (third from the left), and Raghda (far left), 1989There are several significant film festivals held regularly in Africa.", "The Cairo International Film Festival in Cairo was established in 1976, the biannual Panafrican Film and Television Festival of Ouagadougou (FESPACO) in Burkina Faso was established in 1969 and accepts competition-only films by African filmmakers and chiefly produced in Africa.", "The annual Durban International Film Festival in South Africa and Zanzibar International Film Festival in Tanzania has grown in importance for the film and entertainment industry, as they often screen the African premieres of many international films.", "The Nairobi Film Festival (NBO), which was established in 2016, with a special focus on screening exceptional films from around the world that are rarely presented in Nairobi's mainstream cinema and spotlighting the best Kenyan films, has also been growing in popularity over the years and has improved the cinema-going culture in Kenya.The Sahara International Film Festival, held annually in the Sahrawi refugee camps in western Algeria near the border of Western Sahara, is notable as the only film festival in the world to take place in a refugee camp.", "The festival has the two-fold aim of providing cultural entertainment and educational opportunities to refugees, and of raising awareness of the plight of the Sahrawi people, who have been exiled from their native Western Sahara for more than three decades.=== Asian film festivals =======India====The International Film Festival of India, organized by the government of India, was founded in 1952.Chennai International Film Festival has been organized since 2002 by the Indo Cine Appreciation Foundation (ICAF), Government of Tamil Nadu, the South Indian Film Chamber of Commerce and the Film Federation of India.The Jaipur International Film Festival, founded in 2009, is the big and bedt international film festival in India.", "The International Film Festival of Kerala organised by the Government of Kerala held annually at Thiruvananthapuram is acknowledged as one of the leading cultural events in Indian.The International Documentary and Short Film Festival of Kerala (IDSFFK), hosted by the Kerala State Chalachitra Academy, is a major documentary and short film festival.The Mumbai Women's International Film Festival (MWIFF) is an annual film festival in Mumbai featuring films made by women directors and women technicians.The Calcutta International Cult Films Festival (CICFF), is a popular international film festival based in Kolkata which showcases international cult films.YathaKatha International Film & Literature Festival (YKIFLF) is an annual film & literature festival in Mumbai showcasing the collaboration of literature in cinema via various constructive discussions and forums.", "1st edition of festival is being held from 25–28 November in Mumbai, Maharashtra India.====Others====Notable festivals include the Hong Kong International Film Festival (HKIFF), Busan International Film Festival (BIFF), Kathmandu International Mountain Film Festival, Melbourne International Film Festival (MIFF) and World Film Carnival Singapore.=== Arab World film festivals ===There are several major film festivals in the Arab world, such as the Beirut International Film Festival, Cairo International Film Festival, the only international competitive feature film festival recognized by the FIAPF in the Arab world and Africa, as well as the oldest in this category, Carthage Film Festival, the oldest festival in Africa and the Arab world, Alexandria International Film Festival, and Marrakech International Film Festival." ], [ "Festival administration", "=== Business model ===Although there are notable for-profit festivals such as SXSW, most festivals operate on a nonprofit membership-based model, with a combination of ticket sales, membership fees, and corporate sponsorship constituting the majority of revenue.", "Unlike other arts nonprofits (performing arts, museums, etc.", "), film festivals typically receive few donations from the general public and are occasionally organized as nonprofit business associations instead of public charities.", "Film industry members often have significant curatorial input, and corporate sponsors are given opportunities to promote their brand to festival audiences in exchange for cash contributions.", "Private parties, often to raise investments for film projects, constitute significant \"fringe\" events.", "Larger festivals maintain year-round staffs often engaging in community and charitable projects outside the festival season.=== Entry fee ===While entries from established filmmakers are usually considered pluses by the organizers, most festivals require new or relatively unknown filmmakers to pay an entry fee to have their works considered for screening.", "This is especially so in larger film festivals, such as the Jaipur International Film Festival in Jaipur India, Toronto International Film Festival, Sundance Film Festival, South by Southwest, Montreal World Film Festival, and even smaller \"boutique\" festivals such as the Miami International Film Festival, British Urban Film Festival in London and Mumbai Women's International Film Festival in India.On the other hand, some festivals—usually those accepting fewer films, and perhaps not attracting as many \"big names\" in their audiences as do Sundance and Telluride—require no entry fee.", "Many smaller film festivals in the United States (the Stony Brook Film Festival on Long Island, the Northwest Filmmakers' Festival, and the Sicilian Film Festival in Miami), are examples.", "The Portland International Film Festival charges an entry fee but waives it for filmmakers from the Northwestern United States, and some others with regional focuses have similar approaches.Several film festival submission portal websites exist to streamline filmmakers' entries into multiple festivals.", "They provide databases of festival calls for entry and offer filmmakers a convenient \"describe once, submit many\" service.=== Screening out of competition ===The core tradition of film festivals is competition, or judging which films are most deserving of various forms of recognition.", "Some festivals, such as the famous Cannes Film Festival, may screen films that are considered close to competition-quality without being included in the competition; the films are said to be screened \"out of competition\"." ], [ "See also", "* Arthouse film* Cult film* Foreign film* List of film festivals** List of film festivals in Africa** List of film festivals in Asia** List of film festivals in South America** List of film festivals in Europe** List of film festivals in North America** List of film festivals in Oceania** List of short film festivals* Outdoor cinema* Outline of film* Short film* Atheist Film Festival" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * American top 3 film festivals: Sundance, Tribeca and Telluride festivals." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "History of film" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''history of film''' chronicles the development of a visual art form created using film technologies that began in the late 19th century.The advent of film as an artistic medium is not clearly defined.", "There were earlier cinematographic screenings by others, however, the commercial, public screening of ten Lumière brothers' short films in Paris on 28 December 1895, can be regarded as the breakthrough of projected cinematographic motion pictures.", "The earliest films were in black and white, under a minute long, without recorded sound, and consisted of a single shot from a steady camera.", "The first decade saw film move from a novelty, to an established mass entertainment industry, with film production companies and studios established throughout the world.", "Conventions toward a general cinematic language developed, with film editing camera movements and other cinematic techniques contributing specific roles in the narrative of films.Popular new media, including television (mainstream since the 1950s), home video (1980s), and the internet (1990s), influenced the distribution and consumption of films.", "Film production usually responded with content to fit the new media, and technical innovations (including widescreen (1950s), 3D, and 4D film) and more spectacular films to keep theatrical screenings attractive.", "Systems that were cheaper and more easily handled (including 8mm film, video, and smartphone cameras) allowed for an increasing number of people to create films of varying qualities, for any purpose including home movies and video art.", "The technical quality was usually lower than professional movies, but improved with digital video and affordable, high-quality digital cameras.", "Improving over time, digital production methods became more popular during the 1990s, resulting in increasingly realistic visual effects and popular feature-length computer animations.Various film genres have emerged during the history of film, and enjoyed variable degrees of success." ], [ "Precursors", "The use of film as an art form traces its origins to several earlier traditions in the arts such as (oral) storytelling, literature, theatre and visual arts.", "Cantastoria and similar ancient traditions combined storytelling with series of images that were shown or indicated one after the other.", "Predecessors to film that had already used light and shadows to create art before the advent of modern film technology include shadowgraphy, shadow puppetry, camera obscura, and the magic lantern.Shadowgraphy and shadow puppetry represent early examples of the intent to use moving imagery for entertainment and storytelling.", "Thought to have originated in the Far East, the art form used shadows cast by hands or objects to assist in the creation of narratives.", "Shadow puppetry enjoyed popularity for centuries around Asia, notably in Java, and eventually spread to Europe during the Age of Enlightenment.By the 16th century, entertainers often conjured images of ghostly apparitions, using techniques such as camera obscura and other forms of projection to enhance their performances.", "Magic lantern shows developed in the latter half of the 17th century seem to have continued this tradition with images of death, monsters and other scary figures.", "Around 1790, this practice was developed into a type of multimedia ghost show known as phantasmagoria.", "These popular shows entertained audiences using mechanical slides, rear projection, mobile projectors, superimposition, dissolves, live actors, smoke (on which projections may have been cast), odors, sounds and even electric shocks.", "While many first magic lantern shows were intended to frighten viewers, advances by projectionists allowed for creative and even educational storytelling that could appeal to wider family audiences.", "Newly pioneered techniques such as the use of dissolving views and the chromatrope allowed for smoother transitions between two projected images and aided in providing stronger narratives.In 1833, scientific study of a stroboscopic illusion in spoked wheels by Joseph Plateau, Michael Faraday and Simon Stampfer led to the invention of the Fantascope, also known as the stroboscopic disk or the phenakistiscope, which was popular in several European countries for a while.", "Plateau thought it could be further developed for use in phantasmagoria and Stampfer imagined a system for longer scenes with strips on rollers, as well as a transparent version (probably intended for projection).", "Plateau, Charles Wheatstone, Antoine Claudet and others tried to combine the technique with the stereoscope (introduced in 1838) and photography (introduced in 1839) for a more complete illusion of reality, but for decades such experiments were mostly hindered by the need for long exposure times, with motion blur around objects that moved while the reflected light fell on the photo-sensitive chemicals.", "A few people managed to get decent results from stop motion techniques, but these were only very rarely marketed and no form of animated photography had much cultural impact before the advent of chronophotography.Most early photographic sequences, known as chronophotography, were not initially intended to be viewed in motion and were typically presented as a serious, even scientific, method of studying locomotion.", "The sequences almost exclusively involved humans or animals performing a simple movement in front of the camera.", "Starting in 1878 with the publication of ''The Horse in Motion'' cabinet cards, photographer Eadweard Muybridge began making hundreds of chronophotographic studies of the motion of animals and humans in real-time.", "He was soon followed by other chronophotographers like Étienne-Jules Marey, Georges Demenÿ, Albert Londe and Ottomar Anschütz.", "In 1879, Muybridge started lecturing on animal locomotion and used his Zoopraxiscope to project animations of the contours of his recordings, traced onto glass discs.In 1887, the German inventor and photographer Ottomar Anschütz started presenting his chronophotographic recordings in motion, using a device he called the Elektrischen Schnellseher (also known as the Electrotachyscope), which displayed short loops on a small milk glass screen.", "By 1891, he had started mass production of a more economical, coin-operated peep-box viewing device of the same name that was exhibited at international exhibitions and fairs.", "Some machines were installed for longer periods, including some at The Crystal Palace in London, and in several U.S. stores.", "Shifting the focus of the medium from technical and scientific interest in motion to entertainment for the masses, he recorded wrestlers, dancers, acrobats, and scenes of everyday life.", "Nearly 34,000 people paid to see his shows at the Berlin Exhibition Park in summer 1892.Others saw it in London or at the 1893 Chicago World's Fair.Though little evidence remains for most of these recordings, some scenes probably depicted staged comical scenes.", "Extant records suggest some of his output directly influenced later works by the Edison Company, such as the 1894 film ''Fred Ott's Sneeze''.Advances towards motion picture projection technologies were based on the popularity of magic lanterns, chronophotographic demonstrations, and other closely related forms of projected entertainment such as illustrated songs.", "From October 1892 to March 1900, inventor Émile Reynaud exhibited his Théâtre Optique (\"Optical Theatre\") film system at the Musée Grévin in Paris.", "Reynaud's device, which projected a series of animated stories such as ''Pauvre Pierrot'' and ''Autour d'une cabine'', was displayed to over 500,000 visitors over the course of 12,800 shows.", "On 25, 29 and 30 November 1894, Ottomar Anschütz projected moving images from Electrotachyscope discs on a large screen in the darkened Grand Auditorium of a Post Office Building in Berlin.", "From 22 February to 30 March 1895, a commercial 1.5-hour program of 40 different scenes was screened for audiences of 300 people at the old Reichstag and received circa 4,000 visitors." ], [ "Novelty era (1890s – early 1900s)", "=== Advances towards projection ===In June 1889, American inventor Thomas Edison assigned a lab assistant, William Kennedy Dickson, to help develop a device that could produce visuals to accompany the sounds produced from the phonograph.", "Building upon previous machines by Muybridge, Marey, Anschütz and others, Dickson and his team created the Kinetoscope peep-box viewer, with celluloid loops containing about half a minute of motion picture entertainment.", "After an early preview on 20 May 1891, Edison introduced the machine in 1893.Many of the movies presented on the Kinetoscope showcased well-known vaudeville acts performing in Edison's Black Maria studio.", "The Kinetoscope quickly became a global sensation with multiple viewing parlors across major cities by 1895.As the initial novelty of the images wore off, the Edison Company was slow to diversify their repertoire of films and waning public interest caused business to slow by Spring 1895.To remedy declining profits, experiments, such as ''The Dickson Experimental Sound Film'', were conducted in an attempt to achieve the device's original goal of providing visual accompaniment for sound recordings.", "Limitations in syncing the sound to the visuals, however, prevented widespread application.", "During that same period, inventors began advancing technologies towards film projection that would eventually overtake Edison's peep-box format.A frame from the Lumière brothers staged comedy film, ''L'Arroseur Arrosé'' (1895)Multiple inventors including Wordsworth Donisthorpe, Louis Le Prince, and William Friese-Greene experimented with prototype motion picture projection devices in the pursuit of creating and displaying films.", "The scenes in these experiments were usually filmed with family, friends or passing traffic as the moving subjects.", "The Skladanowsky brothers, used their self-made Bioscop to display the first moving picture show to a paying audience on 1 November 1895, in Berlin.", "But they did not have the quality or financial resources to acquire momentum.", "Most of these films never passed the experimental stage and their efforts garnered little public attention until after cinema had become successful.In the latter half of 1895, brothers Auguste and Louis Lumière filmed a number of short scenes with their invention, the Cinématographe.", "On 28 December 1895, the brothers gave their first commercial screening in Paris (though evidence exists of demonstrations of the device to small audiences as early as October 1895).", "The screening consisted of ten films and lasted roughly 20 minutes.", "The program consisted mainly of actuality films such as ''Workers Leaving the Lumière Factory'' as truthful documents of the world, but the show also included the staged comedy ''L'Arroseur Arrosé''.", "The most advanced demonstration of film projection thus far, the Cinématographe was an instant success, bringing in an average of 2,500 to 3,000 francs daily by the end of January 1896.Following the first screening, the order and selection of films were changed often.The Lumière brothers' primary business interests were in selling cameras and film equipment to exhibitors, not the actual production of films.", "Despite this, filmmakers across the world were inspired by the potential of film as exhibitors brought their shows to new countries.", "This era of filmmaking, dubbed by film historian Tom Gunning as \"the cinema of attractions\", offered a relatively cheap and simple way of providing entertainment to the masses.", "Rather than focusing on stories, Gunning argues, filmmakers mainly relied on the ability to delight audiences through the \"illusory power\" of viewing sequences in motion, much as they did in the Kinetoscope era that preceded it.", "Despite this, early experimentation with fiction filmmaking (both in actuality film and other genres) did occur.", "Films were mostly screened inside temporary storefront spaces, in tents of traveling exhibitors at fairs, or as \"dumb\" acts in vaudeville programs.", "During this period, before the process of post-production was clearly defined, exhibitors were allowed to exercise their creative freedom in their presentations.", "To enhance the viewers' experience, some showings were accompanied by live musicians in an orchestra, a theatre organ, live sound effects and commentary spoken by the showman or projectionist.Experiments in film editing, special effects, narrative construction, and camera movement during this period by filmmakers in France, England, and the United States became influential in establishing an identity for film going forward.", "At both the Edison and Lumière studios, loose narratives such as the 1895 Edison film'', Washday Troubles,'' established short relationship dynamics and simple storylines''.''", "In 1896, ''La Fée aux Choux'' (''The Fairy of the Cabbages'') was first released.", "Directed and edited by Alice Guy, the story is arguably the earliest narrative film in history, as well as the first film to be directed by a woman.", "That same year, the Edison Manufacturing Company released ''The May Irwin Kiss'' in May to widespread financial success.", "The film, which featured the first kiss in cinematic history, led to the earliest known calls for film censorship.Another early film producer was Australia's Limelight Department.", "Commencing in 1898, it was operated by The Salvation Army in Melbourne, Australia.", "The Limelight Department produced evangelistic material for use by the Salvation Army, including lantern slides as early as 1891, as well as private and government contracts.", "In its nineteen years of operation, the Limelight Department produced about 300 films of various lengths, making it one of largest film producers of its time.", "The Limelight Department made a 1904 film by Joseph Perry called Bushranging in North Queensland, which is believed to be the first ever film about bushrangers.=== Proliferation of actualities and newsreels ===In its infancy, film was rarely recognized as an art form by presenters or audiences.", "Regarded by the upper class as a \"vulgar\" and \"lowbrow\" form of cheap entertainment, films largely appealed to the working class and were often too short to hold any strong narrative potential.", "Initial advertisements promoted the technologies used to screen films rather than the films themselves.", "As the devices became more familiar to audiences, their potential for capturing and recreating events was exploited primarily in the form of newsreels and actualities.", "During the creation of these films, cinematographers often drew upon aesthetic values established by past art forms such as framing and the intentional placement of the camera in the composition of their image.", "In a 1955 article for ''The Quarterly of Film Radio and television,'' film producer and historian Kenneth Macgowan asserted that the intentional staging and recreation of events for newsreels \"brought storytelling to the screen\".With the advertisement of film technologies over content, actualities initially began as a \"series of views\" that often contained shots of beautiful and lively places or performance acts.", "Following the success of their 1895 screening, The Lumière brothers established a company and sent cameramen across the world to capture new subjects for presentation.", "After the cinematographer shot scenes, they often exhibited their recordings locally and then sent them back to the company factory in Lyon to make duplicate prints for sale to whoever wanted them.", "In the process of filming actualities, especially those of real events, filmmakers discovered and experimented with multiple camera techniques to accommodate for their unpredictable nature.", "Due to the short length (often only one shot) of many actualities, catalogue records indicate that production companies marketed to exhibitors by promoting multiple actualities with related subject matters that could be purchased to complement each other.", "Exhibitors who bought the films often presented them in a program and would provide spoken accompaniment to explain the action on screen to audiences.The first paying audience for a motion picture gathered at Madison Square Garden to see a staged actuality that purported itself to be a boxing fight filmed by Woodville Latham using a device called the Eidoloscope on May 20, 1895.Commissioned by Latham, the French inventor Eugene Augustin Lauste created the device with additional expertise from William Kennedy Dickson and crafted a mechanism that came to be known as the Latham loop, which allowed for longer continuous runtimes and was less abrasive on the celluloid film.In subsequent years, screenings of actualities and newsreels proved to be profitable.", "In 1897, ''The Corbett-Fitzsimmons Fight'' was released.", "The film was a complete recording of a heavyweight world championship boxing match at Carson City, Nevada.", "It generated more income in box office than in live gate receipts and was the longest film produced at the time.", "Audiences had probably been drawn to the Corbett-Fitzsimmons film en masse because James J. Corbett (a.k.a.", "Gentleman Jim) had become a matinee idol since he had played a fictionalized version of himself in a stage play.From 1910 on, regular newsreels were exhibited and soon became a popular way of discovering the news before the advent of television the British Antarctic Expedition to the South Pole was filmed for the newsreels as were the suffragette demonstrations that were happening at the same time.", "F. Percy Smith was an early nature documentary pioneer working for Charles Urban when he pioneered the use of time lapse and micro cinematography in his 1910 documentary on the growth of flowers.===Experimentation with narrative filmmaking======= France: Georges Méliès, Pathé Frères, Gaumont Film Company ====Georges Méliès (left) painting a backdrop in his studioFollowing the successful exhibition of the Cinématographe, development of a motion picture industry rapidly accelerated in France.", "Multiple filmmakers experimented with the technology as they worked to attain the same success that the Lumière brothers had with their screening.", "These filmmakers established new companies such as the Star Film Company, Pathé Frères, and the Gaumont Film Company.The most widely cited progenitor of narrative filmmaking is the French filmmaker, Georges Méliès.", "Méliès was an illusionist who had previously used magic lantern projections to enhance his magic act.", "In 1895, Méliès attended the demonstration of the Cinematographe and recognized the potential of the device to aid his act.", "He attempted to buy a device from the Lumière brothers, but they refused.", "Months later, he bought a camera from Robert W. Paul and began experiments with the device by creating actualities.", "During this period of experimentation, Méliès discovered and implemented various special effects including the stop trick, the multiple exposure, and the use of dissolves in his films.", "At the end of 1896, Méliès established the Star Film Company and started producing, directing, and distributing a body of work that would eventually contain over 500 short films.", "Recognizing the narrative potential afforded by combining his theater background with the newly discovered effects for the camera, Méliès designed an elaborate stage that contained trapdoors and a fly system.", "The stage construction and editing techniques allowed for the development of more complex stories, such as the 1896 film, ''Le Manoir du Diable'' (''The House of the Devil''), regarded as a first in the horror film genre, and the 1899 film ''Cendrillon'' (''Cinderella'').", "In Méliès' films, he based the placement of the camera on the theatrical construct of proscenium framing, the metaphorical plane or fourth wall that divides the actors and the audience.", "Throughout his career, Méliès consistently placed the camera in a fixed position and eventually fell out of favor with audiences as other filmmakers experimented with more complex and creative techniques.", "Méliès is most widely known today for his 1902 film, ''Le Voyage Dans La Lune (A Trip to the Moon)'', where he used his expertise in effects and narrative construction to create the first science fiction film.In 1900, Charles Pathé began film production under the Pathé-Frères brand, with Ferdinand Zecca hired to lead the creative process.", "Prior to this focus on production, Pathé had become involved with the industry by exhibiting and selling what were likely counterfeit versions of the Kinetoscope in his phonograph shop.", "With the creative leadership of Zecca and the capability to mass-produce copies of the films through a partnership with a French toolmaking company, Charles Pathé sought to make Pathé-Frères the leading film producer in the country.", "Within the next few years, Pathé-Frères became the largest film studio in the world, with satellite offices in major cities and an expanding selection of films available for presentation.", "The company's films were varied in content, with directors specializing in various genres for fairground presentations throughout the early 1900s.The Gaumont Film Company was the main regional rival of Pathé-Frères.", "Founded in 1895 by Léon Gaumont, the firm initially sold photographic equipment and began film production in 1897, under the direction of Alice Guy, the industry's first female director.", "Her earlier films share many characteristics and themes with her contemporary competitors, such as the Lumières and Méliès.", "She explored dance and travel films, often combining the two, such as ''Le Boléro'' performed by Miss Saharet (1905) and ''Tango'' (1905).", "Many of Guy's early dance films were popular in music-hall attractions such as the serpentine dance films – also a staple of the Lumières and Thomas Edison film catalogs.", "In 1906, she made ''The Life of Christ'', a big-budget production for the time, which included 300 extras.==== England: Robert W Paul, Cecil Hepworth, The Brighton School ====Both Cecil Hepworth and Robert W. Paul experimented with the use of different camera techniques in their films.", "Paul's 'Cinematograph Camera No.", "1' of 1895 was the first camera to feature reverse-cranking, which allowed the same film footage to be exposed several times, thereby creating multiple exposures.", "This technique was first used in his 1901 film ''Scrooge, or, Marley's Ghost''.", "Both filmmakers experimented with the speeds of the camera to generate new effects.", "Paul shot scenes from ''On a Runaway Motor Car through Piccadilly Circus'' (1899) by cranking the camera apparatus very slowly.", "When the film was projected at the usual 16 frames per second, the scenery appeared to be passing at great speed.", "Hepworth used the opposite effect in ''The Indian Chief and the Seidlitz Powder'' (1901).", "The Chief's movements are sped up by cranking the camera much faster than 16 frames per second, producing what modern audiences would call a \"slow motion\" effect.The first films to move from single shots to successive scenes began around the turn of the 20th century.", "Due to the loss of many early films, a conclusive shift from static singular shots to a series of scenes can be hard to determine.", "Despite these limitations, Michael Brooke of the British Film Institute attributes real film continuity, involving action moving from one sequence into another, to Robert W. Paul's 1898 film, ''Come Along, Do!''.", "Only a still from the second shot remains extant today.", "Released in 1901, the British film ''Attack on a China Mission'' was one of the first films to show a continuity of action across multiple scenes.", "The use of the intertitle to explain actions and dialogue on screen began in the early 1900s.", "Filmed intertitles were first used in Robert W. Paul's film, ''Scrooge, or Marley's Ghost.''", "In most countries, intertitles gradually came to be used to provide dialogue and narration for the film, thus dispensing the need for narration provided by exhibitors.Development of continuous action across multiple shots was furthered in England by a loosely associated group of film pioneers collectively termed \"the Brighton School\".", "These filmmakers included George Albert Smith and James Williamson, among others.", "Smith and Williamson experimented with action continuity and were likely the first to incorporate the use of inserts and close-ups between shots.", "A basic technique for trick cinematography was the double exposure of the film in the camera.", "The effect was pioneered by Smith in the 1898 film, ''Photographing a Ghost''.", "According to Smith's catalogue records, the (now lost) film chronicles a photographer's struggle to capture a ghost on camera.", "Using the double exposure of the film, Smith overlaid a transparent ghostly figure onto the background in a comical manner to taunt the photographer.", "Smith's ''The Corsican Brothers'' was described in the catalogue of the Warwick Trading Company in 1900: \"By extremely careful photography the ghost appears *quite transparent*.", "After indicating that he has been killed by a sword-thrust, and appealing for vengeance, he disappears.", "A 'vision' then appears showing the fatal duel in the snow.\"", "Smith also initiated the special effects technique of reverse motion.", "He did this by repeating the action a second time, while filming it with an inverted camera, and then joining the tail of the second negative to that of the first.", "The first films made using this device were ''Tipsy, Topsy, Turvy'' and ''The Awkward Sign Painter''.", "The earliest surviving example of this technique is Smith's ''The House That Jack Built'', made before September 1900.Cecil Hepworth took this technique further by printing the negatives of the forward motion in reverse frame by frame, producing a print in which the original action was exactly reversed.", "To do this he built a special printer in which the negative running through a projector was projected into the gate of a camera through a special lens giving a same-size image.", "This arrangement came to be called a \"projection printer\", and eventually an \"optical printer\".The first two shots of ''As Seen Through a Telescope'' (1900), with the telescope POV simulated by the circular maskIn 1898, George Albert Smith experimented with close-ups, filming shots of a man drinking beer and a woman using sniffing tobacco.", "The following year, Smith made ''The Kiss in the Tunnel,'' a sequence consisting of three shots: a train enters a tunnel; a man and a woman exchange a brief kiss in the darkness and then return to their seats; the train exits the tunnel.", "Smith created the scenario in response to the success of a genre known as a phantom ride.", "In a phantom ride film, cameras would capture the motion and surroundings from the front of a moving train.", "The separate shots, when edited together, formed a distinct sequence of events and established causality from one shot to the next.", "Following ''The Kiss in the Tunnel'', Smith more definitively experimented with continuity of action across successive shots and began using inserts in his films, such as ''Grandma's Reading Glass'' and ''Mary Jane's Mishap''.", "In 1900, Smith made ''As Seen Through a Telescope.''", "The main shot shows a street scene with a young man tying the shoelace and then caressing the foot of his girlfriend, while an old man observes this through a telescope.", "There is then a cut to close shot of the hands on the girl's foot shown inside a black circular mask, and then a cut back to the continuation of the original scene.James Williamson perfected narrative building techniques in his 1900 film, ''Attack on a China Mission''.", "The film, which film historian John Barnes later described as having \"the most fully developed narrative of any film made in England up to that time\", opens as the first shot shows Chinese Boxer rebels at the gate; it then cuts to the missionary family in the garden, where a fight ensues.", "The wife signals to British sailors from the balcony, who come and rescue them.", "The film also used the first \"reverse angle\" cut in film history.", "The following year, Williamson created ''The Big Swallow''.", "In the film.", "a man becomes irritated by the presence of the filmmaker and \"swallows\" the camera and its operator through the use of interpolated close-up shots.", "He combined these effects, along with superimpositions, use of wipe transitions to denote a scene change, and other techniques to create a film language, or \"film grammar\".", "James Williamson's use of continuous action in his 1901 film, ''Stop Thief!''", "stimulated a film genre known as the \"chase film.\"", "In the film, a tramp steals a leg of mutton from a butcher's boy in the first shot, is chased by the butcher's boy and assorted dogs in the following shot, and is finally caught by the dogs in the third shot.==== United States: The Edison Company and Edwin S. Porter ====The Great Train Robbery'', produced by Edwin S. Porter''The Execution of Mary Stuart'', produced in 1895 by the Edison Company for viewing with the Kinetoscope, showed Mary Queen of Scots being executed in full view of the camera.", "The effect, known as the stop trick, was achieved by replacing the actor with a dummy for the final shot.", "The technique used in the film is seen as one of the earliest known uses of special effects in film.The American filmmaker Edwin S. Porter started making films for the Edison Company in 1901.A former projectionist hired by Thomas Edison to develop his new projection model known as the Vitascope, Porter was inspired in part by the works of Méliès, Smith, and Williamson and drew upon their newly crafted techniques to further the development of continuous narrative through editing.", "When he began making longer films in 1902, he put a dissolve between every shot, just as Georges Méliès was already doing, and he frequently had the same action repeated across the dissolves.In 1902, Porter shot ''Life of an American Fireman'' for the Edison Manufacturing Company and distributed the film the following year.", "In the film, Porter combined stock footage from previous Edison films with newly shot footage and spliced them together to convey a dramatic story of the rescue of a woman and her child by heroic firemen.Porter's film, ''The Great Train Robbery'' (1903), had a running time of twelve minutes, with twenty separate shots and ten different indoor and outdoor locations.", "The film is seen as a first in the Western film genre and is significant for the use of shots suggesting simultaneous action occurring at different locations.", "Porter's use of both staged and real outdoor environments helped to create a sense of space while the placement of the camera in a wider shot established depth and allowed for an extended duration of motion on screen.", "''The Great Train Robbery'' served as one of the vehicles that would launch the film medium into mass popularity.", "That same year, the Miles Brothers opened the first film exchange in the country, which allowed permanent exhibitors to rent films from the company at a lower cost than the producers that sold their films outright.John P. Harris opened the first permanent theater devoted exclusively to the presentation of films, the nickelodeon, in 1905 in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.", "The idea rapidly took off and by 1908, there were around 8,000 nickelodeon theaters across the country.", "With the arrival of the nickelodeon, audience demand for a larger quantity of story films with a variety of subjects and locations led to a need to hire more creative talent and caused studios to invest in more elaborate stage designs.In 1908, Thomas Edison spearheaded the creation of a corporate trust between the major film companies in America known as the Motion Picture Patents Company (MPPC) to limit infringement on his patents.", "Members of the trust controlled every aspect of the filmmaking process from the creation of film stock, the production of films, and the distribution to cinemas through licensing arrangements.", "The trust led to increased quality filmmaking spurred by internal competition and placed limits on the amount of foreign films to encourage the growth of the American film industry, but it also discouraged the creation of feature films.", "By 1915, the MPPC had lost most of its hold on the film industry as the companies moved towards the wider production of feature films." ], [ "Continued international growth (1900s–1910s)", "===New film producing countries===Italian epic film ''Cabiria''With the worldwide film boom, more countries now joined Britain, France, Germany and the United States in serious film production.", "In Italy, production was spread over several centers, Turin was the first major film production centre, and Milan and Naples gave birth to the first film magazines.", "In Turin, Ambrosio was the first company in the field in 1905, and remained the largest in the country through this period.", "Its most substantial rival was Cines in Rome, which started producing in 1906.The great strength of the Italian industry was historical epics, with large casts and massive scenery.", "As early as 1911, Giovanni Pastrone's two-reel ''La Caduta di Troia (The Fall of Troy)'' made a big impression worldwide, and it was followed by even bigger productions like ''Quo Vadis?''", "(1912), which ran for 90 minutes, and Pastrone's ''Cabiria'' of 1914, which ran for two and a half hours.Italian companies also had a strong line in slapstick comedy, with actors like André Deed, known locally as \"Cretinetti\", and elsewhere as \"Foolshead\" and \"Gribouille\", achieving worldwide fame with his almost surrealistic gags.The most important film-producing country in Northern Europe up until the First World War was Denmark.", "The Nordisk company was set up there in 1906 by Ole Olsen, a fairground showman, and after a brief period imitating the successes of French and British filmmakers, in 1907 he produced 67 films, most directed by Viggo Larsen, with sensational subjects like ''Den hvide Slavinde (The White Slave)'', ''Isbjørnejagt (Polar Bear Hunt)'' and ''Løvejagten (The Lion Hunt)''.", "By 1910, new smaller Danish companies began joining the business, and besides making more films about the white slave trade, they contributed other new subjects.", "The most important of these finds was Asta Nielsen in ''Afgrunden (The Abyss)'', directed by Urban Gad for Kosmorama, This combined the circus, sex, jealousy and murder, all put over with great conviction, and pushed the other Danish filmmakers further in this direction.", "By 1912, the Danish film companies were multiplying rapidly.The Swedish film industry was smaller and slower to get started than the Danish industry.", "Here, Charles Magnusson, a newsreel cameraman for the Svenskabiografteatern cinema chain, started fiction film production for them in 1909, directing a number of the films himself.", "Production increased in 1912, when the company engaged Victor Sjöström and Mauritz Stiller as directors.", "They started out by imitating the subjects favoured by the Danish film industry, but by 1913 they were producing their own strikingly original work, which sold very well.Russia began its film industry in 1908 with Pathé shooting some fiction subjects there, and then the creation of real Russian film companies by Aleksandr Drankov and Aleksandr Khanzhonkov.", "The Khanzhonkov company quickly became much the largest Russian film company, and remained so until 1918.In Germany, Oskar Messter had been involved in film-making from 1896, but did not make a significant number of films per year until 1910.When the worldwide film boom started, he, and the few other people in the German film business, continued to sell prints of their own films outright, which put them at a disadvantage.", "It was only when Paul Davidson, the owner of a chain of cinemas, brought Asta Nielsen and Urban Gad to Germany from Denmark in 1911, and set up a production company, Projektions-AG \"Union\" (PAGU), that a change-over to renting prints began.", "Messter replied with a series of longer films starring Henny Porten, but although these did well in the German-speaking world, they were not particularly successful internationally, unlike the Asta Nielsen films.", "Another of the growing German film producers just before World War I was the German branch of the French Éclair company, Deutsche Éclair.", "This was expropriated by the German government, and turned into DECLA when the war started.", "But altogether, German producers only had a minor part of the German market in 1914.Overall, from about 1910, American films had the largest share of the market in all European countries except France, and even in France, the American films had just pushed the local production out of first place on the eve of World War I. Pathé Frères expanded and significantly shaped the American film business, creating many \"firsts\" in the film industry, such as adding titles and subtitles to films for the first time, releasing scrolls for the first time, introducing film posters for the first time, producing color pictures for the first time, taking out commercial bills for the first time, contacting exhibitors and studying their needs for the first time.", "The world's largest film supplier, Pathé, is limited to the U.S. market, which has reached a saturation level, so the U.S. seeks additional profits from foreign markets.", "Movies are defined as \"pure\" American phenomenon in the United States.===Film technique===A.E.", "Smith filming ''The Bargain Fiend'' in the Vitagraph Studios in 1907.Arc floodlights hang overhead.New film techniques that were introduced in this period include the use of artificial lighting, fire effects and low-key lighting (i.e.", "lighting in which most of the frame is dark) for enhanced atmosphere during sinister scenes.Continuity of action from shot to shot was also refined, such as in Pathé's ''le Cheval emballé (The Runaway Horse)'' (1907) where cross-cutting between parallel actions is used.", "D. W. Griffith also began using cross-cutting in the film ''The Fatal Hour'', made in July 1908.Another development was the use of the point of view shot, first used in 1910 in Vitagraph's ''Back to Nature''.", "Insert shots were also used for artistic purposes; the Italian film ''La mala planta (The Evil Plant)'', directed by Mario Caserini had an insert shot of a snake slithering over the \"Evil Plant\".", "By 1914 it was widely held in the American film industry that cross-cutting was most generally useful because it made possible the elimination of uninteresting parts of the action that play no part in advancing the drama.In 1909, 35mm became the internationally recognized theatrical film gauge.As films grew longer, specialist writers were employed to simplify more complex stories derived from novels or plays into a form that could be contained on one reel.", "Genres began to be used as categories; the main division was into comedy and drama, but these categories were further subdivided.Intertitles containing lines of dialogue began to be used consistently from 1908 onwards, such as in Vitagraph's ''An Auto Heroine; or, The Race for the Vitagraph Cup and How It Was Won''.", "The dialogue was eventually inserted into the middle of the scene and became commonplace by 1912.The introduction of dialogue titles transformed the nature of film narrative.", "When dialogue titles came to be always cut into a scene just after a character starts speaking, and then left with a cut to the character just before they finish speaking, then one had something that was effectively the equivalent of a present-day sound film.===During World War I and industry===The visual style of ''The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari'' included deliberately distorted forms, complex tinting, and streaks of light painted directly onto the sets.", "It uses Mise-en-scène.The years of the First World War were a complex transitional period for the film industry.", "The exhibition of films changed from short one-reel programmes to feature films.", "Exhibition venues became larger and began charging higher prices.In the United States, these changes brought destruction to many film companies, the Vitagraph company being an exception.", "Film production began to shift to Los Angeles during World War I.", "The Universal Film Manufacturing Company was formed in 1912 as an umbrella company.", "New entrants included the Jesse Lasky Feature Play Company, and Famous Players, both formed in 1913, and later amalgamated into Famous Players–Lasky.", "The biggest success of these years was David Wark Griffith's ''The Birth of a Nation'' (1915).", "Griffith followed this up with the even bigger ''Intolerance'' (1916), but, due to the high quality of film produced in the US, the market for their films was high.In France, film production shut down due to the general military mobilization of the country at the start of the war.", "Although film production began again in 1915, it was on a reduced scale, and the biggest companies gradually retired from production.", "Italian film production held up better, although so called \"diva films\", starring anguished female leads were a commercial failure.", "In Denmark, the Nordisk company increased its production so much in 1915 and 1916 that it could not sell all its films, which led to a very sharp decline in Danish production, and the end of Denmark's importance on the world film scene.The German film industry was seriously weakened by the war.", "The most important of the new film producers at the time was Joe May, who made a series of thrillers and adventure films through the war years, but Ernst Lubitsch also came into prominence with a series of very successful comedies and dramas.===New techniques===die Austernprinzessin (The Oyster Princess)''At this time, studios were blacked out to allow shooting to be unaffected by changing sunlight.", "This was replaced with floodlights and spotlights.", "The widespread adoption of irising-in and out to begin and end scenes caught on in this period.", "This is the revelation of a film shot in a circular mask, which gradually gets larger until it expands beyond the frame.", "Other shaped slits were used, including vertical and diagonal apertures.A new idea taken over from still photography was \"soft focus\".", "This began in 1915, with some shots being intentionally thrown out of focus for expressive effect, as in Mary Pickford starrer ''Fanchon the Cricket''.It was during this period that camera effects intended to convey the subjective feelings of characters in a film really began to be established.", "These could now be done as Point of View (POV) shots, as in Sidney Drew's ''The Story of the Glove'' (1915), where a wobbly hand-held shot of a door and its keyhole represents the POV of a drunken man.", "The use of anamorphic (in the general sense of distorted shape) images first appears in these years when Abel Gance directed ''la Folie du Docteur Tube (The Madness of Dr. Tube)''.", "In this film the effect of a drug administered to a group of people was suggested by shooting the scenes reflected in a distorting mirror of the fair-ground type.Symbolic effects taken over from conventional literary and artistic tradition continued to make some appearances in films during these years.", "In D. W. Griffith's ''The Avenging Conscience'' (1914), the title \"The birth of the evil thought\" precedes a series of three shots of the protagonist looking at a spider, and ants eating an insect.", "Symbolist art and literature from the turn of the century also had a more general effect on a small number of films made in Italy and Russia.", "The supine acceptance of death resulting from passion and forbidden longings was a major feature of this art, and states of delirium dwelt on at length were important as well.Insert shot in ''Old Wives for New'' (Cecil B. DeMille, 1918)The use of insert shots, i.e.", "close-ups of objects other than faces, had already been established by the Brighton school, but were infrequently used before 1914.It is really only with Griffith's ''The Avenging Conscience'' that a new phase in the use of the Insert Shot starts.", "As well as the symbolic inserts already mentioned, the film also made extensive use of large numbers of Big Close Up shots of clutching hands and tapping feet as a means of emphasizing those parts of the body as indicators of psychological tension.Atmospheric inserts were developed in Europe in the late 1910s.", "This kind of shot is one in a scene which neither contains any of the characters in the story, nor is a Point of View shot seen by one of them.", "An early example is when Maurice Tourneur directed ''The Pride of the Clan'' (1917), in which there is a series of shots of waves beating on a rocky shore to demonstrate the harsh lives of the fishing folk.", "Maurice Elvey's ''Nelson; The Story of England's Immortal Naval Hero'' (1919) has a symbolic sequence dissolving from a picture of Kaiser Wilhelm II to a peacock, and then to a battleship.By 1914, continuity cinema was the established mode of commercial cinema.", "One of the advanced continuity techniques involved an accurate and smooth transition from one shot to another.", "Cutting to ''different'' angles within a scene also became well-established as a technique for dissecting a scene into shots in American films.", "If the direction of the shot changes by more than ninety degrees, it is called a reverse-angle cutting.", "The leading figure in the full development of reverse-angle cutting was Ralph Ince in his films, such as ''The Right Girl'' and ''His Phantom Sweetheart''.The use of flash-back structures continued to develop in this period, with the usual way of entering and leaving a flash-back being through a dissolve.", "The Vitagraph Company's ''The Man That Might Have Been'' (William J. Humphrey, 1914), is even more complex, with a series of reveries and flash-backs that contrast the protagonist's real passage through life with what might have been, if his son had not died.After 1914, cross cutting between parallel actions came to be used more so in American films than in European ones.", "Cross-cutting was used to get new effects of contrast, such as the cross-cut sequence in Cecil B. DeMille's ''The Whispering Chorus'' (1918), in which a supposedly dead husband is having a liaison with a Chinese prostitute in an opium den, while simultaneously his unknowing wife is being remarried in church.Silent film tinting, too, gained popularity during these periods.", "Amber tinting meant daytime, or vividly-lit nighttime, blue tints meant dawn or dimly-lit night, red tinting represented fire scenes, green tinting meant a mysterious atmosphere, and brown tints (aka sepia toning) were used usually for full-length films instead of individual scenes.", "D.W. Griffiths' ground-breaking epic, ''The Birth of a Nation'', the famous 1920 film ''Dr.", "Jekyll and Mr. Hyde'', and the Robert Wiene epic from the same year, ''The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari'', are some notable examples of tinted silent films.", "''The Photo-Drama of Creation'', first shown to audiences in 1914, was the first major screenplay to incorporate synchronized sound, moving film, and color slides.", "Until 1927, most motion pictures were produced without sound.", "This period is commonly referred to as the silent era of film.===Film art===The general trend in the development of cinema, led from the United States, was towards using the newly developed specifically filmic devices for expression of the narrative content of film stories, and combining this with the standard dramatic structures already in use in commercial theatre.", "D. W. Griffith had the highest standing among American directors in the industry, because of the dramatic excitement he conveyed to the audience through his films.", "Cecil B. DeMille's ''The Cheat'' (1915), brought out the moral dilemmas facing their characters in a more subtle way than Griffith.", "DeMille was also in closer touch with the reality of contemporary American life.", "Maurice Tourneur was also highly ranked for the pictorial beauties of his films, together with the subtlety of his handling of fantasy, while at the same time he was capable of getting greater naturalism from his actors at appropriate moments, as in ''A Girl's Folly'' (1917).Sidney Drew was the leader in developing \"polite comedy\", while slapstick was refined by Fatty Arbuckle and Charles Chaplin, who both started with Mack Sennett's Keystone company.", "They reduced the usual frenetic pace of Sennett's films to give the audience a chance to appreciate the subtlety and finesse of their movement, and the cleverness of their gags.", "By 1917 Chaplin was also introducing more dramatic plot into his films, and mixing the comedy with sentiment.In Russia, Yevgeni Bauer put a slow intensity of acting combined with Symbolist overtones onto film in a unique way.In Sweden, Victor Sjöström made a series of films that combined the realities of people's lives with their surroundings in a striking manner, while Mauritz Stiller developed sophisticated comedy to a new level.In Germany, Ernst Lubitsch got his inspiration from the stage work of Max Reinhardt, both in bourgeois comedy and in spectacle, and applied this to his films, culminating in his ''die Puppe'' (''The Doll''), ''die Austernprinzessin'' (''The Oyster Princess'') and ''Madame DuBarry''." ], [ "1920s", "===Golden years of German cinema, Hollywood triumphant===Charlie ChaplinThe Babelsberg Studio near Berlin was the first large-scale film studio in the world (founded 1912) and the forerunner to Hollywood.", "It still produces global blockbusters every year.At the start of the First World War, French and Italian cinema had been the most globally popular.", "The war came as a devastating interruption to European film industries.Throughout the early 20th century, screen artists continued to learn how to work with cameras and create illusions using space and time in their shots.", "This newly introduced form of creativity made way for a whole new group of people to be introduced to stardom, including David W. Griffith, who made a name for himself with his 1915 film, ''The Birth of a Nation''.", "In 1920, there were two major changes to the film industry: the introduction of sound and the creation of studio systems.", "In the 1920s, talent who had been working independently began joining studios and working with other actors and directors.", "In 1927, ''The Jazz Singer'' was released, bringing sound to the motion picture industry.The German cinema, marked by those times, saw the era of the German Expressionist film movement.", "Berlin was its center with the Filmstudio Babelsberg, which is the oldest large-scale film studio in the world.", "The first Expressionist films made up for a lack of lavish budgets by using set designs with wildly non-realistic, geometrically absurd angles, along with designs painted on walls and floors to represent lights, shadows, and objects.", "The plots and stories of the Expressionist films often dealt with madness, insanity, betrayal and other \"intellectual\" topics triggered by the experiences of World War I.", "Films like ''The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari'' (1920), ''Nosferatu'' (1922) and ''M'' (1931), similar to the movement they were part of, had a historic impact on film itself.Movies like ''Metropolis'' (1927) and ''Woman in the Moon'' (1929) partly created the genre of science fiction films and Lotte Reiniger became a pioneer in animation, producing animated feature films like The Adventures of Prince Achmed, the oldest surviving and oldest European made animated movie.Many German and German-based directors, actors, writers and others emigrated to the US when the Nazis gained power, giving Hollywood and the American film industry the final edge in its competition with other movie producing countries.The American industry, or \"Hollywood\", as it was becoming known after its new geographical center in California, gained the position it has held, more or less, ever since: film factory for the world and exporting its product to most countries on earth.By the 1920s, the United States reached what is still its era of greatest-ever output, producing an average of 800 ''feature'' films annually, or 82% of the global total (Eyman, 1997).", "The comedies of Charlie Chaplin and Buster Keaton, the swashbuckling adventures of Douglas Fairbanks and the romances of Clara Bow, to cite just a few examples, made these performers' faces well known on every continent.", "The Western visual norm that would become classical continuity editing was developed and exported – although its adoption was slower in some non-Western countries without strong realist traditions in art and drama, such as Japan.This development was contemporary with the growth of the studio system and its greatest publicity method, the star system, which characterized American film for decades to come and provided models for other film industries.", "The studios' efficient, top-down control over all stages of their product enabled a new and ever-growing level of lavish production and technical sophistication.", "At the same time, the system's commercial regimentation and focus on glamorous escapism discouraged daring and ambition beyond a certain degree, a prime example being the brief but still legendary directing career of the iconoclastic Erich von Stroheim in the late teens and the 1920s.In 1924, Sam Goldwyn, Louis B. Mayer, and the Metro Pictures Corporation create MGM." ], [ "1930s", "===Sound era===Don Juan is the first feature-length film to use the Vitaphone sound-on-disc sound system with a synchronized musical score and sound effects, though it has no spoken dialogue.During late 1927, Warners released ''The Jazz Singer'', which was mostly silent but contained what is generally regarded as the first synchronized dialogue (and singing) in a feature film; but this process was actually accomplished first by Charles Taze Russell in 1914 with the lengthy film ''The Photo-Drama of Creation''.", "This drama consisted of picture slides and moving pictures synchronized with phonograph records of talks and music.", "The early sound-on-disc processes such as Vitaphone were soon superseded by sound-on-film methods like Fox Movietone, DeForest Phonofilm, and RCA Photophone.", "The trend convinced the largely reluctant industrialists that \"talking pictures\", or \"talkies\", were the future.", "A lot of attempts were made before the success of ''The Jazz Singer'', that can be seen in the List of film sound systems.", "And in 1926, Warner Bros. Debuts the film ''Don Juan'' with synchronized sound effects and music.The change was remarkably swift.", "By the end of 1929, Hollywood was almost all-talkie, with several competing sound systems (soon to be standardized).", "Total changeover was slightly slower in the rest of the world, principally for economic reasons.", "Cultural reasons were also a factor in countries like China and Japan, where silents co-existed successfully with sound well into the 1930s, indeed producing what would be some of the most revered classics in those countries, like Wu Yonggang's ''The Goddess'' (China, 1934) and Yasujirō Ozu's ''I Was Born, But...'' (Japan, 1932).", "But even in Japan, a figure such as the benshi, the live narrator who was a major part of Japanese silent cinema, found his acting career was ending.Sound further tightened the grip of major studios in numerous countries: the vast expense of the transition overwhelmed smaller competitors, while the novelty of sound lured vastly larger audiences for those producers that remained.", "In the case of the U.S., some historians credit sound with saving the Hollywood studio system in the face of the Great Depression (Parkinson, 1995).", "Thus began what is now often called \"The Golden Age of Hollywood\", which refers roughly to the period beginning with the introduction of sound until the late 1940s.", "The American cinema reached its peak of efficiently manufactured glamour and global appeal during this period.", "The top actors of the era are now thought of as the classic film stars, such as Clark Gable, Katharine Hepburn, Humphrey Bogart, Greta Garbo, and the greatest box office draw of the 1930s, child performer Shirley Temple.===Creative impact of sound===''The Wizard of Oz''Creatively, however, the rapid transition was a difficult one, and in some ways, film briefly reverted to the conditions of its earliest days.", "The late '20s were full of static, stagey talkies as artists in front of and behind the camera struggled with the stringent limitations of the early sound equipment and their own uncertainty as to how to use the new medium.", "Many stage performers, directors and writers were introduced to cinema as producers sought personnel experienced in dialogue-based storytelling.", "Many major silent filmmakers and actors were unable to adjust and found their careers severely curtailed or even ended.This awkward period was fairly short-lived.", "1929 was a watershed year: William Wellman with ''Chinatown Nights'' and ''The Man I Love'', Rouben Mamoulian with ''Applause'', Alfred Hitchcock with ''Blackmail'' (Britain's first sound feature), were among the directors to bring greater fluidity to talkies and experiment with the expressive use of sound (Eyman, 1997).", "In this, they both benefited from, and pushed further, technical advances in microphones and cameras, and capabilities for editing and post-synchronizing sound (rather than recording all sound directly at the time of filming).Walt Disney introduces each of the seven dwarfs in a scene from the original 1937 ''Snow White'' theatrical trailer.Sound films emphasized black history, and benefited different genres to a greater extent than silents did.", "Most obviously, the musical film was born; the first classic-style Hollywood musical was ''The Broadway Melody'' (1929), and the form would find its first major creator in choreographer/director Busby Berkeley (''42nd Street'', 1933, ''Dames'', 1934).", "In France, avant-garde director René Clair made surreal use of song and dance in comedies like ''Under the Roofs of Paris'' (1930) and ''Le Million'' (1931).", "Universal Pictures began releasing gothic horror films like ''Dracula'' and ''Frankenstein'' (both 1931).", "In 1933, RKO Pictures released Merian C. Cooper's classic \"giant monster\" film ''King Kong''.", "The trend thrived best in India, where the influence of the country's traditional song-and-dance drama made the musical the basic form of most sound films (Cook, 1990); virtually unnoticed by the Western world for decades, this Indian popular cinema would nevertheless become the world's most prolific.", "(''See also Bollywood.", "'')At this time, American gangster films like ''Little Caesar'' and Wellman's ''The Public Enemy'' (both 1931) became popular.", "Dialogue now took precedence over slapstick in Hollywood comedies: the fast-paced, witty banter of ''The Front Page'' (1931) or ''It Happened One Night'' (1934), the sexual double entendres of Mae West (''She Done Him Wrong'', 1933), or the often subversively anarchic nonsense talk of the Marx Brothers (''Duck Soup'', 1933).", "Walt Disney, who had previously been in the short cartoon business, stepped into feature films with the first English-speaking animated feature ''Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs'', released by RKO Pictures in 1937.1939, a major year for American cinema, brought such films as ''The Wizard of Oz'' and ''Gone with The Wind''.===Color in cinema===Circa 80 percent of the films of the 1890s to the 1920s had colours.", "Many made use of monochromatic film tinting dye baths, some had the frames painted in multiple transparent colours by hand, and since 1905 there was a mechanized stencil-process (Pathécolor).Kinemacolor, the first commercially successful cinematographic colour process, produced films in two colours (red and cyan) from 1908 to 1914.Technicolor's natural three-strip colour process was very successfully introduced in 1932 with Walt Disney's animated Academy Award-winning short \"Flowers and Trees\", directed by Burt Gillett.", "Technicolor was initially used mainly for musicals like \"The Wizard of Oz\" (1939), in costume films such as \"The Adventures of Robin Hood\", and in animation.", "Not long after television became prevalent in the early 1950s, colour became more or less standard for theatrical movies." ], [ "1940s", "===World War II and its aftermath===The desire for wartime propaganda against the opposition created a renaissance in the film industry in Britain, with realistic war dramas like ''49th Parallel'' (1941), ''Went the Day Well?''", "(1942), ''The Way Ahead'' (1944) and Noël Coward and David Lean's celebrated naval film ''In Which We Serve'' in 1942, which won a special Academy Award.", "These existed alongside more flamboyant films like Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger's ''The Life and Death of Colonel Blimp'' (1943), ''A Canterbury Tale'' (1944) and ''A Matter of Life and Death'' (1946), as well as Laurence Olivier's 1944 film ''Henry V'', based on the Shakespearean history ''Henry V''.", "The success of ''Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs'' allowed Disney to make more animated features like ''Pinocchio'' (1940), ''Fantasia'' (1940), ''Dumbo'' (1941) and ''Bambi'' (1942).The onset of US involvement in World War II also brought a proliferation of films as both patriotism and propaganda.", "American propaganda films included ''Desperate Journey'' (1942), ''Mrs.", "Miniver'' (1942), ''Forever and a Day'' (1943) and ''Objective, Burma!''", "(1945).", "Notable American films from the war years include the anti-Nazi ''Watch on the Rhine'' (1943), scripted by Dashiell Hammett; ''Shadow of a Doubt'' (1943), Hitchcock's direction of a script by Thornton Wilder; the George M. Cohan biographical film, ''Yankee Doodle Dandy'' (1942), starring James Cagney, and the immensely popular ''Casablanca'', with Humphrey Bogart.", "Bogart would star in 36 films between 1934 and 1942 including John Huston's ''The Maltese Falcon'' (1941), one of the first films now considered a classic film noir.", "In 1941, RKO Pictures released ''Citizen Kane'' made by Orson Welles.", "It is often considered the greatest film of all time.", "It would set the stage for the modern motion picture, as it revolutionized film story telling.The strictures of wartime also brought an interest in more fantastical subjects.", "These included Britain's Gainsborough melodramas (including ''The Man in Grey'' and ''The Wicked Lady''), and films like ''Here Comes Mr. Jordan'', ''Heaven Can Wait'', ''I Married a Witch'' and ''Blithe Spirit''.", "Val Lewton also produced a series of atmospheric and influential small-budget horror films, some of the more famous examples being ''Cat People'', ''Isle of the Dead'' and ''The Body Snatcher''.", "The decade probably also saw the so-called \"women's pictures\", such as ''Now, Voyager'', ''Random Harvest'' and ''Mildred Pierce'' at the peak of their popularity.1946 saw RKO Radio releasing ''It's a Wonderful Life'' directed by Italian-born filmmaker Frank Capra.", "Soldiers returning from the war would provide the inspiration for films like ''The Best Years of Our Lives'', and many of those in the film industry had served in some capacity during the war.", "Samuel Fuller's experiences in World War II would influence his largely autobiographical films of later decades such as ''The Big Red One''.", "The Actors Studio was founded in October 1947 by Elia Kazan, Robert Lewis, and Cheryl Crawford, and the same year Oskar Fischinger filmed ''Motion Painting No.", "1''.Italian neorealist movie ''Bicycle Thieves'' (1948) by Vittorio De Sica, considered part of the canon of classic cinemaIn 1943, ''Ossessione'' was screened in Italy, marking the beginning of Italian neorealism.", "Major films of this type during the 1940s included ''Bicycle Thieves'', ''Rome, Open City'', and ''La Terra Trema''.", "In 1952 ''Umberto D'' was released, usually considered the last film of this type.In the late 1940s, in Britain, Ealing Studios embarked on their series of celebrated comedies, including ''Whisky Galore!", "'', ''Passport to Pimlico'', ''Kind Hearts and Coronets'' and ''The Man in the White Suit'', and Carol Reed directed his influential thrillers ''Odd Man Out'', ''The Fallen Idol'' and ''The Third Man''.", "David Lean was also rapidly becoming a force in world cinema with ''Brief Encounter'' and his Dickens adaptations ''Great Expectations'' and ''Oliver Twist'', and Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger would experience the best of their creative partnership with films like ''Black Narcissus'' and ''The Red Shoes''." ], [ "1950s", "Julius Caesar'' starring Charlton HestonPoster for the 1956 Egyptian film ''Wakeful Eyes'' starring Salah Zulfikar and Shadia|thumbThe House Un-American Activities Committee investigated Hollywood in the early 1950s.", "Protested by the Hollywood Ten before the committee, the hearings resulted in the blacklisting of many actors, writers and directors, including Chayefsky, Charlie Chaplin, and Dalton Trumbo, and many of these fled to Europe, especially the United Kingdom.The Cold War era zeitgeist translated into a type of near-paranoia manifested in themes such as invading armies of evil aliens (''Invasion of the Body Snatchers'', ''The War of the Worlds'') and communist fifth columnists (''The Manchurian Candidate'').During the immediate post-war years the cinematic industry was also threatened by television, and the increasing popularity of the medium meant that some film theatres would bankrupt and close.", "The demise of the \"studio system\" spurred the self-commentary of films like ''Sunset Boulevard'' (1950) and ''The Bad and the Beautiful'' (1952).In 1950, the Lettrists avante-gardists caused riots at the Cannes Film Festival, when Isidore Isou's ''Treatise on Slime and Eternity'' was screened.", "After their criticism of Charlie Chaplin and split with the movement, the Ultra-Lettrists continued to cause disruptions when they showed their new hypergraphical techniques.The most notorious film is Guy Debord's ''Howls for Sade'' of 1952.Distressed by the increasing number of closed theatres, studios and companies would find new and innovative ways to bring audiences back.", "These included attempts to widen their appeal with new screen formats.", "Cinemascope, which would remain a 20th Century Fox distinction until 1967, was announced with 1953's ''The Robe''.", "VistaVision, Cinerama, and Todd-AO boasted a \"bigger is better\" approach to marketing films to a dwindling US audience.", "This resulted in the revival of epic films to take advantage of the new big screen formats.", "Some of the most successful examples of these Biblical and historical spectaculars include ''The Ten Commandments'' (1956), ''The Vikings'' (1958), ''Ben-Hur'' (1959), ''Spartacus'' (1960) and ''El Cid'' (1961).", "Also during this period a number of other significant films were produced in Todd-AO, developed by Mike Todd shortly before his death, including ''Oklahoma!''", "(1955), ''Around the World in 80 Days'' (1956), ''South Pacific'' (1958) and ''Cleopatra'' (1963) plus many more.Gimmicks also proliferated to lure in audiences.", "The fad for 3-D film would last for only two years, 1952–1954, and helped sell ''House of Wax'' and ''Creature from the Black Lagoon''.", "Producer William Castle would tout films featuring \"Emergo\" \"Percepto\", the first of a series of gimmicks that would remain popular marketing tools for Castle and others throughout the 1960s.In 1954, Dorothy Dandridge was nominated as the best actress at the Oscar for her role in the film Carman Jones.", "She became the first black woman to be nominated for this award.In the U.S., a post-WW2 tendency toward questioning the establishment and societal norms and the early activism of the civil rights movement was reflected in Hollywood films such as ''Blackboard Jungle'' (1955), ''On the Waterfront'' (1954), Paddy Chayefsky's ''Marty'' and Reginald Rose's ''12 Angry Men'' (1957).", "Disney continued making animated films, notably; ''Cinderella'' (1950), ''Peter Pan'' (1953), ''Lady and the Tramp'' (1955), and ''Sleeping Beauty'' (1959).", "He began, however, getting more involved in live action films, producing classics like ''20,000 Leagues Under the Sea'' (1954), and ''Old Yeller'' (1957).", "Television began competing seriously with films projected in theatres, but surprisingly it promoted more filmgoing rather than curtailing it.", "''Limelight'' is probably a unique film in at least one interesting respect.", "Its two leads, Charlie Chaplin and Claire Bloom, were in the industry in no less than three different centuries.", "In the 19th century, Chaplin made his theatrical debut at the age of eight, in 1897, in a clog dancing troupe, The Eight Lancaster Lads.", "In the 21st century, Bloom is still enjoying a full and productive career, having appeared in dozens of films and television series produced up to and including 2022.She received particular acclaim for her role in ''The King's Speech'' (2010).===Golden age of Asian cinema===Akira Kurosawa, Japanese film directorFollowing the end of World War II in the 1940s, the following decade, the 1950s, marked a 'golden age' for non-English world cinema, especially for Asian cinema.", "Many of the most critically acclaimed Asian films of all time were produced during this decade, including Yasujirō Ozu's ''Tokyo Story'' (1953), Satyajit Ray's ''The Apu Trilogy'' (1955–1959) and ''Jalsaghar'' (1958), Kenji Mizoguchi's ''Ugetsu'' (1954) and ''Sansho the Bailiff'' (1954), Raj Kapoor's ''Awaara'' (1951), Mikio Naruse's ''Floating Clouds'' (1955), Guru Dutt's ''Pyaasa'' (1957) and ''Kaagaz Ke Phool'' (1959), and the Akira Kurosawa films ''Rashomon'' (1950), ''Ikiru'' (1952), ''Seven Samurai'' (1954) and ''Throne of Blood'' (1957).During Japanese cinema's 'Golden Age' of the 1950s, successful films included ''Rashomon'' (1950), ''Seven Samurai'' (1954) and ''The Hidden Fortress'' (1958) by Akira Kurosawa, as well as Yasujirō Ozu's ''Tokyo Story'' (1953) and Ishirō Honda's ''Godzilla'' (1954).", "These films have had a profound influence on world cinema.", "In particular, Kurosawa's ''Seven Samurai'' has been remade several times as Western films, such as ''The Magnificent Seven'' (1960) and ''Battle Beyond the Stars'' (1980), and has also inspired several Bollywood films, such as ''Sholay'' (1975) and ''China Gate'' (1998).", "''Rashomon'' was also remade as ''The Outrage'' (1964), and inspired films with \"Rashomon effect\" storytelling methods, such as ''Andha Naal'' (1954), ''The Usual Suspects'' (1995) and ''Hero'' (2002).", "''The Hidden Fortress'' was also an inspiration behind George Lucas' ''Star Wars'' (1977).", "Other famous Japanese filmmakers from this period include Kenji Mizoguchi, Mikio Naruse, Hiroshi Inagaki and Nagisa Oshima.", "Japanese cinema later became one of the main inspirations behind the New Hollywood movement of the 1960s to 1980s.During Indian cinema's 'Golden Age' of the 1950s, it was producing 200 films annually, while Indian independent films gained greater recognition through international film festivals.", "One of the most famous was ''The Apu Trilogy'' (1955–1959) from critically acclaimed Bengali film director Satyajit Ray, whose films had a profound influence on world cinema, with directors such as Akira Kurosawa, Martin Scorsese, James Ivory, Abbas Kiarostami, Elia Kazan, François Truffaut, Steven Spielberg, Carlos Saura, Jean-Luc Godard, Isao Takahata, Gregory Nava, Ira Sachs, Wes Anderson and Danny Boyle being influenced by his cinematic style.", "According to Michael Sragow of ''The Atlantic Monthly'', the \"youthful coming-of-age dramas that have flooded art houses since the mid-fifties owe a tremendous debt to the Apu trilogy\".", "Subrata Mitra's cinematographic technique of bounce lighting also originates from ''The Apu Trilogy''.", "Other famous Indian filmmakers from this period include Guru Dutt, Ritwik Ghatak, Mrinal Sen, Raj Kapoor, Bimal Roy, K. Asif and Mehboob Khan.The cinema of South Korea also experienced a 'Golden Age' in the 1950s, beginning with director Lee Kyu-hwan's tremendously successful remake of ''Chunhyang-jon'' (1955).", "That year also saw the release of ''Yangsan Province'' by the renowned director, Kim Ki-young, marking the beginning of his productive career.", "Both the quality and quantity of filmmaking had increased rapidly by the end of the 1950s.", "South Korean films, such as Lee Byeong-il's 1956 comedy ''Sijibganeun nal (The Wedding Day)'', had begun winning international awards.", "In contrast to the beginning of the 1950s, when only 5 films were made per year, 111 films were produced in South Korea in 1959.The 1950s was also a 'Golden Age' for Philippine cinema, with the emergence of more artistic and mature films, and significant improvement in cinematic techniques among filmmakers.", "The studio system produced frenetic activity in the local film industry as many films were made annually and several local talents started to earn recognition abroad.", "The premiere Philippine directors of the era included Gerardo de Leon, Gregorio Fernández, Eddie Romero, Lamberto Avellana, and Cirio Santiago." ], [ "1960s", "Salah Zulfikar and Nadia Lutfi in ''Saladin the Victorious'' (1963)During the 1960s, the studio system in Hollywood declined, because many films were now being made on location in other countries, or using studio facilities abroad, such as Pinewood in the UK and Cinecittà in Rome.", "\"Hollywood\" films were still largely aimed at family audiences, and it was often the more old-fashioned films that produced the studios' biggest successes.", "Productions like ''Mary Poppins'' (1964), ''My Fair Lady'' (1964) and ''The Sound of Music'' (1965) were among the biggest money-makers of the decade.", "The growth in independent producers and production companies, and the increase in the power of individual actors also contributed to the decline of traditional Hollywood studio production.There was also an increasing awareness of foreign language cinema in America during this period.", "During the late 1950s and 1960s, the French New Wave directors such as François Truffaut and Jean-Luc Godard produced films such as ''Les quatre cents coups'', ''Breathless'' and ''Jules et Jim'' which broke the rules of Hollywood cinema's narrative structure.", "As well, audiences were becoming aware of Italian films like Federico Fellini's ''La Dolce Vita'' (1960), ''8½'' (1963) and the stark dramas of Sweden's Ingmar Bergman.In Britain, the \"Free Cinema\" of Lindsay Anderson, Tony Richardson and others lead to a group of realistic and innovative dramas including ''Saturday Night and Sunday Morning'', ''A Kind of Loving'' and ''This Sporting Life''.", "Other British films such as ''Repulsion'', ''Darling'', ''Alfie'', ''Blowup'' and ''Georgy Girl'' (all in 1965–1966) helped to reduce prohibitions of sex and nudity on screen, while the casual sex and violence of the James Bond films, beginning with ''Dr.", "No'' in 1962 would render the series popular worldwide.During the 1960s, Ousmane Sembène produced several French- and Wolof-language films and became the \"father\" of African Cinema.", "In Latin America, the dominance of the \"Hollywood\" model was challenged by many film makers.", "Fernando Solanas and Octavio Getino called for a politically engaged Third Cinema in contrast to Hollywood and the European auteur cinema.In Egypt, the golden age of Egyptian cinema continued in the 1960s at the hands of many directors, and Egyptian cinema greatly appreciated women at that time, such as Soad Hosny.", "The Zulfikar brothers; Ezz El-Dine Zulfikar, Salah Zulfikar and Mahmoud Zulfikar were on a date with many productions, including Ezz El Dine Zulfikar's ''The River of Love'' (1960), Mahmoud Zulfikar's ''Soft Hands'' (1964), and ''Dearer Than My Life'' (1965) starring Salah Zulfikar and Salah Zulfikar Films production; ''My Wife, the Director General'' (1966) as well as Youssef Chahine's ''Saladin'' (1963).Further, the nuclear paranoia of the age, and the threat of an apocalyptic nuclear exchange (like the 1962 close-call with the USSR during the Cuban Missile Crisis) prompted a reaction within the film community as well.", "Films like Stanley Kubrick's ''Dr.", "Strangelove'' and ''Fail Safe'' with Henry Fonda were produced in a Hollywood that was once known for its overt patriotism and wartime propaganda.In documentary film the sixties saw the blossoming of Direct Cinema, an observational style of film making as well as the advent of more overtly partisan films like ''In the Year of the Pig'' about the Vietnam War by Emile de Antonio.", "By the late 1960s however, Hollywood filmmakers were beginning to create more innovative and ground-breaking films that reflected the social revolution taken over much of the western world such as ''Bonnie and Clyde'' (1967), ''The Graduate'' (1967), ''2001: A Space Odyssey'' (1968), ''Rosemary's Baby'' (1968), ''Midnight Cowboy'' (1969), ''Easy Rider'' (1969) and ''The Wild Bunch'' (1969).", "''Bonnie and Clyde'' is often considered the beginning of the so-called New Hollywood.In Japanese cinema, Academy Award-winning director Akira Kurosawa produced ''Yojimbo'' (1961), which like his previous films also had a profound influence around the world.", "The influence of this film is most apparent in Sergio Leone's ''A Fistful of Dollars'' (1964) and Walter Hill's ''Last Man Standing'' (1996).", "''Yojimbo'' was also the origin of the \"Man with No Name\" trend." ], [ "1970s", "The New Hollywood was the period following the decline of the studio system during the 1950s and 1960s and the end of the production code, (which was replaced in 1968 by the MPAA film rating system).", "During the 1970s, filmmakers increasingly depicted explicit sexual content and showed gunfight and battle scenes that included graphic images of bloody deaths a notable example of this is Wes Craven's ''The Last House on the Left'' (1972).Post-classical cinema is the changing methods of storytelling of the New Hollywood producers.", "The new methods of drama and characterization played upon audience expectations acquired during the classical/Golden Age period: story chronology may be scrambled, storylines may feature unsettling \"twist endings\", main characters may behave in a morally ambiguous fashion, and the lines between the antagonist and protagonist may be blurred.", "The beginnings of post-classical storytelling may be seen in 1940s and 1950s film noir films, in films such as ''Rebel Without a Cause'' (1955), and in Hitchcock's ''Psycho''.", "1971 marked the release of controversial films like ''Straw Dogs'', ''A Clockwork Orange'', ''The French Connection'' and ''Dirty Harry''.", "This sparked heated controversy over the perceived escalation of violence in cinema.During the 1970s, a new group of American filmmakers emerged, such as Martin Scorsese, Francis Ford Coppola, George Lucas, Woody Allen, Terrence Malick, and Robert Altman.", "This coincided with the increasing popularity of the auteur theory in film literature and the media, which posited that a film director's films express their personal vision and creative insights.", "The development of the auteur style of filmmaking helped to give these directors far greater control over their projects than would have been possible in earlier eras.", "This led to some great critical and commercial successes, like Scorsese's ''Taxi Driver'', Coppola's ''The Godfather'' films, William Friedkin's ''The Exorcist'', Altman's ''Nashville'', Allen's ''Annie Hall'' and ''Manhattan'', Malick's ''Badlands'' and ''Days of Heaven'', and Polish immigrant Roman Polanski's ''Chinatown''.", "It also, however, resulted in some failures, including Peter Bogdanovich's ''At Long Last Love'' and Michael Cimino's hugely expensive Western epic ''Heaven's Gate'', which helped to bring about the demise of its backer, United Artists.The financial disaster of ''Heaven's Gate'' marked the end of the visionary \"auteur\" directors of the \"New Hollywood\", who had unrestrained creative and financial freedom to develop films.", "The phenomenal success in the 1970s of Spielberg's ''Jaws'' originated the concept of the modern \"blockbuster\".", "However, the enormous success of George Lucas' 1977 film ''Star Wars'' led to much more than just the popularization of blockbuster filmmaking.", "The film's revolutionary use of special effects, sound editing and music had led it to become widely regarded as one of the single most important films in the medium's history, as well as the most influential film of the 1970s.", "Hollywood studios increasingly focused on producing a smaller number of very large budget films with massive marketing and promotional campaigns.", "This trend had already been foreshadowed by the commercial success of disaster films such as ''The Poseidon Adventure'' and ''The Towering Inferno''.During the mid-1970s, more pornographic theatres, euphemistically called \"adult cinemas\", were established, and the legal production of hardcore pornographic films began.", "Porn films such as ''Deep Throat'' and its star Linda Lovelace became something of a popular culture phenomenon and resulted in a spate of similar sex films.", "The porn cinemas finally died out during the 1980s, when the popularization of the home VCR and pornography videotapes allowed audiences to watch sex films at home.", "In the early 1970s, English-language audiences became more aware of the new West German cinema, with Werner Herzog, Rainer Werner Fassbinder and Wim Wenders among its leading exponents.In world cinema, the 1970s saw a dramatic increase in the popularity of martial arts films, largely due to its reinvention by Bruce Lee, who departed from the artistic style of traditional Chinese martial arts films and added a much greater sense of realism to them with his Jeet Kune Do style.", "This began with ''The Big Boss'' (1971), which was a major success across Asia.", "However, he did not gain fame in the Western world until shortly after his death in 1973, when ''Enter the Dragon'' was released.", "The film went on to become the most successful martial arts film in cinematic history, popularized the martial arts film genre across the world, and cemented Bruce Lee's status as a cultural icon.", "Hong Kong action cinema, however, was in decline due to a wave of \"Bruceploitation\" films.", "This trend eventually came to an end in 1978 with the martial arts comedy films, ''Snake in the Eagle's Shadow'' and ''Drunken Master'', directed by Yuen Woo-ping and starring Jackie Chan, laying the foundations for the rise of Hong Kong action cinema in the 1980s.While the musical film genre had declined in Hollywood by this time, musical films were quickly gaining popularity in the cinema of India, where the term \"Bollywood\" was coined for the growing Hindi film industry in Bombay (now Mumbai) that ended up dominating South Asian cinema, overtaking the more critically acclaimed Bengali film industry in popularity.", "Hindi filmmakers combined the Hollywood musical formula with the conventions of ancient Indian theatre to create a new film genre called \"Masala\", which dominated Indian cinema throughout the late 20th century.", "These \"Masala\" films portrayed action, comedy, drama, romance and melodrama all at once, with \"filmi\" song and dance routines thrown in.", "This trend began with films directed by Manmohan Desai and starring Amitabh Bachchan, who remains one of the most popular film stars in South Asia.", "The most popular Indian film of all time was ''Sholay'' (1975), a \"Masala\" film inspired by a real-life dacoit as well as Kurosawa's ''Seven Samurai'' and the Spaghetti Westerns.The end of the decade saw the first major international marketing of Australian cinema, as Peter Weir's films ''Picnic at Hanging Rock'' and ''The Last Wave'' and Fred Schepisi's ''The Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith'' gained critical acclaim.", "In 1979, Australian filmmaker George Miller also garnered international attention for his violent, low-budget action film ''Mad Max''." ], [ "1980s", "During the 1980s, audiences began increasingly watching films on their home VCRs.", "In the early part of that decade, the film studios tried legal action to ban home ownership of VCRs as a violation of copyright, which proved unsuccessful.", "Eventually, the sale and rental of films on home video became a significant \"second venue\" for exhibition of films, and an additional source of revenue for the film industries.", "Direct-to-video (niche) markets usually offered lower quality, cheap productions that were not deemed very suitable for the general audiences of television and theatrical releases.The Lucas–Spielberg combine would dominate \"Hollywood\" cinema for much of the 1980s, and lead to much imitation.", "Two follow-ups to ''Star Wars'', three to ''Jaws'', and three ''Indiana Jones'' films helped to make sequels of successful films more of an expectation than ever before.", "Lucas also launched THX Ltd, a division of Lucasfilm in 1982, while Spielberg enjoyed one of the decade's greatest successes in ''E.T.", "the Extra-Terrestrial'' the same year.", "1982 also saw the release of Disney's ''Tron'' which was one of the first films from a major studio to use computer graphics extensively.", "American independent cinema struggled more during the decade, although Martin Scorsese's ''Raging Bull'' (1980), ''After Hours'' (1985), and ''The King of Comedy'' (1983) helped to establish him as one of the most critically acclaimed American film makers of the era.", "Also during 1983 ''Scarface'' was released, which was very profitable and resulted in even greater fame for its leading actor Al Pacino.", "Tim Burton's 1989 version of Bob Kane's creation, ''Batman'', saw Jack Nicholson's portrayal of the demented Joker, which earned him $60-$90m after including his percentage of the gross.British cinema was given a boost during the early 1980s by the arrival of David Puttnam's company Goldcrest Films.", "The films ''Chariots of Fire'', ''Gandhi'', ''The Killing Fields'' and ''A Room with a View'' appealed to a \"middlebrow\" audience which was increasingly being ignored by the major Hollywood studios.", "While the films of the 1970s had helped to define modern blockbuster motion pictures, the way \"Hollywood\" released its films would now change.", "Films, for the most part, would premiere in a wider number of theatres, although, to this day, some films still premiere using the route of the limited/roadshow release system.", "Against some expectations, the rise of the multiplex cinema did not allow less mainstream films to be shown, but simply allowed the major blockbusters to be given an even greater number of screenings.", "However, films that had been overlooked in cinemas were increasingly being given a second chance on home video.During the 1980s, Japanese cinema experienced a revival, largely due to the success of anime films.", "At the beginning of the 1980s, ''Space Battleship Yamato'' (1973) and ''Mobile Suit Gundam'' (1979), both of which were unsuccessful as television series, were remade as films and became hugely successful in Japan.", "In particular, ''Mobile Suit Gundam'' sparked the Gundam franchise of Real Robot mecha anime.", "The success of ''Macross: Do You Remember Love?''", "also sparked a Macross franchise of mecha anime.", "This was also the decade when Studio Ghibli was founded.", "The studio produced Hayao Miyazaki's first fantasy films, ''Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind'' (1984) and ''Castle in the Sky'' (1986), as well as Isao Takahata's ''Grave of the Fireflies'' (1988), all of which were very successful in Japan and received worldwide critical acclaim.", "Original video animation (OVA) films also began during this decade; the most influential of these early OVA films was Noboru Ishiguro's cyberpunk film ''Megazone 23'' (1985).", "The most famous anime film of this decade was Katsuhiro Otomo's cyberpunk film ''Akira'' (1988), which although initially unsuccessful at Japanese theaters, went on to become an international success.Hong Kong action cinema, which was in a state of decline due to endless Bruceploitation films after the death of Bruce Lee, also experienced a revival in the 1980s, largely due to the reinvention of the action film genre by Jackie Chan.", "He had previously combined the comedy film and martial arts film genres successfully in the 1978 films ''Snake in the Eagle's Shadow'' and ''Drunken Master''.", "The next step he took was in combining this comedy martial arts genre with a new emphasis on elaborate and highly dangerous stunts, reminiscent of the silent film era.", "The first film in this new style of action cinema was ''Project A'' (1983), which saw the formation of the Jackie Chan Stunt Team as well as the \"Three Brothers\" (Chan, Sammo Hung and Yuen Biao).", "The film added elaborate, dangerous stunts to the fights and slapstick humor, and became a huge success throughout the Far East.", "As a result, Chan continued this trend with martial arts action films containing even more elaborate and dangerous stunts, including ''Wheels on Meals'' (1984), ''Police Story'' (1985), ''Armour of God'' (1986), ''Project A Part II'' (1987), ''Police Story 2'' (1988), and ''Dragons Forever'' (1988).", "Other new trends which began in the 1980s were the \"girls with guns\" subgenre, for which Michelle Yeoh gained fame; and especially the \"heroic bloodshed\" genre, revolving around Triads, largely pioneered by John Woo and for which Chow Yun-fat became famous.", "These Hong Kong action trends were later adopted by many Hollywood action films in the 1990s and 2000s." ], [ "1990s", "The early 1990s saw the development of a commercially successful independent cinema in the United States.", "Although cinema was increasingly dominated by special-effects films such as ''Terminator 2: Judgment Day'' (1991), ''Jurassic Park'' (1993) and ''Titanic'' (1997), the latter of which became the highest-grossing film of all time at the time up until ''Avatar'' (2009), also directed by James Cameron, independent films like Steven Soderbergh's ''Sex, Lies, and Videotape'' (1989) and Quentin Tarantino's ''Reservoir Dogs'' (1992) had significant commercial success both at the cinema and on home video.Filmmakers associated with the Danish film movement Dogme 95 introduced a manifesto aimed to purify filmmaking.", "Its first few films gained worldwide critical acclaim, after which the movement slowly faded out.Scorsese's Goodfellas was released in 1990.It is considered by many as one of the greatest movies to be made, particularly in the gangster genre.", "It is said to be the highest point of Scorsese's career.Cinema admissions in 1995Major American studios began to create their own \"independent\" production companies to finance and produce non-mainstream fare.", "One of the most successful independents of the 1990s, Miramax Films, was bought by Disney the year before the release of Tarantino's runaway hit ''Pulp Fiction'' in 1994.The same year marked the beginning of film and video distribution online.", "Animated films aimed at family audiences also regained their popularity, with Disney's ''Beauty and the Beast'' (1991), ''Aladdin'' (1992), and ''The Lion King'' (1994).", "During 1995, the first feature-length computer-animated feature, ''Toy Story'', was produced by Pixar Animation Studios and released by Disney.", "After the success of Toy Story, computer animation would grow to become the dominant technique for feature-length animation, which would allow competing film companies such as DreamWorks, 20th Century Fox and Warner Bros. to effectively compete with Disney with successful films of their own.", "During the late 1990s, another cinematic transition began, from physical film stock to digital cinema technology.", "Meanwhile, DVDs became the new standard for consumer video, replacing VHS tapes." ], [ "2000s", "Since the late 2000s streaming media platforms like YouTube provided means for anyone with access to internet and cameras (a standard feature of smartphones) to publish videos to the world.", "Also competing with the increasing popularity of video games and other forms of home entertainment, the industry once again started to make theatrical releases more attractive, with new 3D technologies and epic (fantasy and superhero) films becoming a mainstay in cinemas.The documentary film also rose as a commercial genre for perhaps the first time, with the success of films such as ''March of the Penguins'' and Michael Moore's ''Bowling for Columbine'' and ''Fahrenheit 9/11''.", "A new genre was created with Martin Kunert and Eric Manes' ''Voices of Iraq'', when 150 inexpensive DV cameras were distributed across Iraq, transforming ordinary people into collaborative filmmakers.", "The success of ''Gladiator'' led to a revival of interest in epic cinema, and ''Moulin Rouge!''", "renewed interest in musical cinema.", "Home theatre systems became increasingly sophisticated, as did some of the special edition DVDs designed to be shown on them.", "''The Lord of the Rings trilogy'' was released on DVD in both the theatrical version and in a special extended version intended only for home cinema audiences.In 2001, the ''Harry Potter'' film series began, and by its end in 2011, it had become the highest-grossing film franchise of all time until the Marvel Cinematic Universe passed it in 2015.Due to advances in film projection technology, feature films were now able to be released simultaneously to IMAX cinema, the first was in 2002's Disney animation ''Treasure Planet''; and the first live action was in 2003's ''The Matrix Revolutions'' and a re-release of ''The Matrix Reloaded''.", "Later in the decade, ''The Dark Knight'' was the first major feature film to have been at least partially shot in IMAX technology.There has been an increasing globalization of cinema during this decade, with foreign-language films gaining popularity in English-speaking markets.", "Examples of such films include ''Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon'' (Mandarin), ''Amélie'' (French), ''Lagaan'' (Hindi), ''Spirited Away'' (Japanese), ''City of God'' (Brazilian Portuguese), ''The Passion of the Christ'' (Aramaic), ''Apocalypto'' (Mayan) and ''Inglourious Basterds'' (multiple European languages).", "Italy is the most awarded country at the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, with 14 awards won, 3 Special Awards and 31 nominations.In 2003, there was a revival in 3D film popularity the first being James Cameron's ''Ghosts of the Abyss'' which was released as the first full-length 3-D IMAX feature filmed with the Reality Camera System.", "This camera system used the latest HD video cameras, not film, and was built for Cameron by Emmy nominated Director of Photography Vince Pace, to his specifications.", "The same camera system was used to film ''Spy Kids 3D: Game Over'' (2003), ''Aliens of the Deep'' IMAX (2005), and ''The Adventures of Sharkboy and Lavagirl in 3-D'' (2005).After James Cameron's 3D film ''Avatar'' became the highest-grossing film of all time, 3D films gained brief popularity with many other films being released in 3D, with the best critical and financial successes being in the field of feature film animation such as Universal Pictures/Illumination Entertainment's ''Despicable Me'' and DreamWorks Animation's ''How To Train Your Dragon'', ''Shrek Forever After'' and ''Megamind''.", "''Avatar'' is also note-worthy for pioneering highly sophisticated use of motion capture technology and influencing several other films such as ''Rise of the Planet of the Apes''." ], [ "2010s", "In 2011, the largest film industries by number of feature films produced were those of India, the United States, China, Nigeria, and Japan.", "In Hollywood, superhero films greatly increased in popularity and financial success, with films based on Marvel and DC Comics released every year.", "The superhero genre was the most dominant in American box office receipts.", "The list of top-grossing films was dominated by Disney, with 2019 having the most films in the top 50.The 2019 superhero film ''Avengers: Endgame'' was the most successful movie of all-time at the box office.", "Other top earners included ''Star Wars: The Force Awakens'', ''Avengers: Infinity War'', and ''Jurassic World''.", "Disney releases were frequently the top-grossing films annually in the latter half of the decade, with titles like ''Toy Story 3'', ''The Avengers'', and ''Frozen''.", "Disney's success culminated in the acquisition of 21st Century Fox by Disney.Major film studios tried to emulate Disney's Marvel Cinematic Universe's success with their own franchises.", "Warner Bros. created franchises like DC Extended Universe.", "Disney produced live-action or photorealistic remakes of its classic animated films, such as ''Aladdin'', and ''The Lion King''.", "Film series based on young adult novels became popular, shifting from fantasy to dystopian sci-fi.", "Notable series included ''The Hunger Games''.", "''The Tale of Princess Kaguya'', ''Summer 1993'', ''Leave No Trace'' and ''Minding the Gap'' achieved 100% ratings on Rotten Tomatoes.", "Other acclaimed films included ''Mad Max: Fury Road'', ''The Social Network'', and ''Get Out''.", "Films like ''Portrait of a Lady on Fire'', ''The Tree of Life'', ''Moonlight'', and ''Parasite'' were frequently listed in critics' polls for the best films of the 2010s.", "In 2010, the first woman to win the Best Director Award in Oscar history appeared.", "Katherine Bigelow's ''The Hurt Locker'' won six awards.", "In 2020, ''Parasite'' became the first non-English-language film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture." ], [ "2020s", "=== COVID-19 pandemic ===The COVID-19 pandemic resulted in the closure of film theaters around the world in response to lockdowns.", "Many films slated to release in the early 2020s faced delays in development, production, and distribution, with others released on streaming services with little or no theatrical window.", "The era witnessed a profound transformation in how films are produced, distributed, and consumed globally.", "The pandemic led to a rapid acceleration in the shift towards streaming, as a primary means of film distribution.", "The film industry adapted and produced notable works that reflected changing dynamics of the era." ], [ "See also", "* B movie* Culture-historical archaeology* Experimental film* Fictional film* ''Film & History''* History of animation* History of horror films* History of science fiction films* History of television* ''History of the Kinetograph, Kinetoscope, and Kinetophonograph''* ''Kammerspielfilm''* List of books on films* List of cinema of the world* List of cinematic firsts* List of color film systems* List of motion picture film formats* List of the first films by country* List of years in film* Outline of film* Runaway production* ''The Story of Film: An Odyssey''* Z movie" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Abel, Richard.", "''The Cine Goes to Town: French Cinema 1896–1914''.", "University of California Press, 1998.", "*Acker, Ally.", "''Reel Women: Pioneers of the Cinema, 1896 to the Present''.", "London: B.T.", "Batsford, 1991.", "* Robert C. Allen, Douglas Gomery: ''Film History.", "Theory and Practice'', New York: Alfred Knopf, 1985* Barr, Charles.", "''All our yesterdays: 90 years of British cinema'' (British Film Institute, 1986).", "*Basten, Fred E. ''Glorious Technicolor: The Movies' Magic Rainbow''.", "AS Barnes & Company, 1980.", "*Bowser, Eileen.", "''The Transformation of Cinema 1907–1915 (History of the American Cinema, Vol.", "2)'' Charles Scribner's Sons, 1990.", "**Cook, David A.", "''A History of Narrative Film'', 2nd edition.", "New York: W. W. Norton, 1990.", "*Cousins, Mark.", "''The Story of Film: A Worldwide History'', New York: Thunder's Mouth press, 2006.", "*Dixon, Wheeler Winston and Gwendolyn Audrey Foster.", "''A Short History of Film'', 2nd edition.", "New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2013.", "* *King, Geoff.", "''New Hollywood Cinema: An Introduction''.", "New York: Columbia University Press, 2002.", "** Landry, Marcia.", "''British Genres: Cinema and Society, 1930–1960'' (1991)*Merritt, Greg.", "''Celluloid Mavericks: A History of American Independent Film''.", "Thunder's Mouth Press, 2001.", "***Nowell-Smith, Geoffrey, ed.", "''The Oxford History of World Cinema''.", "Oxford University Press, 1999.", "*Parkinson, David.", "''History of Film''.", "New York: Thames & Hudson, 1995.", "*Rocchio, Vincent F. ''Reel Racism.", "Confronting Hollywood's Construction of Afro-American Culture''.", "Westview Press, 2000.", "* Sargeant, Amy.", "''British Cinema: A Critical History'' (2008).", "*Schrader, Paul.", "\"Notes on Film Noir\".", "''Film Comment'', 1984.", "**Tsivian, Yuri.", "''Silent Witnesses: Russian Films 1908–1919'' British Film Institute, 1989.", "*Unterburger, Amy L. ''The St. James Women Filmmakers Encyclopedia: Women on the Other Side of the Camera''.", "Visible Ink Press, 1999.", "*Usai, P.C.", "& Codelli, L. (editors) ''Before Caligari: German Cinema, 1895–1920'' Edizioni Biblioteca dell'Immagine, 1990." ], [ "External links", "* Cinema: From 1890 To Now* What is a Camera Obscura?", "* An Introduction to Early cinema* Origins of Cinema Documentary* History of Film Formats* Film Sound History at FilmSound.org* List of Early Sound Films 1894–1929 at Silent Era website* Early History of Wide Films – American Cinematographer, January 1930* Hollywood Movies History* Technicolor History* A Brief, Early History of Computer Graphics in Film* The History of the Discovery of Cinematography An Illustrated Chronology by Paul Burns" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cinema of France" ], [ "Introduction", " '''French cinema''' consists of the film industry and its film productions, whether made within the nation of France or by French film production companies abroad.", "It is the oldest and largest precursor of national cinemas in Europe; with primary influence also on the creation of national cinemas in Asia.France continues to have a particularly strong film industry, due in part to protections afforded by the French government.", "In 2013, France was the second largest exporter of films in the world after the United States.", "A study in April 2014 showed that French cinema maintains a positive influence around the world, being the most appreciated by global audiences after that of the United States.France currently has the most successful film industry in Europe, in terms of number of films produced per annum, with a record-breaking 300 feature-length films produced in 2015.France is also one of the few countries where non-American productions have the biggest share: American films only represented 44.9% of total admissions in 2014.This is largely due to the commercial strength of domestic productions, which accounted for 44.5% of admissions in 2014 (35.5% in 2015; 35.3% in 2016).", "The French film industry is closer to being entirely self-sufficient than any other country in Europe, recovering around 80–90% of costs from revenues generated in the domestic market alone.The most influential film directors in the history of French cinema are Jean Renoir, Marcel Carné, François Truffaut and Jean-Luc Godard.", "Other important film directors are René Clair, Jean Cocteau, René Clément, Robert Bresson, Alain Resnais, Jacques Demy, Claude Chabrol, Louis Malle, Jean-Pierre Melville, Bertrand Tavernier, Claude Sautet, Eric Rohmer, Agnès Varda, Maurice Pialat, Bertrand Blier, André Téchiné, François Ozon and Christophe Honoré.Apart from its strong and innovative film tradition, France has also been a leading destination for filmmakers and actors from around the world; consequently, French cinema is sometimes intertwined with the cinema of foreign nations.", "Directors from nations such as Poland (Roman Polanski, Krzysztof Kieślowski, and Andrzej Żuławski), Argentina (Gaspar Noé and Edgardo Cozarinsky), Russia (Alexandre Alexeieff, Anatole Litvak), Austria (Michael Haneke), and Georgia (Géla Babluani, Otar Iosseliani) are prominent in the ranks of French cinema.", "Conversely, French directors have had prolific and influential careers in other countries, such as Luc Besson, Jacques Tourneur, or Francis Veber in the United States.Paris has the highest density of cinemas in the world, measured by the number of movie theaters per inhabitant, and that in most \"downtown Paris\" movie theaters, foreign movies which would be secluded to \"art houses\" cinemas in other places are shown alongside \"mainstream\" works.", "Philippe Binant realized, on 2 February 2000, the first digital cinema projection in Europe, with the DLP CINEMA technology developed by Texas Instruments, in Paris.", "Paris also boasts the Cité du cinéma, a major studio north of the city, and Disney Studio, a theme park devoted to the cinema and the third theme park near the city behind Disneyland and Parc Asterix.A favorite theme has been the French Revolution, with hundreds of titles." ], [ "History", "A scene from Louis Lumière's ''La Sortie des usines Lumière'' (1895) Les frères Lumière released the first projection with the Cinematograph, in Paris on 28 December 1895.The French film industry in the late 19th century and early 20th century was the world's most important.", "Auguste and Louis Lumière invented the cinématographe and their ''L'Arrivée d'un train en gare de La Ciotat'' in Paris in 1895 is considered by many historians as the official birth of cinematography.", "French films during this period catered to a growing middle class and were mostly shown in cafés and traveling fairs.The early days of the industry, from 1896 to 1902, saw the dominance of four firms: Pathé Frères, the Gaumont Film Company, the Georges Méliès company, and the Lumières.", "Méliès invented many of the techniques of cinematic grammar, and among his fantastic, surreal short subjects is the first science fiction film ''A Trip to the Moon'' (''Le Voyage dans la Lune'') in 1902.In 1902, the Lumières abandoned everything but the production of film stock, leaving Méliès as the weakest player of the remaining three.", "(He would retire in 1914.)", "From 1904 to 1911, the Pathé Frères company led the world in film production and distribution.Gaumont palace in Paris, c.1914At Gaumont, pioneer Alice Guy-Blaché (M. Gaumont's former secretary) was made head of production and oversaw about 400 films, from her first, ''La Fée aux Choux'', in 1896, through 1906.She then continued her career in the United States, as did Maurice Tourneur and Léonce Perret after World War I.In 1907, Gaumont owned and operated the biggest movie studio in the world, and along with the boom in construction of \"luxury cinemas\" like the Gaumont-Palace and the Pathé-Palace (both 1911), cinema became an economic challenger to theater by 1914.=== After World War I ===After World War I, the French film industry suffered because of a lack of capital, and film production decreased as it did in most other European countries.", "This allowed the United States film industry to enter the European cinema market, because American films could be sold more cheaply than European productions, since the studios already had recouped their costs in the home market.", "When film studios in Europe began to fail, many European countries began to set import barriers.", "France installed an import quota of 1:7, meaning for every seven foreign films imported to France, one French film was to be produced and shown in French cinemas.During the period between World War I and World War II, Jacques Feyder and Jean Vigo became two of the founders of poetic realism in French cinema.", "They also dominated French impressionist cinema, along with Abel Gance, Germaine Dulac and Jean Epstein.In 1931, Marcel Pagnol filmed the first of his great trilogy ''Marius'', ''Fanny'', and ''César''.", "He followed this with other films including ''The Baker's Wife''.", "Other notable films of the 1930s included René Clair's ''Under the Roofs of Paris'' (1930), Jean Vigo's ''L'Atalante'' (1934), Jacques Feyder's ''Carnival in Flanders'' (1935), and Julien Duvivier's ''La belle equipe'' (1936).", "In 1935, renowned playwright and actor Sacha Guitry directed his first film and went on to make more than 30 films that were precursors to the New Wave era.", "In 1937, Jean Renoir, the son of painter Pierre-Auguste Renoir, directed ''La Grande Illusion'' (''The Grand Illusion'').", "In 1939, Renoir directed ''La Règle du Jeu'' (''The Rules of the Game'').", "Several critics have cited this film as one of the greatest of all-time, particularly for its innovative camerawork, cinematography and sound editing.Marcel Carné's (''Children of Paradise'') was filmed during World War II and released in 1945.The three-hour film was extremely difficult to make due to the Nazi occupation.", "Set in Paris in 1828, it was voted Best French Film of the Century in a poll of 600 French critics and professionals in the late 1990s.=== Post–World War II ===Leslie Caron with Louis Jourdan and Maurice Chevalier on the set of ''Gigi'' (1958).==== 1940s–1970s ====Alain Delon was known as much for his beauty as for his acting career and holds an enduring status as a leading man in French cinema.After World War II, the French actress Leslie Caron and the French actor Louis Jourdan enjoyed success in the United States with several musical romantic comedies, notably ''An American in Paris'' (1951) and ''Gigi'' (1958), based on the 1944 novella of the same name by Colette.In the magazine , founded by André Bazin and two other writers in 1951, film critics raised the level of discussion of the cinema, providing a platform for the birth of modern film theory.", "Several of the ''Cahiers'' critics, including Jean-Luc Godard, François Truffaut, Claude Chabrol, Jacques Rivette and Éric Rohmer, went on to make films themselves, creating what was to become known as the French New Wave.", "Some of the first films of this new movement were Godard's ''Breathless'' (''À bout de souffle'', 1960), starring Jean-Paul Belmondo, Rivette's ''Paris Belongs to Us'' (''Paris nous appartient'', 1958 – distributed in 1961), starring Jean-Claude Brialy and Truffaut's ''The 400 Blows'' (''Les Quatre Cent Coups'', 1959) starring Jean-Pierre Léaud.", "Later works are ''Contempt'' (1963) by Godard starring Brigitte Bardot and Michel Piccoli and ''Stolen Kisses'' starring Léaud and Claude Jade.", "Because Truffaut followed the hero of his screen debut, Antoine Doinel, for twenty years, the last post-New-Wave-film is ''Love on the Run'' in which his heroes Antoine (Léaud) and Christine (Jade) get divorced.Brigitte Bardot was one of the most famous French actresses in the 1960s.Many contemporaries of Godard and Truffaut followed suit, or achieved international critical acclaim with styles of their own, such as the minimalist films of Robert Bresson and Jean-Pierre Melville, the Hitchcockian-like thrillers of Henri-Georges Clouzot, and other New Wave films by Agnès Varda and Alain Resnais.", "The movement, while an inspiration to other national cinemas and unmistakably a direct influence on the future New Hollywood directors, slowly faded by the end of the 1960s.Director François Truffaut and actress Claude Jade at the première of their third common film ''Love on the Run'' in Luxembourg, April 1979During this period, French commercial film also made a name for itself.", "Immensely popular French comedies with Louis de Funès topped the French box office.", "The war comedy ''La Grande Vadrouille'' (1966), from Gérard Oury with Bourvil, de Funès and Terry-Thomas, was the most successful film in French theaters for more than 30 years.", "Another example was ''La Folie des grandeurs'' with Yves Montand.", "French cinema also was the birthplace for many subgenres of the crime film, most notably the modern caper film, starting with 1955's ''Rififi'' by American-born director Jules Dassin and followed by a large number of serious, noirish heist dramas as well as playful caper comedies throughout the sixties, and the \"polar,\" a typical French blend of film noir and detective fiction.In addition, French movie stars began to claim fame abroad as well as at home.", "Popular actors of the period included Brigitte Bardot, Alain Delon, Romy Schneider, Catherine Deneuve, Jeanne Moreau, Simone Signoret, Yves Montand, Jean-Paul Belmondo and still Jean Gabin.Since the Sixties and the early Seventies they are completed and followed by Michel Piccoli and Philippe Noiret as character actors, Annie Girardot, Jean-Louis Trintignant, Jean-Pierre Léaud, Claude Jade, Isabelle Huppert, Anny Duperey, Gérard Depardieu, Patrick Dewaere, Jean-Pierre Cassel, Miou-Miou, Brigitte Fossey, Stéphane Audran and Isabelle Adjani.", "During the Eightees they are added by a new generation including Sophie Marceau, Emmanuelle Béart, Jean-Hugues Anglade, Sabine Azema, Juliette Binoche and Daniel Auteuil.In 1968, the May riots shook France.", "François Truffaut had already organised demonstrations in February against Henri Langlois's removal as head of the Cinémathèque française and dedicated his film ''Stolen Kisses'', which was being made, to Langlois.", "The Cannes Film Festival is cancelled – on the initiative of Truffaut, Godard and Louis Malle.", "Jean-Luc Godard no longer works in the commercial film business for years.", "Political films such as Costa-Gavras' ''Z'' celebrate success.", "Chabrol continues his vivisection of the bourgeoisie (''The Unfaithful Wife'') and Truffaut explores the possibility of bourgeois marital happiness (''Bed and Board'').While Godard disappears from cinema after the Nouvelle Vague except for a few essays, Truffaut and Chabrol remain the leading directors whose artistic aspects remain commercially successful.", "Other directors of the 1970s in this effect are Bertrand Tavernier, Claude Sautet, Eric Rohmer, Claude Lelouch, Georges Lautner, Jean-Paul Rappeneau, Michel Deville Yves Boisset, Maurice Pialat, Bertrand Blier, Coline Serreau and André Téchiné in purely entertainment films, it is Gérard Oury and Édouard Molinaro.The 1979 film ''La Cage aux Folles'' ran for well over a year at the Paris Theatre, an arthouse cinema in New York City, and was a commercial success at theaters throughout the country, in both urban and rural areas.", "It won the Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Language Film, and for years it remained the most successful foreign film to be released in the United States.==== 1980s ====Danielle Darrieux (pictured in 2008) was a French centenarian, who had one of the longest careers in French cinema, spanning eight decadesJean-Jacques Beineix's ''Diva'' (1981) sparked the beginning of the 1980s wave of French cinema.", "Movies which followed in its wake included ''Betty Blue'' (''37°2 le matin'', 1986) by Beineix, ''The Big Blue'' (''Le Grand bleu'', 1988) by Luc Besson, and ''The Lovers on the Bridge'' (''Les Amants du Pont-Neuf'', 1991) by Léos Carax.", "Made with a slick commercial style and emphasizing the alienation of their main characters, these films are representative of the style known as ''Cinema du look''.", "''Camille Claudel'', directed by newcomer Bruno Nuytten and starring Isabelle Adjani and Gérard Depardieu, was a major commercial success in 1988, earning Adjani, who was also the film's co-producer, a César Award for best actress.", "The historical drama film ''Jean de Florette'' (1986) and its sequel ''Manon des Sources'' (1986) were among the highest grossing French films in history and brought Daniel Auteuil international recognition.According to Raphaël Bassan, in his article «''The Angel'': Un météore dans le ciel de l'animation,» ''La Revue du cinéma'', n° 393, avril 1984., Patrick Bokanowski's ''The Angel'', shown in 1982 at the Cannes Film Festival, can be considered the beginnings of contemporary animation.", "The masks erase all human personality in the characters.", "Patrick Bokanowski would thus have total control over the \"matter\" of the image and its optical composition.", "This is especially noticeable throughout the film, with images taken through distorted objectives or a plastic work on the sets and costumes, for example in the scene of the designer.", "Patrick Bokanowski creates his own universe and obeys his own aesthetic logic.", "It takes us through a series of distorted areas, obscure visions, metamorphoses and synthetic objects.", "Indeed, in the film, the human may be viewed as a fetish object (for example, the doll hanging by a thread), with reference to Kafkaesque and Freudian theories on automata and the fear of man faced with something as complex as him.", "The ascent of the stairs would be the liberation of the ideas of death, culture, and sex that makes us reach the emblematic figure of the angel.==== 1990s ====Jean-Paul Rappeneau's ''Cyrano de Bergerac'' was a major box-office success in 1990, earning several César Awards, including best actor for Gérard Depardieu, as well as an Academy Award nomination for best foreign picture.Luc Besson made ''La Femme Nikita'' in 1990, a movie that inspired remakes in both United States and in Hong Kong.", "In 1994, he also made ''Léon'' (starring Jean Reno and a young Natalie Portman), and in 1997 ''The Fifth Element'', which became a cult favorite and launched the career of Milla Jovovich.Jean-Pierre Jeunet made ''Delicatessen'' and ''The City of Lost Children'' (''La Cité des enfants perdus''), both of which featured a distinctly fantastical style.In 1992, Claude Sautet co-wrote (with Jacques Fieschi) and directed ''Un Coeur en Hiver'', considered by many to be a masterpiece.", "Mathieu Kassovitz's 1995 film ''Hate'' (''La Haine'') received critical praise and made Vincent Cassel a star, and in 1997, Juliette Binoche won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her role in ''The English Patient''.The success of Michel Ocelot's ''Kirikou and the Sorceress'' in 1998 rejuvenated the production of original feature-length animated films by such filmmakers as Jean-François Laguionie and Sylvain Chomet.==== 2000s ====In 2000, Philippe Binant realized the first digital cinema projection in Europe, with the DLP CINEMA technology developed by Texas Instruments, in Paris.In 2001, after a brief stint in Hollywood, Jean-Pierre Jeunet returned to France with ''Amélie'' (''Le Fabuleux Destin d'Amélie Poulain'') starring Audrey Tautou.", "It became the highest-grossing French-language film ever released in the United States.", "The following year, ''Brotherhood of the Wolf'' became the second-highest-grossing French-language film in the United States since 1980 and went on to gross more than $70 million worldwide.In 2008, Marion Cotillard won the Academy Award for Best Actress and the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role for her portrayal of legendary French singer Édith Piaf in ''La Vie en Rose'', the first French-language performance to be so honored.", "The film won two Oscars and four BAFTAs and became the third-highest-grossing French-language film in the United States since 1980.Cotillard was the first female and second person to win both an Academy Award and César Award for the same performance.At the 2008 Cannes Film Festival, ''Entre les murs'' (''The Class'') won the Palme d'Or, the 6th French victory at the festival.", "The 2000s also saw an increase in the number of individual competitive awards won by French artists at the Cannes Festival, for direction (Tony Gatlif, ''Exils'', 2004), screenplay (Agnès Jaoui and Jean-Pierre Bacri, ''Look at Me'', 2004), female acting (Isabelle Huppert, ''The Piano Teacher'', 2001; Charlotte Gainsbourg, ''Antichrist'', 2009) and male acting (Jamel Debbouze, Samy Naceri, Roschdy Zem, Sami Bouajila and Bernard Blancan, ''Days of Glory'', 2006).The 2008 rural comedy ''Bienvenue chez les Ch'tis'' drew an audience of more than 20 million, the first French film to do so.", "Its $193 million gross in France puts it just behind ''Titanic'' as the most successful film of all time in French theaters.In the 2000s, several French directors made international productions, often in the action genre.", "These include Gérard Pirès (''Riders'', 2002), Pitof (''Catwoman'', 2004), Jean-François Richet (''Assault on Precinct 13'', 2005), Florent Emilio Siri (''Hostage'', 2005), Christophe Gans (''Silent Hill'', 2006), Mathieu Kassovitz (''Babylon A.D.'', 2008), Louis Leterrier (''The Transporter'', 2002; ''Transporter 2'', 2005; Olivier Megaton directed ''Transporter 3'', 2008), Alexandre Aja (''Mirrors'', 2008), and Pierre Morel (''Taken'', 2009).Surveying the entire range of French filmmaking today, Tim Palmer calls contemporary cinema in France a kind of eco-system, in which commercial cinema co-exists with artistic radicalism, first-time directors (who make up about 40% of all France's directors each year) mingle with veterans, and there even occasionally emerges a fascinating pop-art hybridity, in which the features of intellectual and mass cinemas are interrelated (as in filmmakers like Valeria Bruni-Tedeschi, Olivier Assayas, Maïwenn, Sophie Fillières, Serge Bozon, and others).==== 2010s ====Léa Seydoux at the 2014 Cannes Film Festival.One of the most noticed and best reviewed films of 2010 was the drama ''Of Gods and Men'' (''Des hommes et des dieux''), about the assassination of seven monks in Tibhirine, Algeria.", "2011 saw the release of ''The Artist'', a silent film shot in black and white by Michel Hazanavicius that reflected on the end of Hollywood's silent era.French cinema continued its upward trend of earning awards at the Cannes Festival, including the prestigious Grand Prix for ''Of Gods and Men'' (2010) and the Jury Prize for Poliss (2011); the Best Director Award for Mathieu Amalric (''On Tour'', 2010); the Best Actress Award for Juliette Binoche (''Certified Copy'', 2010); and the Best Actor Award for Jean Dujardin (''The Artist'', 2011).In 2011, the film ''Intouchables'' became the most watched film in France (including the foreign films).", "After ten weeks nearly 17.5 million people had seen the film in France, Intouchables was the second most-seen French movie of all time in France, and the third including foreign movies.In 2012, with 226 million admissions (US$1,900 million) in the world for French films (582 films released in 84 countries), including 82 million admissions in France (US$700 million), 2012 was the fourth best year since 1985.With 144 million admissions outside France (US$1,200 million), 2012 was the best year since at least 1994 (since Unifrance collects data), and the French cinema reached a market share of 2.95% of worldwide admissions and of 4.86% of worldwide sales.", "Three films particularly contributed to this record year: ''Taken 2'', ''The Intouchables'' and ''The Artist''.", "In 2012, films shot in French ranked 4th in admissions (145 million) behind films shot in English (more than a billion admissions in the US alone), Hindi (?", ": no accurate data but estimated at 3 billion for the whole India/Indian languages) and Chinese (275 million in China plus a few million abroad), but above films shot in Korean (115 million admissions in South Korea plus a few millions abroad) and Japanese (102 million admissions in Japan plus a few million abroad, a record since 1973 et its 104 million admissions).", "French-language movies ranked 2nd in export (outside of French-speaking countries) after films in English.", "2012 was also the year French animation studio Mac Guff was acquired by an American studio, Universal Pictures, through its Illumination Entertainment subsidiary.", "Illumination Mac Guff became the animation studio for some of the top English-language animated movies of the 2010s, including ''The Lorax'' and the ''Despicable Me'' franchise.In 2015 French cinema sold 106 million tickets and grossed €600 million outside of the country.", "The highest-grossing film was ''Taken 3'' (€261.7 million) and the largest territory in admissions was China (14.7 million)." ], [ "Government support", "The Palme d'Or (\"Golden Palm\"), the most prestigious award given out at Cannes Film Festival.Trompe l'oeil mural on a movie theater in Chamonix.As the advent of television threatened the success of cinema, countries were faced with the problem of reviving movie-going.", "The French cinema market, and more generally the French-speaking market, is smaller than the English-speaking market; one reason being that some major markets, including prominently the United States, are reluctant to generally accept foreign films, especially foreign-language and subtitled productions.", "As a consequence, French movies have to be amortized on a relatively small market and thus generally have budgets far lower than their American counterparts, ruling out expensive settings and special effects.The French government has implemented various measures aimed at supporting local film production and movie theaters.", "The Canal+ TV channel has a broadcast license requiring it to support the production of movies.", "Some taxes are levied on movies and TV channels for use as subsidies for movie production.", "Some tax breaks are given for investment in movie productions, as is common elsewhere including in the United States.", "The sale of DVDs is prohibited for four months after the showing in theaters, so as to ensure some revenue for movie theaters.=== Co-production ===The French national and regional governments involve themselves in film production.", "For example, the award-winning documentary ''In the Land of the Deaf'' (''Le Pays des sourds'') was created by Nicolas Philibert in 1992.The film was co-produced by multinational partners, which reduced the financial risks inherent in the project; and co-production also ensured enhanced distribution opportunities.", "* Les Films d'Ici.", "* La Sept-cinéma.", "* Rhône-Alpes European Cinematographic Centre.", "* Canal+.", "* Rhône-Alpes région.", "* Centre National de la Cinématographie.", "* Fondation de France.", "* Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs (France).", "* Rai 3.", "* BBC Television.", "* Télévision Suisse Romande.In Anglophone distribution, ''In the Land of the Deaf'' was presented in French Sign Language (FSL) and French, with English subtitles and closed captions." ], [ "Festivals", "NameEst.CityTypeDetailsWebsiteAmiens International Film Festival1982AmiensSpecial interestAnnual festival focusing on the cinemas of Europe, Asia and Latin America.http://www.filmfestamiens.orgFestival du Film Merveilleux2010ParisInternationalAnnual film festival celebrating the imaginary, the Wonder and magic from all over the world.", "http://www.festival-film-merveilleux.com/Annecy International Animated Film Festival1960AnnecySpecial interest http://www.annecy.orgFestival du Film Européen Beauvais-Oise1990BeauvaisEurope http://www.beauvaisfilmfest.comFestival International du Film Ecologique de Bourges2005BourgesEnvironmental https://web.archive.org/web/20121109231709/http://www.festival-film-bourges.fr/english/ecological-film-festival.phpCabestany Short Film Festival1981CabestanyInternationalAnnual short film festival http://www.courts-metrages.orgCannes Film Festival1939CannesInternationalOne of the world's oldest, most influential and prestigious festivals, it is held annually (usually in May) at the Palais des Festivals et des Congrès.http://www.festival-cannes.comCineHorizontes – Festival de cinéma espagnol de Marseille2001MarseilleSpecial interest One of the best Spanish film festivals in Francehttp://www.cinehorizontes.comCinéma du réel – International Documentary Film Festival1978ParisSpecial interest http://www.cinereel.orgCréteil International Women's Film Festival1978CréteilSpecial interestShowcase of films by female directors.http://www.filmsdefemmes.com/Deauville American Film Festival1975DeauvilleSpecial interestAnnual festival devoted to American cinema.http://www.festival-deauville.com/Deauville Asian Film Festival1999DeauvilleSpecial interestAnnual festival devoted to Asian cinema.http://www.deauvilleasia.com/ÉCU The European Independent Film festival2006ParisSpecial InterestAnnual festival devoted to independent cinema .http://www.ecufilmfestival.com/ Fantastique semaine du cinéma2010NiceInternationalAnnual festival devoted to horror and fantastic cinema (''Festival du Film Fantastique'') cinemahttp://www.cinenasty.com/ Hallucinations Collectives2008LyonSpecial interestAnnual festival devoted to Horror, fantastic, strange and cult cinema.http://www.hallucinations-collectives.comFantastic'Arts1994GérardmerSpecial interestAnnual festival devoted to horror and fantastic cinema (''Festival du Film Fantastique'') cinemahttp://www.gerardmer-fantasticart.com/ Festival du Film Polonais Cat.Studios2007PerpignanSpecial interestAnnual festival devoted to Polish cinema.http://www.catstudios.net Festival du Film Web Oloron-Sainte-MarieSpecial interest Fantasy film festival2017MentonSpecial interestAnnual festival devoted to Sci-FI and fantastic cinema (''Festival international du Film Fantastique de Menton'') cinema https://www.festival-film-fantastique.com/Festival International du Film de Montagne1984AutransMountain film first week in Decemberhttp://www.festival-autrans.comFestival Pocket Film ParisSpecial interestMobile phone film festival.https://web.archive.org/web/20191112050323/http://www.festivalpocketfilms.fr/Festival international du film des droits de l'homme de Paris2003 ParisInternationalFeatures and shorts documentaries on human rights issues.", "Once a year, in February or March.", "Also present in other cities in France.http://www.festival-droitsdelhomme.org/paris/ International Festival of Audiovisual Programs BiarritzSpecial interest https://web.archive.org/web/20060701172343/http://www.fipa.tm.fr/International student short-film festival of Cergy-Pontoise1991Cergy-PontoiseInternationalStudent Festival http://lefestivalducourt.org/Les Arcs Film Festival2009Bourg-Saint-MauriceEuropeanHeld in December https://lesarcs-filmfest.com/frMarseille Film Festival1989MarseilleInternationalHeld in Julyhttp://www.fidmarseille.org/NollywoodWeek Paris2013ParisSpecial InterestAnnual festival in late May showcasing the top new films from Nigerian filmmakers and Nollywood http://www.nollywoodweek.com/Festival du Cinéma européen de Lille 1984 LilleSpecial interestEuropean short movies competition https://eurofilmfest-lille.com/Paris Film Festival2003ParisInternationalAnnual festival held in between June and July.", "http://www.pariscinema.org/Premiers Plans AngersSpecial interestShowcase of European directorial debut films.http://www.premiersplans.org/Three Continents Festival1979NantesSpecial interestAnnual festival is devoted to the cinemas of Asia, Africa and Latin America.http://www.3continents.comTréguier International Film Festival2009TréguierInternationalAnnual festival held in July.", "Open to all filmmakers.http://www.treguierfilmfest.com Utopiales – Nantes International Science-Fiction Festival1998NantesSpecial interestAnnual sci-fi festival.http://www.utopiales.org/European Student Film Festival2006Paris International Has competition, November 14 to 18, 2012http://www.esff.org/ Toulouse Indian Film Festival2013Toulouse India and Indian subcontinent Has competition, Annual April 22 to 26, 2020http://www.ffif.fr/" ], [ "Film distribution and production companies", "Poster for Pathé News, c.1915Notable French film distribution and/or production companies include:* Ad Vitam* Alfama Films* ARP Sélection* Bac Films* Diaphana Films* EuropaCorp* Gaumont* Haut et Court* KMBO* Le Pacte* Les Films du Losange* Mars Films* MK2* Pan-Européenne* Pathé* Pyramide Distribution* Rezo Films* SND Films* StudioCanal* UGC* Wild Bunch" ], [ "See also", "*List of French actors*List of French directors*List of French-language films*French comedy films*List of highest-grossing films in France*French film awards*Cinema of the world" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Austin, Guy.", "''Contemporary French cinema: an introduction'' (2nd ed.", "2008) excerpt* Harison, Casey.", "\"The French Revolution on Film: American and French Perspectives.\"''", "The History Teacher'' 38.3 (2005): 299–324.online* Hayward, Susan.", "''French national cinema'' (Routledge, 2004).", "* Lanzoni, Rémi Fournier.", "''French cinema: from its beginnings to the present'' (A&C Black, 2004).", "* Morrey, Douglas.", "''The legacy of the new wave in French cinema'' (Bloomsbury Academic, 2018).", "* Palmer, Tim and Charlie Michael (eds.)", "(2013).", "''Directory of World Cinema: France'', Intellect/University of Chicago Press, London & Chicago.", ".", "** Powrie, Phil.", "''French Cinema in the 1980s: Nostalgia and the Crisis of Masculinity'' (Oxford University Press, 1997)." ], [ "External links", "* Unifrance.org* Sacramento French Film Festival* Biographies and autographs of French cinema stars* List of French Movies* French Films* French Directors" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cinema of the Soviet Union" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''cinema of the Soviet Union''' includes films produced by the constituent republics of the Soviet Union reflecting elements of their pre-Soviet culture, language and history, albeit they were all regulated by the central government in Moscow.", "Most prolific in their republican films, after the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, were Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Ukraine, and, to a lesser degree, Lithuania, Belarus and Moldavia.", "At the same time, the nation's film industry, which was fully nationalized throughout most of the country's history, was guided by philosophies and laws propounded by the monopoly Soviet Communist Party which introduced a new view on the cinema, socialist realism, which was different from the one before or after the existence of the Soviet Union." ], [ "Historical outline", "Upon the establishment of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) on November 7, 1917 (although the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics did not officially come into existence until December 30, 1922), what had formerly been the Russian Empire began quickly to come under the domination of a Soviet reorganization of all its institutions.", "From the outset, the leaders of this new state held that film would be the most ideal propaganda tool for the Soviet Union because of its widespread popularity among the established citizenry of the new land.", "Vladimir Lenin viewed film as the most important medium for educating the masses in the ways, means and successes of communism.", "As a consequence Lenin issued the \"Directives on the Film Business\" on January 17, 1922, which instructed the People's Commissariat for Education to systemise the film business, registering and numbering all films shown in the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, extracting rent from all privately owned cinemas and subject them to censorship.", "Joseph Stalin later also regarded cinema as of the prime importance.However, between World War I and the Russian Revolution, the Russian film industry and the infrastructure needed to support it (e.g., electrical power) had deteriorated to the point of unworkability.", "The majority of cinemas had been in the corridor between Moscow and Saint Petersburg, and most were out of commission.", "Additionally, many of the performers, producers, directors and other artists of pre-Soviet Russia had fled the country or were moving ahead of Red Army forces as they pushed further and further south into what remained of the Russian Empire.", "Furthermore, the new government did not have the funds to spare for an extensive reworking of the system of filmmaking.", "Thus, they initially opted for project approval and censorship guidelines while leaving what remained of the industry in private hands.", "As this amounted mostly to cinema houses, the first Soviet films consisted of recycled films of the Russian Empire and its imports, to the extent that these were not determined to be offensive to the new Soviet ideology.", "Ironically, the first new film released in Soviet Russia did not exactly fit this mold: this was ''Father Sergius'', a religious film completed during the last weeks of the Russian Empire but not yet exhibited.", "It appeared on Soviet screens in 1918.Beyond this, the government was principally able to fund only short, educational films, the most famous of which were the agitki – educational films intended to agitate, or energize and enthuse, the masses to participate fully in approved Soviet activities, and deal effectively with those who remained in opposition to the new order.", "These short (often one small reel) films were often simple visual aids and accompaniments to live lectures and speeches, and were carried from city to city, town to town, village to village (along with the lecturers) to educate the entire countryside, even reaching areas where film had not been previously seen.Newsreels, as documentaries, were the other major form of earliest Soviet cinema.", "Dziga Vertov's newsreel series ''Kino-Pravda'', the best known of these, lasted from 1922 to 1925 and had a propagandistic bent; Vertov used the series to promote socialist realism but also to experiment with cinema.Still, in 1921, there was not one functioning cinema in Moscow until late in the year.", "Its rapid success, using old Russian and imported feature films, jumpstarted the industry significantly, especially insofar as the government did not heavily or directly regulate what was shown, and by 1923 an additional 89 cinemas had opened.", "Despite extremely high taxation of ticket sales and film rentals, there was an incentive for individuals to begin making feature film product again – there were places to show the films – albeit they now had to conform their subject matter to a Soviet world view.", "In this context, the directors and writers who were in support of the objectives of communism assumed quick dominance in the industry, as they were the ones who could most reliably and convincingly turn out films that would satisfy government censors.Still from Grigory Chukhray's ''Ballad of a Soldier'' (1959)New talent joined the experienced remainder, and an artistic community assembled with the goal of defining \"Soviet film\" as something distinct and better from the output of \"decadent capitalism\".", "The leaders of this community viewed it essential to this goal to be free to experiment with the entire nature of film, a position which would result in several well-known creative efforts but would also result in an unforeseen counter-reaction by the increasingly solidifying administrators of the government-controlled society.In 1924 wrote a book on the history of film he says is \"the first Soviet attempt at systematization of the meager available sources on cinema for the general reader\".", "Along with other articles written by Lebedev and published by ''Pravda'', ''Izvestia'' and ''Kino''.", "In the book he draws attention to the funding challenges that follow nationalization of Soviet cinema.", "In 1925 all film organizations merged to form ''Sovkino''.", "Under ''Sovkino'' the film industry was given a tax-free benefit and held a monopoly on all film-related exports and imports.Sergei Eisenstein's ''Battleship Potemkin'' was released to wide acclaim in 1925; the film was heavily fictionalized and also propagandistic, giving the party line about the virtues of the proletariat.", "The ''kinokomitet'' or \"Film Committee\" established that same year published translations of important books about film theory by Béla Balázs, Rudolf Harms and Léon Moussinac.One of the most popular films released in the 1930s was ''Circus''.", "Immediately after the end of World War II, color movies such as ''The Stone Flower'' (1946), ''Ballad of Siberia'' (1947), and ''Cossacks of the Kuban'' (1949) were released.", "Other notable films from the 1940s include ''Alexander Nevsky'' and ''Ivan the Terrible''.In the late 1950s and early 1960s Soviet cinema produced ''Ballad of a Soldier'', which won the 1961 BAFTA Award for Best Film, and ''The Cranes Are Flying''.", "''The Height'' is considered to be one of the best films of the 1950s (it also became the foundation of the bard movement).In the 1980s there was a diversification of subject matter.", "Touchy issues could now be discussed openly.", "The results were films like ''Repentance'', which dealt with repression in Georgia, and the allegorical science fiction movie ''Kin-dza-dza!", "''." ], [ "Censorship", "After the death of Stalin, Soviet filmmakers were given a freer hand to film what they believed audiences wanted to see in their film's characters and stories.", "The industry remained a part of the government and any material that was found politically offensive or undesirable, was either removed, edited, reshot, or shelved.", "The definition of \"socialist realism\" was liberalized to allow development of more human characters, but communism still had to remain uncriticized in its fundamentals.", "Additionally, the degree of relative artistic liberality was changed from administration to administration.Examples created by censorship include:*Sergei Eisenstein's ''Ivan the Terrible'' Part II was completed in 1945 but was not released until 1958; 5 years after Stalin's death.", "*Eisenstein's ''Alexander Nevsky'' was censored before the German invasion of the Soviet Union due to its depiction of a strong Russian leader defying an invading army of German Teutonic Knights.", "After the invasion, the film was released for propaganda purposes to considerable critical acclaim." ], [ "Revolution and Civil War", "agitation.", "\"On August 27, 1919, Vladimir Lenin nationalized the film industry and created post-imperial Soviet films \"when all control over film production and exhibition was ceded to the People’s Commissariat of Education.\"", "The work of the nationalized motion-picture studios was administered by the All-Russian Photography and Motion Picture Department, which was reorganized in 1923 into Goskino, which in 1926 became Sovkino.", "The world's first state-filmmaking school, the First State School of Cinematography, was established in Moscow in 1919.During the Russian Civil War, agitation trains and ships visited soldiers, workers, and peasants.", "Lectures, reports, and political meetings were accompanied by newsreels about events at the various fronts." ], [ "1920s", "In the 1920s, the documentary film group headed by Dziga Vertov blazed the trail from the conventional newsreel to the \"image centered publicistic film\", which became the basis of the Soviet film documentary.", "Typical of the 1920s were the topical news serial ''Kino-Pravda'' and the film ''Forward, Soviet!''", "by Vertov, whose experiments and achievements in documentary films influenced the development of Russian and world cinematography.", "Other important films of the 1920s were Esfir Shub's historical-revolutionary films such as ''The Fall of the Romanov Dynasty'' which used montage editing techniques to repurpose old Imperial documentaries into a revolutionary theme.", "In 1924, filmmakers Sergei Eisenstein and Lev Kuleshov created the first association of Soviet filmmakers, the Association of Revolutionary Cinematography (ARK), to \"meet the ideological and artistic needs of the proletariat\".", "Although state controlled, \"the organization was characterized by a pluralism of political and artistic views until the late 1920s\".", "One of the most iconic developments in film during this period that is still used in films today was editing and montage to create meaning.", "This style of film making came to be known as the Kuleshov effect and was employed to conserve film stock due to shortages during that period.", "The film ''Hydropeat'' by Yuri Zhelyabuzhsky marked the beginning of popular science films.", "Feature-length agitation films in 1918–21 were important in the development of the film industry.", "Innovation in Russian filmmaking was expressed particularly in the work of Eisenstein.", "''Battleship Potemkin'' was noteworthy for its innovative montage and metaphorical quality of its film language.", "It won world acclaim.", "Eisenstein developed concepts of the revolutionary epic in the film ''October''.", "Also noteworthy was Vsevolod Pudovkin's adaptation of Maxim Gorky's ''Mother'' to the screen in 1926.Pudovkin developed themes of revolutionary history in the film ''The End of St. Petersburg'' (1927).", "Other noteworthy silent films were films dealing with contemporary life such as Boris Barnet's ''The House on Trubnaya''.", "The films of Yakov Protazanov were devoted to the revolutionary struggle and the shaping of a new way of life, such as ''Don Diego and Pelagia'' (1928).", "Ukrainian director Alexander Dovzhenko was noteworthy for the historical-revolutionary epic ''Zvenigora'', ''Arsenal'' and the poetic film ''Earth''." ], [ "1930s", "In the early 1930s, Russian filmmakers applied socialist realism to their work.", "Among the most outstanding films was ''Chapaev'', a film about Russian revolutionaries and society during the Revolution and Civil War.", "Revolutionary history was developed in films such as ''Golden Mountains'' by Sergei Yutkevich, ''Outskirts'' by Boris Barnet, and the Maxim trilogy by Grigori Kozintsev and Leonid Trauberg: ''The Youth of Maxim'', ''The Return of Maxim'', and ''The Vyborg Side''.", "Also notable were biographical films about Vladimir Lenin such as Mikhail Romm's ''Lenin in October'' and ''Lenin in 1918''.", "The life of Russian society and everyday people were depicted in films such as ''Seven Brave Men'' and ''Komsomolsk'' by Sergei Gerasimov.", "The comedies of Grigori Aleksandrov such as ''Circus'', ''Volga-Volga'', and ''Tanya'' as well as ''The Rich Bride'' by Ivan Pyryev and ''By the Bluest of Seas'' by Boris Barnet focus on the psychology of the common person, enthusiasm for work and intolerance for remnants of the past.", "Many films focused on national heroes, including ''Alexander Nevsky'' by Sergei Eisenstein, ''Minin and Pozharsky'' by Vsevolod Pudovkin, and ''Bogdan Khmelnitsky'' by Igor Savchenko.", "There were adaptations of literary classics, particularly Mark Donskoy's trilogy of films about Maxim Gorky: ''The Childhood of Maxim Gorky'', ''My Apprenticeship'', and ''My Universities''.During the late 1920s and early 1930s the Stalin wing of the Communist Party consolidated its authority and set about transforming the Soviet Union on both the economic and cultural fronts.", "The economy moved from the market-based New Economic Policy (NEP) to a system of central planning.", "The new leadership declared a \"cultural revolution\" in which the party would exercise control over cultural affairs, including artistic expression.", "Cinema existed at the intersection of art and economics; so it was destined to be thoroughly reorganized in this episode of economic and cultural transformation.To implement central planning in cinema, the new entity Soyuzkino was created in 1930.All the hitherto autonomous studios and distribution networks that had grown up under NEP's market would now be coordinated in their activities by this planning agency.", "Soyuzkino's authority also extended to the studios of the national republics such as VUFKU, which had enjoyed more independence during the 1920s.", "Soyuzkino consisted of an extended bureaucracy of economic planners and policy specialists who were charged to formulate annual production plans for the studios and then to monitor the distribution and exhibition of finished films.With central planning came more centralized authority over creative decision making.", "Script development became a long, torturous process under this bureaucratic system, with various committees reviewing drafts and calling for cuts or revisions.", "In the 1930s censorship became more exacting with each passing year.", "Feature film projects would drag out for months or years and might be terminated at any point.Alexander Dovzhenko drew from Ukrainian folk culture in such films as ''Earth'' (1930)along the way because of the capricious decision of one or another censoring committee.This redundant oversight slowed down production and inhibited creativity.", "Although central planning was supposed to increase the film industry's productivity, production levels declined steadily through the 1930s.", "The industry was releasing over one-hundred features annually at the end of the NEP period, but that figure fell to seventy by 1932 and to forty-five by 1934.It never again reached triple digits during the remainder of the Stalin era.", "Veteran directors experienced precipitous career declines under this system of control; whereas Eisenstein was able to make four features between 1924 and 1929, he completed only one film, ''Alexander Nevsky'' (1938) during the entire decade of the 1930s.", "His planned adaptation of the Ivan Turgenev story ''Bezhin Meadow'' (1935–37) was halted during production in 1937 and officially banned, one of many promising film projects that fell victim to an exacting censorship system.Meanwhile, the USSR cut off its film contacts with the West.", "It stopped importing films after 1931 out of concern that foreign films exposed audiences to capitalist ideology.", "The industry also freed itself from dependency on foreign technologies.", "During its industrialization effort of the early 1930s, the USSR finally built an array of factories to supply the film industry with the nation's own technical resources.To secure independence from the West, industry leaders mandated that the USSR develop its own sound technologies, rather than taking licenses on Western sound systems.", "Two Soviet scientists, Alexander Shorin in Leningrad (present-day St. Petersburg) and Pavel Tager in Moscow, conducted research through the late 1920s on complementary sound systems, which were ready for use by 1930.The implementation process, including the cost of refitting movie theaters, proved daunting, and the USSR did not complete the transition to sound until 1935.Nevertheless, several directors made innovative use of sound once the technology became available.", "In ''Enthusiasm: The Symphony of Donbass'' (1930), his documentary on coal mining and heavy industry, Dziga Vertov based his soundtrack on an elegantly orchestrated array of industrial noises.", "In ''The Deserter'' (1933) Pudovkin experimented with a form of \"sound counterpoint\" by exploiting tensions and ironic dissonances between sound elements and the image track.", "And in ''Alexander Nevsky'', Eisenstein collaborated with the composer Sergei Prokofiev on an \"operatic\" film style that elegantly coordinated the musical score and the image track.As Soviet cinema made the transition to sound and central planning in the early 1930s, it was also put under a mandate to adopt a uniform film style, commonly identified as \"socialist realism\".", "In 1932 the party leadership ordered the literary community to abandon the avant-garde practices of the 1920s and to embrace socialist realism, a literary style that, in practice, was actually close to 19th-century realism.", "The other arts, including cinema, were subsequently instructed to develop the aesthetic equivalent.", "For cinema, this meant adopting a film style that would be legible to a broad audience, thus avoiding a possible split between the avant-garde and mainstream cinema that was evident in the late 1920s.", "The director of Soyuzkino and, later, GUKF, Boris Shumyatsky (1886–1938), served as chief executive of the Soviet film industry from 1931 to 1938, and was a harsh critic of the montage aesthetic.", "He championed a \"cinema for the millions\", which would use clear, linear narration.", "Although American movies were no longer being imported in the 1930s, the Hollywood model of continuity editing was readily available, and it had a successful track record with Soviet movie audiences.", "Soviet socialist realism was built on this style, which assured tidy storytelling.", "Various other strictures were then added to the doctrine: positive heroes to act as role models for viewers; lessons in good citizenship for spectators to embrace; and support for reigning policy decisions of the Communist Party.Such aesthetic policies, enforced by the rigorous censorship apparatus of the USSR, resulted in a number of formulaic films.", "Apparently, they did succeed in sustaining a true \"cinema of the masses\".", "The 1930s witnessed some stellar examples of popular cinema.", "The single most successful film of the decade, in terms of both official praise and genuine affection from the mass audience, was ''Chapaev'' (1934), directed by the Vasilyev brothers.", "Based on the life of a martyred Red Army commander, the film was touted as a model of socialist realism, in that Chapayev and his followers battled heroically for the revolutionary cause.", "The film also humanized the title character, giving him personal foibles, an ironic sense of humour, and a rough peasant charm.", "These qualities endeared him to the viewing public: spectators reported seeing the film multiple times during its first run in 1934, and ''Chapaev'' was periodically re-released for subsequent generations of audiences.A genre that emerged in the 1930s to consistent popular acclaim was the musical comedy, and a master of that form was Grigori Aleksandrov (1903–1984).", "He effected a creative partnership with his wife, the brilliant comic actress and chanteuse Lyubov Orlova (1902–1975), in a series of crowd-pleasing musicals.", "Their pastoral comedy ''Volga-Volga'' (1938) was surpassed only by ''Chapaev'' in terms of box-office success.", "The fantasy element of their films, with lively musical numbers reviving the montage aesthetic, sometimes stretched the boundaries of socialist realism, but the genre could also allude to contemporary affairs.", "In Aleksandrov's 1940 musical ''Tanya'', Orlova plays a humble servant girl who rises through the ranks of the Soviet industrial leadership after developing clever labour-saving work methods.", "Audiences could enjoy the film's comic turn on the ''Cinderella'' story while also learning about the value of efficiency in the workplace." ], [ "1940s", "Immediately after the end of the Second World War, color movies such as ''The Stone Flower'' (1946), ''Ballad of Siberia'' (1947), and ''Cossacks of the Kuban'' (1949) were released.Other notable films from the 1940s include the black and white films, ''Alexander Nevsky'', ''Ivan the Terrible'' and ''Encounter at the Elbe''.The Soviet film industry suffered during the period after World War II.", "On top of dealing with the severe physical and monetary losses of the war, Stalin's regime tightened social control and censorship to manage the effects recent exposure to the West had on the people.", "The postwar period was marked by an end of almost all autonomy in the Soviet Union.", "The ''Catalogue of Soviet Films'' recorded remarkably low numbers of films being produced from 1945 to 1953, with as few as nine films produced in 1951 and a maximum of twenty-three produced in 1952.These numbers do not, however, include many of the works which are not generally considered to be \"film\" in an elitist sense, such as filmed versions of theatrical works and operas, feature-length event documentaries and travelogues, short films for children, and experimental stereoscopic films.", "But compared to the four hundred to five hundred films produced every year by Hollywood, the Soviet film industry was practically dead.Even as the economy of the Soviet Union strengthened, film production continued to decrease.", "A resolution passed by the Council of Ministers in 1948 further crippled the film industry.", "The resolution criticized the work of the industry, saying that an emphasis placed on quantity over quality had ideologically weakened the films.", "Instead, the council insisted that every film produced must be a masterpiece for promoting communist ideas and the Soviet system.", "Often, Stalin had the ultimate decision on whether a newly produced film was appropriate for public viewing.", "In private screenings after meetings of the Politburo, the Minister of the Film Industry Ivan Bolshakov privately screened films for Stalin and top members of Soviet government.", "The strict limitations on content and complex, centralized process for approval drove many screenwriters away, and studios had much difficulty producing any of the quality films mandated by the 1948 resolution.===Trophy films===Movie theaters in the postwar period faced the problem of satisfying the growing appetites of Soviet audiences for films while dealing with the shortage of newly produced works from studios.", "In response, cinemas played the same films for months at a time, many of them the works of the late 1930s.", "Anything new drew millions of people to the box office, and many theaters screened foreign films to attract larger audiences.", "Most of these foreign films were \"trophy films\", two thousand films brought into the country by the Red Army after the occupation of Germany and Eastern Europe in World War II.", "In the top secret minutes for the CPSU Committee Meeting on August 31, 1948, the committee permitted the Minister of the Film Industry to release fifty of these films in the Soviet Union.", "Of these fifty, Bolshakov was only allowed to release twenty-four for screening to the general public, mainly films made in Germany, Austria, Italy, and France.", "The other twenty-six films, consisting almost entirely of American films, were only allowed to be shown in private screenings.", "The minutes also include a separate list of permitted German musical films, which were mainly German and Italian film adaptations of famous operas.", "Most of the trophy films were released in 1948–49, but somewhat strangely, compiled lists of the released films include ones not previously mentioned in the official minutes of the Central Committee.The public release of these trophy films seems contradictory in the context of the 1940s Soviet Union.", "The Soviet government allowed the exhibition of foreign films which contained far more subversive ideas than any a Soviet director would have ever attempted putting in a film at a time when Soviet artists found themselves unemployed because of censorship laws.", "Historians hypothesize many possible reasons why the Soviet government showed such seemingly inexplicable leniency toward the foreign films.", "The government may have granted cinemas the right to show the films so they could stay in business after the domestic film industry had declined.", "A second hypothesis speculates that the government saw the films as an easy source of money to help rebuild the nation after the war.", "The minutes of the CPSU Central Committee meeting seem to support the latter idea with instructions that the films are to bring in a net income of at least 750 million roubles to the State coffers over the course of a year from public and private screenings, and 250 million roubles of this were supposed to come from rentals to the trade union camera network.In addition to releasing the films, the committee also charged Bolshakov and the Agitation and Propaganda Department of the CPSU Central Committee \"with making the necessary editorial corrections to the films and with providing an introductory text and carefully edited subtitles for each film.\"", "In general, the captured Nazi films were considered apolitical enough to be shown to the general populace.", "Still the Propaganda and Agitation Section of the Central Committee ran into trouble with the censoring of two films slated for release.", "The censors found it impossible to remove the \"Zionist\" ideas from ''Jud Suss'', an anti-Semitic, Nazi propaganda film.", "The censors also had trouble with a film adaptation of ''Of Mice and Men'' because of the representation of the poor as a detriment to society.There is very little direct evidence of how Soviet audiences received the trophy films.", "Soviet magazines or newspapers never reviewed the films, there were no audience surveys, and no records exist of how many people viewed the films.", "To judge the reception and popularity of these foreign films, historians have mainly relied on anecdotal evidence.", "The German musical comedy ''The Woman of My Dreams'' received mixed reviews according to this evidence.", "''Kultura i zhizn'' published a supposed survey compiled of readers' letters to the editor in March 1947 which criticize the film for being idealess, low brow, and even harmful.", "Bulat Okudzhava wrote a contradicting viewpoint in '''' in 1986, saying that everyone in the city of Tbilisi was crazy about the film.", "According to him, everywhere he went people were talking about the film and whistling the songs.", "Of the two accounts, film historians generally consider Okudzhava's more reliable than the one presented by ''Kultura i zhizn''.", "Films such as ''His Butler's Sister'', ''The Thief of Bagdad'', ''Waterloo Bridge'' and ''Sun Valley Serenade'', although not technically trophies as they had been purchased legally during the wartime alliance with America, were highly popular with Soviet audiences.", "In ''Vechernyaya Moskva'' (October 4, 1946), M. Chistiakov reprimanded theaters and the Soviet film industry for the fact that over a six-month timespan, sixty of the films shown had been tasteless Western films rather than Soviet ones.", "Even in criticism of the films and the crusading efforts of the anti-cosmopolitan campaign against the trophy films, it is clear to see they had quite an impact on Soviet society." ], [ "1950s", "With the start of the Cold War, writers, still considered the primary auteurs, were all the more reluctant to take up script writing, and the early 1950s saw only a handful of feature films completed during any year.", "The death of Stalin was a relief to some people, and all the more so was the official trashing of his public image as a benign and competent leader by Nikita Khrushchev two years later.", "This latter event gave filmmakers the margin of comfort they needed to move away from the narrow stories of socialist realism, expand its boundaries, and begin work on a wider range of entertaining and artistic Soviet films.Notable films include:*''The Cranes Are Flying'', directed at Mosfilm by the Georgian-born director Mikhail Kalatozov in 1957.It won the Palme d'Or at the 1958 Cannes Film Festival.", "*''Ballad of a Soldier'', directed at Mosfilm by Grigory Chukhray in 1959.It won 1960 Cannes Film Festival Special Jury Prize as well as 1961 BAFTA Award for Best Film from any Source along with many other awards.", "It was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay (1961)." ], [ "1960s–70s", "The 1960s and 1970s saw the creation of many films, many of which molded Soviet and post-Soviet culture.", "They include:* ''Five Days, Five Nights'' (1960), the first of the joint Soviet-German films*''Walking the Streets of Moscow'' (1963)*''Operation Y and Shurik's Other Adventures'' (1965) and its sequel, ''Kidnapping, Caucasian Style'' (1966)*''War and Peace'' (1966–67) Sergei Bondarchuk's adaption of Tolstoy's novel, with a budget of 8.5 million roubles, a running time of seven hours, and using thousands of extras.", "It was the first Russian film to receive an Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film.", "*''Andrei Rublev'' (1966) won various international awards, such as FIPRESCI.", "*''The Diamond Arm'' (1968) has contributed a lot of humorous quotes.", "*''The Color of Pomegranates'' (1969) had a limited release inside the Soviet Union and wasn't seen abroad until years later, but has received critical acclaim since.", "*''White Sun of the Desert'' (1970), a classic \"Eastern\", with old-fashioned stereotyping of central Asians.", "It is ritually watched by cosmonauts before launches, and has contributed many quotes to the Russian language such as 'The East is a delicate matter'.", "Its theme tune became a huge hit.", "*''Gentlemen of Fortune'' (1971) starring Yevgeny Leonov*''Solaris'' (1972)*''The Irony of Fate, or Enjoy Your Bath!''", "(1975)* ''Office Romance'' (1977)* ''Stalker'' (1979)Soviet films tend to be rather culture-specific and are difficult for many foreigners to understand without having been exposed to the culture first.", "Various Soviet directors were more concerned with artistic success than with financial success (they were paid by the academy, and so money was not a critical issue).", "This contributed to the creation of a large number of more philosophical and poetic films.", "Most well-known examples of such films are those by directors Andrei Tarkovsky, Sergei Parajanov and Nikita Mikhalkov.", "In keeping with Russian culture, tragi-comedies were very popular.", "These decades were also prominent in the production of the Eastern or Red Western.Animation was a respected genre, with many directors experimenting with animation techniques.", "''Tale of Tales'' (1979) by Yuri Norstein was twice given the title of \"Best Animated Film of All Eras and Nations\" by animation professionals from around the world, in 1984 and 2002.In the year of the 60th anniversary of the Soviet cinema (1979), on April 25, a decision of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR established a commemorative \"\".", "It was then celebrated in the USSR each year on August 27, the day on which Vladimir Lenin signed a decree to nationalise the country's cinematic and photographic industries." ], [ "1980s", "The policies of perestroika and glasnost saw a loosening of the censorship of earlier eras.", "A genre known as '''' (from the Russian word for \"noir\"), including films such as ''Little Vera'', portrayed the harsher side of Soviet life.", "Notable films of this period include:*''Moscow Does Not Believe in Tears'' (1980) won an Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film in 1981.", "*''The Pokrovsky Gate'' (1982), a made-for-television comedy starring Oleg Menshikov*''Repentance'' (1984), a Georgian film about a fictional dictator which was banned until 1987*''Come and See'' (1985), a widely acclaimed World War II drama*''Kin-dza-dza!''", "(1986), allegorical science fiction*''The Cold Summer of 1953'' (1987), about criminals being released from the gulags after Stalin's death*''Little Vera'' (1988), notable as one of the first Soviet films with sexually explicit scenes" ], [ "Genres", "===Drama===*''Battleship Potemkin'', a 1925 silent drama film directed by Sergei Eisenstein, and named the greatest film of all time at the Brussels World's Fair.", "*''Mother'', a 1926 drama film directed by Vsevolod Pudovkin, and based on the 1906 novel ''Mother'' by Maxim Gorky.", "*''Earth'', a 1930 silent film by Alexander Dovzhenko.", "*''Nine Days in One Year'', a 1962 film by Mikhail Romm about nuclear particle physics, Soviet physicists and their relationship.", "*''The First Teacher'', a 1966 drama film directed by Andrei Konchalovsky set in the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic.", "*''The Story of Asya Klyachina'', a 1966 drama film directed by Andrei Konchalovsky set in a kolkhoz.", "*''Anna Karenina'', a 1967 drama film directed by Aleksandr Zarkhi, based on the novel of the same name by Leo Tolstoy.", "*''Uncle Vanya'', a 1970 film adaptation of Anton Chekhov's play of the same title by Andrei Konchalovsky.", "*''Lăutarii'', a 1972 romantic drama set in mid-nineteenth century Bessarabia by Emil Loteanu.", "*''A Lover's Romance'', a 1974 musical drama directed by Andrei Konchalovsky.", "*''Gypsies Are Found Near Heaven'', a 1975 romantic drama directed by Emil Loteanu and loosely based on the stories of Maxim Gorky.", "*''A Slave of Love'', a 1976 romantic comedy-drama directed by Nikita Mikhalkov loosely inspired by the life of Vera Kholodnaya.", "*''An Unfinished Piece for Mechanical Piano'', a 1977 adaptation of Anton Chekhov's play ''Platonov'' by Nikita Mikhalkov.", "*''A Hunting Accident'', a 1978 romantic drama directed by Emil Loteanu based on Anton Chekhov's ''The Shooting Party''.", "*''Anna Pavlova'', a 1983 biographical drama by Emil Loteanu based on the life of the titular ballet dancer.", "*''A Cruel Romance'', a 1984 adaptation of Alexander Ostrovsky's play ''Without a Dowry'' by Eldar Ryazanov.===Historical epic===*''Alexander Nevsky'', a 1938 historical drama film directed by Sergei Eisenstein.", "*''Ivan the Terrible'', another historical drama film (in two parts) directed by Sergei Eisenstein in 1944.", "*''And Quiet Flows the Don'' (1957–58) by Sergei Gerasimov, an adaptation of the Nobel Prize winning novel ''And Quiet Flows the Don'' by Mikhail Sholokhov.", "*''Andrei Rublev'', an epic historical drama made in 1966, loosely based on the life of the 15th-century Russian icon painter Andrei Rublev.", "*''War and Peace'', a cinematic rendition of Tolstoy's novel made in 1966.", "*''Agony'', a 1973 historical drama film about Grigori Rasputin directed by Elem Klimov.", "*''Siberiade'', Andrei Konchalovsky's 1979 epic drama film in four parts, featuring Eduard Artemyev's famous soundtrack.===Comedy===*''Walking the Streets of Moscow'', a 1964 comedy film by Georgiy Daneliya, starring 18-year-old Nikita Mikhalkov.", "*''Beware of the Car'', a 1966 crime comedy-drama film directed by Eldar Ryazanov.", "*''Kidnapping, Caucasian Style'', a 1967 comedy by Leonid Gaidai.", "A lot of ethnic humor, as Shurik gets involved unwittingly in kidnapping.", "It's also a satire of corrupt local officials.", "*''The Diamond Arm'', a 1969 comedy directed by Leonid Gaidai and starring Yuri Nikulin, Anatoli Papanov, and Andrei Mironov.", "Inept smugglers try to recover diamonds which ended up with the wrong man.", "*''Gentlemen of Fortune'', a 1971 kindergarten principal played by Yevgeny Leonov pretends to be a criminal boss called the Professor (who looks exactly like him) to gain information about a stolen artifact from the Professor's two lackeys.", "*''The Twelve Chairs'', a 1971 film by Leonid Gaidai based on the famous novel of the same name by Ilf and Petrov.", "*''Ivan Vasilievich: Back to the Future'', a 1973 comedy by Leonid Gaidai.", "A scientist's time travel machine ends up teleporting his tenement administrator into 16th century Russia and bringing Ivan the Terrible into the present.", "The two are identical in appearance and chaos promptly ensues.", "*''The Twelve Chairs'', a 1976 musical adaptation of the eponymous Ilf and Petrov novel by Mark Zakharov starring Andrei Mironov.", "*''The Irony of Fate, or Enjoy Your Bath!", "'', a 1976 romantic comedy by Eldar Ryazanov.", "The picture is so beloved in Russia that it is broadcast on television every New Year Eve, similarly to the American movie ''It's a Wonderful Life'' being broadcast every Christmas.", "*''Office Romance'', a 1977 romantic comedy directed by Eldar Ryazanov.", "* \"D'Artagnan and Three Musketeers\", a 1978 adventure television movie (Swashbuckler film), directed by Georgy Yungvald-Khilkevich.", "This film is based on the novel of the same name by Alexandre Dumas, père.", "The film stars a lot of the Soviet cinema actors and is now considered a classic.", "The film was such a huge success (thanks in large part to its numerous magnificent songs) that since the 1990s it has been broadcast on TV on New Year's Eve.", "*''The Very Same Munchhausen'', a 1979 fantasy comedy by Mark Zakharov based on the Baron Munchausen stories.", "*''The Pokrovsky Gate'', a 1982 comedy directed by Mikhail Kozakov and starring Oleg Menshikov as a young student who comes to Moscow and finds himself involved in the misfortunes of his fellow apartment tenants.===War films===*''The Forty-First'' (1927), directed by Yakov Protazanov*''The Fall of Berlin'', directed by Mikheil Chiaureli*''The Forty-First'' (1956), directed by Grigory Chukhray*''The Cranes Are Flying'', a World War II drama, Palme d'Or winner*''Ballad of a Soldier'', Grigory Chukhray's romantic war film, BAFTA winner*''Ivan's Childhood'', the debut film of Andrei Tarkovsky.", "The Golden Lion of Venice Film Festival winner, based on the 1957 short story \"Ivan\" by Vladimir Bogomolov*''Liberation'' (in five films), a Soviet-Polish-East German-Italian-Yugoslav co-production directed by Yuri Ozerov*''The Dawns Here Are Quiet'', based on Boris Vasilyev's novel of the same name*''Only \"Old Men\" Are Going into Battle'', a war musical film about Soviet World War II fighter pilots*''They Fought for Their Country'', an epic war drama by Sergei Bondarchuk, starring Vasily Shukshin*''The Ascent'', a 1977 war drama by Larisa Shepitko, starring Boris Plotnikov*''Battle of Moscow'' (in two films), a Soviet-East German-Czechoslovak-Vietnamese co-production directed by Yuri Ozerov*''Come and See'', a war drama/psychological thriller film directed by Elem Klimov about the Nazi German occupation of Byelorussia*''Stalingrad'' (in two films), a Soviet-East German-Czechoslovak-American co-production directed by Yuri Ozerov===Red Westerns===*''The Elusive Avengers'' by Edmond Keosayan.", "*''The New Adventures of the Elusive Avengers'' by Edmond Keosayan.", "*''White Sun of the Desert'', one of the most popular Red Westerns (see Ostern).", "*''The Crown of the Russian Empire, or Once Again the Elusive Avengers'' by Edmond Keosayan.", "*''The Headless Horseman'' by Vladimir Vajnshtok.", "*''At Home Among Strangers'', another Red Western film by Nikita Mikhalkov (his debut).", "*''Armed and Dangerous'' by Vladimir Vajnshtok.", "*''A Man from the Boulevard des Capucines'' by Alla Surikova.===Fantasy===*''An Ordinary Miracle'' and its remake, a fairy-tale love story about a bear who has been transformed into a man by a wizard, and must be kissed by a princess to return to his original form.", "*''Jack Frost'', Christmas tale by Aleksandr Rou.", "*''Ivan Vasilievich: Back to the Future'', a comedy by Leonid Gaidai.", "A scientist's time travel machine ends up teleporting his tenement administrator into 16th century Russia and bringing Ivan the Terrible into the present.", "The two are identical in appearance and chaos promptly ensues.", "*''The Very Same Munchhausen'', a comedy by Mark Zakharov based on the Baron Munchausen stories.===Science fiction===*''Aelita'', a 1924 silent film directed by Yakov Protazanov based on Aleksey Tolstoy's novel of the same name.", "*''Amphibian Man'', a 1962 Soviet science fiction romance film based upon the eponymous novel by Alexander Belyaev*''Solaris'' and ''Stalker'' by Andrei Tarkovsky*''Kin-dza-dza!", "'', a 1986 dystopian comedy/science fiction film by Georgiy Daneliya===Art house/experimental===*''Man with a Movie Camera'', an experimental 1929 silent documentary film by Dziga Vertov*''In Spring'', an experimental 1929 silent documentary film by Mikhail Kaufman*''I Am Cuba'', 1964 drama film directed by Mikhail Kalatozov.", "*''The Plea'', a 1967 drama film directed by Tengiz Abuladze.", "*''The Color of Pomegranates'', a 1969 drama film written and directed by Sergei Parajanov.", "*''Solaris'', a 1972 science-fiction drama by Andrei Tarkovsky*''Mirror'', a 1975 drama by Andrei Tarkovsky*''Stalker'', a 1979 science-fiction drama by Andrei Tarkovsky*''Nostalghia'', a 1983 drama film by Andrei Tarkovsky===Children's films===*''Ilya Muromets'', based on the byliny tales film by Aleksandr Ptushko.", "*''Jack Frost'', Christmas tale by Aleksandr Rou.", "*''Moscow-Cassiopeia and Teens in the Universe'', science fiction films by Richard Viktorov.", "*''The Adventures of Buratino'', adaptation of The Adventures of Pinocchio, by Leonid Nechayev.", "*''The Mystery of the Third Planet'', famous animated movie based on ''Alice: The Girl from Earth'' books by writer Kir Bulychov.", "*''Mio in the Land of Faraway'', fantasy film directed by Vladimir Grammatikov.===Documentary===*''Heroic Deed Among the Ice'', a 1928 silent documentary film by Vasilyev brothers*''Man with a Movie Camera'', an experimental 1929 silent documentary film by Dziga Vertov*''In Spring'', an experimental 1929 silent documentary film by Mikhail Kaufman*''Anna: 6 - 18'', an experimental documentary by Nikita Mikhalkov in which he filmed his daughter Anna during the period of thirteen years.===TV===*''Seventeen Moments of Spring'', a 1973 Soviet twelve-part television miniseries, based on the novel of the same title by Yulian Semyonov.", "*''The Meeting Place Cannot Be Changed'', a 1979 miniseries set in 1945.Vladimir Vysotsky plays a no-nonsense cop trying to catch the deadly Black Cat gang.", "*''The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson'', a series of television films directed by Igor Maslennikov.", "*''Heart of a Dog'', a black-and-white 1988 television film based on Mikhail Bulgakov's novel ''Heart of a Dog''." ], [ "Notable filmmakers", "Early personalities in the development of Soviet cinema:*Mikheil Chiaureli*Grigori Aleksandrov*Sergei Bondarchuk*Alexander Dovzhenko*Sergei Eisenstein*Grigori Kozintsev *Lev Kuleshov*Yakov Protazanov*Vsevolod Pudovkin*Ivan Pyryev*Boris Shumyatsky*Leonid Trauberg*Aleksandr Medvedkin*Dziga VertovLater personalities:*Tengiz Abuladze*Andrei Konchalovsky*Nikita Mikhalkov*Alexander Sokurov*Andrei Tarkovsky*Aleksei German*Elem Klimov*Shaken Aimanov*Larisa Shepitko*Eldar Ryazanov*Leonid Gaidai*Georgiy Daneliya*Kira Muratova*Sergei Parajanov" ], [ "Soviet production units", "*Armenfilm*Azerbaijanfilm*Belarusfilm*Tallinnfilm*Gruziya-Film*Kazakhfilm*Kyrgyzfilm*Riga Film Studio *Lithuanian Film Studio*Moldova-Film*Central Studio for Documentary Film*Gorky Film Studio*Lenfilm*Lennauchfilm*Mosfilm*Pilot*South-Siberian Film Studio*Soyuzmultfilm*Studio Ekran*Sverdlovsk Film Studio*Dovzhenko Film Studios*Halychyna-Film Studio*Kievnauchfilm*National Cinematheque of Ukraine*Odessa Film Studio*Ukranimafilm*Ukrtelefilm*Yalta Film Studio*Tadjikfilm*Turkmenfilm*Uzbekfilm" ], [ "See also", "* Nika Award – the main national film award in Russia*List of cinema of the world * Cinema of Armenia * Cinema of Azerbaijan * Cinema of Belarus* Cinema of Russia* Cinema of Ukraine*Lists of Soviet films**List of highest-grossing films in the Soviet Union* History of Russian animation*History of film* World cinema" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* **Schnitzer, Luda, et al., eds.", "''Cinema in Revolution: the heroic era of the Soviet film''; edited by Luda and Jean Schnitzer and Marcel Martin; translated and with additional material by David Robinson.", "London: Secker & Warburg, 1973 (translation of «Le cinéma soviétique par ceux qui l'ont fait »)" ], [ "External links", "* Soviet movies online at Russian Film Hub* Russian Newsreels and Documentary Films Archive* Russian Film Database, University of Innsbruck, Austria (in German and Germanically-transliterated Cyrillic.", "Eisenstein, a German name to begin with, goes through the wringer and comes back out as \"Ejzenstejn\", e.g.", ")* Sixty seconds of Ballad of a Soldier turned into a Russian lesson.", "* Fedorov, A.", "Record holders of the banned Soviet cinema (1951–1991) in the mirror of film criticism and viewers' opinions.", "Moscow: “Information for all”.", "2021.102 p.* Fedorov, A.", "Statistical data on the attendance of Soviet films: 1950-1990.Moscow: “Information for all”.", "2023.64 p.* Федоров А.В.", "Тысяча и один самый кассовый советский фильм: мнения кинокритиков и зрителей.", "М.: ОД «Информация для всех», 2023.1270 с." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cinema of Italy" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''cinema of Italy''' (, ) comprises the films made within Italy or by Italian directors.", "Italy is one of the birthplaces of art cinema and the stylistic aspect of film has been one of the most important factors in the history of Italian film.", "As of 2018, Italian films have won 14 Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film (the most of any country) as well as 12 Palmes d'Or, one Academy Award for Best Picture and many Golden Lions and Golden Bears.The history of Italian cinema began a few months after the Lumière brothers began motion picture exhibitions.", "The first Italian director is considered to be Vittorio Calcina, a collaborator of the Lumière Brothers, who filmed Pope Leo XIII in 1896.The first films were made in the main cities of the Italian peninsula.", "These brief experiments immediately met the curiosity of the general public, encouraging operators to produce new films and laying the foundation for a true film industry.", "In the early 20th century, silent cinema developed, bringing numerous Italian stars to the forefront.", "In the early 1900s, epic films such as ''Otello'' (1906), ''The Last Days of Pompeii'' (1908), ''L'Inferno'' (1911), ''Quo Vadis'' (1913), and ''Cabiria'' (1914), were made as adaptations of books or stage plays.", "The oldest European avant-garde cinema movement, Italian futurism, emerged in the late 1910s.", "After a period of decline in the 1920s, the Italian film industry was revitalized in the 1930s with the arrival of sound film.", "A popular Italian genre during this period, the Telefoni Bianchi, consisted of comedies with glamorous backgrounds.", "Calligrafismo was in sharp contrast to Telefoni Bianchi-American style comedies and is rather artistic, highly formalistic, expressive in complexity and deals mainly with contemporary literary material.", "While Italy's Fascist government provided financial support for the nation's film industry, notably the construction of the Cinecittà studios (the largest film studio in Europe), it also engaged in censorship, and thus many Italian films produced in the late 1930s were propaganda films.", "The end of World War II saw the birth of the influential Italian neorealist movement, which reached vast audiences throughout the post-war period, and which launched the directorial careers of Luchino Visconti, Roberto Rossellini, and Vittorio De Sica.", "Neorealism declined in the late 1950s in favour of lighter films, such as those of the Commedia all'italiana genre and directors like Federico Fellini and Michelangelo Antonioni.", "Actresses such as Sophia Loren, Giulietta Masina, Claudia Cardinale, Monica Vitti, Anna Magnani and Gina Lollobrigida achieved international stardom during this period.", "From the mid-1950s to the end of the 1970s, Commedia all'italiana and many other genres arose due to auteur cinema, and Italian cinema reached a position of great prestige both nationally and abroad.", "The Spaghetti Western achieved popularity in the mid-1960s, peaking with Sergio Leone's Dollars Trilogy, which featured enigmatic scores by composer Ennio Morricone, which have become icons of the Western genre.", "Italian thrillers, or giallo, produced by directors such as Mario Bava and Dario Argento in the 1960s and 1970s, influenced the horror genre worldwide.", "During the 1980s and 1990s, directors such as Ermanno Olmi, Bernardo Bertolucci, Giuseppe Tornatore, Gabriele Salvatores and Roberto Benigni brought critical acclaim back to Italian cinema, while the most popular directors of the 2000s and 2010s were Matteo Garrone, Luca Guadagnino, Paolo Sorrentino, Marco Bellocchio, Nanni Moretti and Marco Tullio Giordana.The Venice Film Festival is the oldest film festival in the world, held annually since 1932 and awarding the Golden Lion; and for the David di Donatello.", "In 2008 the Venice Days (\"Giornate degli Autori\"), a section held in parallel to the Venice Film Festival, has produced in collaboration with Cinecittà studios and the Ministry of Cultural Heritage a list of a 100 films that have changed the collective memory of the country between 1942 and 1978: the \"100 Italian films to be saved\"." ], [ "History", "===1890s===Video of ''Sua Santità papa Leone XIII'' (\"His Holiness Pope Leo XIII\"), the most famous film by Vittorio Calcina, the first Italian film director in history, shot on 26 February 1896The history of Italian cinema began a few months after the Lumière brothers began motion picture exhibitions.", "The first Italian director is considered to be Vittorio Calcina, a collaborator of the Lumière Brothers, who filmed Pope Leo XIII on 26 February 1896 in the short film ''Sua Santità papa Leone XIII'' (\"His Holiness Pope Leo XIII\").", "As the official photographer of the House of Savoy, he filmed the first Italian film, ''Sua Maestà il Re Umberto e Sua Maestà la Regina Margherita a passeggio per il parco a Monza'' (\"His Majesty the King Umberto and Her Majesty the Queen Margherita strolling through the Monza Park\"), believed to have been lost until it was rediscovered by the Cineteca Nazionale in 1979.In 1895, Filoteo Alberini patented his \"kinetograph\", a shooting and projecting device not unlike that of the Lumières brothers.Video of ''Il finto storpio al Castello Sforzesco'' (\"The fake cripple at the Castello Sforzesco\") by Italo Pacchioni (1896)The Lumière brothers commenced public screenings in Italy in 1896.Italian Lumière trainees produced short films documenting everyday life and comic strips in the late 1890s and early 1900s.", "Italo Pacchioni, Arturo Ambrosio, Giovanni Vitrotti and Roberto Omegna were also active.", "The success of the short films was immediate.", "Titles of the time include, ''Arrivo del treno alla Stazione di Milano'' (\"Arrival of the train at Milan station\") (1896), ''La battaglia di neve'' (\"The snow battle\") (1896), ''La gabbia dei matti'' (\"The madmen's cage\") (1896), ''Ballo in famiglia'' (\"Family dance\") (1896), ''Il finto storpio al Castello Sforzesco'' (\"The fake cripple at the Castello Sforzesco\") (1896) and ''La Fiera di Porta Genova'' (\"The fair of Porta Genova\") (1898), all shot by Italo Pacchioni, who was also the inventor of a camera and projector, inspired by the cinematograph of Lumière brothers, kept at the Cineteca Italiana in Milan.Although the general public were enthusiastic, initially the technology was snubbed by intellectuals and the press.", "However, on 28 January 1897, prince Victor Emmanuel and princess Elena of Montenegro attended a screening organized by Vittorio Calcina, at the Pitti Palace in Florence.", "Interested in experimenting with the new medium, they were filmed in ''S.A.R.", "il Principe di Napoli e la Principessa Elena visitano il battistero di S. Giovanni a Firenze '' (\"Their real heights the Prince of Naples and Princess Elena visit the baptistery of Saint John in Florence\") and on the day of their wedding in ''Dimostrazione popolare alle LL.", "AA.", "i Principi sposi (al Pantheon – Roma)'' (\"Popular demonstration at their heights the princes spouses (at the Pantheon – Rome)\").===1900s===The logo of Cines, with the Capitoline Wolf in the centreIn the early 20th century, the phenomenon of itinerant cinemas developed throughout Italy.", "The nascent Italian cinema, therefore, is still linked to the traditional shows of the ''commedia dell'arte'' or to those typical of circus folklore.", "Public screenings took place in the streets, in cafes or in variety theatres in the presence of a swindler who has the task of promoting and enriching the story.Between 1903 and 1909 the itinerant Italian cinema began assuming the characteristics of an authentic industry, led by four major organizations: Titanus (originally ''Monopolio Lombardo''), the first italian film production company; the largest and among the most famous film houses in Italy, founded by Gustavo Lombardo at Naples in 1904, Cines, based in Rome; and the Turin-based companies Ambrosio Film and Itala Film.", "Other companies soon followed in Milan, and these early companies quickly attained a respectable production quality and were able to market their products both within Italy and abroad.", "Early Italian films typically consisted of adaptations of books or stage plays, such as Mario Caserini's ''Otello'' (1906) and Arturo Ambrosio's 1908 ''The Last Days of Pompeii'', an adaptation of the homonymous novel by Edward Bulwer-Lytton.", "Also popular during this period were films about historical figures, such as Caserini's ''Beatrice Cenci'' (1909) and Ugo Falena's ''Lucrezia Borgia'' (1910).Video of ''La presa di Roma'' (\"The Capture of Rome\") by Filoteo Alberini (1905, six minute version)In 1905, Cines inaugurated the genre of the historical film.", "One of the first of these films was ''La presa di Roma'' (1905), lasting 10 minutes, and made by Filoteo Alberini.", "The operator employs for the first time actors of theatrical origin.", "The film, assimilating Manzoni's lesson of making historical fiction plausible, reconstructs the Capture of Rome on 20 September 1870.Dozens of characters from texts make their appearance on the big screen such as the Count of Monte Cristo, Giordano Bruno, Judith beheading Holofernes, Francesca da Rimini, Lorenzino de' Medici, Rigoletto, Count Ugolino and others.", "From an iconographic point of view, the main references are the great Renaissance and neoclassical artists, as well as symbolists and popular illustrations.===1910s===Lost in the Dark'' by Nino Martoglio (1914), considered a precursor to the Italian neorealism movement of the 1940s and 1950s.In the 1910s, the Italian film industry developed rapidly.", "In 1912, 569 films were produced in Turin, 420 in Rome and 120 in Milan.", "Popular early Italian actors included Emilio Ghione, Alberto Collo, Bartolomeo Pagano, Amleto Novelli, Lyda Borelli, Ida Carloni Talli, Lidia Quaranta and Maria Jacobini.", "''Lost in the Dark'' (1914), a silent drama film directed by Nino Martoglio, documented life in the slums of Naples, and is considered a precursor to the Italian neorealism movement of the 1940s and 1950s.", "The only surviving copy of this film was destroyed by Nazi German forces during the World War II.", "The archetypes of the historical blockbuster genre were ''The Last Days of Pompeii'' (1908), by Arturo Ambrosio and Luigi Maggi and ''Nero'' (1909), by Maggi and Arrigo Frusta.", "Followed by ''Marin Faliero, Doge of Venice'' (1909), by Giuseppe De Liguoro, ''Otello'' (1909) by Yambo and ''L'Odissea'' (1911), by Bertolini, Padovan and De Liguoro.", "''L'Inferno'', produced by Milano Films in 1911, was a cinematic translation of Gustave Doré's engravings that experiments with the integration of optical effects and stage action, and it was the first Italian feature film.", "''The Last Days of Pompeii'' (1913), by Eleuterio Rodolfi, used innovative special effects.", "Enrico Guazzoni's 1913 film ''Quo Vadis'' was one of the first blockbusters, using thousands of extras and a lavish set design.", "The international success of the film marked the maturation of the genre and allowed Guazzoni to make increasingly spectacular films such as ''Antony and Cleopatra'' (1913) and ''Julius Caesar'' (1914).Giovanni Pastrone's 1914 film ''Cabiria'' was an even larger production, requiring two years and a record budget to produce; it was the first epic film ever made and it is considered the most famous Italian silent film.", "It was also the first film to be shown in the White House.", "After Guazzoni came Emilio Ghione, Febo Mari, Carmine Gallone, Giulio Antamoro and many others who contributed to the expansion of the genre.", "After the success of ''Cabiria'', with the changing tastes of the public the genre began to show signs of crisis.", "Pastrone's plan to adapt the Bible with thousands of extras remained unfulfilled.", "Antamoro's ''Christus'' (1916) and Guazzoni's ''The Crusaders'' (1918) remained notable for their iconographic complexity but offered no substantial novelties.In the first and second decade of the 20th century came a prolific film production aimed at investigative and mystery content.", "The most prolific production houses in the 1910s were Cines, Ambrosio Film, Itala Film, Aquila Films, and Milano Films.", "Directors among the most prolific in this field such as Oreste Mentasti, Luigi Maggi, Arrigo Frusta and Ubaldo Maria Del Colle, direct several dozen films where classic narrative elements of the silent proto-giallo (mystery, crime, investigation investigative and final twist) constitute the structural aspects of cinematic representation.", "Elvira Notari, the first female director in Italy, directed ''Carmela, la sartina di Montesanto'' (1916).", "While in Palermo, Lucarelli Film produced ''La cassaforte n. 8'' (1914) and ''Ipnotismo'' (1914), the Azzurri Film ''La regina della notte'' (1915), the Lumen Film ''Il romanzo fantastico del Dr. Mercanton o il giustiziere invisibile'' (1915) and ''Profumo mortale'' (1915).", "''Cenere'' by Febo Mari (1917)Between 1913 and 1920 there was the rise, development and decline of the phenomenon of cinematographic stardom, born with the release of ''Ma l'amor mio non muore'' (1913), by Mario Caserini.", "The film had great success with the public and encoded the aesthetics of female stardom.", "Within just a few years, Eleonora Duse, Pina Menichelli, Rina De Liguoro, Leda Gys, Hesperia, Vittoria Lepanto, Mary Cleo Tarlarini and Italia Almirante Manzini established themselves.", "Films such as ''Fior di male'' (1914), by Carmine Gallone, ''Il fuoco'' (1915), by Giovanni Pastrone, ''Rapsodia satanica'' (1917), by Nino Oxilia and ''Cenere'' (1917), by Febo Mari, changed the model away from naturalism in favor of melodramatic acting, pictorial gesture and theatrical pose, all favored by the extensive use of close-up.The most successful comedian in Italy was André Deed, better known in Italy as ''Cretinetti'', star of comic short film for Itala Film.", "Its success paved the way for Marcel Fabre (''Robinet''), Ernesto Vaser (''Fricot'') and many others.", "Ferdinand Guillaume became famous with the stage name of ''Polidor''.", "Protagonists of Italian comedians never place themselves in open contrast with society or embody the desire for social revenge (as happens for example with Charlie Chaplin), but rather tried to integrate into a strongly desired world.Thaïs'' by Anton Giulio Bragaglia (1917)Italian futurist cinema was the oldest movement of European avant-garde cinema.", "Italian futurism, an artistic and social movement, impacted the Italian film industry from 1916 to 1919.It influenced Russian Futurist and German Expressionist cinema.", "Its cultural importance was considerable and influenced all subsequent avant-gardes, as well as some authors of narrative cinema; its echo expands to the dreamlike visions of some films by Alfred Hitchcock.", "Futurism emphasized dynamism, speed, technology, youth, violence, and objects such as the car, the airplane, and the industrial city.", "Its key figures were the Italians Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Umberto Boccioni, Carlo Carrà, Fortunato Depero, Gino Severini, Giacomo Balla, and Luigi Russolo.", "It glorified modernity and aimed to liberate Italy from the weight of its past.The 1916 Manifesto of Futuristic Cinematography was signed by Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Armando Ginna, Bruno Corra, Giacomo Balla and others.", "To the Futurists, cinema was an ideal art form, being a fresh medium, and able to be manipulated by speed, special effects and editing.", "Most of the futuristic-themed films of this period have been lost, but critics cite ''Thaïs'' (1917) by Anton Giulio Bragaglia as one of the most influential, serving as the main inspiration for German Expressionist cinema in the following decade.", "The Italian film industry struggled against rising foreign competition in the years following World War I.", "Several major studios, among them Cines and Ambrosio, formed the Unione Cinematografica Italiana to coordinate a national strategy for film production.", "This effort was largely unsuccessful, however, due to a wide disconnect between production and exhibition; some movies were not released until several years after they were produced.===1920s===''A Santanotte'' by Elvira Notari (1922)Sun'' by Alessandro Blasetti (1929)With the end of World War I, Italian cinema went through a period of crisis due to many factors such as production disorganization, increased costs, technological backwardness, loss of foreign markets and inability to cope with international competition, in particular with that of Hollywood.", "The first half of the 1920s marked a sharp decrease in production, from 350 films produced in 1921 to 60 in 1924.The main causes included the lack of a generational change with a production still dominated by filmmakers and producers of literary training, such that literature and theatre were still the preferred narrative sources.", "The feuilletons resist, mostly taken from classical or popular texts and directed by specialists such as Roberto Roberti and the religious blockbusters of Giulio Antamoro.", "On the basis of the latest generation of divas, a sentimental cinema for women spread, centred on figures on the margins of society who, instead of struggling to emancipate themselves (as happens in contemporary Hollywood cinema), go through an authentic ordeal in order to preserve their own virtue.", "Protest and rebellion by the female protagonists are out of the question.", "It is a strongly conservative cinema, tied to social rules upset by the war and in the process of dissolution throughout Europe.", "An exemplary case is that of ''A Woman's Story'' (1920) by Eugenio Perego, which uses an original narrative construction to propose a 19th-century morality with melodramatic tones.A particular genre is that of a realist setting, due to the work of the first female director of Italian cinema, Elvira Notari, who directs numerous films influenced by popular theatre and taken from famous dramas, Neapolitan songs, appendix novels or inspired by facts of chronicle.", "Another film with a realist setting is ''Lost in the Dark'' (1914) by director Nino Martoglio, considered by critics as a prime example of neorealist cinema.The revival of Italian cinema took place at the end of the decade with the production of larger-scale films.", "During this period, a group of intellectuals close to the fortnightly ''cinematografo'' led by Alessandro Blasetti launched a program that was as simple as it was ambitious.", "Aware of the Italian cultural backwardness, they decided to break all ties with the previous tradition through a rediscovery of the peasant world, hitherto practically absent in Italian cinema.", "''Sun'' (1929) by Alessandro Blasetti shows the evident influence of the Soviet and German avant-gardes in an attempt to renew Italian cinema in accordance with the interests of the fascist regime.", "''Rails'' (1929) by Mario Camerini blends the traditional genre of comedy with kammerspiel and realist film, revealing the director's ability to outline the characters of the middle class.", "While not comparable to the best results of international cinema of the period, the works of Camerini and Blasetti testify to a generational transition between Italian directors and intellectuals, and above all an emancipation from literary models and an approach to the tastes of the public.===1930s===The Song of Love'' by Gennaro Righelli (1930), the first Italian talking picture The sound cinema arrived in Italy in 1930, three years after the release of ''The Jazz Singer'' (1927), and immediately led to a debate on the validity of spoken cinema and its relationship with the theatre.", "Some directors enthusiastically face the new challenge.", "The advent of talkies led to stricter censorship by the Fascist government.The first Italian talking picture was ''The Song of Love'' (1930) by Gennaro Righelli, which was a great success with the public.", "Alessandro Blasetti also experimented with the use of an optical track for sound in the film ''Resurrection'' (1931), shot before ''The Song of Love'' but released a few months later.", "Similar to Righelli's film is ''What Scoundrels Men Are!''", "(1932) by Mario Camerini, which has the merit of making Vittorio De Sica debut on the screens.", "Historical films such as Blasetti's ''1860'' (1934) and Carmine Gallone's ''Scipio Africanus: The Defeat of Hannibal'' (1937) were also popular during this period.With the transition to sound cinema, most of the Italian silent film actors, still linked to theatrical stylization, find themselves disqualified.", "The era of divas, dandies and strongmen, who barely survived the 1920s, is definitely over.", "Even if some performers will move on to directing or producing, the arrival of sound favours the generational change and the consequent modernization of the structures.Italian-born director Frank Capra received three Academy Awards for Best Director for the films ''It Happened One Night'' (1934, the first Big Five winner at the Academy Awards), ''Mr.", "Deeds Goes to Town'' (1936) and ''You Can't Take It with You'' (1938).In 1932, the Venice Film Festival, the world's oldest film festival and one of the \"Big Three\" film festivals, alongside the Cannes Film Festival and the Berlin International Film Festival, was established.====Cinecittà====Entrance to the Cinecittà in Rome, the largest film studio in EuropeIn 1934, the Italian government created the General Directorate for Cinema (''Direzione Generale per la Cinematografia''), and appointed Luigi Freddi its director.", "With the approval of Benito Mussolini, this directorate called for the establishment of a town southeast of Rome devoted exclusively to cinema, dubbed the Cinecittà (\"Cinema City\"), under the slogan \"''Il cinema è l'arma più forte''\" (\"Cinema is the most powerful weapon\").", "The studios were constructed during the Fascist era as part of a plan to revive the Italian film industry, which had reached its low point in 1931.Mussolini himself inaugurated the studios on 28 April 1937.Post-production units and sets were constructed and heavily used initially.", "Early films such as ''Scipio Africanus'' (1937) and ''The Iron Crown'' (1941) showcased the technological advancement of the studios.", "Seven thousand people were involved in the filming of the battle scene from ''Scipio Africanus'', and live elephants were brought in as a part of the re-enactment of the Battle of Zama.The Cinecittà provided everything necessary for filmmaking: theatres, technical services, and even a cinematography school, the Centro Sperimentale di Cinematografia, for younger apprentices.", "The Cinecittà studios were Europe's most advanced production facilities and greatly boosted the technical quality of Italian films.", "Many films are still shot entirely in Cinecittà.", "Benito Mussolini founded Cinecittà studio also for the production of Fascist propaganda until World War II.====Telefoni Bianchi====Department Store'' by Mario Camerini (1939)During the 1930s, light comedies known as Telefoni Bianchi (\"white telephones\") were predominant in Italian cinema.", "These films, which featured lavish set designs, promoted conservative values and respect for authority, and thus typically avoided the scrutiny of government censors.", "Telefoni Bianchi proved to be the testing ground of numerous screenwriters destined to impose themselves in the following decades (including Cesare Zavattini and Sergio Amidei), and above all of numerous set designers such as Guido Fiorini, Gino Carlo Sensani and Antonio Valente, who, by virtue, successful graphic inventions led these productions to become a kind of \"summa\" of the petty-bourgeois aesthetics of the time.The first film of the genre Telefoni Bianchi was ''The Private Secretary'' (1931), by Goffredo Alessandrini.", "Among the authors, Mario Camerini is the most representative director of the genre.", "After having practiced the most diverse trends in the 1930s, he happily moved into the territory of sentimental comedy with ''What Scoundrels Men Are!''", "(1932), ''Il signor Max'' (1937) and ''Department Store'' (1939).", "In other films, he compares himself with the Hollywood-style comedy on the model of Frank Capra (''Heartbeat'', 1939) and the surreal one of René Clair (''I'll Give a Million'', 1936).", "Camerini is interested in the figure of the typical and popular Italian, so much so that he anticipates some elements of the future Italian comedy.Other directors include Mario Mattoli (''Schoolgirl Diary'', 1941), Jean de Limur (''Apparition'', 1944) and Max Neufeld (''The House of Shame'', 1938; ''A Thousand Lire a Month'', 1939).====Fascist propaganda====The Old Guard'' by Alessandro Blasetti (1934)In the fascist propaganda cinema, at the beginning, the representations of the squads and the first fascist actions were rare.", "''The Old Guard'' (1934), by Alessandro Blasetti evokes the supposed vitalistic spontaneity of squads with populist tones, but is not appreciated by official critics.", "''Black Shirt'' (1933), by Giovacchino Forzano, made for the 10th anniversary of the March on Rome, celebrated the regime's policies (the reclamation of the Pontine marshes and the construction of Littoria) alternating narrative sequences with documentary passages.With political consolidation, the government authority required the film industry to strengthen the regime's identification with the country's history and culture.", "Hence the intention to reread Italian history in an authoritarian perspective, teleologically reducing every past event to a harbinger of the \"fascist revolution\", in continuity with the historiographical work of Gioacchino Volpe.", "After the first attempts in this direction, aimed above all at underlining the alleged link between the Risorgimento and Fascism (''Villafranca'' by Forzano, 1933; ''1860'' by Blasetti, 1933), the trend reached its peak just before the war.", "''Cavalry'' (1936), by Goffredo Alessandrini, evokes the nobility of the Savoy fighters by presenting their deeds as anticipations of squads.", "''Condottieri'' (1937) by Luis Trenker, tells the story of Giovanni delle Bande Nere, explicitly establishing a parallel with Benito Mussolini, while ''Scipio Africanus: The Defeat of Hannibal'' (1937) by Carmine Gallone (one of the greatest financial efforts of the time), it celebrates the Roman Empire and indirectly the Fascist Empire.The invasion of Ethiopia gives Italian directors the opportunity to extend the horizons of the settings.", "''The Great Appeal'' (1936) by Mario Camerini, exalts imperialism by describing the \"new land\" as an opportunity for work and redemption, contrasting the heroism of young soldiers with bourgeois fearlessness.", "The anti-pacifist controversy that accompanies colonial enterprises is also evident in ''Lo squadrone bianco'' (1936) by Augusto Genina, which combines propaganda rhetoric with notable battle sequences shot in the Italian Tripolitania desert.", "Most of the films celebrating the empire are predominantly documentaries, aimed at disguising the war as a struggle of civilization against barbarism.", "The Spanish Civil War is described in the documentaries ''Los novios de la muerte'' (1936) by Romolo Marcellini and ''Arriba España, España una, grande, libre!''", "(1939) by Giorgio Ferroni, and is the backdrop for another dozen films, among which the most spectacular is ''The Siege of the Alcazar'' (1940) by Augusto Genina.", "''Men of the Mountain'' by Aldo Vergano (1943)===1940s=======Propaganda====With Italy's participation in World War II, the fascist regime further strengthens its control over production and requires a more decisive commitment to propaganda.", "In addition to the now canonical documentaries, short films and newsreels, there is also an increase in feature films in praise of Italian war efforts.", "Among the most representative are ''Bengasi'' (1942) by Genina, ''Gente dell'aria'' (1943) by Esodo Pratelli, ''The Three Pilots'' (1942) by Mario Mattoli (based on a screenplay by Vittorio Mussolini), ''Il treno crociato'' (1943) by Carlo Campogalliani, ''Harlem'' (1943) by Carmine Gallone and ''Men of the Mountain'' (1943) by Aldo Vergano under the supervision of Blasetti.", "''Uomini sul fondo'' (1941) by Francesco De Robertis is also notable due to its almost documentary approach.The most successful film of the period is ''We the Living'' (1942) by Goffredo Alessandrini, made as a single film, but then distributed in two parts due to its excessive length.", "Referable to the genre of anti-communist drama, this sombre melodrama (set in the Soviet Union) is inspired by the novel of the same name by the writer Ayn Rand which exalts philosophical individualism.Among the directors who give their contribution to the war propaganda, there is also Roberto Rossellini, author of a trilogy composed of ''The White Ship'' (1941), ''A Pilot Returns'' (1942) and ''The Man with a Cross'' (1943).", "Anticipating in some ways his works of maturity, the director adopted a modest and immediate style, which does not contrast the effectiveness of the propaganda but neither does it exalt the dominant war rhetoric; it was the same anti-spectacular approach to which he remained faithful throughout his life.====Calligrafismo====''Tragic Night'' by Mario Soldati (1942)Calligrafismo is in sharp contrast to Telefoni Bianchi-American style comedies and is rather artistic, highly formalistic, expressive in complexity and deals mainly with contemporary literary material, above all the pieces of Italian realism from authors like Corrado Alvaro, Ennio Flaiano, Emilio Cecchi, Francesco Pasinetti, Vitaliano Brancati, Mario Bonfantini and Umberto Barbaro.The best-known exponent of this genre is Mario Soldati, a long-time writer and director destined to establish himself with films of literary ancestry and solid formal structure.", "His films put at the centre of the story characters endowed with a dramatic and psychological strength foreign to both white-phone cinema and propaganda films, and found in works such as ''Dora Nelson'' (1939), ''Piccolo mondo antico'' (1941), ''Tragic Night'' (1942), ''Malombra'' (1942) and ''In High Places'' (1943).", "Luigi Chiarini, already active as a critic, deepens the trend in his ''Sleeping Beauty'' (1942), ''Street of the Five Moons'' (1942) and ''The Innkeeper'' (1944).", "The internal conflicts of the characters and the scenographic richness are also recurrent in the first films by Alberto Lattuada (''Giacomo the Idealist'', 1943) and Renato Castellani (''A Pistol Shot'', 1942), dominated by a sense of moral and cultural decay that seems to anticipate the end of the war.Another important example of a calligraphic film is the film version of ''The Betrothed'' (1941), by Mario Camerini (very faithful in the staging of Manzoni's masterpiece), which due to the perceived income, became the most popular feature film between 1941 and 1942.==== Animation====Bruno BozzettoThe pioneer of the Italian cartoon was Francesco Guido, better known as Gibba.", "Immediately after the end of World War II, he produced the first animated medium-length film of Italian cinema entitled ''L'ultimo sciuscià'' (1946), which took up themes typical of neorealism and in the following decade the feature films ''Rompicollo and I picchiatelli'', in collaboration with Antonio Attanasi.In 1949, the designer Nino Pagot presented ''The Dynamite Brothers'' at the Venice Film Festival, one of the first animated feature films of the time, released in theatres in conjunction with ''La Rosa di Bagdad'' (1949), made by the animator Anton Gino Domeneghini.====Neorealism====Vittorio De Sica, a leading figure in the neorealist movement and one of the world's most acclaimed and influential filmmakers of all time.By the end of World War II, the Italian \"neorealist\" movement had begun to take shape.", "Neorealist films typically dealt with the working class (in contrast to the ''Telefoni Bianchi''), and were shot on location.", "Many neorealist films, but not all, used non-professional actors.", "Though the term \"neorealism\" was used for the first time to describe Luchino Visconti’s 1943 film, ''Ossessione'', there were several important precursors to the movement, most notably Camerini's ''What Scoundrels Men Are!''", "(1932), which was the first Italian film shot entirely on location, and Blasetti's 1942 film, ''Four Steps in the Clouds''.Roberto Rossellini and Mario Monicelli winning the Golden Lion for ''General Della Rovere'' and ''The Great War'' respectively.", "''Ossessione'' angered Fascist officials.", "Upon viewing the film, Vittorio Mussolini is reported to have shouted, \"This is not Italy!\"", "before walking out of the theatre.", "The film was subsequently banned in the Fascist-controlled parts of Italy.", "While neorealism exploded after the war and was incredibly influential at the international level, neorealist films made up only a small percentage of Italian films produced during this period, as postwar Italian moviegoers preferred escapist comedies starring actors such as Totò and Alberto Sordi.Neorealist works such as Roberto Rossellini's trilogy ''Rome, Open City'' (1945), ''Paisà'' (1946), and ''Germany, Year Zero'' (1948), with professional actors such as Anna Magnani and a number of non-professional actors, attempted to describe the difficult economic and moral conditions of postwar Italy and the changes in public mentality in everyday life.", "Visconti's ''The Earth Trembles'' (1948) was shot on location in a Sicilian fishing village and used local non-professional actors.", "Giuseppe De Santis, on other hand, used actors such as Silvana Mangano and Vittorio Gassman in his 1949 film, ''Bitter Rice'', which is set in the Po Valley during rice-harvesting season.Poetry and cruelty of life were harmonically combined in the works that Vittorio De Sica wrote and directed together with screenwriter Cesare Zavattini: among them, ''Shoeshine'' (1946), ''The Bicycle Thief'' (1948) and ''Miracle in Milan'' (1951).", "The 1952 film ''Umberto D.'' showed a poor old man with his little dog, who must beg for alms against his dignity in the loneliness of the new society.", "This work is perhaps De Sica's masterpiece and one of the most important works in Italian cinema.", "It was not a commercial success and since then it has been shown on Italian television only a few times.", "Yet it is perhaps the most violent attack, in the apparent quietness of the action, against the rules of the new economy, the new mentality, the new values, and it embodies both a conservative and a progressive view.File:Girotti e Calamai.jpg|''Ossessione'' (1943), by Luchino Visconti.File:ROMA C~1.JPG|A still shot from ''Rome, Open City'' (1945), by Roberto Rossellini.LadriDiBicicletteStaiola1948.jpg|''Bicycle Thieves'' (1948), by Vittorio De Sica, ranked among the best movies ever made and part of the canon of classic cinema.===1950s===Massimo Girotti e Lucia Bosè in ''Story of a Love Affair'' by Michelangelo Antonioni (1950)Starting from the mid-1950s, Italian cinema freed itself from neorealism by tackling purely existential topics, films with different styles and points of view, often more introspective than descriptive.", "Thus we are witnessing a new flowering of filmmakers who contribute in a fundamental way to the development of the art.Michelangelo Antonioni is the first to establish himself, becoming a reference author for all contemporary cinema.", "This charge of novelty is recognizable from the beginning as the director's first work, ''Story of a Love Affair'' (1950), marks an indelible break with the world of neorealism and the consequent birth of a modern cinema.", "Antonioni investigated the world of the Italian bourgeoisie with a critical eye, left out of the post-war cinematic lens.", "In doing so, works of psychological research such as ''I Vinti'' (1952), ''The Lady Without Camelias'' (1953) and ''Le Amiche'' (1955), free adaptation of the short story ''Tra donne sole'' by Cesare Pavese, came to light.", "In 1957, he staged the unusual proletarian drama ''Il Grido'', with which he obtained critical acclaim.In 1955, the David di Donatello was established, with its Best Picture category being awarded for the first time only in 1970.Named after Donatello's ''David'', a symbolic statue of the Italian Renaissance, are film awards given out each year by the ''Accademia del Cinema Italiano'' (The Academy of Italian Cinema).Although ''Umberto D.'' is considered the end of the neorealist period, later films such as Federico Fellini's ''La Strada'' (1954) and De Sica's 1960 film ''Two Women'' (for which Sophia Loren won the Oscar for Best Actress) are grouped with the genre.", "Director Pier Paolo Pasolini's first film, ''Accattone'' (1961), shows a strong neorealist influence.", "Italian neorealist cinema influenced filmmakers around the world, and helped inspire other film movements, such as the French New Wave and the Polish Film School.", "The Neorealist period is often simply referred to as \"The Golden Age\" of Italian cinema by critics, filmmakers, and scholars.In the early 1950s, the cartoonist Romano Scarpa created the short film ''La piccola fiammiferaia'' (1953), which remains, like the two previous films, little more than an isolated case.", "Apart from these examples, Italian animation in the 1950s and 1960s failed to become a major reality and remains confined to the television sector, due to the various commissions provided by the Carosello container.Totò in ''Toto and the King of Rome'' by Mario Monicelli and Steno (1952)At this time, on the more commercial side of production, the phenomenon of Totò, a Neapolitan actor who is acclaimed as the major Italian comic, exploded.", "His films (often with Aldo Fabrizi, Peppino De Filippo and almost always with Mario Castellani) expressed a sort of neorealistic satire, in the means of a ''guitto'' (a \"hammy\" actor) as well as with the art of the great dramatic actor he also was.", "Totò is one of the symbols of the cinema of Naples.====Pink neorealism====''Pane, amore e fantasia'' by Luigi Comencini (1953)Although ''Umberto D.'' is considered the end of the neorealist period, subsequent works turned toward lighter, sweetened and mildly optimistic atmospheres, more coherent with the improving conditions of Italy just before the economic boom; this genre became known as ''pink neorealism''.The precursor of pink neorealism was Renato Castellani, who helped bring realist comedy into vogue with ''Under the Sun of Rome'' (1948) and ''It's Forever Springtime'' (1949), both shot on location and with non-professional actors, and above all with public success and criticism of ''Two Cents Worth of Hope'' (1952), which laid the foundations for pink neorealism.", "''Poveri ma belli'' by Dino Risi (1957)Notable films of pink neorealism, which combine popular comedy and realist motifs, are ''Pane, amore e fantasia'' (1953) by Luigi Comencini and ''Poveri ma belli'' (1957) by Dino Risi, both works are in perfect harmony with the evolution of the Italian costume.", "The large influx at the box office from the two films remained almost unchanged in the sequels ''Bread, Love and Jealousy'' (1954), ''Scandal in Sorrento'' (1955) and ''Pretty But Poor'' (1957), also directed by Luigi Comencini and Dino Risi.Similarly, stories of daily life told with gentle irony (without losing sight of the social fabric) can be found in the work of the Milanese Luciano Emmer, whose films ''Sunday in August'' (1950), ''Three Girls from Rome'' (1952) and ''High School'' (1954), are the best-known examples.", "Another film of the pink neorealism genre was ''Susanna Whipped Cream'' (1957) by Steno.This trend allowed some actresses to become real celebrities, such as Sophia Loren, Gina Lollobrigida, Silvana Pampanini, Lucia Bosé, Barbara Bouchet, Eleonora Rossi Drago, Silvana Mangano, Virna Lisi, Claudia Cardinale and Stefania Sandrelli.", "Soon pink neorealism was replaced by the Commedia all'italiana, a unique genre that, born on an ideally humouristic line, talked instead very seriously about important social themes.====Don Camillo and Peppone====Gino Cervi and Fernandel in ''Don Camillo: Monsignor'' by Carmine Gallone (1961)A series of black-and-white films based on Don Camillo and Peppone characters created by the Italian writer and journalist Giovannino Guareschi were made between 1952 and 1965.These were French-Italian coproductions, and starred Fernandel as the Italian priest Don Camillo and Gino Cervi as Giuseppe 'Peppone' Bottazzi, the Communist Mayor of their rural town.", "The titles are: ''The Little World of Don Camillo'' (1952), ''The Return of Don Camillo'' (1953), ''Don Camillo's Last Round'' (1955), ''Don Camillo: Monsignor'' (1961), and ''Don Camillo in Moscow'' (1965).The movies were a huge commercial success in their native countries.", "In 1952, ''Little World of Don Camillo'' became the highest-grossing film in both Italy and France, while ''The Return of Don Camillo'' was the second most popular film of 1953 at the Italian and French box office.====Hollywood on the Tiber====Ben-Hur'' by William Wyler (1959) was shot at the Cinecittà studios and on location around Rome during the \"Hollywood on the Tiber\" era.Hollywood on the Tiber is a phrase used to describe the period in the 1950s and 1960s when the Italian capital of Rome emerged as a major location for international filmmaking attracting many foreign productions to the Cinecittà studios, the largest film studio in Europe.", "By contrast to the native Italian film industry, these movies were made in English for global release.", "Although the primary markets for such films were American and British audiences, they enjoyed widespread popularity in other countries, including Italy.In the late 1940s, Hollywood studios began to shift production abroad to Europe.", "Italy was, along with Britain, one of the major destinations for American film companies.", "Large-budget films shot at Cinecittà during the \"Hollywood on the Tiber\" era such as ''Quo Vadis'' (1951), ''Roman Holiday'' (1953), ''Ben-Hur'' (1959), and ''Cleopatra'' (1963) were made in English with international casts and sometimes, but not always, Italian settings or themes.The heyday of what was dubbed '\"Hollywood on the Tiber\" was between 1950 and 1970, during which time many of the most famous names in world cinema made films in Italy.", "The phrase \"Hollywood on Tiber\", a reference to the river that runs through Rome, was coined in 1950 by ''Time'' magazine during the making of ''Quo Vadis''.File:Quo Vadis (1951) trailer 8.jpg|''Quo Vadis'' by Mervyn LeRoy (1951)File:Audrey Hepburn and Gregory Peck on Vespa in Roman Holiday trailer.jpg|Gregory Peck and Audrey Hepburn in ''Roman Holiday'' by William Wyler (1953)File:Taylor and Burton Cleopatra.jpg|Richard Burton and Elizabeth Taylor in ''Cleopatra'' by Joseph L. Mankiewicz (1963)====Sword-and-sandal (a.k.a.", "Peplum)====Hercules'' by Pietro Francisci (1958)Sword-and-sandal, also known as ''peplum'' (''pepla'' plural), is a subgenre of largely Italian-made historical, mythological, or Biblical epics mostly set in the Greco-Roman antiquity or the Middle Ages.", "These films attempted to emulate the big-budget Hollywood historical epics of the time.With the release of 1958's ''Hercules'', starring American bodybuilder Steve Reeves, the Italian film industry gained entree to the American film market.", "These films were low-budget costume/adventure dramas, and had immediate appeal with both European and American audiences.", "Besides the many films starring a variety of muscle men as Hercules, heroes such as Samson and Italian fictional hero Maciste were common.Sometimes dismissed as low-quality escapist fare, the sword-and-sandal allowed newer directors such as Sergio Leone and Mario Bava a means of breaking into the film industry.", "Some, such as Mario Bava's ''Hercules in the Haunted World'' (Italian: Ercole Al Centro Della Terra) are considered seminal works in their own right.", "Most sword-and-sandal films were in colour, whereas previous Italian efforts had often been black and white.File:Douglas Mangano.jpg|Kirk Douglas and Silvana Mangano in a pause during the shootings of ''Ulysses'' by Mario Camerini (1954)File:Steve Reeves e Gordon Scott in Romolo e Remo.jpg|''Duel of the Titans'' by Sergio Corbucci (1961)File:Arrivano i titani (film).JPG| ''My Son, the Hero'' by Duccio Tessari (1962)===1960s===Marcello Mastroianni in ''8½'' (1963) by Federico Fellini, considered to be one of the greatest films of all timeFederico Fellini won the Palme d'Or for ''La Dolce Vita'', was nominated for twelve Academy Awards, and won four in the category of Best Foreign Language Film, the most for any director in the history of the academy.", "He received an honorary award for Lifetime Achievement at the 65th Academy Awards in Los Angeles.", "His other well-known films include ''La Strada'' (1954), ''Nights of Cabiria'' (1957), ''Juliet of the Spirits'' (1967), ''Satyricon'' (1969), ''Roma'' (1972), ''Amarcord'' (1973), and ''Fellini's Casanova'' (1976).", "''La Dolce Vita'' contributed the term ''paparazzi'' to the English language, derived from Paparazzo, the photographer friend of journalist Marcello Rubini (Marcello Mastroianni).It is with Bruno Bozzetto that the Italian cartoon reaches an international dimension: his debut feature film ''West and Soda'' (1965), an irresistible caricature of the Western genre, received acclaim from both audiences and critics.", "A few years later his second work entitled ''VIP my Brother Superman'' was released, distributed in 1968.From left to right, Franco and CiccioFranco and Ciccio were a comedy duo formed by Italian actors Franco Franchi (1928–1992) and Ciccio Ingrassia (1922–2003), particularly popular in the 1960s and 1970s.", "Together, they appeared in 116 films, usually as the main characters, and occasionally as supporting characters in films featuring well-known actors such as Totò, Domenico Modugno, Vittorio Gassman, Buster Keaton and Vincent Price.", "The two made their cinema debut in 1960 with the film ''Appuntamento a Ischia''.====Musicarelli====Al Bano and Romina Power in ''Nel sole'' by Aldo Grimaldi (1967)Musicarello (pl.", "musicarelli) is a film subgenre which emerged in Italy and which is characterised by the presence in main roles of young singers, already famous among their peers, and their new record album.", "The genre began in the late 1950s, and had its peak of production in the 1960s.The film which started the genre is considered to be ''I ragazzi del Juke-Box'' by Lucio Fulci (1959).", "The musicarelli were inspired by two American musicals, in particular ''Jailhouse Rock'' by Richard Thorpe (1957) and earlier ''Love Me Tender'' by Robert D. Webb (1956), both starring Elvis Presley.At the heart of the musicarello is a hit song, or a song that the producers hoped would become a hit, that usually shares its title with the film itself and sometimes has lyrics depicting a part of the plot.", "In the films there are almost always tender and chaste love stories accompanied by the desire to have fun and dance without thoughts.", "Musicarelli reflect the desire and need for emancipation of young Italians, highlighting some generational frictions.With the arrival of the 1968 student protests the genre started to decline, because the generational revolt became explicitly political and at the same time there was no longer music equally directed to the whole youth audience.", "For some time the duo Al Bano and Romina Power continued to enjoy success in musicarello films, but their films (like their songs) were a return to the traditional melody and to the musical films of the previous decades.====Commedia all'Italiana====''Divorce Italian Style'' by Pietro Germi (1961)Commedia all'italiana (\"Comedy in the Italian way\") is an Italian film genre born in Italy in the 1950s and developed in the following 1960s and 1970s.", "It is widely considered to have started with Mario Monicelli's ''Big Deal on Madonna Street'' in 1958 and derives its name from the title of Pietro Germi's ''Divorce Italian Style'', 1961.According to most of the critics, ''La Terrazza'' by Ettore Scola (1980) is the last work considered part of the Commedia all'italiana.Rather than a specific genre, the term indicates a period (approximately from the late 1950s to the early 1970s) in which the Italian film industry was producing many successful comedies, with some common traits like satire of manners, farcical and grotesque overtones, a strong focus on \"spicy\" social issues of the period (like sexual matters, divorce, contraception, marriage of the clergy, the economic rise of the country and its various consequences, the traditional religious influence of the Catholic Church) and a prevailing middle-class setting, often characterized by a substantial background of sadness and social criticism that diluted the comic contents.", "''Be Sick...", "It's Free'' by Luigi Zampa (1968)The genre of Commedia all'italiana differs markedly from the light and disengaged comedy from the so-called \"pink neorealism\" trend, in vogue until all of the 1950s, since, starting from the lesson of neorealism, is based on a more frank adherence in writing to reality; therefore, alongside the comic situations and plots typical of traditional comedy, always combines, with irony, a biting and sometimes bitter satire of manners, which reflects the evolution of Italian society in those years.My Friends'' by Mario Monicelli (1975)The success of films belonging to the \"Commedia all'italiana\" genre is due both to the presence of an entire generation of great actors, who knew how to masterfully embody the vices and virtues, and the attempts at emancipation but also the vulgarities of the Italians of the time, both to the careful work of directors, storytellers and screenwriters, who invented a real genre, with essentially new connotations, managing to find precious material for their cinematographic creations in the folds of a rapid evolution with many contradictions.Among the actors the main representatives are Alberto Sordi, Ugo Tognazzi, Vittorio Gassman, Marcello Mastroianni and Nino Manfredi, while among the actresses is Monica Vitti.", "Among directors and films, in 1961 Dino Risi directed ''Una vita difficile'' (''A Difficult Life''), then ''Il Sorpasso'' (''The Easy Life''), now a cult-movie, followed by: ''I Mostri'' (''The Monsters'', also known as ''15 From Rome''), ''In nome del popolo italiano'' (''In the Name of the Italian People'') and ''Profumo di donna'' (''Scent of a Woman'').", "Monicelli's works include ''La grande guerra'' (''The Great War''), ''I compagni'' (''The Organizer''), ''L'armata Brancaleone'', ''Vogliamo i colonnelli'' (''We Want the Colonels''), ''Romanzo popolare'' (''Come Home and Meet My Wife'') and the ''Amici miei'' (''My Friends'') series.====Spaghetti Western====Sergio Leone, widely regarded as one of the most influential directors in the history of cinema.On the heels of the sword-and-sandal craze, a related genre, the Spaghetti Western arose and was popular both in Italy and elsewhere.", "These films differed from traditional westerns by being filmed in Europe on limited budgets, but featured vivid cinematography.", "The term was used by foreign critics because most of these westerns were produced and directed by Italians.The most popular Spaghetti Westerns were those of Sergio Leone, credited as the inventor of the genre, whose Dollars Trilogy (1964's ''A Fistful of Dollars'', an unauthorized remake of the Japanese film ''Yojimbo'' by Akira Kurosawa; 1965's ''For a Few Dollars More'', an original sequel; and 1966's ''The Good, the Bad and the Ugly'', a World-famous prequel), featuring Clint Eastwood as a character marketed as \"the Man with No Name\" and notorious scores by Ennio Morricone, came to define the genre along with ''Once Upon a Time in the West'' (1968).====Giallo====During the 1960s and 1970s, Italian filmmakers Mario Bava, Riccardo Freda, Antonio Margheriti and Dario Argento developed ''giallo'' (plural ''gialli'', from ''giallo'', Italian for \"yellow\") horror films that become classics and influenced the genre in other countries.", "Representative films include: ''The Girl Who Knew Too Much'' (1963), ''Castle of Blood'' (1964), ''The Bird with the Crystal Plumage'' (1970), ''Twitch of the Death Nerve'' (1971), ''Deep Red'' (1975) and ''Suspiria'' (1977).", "''Giallo'' is a genre of mystery fiction and thrillers and often contains slasher, crime fiction, psychological thriller, psychological horror, sexploitation, and, less frequently, supernatural horror elements.", "''Giallo'' developed in the mid-to-late 1960s, peaked in popularity during the 1970s, and subsequently declined in commercial mainstream filmmaking over the next few decades, though examples continue to be produced.", "It was a predecessor to, and had significant influence on, the later American slasher film genre.", "''Giallo'' usually blends the atmosphere and suspense of thriller fiction with elements of horror fiction (such as slasher violence) and eroticism (similar to the French ''fantastique'' genre), and often involves a mysterious killer whose identity is not revealed until the final act of the film.", "Most critics agree that the ''giallo'' represents a distinct category with unique features, but there is some disagreement on what exactly defines a ''giallo'' film.The Girl Who Knew Too Much'' by Mario Bava (1963), considered by most critics to be the first ''giallo'' film.", "''Giallo'' films are generally characterized as gruesome murder-mystery thrillers that combine the suspense elements of detective fiction with scenes of shocking horror, featuring excessive bloodletting, stylish camerawork and often jarring musical arrangements.", "The archetypal ''giallo'' plot involves a mysterious, black-gloved psychopathic killer who stalks and butchers a series of beautiful women.", "While most ''gialli'' involve a human killer, some also feature a supernatural element.The protagonists are generally or often unconnected to the murders before they begin and are drawn to help find the killer through their role as witnesses to one of the murders.", "The mystery is the identity of the killer, who is often revealed in the climax to be another key character, who conceals his or her identity with a disguise (usually some combination of hat, mask, sunglasses, gloves, and trench coat).", "Thus, the literary whodunit element of the ''giallo'' novels is retained, while being filtered through horror genre elements and Italy's long-standing tradition of opera and staged grand guignol drama.", "The structure of ''giallo'' films is also sometimes reminiscent of the so-called \"weird menace\" pulp magazine horror mystery genre alongside Edgar Allan Poe and Agatha Christie.File:Sei donne per l'assassino.png|A scene from ''Blood and Black Lace'' by Mario Bava (1964)File:L'uccello dalle piume di cristallo (1970) Eva Renzi 4.png|''The Bird with the Crystal Plumage'' by Dario Argento (1970)File:Profondo rosso (1975) Giuliana Calandra (2).png|Giuliana Calandra in a famous scene from ''Deep Red'' by Dario Argento (1975)File:Suspiria 1977.jpg|Suzy (Jessica Harper) and Sara (Stefania Casini) in ''Suspiria'' (1977), the first film in Dario Argento's \"The Three Mothers\" trilogy==== Social and political cinema ====The auteur cinema of the 1960s continues its path by analyzing distinct themes and problems.", "A new authorial vision is emancipated from the surreal and existential veins of Fellini and Antonioni which sees cinema as an ideal means of denouncing corruption and malfeasance, both in the political system and in the industrial world.", "Thus was born the structure of the investigative film which, starting from the neorealist analysis of the facts, added to them a concise critical judgment, with the manifest intent of shaking the consciences of public opinion.", "This typology deliberately touches upon burning issues, often targeting the established power, with the intent of reconstructing a historical truth that is often hidden or denied.Gian Maria Volonté and Florinda Bolkan in ''Investigation of a Citizen Above Suspicion'' by Elio Petri (1970)The precursor of this way of understanding the director's profession was Francesco Rosi.", "In 1962 he inaugurated the investigation film project retracing, through a series of long flashbacks, the life of the homonym Sicilian criminal in the film ''Salvatore Giuliano''.", "The following year he directed Rod Steiger in ''Hands over the City'' (1963), in which he courageously denounced the collusion existing between the various organs of the State and the building exploitation in Naples.", "The film was awarded the Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival.===1970s===Marcello Mastroianni and Sophia Loren in ''A Special Day'' by Ettore Scola (1977)In the 1970s the work done by the director Lina Wertmüller was influential.", "She together with actors Giancarlo Giannini and Mariangela Melato created films such as ''The Seduction of Mimi'' (1972), ''Love and Anarchy'' (1973) and ''Swept Away'' (1974).", "Two years later, with ''Seven Beauties'' (1976), she obtained four nominations for the Academy Awards, making her the first woman to receive a nomination for best director.Ettore Scola made his directorial debut in 1964 with ''Let's Talk About Women''.", "In 1974, he directed his best-known film, ''We All Loved Each Other So Much''.", "Other films include ''Down and Dirty'' (1976) starring Nino Manfredi, and ''A Special Day'' (1977) starring Sophia Loren and Marcello Mastroianni.In the 1970s, after many animated documentaries, Gibba returned to the feature film with the erotic ''Il nano e la strega'' (1973) and ''Il racconto della giungla'' (1974).", "Emanuele Luzzati contributed what is considered one of the masterpieces of Italian animation: ''Il flauto magico'' (\"The Magic Flute\", 1976), based on Mozart's opera.After many satirical short films (centred on the popular figure of \"Signor Rossi\") Bruno Bozzetto returned to the feature film with what is considered his most ambitious work, ''Allegro Non Troppo'' (1977).", "Inspired by Disney's ''Fantasia'', it is a mixed media film, in which animated episodes are combined with classical music pieces.", "Another notable illustrator was Pino Zac who in 1971 shot (again with mixed technique) ''The Nonexistent Knight'', based on the novel of the same name by Italo Calvino.One of Francesco Rosi's most famous films of denunciation is ''The Mattei Affair'' (1972), a documentary into the mysterious disappearance of Enrico Mattei.", "The film won the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival.", "It became (together with ''Illustrious Corpses'' (1976)) a model for similar denunciation films produced both in Italy and abroad.", "Famous films of denunciation by Elio Petri are ''The Working Class Goes to Heaven'' (1971), a corrosive denunciation of life in the factory (winner of the Palme d'Or at Cannes) and ''Investigation of a Citizen Above Suspicion'' (1970).", "The latter (accompanied by a soundtrack by Ennio Morricone) is a dry psychoanalytic thriller centred on the aberrations of power.", "The film won the Academy Award for Best International Feature Film the following year.====Poliziotteschi====''Caliber 9'' by Fernando Di Leo (1972)Poliziotteschi (plural of poliziottesco) films constitute a subgenre of crime and action films that emerged in Italy in the late 1960s and reached the height of their popularity in the 1970s.", "They are also known as ''polizieschi all'italiana'', Euro-crime, Italo-crime, spaghetti crime films', or simply Italian crime films.Influenced by both 1970s French crime films and gritty 1960s and 1970s American cop films and vigilante films, poliziotteschi films were made amidst an atmosphere of socio-political turmoil in Italy and increasing Italian crime rates.The films generally featured graphic and brutal violence, organized crime, car chases, vigilantism, heists, gunfights, and corruption.", "The protagonists were generally tough working-class loners, willing to act outside a corrupt or overly bureaucratic system.", "Notable international actors who acted in this genre of films include Alain Delon, Henry Silva, Fred Williamson, Charles Bronson, Tomas Milian and others.====Bud Spencer and Terence Hill====Bud Spencer and Terence Hill in ''They Call Me Trinity'' by Enzo Barboni (1970)Also considered Spaghetti Westerns is a film genre which combined traditional western ambience with a Commedia all'italiana-type comedy.", "Films in this genre included ''They Call Me Trinity'' (1970) and ''Trinity Is Still My Name'' (1971), both by Enzo Barboni, which featured Bud Spencer and Terence Hill, the stage names of Carlo Pedersoli and Mario Girotti.Terence Hill and Bud Spencer made numerous films together.", "Most of their early films were Spaghetti Westerns, beginning with ''God Forgives...", "I Don't!''", "(1967), the first part of a trilogy, followed by ''Ace High'' (1968) and ''Boot Hill'' (1969), but they also starred in comedies such as ''... All the Way, Boys!''", "(1972) and ''Watch Out, We're Mad!''", "(1974).The next films shot by the couple of actors, almost all comedies, were ''Two Missionaries'' (1974), ''Crime Busters'' (1977), ''Odds and Evens'' (1978), ''I'm for the Hippopotamus'' (1979), ''Who Finds a Friend Finds a Treasure'' (1981), ''Go for It'' (1983), ''Double Trouble'' (1984), ''Miami Supercops'' (1985) and ''Troublemakers'' (1994).====Commedia sexy all'italiana ====''La moglie vergine'' by Marino Girolami (1975)Commedia sexy all'italiana is characterized typically by female nudity and comedy, and by the minimal weight given to social criticism that was the basic ingredient of the main commedia all'italiana genre.", "Stories are often set in affluent environments such as wealthy households.", "It is closely connected to the sexual revolution.", "For the first time, films with female nudity could be watched at the cinema.", "Pornography and scenes of explicit sex were still forbidden in Italian cinemas, but partial nudity was somewhat tolerated.", "The genre has been described as a cross between bawdy comedy and humorous erotic film with ample slapstick elements which follow more or less clichéd storylines.During this time, commedia sexy all'italiana films, described by the film critics of the time as not artistic or \"trash films\", were very popular in Italy.", "Today they are widely re-evaluated and have become cult movies.", "They also allowed the producers of Italian cinema to have enough revenue to produce successful artistic films.", "These comedy films were of little artistic value and reached their popularity by confronting Italian social taboos, most notably in the sexual sphere.", "Actors such as Lando Buzzanca, Lino Banfi, Renzo Montagnani, Alvaro Vitali, Gloria Guida, Barbara Bouchet and Edwige Fenech owe much of their popularity to these films.====Fantozzi====Paolo Villaggio as Ugo Fantozzi in ''Fantozzi'' by Luciano Salce (1975)The films starring Ugo Fantozzi, a character invented by Paolo Villaggio for his television sketches and newspaper short stories, also fell within the comic satirical comedy genre.", "Although Villaggio's movies tend to bridge comedy with a more elevated social satire, this character had a significant impact on Italian society, to such a degree that the adjective ''fantozziano'' entered the lexicon.", "Ugo Fantozzi represents the archetype of the average Italian of the 1970s, middle-class with a simple lifestyle with the anxieties common to an entire class of workers, being re-evaluated by critics.", "Of the many films telling of Fantozzi's misadventures, the most notable and famous were ''Fantozzi'' (1975) and ''Il secondo tragico Fantozzi'' (1976), both directed by Luciano Salce.==== Sceneggiata====''Sgarro alla camorra '' by Ettore Maria Fizzarotti (1973)The sceneggiata (pl.", "sceneggiate) or sceneggiata napoletana is a form of musical drama typical of Naples.", "Beginning as a form of musical theatre after World War I, it was also adapted for cinema; sceneggiata films became especially popular in the 1970s, and contributed to the genre becoming more widely known outside Naples.", "The most famous actors who played dramas were Mario Merola, Mario Trevi, and Nino D'Angelo.The sceneggiata can be described as a \"musical soap opera\", where action and dialogue are interspersed with Neapolitan songs.", "Plots revolve around melodramatic themes drawing from the Neapolitan culture and tradition, including passion, jealousy, betrayal, personal deceit and treachery, honour, vengeance, and life in the world of petty crime.", "Songs and dialogue were originally in Neapolitan dialect, although, especially in film production, Italian has sometimes been preferred, to reach a larger audience.", "''Sgarro alla camorra'' (i.e.", "\"Offence to the Camorra\", 1973), written and directed by Ettore Maria Fizzarotti and starring Mario Merola at his film debut, is regarded as the first sceneggiata film and as a prototype for the genre.===1980s===Ennio Morricone has composed over 500 scores for cinema and television since 1946.He is widely considered one of the most prolific and greatest film composers of all time.The 1980s was a period of decline for Italian filmmaking.", "In 1985, only 80 films were produced (the least since the postwar period) and the total audience decreased from 525 million in 1970 to 123 million.", "The era of producers ended; Carlo Ponti and Dino De Laurentiis worked abroad, and Goffredo Lombardo and Franco Cristaldi were no longer key figures.", "The crisis affected the Italian genre cinema above all, which, by virtue of the success of commercial television, was deprived of most of its audience.", "As a result, cinemas began showing mainly Hollywood films, which steadily took over, while many other cinemas closed.Among the major artistic films of this era were ''La città delle donne'', ''E la nave va'', ''Ginger and Fred'' by Fellini, ''L'albero degli zoccoli'' by Ermanno Olmi (winner of the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival), ''La notte di San Lorenzo'' by Paolo and Vittorio Taviani, Antonioni's ''Identificazione di una donna'', and ''Bianca'' and ''La messa è finita'' by Nanni Moretti.", "''Non ci resta che piangere'', directed by and starring both Roberto Benigni and Massimo Troisi, is a cult movie in Italy.Carlo Verdone, actor, screenwriter and film director, is best known for his comedic roles in Italian classics, which he also wrote and directed.", "His career was jumpstarted by his first three successes, ''Un sacco bello'' (1980), ''Bianco, rosso e Verdone'' (1981) and ''Borotalco'' (1982).", "Francesco Nuti began his professional career as an actor in the late 1970s, when he formed the cabaret group ''Giancattivi'' together with Alessandro Benvenuti and Athina Cenci.", "Starting in 1985, he began to direct his movies, scoring an immediate success with the films ''Casablanca, Casablanca '' and '' All the Fault of Paradise'' (1985), ''Stregati'' (1987), ''Caruso Pascoski, Son of a Pole'' (1988), ''Willy Signori e vengo da lontano'' (1990) and ''Women in Skirts'' (1991).The cinepanettoni (singular: ''cinepanettone'') are a series of farcical comedy films, one or two of which are scheduled for release annually in Italy during the Christmas period.", "The films were originally produced by Aurelio De Laurentiis' Filmauro studio.For the majority of critics the \"Commedia all'italiana\" waned from the beginning of the 1980s, giving way to an \"Commedia italiana\" (\"Italian comedy\").===1990s===Roberto Benigni and Nicoletta BraschiThe economic crisis that emerged in the 1980s began to ease over the next decade.", "Nonetheless, the 1992–93 and 1993–94 seasons marked an all-time low in the number of films made, in the national market share (15 per cent), in the total number of viewers (under 90 million per year) and in the number of cinemas.", "The effect of this industrial contraction was the disappearance of Italian genre cinema in the middle of the decade, as it was no longer able to compete with the contemporary big Hollywood blockbusters (mainly due to the enormous budget differences).The most noted film of the period is ''Nuovo Cinema Paradiso'', for which Giuseppe Tornatore won a 1989 Oscar (awarded in 1990) for Best Foreign Language Film.", "This award was followed when Gabriele Salvatores's ''Mediterraneo'' won the same prize in 1991.", "''Il Postino: The Postman'' (1994), directed by the British Michael Radford and starring Massimo Troisi, received five nominations at the Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Actor for Troisi, and won for Best Original Score.", "In 1998 Roberto Benigni won three Oscars for his movie ''Life Is Beautiful'' (''La vita è bella)''.Leonardo Pieraccioni made his directorial debut with ''The Graduates'' (1995).", "In 1996 he directed his breakthrough film ''The Cyclone'', which grossed Lire 75 billion at the box office.In the 1990s, Italian animation entered a new phase of production due to the Turin Lanterna Magica studio which in 1996, under the direction of Enzo D'Alò, created the Christmas fairy tale ''La freccia azzurra'', based on a short story by Gianni Rodari.", "The film was a success and paved the way for other feature films.", "In fact, in 1998, ''Lucky and Zorba'' based on a novel by Luis Sepúlveda was distributed, which attracted the favour of the public.===2000s===The Italian film industry regained stability and critical recognition.", "In 1995, 93 films were produced, while in 2005, 274 films were made.", "In 2006, the national market share reached 31 per cent.", "In 2001, Nanni Moretti's film ''The Son's Room'' (''La stanza del figlio'') received the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival.", "Other noteworthy recent Italian films include: ''Jona che visse nella balena'' directed by Roberto Faenza, ''Il grande cocomero'' by Francesca Archibugi, ''The Profession of Arms'' (''Il mestiere delle armi'') by Olmi, ''L'ora di religione'' by Marco Bellocchio, ''Il ladro di bambini'', ''Lamerica'', ''The Keys to the House'' (''Le chiavi di casa'') by Gianni Amelio, ''I'm Not Scared'' (''Io non-ho paura'') by Gabriele Salvatores, ''Le Fate Ignoranti'', ''Facing Windows'' (''La finestra di fronte'') by Ferzan Özpetek, ''Good Morning, Night'' (''Buongiorno, notte'') by Marco Bellocchio, ''The Best of Youth'' (''La meglio gioventù'') by Marco Tullio Giordana, ''The Beast in the Heart'' (''La bestia nel cuore'') by Cristina Comencini.In 2008 Paolo Sorrentino's ''Il Divo'', a biographical film based on the life of Giulio Andreotti, won the Jury prize and ''Gomorra'', a crime drama film, directed by Matteo Garrone won the Gran Prix at the Cannes Film Festival.The director Enzo d'Alò produced other films in the following years such as ''Momo'' (2001) and ''Opopomoz'' (2003).", "The Turin studio distributed on its behalf the films ''Aida of the Trees'' (2001) and ''Totò Sapore e la magica storia della pizza'' (2003), accompanied by a good response at the box office.", "In 2003, the first entirely Italian animated film in computer graphics was released: ''L'apetta Giulia and Signora Vita'', directed by Paolo Modugno.===2010s===Perfect Strangers'' (2016) by Paolo Genovese was included in the Guinness World Records as the most remade film in cinema history, with a total of 18 remakes.Paolo Sorrentino's ''The Great Beauty'' (''La Grande Bellezza'') won the 2014 Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film.In 2010, the first Italian animated film in 3D was made, directed by Iginio Straffi, entitled ''Winx Club 3D: Magical Adventure'', based on the homonymous series; in the meantime Enzo D'Alò returned to theatres, presenting his ''Pinocchio'' (2012).", "''Cinderella the Cat'' (2017), taken from the text ''Pentamerone'' by Giambattista Basile, won two David di Donatello's, one of which was for special effects, becoming the first animated film to be nominated, and win, in this category.The two highest-grossing Italian films in Italy have both been directed by Gennaro Nunziante and starred Checco Zalone: ''Sole a catinelle'' (2013) with €51.8 million, and ''Quo Vado?''", "(2016) with €65.3 million.", "''They Call Me Jeeg'', a 2016 critically acclaimed superhero film directed by Gabriele Mainetti and starring Claudio Santamaria, won eight David di Donatello, two Nastro d'Argento, and a Globo d'oro.Gianfranco Rosi's documentary film ''Fire at Sea'' (2016) won the Golden Bear at the 66th Berlin International Film Festival.Other successful 2010s Italian films include: ''Vincere'' and ''The Traitor'' by Marco Bellocchio, ''The First Beautiful Thing'' (''La prima cosa bella''), ''Human Capital'' (''Il capitale umano'') and ''Like Crazy'' (''La pazza gioia'') by Paolo Virzì, ''We Have a Pope'' (''Habemus Papam'') and ''Mia Madre'' by Nanni Moretti, ''Caesar Must Die'' (''Cesare deve morire'') by Paolo and Vittorio Taviani, ''Don't Be Bad'' (''Non essere cattivo'') by Claudio Caligari, ''Romanzo Criminale'' by Michele Placido (that spawned a TV series, ''Romanzo criminale - La serie''), ''Youth'' (''La giovinezza'') by Paolo Sorrentino, ''Suburra'' by Stefano Sollima, ''Perfect Strangers'' (''Perfetti sconosciuti'') by Paolo Genovese, ''Mediterranea'' and ''A Ciambra'' by Jonas Carpignano, ''Italian Race'' (''Veloce come il vento'') and ''The First King: Birth of an Empire'' (''Il primo re'') by Matteo Rovere, and ''Tale of Tales'' (''Il racconto dei racconti''), ''Dogman'' and ''Pinocchio'' by Matteo Garrone.", "''Call Me by Your Name'' (2017), the final installment in Luca Guadagnino's thematic ''Desire'' trilogy, following ''I Am Love'' (2009) and ''A Bigger Splash'' (2015), received widespread acclaim and numerous accolades, including the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay and the nomination for Best Picture in 2018.", "''Perfect Strangers'' by Paolo Genovese was included in the ''Guinness World Records'' as it became the most remade film in cinema history, with a total of 18 versions.===2020s===Successful 2020s Italian films include: ''The Life Ahead'' by Edoardo Ponti, ''Hidden Away'' by Giorgio Diritti, ''Bad Tales'' by Damiano and Fabio D'Innocenzo, ''The Predators'' by Pietro Castellitto, ''Padrenostro'' by Claudio Noce, ''Notturno'' by Gianfranco Rosi, ''The King of Laughter'' by Mario Martone, ''A Chiara'' by Jonas Carpignano, ''Freaks Out'' by Gabriele Mainetti, ''The Hand of God'' by Paolo Sorrentino, ''Nostalgia'' by Mario Martone, ''Dry'' by Paolo Giordano, ''The Hanging Sun'' by Francesco Carrozzini, ''Bones and All'' by Luca Guadagnino, ''L'immensità'' by Emanuele Crialese, ''Robbing Mussolini'' by Renato De Maria, ''Adagio'' by Stefano Sollima, ''There's Still Tomorrow by Paola Cortellesi, ''Last Night of Amore by Andrea Di Stefano, ''The First Day of My Life by Paolo Genovese, ''Thank You Guys'' by Riccardo Milani, ''Io capitano'' by Matteo Garrone, ''A Brighter Tomorrow'' by Nanni Moretti and ''Comandante'' by Edoardo De Angelis." ], [ "100 Italian films to be saved", "''Everybody Go Home'' by Luigi Comencini (1960)The list of the 100 Italian films to be saved () was created with the aim to report \"100 films that have changed the collective memory of the country between 1942 and 1978\".", "The project was established in 2008 by the Venice Days festival section of the 65th Venice International Film Festival, in collaboration with Cinecittà Holding and with the support of the Ministry of Cultural Heritage.The list was edited by Fabio Ferzetti, film critic of the newspaper ''Il Messaggero'', in collaboration with film director Gianni Amelio and the writers and film critics Gian Piero Brunetta, Giovanni De Luna, Gianluca Farinelli, Giovanna Grignaffini, Paolo Mereghetti, Morando Morandini, Domenico Starnone and Sergio Toffetti." ], [ "Cinematheques", "Cineteca Nazionale is a film archive located in Rome.", "Founded in 1949, it includes 80,000 films on file, 600,000 photographs, 50,000 posters and the collection of the Italian Association for the History of Cinema Research (AIRSC).", "It arose from the archival heritage of the Centro Sperimentale di Cinematografia, which in 1943, had been removed by the Nazi occupiers.", "Cineteca Italiana is a private film archive located in Milan.", "Established in 1947, and as a foundation in 1996, the Cineteca Italiana houses over 20,000 films and more than 100,000 photographs from the history of Italian and international cinema.", "Cineteca di Bologna is a film archive in Bologna.", "It was founded in 1962." ], [ "Museums", "The Mole Antonelliana in Turin, which houses the National Museum of CinemaThe National Museum of Cinema in Turin is a motion picture museum inside the Mole Antonelliana tower.", "It is operated by the ''Maria Adriana Prolo Foundation'', and the core of its collection is the result of the work of the historian and collector Maria Adriana Prolo.", "It was housed in the ''Palazzo Chiablese''.", "In 2008, with 532,196 visitors, it ranked 13th among the most visited Italian museums.", "The museum houses pre-cinematographic optical devices such as magic lanterns, earlier and current film technologies, stage items from early Italian movies and other memorabilia.", "Along the exhibition path of about 35,000 square feet (3,200 m2) on five levels are areas devoted to the different kinds of film crew, and in the main hall, fitted in the temple hall of the Mole, a series of chapels representing several film genres.The Museum of Precinema is a museum in the Palazzo Angeli, Prato della Valle, Padua, related to the history of precinema, or precursors of film.", "It was created in 1998 to display the Minici Zotti Collection, in collaboration with the Comune of Padova.The Cinema Museum of Rome is located in Cinecittà.", "The collections consist of movie posters and playbills, cine cameras, projectors, magic lanterns, stage costumes and the patent of Filoteo Alberini's \"kinetograph\".", "The Milan Cinema Museum, managed by the Cineteca Italiana, is divided into three sections, the precinema, animation cinema and \"Milan as a film set\", as well as multimedia and interactive stations.The Catania Cinema Museum exhibits documents concerning cinema, its techniques and its history, particularly the link between cinema and Sicily.", "The Cinema Museum of Syracuse collects more than 10,000 exhibits on display in 12 rooms." ], [ "Italian Academy Award winners", "Federico Fellini has won four Oscars for Best Foreign Language Film, the most for any director in the history of the academy, and has had three other films submitted.", "He is considered one of the most influential and widely revered filmmakers in the history of cinema.After the United States and the United Kingdom, Italy has the most Academy Awards wins.Italy is the most awarded country at the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, with 14 awards won, 3 Special Awards and 31 nominations.", "Winners with the year of the ceremony:*''Shoeshine'' (1947), by Vittorio De Sica (Honorary Award)*''Bicycle Thieves'' (1949), by Vittorio De Sica (Honorary Award)*''The Walls of Malapaga'' (1950), by René Clément (Honorary Award)*''La Strada'' (1956), by Federico Fellini*''Nights of Cabiria'' (1957), by Federico Fellini*''8½'' (1963), by\tFederico Fellini*''Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow'' (1964), by Vittorio De Sica*''Investigation of a Citizen Above Suspicion'' (1970), by Elio Petri*''The Garden of the Finzi-Continis'' (1971), by Vittorio De Sica*''Amarcord'' (1973), by Federico Fellini*''Cinema Paradiso'' (1989), by Giuseppe Tornatore*''Mediterraneo'' (1992), by Gabriele Salvatores*''Life Is Beautiful'' (1998), by Roberto Benigni*''The Great Beauty'' (2013), by Paolo SorrentinoSophia Loren and Eleonora Brown in ''Two Women'' by Vittorio De Sica (1960)In 1961, Sophia Loren won the Academy Award for Best Actress for her role in Vittorio De Sica's ''Two Women''.", "She was the first actress to win an Academy Award for a performance in any foreign language, and the second Italian leading lady Oscar-winner, after Anna Magnani for ''The Rose Tattoo''.", "In 1998, Roberto Benigni was the first Italian actor to win the Best Actor for ''Life Is Beautiful''.Italian-born filmmaker Frank Capra won three times at the Academy Award for Best Director, for ''It Happened One Night'', ''Mr.", "Deeds Goes to Town'' and ''You Can't Take It with You''.", "Bernardo Bertolucci won the award for ''The Last Emperor'', and also Best Adapted Screenplay for the same movie.Ennio De Concini, Alfredo Giannetti and Pietro Germi won the award for Best Original Screenplay for ''Divorce Italian Style''.", "The Academy Award for Best Film Editing was won by Gabriella Cristiani for ''The Last Emperor'' and by Pietro Scalia for ''JFK'' and ''Black Hawk Down''.Dino De Laurentiis produced more than 500 films, of which 38 were nominated for Oscars.The award for Best Original Score was won by Nino Rota for ''The Godfather Part II'';\tGiorgio Moroder for ''Midnight Express''; Nicola Piovani for ''Life is Beautiful''; Dario Marianelli for ''Atonement''; and Ennio Morricone for ''The Hateful Eight''.", "Giorgio Moroder also won the award for Best Original Song for ''Flashdance'' and ''Top Gun''.The Italian winners at the Academy Award for Best Production Design are Dario Simoni for ''Lawrence of Arabia'' and ''Doctor Zhivago''; Elio Altramura and Gianni Quaranta for ''A Room with a View''; Bruno Cesari, Osvaldo Desideri and Ferdinando Scarfiotti for ''The Last Emperor''; Luciana Arrighi for ''Howards End''; and Dante Ferretti and Francesca Lo Schiavo for ''The Aviator'', ''Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street'' and ''Hugo''.The winners at the Academy Award for Best Cinematography are: Tony Gaudio for ''Anthony Adverse''; Pasqualino De Santis\tfor ''Romeo and Juliet''; Vittorio Storaro for ''Apocalypse Now'', ''Reds'' and ''The Last Emperor''; and Mauro Fiore for ''Avatar''.The winners at the Academy Award for Best Costume Design are Piero Gherardi for ''La dolce vita'' and ''8½''; Vittorio Nino Novarese for ''Cleopatra'' and ''Cromwell''; Danilo Donati for ''The Taming of the Shrew'', ''Romeo and Juliet'', and ''Fellini's Casanova''; Franca Squarciapino for ''Cyrano de Bergerac''; Gabriella Pescucci\tfor ''The Age of Innocence''; and Milena Canonero for ''Barry Lyndon'', ''Chariots of Fire'', ''Marie Antoinette'' and ''The Grand Budapest Hotel''.Special effects artist Carlo Rambaldi won three Oscars: one Special Achievement Academy Award for Best Visual Effects for ''King Kong'' and two Academy Awards for Best Visual Effects for ''Alien'' (1979) and ''E.T.", "the Extra-Terrestrial''.", "The Academy Award for Best Makeup and Hairstyling was won by Manlio Rocchetti for ''Driving Miss Daisy'', and Alessandro Bertolazzi and Giorgio Gregorini for ''Suicide Squad''.Sophia Loren, Federico Fellini, Michelangelo Antonioni, Dino De Laurentiis, Ennio Morricone, and Piero Tosi also received the Academy Honorary Award." ], [ "Festivals and film awards", "The Association of Italian Film Festivals (AFIC; Italian: ''Associazione Festival italiani di cinema'') is the peak body for film festivals held in Italy." ], [ "Directors" ], [ "Actors and actresses" ], [ "See also", "* Media of Italy*Cinema of the world*History of cinema*100 Italian films to be saved*List of actors from Italy*List of actresses from Italy*List of film directors from Italy*List of Italian movies*List of highest-grossing films in Italy" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cinema of Poland" ], [ "Introduction", "The history of '''cinema in Poland''' is almost as long as the history of cinematography, and it has universally recognized achievements, even though Polish films tend to be less commercially available than films from several other European nations.After World War II, the communist government built an auteur-based national cinema, trained hundreds of new directors and empowered them to make films.", "Filmmakers like Roman Polański, Krzysztof Kieślowski, Agnieszka Holland, Andrzej Wajda, Andrzej Żuławski, Andrzej Munk, and Jerzy Skolimowski impacted the development of Polish film-making.", "In more recent years, the industry has been producer-led with finance being the key to a film being made, and with many independent filmmakers of all genres, Polish productions tend to be more inspired by American film." ], [ "History", "===Early history===The first cinema was founded in Łódź in 1899, several years after the invention of the Cinematograph.", "Initially dubbed ''Living Pictures Theatre'', it gained much popularity and by the end of the next decade there were cinemas in almost every major town in Poland.", "Arguably the first Polish filmmaker was Kazimierz Prószyński, who filmed various short documentaries in Warsaw.", "His pleograph film camera had been patented before the Lumière brothers' invention and he is credited as the author of the earliest surviving Polish documentary titled ''Ślizgawka w Łazienkach'' (''Skating-rink in the Royal Baths'', also known as ''On skating-rink''), as well as the first short narrative films ''Powrót birbanta'' (''Rake's return home'') and ''Przygoda dorożkarza'' (''Cabman's Adventure''), both created in 1902.Another pioneer of cinema was Bolesław Matuszewski, who became one of the first filmmakers working for the Lumière company - and the official \"cinematographer\" of the Russian tsars in 1897.The earliest surviving short film is ''Pruska kultura'' (''Prussian Culture'') and the earliest surviving feature film is ''Antoś pierwszy raz w Warszawie'' (''Antoś for the First Time in Warsaw'').", "Both of them were made in 1908, the first one by an unknown director and the second one by Antoni Fertner.", "The date of ''Antoś''' première, October 22, 1908, is considered the founding date of the Polish film industry.", "Soon Polish artists started experimenting with other genres of cinema: in 1910 Władysław Starewicz made one of the first animated cartoons in the world - and the first to use the stop motion technique, the ''Piękna Lukanida'' (''Beautiful Lukanida'').", "By the start of World War I the cinema in Poland was already in full swing, with numerous adaptations of major works of Polish literature screened (notably the ''Dzieje grzechu'', ''Meir Ezofowicz'' and ''Nad Niemnem'').During World War I the Polish cinema crossed borders.", "Films made in Warsaw or Vilnius were often rebranded with German-language intertitles and shown in Berlin.", "That was how a young actress Pola Negri (born Barbara Apolonia Chałupiec) gained fame in Germany and eventually became one of the European super-stars of silent film.The first woman to direct a film in Poland and the only female film director of the Polish silent film era was Nina Niovilla.", "She debuted in 1918 in Berlin, and then directed her first Polish film titled ''Tamara'' (also known under the title ''Obrońcy Lwowa'') in 1919.During World War II, Polish filmmakers in Great Britain created the anti-Nazi color film ''Calling Mr. Smith'' (1943) about Nazi crimes in occupied Europe and about Nazi propaganda.", "It was one of the first anti-Nazi films in history being both an avant-garde and a documentary film.===After WWII===In November 1945, the communist government founded the film production and distribution organization Film Polski, and put the well-known Polish People's Army filmmaker Aleksander Ford in charge.", "Starting with a few railway carriages full of film equipment taken from the Germans they proceed to train and build a Polish film industry.", "The FP output was limited; only thirteen features were released between 1947 and its dissolution in 1952, concentrating on Polish suffering at the hands of the Nazis.", "In 1947, Ford moved to help establish the new National Film School in Łódź, where he taught for 20 years.The industry used imported cameras and film stocks.", "At first ORWO black and white film stock from East Germany and then Eastman colour negative stock and ORWO print stocks for rushes and release prints.", "Poland made its own lighting equipment.", "Because of the high costs of film stock Polish films were shot with very low shooting ratios, the amount of film stock used in shooting the film to length of the finished film.", "The equipment and film stock were not the best and budgets were modest but the film makers received probably the best training in the world from the Polish Film School.", "Another advantage was Film Polski's status as a state organisation, so its film-makers had access to all Polish institutions and their cooperation in making their films.", "Film cameras were able to enter almost every aspect of Polish life.The first film produced in Poland following the World War II was ''Zakazane piosenki'' (1946), directed by Leonard Buczkowski, which was seen by 10.8 million people (out of 23,8 total population) in its initial theatrical run.", "Buczkowski continued to make films regularly until his death in 1967.Other important films of the early post-World War II period were ''The Last Stage'' (1948), directed by Wanda Jakubowska, who continued to make films until the transition from communism to capitalism in 1989, and ''Border Street'' (1949), directed by Aleksander Ford.By the mid 1950s, following the end of Stalinism in Poland, Film production was organised into film groups.", "A film group was a collection of film makers, led by an experienced film director and consisting of writers, film directors and production managers.", "They would write scripts, create budgets, apply for funding off the Ministry of Culture and produce the picture.", "They would hire actors and crew, and use studios and laboratories controlled by Film Polski.The change in political climate gave rise to the Polish Film School movement, a training ground for some of the icons of the world cinematography, e.g., Roman Polanski (''Knife in the Water'', ''Rosemary's Baby'', ''Frantic'', ''The Pianist'') and Krzysztof Zanussi (a leading director of the so-called ''cinema of moral anxiety'' of the 1970s).", "Andrzej Wajda's films offer insightful analyses of the universal element of the Polish experience - the struggle to maintain dignity under the most trying circumstances.", "His films defined several Polish generations.", "In 2000, Wajda was awarded an honorary Oscar for his overall contribution to cinema.", "Four of his films were nominated for Best Foreign Language Film award at Academy Awards with seven other Polish directors receiving one nomination each: Roman Polański, Jerzy Kawalerowicz, Jerzy Hoffman, Jerzy Antczak, Agnieszka Holland, Jan Komasa and Jerzy Skolimowski.", "In 2015, Polish filmmaker Paweł Pawlikowski received this award for his film ''Ida''.", "In 2019, he was also nominated to the award for his next film ''Cold War'' in two categories - Best Foreign Language Film and Best Director.It is also important to note that during the 1980s, the People's Republic of Poland instituted the martial law to vanquish and censor all forms of opposition against the communist rule of the nation, including outlets such as cinema and radio.", "A notable film to have emerged during this period was Ryszard Bugajski's 1982 film ''Interrogation'' (''Przesluchanie''), which depicts the story of an unfortunate woman (played by Krystyna Janda) who is arrested and tortured by the secret police into confessing a crime she knows nothing about.", "The anti-communist nature of the film brought about the film's over seven-year ban.", "In 1989, the ban was repealed after the overthrow of the Communist government in Poland, and the film was shown in theaters for the first time later that year.", "The film is still lauded today for its audacity in depicting the cruelty of the Stalinist regime, as many artists feared persecution during that time.In the 1990s, Krzysztof Kieślowski won a universal acclaim with productions such as ''Dekalog'' (made for television), ''The Double Life of Véronique'' and the ''Three Colors'' trilogy.", "Another of the most famous movies in Poland is Krzysztof Krauze’s ''The Debt'', which became a blockbuster.", "It showed the brutal reality of Polish capitalism and the growth of poverty.", "A considerable number of Polish film directors (e.g., Agnieszka Holland and Janusz Kamiński) have worked in American studios.", "Polish animated films - like those by Jan Lenica and Zbigniew Rybczyński (Oscar, 1983) - drew on a long tradition and continued to derive their inspiration from Poland's graphic arts.", "Other notable Polish film directors include: Tomasz Bagiński, Małgorzata Szumowska, Jan Jakub Kolski, Jerzy Kawalerowicz, Stanisław Bareja and Janusz Zaorski.Among prominent annual film festivals taking place in Poland are: Warsaw International Film Festival, Camerimage, International Festival of Independent Cinema Off Camera, New Horizons Film Festival as well as Gdynia Film Festival and Polish Film Awards.====Cinema audience====The Communist government invested resources into building a sophisticated cinema audience.", "All the cinema were state owned and consisted of first run premiere cinema, local cinema and art house cinemas.", "Tickets were cheap and students and old people received discounts.", "In the city of Lodz there were 36 cinemas in the 1970s showing films from all over the world.", "There were the Italian films of Fellini, French comedies, American crime movies such as Don Siegel's \"Charley Varrick\" .", "Films were shown in their original versions with Polish subtitles.", "Anti-Communist and Cold War films were not shown, but a bigger restriction was the cost of some films.", "There were popular film magazines like \"Film\" and \"Screen\", critical magazines such as \"Kino\".", "This all helped to build a well informed film audience." ], [ "Notable films" ], [ "Polish Film Academy", "The Polish Film Academy was founded in 2003 in Warsaw and aims to provide native filmmakers a forum for discussion and a way to promote the reputation of Polish cinema through publications, presentations, discussions and regular promotion of the subject in the schools.===Awards===Since 2003, the winners of the Polish Film Awards are elected by the members of the Academy.", "* 2003: ''The Pianist'' * 2004: ''Squint Your Eyes''* 2005: ''The Wedding'' * 2006: ''The Collector'' * 2007: ''Savior Square''* 2008: ''Katyń''* 2009: ''33 Scenes from Life''* 2010: ''Reverse''* 2011: ''Essential Killing''* 2012: ''Rose''* 2013: ''Manhunt''* 2014: ''Ida''* 2015: ''Gods''* 2016: ''Body''* 2017: ''Volhynia''* 2018: ''Silent Night''* 2019: ''Cold War''* 2020: ''Corpus Christi''* 2021: ''Kill It and Leave This Town''* 2022: ''Quo Vadis, Aida?", "''* 2023: ''EO''" ], [ "Film schools", "Several institutions, both government run and private, provide formal education in various aspects of filmmaking.", "*National Film School in Łódź*Krzysztof Kieślowski Film School at University of Silesia in Katowice*Szkoła Aktorska Haliny i Jana Machulskich*Szkoła Wajdy*AMA Film Academy*Warszawska Szkoła Filmowa" ], [ "Personalities", "File:Andrzej-Wajda-1963.jpg|Andrzej WajdaFile:Barbara Brylska.JPG|Barbara BrylskaFile:MJK32641_Agnieszka_Holland_(Pokot,_Berlinale_2017)_crop.jpg|Agnieszka HollandFile:Roman_Polanski_2011_2.jpg|Roman PolanskiFile:Krzysztof_Kieślowski_Portrait_1994.jpg|Krzysztof KieślowskiFile:Pawel Pawlikowski (cropped).jpg|Paweł PawlikowskiFile:Jan Englert Krystyna Janda Joanna Szczepkowska 2019 (cropped, only Janda).jpg|Krystyna JandaFile:Daniel Olbrychski 2019.jpg|Daniel OlbrychskiFile:JKRUK 20090828 ANDRZEJ SEWERYN W BUSKU-ZDROJU IMG 5364.jpg|Andrzej SewerynFile:2019 - Pol’and’Rock - Wojciech Pszoniak (01b).jpg|Wojciech PszoniakFile:Joanna Kulig 2.jpg|Joanna KuligFile:Janusz Gajos 2 (20782857433) (cropped).jpg|Janusz Gajos" ], [ "Poland at international festivals", "===Venice Film Festival===*1982 Grand Jury Prize (''Imperative'', Krzysztof Zanussi)*1984 Golden Lion (''A Year of the Quiet Sun'', Krzysztof Zanussi)*1993 Golden Lion (''Three Colours: Blue'', Krzysztof Kieślowski)*2010 Grand Jury Prize (''Essential Killing'', Jerzy Skolimowski)*2016 Golden Lion Honorary Award (Jerzy Skolimowski)===Locarno Festival===* 1971 Golden Leopard (''Znaki na drodze'', Andrzej Piotrowski)* 1973 Golden Leopard (''The Illumination'', Krzysztof Zanussi)* 1986 Golden Leopard (''Jezioro Bodenskie'', Janusz Zaorski)* 2008 Special Jury Prize (''33 Scenes from Life,'' Malgorzata Szumowska)* 2016 Best Actor Award (Andrzej Seweryn, ''The Last Family'')===San Sebastian International Film Festival===* 1958 Golden Shell for Best Film (''Ewa chce spać'', Tadeusz Chmielewski)* 1967 Silver Shell for Best Director (Janusz Morgenstern, ''Yowita'')* 1976 Silver Shell for Best Actor (Zdzisław Kozien, ''Skazany'')* 1980 Golden Shell for Best Film (''The Orchestra Conductor'', Andrzej Wajda)* 1985 Golden Shell for Best Film (''Yesterday'', Radosław Piwowarski)* 1985 Silver Shell for Best Actor (Piotr Siwkiewicz, ''Yesterday'')* 1989 Silver Shell for Best Director (Mirosław Bork, ''Konsul'')* 1992 Silver Shell for Best Actress (Krystyna Janda, ''Zwolnieni z życia'')===Cannes Film Festival===*1957 Jury Prize (''Kanał'', Andrzej Wajda)*1961 Jury Prize (''Mother Joan of the Angels'', Jerzy Kawalerowicz)*1973 Jury Prize (''The Hour-Glass Sanatorium'', Wojciech Jerzy Has)*1978 Grand Prix (''The Shout'', Jerzy Skolimowski)*1980 Jury Prize (''The Constant Factor'', Krzysztof Zanussi)*1981 Palme d'Or (''Man of Iron'', Andrzej Wajda)*1982 Best Actress (Jadwiga Jankowska-Cieślak)*1988 Jury Prize (''A Short Film About Killing'', Krzysztof Kieślowski)*1990 Best Actress (Krystyna Janda)*1998 Cinéfondation (''Jakub'', Adam Guzinski)*2002 Palme d'Or (''The Pianist'', Roman Polanski)*2018 Best Director (''Cold War'', Paweł Pawlikowski)===Berlin International Film Festival===*1965 Silver Bear Grand Jury Prize (''Repulsion'', Roman Polanski)*1976 Silver Bear for Best Actress (Jadwiga Barańska)*1980 Silver Bear for Best Actor (Andrzej Seweryn)*1981 Silver Bear for Best Actress (Barbara Grabowska)*1982 Silver Bear Grand Jury Prize (''Shivers'', Wojciech Marczewski)*1994 Silver Bear for Best Director (''Three Colors: White'', Krzysztof Kieślowski)*2006 Honorary Golden Bear (Andrzej Wajda)*2009 Alfred Bauer Prize (''Tatarak'', Andrzej Wajda)*2010 Silver Bear for Best Director (''The Ghost Writer'', Roman Polański)*2015 Silver Bear for Best Director (''Body'', Malgorzata Szumowska)*2016 Silver Bear for Best Screenplay (''United States of Love'', Tomasz Wasilewski)*2017 Alfred Bauer Prize (''Spoor'', Agnieszka Holland)*2018 Silver Bear Grand Jury Prize (''Mug'', Małgorzata Szumowska)===Academy Awards===*1942 Academy Honorary Award (''Fantasia'', Leopold Stokowski)*1954 Academy Award for Best Original Score (''Lili'', Bronisław Kaper)*1983 Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film (''Tango'', Zbigniew Rybczyński)*1994 Academy Award for Best Cinematography (''Schindler's List'', Janusz Kamiński)*1994 Academy Award for Best Production Design (''Schindler's List'', Allan Starski)*1994 Academy Award for Best Production Design (''Schindler's List'', Ewa Braun)*1999 Academy Award for Best Cinematography (''Saving Private Ryan'', Janusz Kamiński)*2000 Academy Honorary Award (Andrzej Wajda)*2003 Academy Award for Best Director (''The Pianist'', Roman Polański)*2005 Academy Award for Best Original Score (''Finding Neverland'', Jan A.P.", "Kaczmarek)*2008 Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film (''Peter & the Wolf'', Suzie Templeton)*2015 Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film (''Ida'', Paweł Pawlikowski)===European Film Awards===*1988 European Film Award for Best Film (''A Short Film About Killing'', Krzysztof Kieślowski)*1989 European Discovery of the Year (''300 Miles to Heaven'', Maciej Dejczer)*1990 European Film Academy Lifetime Achievement Award (Andrzej Wajda)*1991 European Film Award for Best Documentary (''Hear My Cry'', Maciej Drygas)*2002 European Film Award for Best Cinematographer (Paweł Edelman, ''The Pianist'')*2006 European Film Academy Lifetime Achievement Award (Roman Polański)*2008 European Film Award for Best Costume Designer (Magdalena Biedrzycka, ''Katyń'')*2009 European Film Award for Best Short Film (''Poste restane'', Marcel Łoziński)*2010 European Film Award for Best Short Film (''Hanoi – Warsaw'', Katarzyna Klimkiewicz)*2010 European Film Award for Best Director (Roman Polański, ''The Ghost Writer'')*2010 European Film Award for Best Screenwriter (Roman Polański, ''The Ghost Writer'')*2014 European Film Award for Best Film (''Ida'', Paweł Pawlikowski)*2014 European Film Award for Best Director (Paweł Pawlikowski, ''Ida'')*2014 European Film Award for Best Cinematographer (Łukasz Żal and Ryszard Lenczewski, ''Ida'')*2014 European Film Award for Best Screenwriter (Paweł Pawlikowski, ''Ida'')*2014 People's Choice Award for Best European Film (Paweł Pawlikowski, ''Ida'')*2015 European Film Award for Best Editor (Jacek Drosio, ''Body'')*2016 People's Choice Award for Best European Film (Małgorzata Szumowska, ''Body'')*2016 European Film Award for Best Sound Designer (Radosław Ochnio, ''11 Minutes)*2017 European Film Award for Best Animated Feature Film (''Loving Vincent'', Dorota Kobiela and Hugh Welchman)*2017 European Film Award for Best Documentary (''Communion'', Anna Zamecka)*2017 European Film Award for Best Costume Designer (Katarzyna Lewińska, ''Spoor'')*2018 European Film Award for Best Film (''Cold War'', Paweł Pawlikowski)*2018 European Film Award for Best Director (Paweł Pawlikowski, ''Cold War'')*2018 European Film Award for Best Actress (Joanna Kulig, ''Cold War'')*2018 European Film Award for Best Animated Feature Film (''Another Day of Life'', Raúl de la Fuente and Damian Nenow)*2018 European Film Award for Best Editor (Jarosław Kamiński, ''Cold War'')*2018 European Film Award for Best Screenwriter (Paweł Pawlikowski, ''Cold War'')*2018 People's Choice Award for Best European Film (''Cold War'', Paweł Pawlikowski)*2019 European Film Academy Lux Award (''Cold War'', Paweł Pawlikowski)*2022 European Film Award for Best Composer (Paweł Mykietyn, ''EO'')" ], [ "See also", "* Maria and Bogdan Kalinowski * Cinema of Europe* Cinema of the world* History of cinema* List of famous Poles* List of film festivals* List of film formats* List of film techniques* List of motion picture-related topics (Extensive alphabetical listing and glossary).", "* List of video-related topics* National Film School in Łódź* New York Polish Film Festival* Outline of film* Piotr Zawojski* Polish film school* Seattle Polish Film Festival* World cinema* Krzysztof Kieślowski Film School" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* A Foreigner's Guide to Polish Cinema from Culture.pl* Polish Cinema in a Concise Way from Kino Mania" ], [ "Further reading", "* * This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in the Polish Wikipedia." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cinema of Japan" ], [ "Introduction", "The , also known domestically as , has a history that spans more than 100 years.", "Japan has one of the oldest and largest film industries in the world; as of 2021, it was the fourth largest by number of feature films produced.", "In 2011, Japan produced 411 feature films that earned 54.9% of a box office total of US$2.338 billion.", "Films have been produced in Japan since 1897, when the first foreign cameramen arrived.During the 1950s, a period dubbed the \"Golden Age of Japanese cinema\", the ''jidaigeki'' films of Akira Kurosawa as well as the science fiction films of Ishirō Honda and Eiji Tsuburaya gained Japanese cinema international praise and made these directors universally renown and highly influential.", "Some of the Japanese films of this period are now rated some of the greatest of all time: ''Tokyo Story'' (1953) ranked number three in ''Sight & Sound'' critics' list of the 100 greatest films of all time and also topped the 2012 ''Sight & Sound'' directors' poll of The Top 50 Greatest Films of All Time, dethroning ''Citizen Kane'', while Akira Kurosawa's ''Seven Samurai'' (1954) was voted the greatest foreign-language film of all time in BBC's 2018 poll of 209 critics in 43 countries.", "Japan has also won the Academy Award for the Best International Feature Film five times, more than any other Asian country.Japan's Big Four film studios are Toho, Toei, Shochiku and Kadokawa, which are the only members of the Motion Picture Producers Association of Japan (MPPAJ).", "The annual Japan Academy Film Prize hosted by the Nippon Academy-shō Association is considered to be the Japanese equivalent of the Academy Awards." ], [ "History", "===Early silent era===Orochi (Buntarō Futagawa)Roningai (Masahiro Makino)The kinetoscope, first shown commercially by Thomas Edison in the United States in 1894, was first shown in Japan in November 1896.The Vitascope and the Lumière Brothers' Cinematograph were first presented in Japan in early 1897, by businessmen such as Inabata Katsutaro.", "Lumière cameramen were the first to shoot films in Japan.", "Moving pictures, however, were not an entirely new experience for the Japanese because of their rich tradition of pre-cinematic devices such as ''gentō'' (''utsushi-e'') or the magic lantern.", "The first successful Japanese film in late 1897 showed sights in Tokyo.In 1898, some ghost films were made, such as the Shirō Asano shorts ''Bake Jizo'' (Jizo the Spook / 化け地蔵) and ''Shinin no sosei'' (Resurrection of a Corpse).", "The first documentary, the short ''Geisha no teodori'' (芸者の手踊り), was made in June 1899.Tsunekichi Shibata made a number of early films, including ''Momijigari'', an 1899 record of two famous actors performing a scene from a well-known kabuki play.", "Early films were influenced by traditional theater – for example, kabuki and bunraku.===20th century===At the dawn of the 20th century, theaters in Japan hired benshi, storytellers who sat next to the screen and narrated silent movies.", "They were descendants of kabuki jōruri, kōdan storytellers, theater barkers and other forms of oral storytelling.", "Benshi could be accompanied by music like silent films from cinema of the West.", "With the advent of sound in the early 1930s, the benshi gradually declined.In 1908, Shōzō Makino, considered the pioneering director of Japanese film, began his influential career with ''Honnōji gassen'' (本能寺合戦), produced for Yokota Shōkai.", "Shōzō recruited Matsunosuke Onoe, a former kabuki actor, to star in his productions.", "Onoe became Japan's first film star, appearing in over 1,000 films, mostly shorts, between 1909 and 1926.The pair pioneered the ''jidaigeki'' genre.", "Tokihiko Okada was a popular romantic lead of the same era.The first Japanese film production studio was built in 1909 by the Yoshizawa Shōten company in Tokyo.The first female Japanese performer to appear in a film professionally was the dancer/actress Tokuko Nagai Takagi, who appeared in four shorts for the American-based Thanhouser Company between 1911 and 1914.Kintaro Hayakawa, one of the biggest stars in Hollywood during the silent film era of the 1910s and 1920sAmong intellectuals, critiques of Japanese cinema grew in the 1910s and eventually developed into a movement that transformed Japanese film.", "Film criticism began with early film magazines such as ''Katsudō shashinkai'' (begun in 1909) and a full-length book written by Yasunosuke Gonda in 1914, but many early film critics often focused on chastising the work of studios like Nikkatsu and Tenkatsu for being too theatrical (using, for instance, elements from kabuki and shinpa such as onnagata) and for not utilizing what were considered more cinematic techniques to tell stories, instead relying on benshi.", "In what was later named the Pure Film Movement, writers in magazines such as ''Kinema Record'' called for a broader use of such cinematic techniques.", "Some of these critics, such as Norimasa Kaeriyama, went on to put their ideas into practice by directing such films as ''The Glow of Life'' (1918), which was one of the first films to use actresses (in this case, Harumi Hanayagi).", "There were parallel efforts elsewhere in the film industry.", "In his 1917 film ''The Captain's Daughter'' (based on the play by Choji Nakauchi, based in turn on the German film, ''Gendarm Möbius''), Masao Inoue started using techniques new to the silent film era, such as the close-up and cut back.", "The Pure Film Movement was central in the development of the gendaigeki and scriptwriting.New studios established around 1920, such as Shochiku and Taikatsu, aided the cause for reform.", "At Taikatsu, Thomas Kurihara directed films scripted by the novelist Junichiro Tanizaki, who was a strong advocate of film reform.", "Even Nikkatsu produced reformist films under the direction of Eizō Tanaka.", "By the mid-1920s, actresses had replaced onnagata and films used more of the devices pioneered by Inoue.", "Some of the most discussed silent films from Japan are those of Kenji Mizoguchi, whose later works (including ''Ugetsu''/''Ugetsu Monogatari'') retain a very high reputation.Japanese films gained popularity in the mid-1920s against foreign films, in part fueled by the popularity of movie stars and a new style of jidaigeki.", "Directors such as Daisuke Itō and Masahiro Makino made samurai films like ''A Diary of Chuji's Travels'' and ''Roningai'' featuring rebellious antiheroes in fast-cut fight scenes that were both critically acclaimed and commercial successes.", "Some stars, such as Tsumasaburo Bando, Kanjūrō Arashi, Chiezō Kataoka, Takako Irie and Utaemon Ichikawa, were inspired by Makino Film Productions and formed their own independent production companies where directors such as Hiroshi Inagaki, Mansaku Itami and Sadao Yamanaka honed their skills.", "Director Teinosuke Kinugasa created a production company to produce the experimental masterpiece ''A Page of Madness'', starring Masao Inoue, in 1926.Many of these companies, while surviving during the silent era against major studios like Nikkatsu, Shochiku, Teikine, and Toa Studios, could not survive the cost involved in converting to sound.With the rise of left-wing political movements and labor unions at the end of the 1920s, there arose so-called tendency films with left-leaning tendencies.", "Directors Kenji Mizoguchi, Daisuke Itō, Shigeyoshi Suzuki, and Tomu Uchida were prominent examples.", "In contrast to these commercially produced 35 mm films, the Marxist Proletarian Film League of Japan (Prokino) made works independently in smaller gauges (such as 9.5mm and 16mm), with more radical intentions.", "Tendency films suffered from severe censorship heading into the 1930s, and Prokino members were arrested and the movement effectively crushed.", "Such moves by the government had profound effects on the expression of political dissent in 1930s cinema.", "Films from this period include: ''Sakanaya Honda, Jitsuroku Chushingura, Horaijima, Orochi, Maboroshi, Kurutta Ippeji, Jujiro, Kurama Tengu: Kyōfu Jidai'', and ''Kurama Tengu''.A later version of ''The Captain's Daughter'' directed by Namio Ochiai and Kenji Mizoguchi's 藤原義江のふるさと (''Fujiwara Yoshie no furusato'', known internationally as ''Hometown'') were the two earliest talkie films.", "They used the Mina Talkie System with dialogue written on chalkboards and were immediate flops because Nikkatsu raised the admission prices fifty percent, leading them to temporarily abandon sound film.", "The Japanese film industry later split into two groups; one retained the Mina Talkie System, while the other used the Eastphone Talkie System used to make Tojo Masaki's films.The 1923 earthquake, the bombing of Tokyo during World War II, and the natural effects of time and Japan's humidity on flammable and unstable nitrate film have resulted in a great dearth of surviving films from this period.Cinema poster for Sadao Yamanaka's 1937 ''Humanity and Paper Balloons''Unlike in the West, silent films were still being produced in Japan well into the 1930s; as late as 1938, a third of Japanese films were silent.", "For instance, Yasujirō Ozu's ''An Inn in Tokyo'' (1935), considered a precursor to the neorealism genre, was a silent film.", "A few Japanese sound shorts were made in the 1920s and 1930s, but Japan's first feature-length talkie was ''Fujiwara Yoshie no furusato'' (1930), which used the ''Mina Talkie System''.", "Notable talkies of this period include Mikio Naruse's ''Wife, Be Like A Rose!''", "(''Tsuma Yo Bara No Yoni'', 1935), which was one of the first Japanese films to gain a theatrical release in the U.S.; Kenji Mizoguchi's ''Sisters of the Gion'' (''Gion no shimai'', 1936); ''Osaka Elegy'' (1936); ''The Story of the Last Chrysanthemums'' (1939); and Sadao Yamanaka's ''Humanity and Paper Balloons'' (1937).Film criticism shared this vitality, with many film journals such as ''Kinema Junpo'' and newspapers printing detailed discussions of the cinema of the day, both at home and abroad.", "A cultured \"impressionist\" criticism pursued by critics such as Tadashi Iijima, Fuyuhiko Kitagawa, and Matsuo Kishi was dominant, but opposed by leftist critics such as Akira Iwasaki and Genjū Sasa who sought an ideological critique of films.Japanese actress Takiko Mizunoe signing autographs for Japanese soldiers in Northern China, 1938The 1930s also saw increased government involvement in cinema, which was symbolized by the passing of the Film Law, which gave the state more authority over the film industry, in 1939.The government encouraged some forms of cinema, producing propaganda films and promoting documentary films (also called ''bunka eiga'' or \"culture films\"), with important documentaries being made by directors such as Fumio Kamei.", "Realism was in favor; film theorists such as Taihei Imamura and Heiichi Sugiyama advocated for documentary or realist drama, while directors such as Hiroshi Shimizu and Tomotaka Tasaka produced fiction films that were strongly realistic in style.", "Films reinforced the importance of traditional Japanese values against the rise of the Westernised modern girl, a character epitomised by Shizue Tatsuta in Ozu's 1930 film ''Young Lady''.====Wartime movies====Yoshiko YamaguchiBecause of World War II and the weak economy, unemployment became widespread in Japan, and the cinema industry suffered.During this period, when Japan was expanding its Empire, the Japanese government saw cinema as a propaganda tool to show the glory and invincibility of the Empire of Japan.", "Thus, many films from this period depict patriotic and militaristic themes.", "However unlike most wartime films the Japanese tended to tell it like it is, showing the hardships soldiers face everyday in battle.", "Marching through mud and staying in small unknown towns.", "In 1942, Kajiro Yamamoto's film ''The War at Sea from Hawaii to Malaya'' portrayed the attack on Pearl Harbor; the film made use of special effects directed by Eiji Tsuburaya, including a miniature scale model of Pearl Harbor itself.kamishibai (紙芝居) or paper theater was a popular form of street entertainment, especially for the children.", "Kamishibai was offten used to tell stories of Buddhist deities and the history of some Buddhist temples.", "In 1920 it started out as normal storytelling for the children.", "But in about 1932 it started to lean more to a militaristic viewpoint.Yoshiko Yamaguchi was a very popular actress.", "She rose to international stardom with 22 wartime movies.", "The Manchukuo Film Association let her use the Chinese name Li Xianglan so she could represent Chinese roles in Japanese propaganda movies.", "After the war she used her official Japanese name and starred in an additional 29 movies.", "She was elected as a member of the Japanese parliament in the 1970s and served for 18 years.Akira Kurosawa made his feature film debut with ''Sugata Sanshiro'' in 1943.====American occupation====After the surrender of Japan in 1945, wartime controls and restrictions on the Japanese film industry were abolished, and the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers (SCAP) established the Civil Information and Education Section (CIE), which came to manage the industry.", "All film proposals and screenplays were to be processed and approved by CIE.", "The script would then be processed by the Civil Censorship Detachment (CCD), which was under the direct control of American military.", "Pre-war and wartime films were also subject to review, and over 500 were condemned, with half of them being burned.", "In addition, Toho and Daiei pre-emptively destroyed films they thought to be incriminating.", "In November 1945, CIE announced that it would forbid films deemed to be: # infused with militarism;# showing revenge as a legitimate motive;# nationalistic;# chauvinistic and anti-foreign;# distorting historical facts;# favoring racial or religious discrimination;# portraying feudal loyalty or contempt of life as desirable and honorable;# approving suicide either directly or indirectly;# dealing with or approving the subjugation or degradation of women;# depicting brutality, violence or evil as triumphant;# anti-democratic;# condoning the exploitation of children; or# at variance with the spirit or letter of the Potsdam Declaration or any SCAP directiveA major consequence of these restrictions was that the production of ''jidaigeki'' films, especially those involving samurai, became effectively impossible.", "A notable case of censorship was of the war film Escape at Dawn, written by Akira Kurosawa and Senkichi Taniguchi, which was re-written over a dozen times at the request of CIE, largely erasing the original content of the story.", "On the other hand, the CIE favored the production of films that reflected the policies of the Occupation, such as agricultural reform and the organization of labor unions, and promoted the peaceful redevelopment of Japan and the rights of individuals.", "''Aoi sanmyaku'' (1949) starring Yōko Sugi and Setsuko HaraSignificant movies among them are, Setsuko Hara appeared in Akira Kurosawa's ''No Regrets for Our Youth'' (1946), Kōzaburō Yoshimura's ''A Ball at the Anjo House'' (1947), Tadashi Imai's ''Aoi sanmyaku'' (1949), etc.", "It gained national popularity as a star symbolizing the beginning of a new era.", "In Yasushi Sasaki's ''Hatachi no Seishun'' (1946), the first kiss scene of a Japanese movie was filmed.", "The Mainichi Film Award was also created in 1946.The first movie released after the war was ''Soyokaze'', directed by Yasushi Sasaki, and the theme song ''Ringo no Uta'' was a big hit.Yoshiko KugaThe first collaborations between Akira Kurosawa and actor Toshiro Mifune were ''Drunken Angel'' in 1948 and ''Stray Dog'' in 1949.Yasujirō Ozu directed the critically and commercially successful ''Late Spring'' in 1949.In the later half of the Occupation, the Reverse Course came into effect.", "Left-wing filmmakers displaced from the major studios in the Red Purge joined those displaced after suppression of the Toho strikes, forming a new independent film movement.", "Directors such as Fumio Kamei, Tadashi Imai and Satsuo Yamamoto were members of the Japanese Communist Party.", "Independent social realist dramas saw a small and temporary boom amid the wave of sentimental war dramas produced after the end of Occupation.====Golden Age====Yasujirō OzuThe 1950s are widely considered the Golden Age of Japanese cinema.", "Three Japanese films from this decade (''Rashomon'', ''Seven Samurai'' and ''Tokyo Story'') appeared in the top ten of ''Sight & Sound''s critics' and directors' polls for the best films of all time in 2002.They also appeared in the 2012 polls, with ''Tokyo Story'' (1953) dethroning ''Citizen Kane'' at the top of the 2012 directors' poll.War movies covering themes previously restricted by SCAP began to be produced, such as Hideo Sekigawa's \"Listen to the Voices of the Sea\" (1950), Tadashi Imai's \"Himeyuri no Tô - Tower of the Lilies\" (1953), Keisuke Kinoshita's \"Twenty-Four Eyes\" (1954) and \"Kon Ichikawa's \"The Burmese Harp\" (1956).", "Works showcasing tragic and sentimental retrospectives of the war experience became a public phenomenon.", "Other films produced include ''Battleship Yamato'' (1953) and ''Eagle of the Pacific'' (1953).", "Under these circumstances, movies such as \"Emperor Meiji and the Russo-Japanese War (明治天皇と日露大戦争)\" (1957), where Kanjūrō Arashi played Emperor Meiji, also appeared.", "It was a situation that was unthinkable before the war, the commercialization of the Emperor who was supposed to be sacred and inviolable.The period after the American Occupation led to a rise in diversity in movie distribution thanks to the increased output and popularity of the film studios of Toho, Daiei, Shochiku, Nikkatsu, and Toei.", "This period gave rise to the six great artists of Japanese cinema: Masaki Kobayashi, Akira Kurosawa, Ishirō Honda, Eiji Tsuburaya, Kenji Mizoguchi, and Yasujirō Ozu.", "Each director dealt with the effects the war and subsequent occupation by America in unique and innovative ways.", "During this decade, the works of Kurosawa, Honda, and Tsuburaya would become the first Japanese films to be widely distributed in foreign theaters.The decade started with Akira Kurosawa's ''Rashomon'' (1950), which won the Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival in 1951 and the Academy Honorary Award for Best Foreign Language Film in 1952, and marked the entrance of Japanese cinema onto the world stage.", "It was also the breakout role for legendary star Toshiro Mifune.", "In 1953, ''Entotsu no mieru basho'' by Heinosuke Gosho was in competition at the 3rd Berlin International Film Festival.The first Japanese film in color was ''Carmen Comes Home'' directed by Keisuke Kinoshita and released in 1951.There was also a black-and-white version of this film available.", "''Tokyo File 212'' (1951) was the first American feature film to be shot entirely in Japan.", "The lead roles were played by Florence Marly and Robert Peyton.", "It featured the geisha Ichimaru in a short cameo.", "Suzuki Ikuzo's Tonichi Enterprises Company co-produced the film.", "''Gate of Hell'', a 1953 film by Teinosuke Kinugasa, was the first movie that filmed using Eastmancolor film, ''Gate of Hell'' was both Daiei's first color film and the first Japanese color movie to be released outside Japan, receiving an Academy Honorary Award in 1954 for Best Costume Design by Sanzo Wada and an Honorary Award for Best Foreign Language Film.", "It also won the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival, the first Japanese film to achieve that honour.Director Ishirō Honda (left) and effects director Eiji Tsuburaya (center) on the set of ''Godzilla'' (1954)The year 1954 saw two of Japan's most influential films released.", "The first was the Kurosawa epic ''Seven Samurai'', about a band of hired samurai who protect a helpless village from a rapacious gang of thieves.", "The same year, Kurosawa's friend and colleague Ishirō Honda directed the anti-nuclear monster-drama ''Godzilla'', featuring award-winning effects by Eiji Tsuburaya.", "The latter film was first ever Japanese film to be given a wide release throughout the United States, where it was heavily re-edited, and featured new footage with actor Raymond Burr for its distribution in 1956 as ''Godzilla, King of the Monsters!''.", "Although it was edited for its Western release, Godzilla became an international icon of Japan and spawned an entire subgenre of ''kaiju'' films, as well as the longest-running film franchise in history.", "Also in 1954, another Kurosawa film, ''Ikiru'' was in competition at the 4th Berlin International Film Festival.In 1955, Hiroshi Inagaki won an Academy Honorary Award for Best Foreign Language Film for Part I of his ''Samurai'' trilogy and in 1958 won the Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival for ''Rickshaw Man''.", "Kon Ichikawa directed two anti-war dramas: ''The Burmese Harp'' (1956), which was nominated for Best Foreign Language Film at the Academy Awards, and ''Fires On The Plain'' (1959), along with ''Enjo'' (1958), which was adapted from Yukio Mishima's novel ''Temple Of The Golden Pavilion''.", "Masaki Kobayashi made three films which would collectively become known as ''The Human Condition Trilogy'': ''No Greater Love'' (1959), and ''The Road To Eternity'' (1959).", "The trilogy was completed in 1961, with ''A Soldier's Prayer''.Kenji Mizoguchi, who died in 1956, ended his career with a series of masterpieces including ''The Life of Oharu'' (1952), ''Ugetsu'' (1953) and ''Sansho the Bailiff'' (1954).", "He won the Silver Bear at the Venice Film Festival for ''Ugetsu''.", "Mizoguchi's films often deal with the tragedies inflicted on women by Japanese society.", "Mikio Naruse made ''Repast'' (1950), ''Late Chrysanthemums'' (1954), ''The Sound of the Mountain'' (1954) and ''Floating Clouds'' (1955).", "Yasujirō Ozu began directing color films beginning with ''Equinox Flower'' (1958), and later ''Good Morning'' (1959) and ''Floating Weeds'' (1958), which was adapted from his earlier silent ''A Story of Floating Weeds'' (1934), and was shot by ''Rashomon'' and ''Sansho the Bailiff'' cinematographer Kazuo Miyagawa.The Blue Ribbon Awards were established in 1950.The first winner for Best Film was ''Until We Meet Again'' by Tadashi Imai.Toshiro Mifune was at the center of many of Kurosawa's films.The number of films produced, and the cinema audience reached a peak in the 1960s.", "Most films were shown in double bills, with one half of the bill being a \"program picture\" or B-movie.", "A typical program picture was shot in four weeks.", "The demand for these program pictures in quantity meant the growth of film series such as ''The Hoodlum Soldier'' or ''Akumyo''.The huge level of activity of 1960s Japanese cinema also resulted in many classics.", "Akira Kurosawa directed the 1961 classic ''Yojimbo''.", "Yasujirō Ozu made his final film, ''An Autumn Afternoon'', in 1962.Mikio Naruse directed the wide screen melodrama ''When a Woman Ascends the Stairs'' in 1960; his final film was 1967's ''Scattered Clouds''.Kon Ichikawa captured the watershed 1964 Olympics in his three-hour documentary ''Tokyo Olympiad'' (1965).", "Seijun Suzuki was fired by Nikkatsu for \"making films that don't make any sense and don't make any money\" after his surrealist yakuza flick ''Branded to Kill'' (1967).The 1960s were the peak years of the ''Japanese New Wave'' movement, which began in the 1950s and continued through the early 1970s.", "Nagisa Oshima, Kaneto Shindo, Masahiro Shinoda, Susumu Hani and Shohei Imamura emerged as major filmmakers during the decade.", "Oshima's ''Cruel Story of Youth'', ''Night and Fog in Japan'' and ''Death by Hanging'', along with Shindo's ''Onibaba'', Hani's ''Kanojo to kare'' and Imamura's ''The Insect Woman'', became some of the better-known examples of Japanese New Wave filmmaking.", "Documentary played a crucial role in the New Wave, as directors such as Hani, Kazuo Kuroki, Toshio Matsumoto, and Hiroshi Teshigahara moved from documentary into fiction film, while feature filmmakers like Oshima and Imamura also made documentaries.", "Shinsuke Ogawa and Noriaki Tsuchimoto became the most important documentarists: \"two figures that tower over the landscape of Japanese documentary.", "\"Teshigahara's ''Woman in the Dunes'' (1964) won the Special Jury Prize at the Cannes Film Festival, and was nominated for Best Director and Best Foreign Language Film Oscars.", "Masaki Kobayashi's ''Kwaidan'' (1965) also picked up the Special Jury Prize at Cannes and received a nomination for Best Foreign Language Film at the Academy Awards.", "''Bushido, Samurai Saga'' by Tadashi Imai won the Golden Bear at the 13th Berlin International Film Festival.", "''Immortal Love'' by Keisuke Kinoshita and ''Twin Sisters of Kyoto'' and ''Portrait of Chieko'', both by Noboru Nakamura, also received nominations for Best Foreign Language Film at the Academy Awards.", "''Lost Spring'', also by Nakamura, was in competition for the Golden Bear at the 17th Berlin International Film Festival.The 1970s saw the cinema audience drop due to the spread of television.", "Total audience declined from 1.2 billion in 1960 to 0.2 billion in 1980.Film companies refused to hire top actors and directors, not even the companies' production skills to the television industry, thereby making the film companies losing money.", "Film companies fought back in various ways, such as the bigger budget films of Kadokawa Pictures, or including increasingly sexual or violent content and language which could not be shown on television.", "The resulting pink film industry became the stepping stone for many young independent filmmakers.", "The seventies also saw the start of the \"idol eiga\", films starring young \"idols\", who would bring in audiences due to their fame and popularity.Tatsuya NakadaiToshiya Fujita made the revenge film ''Lady Snowblood'' in 1973.In the same year, Yoshishige Yoshida made the film ''Coup d'État'', a portrait of Ikki Kita, the leader of the Japanese coup of February 1936.Its experimental cinematography and mise-en-scène, as well as its avant-garde score by Toshi Ichiyanagi, garnered it wide critical acclaim within Japan.In 1976, the Hochi Film Award was created.", "The first winner for Best Film was ''The Inugamis'' by Kon Ichikawa.", "Nagisa Oshima directed ''In the Realm of the Senses'' (1976), a film detailing a crime of passion involving Sada Abe set in the 1930s.", "Controversial for its explicit sexual content, it has never been seen uncensored in Japan.Kinji Fukasaku completed the epic ''Battles Without Honor and Humanity'' series of yakuza films.", "Yoji Yamada introduced the commercially successful ''Tora-San'' series, while also directing other films, notably the popular ''The Yellow Handkerchief'', which won the first Japan Academy Prize for Best Film in 1978.New wave filmmakers Susumu Hani and Shōhei Imamura retreated to documentary work, though Imamura made a dramatic return to feature filmmaking with ''Vengeance Is Mine'' (1979).", "''Dodes'ka-den'' by Akira Kurosawa and ''Sandakan No.", "8'' by Kei Kumai were nominated to the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film.The 1980s saw the decline of the major Japanese film studios and their associated chains of cinemas, with major studios Toho and Toei barely staying in business, Shochiku supported almost solely by the ''Otoko wa tsurai yo'' films, and Nikkatsu declining even further.Of the older generation of directors, Akira Kurosawa directed ''Kagemusha'' (1980), which won the Palme d'Or at the 1980 Cannes Film Festival, and ''Ran'' (1985).", "Seijun Suzuki made a comeback beginning with ''Zigeunerweisen'' in 1980.Shohei Imamura won the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival for ''The Ballad of Narayama'' (1983).", "Yoshishige Yoshida made ''A Promise'' (1986), his first film since 1973's ''Coup d'État''.Juzo ItamiNew directors who appeared in the 1980s include actor Juzo Itami, who directed his first film, ''The Funeral'', in 1984, and achieved critical and box office success with ''Tampopo'' in 1985.Shinji Sōmai, an artistically inclined populist director who made films like the youth-focused ''Typhoon Club'', and the critically acclaimed Roman porno ''Love Hotel'' among others.", "Kiyoshi Kurosawa, who would generate international attention beginning in the mid-1990s, made his initial debut with pink films and genre horror.During the 1980s, anime rose in popularity, with new animated movies released every summer and winter, often based upon popular anime television series.", "Mamoru Oshii released his landmark ''Angel's Egg'' in 1985.Hayao Miyazaki adapted his manga series ''Nausicaä of the Valley of Wind'' into a feature film of the same name in 1984.Katsuhiro Otomo followed suit by adapting his own manga ''Akira'' into a feature film of the same name in 1988.Home video made possible the creation of a direct-to-video film industry.Mini theaters, a type of independent movie theater characterized by a smaller size and seating capacity in comparison to larger movie theaters, gained popularity during the 1980s.", "Mini theaters helped bring independent and arthouse films from other countries, as well as films produced in Japan by unknown Japanese filmmakers, to Japanese audiences.===Heisei period===Because of economic recessions, the number of movie theaters in Japan had been steadily decreasing since the 1960s.", "The number of cinemas were under 2,000 in 1993 than more than 7,000 in 1960.The 1990s saw the reversal of this trend and the introduction of the multiplex in Japan.", "At the same time, the popularity of mini theaters continued.Takeshi Kitano emerged as a significant filmmaker with works such as ''Sonatine'' (1993), ''Kids Return'' (1996) and ''Hana-bi'' (1997), which was given the Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival.", "Shōhei Imamura again won the Palme d'Or (shared with Iranian director Abbas Kiarostami), this time for ''The Eel'' (1997).", "He became the fifth two-time recipient, joining Alf Sjöberg, Francis Ford Coppola, Emir Kusturica and Bille August.Kiyoshi Kurosawa gained international recognition following the release of ''Cure'' (1997).", "Takashi Miike launched a prolific career with titles such as ''Audition'' (1999), ''Dead or Alive'' (1999) and ''The Bird People in China'' (1998).", "Former documentary filmmaker Hirokazu Koreeda launched an acclaimed feature career with ''Maborosi'' (1996) and ''After Life'' (1999).Hayao Miyazaki directed two mammoth box office and critical successes, ''Porco Rosso'' (1992) – which beat ''E.T.", "the Extra-Terrestrial'' (1982) as the highest-grossing film in Japan – and ''Princess Mononoke'' (1997), which also claimed the top box office spot until ''Titanic'' (1997).Several new anime directors rose to widespread recognition, bringing with them notions of anime as not only entertainment, but modern art.", "Mamoru Oshii released the internationally acclaimed philosophical science fiction action film ''Ghost in the Shell'' in 1996.Satoshi Kon directed the award-winning psychological thriller ''Perfect Blue''.", "Hideaki Anno also gained considerable recognition with ''The End of Evangelion'' in 1997.Hayao MiyazakiIn the beginning of 21st century, Japan has been referenced numerous times in popular culture, which was a relatively successful one for Japanese film industry.", "The country has appeared as a setting and topic multiple times in film, poetry, television, and music.", "The number of films being shown in Japan steadily increased, with about 821 films released in 2006.Films based on Japanese television series were especially popular during this period.", "Anime films now accounted for 60 percent of Japanese film production.", "The 1990s and 2000s are considered to be \"Japanese Cinema's Second Golden Age\", due to the immense popularity of anime, both within Japan and overseas.Although not a commercial success, ''All About Lily Chou-Chou'' directed by Shunji Iwai was honored at the Berlin, the Yokohama and the Shanghai Film Festivals in 2001.Takeshi Kitano appeared in ''Battle Royale'' and directed and starred in ''Dolls'' and ''Zatoichi''.", "Several horror films, ''Kairo'', ''Dark Water'', ''Yogen'', the ''Grudge'' series and ''One Missed Call'' met with commercial success.", "In 2004, ''Godzilla: Final Wars'', directed by Ryuhei Kitamura, was released to celebrate the 50th anniversary of Godzilla.", "In 2005, director Seijun Suzuki made his 56th film, ''Princess Raccoon''.", "Hirokazu Koreeda claimed film festival awards around the world with two of his films ''Distance'' and ''Nobody Knows''.", "Female film director Naomi Kawase's film ''The Mourning Forest'' won the Grand Prix at the Cannes Film Festival in 2007.Yoji Yamada, director of the Otoko wa Tsurai yo series, made a trilogy of acclaimed revisionist samurai films, 2002's ''Twilight Samurai'', followed by ''The Hidden Blade'' in 2004 and ''Love and Honor'' in 2006.In 2008, ''Departures'' won the Academy Award for best foreign language film.In anime, Hayao Miyazaki directed ''Spirited Away'' in 2001, breaking Japanese box office records and winning several awards—including the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature in 2003—followed by ''Howl's Moving Castle'' and ''Ponyo'' in 2004 and 2008 respectively.", "In 2004, Mamoru Oshii released the anime movie ''Ghost in the Shell 2: Innocence'' which received critical praise around the world.", "His 2008 film ''The Sky Crawlers'' was met with similarly positive international reception.", "Satoshi Kon also released three quieter, but nonetheless highly successful films: ''Millennium Actress'', ''Tokyo Godfathers'', and ''Paprika''.", "Katsuhiro Otomo released ''Steamboy'', his first animated project since the 1995 short film compilation ''Memories'', in 2004.In collaboration with Studio 4C, American director Michael Arias released ''Tekkon Kinkreet'' in 2008, to international acclaim.", "After several years of directing primarily lower-key live-action films, Hideaki Anno formed his own production studio and revisited his still-popular ''Evangelion'' franchise with the ''Rebuild of Evangelion'' tetralogy, a new series of films providing an alternate retelling of the original story.Some Hollywood directors have turned to Tokyo as a backdrop for movies set in Japan.", "Post-war period examples include Tokyo Joe, My Geisha, Tokyo Story and the James Bond film You Only Live Twice; recent examples include Lost in Translation and The Last Samurai (both in 2003), Kill Bill: Volume 1 and 2 and The Day After Tomorrow (all in 2004), Memoirs of a Geisha (2005), The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift and Babel (both in 2006), The Day the Earth Stood Still (2008), 2012 (2009), Inception (2010), Emperor (2012), Pacific Rim and The Wolverine (both in 2013), Geostorm (2017), and Avengers: Endgame (2019).Since February 2000, the Japan Film Commission Promotion Council was established.", "On November 16, 2001, the Japanese Foundation for the Promotion of the Arts laws were presented to the House of Representatives.", "These laws were intended to promote the production of media arts, including film scenery, and stipulate that the government – on both the national and local levels – must lend aid in order to preserve film media.", "The laws were passed on November 30 and came into effect on December 7.In 2003, at a gathering for the Agency of Cultural Affairs, twelve policies were proposed in a written report to allow public-made films to be promoted and shown at the Film Center of the National Museum of Modern Art.Four films have so far received international recognition by being selected to compete in major film festivals: ''Caterpillar'' by Kōji Wakamatsu was in competition for the Golden Bear at the 60th Berlin International Film Festival and won the Silver Bear for Best Actress, ''Outrage'' by Takeshi Kitano was In Competition for the Palme d'Or at the 2010 Cannes Film Festival, ''Himizu'' by Sion Sono was in competition for the Golden Lion at the 68th Venice International Film Festival.In March 2011, Japanese film and television industry was afflicted by the Tohoku earthquake and tsunami and the subsequent Fukushima nuclear disaster, which was greatly suffered due to ongoing triple disaster.", "However, many Japanese studios were officially closed or reorganized to prevent the triple disaster.", "As of result, many of Japanese studios began to reopen and production rates have increased.In October 2011 (after fully reopening of Japanese film and television industry), Takashi Miike's ''Hara-Kiri: Death of a Samurai'' was In Competition for the Palme d'Or at the 2012 Cannes Film Festival, the first 3D film ever to screen In Competition at Cannes.", "The film was co-produced by British independent producer Jeremy Thomas, who had successfully broken Japanese titles such as Nagisa Oshima's ''Merry Christmas, Mr Lawrence'' and '' Taboo'', Takeshi Kitano's ''Brother'', and Miike's ''13 Assassins'' onto the international stage as producer.In 2018, Hirokazu Kore-eda won the Palme d'Or for his movie ''Shoplifters'' at the 71st Cannes Film Festival, a festival that also featured Ryūsuke Hamaguchi's ''Asako I & II'' in competition.===Reiwa period===The 2020 Japanese epic disaster drama film Fukushima 50, released on 6 March 2020, directed by Setsurō Wakamatsu and written by Yōichi Maekawa.", "The film is based on the book by Ryusho Kadota, titled ''On the Brink: The Inside Story of Fukushima Daiichi'', and it is the first Japanese film to depict the disaster.In early 2020, the Japanese film and television industry was afflicted by the COVID-19 pandemic, which greatly suffered due to health requirements.", "This gave the nation its worst day of film and television industry impacted by health crises since the end of World War II.", "From the first (of many) 'health lockdowns' until the end of September 2021, many Japanese studios were closed or reorganized to suit the legal requirements for spread prevention.", "This resulted in the suspension of filming for many movies.", "In October 2020 (after the reopening film industry), a Japanese anime film ''Demon Slayer: Mugen Train'' based on the ''Demon Slayer: Kimetsu no Yaiba'' manga series broke all box-office records in the country, becoming the highest-grossing film of all time in Japan, the highest-grossing Japanese film of all time and the highest-grossing film of 2020.In October 2021, a Japanese drama-road film Drive My Car won Best Foreign Language Film at the 79th Golden Globe Awards and received the Academy Award for Best International Feature Film at the 94th Academy Awards." ], [ "Genres", "* '''Anime''': animated films** '''Mecha''': films featuring mecha robots* '''''Gendai-geki''''': films set in the present day, the opposite of ''jidaigeki''* '''Japanese horror''': horror film* '''Japanese science fiction''': science fiction film** '''Japanese cyberpunk''': cyberpunk films** '''''Kaiju''''': monster films** '''''Tokusatsu''''': films that make heavy use of special effects, usually involving costumed superheroes* '''''Jidaigeki''''': period film set during the Edo period (1603–1868) or earlier, the opposite of ''gendai-geki''** '''Samurai cinema''': films featuring swordplay, also known as ''chanbara'' (an onomatopoeia describing the sound of swords clashing)* '''Ninja films''': films featuring ninjas* '''Pink films''': softcore pornographic films* '''''Shomingeki''''': realistic films about common working people* '''Tendency films''': socially conscious, left-leaning films* '''Yakuza films''': gangster films about yakuza mobsters" ], [ "Box office", " Year Gross(in billions of yen) Domesticshare Admissions(in millions) Source(s) 2009 206 57% 169 2010 221 54% 174 2011 181 55% 144.73 2012 195.2 65.7% 155.16 2013 194 60.6% 156 2014 207 58% 161 2015 217.119 55.4% 166.63" ], [ "See also", "* Japan Academy Film Prize, hosted by the Nippon Academy-shō Association, is the Japanese equivalent of the Academy Awards.", "* Japan Academy Prize* List of highest-grossing Japanese films* List of highest-grossing films in Japan* List of highest-grossing non-English films* List of Japanese actors* List of Japanese actresses* List of Japanese film directors* List of Japanese films* Cinema of the world* History of cinema** Genres:*** List of jidaigeki*** Samurai cinema*** Ninja*** Tokusatsu* List of Japanese-language films* List of Japanese movie studios* List of Japanese submissions for the Academy Award for Best International Feature Film* Nuberu bagu (The Japanese New Wave)* Television in Japan* Voice acting in Japan" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * Available online at the Center for Japanese Studies, University of Michigan* * * * * ( review)* * * * * * * *** * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* ''Chronology of Japanese Cinema'' by Joaquín da Silva* Toki Akihiro & Mizuguchi Kaoru (1996) ''A History of Early Cinema in Kyoto, Japan (1896–1912).", "Cinematographe and Inabata Katsutaro''.", "* Kato Mikiro (1996) ''A History of Movie Theaters and Audiences in Postwar Kyoto, the Capital of Japanese Cinema''.", "* Japanese Cinema Database, maintained by the Agency for Cultural Affairs (films after 1896, in Japanese)* Japanese Film Database, maintained by UniJapan (in English, films after 2002)* Kinema Junpo Database, maintained by Kinema Junpo (films after 1945, in Japanese)* National Film Center Database (films in the national archive collection, in Japanese)* Motion Picture Producers Association of Japan (includes film database, box office statistics)* Japanese Movie Database (in Japanese)* JAPAN CUTS: Festival of New Japanese Film (Japan Society, New York)* Kinema Club* Midnight Eye* Japanese Reference Materials for Studying Japanese Cinema at Yale University by Aaron Gerow* Japanese Cinema to 1960 by Gregg Rickman* Japanese Film Festival (Singapore) – An annual curated film program focusing on classic Japanese cinema and new currents, with regular guest directors and actors." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cinema of China" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''cinema of China''' is the filmmaking and film industry of the Chinese mainland under the People's Republic of China, one of three distinct historical threads of Chinese-language cinema together with the cinema of Hong Kong and the cinema of Taiwan.Cinema was introduced in China in 1896 and the first Chinese film, ''Dingjun Mountain'', was made in 1905.In the early decades the film industry was centered on Shanghai.", "The 1920s was dominated by small studios and commercial films, especially in the action wuxia genre.", "The first sound film, ''Sing-Song Girl Red Peony'', using the sound-on-disc technology, was made in 1931.The 1930s, considered the first \"Golden Period\" of Chinese cinema, saw the advent of the leftist cinematic movement.", "The civil war between Nationalists and Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was reflected in the films produced.", "After the Japanese invasion of China and the occupation of Shanghai, the industry in the city was severely curtailed, with filmmakers moving to Hong Kong, Chongqing and other places.", "A \"Solitary Island\" period began in Shanghai, where the filmmakers who remained worked in the foreign concessions.", "''Princess Iron Fan'' (1941), the first Chinese animated feature film, was released at the end of this period.", "It influenced wartime Japanese animation and later Osamu Tezuka.", "After being completely engulfed by the occupation in 1941, and until the end of the war in 1945, the film industry in the city was under Japanese control.After the end of the war, a second golden age took place, with production in Shanghai resuming.", "''Spring in a Small Town'' (1948) was named the best Chinese-language film at the 24th Hong Kong Film Awards.", "After the Chinese Communist Revolution, domestic films that were already released and a selection of foreign films were banned in 1951, marking a tirade of film censorship in China.", "Despite this, movie attendance increased sharply.", "During the Cultural Revolution, the film industry was severely restricted, coming almost to a standstill from 1967 to 1972.The industry flourished following the end of the Cultural Revolution, including the \"scar dramas\" of the 1980s, such as ''Evening Rain'' (1980), ''Legend of Tianyun Mountain'' (1980) and ''Hibiscus Town'' (1986), depicting the emotional traumas left by the period.", "Starting in the mid to late 1980s, with films such as ''One and Eight'' (1983) and ''Yellow Earth'' (1984), the rise of the Fifth Generation brought increased popularity to Chinese cinema abroad, especially among Western arthouse audiences.", "Films like ''Red Sorghum'' (1987), ''The Story of Qiu Ju'' (1992) and ''Farewell My Concubine'' (1993) won major international awards.", "The movement partially ended after the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre.", "The post-1990 period saw the rise of the Sixth Generation and post-Sixth Generation, both mostly making films outside the main Chinese film system which played mostly on the international film festival circuit.Following the international commercial success of films such as ''Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon'' (2000) and ''Hero'' (2002), the number of co-productions in Chinese-language cinema has increased and there has been a movement of Chinese-language cinema into a domain of large scale international influence.", "After ''The Dream Factory'' (1997) demonstrated the viability of the commercial model, and with the growth of the Chinese box office in the new millennium, Chinese films have broken box office records and, as of January 2017, 5 of the top 10 highest-grossing films in China are domestic productions.", "''Lost in Thailand'' (2012) was the first Chinese film to reach at the Chinese box office.", "''Monster Hunt'' (2015) was the first to reach .", "''The Mermaid'' (2016) was the first to .", "''Wolf Warrior 2'' (2017) beat them out to become the highest-grossing film in China.China is the home of the largest movie and drama production complex and film studios in the world, the Oriental Movie Metropolis and Hengdian World Studios, and in 2010 it had the third largest film industry by number of feature films produced annually.", "In 2012 the country became the second-largest market in the world by box office receipts.", "In 2016, the gross box office in China was ().", "The country has the largest number of screens in the world since 2016, and is expected to become the largest theatrical market by 2019.China has also become a major hub of business for Hollywood studios.In November 2016, China passed a film law banning content deemed harmful to the \"dignity, honor and interests\" of the People's Republic and encouraging the promotion of \"socialist core values\", approved by the National People's Congress Standing Committee.", "Due to industry regulations, films are typically allowed to stay in theaters for one month.", "However, studios may apply to regulators to have the limit extended.As Chinese audiences have become increasingly interested in Chinese-language films produced domestically, production values in domestic films have been rising.", "According to the research firm Ampere Analysis, domestic films accounted for 85% of China's box office in 2020.Aynne Kokas, a media studies professor at the University of Virginia and author of the book \"Hollywood Made in China\" stated that, \"There are Chinese blockbusters that Chinese filmmakers are making that people want to watch, and they feel less derivative than those made in Hollywood.\"", "The high box office earnings of 2021 Chinese films like ''Hi, Mom'' and ''The Battle at Lake Changjin'' has indicated that the Chinese domestic film industry has reached self-reliance and does not need international audience appeal to produce commercially successful films.Recent patriotic films have been labelled as propaganda films by western mainstream media.", "However Richard Peña, a lecturer at Columbia University's School of the Arts in New York told VOA in regards to the claim of \"propaganda\" label that it was more a matter of perspective of \"the beholder\".", "Ian Huffer, Senior Lecturer in Media Studies at Massey University, added that \"Most recent Chinese blockbusters that have been characterized as propaganda by Western journalism are really more like those Hollywood films over the years that have used military conflicts to evoke jingoist feeling or that show the US saving the world from global catastrophe\"." ], [ "Beginnings", "Tianyi film ''Lady Meng Jiang'', starring Hu DieMotion pictures were introduced to China in 1896.They were introduced through foreign film exhibitors in treaty ports like Shanghai and Hong Kong.China was one of the earliest countries to be exposed to the medium of film, due to Louis Lumière sending his cameraman to Shanghai a year after inventing cinematography.", "The first recorded screening of a motion picture in China took place in Shanghai on 11 August 1896, as an \"act\" on a variety bill.", "The first Chinese film, a recording of the Peking opera, ''Dingjun Mountain'', was made in November 1905 in Beijing.", "For the next decade the production companies were mainly foreign-owned, and the domestic film industry was centered on Shanghai, a thriving entrepot and the largest city in the Far East.", "In 1913, the first independent Chinese screenplay, ''The Difficult Couple'', was filmed in Shanghai by Zheng Zhengqiu and Zhang Shichuan.", "Zhang Shichuan then set up the first Chinese-owned film production company in 1916.The first full-length feature film was ''Yan Ruisheng'' (閻瑞生) released in 1921.which was a docudrama about the killing of a Shanghai courtesan, although it was too crude a film to ever be considered commercially successful.", "During the 1920s film technicians from the United States trained Chinese technicians in Shanghai, and American influence continued to be felt there for the next two decades.", "Since film was still in its earliest stages of development, most Chinese silent films at this time were only comic skits or operatic shorts, and training was minimal at a technical aspect due to this being a period of experimental film.Later, after trial and error, China was able to draw inspiration from its own traditional values and began producing martial arts films, with the first being ''Burning of Red Lotus Temple'' (1928).", "''Burning of Red Lotus Temple'' was so successful at the box office, the Star Motion Pictures (Mingxing) production later filmed 18 sequels, marking the beginning of China's esteemed martial arts films.", "Many imitators followed, including U. Lien (Youlian) Studio's ''Red Heroine'' (1929), which is still extant.", "It was during this period that some of the more important production companies first came into being, notably Mingxing and the Shaw brothers' Tianyi (\"Unique\").", "Mingxing, founded by Zheng Zhengqiu and Zhang Shichuan in 1922, initially focused on comic shorts, including the oldest surviving complete Chinese film, ''Laborer's Love'' (1922).", "This soon shifted, however, to feature-length films and family dramas including ''Orphan Rescues Grandfather'' (1923).", "Meanwhile, Tianyi shifted their model towards folklore dramas, and also pushed into foreign markets; their film ''White Snake'' (1926) proved a typical example of their success in the Chinese communities of Southeast Asia.", "In 1931, the first Chinese sound film ''Sing-Song Girl Red Peony'' was made, the product of a cooperation between the Mingxing Film Company's image production and Pathé Frères's sound technology.", "However, the sound was disc-recorded, which was then played in the theatre in-sync with the action on the screen.", "The first sound-on-film talkie made in China was either ''Spring on Stage'' (歌場春色) by Tianyi, or ''Clear Sky After Storm'' by Great China Studio and Jinan Studio.", "Musical films, such as ''Song at Midnight'' (1937) and ''Street Angels'' (1937), starring Zhou Xuan, became one of the most popular film genres in China.===Leftist movement===20-year-old Ruan Lingyu, a superstar during the silent film era, in ''Love and Duty'' (1931)However, the first truly important Chinese films were produced beginning in the 1930s, with the advent of the \"progressive\" or \"left-wing\" movement, like Cheng Bugao's ''Spring Silkworms'' (1933), Wu Yonggang's ''The Goddess'' (1934), and Sun Yu's ''The Great Road'', also known as ''The Big Road'' (1934).", "These films were noted for their emphasis on class struggle and external threats (i.e.", "Japanese aggression), as well as on their focus on common people, such as a family of silk farmers in ''Spring Silkworms'' and a prostitute in ''The Goddess''.", "In part due to the success of these kinds of films, this post-1930 era is now often referred to as the first \"golden period\" of Chinese cinema.", "The Leftist cinematic movement often revolved around the Western-influenced Shanghai, where filmmakers portrayed the struggling lower class of an overpopulated city.Three production companies dominated the market in the early to mid- 1930s: the newly formed Lianhua (\"United China\"), the older and larger Mingxing and Tianyi.", "Both Mingxing and Lianhua leaned left (Lianhua's management perhaps more so), while Tianyi continued to make less socially conscious fare.Jin Yan, a Korean-born Chinese actor featured in ''The Big Road'' (1935), who gained fame during China's golden age of cinemaThe period also produced the first big Chinese movie stars, such as Hu Die, Ruan Lingyu, Li Lili, Chen Yanyan, Zhou Xuan, Zhao Dan and Jin Yan.", "Other major films of the period include ''Love and Duty'' (1931), ''Little Toys'' (1933), ''New Women'' (1934), ''Song of the Fishermen'' (1934), ''Plunder of Peach and Plum'' (1934), ''Crossroads'' (1937), and ''Street Angel'' (1937).", "Throughout the 1930s, the Nationalists and the Communists struggled for power and control over the major studios; their influence can be seen in the films the studios produced during this period.===Japanese occupation and World War II===Zhou Xuan, an iconic Chinese singer and film actressThe Japanese invasion of China in 1937, in particular the Battle of Shanghai, ended this golden run in Chinese cinema.", "All production companies except Xinhua Film Company (\"New China\") closed shop, and many of the filmmakers fled Shanghai, relocating to Hong Kong, the wartime Nationalist capital Chongqing, and elsewhere.", "The Shanghai film industry, though severely curtailed, did not stop however, thus leading to the \"Solitary Island\" period (also known as the \"Sole Island\" or \"Orphan Island\"), with Shanghai's foreign concessions serving as an \"island\" of production in the \"sea\" of Japanese-occupied territory.", "It was during this period that artists and directors who remained in the city had to walk a fine line between staying true to their leftist and nationalist beliefs and Japanese pressures.", "Director Bu Wancang's ''Hua Mu Lan'', also known as ''Mulan Joins the Army'' (1939), with its story of a young Chinese peasant fighting against a foreign invasion, was a particularly good example of Shanghai's continued film-production in the midst of war.", "This period ended when Japan declared war on the Western allies on 7 December 1941; the solitary island was finally engulfed by the sea of the Japanese occupation.", "With the Shanghai industry firmly in Japanese control, films like the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere-promoting ''Eternity'' (1943) were produced.", "During the 1930 and 1940s, both the China's Nationalist government and Japanese occupation authorities sent mobile projectionist units into areas under their control to show propaganda films.In the Yan'an Soviet during September 1938, the Eighth Route Army established its first film group.At the end of World War II, one of the most controversial Japanese-authorized companies, Manchukuo Film Association, would be separated and integrated into Chinese cinema." ], [ "Second golden age", "Wang Danfeng in the film ''New Fisherman's Song'' (1942)The film industry continued to develop after 1945.Production in Shanghai once again resumed as a new crop of studios took the place that Lianhua and Mingxing studios had occupied in the previous decade.", "In 1945, Cai Chusheng returned to Shanghai to revive the Lianhua name as the \"Lianhua Film Society with Shi Dongshan, Meng Junmou and Zheng Junli.\"", "This in turn became Kunlun Studios which would go on to become one of the most important studios of the era, (Kunlun Studios merged with seven other studios to form Shanghai film studio in 1949) putting out the classics ''The Spring River Flows East'' (1947), ''Myriad of Lights'' (1948), ''Crows and Sparrows'' (1949) and ''Wanderings of Three-Hairs the Orphan'', also known as ''San Mao, The Little Vagabond'' (1949).Many of these films showed the disillusionment with the oppressive rule of Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalist Party and the struggling oppression of nation by war.", "''The Spring River Flows East'', a three-hour-long two-parter directed by Cai Chusheng and Zheng Junli, was a particularly strong success.", "Its depiction of the struggles of ordinary Chinese during the Second Sino-Japanese war, replete with biting social and political commentary, struck a chord with audiences of the time.Meanwhile, companies like the Wenhua Film Company (\"Culture Films\"), moved away from the leftist tradition and explored the evolution and development of other dramatic genres.", "Wenhua treated postwar problems in universalistic and humanistic ways, avoiding the family narrative and melodramatic formulae.", "Excellent examples of Wenhua's fare are its first two postwar features, ''Love Everlasting'' (''Bu liaoqing'', 1947) and ''Fake Bride, Phony Bridegroom'' (1947).", "Another memorable Wenhua film is ''Long Live the Missus'' (1947), like ''Love Everlasting'' with an original screenplay by writer Eileen Chang.", "Wenhua's romantic drama ''Spring in a Small Town'' (1948), a film by director Fei Mu shortly prior to the revolution, is often regarded by Chinese film critics as one of the most important films in the history of Chinese cinema, in 2005, Hong Kong film awards it as the best 100 years of film.", "Ironically, it was precisely its artistic quality and apparent lack of \"political grounding\" that led to its labeling by the Communists as rightist or reactionary, and the film was quickly forgotten by those on the mainland following the Communist victory in China in 1949.However, with the China Film Archive's re-opening after the Cultural Revolution, a new print was struck from the original negative, allowing ''Spring of the Small Town'' to find a new and admiring audience and to influence an entire new generation of filmmakers.", "Indeed, an acclaimed remake was made in 2002 by Tian Zhuangzhuang.", "A Chinese Peking opera film, ''A Wedding in the Dream'' (1948), by the same director (Fei Mu), was the first Chinese color film." ], [ "Early Communist era", "At the founding of the PRC in 1949, there were less than 600 movie theatres in the country.", "The government saw motion pictures as an important production art form and tool for mass propaganda.The private studios in Shanghai, including Kunming, Wenhua, Guotai and Datong, were at first encouraged to make new films.They made approximately 47 films during the next two years, but soon ran into trouble, owing to the furor over the Kunlun-produced drama ''The Life of Wu Xun'' (1950), directed by Sun Yu and starring veteran Zhao Dan.", "The feature was accused in an anonymous article in ''People's Daily'' in May 1951 of spreading feudal ideas.", "After the article was revealed to be penned by Mao Zedong, the film was banned and a Film Steering Committee was formed to \"re-educate\" the film industry, and the private studios were all incorporated into the state-run Shanghai Film Studio.After the establishment of the PRC, China's cultural bureaucracy described American films as screen-opium and began criticizing American film alongside anti-drug campaigns.", "The Chinese Communist Party sought to tighten control over mass media, producing instead movies centering on peasants, soldiers and workers, such as ''Bridge'' (1949) and ''The White-Haired Girl'' (1950).", "One of the production bases in the middle of all the transition was the Changchun Film Studio.", "American films were banned as part of the Korean War effort.", "The Communist government solved the problem of a lack of film theaters by building mobile projection units which could tour the remote regions of China, ensuring that even the poorest could have access to films.", "The vast majority of China's people lived in rural areas and most people in China had not seen a film until mobile projectionists brought them.", "Mobile projection teams during the Mao-era typically included three to four workers who physically transported film infrastructure through a large geographic area mostly not covered by any electrical grid.", "Yuan Muzhi was important in developing the Communist government's theories and practices of rural film exhibition.", "Yuan and Chen Bo'er transformed the post-Second Sino-Japanese War remnants of the Manchurian Motion Picture Association into the Northeast Film Studio and when Yuan became Film Bureau chief in 1949, he applied its model to help institute a film exhibition network around the country.In 1950, 1,800 projectionists from around the country traveled to Nanjing for a training program.", "These projectionists replicated the training program in their own home provinces to develop more projectionists.", "Nanjing was later termed a \"Cradle of People's Cinema.\"", "The PRC sought to recruit women and ethnic minority projectionists in an effort to more effectively reach marginalized communities.Until the profusion of mobile projectionist teams in the 1950s, most rural people had not seen a film.", "The number of movie-viewers hence increased sharply, partly bolstered by the fact that film tickets were given out to work units and attendance was compulsory, with admissions rising from 47 million in 1949 to 4.15 billion in 1959.By 1965 there were around 20,393 mobile film units.", "During the course of the Mao era, the majority of films were shown by such units, and only a minority of films were watched in theatres.Work as a mobile projectionist was physically and technically demanding.", "As a result, women projectionists and all-women mobile projection teams were promoted in Chinese media as examples of advancing gender equality under socialism.In the 1950s and the 1960s, the Communist Party built cinemas (among other cultural buildings) in industrial districts on urban peripheries.", "These structures were influenced by Soviet architecture and were intended to be vivacious but not \"palatial.", "\"Rural mobile projectionist teams and urban movie theaters were generally managed through the PRC's cultural bureaucracy.", "Trade Unions and PLA propaganda departments also operated film exhibition networks.", "In 1950s China, a common view of film was that it served as \"socialist distance horizon education\".", "For example, films promoted rural collectivization.", "Cinema also sought to develop the proletarian class consciousness of rural workers, encouraging the industrialization and militarization of their labor.", "Film projection teams operating in rural China were asked to incorporated lantern slides into their work to introduce national policies and political campaigns.", "In the 17 years between the founding of the People's Republic of China and the Cultural Revolution, 603 feature films and 8,342 reels of documentaries and newsreels were produced, sponsored mostly as Communist propaganda by the government.", "For example, in ''Guerrilla on the Railroad'' (铁道游击队), dated 1956, the Chinese Communist Party was depicted as the primary resistance force against the Second Sino-Japanese War.", "Chinese filmmakers were sent to Moscow to study the Soviet socialist realism style of filmmaking.", "The Beijing Film Academy established in 1950 and in 1956, the Beijing Film Academy was officially opened.", "One important film of this era is ''This Life of Mine'' (1950), directed by Shi Hu, which follows an old beggar reflecting on his past life as a policeman working for the various regimes since 1911.The first widescreen Chinese film was produced in 1960.Animated films using a variety of folk arts, such as papercuts, shadow plays, puppetry, and traditional paintings, also were very popular for entertaining and educating children.", "The most famous of these, the classic ''Havoc in Heaven'' (two parts, 1961, 4), was made by Wan Laiming of the Wan Brothers and won Outstanding Film award at the London International Film Festival.Films such as ''The White-Haired Girl'' and ''Serf'' were part of a genre of redemptive melodramas which sought to encourage audiences to \"speak bitterness\".The thawing of censorship in 1956–57 (known as the Hundred Flowers Campaign) and the early 1960s led to more indigenous Chinese films being made which were less reliant on their Soviet counterparts.", "During this campaign the sharpest criticisms came from the satirical comedies of Lü Ban.", "''Before the New Director Arrives'' exposes the hierarchical relationships occurring between the cadres, while his next film, ''The Unfinished Comedy'' (1957), was labelled as a \"poisonous weed\" during the Anti-Rightist Movement and Lü was banned from directing for life.", "''The Unfinished Comedy'' was only screened after Mao's death.", "Other noteworthy films produced during this period were adaptations of literary classics, such as Sang Hu's ''The New Year's Sacrifice'' (1956; adapted from a Lu Xun story) and Shui Hua's ''The Lin Family Shop'' (1959; adapted from a Mao Dun story).", "The most prominent filmmaker of this era was Xie Jin, whose three films in particular, ''Woman Basketball Player No.", "5'' (1957), ''The Red Detachment of Women'' (1961) and ''Two Stage Sisters'' (1964), exemplify China's increased expertise at filmmaking during this time.", "Films made during this period are polished and exhibit high production value and elaborate sets.", "While Beijing and Shanghai remained the main centers of production, between 1957 and 1960 the government built regional studios in Guangzhou, Xi'an and Chengdu to encourage representations of ethnic minorities in films.", "Chinese cinema began to directly address the issue of such ethnic minorities during the late 1950s and early 1960s, in films like ''Five Golden Flowers'' (1959), ''Third Sister Liu'' (1960), ''Serfs'' (1963), ''Ashima'' (1964).As part of the Socialist Education Movement, mobile film projectionist units showed films and slideshows that emphasized class struggle and encouraged audience members to discuss bitter experiences onstage.", "New films termed \"emphasis films\" were released to coincide with the campaign, and the film version of ''The White-Haired Girl'' was re-released." ], [ "Films of the Cultural Revolution", "During the Cultural Revolution, the film industry was severely restricted.", "Almost all previous films were banned, and only a few new ones were produced, the revolutionary model operas.", "The most notable of these was a ballet version of the revolutionary opera ''The Red Detachment of Women'', directed by Pan Wenzhan and Fu Jie in 1970.The release of filmed versions of the revolutionary model operas resulted in a re-organization and expansion of China's film exhibition network.", "From 1965 to 1976, the number of film projection units in China quadrupled, total film audiences nearly tripled, and the national film attendance rate doubled.", "The Cultural Revolution Group drastically reduced ticket prices which, in its view, would allow film to better serve the needs of workers and of socialism.In addition to films deemed laudatory, from the middle of 1966 to 1968, the expanding film distribution network screened films characterized as \"poisonous weeds\" to hundreds of millions of audience members for the purpose of criticizing the films.", "These criticism screenings were sometimes accompanied by struggle sessions.Sent-down youth were a major subset of China's rural projectionists during the Cultural Revolution period.Feature film production came almost to a standstill in the early years from 1967 to 1972.Movie production revived after 1972 under the strict jurisdiction of the Gang of Four until 1976, when they were overthrown.", "The few films that were produced during this period, such as 1975's ''Breaking with Old Ideas'', were highly regulated in terms of plot and characterization.In 1972, Chinese officials invited Michelangelo Antonioni to China to film the achievements of the Cultural Revolution.", "Antonioni made the documentary ''Chung Kuo, Cina''.", "When it was released in 1974, Communist Party leadership in China interpreted the film as reactionary and anti-Chinese.", "Viewing art through the principles of the Yan'an Talks, particularly the concept that there is no such thing as art-for-art's-sake, party leadership construed Antonioni's aesthetic choices as politically motivated and banned the film.", "Since its 2004 release in China, the film has been well-regarded by Chinese audiences, especially for its beautiful depictions of a more simple time.Because China rejection most foreign film importation, comparatively minor cinema like Albanian cinema and North Korean cinema developed mass audiences in China.", "Through Albanian films screened during this period, many Chinese audience members were introduced to avant-garde and modernist storytelling techniques and aesthetics." ], [ "Post-Cultural Revolution", "===Box office boom after the Cultural Revolution===In the years immediately following the Cultural Revolution, the film industry again flourished as a medium of popular entertainment.", "Production rose steadily, from 19 features in 1977 to 125 in 1986.Domestically produced films played to large audiences, and tickets for foreign film festivals sold quickly.", "The industry tried to revive crowds by making more innovative and \"exploratory\" films like their counterparts in the West.Chinese cinema grew significantly in the late 1970s.", "In 1979, annual box office admissions reached a peak of tickets sold, equivalent to an average of per person.", "Chinese cinema continued to prosper into the early 1980s.", "In 1980, annual box office admissions stood at tickets sold, equivalent to an average of per person.", "In terms of box office admissions, this period represented the peak ticket sales in the history of the Chinese box office.", "High ticket sales were driven by low ticket prices, with a cinema ticket typically costing between ¥0.1 () and ¥0.3 () at the time.By the early 1980s, there were 162,000 projection units in China, primarily composed of mobile movie teams which showed films outdoors in both rural and urban areas.A number of films during this period drew box office admissions in the hundreds of millions.", "China's highest-grossing film in box office admissions was ''Legend of the White Snake'' (1980) with an estimated admissions, followed by (1981) and ''The Undaunted Wudang'' (1983) with more than ticket sales each.", "The highest-grossing foreign film was the Japanese film ''Kimi yo Fundo no Kawa o Watare'' (1976), which released in 1978 and sold more than tickets, followed by the Indian film ''Caravan'' (1971) which released in 1979 and sold about tickets.In the late 1980s the film industry fell on hard times, faced with the dual problems of competition from other forms of entertainment and concern on the part of the authorities that many of the popular thriller and martial arts films were socially unacceptable.", "In January 1986 the film industry was transferred from the Ministry of Culture to the newly formed Ministry of Radio, Cinema, and Television to bring it under \"stricter control and management\" and to \"strengthen supervision over production.", "\"===\"Scar dramas\"===The end of the Cultural Revolution brought the release of \"scar dramas\" (傷痕剧 ''shānghén jù''), which depicted the emotional traumas left by this period.", "The best-known of these is probably Xie Jin's ''Hibiscus Town'' (1986), although they could be seen as late as the 1990s with Tian Zhuangzhuang's ''The Blue Kite'' (1993).", "In the 1980s, open criticism of certain past Communist Party policies was encouraged by Deng Xiaoping as a way to reveal the excesses of the Cultural Revolution and the earlier Anti-Rightist Campaign, also helping to legitimize Deng's new policies of \"reform and opening up.\"", "For instance, the Best Picture prize in the inaugural 1981 Golden Rooster Awards was given to two \"scar dramas\", ''Evening Rain'' (Wu Yonggang, Wu Yigong, 1980) and ''Legend of Tianyun Mountain'' (Xie Jin, 1980).Many scar dramas were made by members of the Fourth Generation whose own careers or lives had suffered during the events in question, while younger, Fifth Generation directors such as Tian tended to focus on less controversial subjects of the immediate present or the distant past.", "Official enthusiasm for scar dramas waned by the 1990s when younger filmmakers began to confront negative aspects of the Mao era.", "''The Blue Kite'', though sharing a similar subject as the earlier scar dramas, was more realistic in style, and was made only through obfuscating its real script.", "Shown abroad, it was banned from release in mainland China, while Tian himself was banned from making any films for nearly a decade afterward.", "After the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, few if any scar dramas were released domestically in mainland China." ], [ "Rise of the fifth generation", "A movie theater in Qufu, ShandongBeginning in the mid-late 1980s, the rise of the so-called fifth generation of Chinese filmmakers brought increased popularity of Chinese cinema abroad.", "Most of the filmmakers who made up the Fifth Generation had graduated from the Beijing Film Academy in 1982 and included Zhang Yimou, Tian Zhuangzhuang, Chen Kaige, Zhang Junzhao, Li Shaohong, Wu Ziniu and others.", "These graduates constituted the first group of filmmakers to graduate since the Cultural Revolution and they soon jettisoned traditional methods of storytelling and opted for a more free and unorthodox symbolic approach.", "After the so-called scar literature in fiction had paved the way for frank discussion, Zhang Junzhao's ''One and Eight'' (1983) and Chen Kaige's ''Yellow Earth'' (1984) in particular were taken to mark the beginnings of the Fifth Generation.", "The most famous of the Fifth Generation directors, Chen Kaige and Zhang Yimou, went on to produce celebrated works such as ''King of the Children'' (1987), ''Ju Dou'' (1989), ''Raise the Red Lantern'' (1991) and ''Farewell My Concubine'' (1993), which were not only acclaimed by Chinese cinema-goers but by the Western arthouse audience.", "Tian Zhuangzhuang's films, though less well known by Western viewers, were well noted by directors such as Martin Scorsese.", "It was during this period that Chinese cinema began reaping the rewards of international attention, including the 1988 Golden Bear for ''Red Sorghum'', the 1992 Golden Lion for ''The Story of Qiu Ju'', the 1993 Palme d'Or for ''Farewell My Concubine'', and three Best Foreign Language Film nominations from the Academy Awards.", "All these award-winning films starred actress Gong Li, who became the Fifth Generation's most recognizable star, especially to international audiences.Diverse in style and subject, the Fifth Generation directors' films ranged from black comedy (Huang Jianxin's ''The Black Cannon Incident'', 1985) to the esoteric (Chen Kaige's ''Life on a String'', 1991), but they share a common rejection of the socialist-realist tradition worked by earlier Chinese filmmakers in the Communist era.", "Other notable Fifth Generation directors include Wu Ziniu, Hu Mei, Li Shaohong and Zhou Xiaowen.", "Fifth Generation filmmakers reacted against the ideological purity of Cultural Revolution cinema.", "By relocating to regional studios, they began to explore the actuality of local culture in a somewhat documentarian fashion.", "Instead of stories depicting heroic military struggles, the films were built out of the drama of ordinary people's daily lives.", "They also retained political edge, but aimed at exploring issues rather than recycling approved policy.", "While Cultural Revolution films used character, the younger directors favored psychological depth along the lines of European cinema.", "They adopted complex plots, ambiguous symbolism, and evocative imagery.", "Some of their bolder works with political overtones were banned by Chinese authorities.These films came with a creative genres of stories, new style of shooting as well, directors utilized extensive color and long shots to present and explore history and structure of national culture.", "As a result of the new films being so intricate, the films were for more educated audiences than anything.", "The new style was profitable for some and helped filmmakers to make strides in the business.", "It allowed directors to get away from reality and show their artistic sense.The Fourth Generation also returned to prominence.", "Given their label after the rise of the Fifth Generation, these were directors whose careers were stalled by the Cultural Revolution and who were professionally trained prior to 1966.Wu Tianming, in particular, made outstanding contributions by helping to finance major Fifth Generation directors under the auspices of the Xi'an Film Studio (which he took over in 1983), while continuing to make films like ''Old Well'' (1986) and ''The King of Masks'' (1996).The Fifth Generation movement ended in part after the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, although its major directors continued to produce notable works.", "Several of its filmmakers went into self-imposed exile: Wu Tianming moved to the United States (but later returned), Huang Jianxin left for Australia, while many others went into television-related works." ], [ "Main melody dramas", "During a period when socialist dramas were beginning to lose viewership, the Chinese government began to involve itself deeper into the world of popular culture and cinema by creating the official genre of the \"main melody\" (主旋律 ''zhǔxuánlǜ''), inspired by Hollywood's strides in musical dramas.", "In 1987, the Ministry of Radio, Film and Television issued a statement encouraging the making of movies which emphasizes the main melody to \"invigorate national spirit and national pride\".", "The expression ''main melody'' refers to the musical term ''leitmotif'', which translates to the 'theme of our times', which scholars suggest is representative of China's socio-political climate and cultural context of popular cinema.", "These main melody films, still produced regularly in modern times, try to emulate the commercial mainstream by the use of Hollywood-style music and special effects.", "A significant feature of these films is the incorporation of a \"red song\", which is a song written as propaganda to support the People's Republic of China.", "By revolving the film around the motif of a red song, the film is able to gain traction at the box office as songs are generally thought to be more accessible than a film.", "Theoretically, once the red song dominates the charts, it will stir interest in the film that which it accompanies.Main melody dramas are often subsidized by the state and have free access to government and military personnel.", "The Chinese government spends between \"one and two million RMBs\" annually to support the production of films in the main melody genre.", "August 1st Film Studio, the film and TV production arm of the People's Liberation Army, is a studio that produces main melody cinema.", "Main melody films, which often depict past military engagements or are biopics of first-generation CCP leaders, have won several Best Picture prizes at the Golden Rooster Awards.", "Some of the more famous main melody dramas include the ten-hour epic ''Decisive Engagement'' (大决战, 1991), directed by Cai Jiawei, Yang Guangyuan and Wei Lian; ''The Opium War'' (1997), directed by Xie Jin; and ''The Founding of a Republic'' (2009), directed by Han Sanping and Fifth Generation director Huang Jianxin.", "''The Founding of an Army'' (2017) was commissioned by the government to celebrate the 90th anniversary of the People's Liberation Army, and is the third instalment in The Founding of a Republic series.", "The film featured many young Chinese pop singers that are already well-established in the industry, including Li Yifeng, Liu Haoran, and Lay Zhang, so as to further the film's reputation as a main melody drama." ], [ "The sixth generation", "The post-1990 era has been labelled the \"return of the amateur filmmaker\" as state censorship policies after the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre produced an edgy underground film movement loosely referred to as the Sixth Generation.", "Owing to the lack of state funding and backing, these films were shot quickly and cheaply, using materials like 16 mm film and digital video and mostly non-professional actors and actresses, producing a documentary feel, often with long takes, hand-held cameras, and ambient sound; more akin to Italian neorealism and cinéma vérité than the often lush, far more considered productions of the Fifth Generation.", "Unlike the Fifth Generation, the Sixth Generation brings a more individualistic, anti-romantic life-view and pays far closer attention to contemporary urban life, especially as affected by disorientation, rebellion and dissatisfaction with China's contemporary social marketing economic tensions and comprehensive cultural background.", "Many were made with an extremely low budget (an example is Jia Zhangke, who shoots on digital video, and formerly on 16 mm; Wang Xiaoshuai's ''The Days'' (1993) was made for US$10,000).", "The title and subjects of many of these films reflect the Sixth Generation's concerns.", "The Sixth Generation takes an interest in marginalized individuals and the less represented fringes of society.", "For example, Zhang Yuan's hand-held ''Beijing Bastards'' (1993) focuses on youth punk subculture, featuring artists like Cui Jian, Dou Wei and He Yong frowned upon by many state authorities, while Jia Zhangke's debut film ''Xiao Wu'' (1997) concerns a provincial pickpocket.As the Sixth Generation gained international exposure, many subsequent movies were joint ventures and projects with international backers, but remained quite resolutely low-key and low budget.", "Jia's ''Platform'' (2000) was funded in part by Takeshi Kitano's production house, while his ''Still Life'' was shot on HD video.", "''Still Life'' was a surprise addition and Golden Lion winner of the 2006 Venice International Film Festival.", "''Still Life'', which concerns provincial workers around the Three Gorges region, sharply contrasts with the works of Fifth Generation Chinese directors like Zhang Yimou and Chen Kaige who were at the time producing ''House of Flying Daggers'' (2004) and ''The Promise'' (2005).", "It featured no star of international renown and was acted mostly by non-professionals.Many Sixth Generation films have highlighted the negative attributes of China's entry into the modern capitalist market.", "Li Yang's ''Blind Shaft'' (2003) for example, is an account of two murderous con-men in the unregulated and notoriously dangerous mining industry of northern China.", "(Li refused the tag of Sixth Generation, although admitted he was not Fifth Generation).", "While Jia Zhangke's ''The World'' (2004) emphasizes the emptiness of globalization in the backdrop of an internationally themed amusement park.Some of the more prolific Sixth Generation directors to have emerged are Wang Xiaoshuai (''The Days'', ''Beijing Bicycle'', ''So Long, My Son''), Zhang Yuan (''Beijing Bastards'', ''East Palace West Palace''), Jia Zhangke (''Xiao Wu'', ''Unknown Pleasures'', ''Platform'', ''The World'', ''A Touch of Sin'', ''Mountains May Depart'', ''Ash Is Purest White''), He Jianjun (''Postman'') and Lou Ye (''Suzhou River'', ''Summer Palace'').", "One director of their generation who does not share most of the concerns of the Sixth Generation is Lu Chuan (''Kekexili: Mountain Patrol'', 2004; ''City of Life and Death'', 2010).=== Notable Sixth Generation directors ===In the 2018 Cannes Film Festival, two of China's Sixth generation filmmakers, Jia Zhangke and Zhang Meng – whose grim works transformed Chinese cinema in the 1990s – showed on the French Riviera.", "While both directors represent Chinese cinema, their profiles are quite different.", "The 49-year-old Jia set up the Pingyao International Film Festival in 2017 and on the other hand is Zhang, a 56-year-old film school professor who spent years working on government commissions and domestic TV shows after struggling with his own projects.", "Despite their different profiles, they mark an important cornerstone in Chinese cinema and are both credited with bringing Chinese movies to the international big screen.", "Chinese director Jia Zhangke's latest film ''Ash Is Purest White'' has been selected to compete in the official competition for the Palme d'Or of the 71st Cannes Film Festival, the highest prize awarded at the film festival.", "It is Jia's fifth movie, a gangster revenge drama that is his most expensive and mainstream film to date.", "Back in 2013, Jia won Best Screenplay Award for ''A Touch of Sin'', following nominations for ''Unknown Pleasures'' in 2002 and ''24 City'' in 2008.In 2014, he was a member of the official jury and the following year his film ''Mountains May Depart'' was nominated.", "According to entertainment website Variety, a record number of Chinese films were submitted this year but only Jia's romantic drama was selected to compete for the Palme d'Or.", "Meanwhile, Zhang will make his debut at Cannes with ''The Pluto Moment'', a slow-moving relationship drama about a team of filmmakers scouting for locations and musical talent in China's rural hinterland.", "The film is Zhang's highest profile production so far, as it stars actor Wang Xuebing in the leading role.", "The film was partly financed by iQiyi, the company behind one of China's most popular online video browsing sharing sites.", "Diao Yinan is also a notable member of the sixth generation whose works include ''Black Coal Thin Ice'', ''Wild Goose Lake'', ''Night Train'' and ''Uniform'' which have premiered at festivals such as Cannes and received acclaim abroad." ], [ "Other directors", "He Ping is a director of mostly Western-like films set in Chinese locale.", "His ''Swordsmen in Double Flag Town'' (1991) and ''Sun Valley'' (1995) explore narratives set in the sparse terrain of West China near the Gobi Desert.", "His historical drama ''Red Firecracker, Green Firecracker'' (1994) won a myriad of prizes home and abroad.Recent cinema has seen Chinese cinematographers direct some acclaimed films.", "Other than Zhang Yimou, Lü Yue made ''Mr.", "Zhao'' (1998), a black comedy film well received abroad.", "Gu Changwei's minimalist epic ''Peacock'' (2005), about a quiet, ordinary Chinese family with three very different siblings in the post-Cultural Revolution era, took home the Silver Bear prize for 2005 Berlin International Film Festival.", "Hou Yong is another cinematographer who made films (''Jasmine Women'', 2004) and TV series.", "There are actors who straddle the dual roles of acting and directing.", "Xu Jinglei, a popular Chinese actress, has made six movies to date.", "Her second film ''Letter from an Unknown Woman'' (2004) landed her the San Sebastián International Film Festival Best Director award.", "Another popular actress and director is Zhao Wei, whose directorial debut ''So Young'' (2013) was a huge box office and critical success.The most highly regarded Chinese actor-director is undoubtedly Jiang Wen, who has directed several critically acclaimed movies while following on his acting career.", "His directorial debut, ''In the Heat of the Sun'' (1994) was the first PRC film to win Best Picture at the Golden Horse Film Awards held in Taiwan.", "His other films, like ''Devils on the Doorstep'' (2000, Cannes Grand Prix) and ''Let the Bullets Fly'' (2010), were similarly well received.", "By the early 2011, ''Let the Bullets Fly'' had become the highest grossing domestic film in China's history." ], [ "dGeneration-independent movement", "There is a growing number of independent seventh or post-Sixth Generation filmmakers making films with extremely low budgets and using digital equipment.", "They are the so-called dGeneration (for digital).", "These films, like those from Sixth Generation filmmakers, are mostly made outside the Chinese film system and are shown mostly on the international film festival circuit.", "Ying Liang and Jian Yi are two of these generation filmmakers.", "Ying's ''Taking Father Home'' (2005) and ''The Other Half'' (2006) are both representative of the generation trends of the feature film.", "Liu Jiayin made two dGeneration feature films, ''Oxhide'' (2004) and ''Oxhide II'' (2010), blurring the line between documentary and narrative film.", "''Oxhide'', made by Liu when she was a film student, frames herself and her parents in their claustrophobic Beijing apartment in a narrative praised by critics.", "''An Elephant Sitting Still'', considered one of the greatest film debuts in Chinese cinema, is also the only film by the late Hu Bo." ], [ "New documentary movement", "Two decades of reform and commercialization have brought dramatic social changes in mainland China, reflected not only in fiction film but in a growing documentary movement.", "Wu Wenguang's 70-minute ''Bumming in Beijing: The Last Dreamers'' (1990) is now seen as one of the first works of this \"New Documentary Movement\" (NDM) in China.", "''Bumming'', made between 1988 and 1990, contains interviews with five young artists eking out a living in Beijing, subject to state authorized tasks.", "Shot using a camcorder, the documentary ends with four of the artists moving abroad after the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre.", "''Dance with the Farm Workers'' (2001) is another documentary by Wu.Another internationally acclaimed documentary is Wang Bing's nine-hour tale of deindustrialization ''Tie Xi Qu: West of the Tracks'' (2003).", "Wang's subsequent documentaries, ''He Fengming'' (2007), ''Crude Oil'' (2008), ''Man with no name'' (2009), ''Three Sisters'' (2012) and ''Feng ai'' (2013), cemented his reputation as a leading documentarist of the movement.Li Hong, the first woman in the NDM, in ''Out of Phoenix Bridge'' (1997) relates the story of four young women, who moving from rural areas to the big cities like millions of other men and women, have come to Beijing to make a living.The New Documentary Movement in recent times has overlapped with the dGeneration filmmaking, with most documentaries being shot cheaply and independently in the digital format.", "Xu Xin's ''Karamay'' (2010), Zhao Liang's Behemoth, Huang Weikai's ''Disorder'' (2009), Zhao Dayong's ''Ghost Town'' (2009), Du Haibing's ''1428'' (2009), Xu Tong's ''Fortune Teller'' (2009) and Li Ning's ''Tape'' (2010) were all shot in digital format.", "All had made their impact in the international documentary scene and the use of digital format allows for works of vaster lengths." ], [ "Animation", "=== Before the 1950s ===Inspired by the success of Disney animation, the self-taught pioneers Wan brothers, Wan Laiming and Wan Guchan, made the first Chinese animated short in the 1920s, thus inaugurating the history of Chinese animation.", "(Chen Yuanyuan 175) Many live-action films of the Republican era also included animated sequences.In 1937, the Wan brothers decided to produce 《铁扇公主》'' Princess Iron Fan'', which was the first Chinese animated feature film and the fourth, after the American feature films ''Snow White'', ''Gulliver's Travels'', and ''The Adventures of Pinocchio''.", "It was at this time that Chinese animation as an art form had risen to prominence on the world stage.", "Completed in 1941, the film was released under China United Pictures and aroused a great response in Asia.", "Japanese animator Shigeru Tezuka once said that he gave up medicine after watching the cartoon and decided to pursue animation.=== 1950s–1980s ===During this golden era, Chinese animation had developed a variety of styles, including ink animation, shadow play animation, puppet animation, and so on.", "Some of the most representative works are 《大闹天宫》'' Uproar in Heaven'', 《哪吒闹海》 ''Nezha's Rebellion in the Sea'' and《天书奇谈》 ''Heavenly Book'', which have also won lofty praise and numerous awards in the world.=== 1980s–1990s ===After Deng Xiaoping's Reform Period and the \"opening up\" of China, the movies《葫芦兄弟》 ''Calabash Brothers'', 《黑猫警长》''Black Cat Sheriff'', 《阿凡提》''Avanti Story'' and other impressive animated movies were released.", "However, at this time, China still favored the Japanese's more unique, American and European-influenced animated works over the less-advanced domestic ones.=== 1990s–2010s ===In the 1990s, digital production methods replaced manual hand-drawing methods; however, even with the use of advanced technology, none of the animated works were considered to be a breakthrough film.", "Animated films that tried to cater to all age groups, such as ''Lotus Lantern'' and ''Storm Resolution'', did not attract much attention.", "The only animated works that seemed to achieve popularity were the ones for catered for children, such as ''Pleasant Goat and Big Big Wolf''《喜羊羊与灰太狼》.=== 2010s–present ===During this period, the technical level of Chinese domestic animation production has been established comprehensively, and 3D animation films have become the mainstream.", "However, as more and more foreign films (such as ones from Japan, Europe, and the United States) are being imported into China, Chinese animated works is left in the shadows of these animated foreign films.It was only with the release of 《西游记之大圣归来》''Monkey King: Hero is Back'' in 2015, a computer-animated film, that Chinese animated works took back the rein.", "The film was a huge hit and broke the record for Chinese domestic animated movies with CN¥956 million at China's box office.", "After the success of ''Journey to the West'', several other high-quality animated films were released, such as《大鱼海棠》 ''Big Fish and Begonia'' and 《白蛇缘起》 ''White Snake''.", "Though none of these movies made headway in regards to the box office, they did make filmmakers more and more interested in animated works.This all changed with the breakthrough animated film, 《哪吒之魔童降世》''Ne Zha''.", "Released in 2019, it became the second highest-grossing film of all time in China, the highest-grossing animated non-English film, and the highest-grossing animated film in a single territory.", "It was with this film that Chinese animated films, as a medium, finally broke the notion in China that domestic animated films are only for children.", "With ''Nezha'', and a spinoff, ''Jiang Ziya'', Chinese animation has now come to be known as a veritable source of entertainment for all ages." ], [ "New models and the new Chinese cinema", "===Commercial successes===With China's liberalization in the late 1970s and its opening up to foreign markets, commercial considerations have made its impact in post-1980s filmmaking.", "Traditionally arthouse movies screened seldom make enough to break even.", "An example is Fifth Generation director Tian Zhuangzhuang's ''The Horse Thief'' (1986), a narrative film with minimal dialog on a Tibetan horse thief.", "The film, showcasing exotic landscapes, was well received by Chinese and some Western arthouse audiences, but did poorly at the box office.Tian's later ''The Warrior and the Wolf'' (2010) was a similar commercial failure.", "Prior to these, there were examples of successful commercial films in the post-liberalization period.", "One was the romance film ''Romance on the Lu Mountain'' (1980), which was a success with older Chinese.", "The film broke the Guinness Book of Records as the longest-running film on a first run.", "Jet Li's cinematic debut ''Shaolin Temple'' (1982) was an instant hit at home and abroad (in Japan and the Southeast Asia, for example).", "Another successful commercial film was ''Murder in 405'' (405谋杀案, 1980), a murder thriller.Feng Xiaogang's ''The Dream Factory'' (1997) was heralded as a turning point in Chinese movie industry, a ''hesui pian'' (Chinese New Year-screened film) which demonstrated the viability of the commercial model in China's socialist market economy.", "Feng has become one of the most successful commercial director in the post-1997 era.", "Almost all his films made high returns domestically while he used ethnic Chinese co-stars like Rosamund Kwan, Jacqueline Wu, Rene Liu and Shu Qi to boost his films' appeal.In the decade following 2010, owing to the influx of Hollywood films (though the number screened each year is curtailed), Chinese domestic cinema faces mounting challenges.", "The industry is growing and domestic films are starting to achieve the box office impact of major Hollywood blockbusters.", "However, not all domestic films are successful financially.", "In January 2010 James Cameron's ''Avatar'' was pulled out from non-3D theaters for Hu Mei's biopic ''Confucius'', but this move led to a backlash on Hu's film.", "Zhang Yang's 2005 ''Sunflower'' also made little money, but his earlier, low-budget ''Spicy Love Soup'' (1997) grossed ten times its budget of ¥3 million.", "Likewise, the 2006 ''Crazy Stone'', a sleeper hit, was made for just 3 million HKD/US$400,000.In 2009–11, Feng's ''Aftershock'' (2009) and Jiang Wen's ''Let the Bullets Fly'' (2010) became China's highest grossing domestic films, with ''Aftershock'' earning ¥670 million (US$105 million) and ''Let the Bullets Fly'' ¥674 million (US$110 million).", "''Lost in Thailand'' (2012) became the first Chinese film to reach ¥1 billion at the Chinese box office and ''Monster Hunt'' (2015) became the first to reach .", "As of 2021, 9 of the top 10 highest-grossing films in China are domestic productions.", "On 8 February 2016, the Chinese box office set a new single-day gross record, with , beating the previous record of on 18 July 2015.Also in February 2016, ''The Mermaid'', directed by Stephen Chow, became the highest-grossing film in China, overtaking ''Monster Hunt''.", "It is also the first film to reach .Under the influence of Hollywood science fiction movies like ''Prometheus'', published on 8 June 2012, such genres especially the space science films have risen rapidly in the Chinese film market in recent years.", "On 5 February 2019, the film ''The Wandering Earth'' directed by Frant Kwo reached $699.8 million worldwide, which became the third highest-grossing film in the history of Chinese cinema.===Chinese international cinema and successes abroad===Director Jia Zhangke at the Skip City International D-Cinema Festival in Kawaguchi, Saitama, Japan, 22 July 2005Huang Xiaoming, a Chinese actor, singer, and modelSince the late 1980s and progressively in the 2000s, Chinese films have enjoyed considerable box office success abroad.", "Formerly viewed only by cineastes, its global appeal mounted after the international box office and critical success of Ang Lee's period wuxia film ''Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon'' which won Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film in 2000.This multi-national production increased its appeal by featuring stars from all parts of the Chinese-speaking world.", "It provided an introduction to Chinese cinema (and especially the wuxia genre) for many and increased the popularity of many earlier Chinese films.", "To date ''Crouching Tiger'' remains the most commercially successful foreign-language film in U.S. history.Similarly, in 2002, Zhang Yimou's ''Hero'' was another international box office success.", "Its cast featured famous actors from mainland China and Hong Kong who were also known to some extent in the West, including Jet Li, Zhang Ziyi, Maggie Cheung and Tony Leung Chiu-Wai.", "Despite criticisms by some that these two films pander somewhat to Western tastes, ''Hero'' was a phenomenal success in most of Asia and topped the U.S. box office for two weeks, making enough in the U.S. alone to cover the production costs.Other films such as ''Farewell My Concubine'', ''2046'', ''Suzhou River'', ''The Road Home'' and ''House of Flying Daggers'' were critically acclaimed around the world.", "The Hengdian World Studios can be seen as the \"Chinese Hollywood\", with a total area of up to 330 ha.", "and 13 shooting bases, including a 1:1 copy of the Forbidden City.Jiang Qinqin at Opening Ceremony of the Tokyo International Film Festival 2016The successes of ''Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon'' and ''Hero'' make it difficult to demarcate the boundary between \"Mainland Chinese\" cinema and a more international-based \"Chinese-language cinema\".", "''Crouching Tiger'', for example, was directed by a Taiwan-born American director (Ang Lee) who works often in Hollywood.", "Its pan-Chinese leads include mainland Chinese (Zhang Ziyi), Hong Kong (Chow Yun-Fat), Taiwan (Chang Chen) and Malaysian (Michelle Yeoh) actors and actresses; the film was co-produced by an array of Chinese, American, Hong Kong, and Taiwan film companies.", "Likewise, Lee's Chinese-language ''Lust, Caution'' (2007) drew a crew and cast from mainland China, Hong Kong and Taiwan, and includes an orchestral score by French composer Alexandre Desplat.", "This merging of people, resources and expertise from the three regions and the broader East Asia and the world, marks the movement of Chinese-language cinema into a domain of large scale international influence.", "Other examples of films in this mold include ''The Promise'' (2005), ''The Banquet'' (2006), ''Fearless'' (2006), ''The Warlords'' (2007), ''Bodyguards and Assassins'' (2009) and ''Red Cliff'' (2008-09).", "The ease with which ethnic Chinese actresses and actors straddle the mainland and Hong Kong has significantly increased the number of co-productions in Chinese-language cinema.", "Many of these films also feature South Korean or Japanese actors to appeal to their East Asian neighbours.", "Some artistes originating from the mainland, like Hu Jun, Zhang Ziyi, Tang Wei and Zhou Xun, obtained Hong Kong residency under the Quality Migrant Admission Scheme and have acted in many Hong Kong productions." ], [ "Industry", "===Box office and screens=== In 1983, there were 162,000 projection units in China, up from less than 600 at the 1949 founding of the PRC.In 1998, the Ministry of Culture revived the practice of mobile rural cinema as part of its 2131 Project which aimed to screen one movie pert month per village in rural China and upgrade analog equipment to digital projectors.", "In 2003, the central government provided more than 400 film projection vans to Tibet and Xinjiang to show films in an effort to oppose what the government viewed as separatism and Westernization.", "In 2010, Chinese cinema was the third largest film industry by number of feature films produced annually.", "In 2013, China's gross box office was ¥21.8 billion (US$3.6 billion), the second-largest film market in the world by box office receipts.", "In January 2013, ''Lost in Thailand'' (2012) became the first Chinese film to reach ¥1 billion at the box office.", "As of May 2013, 7 of the top 10 highest-grossing films in China were domestic productions.", "As of 2014, around half of all tickets are sold online, with the largest ticket selling sites being Maoyan.com (82 million), Gewara.com (45 million) and Wepiao.com (28 million).", "In 2014, Chinese films earned ¥1.87 billion outside China.", "By December 2013 there were 17,000 screens in the country.", "By 6 January 2014, there were 18,195 screens in the country.", "Greater China has around 251 IMAX theaters.", "There were 299 cinema chains (252 rural, 47 urban), 5,813 movie theaters and 24,317 screens in the country in 2014.The country added about 8,035 screens in 2015 (at an average of 22 new screens per day, increasing its total by about 40% to around 31,627 screens, which is about 7,373 shy of the number of screens in the United States.", "Chinese films accounted for 61.48% of ticket sales in 2015 (up from 54% last year) with more than 60% of ticket sales being made online.", "Average ticket price was down about 2.5% to $5.36 in 2015.It also witnessed 51.08% increase in admissions, with 1.26 billion people buying tickets to the cinema in 2015.Chinese films grossed overseas in 2015.During the week of the 2016 Chinese New Year, the country set a new record for the highest box office gross during one week in one territory with , overtaking the previous record of of 26 December 2015 to 1 January 2016 in the United States and Canada.", "Chinese films grossed () in foreign markets in 2016.In 2020, China's market for films surpassed the U.S. market to become the largest such market in the world.+ Year Gross(in billions of yuans) Domesticshare Tickets sold(in millions) Number of screens 2003 less than 1 2004 1.5 2005 2 60% 157.2 4,425 2006 2.67 176.2 3,034 or 4,753 2007 3.33 55% 195.8 3,527 or 5,630 2008 4.34 61% 209.8 4,097 or 5,722 2009 6.21 56% 263.8 4,723 or 6,323 2010 10.17 56% 290 6,256 or 7,831 2011 13.12 54% 370 9,286 2012 17.07 48.5% 462 2013 21.77 59% 612 18,195 2014 29.6 55% 830 23,600 2015 44 61.6% 1,260 31,627 2016 45.71 58.33% 1,370 41,179201755.953.8%1,62050,776201860.9862.2%172060,000===Film companies===As of April 2015, the largest Chinese film company by worth was Alibaba Pictures (US$8.77 billion).", "Other large companies include Huayi Brothers Media (US$7.9 billion), Enlight Media (US$5.98 billion) and Bona Film Group (US$542 million).", "The biggest distributors by market share in 2014 were: China Film Group (32.8%), Huaxia Film (22.89%), Enlight Pictures (7.75%), Bona Film Group (5.99%), Wanda Media (5.2%), Le Vision Pictures (4.1%), Huayi Brothers (2.26%), United Exhibitor Partners (2%), Heng Ye Film Distribution (1.77%) and Beijing Anshi Yingna Entertainment (1.52%).", "The biggest cinema chains in 2014 by box office gross were: Wanda Cinema Line (), China Film Stellar (393.35 million), Dadi Theater Circuit (378.17 million), Shanghai United Circuit (355.07 million), Guangzhou Jinyi Zhujiang (335.39 million), China Film South Cinema Circuit (318.71 million), Zhejiang Time Cinema (190.53 million), China Film Group Digital Cinema Line (177.42 million), Hengdian Cinema Line (170.15 million) and Beijing New Film Association (163.09 million).====Notable independent (non-state-owned) film companies====Huayi Brothers is China's most powerful independent (i.e., non state-owned) entertainment company, Beijing-based Huayi Brothers is a diversified company engaged in film and TV production, distribution, theatrical exhibition, as well as talent management.", "Notable films include 2004's ''Kung Fu Hustle''; and 2010's ''Aftershock'', which had a 91% rating on Rotten Tomatoes.Beijing Enlight Media focuses on the action and romance genres.", "Enlight usually places several films in China's top 20 grossers.", "Enlight is also a major player in China's TV series production and distribution businesses.", "Under the leadership of its CEO Wang Changtian, the publicly traded, Beijing-based company has achieved a market capitalization of nearly US$1 billion." ], [ "See also", "* Cinema of Asia* East Asian cinema* Chinese animation* Chinese art* Movie Town Haikou* Oriental Movie Metropolis* August First Film Studio===Lists===* List of Chinese actors* List of Chinese actresses* List of Chinese directors* List of Chinese films* List of Chinese film production companies (pre-PRC)* List of highest-grossing films in China* List of film production companies by country#China* List of highest-grossing non-English films" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Carlo Celli.", "\"China's Confucian, Misogynistic Nationalism\" ''National Identity in Global Cinema: How Movies Explain the World''.", "Palgrave MacMillan 2013, 1–22.", "* Rey Chow, ''Primitive Passions: Visuality, Sexuality, Ethnography, and Contemporary Chinese Cinema'', Columbia University Press 1995.", "* Cheng, Jim, ''Annotated Bibliography For Chinese Film Studies'', Hong Kong University Press 2004.", "* Shuqin Cui, ''Women Through the Lens: Gender and Nation in a Century of Chinese Cinema'', University of Hawaii Press 2003.", "* Dai Jinhua, ''Cinema and Desire: Feminist Marxism and Cultural Politics in the Work of Dai Jinhua'', eds.", "Jing Wang and Tani E. Barlow.", "London: Verso 2002.", "** * Harry H. Kuoshu, ''Celluloid China: Cinematic Encounters with Culture and Society'', Southern Illinois University Press 2002 - introduction, discusses 15 films at length.", "* Jay Leyda, ''Dianying'', MIT Press, 1972.", "* Laikwan Pang, ''Building a New China in Cinema: The Chinese Left-Wing Cinema Movement, 1932–1937'', Rowman & Littlefield Pub Inc 2002.", "** Rea, Christopher.", "''Chinese Film Classics, 1922–1949.''", "New York: Columbia University Press, 2021.ISBN 9780231188135*Seio Nakajima.", "2016.", "\"The genesis, structure and transformation of the contemporary Chinese cinematic field: Global linkages and national refractions.\"", "''Global Media and Communication'' Volume 12, Number 1, pp 85–108.", "* Zhen Ni, Chris Berry, ''Memoirs From The Beijing Film Academy'', Duke University Press 2002.", "* Semsel, George, ed.", "\"Chinese Film: The State of the Art in the People's Republic\", Praeger, 1987.", "* Semsel, George, Xia Hong, and Hou Jianping, eds.", "''Chinese Film Theory: A Guide to the New Era'', Praeger, 1990.", "* Semsel, George, Chen Xihe, and Xia Hong, eds.", "Film in Contemporary China: Critical Debates, 1979–1989\", Praeger, 1993.", "* Gary G. Xu, ''Sinascape: Contemporary Chinese Cinema'', Rowman & Littlefield, 2007.", "* Emilie Yueh-yu Yeh and Darrell William Davis.", "2008.", "\"Re-nationalizing China's film industry: case study on the China Film Group and film marketization.\"", "''Journal of Chinese Cinemas'' Volume 2, Issue 1, pp 37–51.", "* Yingjin Zhang (Author), Zhiwei Xiao (Author, Editor), ''Encyclopedia of Chinese Film'', Routledge, 1998.", "* Yingjin Zhang, ed., ''Cinema and Urban Culture in Shanghai, 1922–1943'', Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1999.", "* Yingjin Zhang, ''Chinese National Cinema'' (National Cinemas Series.", "), Routledge 2004 - general introduction.", "* Ying Zhu, \"Chinese Cinema during the Era of Reform: the Ingenuity of the System\", Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003.", "* Ying Zhu, \"Art, Politics and Commerce in Chinese Cinema\", co-edited with Stanley Rosen, Hong Kong University Press, 2010* Ying Zhu and Seio Nakajima, \"The Evolution of Chinese Film as an Industry,\" pp.", "17–33 in Stanley Rosen and Ying Zhu, eds., ''Art, Politics and Commerce in Chinese Cinema,'' Hong Kong University Press, 2010.", "* Wang, Lingzhen.", "''Chinese Women's Cinema: Transnational Contexts''.", "Columbia University Press, 13 August 2013., 9780231527446." ], [ "External links", "* Chinese Film Classics - a website hosted at the University of British Columbia with over 30 early Chinese films with English subtitles, an online course on early Chinese cinema, and other resources** Journal of Chinese Cinema* MCLC Resource Center-Media* The Chinese Mirror — ''A Journal of Chinese Film History''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cinema of the United Kingdom" ], [ "Introduction", "The United Kingdom has had a significant film industry for over a century.", "While film production reached an all-time high in 1936, the \"golden age\" of British cinema is usually thought to have occurred in the 1940s, during which the directors David Lean, Michael Powell, and Carol Reed produced their most critically acclaimed works.", "Many British actors have accrued critical success and worldwide recognition, such as Audrey Hepburn, Olivia de Havilland, Vivien Leigh, Glynis Johns, Maggie Smith, Laurence Olivier, Michael Caine, Sean Connery, Ian Mckellen, Joan Collins, Judi Dench, Julie Andrews, Daniel Day-Lewis, Gary Oldman, Emma Thompson, Anthony Hopkins and Kate Winslet.", "Some of the films with the largest ever box office returns have been made in the United Kingdom, including the fourth and fifth highest-grossing film franchises (''Harry Potter'' and ''James Bond'').The identity of the British film industry, particularly as it relates to Hollywood, has often been the subject of debate.", "Its history has often been affected by attempts to compete with the American industry.", "The career of the producer Alexander Korda was marked by this objective, the Rank Organisation attempted to do so in the 1940s, and Goldcrest in the 1980s.", "Numerous British-born directors, including Alfred Hitchcock, Christopher Nolan and Ridley Scott, and performers, such as Charlie Chaplin and Cary Grant, have achieved success primarily through their work in the United States.In 2009, British films grossed around $2 billion worldwide and achieved a market share of around 7% globally and 17% in the United Kingdom.", "UK box-office takings totalled £1.1 billion in 2012, with 172.5 million admissions.The British Film Institute has produced a poll ranking what they consider to be the 100 greatest British films of all time, the BFI Top 100 British films.", "The annual BAFTA Awards hosted by the British Academy of Film and Television Arts are considered to be the British equivalent of the Academy Awards." ], [ "History", "William Friese-GreeneCharles Urban, 1914Cecil HepworthSir Oswald Stoll, 1922===Origins and silent films===The world's first moving picture was shot in Leeds by Louis Le Prince in 1888 and the first moving pictures developed on celluloid film were made in Hyde Park, London in 1889 by British inventor William Friese Greene, who patented the process in 1890.Charlie Chaplin, c. 1918The first people to build and run a working 35 mm camera in Britain were Robert W. Paul and Birt Acres.", "They made the first British film ''Incident at Clovelly Cottage'' in February 1895, shortly before falling out over the camera's patent.", "Soon several British film companies had opened to meet the demand for new films, such as Mitchell and Kenyon in Blackburn.Although the earliest British films were of everyday events, the early 20th century saw the appearance of narrative shorts, mainly comedies and melodramas.", "The early films were often melodramatic in tone, and there was a distinct preference for story lines already known to the audience, in particular, adaptations of Shakespeare plays and Dickens novels.The Lumière brothers first brought their show to London in 1896.In 1898, American producer Charles Urban expanded the London-based Warwick Trading Company to produce British films, mostly documentary and news.In 1898, Gaumont-British Picture Corp. was founded as a subsidiary of the French Gaumont Film Company, constructing Lime Grove Studios in West London in 1915 in the first building built in Britain solely for film production.", "Also in 1898, Hepworth Studios was founded in Lambeth, South London by Cecil Hepworth, the Bamforths began producing films in Yorkshire, and William Haggar began producing films in Wales.Directed by Walter R. Booth in 1901, ''Scrooge, or, Marley's Ghost'' is the earliest film adaptation of Charles Dickens's festive novella ''A Christmas Carol''.", "Booth's ''The Hand of the Artist'' (1906) has been described as the first British animated film.In 1902, Ealing Studios was founded by Will Barker, becoming the oldest continuously-operating film studio in the world.In 1902, the earliest colour film in the world was made; like other films made at the time, it is of everyday events.", "In 2012, it was found by the National Science and Media Museum in Bradford after lying forgotten in an old tin for 110 years.", "The previous title for earliest colour film, using Urban's inferior Kinemacolor process, was thought to date from 1909.The re-discovered films were made by pioneer Edward Raymond Turner from London who patented his process on 22 March 1899.Alice in Wonderland'' (1903)In 1909, Urban formed the Natural Color Kinematograph Company, which produced early colour films using his patented Kinemacolor process.", "This was later challenged in court by Greene, causing the company to go out of business in 1914.In 1903, Cecil Hepworth and Percy Stow directed ''Alice in Wonderland'', the first film adaptation of Lewis Carroll's children's book ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland''.In 1903, Frank Mottershaw of Sheffield produced the film ''A Daring Daylight Robbery'', which launched the chase genre.In 1911, the Ideal Film Company was founded in Soho, London, distributing almost 400 films by 1934, and producing 80.In 1913, stage director Maurice Elvey began directing British films, becoming Britain's most prolific film director, with almost 200 by 1957.In 1914, Elstree Studios was founded, and acquired in 1928 by German-born Ludwig Blattner, who invented a magnetic steel tape recording system that was adopted by the BBC in 1930.In 1915, the Kinematograph Renters’ Society of Great Britain and Ireland was formed to represent the film distribution companies.", "It is the oldest film trade body in the world.", "It was known as the Society of Film Distributors until it changed its name again to the Film Distributors’ Association (FDA).In 1920, Gaumont opened Islington Studios, where Alfred Hitchcock got his start, selling out to Gainsborough Pictures in 1927.Also in 1920 Cricklewood Studios was founded by Sir Oswald Stoll, becoming Britain's largest film studio, known for Fu Manchu and Sherlock Holmes film series.Leslie HowardIn 1920, the short-lived company Minerva Films was founded in London by the actor Leslie Howard (also producer and director) and his friend and story editor Adrian Brunel.", "Some of their early films include four written by A.", "A. Milne including ''The Bump'', starring C. Aubrey Smith; ''Twice Two''; ''Five Pound Reward''; and ''Bookworms''.By the mid-1920s the British film industry was losing out to heavy competition from the United States, which was helped by its much larger home market – in 1914 25% of films shown in the UK were British, but by 1926 this had fallen to 5%.", "The Slump of 1924 caused many British film studios to close, resulting in the passage of the Cinematograph Films Act 1927 to boost local production, requiring that cinemas show a certain percentage of British films.", "The act was technically a success, with audiences for British films becoming larger than the quota required, but it had the effect of creating a market for poor quality, low cost films, made to satisfy the quota.", "The \"quota quickies\", as they became known, are often blamed by historians for holding back the development of the industry.", "However, some British film makers, such as Michael Powell, learnt their craft making such films.", "The act was modified with the Cinematograph Films Act 1938 assisted the British film industry by specifying only films made by and shot in Great Britain would be included in the quota, an act that severely reduced Canadian and Australian film production.Ironically, the biggest star of the silent era, English comedian Charlie Chaplin, was Hollywood-based.Alfred Hitchcock established himself as a name director with his first thriller, ''The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog'' (1927)===The early sound period===Scottish solicitor John Maxwell founded British International Pictures (BIP) in 1927.Based at the former British National Pictures Studios in Elstree, the facilities original owners, including producer-director Herbert Wilcox, had run into financial difficulties.", "One of the company's early films, Alfred Hitchcock's ''Blackmail'' (1929), is often regarded as the first British sound feature.", "It was a part-talkie with a synchronised score and sound effects.", "Earlier in 1929, the first all-talking British feature, ''The Clue of the New Pin'' was released.", "It was based on a novel by Edgar Wallace, starring Donald Calthrop, Benita Home and Fred Raines, which was made by British Lion at their Beaconsfield Studios.", "John Maxwell's BIP became the Associated British Picture Corporation (ABPC) in 1933.ABPC's studios in Elstree came to be known as the \"porridge factory\", according to Lou Alexander, \"for reasons more likely to do with the quantity of films that the company turned out, than their quality\".", "Elstree (strictly speaking almost all the studios were in neighbouring Borehamwood) became the centre of the British film industry, with six film complexes over the years all in close proximity to each other.By 1927, the largest cinema chains in the United Kingdom consisted of around 20 cinemas but the following year Gaumont-British expanded significantly to become the largest, controlling 180 cinemas by 1928 and up to 300 by 1929.Maxwell formed ABC Cinemas in 1927 which became a subsidiary of BIP and went on to become one of the largest in the country, together with Odeon Cinemas, founded by Oscar Deutsch, who opened his first cinema in 1928.By 1937, these three chains controlled almost a quarter of all cinemas in the country.", "A booking by one of these chains was indispensable for the success of any British film.With the advent of sound films, many foreign actors were in less demand, with English received pronunciation commonly used; for example, the voice of Czech actress Anny Ondra in ''Blackmail'' was substituted by an off-camera Joan Barry during Ondra's scenes.Starting with John Grierson's ''Drifters'' (also 1929), the period saw the emergence of the school of realist Documentary Film Movement, from 1933 associated with the GPO Film Unit.", "It was Grierson who coined the term \"documentary\" to describe a non-fiction film, and he produced the movement's most celebrated early films, ''Night Mail'' (1936), written and directed by Basil Wright and Harry Watt, and incorporating the poem by W. H. Auden towards the end of the short.Music halls also proved influential in comedy films of this period, and a number of popular personalities emerged, including George Formby, Gracie Fields, Jessie Matthews and Will Hay.", "These stars often made several films a year, and their productions remained important for morale purposes during World War II.Alexander KordaMany of the British films with larger budgets during the 1930s were produced by London Films, founded by Hungarian ''emigre'' Alexander Korda.", "The success of ''The Private Life of Henry VIII'' (1933), made at British and Dominions Elstree Studios, persuaded United Artists and The Prudential to invest in Korda's Denham Film Studios, which opened in May 1936, but both investors suffered losses as a result.", "Korda's films before the war included ''Things to Come'', ''Rembrandt'' (both 1936) and ''Knight Without Armour'' (1937), as well as the early Technicolour films ''The Drum'' (1938) and ''The Four Feathers'' (1939).", "These had followed closely on from ''Wings of the Morning'' (1937), the UK's first three-strip Technicolour feature film, made by the local offshoot of 20th Century Fox.", "Although some of Korda's films indulged in \"unrelenting pro-Empire flag waving\", those featuring Sabu turned him into \"a huge international star\"; \"for many years\" he had the highest profile of any actor of Indian origin.", "Paul Robeson was also cast in leading roles when \"there were hardly any opportunities\" for African Americans \"to play challenging roles\" in their own country's productions.In 1933, the British Film Institute was established as the lead organisation for film in the UK.", "They set up the National Film Library in 1935 (now known as the BFI National Archive), with Ernest Lindgren as its curator.In 1934, J. Arthur Rank became a co-founder of British National Films Company and they helped create Pinewood Studios, which opened in 1936.Also in 1936, Rank took over General Film Distributors and in 1937, Rank founded The Rank Organisation.", "In 1938, General Film Distributors became affiliated with Odeon Cinemas.Scott Sunderland, Leslie Howard and Wendy Hiller in ''Pygmalion'' (1938)Rising expenditure and over-optimistic expectations of expansion into the American market caused a financial crisis in 1937, after an all-time high of 192 films were released in 1936.Of the 640 British production companies registered between 1925 and 1936, only 20 were still active in 1937.Moreover, the 1927 Films Act was up for renewal.", "The replacement Cinematograph Films Act 1938 provided incentives, via a \"quality test\", for UK companies to make fewer films, but of higher quality, and to eliminate the \"quota quickies\".", "Influenced by world politics, it encouraged American investment and imports.", "One result was the creation of MGM-British, an English subsidiary of the largest American studio, which produced four films before the war, including ''Goodbye, Mr. Chips'' (1939).The new venture was initially based at Denham Studios.", "Korda himself lost control of the facility in 1939 to the Rank Organisation.", "Circumstances forced Korda's ''The Thief of Bagdad'' (1940), a spectacular fantasy film, to be completed in California, where Korda continued his film career during the war.By now contracted to Gaumont British, Alfred Hitchcock had settled on the thriller genre by the mid-1930s with ''The Man Who Knew Too Much'' (1934), ''The 39 Steps'' (1935) and ''The Lady Vanishes'' (1938).", "Lauded in Britain where he was dubbed \"Alfred the Great\" by ''Picturegoer'' magazine, Hitchcock's reputation was beginning to develop overseas, with a ''New York Times'' feature writer asserting; \"Three unique and valuable institutions the British have that we in America have not.", "Magna Carta, the Tower Bridge and Alfred Hitchcock, the greatest director of screen melodramas in the world.\"", "Hitchcock was then signed up to a seven-year contract by Selznick and moved to Hollywood.===Second World War===Published in ''The Times'' on 5 September 1939, two days after Britain declared war on Germany, George Bernard Shaw’s letter protested against a government order to close all places of entertainment, including cinemas.", "‘What agent of Chancellor Hitler is it who has suggested that we should all cower in darkness and terror “for the duration”?’.", "Within two weeks of the order cinemas in the provinces were reopened, followed by central London within a month.", "In 1940, cinema admissions figures rose, to just over 1 billion for the year, and they continued rising to over 1.5 billion in 1943, 1944 and 1945.Humphrey Jennings began his career as a documentary film maker just before the war, in some cases working in collaboration with co-directors.", "''London Can Take It'' (with Harry Wat, 1940) detailed the Blitz while ''Listen to Britain'' (with Stewart McAllister, 1942) looked at the home front.", "The Crown Film Unit, part of the Ministry of Information took over the responsibilities of the GPO Film Unit in 1940.Paul Rotha and Alberto Cavalcanti were colleagues of Jennings.", "British films began to make use of documentary techniques; Cavalcanti joined Ealing for ''Went the Day Well?''", "(1942),Many other films helped to shape the popular image of the nation at war.", "Among the best known of these films are ''In Which We Serve'' (1942), ''We Dive at Dawn'' (1943), ''Millions Like Us'' (1943) and ''The Way Ahead'' (1944).", "The war years also saw the emergence of The Archers partnership between director Michael Powell and the Hungarian-born writer-producer Emeric Pressburger with films such as ''The Life and Death of Colonel Blimp'' (1943) and ''A Canterbury Tale'' (1944).Two Cities Films, an independent production company releasing their films through a Rank subsidiary, also made some important films, including the Noël Coward and David Lean collaborations ''This Happy Breed'' (1944) and ''Blithe Spirit'' (1945) as well as Laurence Olivier's ''Henry V'' (1944).", "By this time, Gainsborough Studios were releasing their series of critically derided but immensely popular period melodramas, including ''The Man in Grey'' (1943) and ''The Wicked Lady'' (1945).", "New stars, such as Margaret Lockwood and James Mason, emerged in the Gainsborough films.===Post-war cinema===Towards the end of the 1940s, the Rank Organisation became the dominant force behind British film-making, having acquired a number of British studios and the Gaumont chain (in 1941) to add to its Odeon Cinemas.", "Rank's serious financial crisis in 1949, a substantial loss and debt, resulted in the contraction of its film production.", "In practice, Rank maintained an industry duopoly with ABPC (later absorbed by EMI) for many years.Deborah Kerr as Sister Clodagh in ''Black Narcissus'' (1947)For the moment, the industry hit new heights of creativity in the immediate post-war years.", "Among the most significant films produced during this period were David Lean's ''Brief Encounter'' (1945) and his Dickens adaptations ''Great Expectations'' (1946) and ''Oliver Twist'' (1948), Ken Annakin's comedy ''Miranda'' (1948) starring Glynis Johns, Carol Reed's thrillers ''Odd Man Out'' (1947) and ''The Third Man'' (1949), and Powell and Pressburger's ''A Matter of Life and Death'' (1946), ''Black Narcissus'' (1947) and ''The Red Shoes'' (1948), the most commercially successful film of its year in the United States.", "Laurence Olivier's ''Hamlet'' (also 1948), was the first non-American film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture.", "Ealing Studios (financially backed by Rank) began to produce their most celebrated comedies, with three of the best remembered films, ''Whisky Galore'' (1948), ''Kind Hearts and Coronets'' and ''Passport to Pimlico'' (both 1949), being on release almost simultaneously.", "Their portmanteau horror film ''Dead of Night'' (1945) is also particularly highly regarded.Under the Import Duties Act 1932, HM Treasury levied a 75% tariff on all film imports on 6 August 1947 which became known as Dalton Duty (after Hugh Dalton then the Chancellor of the Exchequer).", "The tax came into effect on 8 August, applying to all imported films, of which the overwhelming majority came from the United States; American film studio revenues from the UK had been in excess of US$68 million in 1946.The following day, 9 August, the Motion Picture Association of America announced that no further films would be supplied to British cinemas until further notice.", "The Dalton Duty was ended on 3 May 1948 with the American studios again exported films to the UK though the Marshall Plan prohibited US film companies from taking foreign exchange out of the nations their films played in.Following the Cinematograph Film Production (Special Loans) Act 1949, the National Film Finance Corporation (NFFC) was established as a British film funding agency.The Eady Levy, named after Sir Wilfred Eady was a tax on box office receipts in the United Kingdom in order to support the British Film industry.", "It was established in 1950 coming into effect in 1957.A direct governmental payment to British-based producers would have qualified as a subsidy under the terms of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, and would have led to objections from American film producers.", "An indirect levy did not qualify as a subsidy, and so was a suitable way of providing additional funding for the UK film industry whilst avoiding criticism from abroad.In 1951, the National Film Theatre was initially opened in a temporary building at the Festival of Britain.", "It moved to its present location on the South Bank in London for the first London Film Festival on 16 October 1957 run by the BFI.Terry-Thomas starred with Peter Sellers in four films between 1957 and 1959.Their last film, ''I'm All Right Jack'', was the highest grossing film at the British box office in 1960During the 1950s, the British industry began to concentrate on popular comedies and World War II dramas aimed more squarely at the domestic audience.", "The war films were often based on true stories and made in a similar low-key style to their wartime predecessors.", "They helped to make stars of actors like John Mills, Jack Hawkins and Kenneth More.", "Some of the most successful included ''The Cruel Sea'' (1953), ''The Dam Busters'' (1954), ''The Colditz Story'' (1955) and ''Reach for the Sky'' (1956).The Rank Organisation produced some comedy successes, such as ''Genevieve'' (1953).", "The writer/director/producer team of twin brothers John and Roy Boulting also produced a series of successful satires on British life and institutions, beginning with ''Private's Progress'' (1956), and continuing with (among others) ''Brothers in Law'' (1957), ''Carlton-Browne of the F.O.''", "(1958), and ''I'm All Right Jack'' (1959).", "Starring in ''School for Scoundrels'' (1960), the British Film Institute thought Terry-Thomas was \"outstanding as a classic British bounder\".Popular comedy series included the \"Doctor\" series, beginning with ''Doctor in the House'' (1954).", "The series originally starred Dirk Bogarde, probably the British industry's most popular star of the 1950s, though later films had Michael Craig and Leslie Phillips in leading roles.", "The Carry On series began in 1958 with regular instalments appearing for the next twenty years.", "The Italian director-producer Mario Zampi also made a number of successful black comedies, including ''Laughter in Paradise'' (1951), ''The Naked Truth'' (1957) and ''Too Many Crooks'' (1958).", "Ealing Studios had continued its run of successful comedies, including ''The Lavender Hill Mob'' (1951) and ''The Ladykillers'' (1955), but the company ceased production in 1958, after the studios had already been bought by the BBC.Christopher Lee in ''Dracula'' (1958)Less restrictive censorship towards the end of the 1950s encouraged film producer Hammer Films to embark on their series of commercially successful horror films.", "Beginning with adaptations of Nigel Kneale's BBC science fiction serials ''The Quatermass Experiment'' (1955) and ''Quatermass II'' (1957), Hammer quickly graduated to ''The Curse of Frankenstein'' (1957) and ''Dracula'' (1958), both deceptively lavish and the first gothic horror films in colour.", "The studio turned out numerous sequels and variants, with English actors Peter Cushing and Christopher Lee being the most regular leads.", "''Peeping Tom'' (1960), a now highly regarded thriller, with horror elements, set in the contemporary period, was badly received by the critics at the time, and effectively finished the career of Michael Powell, its director.===Social realism===Karel Reisz (centre) who was active in the Free Cinema and the 'British New Wave'The British New Wave film makers attempted to produce social realist films (see also 'kitchen sink realism') attempted in commercial feature films released between around 1959 and 1963 to convey narratives about a wider spectrum of people in Britain than the country's earlier films had done.", "These individuals, principally Karel Reisz, Lindsay Anderson and Tony Richardson, were also involved in the short lived Oxford film journal ''Sequence'' and the \"Free Cinema\" documentary film movement.", "The 1956 statement of Free Cinema, the name was coined by Anderson, asserted: \"No film can be too personal.", "The image speaks.", "Sounds amplifies and comments.", "Size is irrelevant.", "Perfection is not an aim.", "An attitude means a style.", "A style means an attitude.\"", "Anderson, in particular, was dismissive of the commercial film industry.", "Their documentary films included Anderson's ''Every Day Except Christmas'', among several sponsored by Ford of Britain, and Richardson's ''Momma Don't Allow''.", "Another member of this group, John Schlesinger, made documentaries for the BBC's ''Monitor'' arts series.Together with future James Bond co-producer Harry Saltzman, dramatist John Osborne and Tony Richardson established the company Woodfall Films to produce their early feature films.", "These included adaptations of Richardson's stage productions of Osborne's ''Look Back in Anger'' (1959), with Richard Burton, and ''The Entertainer'' (1960) with Laurence Olivier, both from Osborne's own screenplays.", "Such films as Reisz's ''Saturday Night and Sunday Morning'' (also 1960), Richardson's ''A Taste of Honey'' (1961), Schlesinger's ''A Kind of Loving'' (1962) and ''Billy Liar'' (1963), and Anderson's ''This Sporting Life'' (1963) are often associated with a new openness about working-class life or previously taboo issues.The team of Basil Dearden and Michael Relph, from an earlier generation, \"probed into the social issues that now confronted social stability and the establishment of the promised peacetime consensus\".", "''Pool of London'' (1950).", "and ''Sapphire'' (1959) were early attempts to create narratives about racial tensions and an emerging multi-cultural Britain.", "Dearden and Relph's ''Victim'' (1961), was about the blackmail of homosexuals.", "Influenced by the Wolfenden report of four years earlier, which advocated the decriminalising of homosexual sexual activity, this was \"the first British film to deal explicitly with homosexuality\".", "Unlike the New Wave film makers though, critical responses to Dearden's and Relph's work have not generally been positive.===The 1960s===Peter O'Toole in ''Lawrence of Arabia'' (1962)As the 1960s progressed, American studios returned to financially supporting British films, especially those that capitalised on the \"swinging London\" image propagated by ''Time'' magazine in 1966.Films like ''Darling'', ''The Knack ...and How to Get It'' (both 1965), ''Alfie'' and ''Georgy Girl'' (both 1966), all explored this phenomenon.", "''Blowup'' (also 1966), and later ''Women in Love'' (1969), showed female and then male full-frontal nudity on screen in mainstream British films for the first time.At the same time, film producers Harry Saltzman and Albert R. Broccoli combined sex with exotic locations, casual violence and self-referential humour in the phenomenally successful James Bond series with Sean Connery in the leading role.", "The first film ''Dr.", "No'' (1962) was a sleeper hit in the UK and the second, ''From Russia with Love'' (1963), a hit worldwide.", "By the time of the third film, ''Goldfinger'' (1964), the series had become a global phenomenon, reaching its commercial peak with ''Thunderball'' the following year.", "The series' success led to a spy film boom with many Bond imitations.", "Bond co-producer Saltzman also instigated a rival series of more realistic spy films based on the novels of Len Deighton.", "Michael Caine starred as bespectacled spy Harry Palmer in ''The Ipcress File'' (1965), and two sequels in the next few years.", "Other more downbeat espionage films were adapted from John le Carré novels, such as ''The Spy Who Came in from the Cold'' (1965) and ''The Deadly Affair'' (1966).The war room in ''Dr.", "Strangelove'' (1963) was designed by Ken AdamAmerican directors were regularly working in London throughout the decade, but several became permanent residents in the UK.", "Blacklisted in America, Joseph Losey had a significant influence on British cinema in the 1960s, particularly with his collaborations with playwright Harold Pinter and leading man Dirk Bogarde, including ''The Servant'' (1963) and ''Accident'' (1967).", "Voluntary exiles Richard Lester and Stanley Kubrick were also active in the UK.", "Lester had major hits with The Beatles film ''A Hard Day's Night'' (1964) and ''The Knack ...and How to Get It'' (1965) and Kubrick with ''Dr.", "Strangelove'' (1963) and ''2001: A Space Odyssey'' (1968).", "While Kubrick settled in Hertfordshire in the early 1960s and would remain in England for the rest of his career, these two films retained a strong American influence.", "Other films of this era involved prominent filmmakers from elsewhere in Europe, ''Repulsion'' (1965) and ''Blowup'' (1966) were the first English language films of the Polish director Roman Polanski and the Italian Michelangelo Antonioni respectively.Historical films as diverse as ''Lawrence of Arabia'' (1962), ''Tom Jones'' (1963), and ''A Man for All Seasons'' (1966) benefited from the investment of American studios.", "Major films like ''Becket'' (1964), ''Khartoum'' (1966) and ''The Charge of the Light Brigade'' (1968) were regularly mounted, while smaller-scale films, including ''Accident'' (1967), were big critical successes.", "Four of the decade's Academy Award winners for best picture were British productions, including six Oscars for the film musical ''Oliver!''", "(1968), based on the Charles Dickens novel ''Oliver Twist''.After directing several contributions to the BBC's ''Wednesday Play'' anthology series, Ken Loach began his feature film career with the social realist ''Poor Cow'' (1967) and ''Kes'' (1969).", "Meanwhile, the controversy around Peter Watkins ''The War Game'' (1965), which won the Best Documentary Film Oscar in 1967, but had been suppressed by the BBC who had commissioned it, would ultimately lead Watkins to work exclusively outside Britain.===1970s===Glenda Jackson in 1971American studios cut back on British productions, and in many cases withdrew from financing them altogether.", "Films financed by American interests were still being made, including Billy Wilder's ''The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes'' (1970), but for a time funds became hard to come by.More relaxed censorship also brought several controversial films, including Nicolas Roeg and Donald Cammell's ''Performance'', Ken Russell's ''The Devils'' (1971), Sam Peckinpah's ''Straw Dogs'' (1971), and Stanley Kubrick's ''A Clockwork Orange'' (1971) starring Malcolm McDowell as the leader of a gang of thugs in a dystopian future Britain.Other films during the early 1970s included the Edwardian drama ''The Go-Between'' (1971), which won the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival, Nicolas Roeg's Venice-set supernatural thriller ''Don't Look Now'' (1973) and Mike Hodges' gangster drama ''Get Carter'' (1971) starring Michael Caine.", "Alfred Hitchcock returned to Britain to shoot ''Frenzy'' (1972), Other productions such as Richard Attenborough's ''Young Winston'' (1972) and ''A Bridge Too Far'' (1977) met with mixed commercial success.", "The British horror film cycle associated with Hammer Film Productions, Amicus and Tigon drew to a close, despite attempts by Hammer to spice up the formula with added nudity and gore.", "Although some attempts were made to broaden the range of British horror films, such as with ''The Wicker Man'' (1973), these films made little impact at the box office, In 1976, British Lion, who produced ''The Wicker Man'', were finally absorbed into the film division of EMI, who had taken over ABPC in 1969.The duopoly in British cinema exhibition, via Rank and now EMI, continued.Peter Ustinov (pictured in 1986) starred as Hercule Poirot in ''Death on the Nile'' (1978)In the early 1970s, the government reduced its funding of the National Film Finance Corporation so the NFFC started to operate as a consortium, including with banks, which led to them using more commercial criteria for funding British films rather than focusing on quality or new talent, moving to fund films based on TV shows such as ''Up Pompeii'' (1971).Some other British producers, including Hammer, turned to television for inspiration, and big screen versions of popular sitcoms like ''On the Buses'' (1971) and ''Steptoe and Son'' (1972) proved successful with domestic audiences, the former had greater domestic box office returns in its year than the Bond film, ''Diamonds Are Forever'' and in 1973, an established British actor Roger Moore was cast as Bond in, ''Live and Let Die'', it was a commercial success and Moore would continue the role for the next 12 years.", "Low-budget British sex comedies included the ''Confessions of ...'' series starring Robin Askwith, beginning with ''Confessions of a Window Cleaner'' (1974).", "More elevated comedy films came from the Monty Python team, also from television.", "Their two most successful films were ''Monty Python and the Holy Grail'' (1975) and ''Monty Python's Life of Brian'' (1979), the latter a major commercial success, probably at least in part due to the controversy at the time surrounding its subject.Some American productions did return to the major British studios in 1977–79, including the original ''Star Wars'' (1977) at Elstree Studios, ''Superman'' (1978) at Pinewood, and ''Alien'' (1979) at Shepperton.", "Successful adaptations were made in the decade of the Agatha Christie novels ''Murder on the Orient Express'' (1974) and ''Death on the Nile'' (1978).", "The entry of Lew Grade's company ITC into film production in the latter half of the decade brought only a few box office successes and an unsustainable number of failures===1980s===Richard Attenborough in 1983In 1980, only 31 British films were made, a 50% decline from the previous year and the lowest number since 1914, and production fell again in 1981 to 24 films.", "The industry suffered further blows from falling cinema attendances, which reached a record low of 54 million in 1984, and the elimination of the 1957 Eady Levy, a tax concession, in the same year.", "The concession had made it possible for an overseas based film company to write off a large amount of its production costs by filming in the UK – this was what attracted a succession of big-budget American productions to British studios in the 1970s.", "These factors led to significant changes in the industry, with the profitability of British films now \"increasingly reliant on secondary markets such as video and television, and Channel 4 ... became a crucial part of the funding equation.", "\"With the removal of the levy, multiplex cinemas were introduced to the United Kingdom with the opening of a ten-screen cinema by AMC Cinemas at The Point in Milton Keynes in 1985 and the number of screens in the UK increased by around 500 over the decade leading to increased attendances of almost 100 million by the end of the decade.The 1980s soon saw a renewed optimism, led by smaller independent production companies such as Goldcrest, HandMade Films and Merchant Ivory Productions.Terry Gilliam in 1985Handmade Films, which was partly owned by George Harrison, was originally formed to take over the production of ''Monty Python's Life of Brian'', after EMI's Bernard Delfont (Lew Grade's brother) had pulled out.", "Handmade also bought and released the gangster drama ''The Long Good Friday'' (1980), produced by a Lew Grade subsidiary, after its original backers became cautious.", "Members of the Python team were involved in other comedies during the decade, including Terry Gilliam's fantasy films ''Time Bandits'' (1981) and ''Brazil'' (1985), the black comedy ''Withnail & I'' (1987), and John Cleese's hit ''A Fish Called Wanda'' (1988), while Michael Palin starred in ''A Private Function'' (1984), from Alan Bennett's first screenplay for the cinema screen.Goldcrest producer David Puttnam has been described as \"the nearest thing to a mogul that British cinema has had in the last quarter of the 20th century.\"", "Under Puttnam, a generation of British directors emerged making popular films with international distribution.", "Some of the talent backed by Puttnam — Hugh Hudson, Ridley Scott, Alan Parker, and Adrian Lyne — had shot commercials; Puttnam himself had begun his career in the advertising industry.", "When Hudson's ''Chariots of Fire'' (1981) won 4 Academy Awards in 1982, including Best Picture, its writer Colin Welland declared \"the British are coming!\".", "When ''Gandhi'' (1982), another Goldcrest film, picked up a Best Picture Oscar, it looked as if he was right.It prompted a cycle of period films – some with a large budget for a British film, such as David Lean's final film ''A Passage to India'' (1984), alongside the lower-budget Merchant Ivory adaptations of the works of E. M. Forster, such as ''A Room with a View'' (1986).", "But further attempts to make 'big' productions for the US market ended in failure, with Goldcrest losing its independence after ''Revolution'' (1985) and ''Absolute Beginners'' (1986) were commercial and critical flops.", "Another Goldcrest film, Roland Joffé's ''The Mission'' (also 1986), won the 1986 Palme d'Or, but did not go into profit either.", "Joffé's earlier ''The Killing Fields'' (1984) had been both a critical and financial success.", "These were Joffé's first two feature films and were amongst those produced by Puttnam.Mainly outside the commercial sector, film makers from the new commonwealth countries had begun to emerge during the 1970s.", "Horace Ové's ''Pressure'' (1975) had been funded by the British Film Institute as was ''A Private Enterprise'' (1974), these being the first Black British and Asian British films, respectively.", "The 1980s however saw a wave of new talent, with films such as Franco Rosso's ''Babylon'' (1980), Menelik Shabazz's ''Burning an Illusion'' (1981) and Po-Chih Leong's ''Ping Pong'' (1986; one of the first films about Britain's Chinese community).", "Many of these films were assisted by the newly formed Channel 4, which had an official remit to provide for \"minority audiences.\"", "Commercial success was first achieved with ''My Beautiful Laundrette'' (1985).", "Dealing with racial and gay issues, it was developed from Hanif Kureishi's first film script.", "''My Beautiful Laundrette'' features Daniel Day-Lewis in a leading role.", "Day-Lewis and other young British actors who were becoming stars, such as Gary Oldman, Colin Firth, Tim Roth and Rupert Everett, were dubbed the Brit Pack.With the involvement of Channel 4 in film production, talents from television moved into feature films with Stephen Frears (''My Beautiful Laundrette'') and Mike Newell with ''Dance with a Stranger'' (1985).", "John Boorman, who had been working in the US, was encouraged back to the UK to make ''Hope and Glory'' (1987).", "Channel Four also became a major sponsor of the British Film Institute's Production Board, which backed three of Britain's most critically acclaimed filmmakers: Derek Jarman (''The Last of England'', 1987), Terence Davies (''Distant Voices, Still Lives'', 1988), and Peter Greenaway; the latter of whom gained surprising commercial success with ''The Draughtsman's Contract'' (1982) and ''The Cook, the Thief, His Wife & Her Lover'' (1989).", "Stephen Woolley's company Palace Pictures also produced some successful films, including Neil Jordan's ''The Company of Wolves'' (1984) and ''Mona Lisa'' (1986), before collapsing amid a series of unsuccessful films.", "Amongst the other British films of the decade were Bill Forsyth's ''Gregory's Girl'' (1981) and ''Local Hero'' (1983), Lewis Gilbert's ''Educating Rita'' (1983), Peter Yates' ''The Dresser'' (1983) and Kenneth Branagh's directorial debut, ''Henry V'' (1989).===1990s===Hugh Grant at the 1997 Cannes Film FestivalCompared to the 1980s, investment in film production rose dramatically.", "In 1989, annual investment was a meagre £104 million.", "By 1996, this figure had soared to £741 million.", "Nevertheless, the dependence on finance from television broadcasters such as the BBC and Channel 4 meant that budgets were often low and indigenous production was very fragmented: the film industry mostly relied on Hollywood inward investment.", "According to critic Neil Watson, it was hoped that the £90 million apportioned by the new National Lottery into three franchises (The Film Consortium, Pathé Pictures, and DNA) would fill the gap, but \"corporate and equity finance for the UK film production industry continues to be thin on the ground and most production companies operating in the sector remain hopelessly under-capitalised.", "\"These problems were mostly compensated by PolyGram Filmed Entertainment, a film studio whose British subsidiary Working Title Films released a Richard Curtis-scripted comedy ''Four Weddings and a Funeral'' (1994).", "It grossed $244 million worldwide and introduced Hugh Grant to global fame, led to renewed interest and investment in British films, and set a pattern for British-set romantic comedies, including ''Sliding Doors'' (1998) and ''Notting Hill'' (1999).", "Other Working Titles films included ''Bean'' (1997), ''Elizabeth'' (1998) and ''Captain Corelli's Mandolin'' (2001).", "PFE was eventually sold and merged with Universal Pictures in 1999, the hopes and expectations of \"building a British-based company which could compete with Hollywood in its home market had eventually collapsed.", "\"Tax incentives allowed American producers to increasingly invest in UK-based film production throughout the 1990s, including films such as ''Interview with the Vampire'' (1994), ''Mission: Impossible'' (1996), ''Saving Private Ryan'' (1998), ''Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace'' (1999) and ''The Mummy'' (1999).", "Miramax also distributed Neil Jordan's acclaimed thriller ''The Crying Game'' (1992), which was generally ignored on its initial release in the UK, but was a considerable success in the United States.", "The same company also enjoyed some success releasing the BBC period drama ''Enchanted April'' (1992) and ''The Wings of the Dove'' (1997).Among the more successful British films were the Merchant Ivory productions ''Howards End'' (1992) and ''The Remains of the Day'' (1993), Richard Attenborough's ''Shadowlands'' (1993), and Kenneth Branagh's Shakespeare adaptations.", "''The Madness of King George'' (1994) proved there was still a market for British costume dramas, and other period films followed, including ''Sense and Sensibility'' (1995), ''Restoration'' (1995), ''Emma'' (1996), ''Mrs.", "Brown'' (1997), ''Basil'' (1998), ''Shakespeare in Love'' (1998) and ''Topsy-Turvy'' (1999).After a six-year hiatus for legal reasons the James Bond films returned to production with the 17th Bond film, ''GoldenEye''.", "With their traditional home Pinewood Studios fully booked, a new studio was created for the film in a former Rolls-Royce aero-engine factory at Leavesden in Hertfordshire.Mike Leigh emerged as a significant figure in British cinema in the 1990s, with a series of films financed by Channel 4 about working and middle class life in modern England, including ''Life Is Sweet'' (1991), ''Naked'' (1993) and his biggest hit ''Secrets & Lies'' (1996), which won the Palme d'Or at Cannes.Other new talents to emerge during the decade included the writer-director-producer team of John Hodge, Danny Boyle and Andrew Macdonald responsible for ''Shallow Grave'' (1994) and ''Trainspotting'' (1996).", "The latter film generated interested in other \"regional\" productions, including the Scottish films ''Small Faces'' (1996), ''Ratcatcher'' (1999) and ''My Name Is Joe'' (1998).===2000s===David Heyman, who produced all eight instalments of the ''Harry Potter'' film seriesThe first decade of the 21st century was a relatively successful one for the British film industry.", "Many British films found a wide international audience due to funding from BBC Films, Film 4 and the UK Film Council, and some independent production companies, such as Working Title, secured financing and distribution deals with major American studios.", "Working Title scored three major international successes, all starring Hugh Grant and Colin Firth, with the romantic comedies ''Bridget Jones's Diary'' (2001), which grossed $254 million worldwide; the sequel ''Bridget Jones: The Edge of Reason'', which earned $228 million; and Richard Curtis's directorial debut ''Love Actually'' (2003), which grossed $239 million.", "The most successful of all, Phyllida Lloyd's ''Mamma Mia!''", "(2008), grossed $601 million.The new decade saw a major new film series in the Harry Potter films, beginning with ''Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone'' in 2001.David Heyman's company Heyday Films has produced seven sequels, with the final title released in two parts – ''Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1'' in 2010 and ''Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2'' in 2011.All were filmed at Leavesden Studios in England.Aardman Animations' Nick Park, the creator of Wallace and Gromit and the Creature Comforts series, produced his first feature-length film, ''Chicken Run'' in 2000.Co-directed with Peter Lord, the film was a major success worldwide and one of the most successful British films of its year.", "Park's follow up, ''Wallace & Gromit: The Curse of the Were-Rabbit'' was another worldwide hit: it grossed $56 million at the US box office and £32 million in the UK.", "It also won the 2005 Academy Award for Best Animated Feature.Keira Knightley at the 68th Venice International Film FestivalHowever it was usually through domestically funded features throughout the decade that British directors and films won awards at the top international film festivals.", "In 2003, Michael Winterbottom won the Golden Bear at the Berlin Film Festival for ''In This World''.", "In 2004, Mike Leigh directed ''Vera Drake'', an account of a housewife who leads a double life as an abortion provider in 1950s London.", "The film won the Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival.", "In 2006 Stephen Frears directed ''The Queen'' based on the events surrounding the death of Princess Diana, which won the Best Actress prize at the Venice Film Festival and Academy Awards and the BAFTA for Best Film.", "In 2006, Ken Loach won the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival with his account of the struggle for Irish Independence in ''The Wind That Shakes the Barley''.", "Joe Wright's adaptation of the Ian McEwan novel ''Atonement'' was nominated for 7 Academy Awards, including Best Film and won the Golden Globe and BAFTA for Best Film.", "''Slumdog Millionaire'' was filmed entirely in Mumbai with a mostly Indian cast, though with a British director (Danny Boyle), producer (Christian Colson), screenwriter (Simon Beaufoy) and star (Dev Patel)—the film was all-British financed via Film4 and Celador.", "It has received worldwide critical acclaim.", "It has won four Golden Globes, seven BAFTA Awards and eight Academy Awards, including Best Director and Best Film.", "''The King's Speech'', which tells the story of King George VI's attempts to overcome his speech impediment, was directed by Tom Hooper and filmed almost entirely in London.", "It received four Academy Awards (including Best Film, Best Director, Best Actor and Best Screenplay) in 2011.The start of the 21st century saw Asian British cinema assert itself at the box office, starting with ''East Is East'' (1999) and continuing with ''Bend It Like Beckham'' (2002).", "Other notable British Asian films from this period include ''My Son the Fanatic'' (1997), ''Ae Fond Kiss... (2004)'', ''Mischief Night (2006)'', ''Yasmin'' (2004) and ''Four Lions'' (2010).", "Some argue it has brought more flexible attitudes towards casting Black and Asian British actors, with Robbie Gee and Naomie Harris take leading roles in ''Underworld'' and ''28 Days Later'' respectively.2005 saw the emergence of The British Urban Film Festival, a timely addition to the film festival calendar, which recognised the influence of urban and black films on UK audiences and consequently began to showcase a growing profile of films in a genre previously not otherwise regularly seen in the capital's cinemas.", "Then, in 2006, ''Kidulthood'', a film depicting a group of teenagers growing up on the streets of West London, had a limited release.", "This was successfully followed up with a sequel ''Adulthood'' (2008) that was written and directed by actor Noel Clarke.", "The success of ''Kidulthood'' and ''Adulthood'' led to the release of several other films in the 2000s and 2010s such as ''Bullet Boy'' (2004), ''Life and Lyrics'' (2006), ''The Intent'' (2016), its sequel ''The Intent 2: The Come Up'' (2018), ''Blue Story'' and ''Rocks'' (both 2019), all of starred Black-British actors.Like the 1960s, this decade saw plenty of British films directed by imported talent.", "The American Woody Allen shot ''Match Point'' (2005) and three later films in London.", "The Mexican director Alfonso Cuarón helmed ''Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban'' (2004) and ''Children of Men'' (2006); New Zealand filmmaker Jane Campion made ''Bright Star'' (2009), a film set in 19th century London; Danish director Nicolas Winding Refn made ''Bronson'' (2008), a biopic about the English criminal Michael Gordon Peterson; the Spanish filmmaker Juan Carlos Fresnadillo directed ''28 Weeks Later'' (2007), a sequel to a British horror film; and two John le Carré adaptations were also directed by foreigners—''The Constant Gardener'' by the Brazilian Fernando Meirelles and ''Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy'' by the Swedish Tomas Alfredson.", "The decade also saw English actor Daniel Craig became the new James Bond with ''Casino Royale'', the 21st entry in the official Eon Productions series.Despite increasing competition from film studios in Australia and Eastern Europe, British studios such as Pinewood, Shepperton and Leavesden remained successful in hosting major productions, including ''Finding Neverland'', ''Closer'', ''Batman Begins'', ''Charlie and the Chocolate Factory'', ''United 93'', ''The Phantom of the Opera'', ''Sweeney Todd'', ''Fantastic Mr. Fox'', ''Robin Hood'', ''X-Men: First Class'', ''Hugo'' and ''War Horse''.In February 2007, the UK became home to Europe's first DCI-compliant fully digital multiplex cinemas with the launch of Odeon Hatfield and Odeon Surrey Quays (in London), with a total of 18 digital screens.In November 2010, Warner Bros. completed the acquisition of Leavesden Film Studios, becoming the first Hollywood studio since the 1940s to have a permanent base in the UK, and announced plans to invest £100 million in the site.A study by the British Film Institute published in December 2013 found that of the 613 tracked British films released between 2003 and 2010 only 7% made a profit.", "Films with low budgets, those that cost below £500,000 to produce, were even less likely to gain a return on outlay.", "Of these films, only 3.1% went into the black.", "At the top end of budgets for the British industry, under a fifth of films that cost £10million went into profit.===2010s===Idris Elba in 2007.He is one of the top 20 highest-grossing actors in North America, as of 2019.On 26 July 2010 it was announced that the UK Film Council, which was the main body responsible for the development of promotion of British cinema during the 2000s, would be abolished, with many of the abolished body's functions being taken over by the British Film Institute.", "Actors and professionals, including James McAvoy, Emily Blunt, Pete Postlethwaite, Damian Lewis, Timothy Spall, Daniel Barber and Ian Holm, campaigned against the Council's abolition.", "The move also led American actor and director Clint Eastwood (who had filmed ''Hereafter'' in London) to write to the British Chancellor of the Exchequer George Osborne in August 2010 to protest the decision to close the Council.", "Eastwood warned Osborne that the closure could result in fewer foreign production companies choosing to work in the UK.", "A grass-roots online campaign was launched and a petition established by supporters of the Council.Countering this, a few professionals, including Michael Winner and Julian Fellowes, supported the Government's decision.", "A number of other organisations responded positively.At the closure of the UK Film Council on 31 March 2011, ''The Guardian'' reported that \"The UKFC's entire annual budget was a reported £3m, while the cost of closing it down and restructuring is estimated to have been almost four times that amount.\"", "One of the UKFC's last films, ''The King's Speech'', is estimated to have cost $15m to make and grossed $235m, besides winning several Academy Awards.", "UKFC invested $1.6m for a 34% share of net profits, a valuable stake that will pass to the British Film Institute.Christopher Nolan directed several of the early 21st century's most critically and commercially successful films.In June 2012, Warner opened the re-developed Leavesden studio for business.", "The most commercially successful British directors in recent years are Paul Greengrass, Mike Newell, Christopher Nolan, Ridley Scott and David Yates.In January 2012, at Pinewood Studios to visit film-related businesses, UK Prime Minister David Cameron said that his government had bold ambitions for the film industry: \"Our role, and that of the BFI, should be to support the sector in becoming even more dynamic and entrepreneurial, helping UK producers to make commercially successful pictures that rival the quality and impact of the best international productions.", "Just as the British Film Commission has played a crucial role in attracting the biggest and best international studios to produce their films here, so we must incentivise UK producers to chase new markets both here and overseas.", "\"The film industry remains an important earner for the British economy.", "According to a UK Film Council press release of 20 January 2011, £1.115 billion was spent on UK film production during 2010.A 2014 survey suggested that British-made films were generally more highly rated than Hollywood productions, especially when considering low-budget UK productions.===2020s===In November 2022, director Danny Boyle expressed a negative sentiment of the British film industry in recent years, stating that \"I am not sure we are great filmmakers, to be absolutely honest.", "As a nation, our two artforms are theatre, in a middle-class sense, and pop music, because we are extraordinary at it.\"" ], [ "Art cinema", "London IMAX cinemaAlthough it had been funding British experimental films as early as 1952, the British Film Institute's foundation of a production board in 1964—and a substantial increase in public funding from 1971 onwards—enabled it to become a dominant force in developing British art cinema in the 1970s and 80s: from the first of Bill Douglas's Trilogy ''My Childhood'' (1972), and of Terence Davies' Trilogy ''Childhood'' (1978), via Peter Greenaway's earliest films (including the surprising commercial success of ''The Draughtsman's Contract'' (1982)) and Derek Jarman's championing of the New Queer Cinema.", "The first full-length feature produced under the BFI's new scheme was Kevin Brownlow and Andrew Mollo's ''Winstanley'' (1975), while others included ''Moon Over the Alley'' (1975), ''Requiem for a Village'' (1975), the openly avant-garde ''Central Bazaar'' (1973), ''Pressure'' (1975) and ''A Private Enterprise'' (1974) – the last two being, respectively, the first British Black and Asian features.The release of Derek Jarman's ''Jubilee'' (1978) marked the beginning of a successful period of UK art cinema, continuing into the 1980s with filmmakers like Sally Potter and Ken McMullen, and producers like Stewart Richards, with success at the Cannes Film Festival and the Academy Awards.", "Unlike the previous generation of British film makers who had broken into directing and production after careers in the theatre or on television, the Art Cinema Directors were mostly the products of Art Schools.", "Many of these filmmakers were championed in their early career by the London Film Makers Cooperative and their work was the subject of detailed theoretical analysis in the journal ''Screen Education''.", "Peter Greenaway was an early pioneer of the use of computer generated imagery blended with filmed footage and was also one of the first directors to film entirely on high definition video for a cinema release.With the launch of Channel 4 and its Film on Four commissioning strand, Art Cinema was promoted to a wider audience.", "However, the Channel had a sharp change in its commissioning policy in the early 1990s and Greenaway and others were forced to seek European co-production financing." ], [ "Film technology", "Vue cinema, Leicester Square.In the 1970s and 1980s, British studios established a reputation for great special effects in films such as ''Superman'' (1978), ''Alien'' (1979), and ''Batman'' (1989).", "Some of this reputation was founded on the core of talent brought together for the filming of ''2001: A Space Odyssey'' (1968) who subsequently worked together on series and feature films for Gerry Anderson.", "Thanks to the Bristol-based Aardman Animations, the UK is still recognised as a world leader in the use of stop-motion animation.British special effects technicians and production designers are known for creating visual effects at a far lower cost than their counterparts in the US, as seen in ''Time Bandits'' (1981) and ''Brazil'' (1985).", "This reputation has continued through the 1990s and into the 21st century with films such as the James Bond series, ''Gladiator'' (2000) and the Harry Potter franchise.From the 1990s to the present day, there has been a progressive movement from traditional film opticals to an integrated digital film environment, with special effects, cutting, colour grading, and other post-production tasks all sharing the same all-digital infrastructure.", "The London-based visual effects company Framestore, with Tim Webber the visual effects supervisor, have worked on some of the most technically and artistically challenging projects, including, ''The Dark Knight'' (2008) and ''Gravity'' (2013), with new techniques involved in ''Gravity'' realized by Webber and the Framestore team taking three years to complete.The availability of high-speed internet has made the British film industry capable of working closely with U.S. studios as part of globally distributed productions.", "As of 2005, this trend is expected to continue with moves towards (currently experimental) digital distribution and projection as mainstream technologies.", "The British film ''This Is Not a Love Song'' (2003) was the first to be streamed live on the Internet at the same time as its cinema premiere." ], [ "See also", "* British Academy Film Awards, hosted by the British Academy of Film and Television Arts, are the British equivalent of the Academy Awards.", "* British Film Institute* Cinema of Northern Ireland* Cinema of Scotland* Cinema of Wales* Cine-variety* Hollywood and the United Kingdom – British source material in American films, US studio subsidiaries in the UK, etc.", "* List of British films* List of British actors* List of British film directors* List of British film studios* List of cinema of the world** Cinema of Europe* List of highest-grossing films in the United Kingdom* London in film* London Film School* National Film and Television School* World cinema* UK cinema chains" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", ";General* Aldgate, Anthony and Richards Jeffrey.", "2002.", "''Best of British: Cinema and Society from 1930 to the Present''.", "London: I.B.", "Tauris* Babington, Bruce; Ed.", "2001.", "''British Stars and Stardom''.", "Manchester: Manchester University Press* Chibnall, Steve and Murphy, Robert; Eds.", "1999.", "''British Crime Cinema''.", "London: Routledge* Cook, Pam.", "1996.", "''Fashioning the Nation: Costume and Identity in British Cinema''.", "London BFI* Curran, James and Porter, Vincent; Eds.", "1983.", "''British Cinema History''.", "London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson* * Harper, Sue.", "2000.", "''Women in British Cinema: Mad Bad and Dangerous to Know''.", "London: Continuum* Higson, Andrew.", "1995.", "''Waving the Flag: Constructing a National Cinema in Britain''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press* Higson, Andrew.", "2003.", "''English Heritage, English Cinema''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press.", "* Hill, John.", "1986.", "''Sex, Class and Realism''.", "London: BFI* Landy, Marcia.", "1991.", "''British Genres: Cinema and Society, 1930–1960''.", "Princeton University Press* Lay, Samantha.", "2002.", "''British Social Realism''.", "London: Wallflower* * Monk, Claire and Sargeant, Amy.", "2002.", "''British Historical Cinema''.", "London Routledge* Murphy, Robert; Ed.", "2001.", "''British Cinema Book 2nd Edition''.", "London: BFI* Perry, George.", "1988.", "''The Great British Picture Show''.", "Little Brown, 1988.", "* Richards, Jeffrey.", "1997.''", "Films and British national identity / From Dickens to Dad's Army ''.", "Manchester University Press* Street, Sarah.", "1997.", "''British National Cinema''.", "London: Routledge.", "* ;Pre–World War II* Low, Rachael.", "1985.", "''Film Making in 1930s Britain''.", "London: George, Allen and Unwin* Rotha, Paul.", "1973.", "''Documentary diary; an informal history of the British documentary film, 1928–1939'', New York: Hill and Wang* Swann, Paul.", "2003.", "''The British Documentary Film Movement, 1926–1946''.", "Cambridge University Press;World War II* Aldgate, Anthony and Richards, Jeffrey 2nd Edition.", "1994.", "''Britain Can Take it: British Cinema in the Second World War''.", "Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press* Barr, Charles; Ed.", "1986.", "''All Our Yesterdays: 90 Years of British Cinema''.", "London: British Film Institute* Murphy, Robert.", "2000.", "''British Cinema and the Second World War''.", "London: Continuum* fr Rousselet, Francis ''Et le Cinéma Britannique entra en guerre ...'', Cerf-Corlet, 2009, 240pp.", ";Post-War* Friedman, Lester; Ed.", "1992.", "''British Cinema and Thatcherism''.", "London: UCL Press* Geraghty, Christine.", "2000.", "''British Cinema in the Fifties: Gender Genre and the New Look''.", "London Routledge* Gillett, Philip.", "2003.", "''The British Working Class in Postwar Film''.", "Manchester: Manchester University Press* Murphy, Robert; Ed.", "1996.", "''Sixties British Cinema''.", "London: BFI* Shaw, Tony.", "2001.", "''British Cinema and the Cold War''.", "London: I.B.", "Tauris;1990s* Brown, Geoff.", "2000.", "''Something for Everyone: British film Culture in the 1990s''.", "* Brunsdon, Charlotte.", "2000.", "''Not Having It All: Women and Film in the 1990s''.", "* Murphy, Robert; Ed.", "2000.", "''British Cinema of the 90s''.", "London: BFI;Cinema and government* Dickinson, Margaret and Street, Sarah.", "1985.", "''Cinema and the State: The Film industry and the British Government, 1927–84''.", "London: BFI* Miller, Toby.", "2000.", "''The Film Industry and the Government: Endless Mr Beans and Mr Bonds?", "''*" ], [ "External links", "* British Film Institute* British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA)* Britmovie|Home of British Films* Michael Powell & Emeric Pressburger" ] ]
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[ [ "Feminist film theory" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Feminist film theory''' is a theoretical film criticism derived from feminist politics and feminist theory influenced by second-wave feminism and brought about around the 1970s in the United States.", "With the advancements in film throughout the years feminist film theory has developed and changed to analyse the current ways of film and also go back to analyse films past.", "Feminists have many approaches to cinema analysis, regarding the film elements analyzed and their theoretical underpinnings." ], [ "History", "The development of feminist film theory was influenced by second wave feminism and women's studies in the 1960s and 1970s.", "Initially in the United States in the early 1970s feminist film theory was generally based on sociological theory and focused on the function of female characters in film narratives or genres.", "Feminist film theory, such as Marjorie Rosen's ''Popcorn Venus: Women, Movies, and the American Dream'' (1973) and Molly Haskell’s ''From Reverence to Rape: The Treatment of Women in Movies'' (1974) analyze the ways in which women are portrayed in film, and how this relates to a broader historical context.", "Additionally, feminist critiques also examine common stereotypes depicted in film, the extent to which the women were shown as active or passive, and the amount of screen time given to women.In contrast, film theoreticians in England concerned themselves with critical theory, psychoanalysis, semiotics, and Marxism.", "Eventually, these ideas gained hold within the American scholarly community in the 1980s.", "Analysis generally focused on the meaning within a film's text and the way in which the text constructs a viewing subject.", "It also examined how the process of cinematic production affects how women are represented and reinforces sexism.British feminist film theorist, Laura Mulvey, best known for her essay, \"Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema\", written in 1973 and published in 1975 in the influential British film theory journal, ''Screen'' was influenced by the theories of Sigmund Freud and Jacques Lacan.", "\"Visual Pleasure\" is one of the first major essays that helped shift the orientation of film theory towards a psychoanalytic framework.", "Prior to Mulvey, film theorists such as Jean-Louis Baudry and Christian Metz used psychoanalytic ideas in their theoretical accounts of cinema.", "Mulvey's contribution, however, initiated the intersection of film theory, psychoanalysis and feminism.In 1976, the journal Camera Obscura was published by beginning graduate students Janet Bergstrom, Sandy Flitterman, Elisabeth Lyon, and Constance Penley.", "They discussed how women were portrayed in films, but excluded from the development process.", "Camera Obscura is still published to this day by Duke University Press and has moved from just film theory to media studies.Other key influences come from Metz's essay ''The Imaginary Signifier'', \"Identification, Mirror,\" where he argues that viewing film is only possible through scopophilia (pleasure from looking, related to voyeurism), which is best exemplified in silent film.", "Also, according to Cynthia A. Freeland in \"Feminist Frameworks for Horror Films,\" feminist studies of horror films have focused on psychodynamics where the chief interest is \"on viewers' motives and interests in watching horror films\".Beginning in the early 1980s feminist film theory began to look at film through a more intersectional lens.", "The film journal ''Jump Cut'' published a special issue about titled \"Lesbians and Film\" in 1981 which examined the lack of lesbian identities in film.", "Jane Gaines's essay \"White Privilege and Looking Relations: Race and Gender in Feminist Film Theory\" examined the erasure of black women in cinema by white male filmmakers.", "While Lola Young argues that filmmakers of all races fail to break away from the use to tired stereotypes when depicting black women.", "Other theorists who wrote about feminist film theory and race include bell hooks and Michele Wallace.From 1985 onward the Matrixial theory of artist and psychoanalyst Bracha L. Ettinger revolutionized feminist film theory.", "Her concept, from her book, The Matrixial Gaze, has established a feminine gaze and has articulated its differences from the phallic gaze and its relation to feminine as well as maternal specificities and potentialities of \"coemergence\", offering a critique of Sigmund Freud's and Jacques Lacan's psychoanalysis, is extensively used in analysis of films, by female directors, like Chantal Akerman, as well as by male directors, like Pedro Almodovar.", "The matrixial gaze offers the female the position of a subject, not of an object, of the gaze, while deconstructing the structure of the subject itself, and offers border-time, border-space and a possibility for compassion and witnessing.", "Ettinger's notions articulate the links between aesthetics, ethics and trauma.Recently, scholars have expanded their work to include analysis of television and digital media.", "Additionally, they have begun to explore notions of difference, engaging in dialogue about the differences among women (part of movement away from essentialism in feminist work more generally), the various methodologies and perspectives contained under the umbrella of feminist film theory, and the multiplicity of methods and intended effects that influence the development of films.", "Scholars are also taking increasingly global perspectives, responding to postcolonialist criticisms of perceived Anglo- and Eurocentrism in the academy more generally.", "Increased focus has been given to, \"disparate feminisms, nationalisms, and media in various locations and across class, racial, and ethnic groups throughout the world\".", "Scholars in recent years have also turned their attention towards women in the silent film industry and their erasure from the history of those films and women's bodies and how they are portrayed in the films.", "Jane Gaines's Women's Film Pioneer Project (WFPP), a database of women who worked in the silent-era film industry, has been cited as a major achievement in recognizing pioneering women in the field of silent and non-silent film by scholars such as Rachel Schaff.As of recent years many believe feminist film theory to be a fading area of feminism with the massive amount of coverage currently around media studies and theory.", "As these areas have grown the framework created in feminist film theory have been adapted to fit into analysing other forms of media." ], [ "Key themes", "===The gaze and the female spectator===Considering the way that films are put together, many feminist film critics have pointed to what they argue is the \"male gaze\" that predominates classical Hollywood filmmaking.", "Budd Boetticher summarizes the view::\"What counts is what the heroine provokes, or rather what she represents.", "She is the one, or rather the love or fear she inspires in the hero, or else the concern he feels for her, who makes him act the way he does.", "In herself, the woman has not the slightest importance.", "\"Laura Mulvey expands on this conception to argue that in cinema, women are typically depicted in a passive role that provides visual pleasure through scopophilia, and identification with the on-screen male actor.", "She asserts: \"In their traditional exhibitionist role women are simultaneously looked at and displayed, with their appearance coded for strong visual and erotic impact so that they can be said to connote ''to-be-looked-at-ness'',\" and as a result contends that in film a woman is the \"bearer of meaning, not maker of meaning.\"", "Mulvey argues that the psychoanalytic theory of Jacques Lacan is the key to understanding how film creates such a space for female sexual objectification and exploitation through the combination of the patriarchal order of society, and 'looking' in itself as a pleasurable act of scopophilia, as \"the cinema satisfies a primordial wish for pleasurable looking.", "\"While Laura Mulvey's paper has a particular place in the feminist film theory, it is important to note that her ideas regarding ways of watching the cinema (from the voyeuristic element to the feelings of identification) are important to some feminist film theorists in terms of defining spectatorship from the psychoanalytical viewpoint.Mulvey identifies three \"looks\" or perspectives that occur in film which, she argues, serve to sexually objectify women.", "The first is the perspective of the male character and how he perceives the female character.", "The second is the perspective of the spectator as they see the female character on screen.", "The third \"look\" joins the first two looks together: it is the male audience member's perspective of the male character in the film.", "This third perspective allows the male audience to take the female character as his own personal sex object because he can relate himself, through looking, to the male character in the film.In the paper, Mulvey calls for a destruction of modern film structure as the only way to free women from their sexual objectification in film.", "She argues for a removal of the voyeurism encoded into film by creating distance between the male spectator and the female character.", "The only way to do so, Mulvey argues, is by destroying the element of voyeurism and \"the invisible guest\".", "Mulvey also asserts that the dominance men embody is only so because women exist, as without a woman for comparison, a man and his supremacy as the controller of visual pleasure are insignificant.", "For Mulvey, it is the presence of the female that defines the patriarchal order of society as well as the male psychology of thought.Mulvey's argument is likely influenced by the time period in which she was writing.", "\"Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema\" was composed during the period of second-wave feminism, which was concerned with achieving equality for women in the workplace, and with exploring the psychological implications of sexual stereotypes.", "Mulvey calls for an eradication of female sexual objectivity, aligning herself with second-wave feminism.", "She argues that in order for women to be equally represented in the workplace, women must be portrayed as men are: as lacking sexual objectification.Mulvey proposes in her notes to the Criterion Collection DVD of Michael Powell's controversial film, ''Peeping Tom'' (a film about a homicidal voyeur who films the deaths of his victims), that the cinema spectator's own voyeurism is made shockingly obvious and even more shockingly, the spectator identifies with the perverted protagonist.", "The inference is that she includes female spectators in that, identifying with the male observer rather than the female object of the gaze.===Realism and counter cinema===The early work of Marjorie Rosen and Molly Haskell on the representation of women in film was part of a movement to depict women more realistically, both in documentaries and narrative cinema.", "The growing female presence in the film industry was seen as a positive step toward realizing this goal, by drawing attention to feminist issues and putting forth an alternative, true-to-life view of women.", "However, Rosen and Haskell argue that these images are still mediated by the same factors as traditional film, such as the \"moving camera, composition, editing, lighting, and all varieties of sound.\"", "While acknowledging the value in inserting positive representations of women in film, some critics asserted that real change would only come about from reconsidering the role of film in society, often from a semiotic point of view.Claire Johnston put forth the idea that women's cinema can function as \"counter cinema.\"", "Through consciousness of the means of production and opposition of sexist ideologies, films made by women have the potential to posit an alternative to traditional Hollywood films.", "Initially, the attempt to show \"real\" women was praised, eventually critics such as Eileen McGarry claimed that the \"real\" women being shown on screen were still just contrived depictions.", "In reaction to this article, many women filmmakers integrated \"alternative forms and experimental techniques\" to \"encourage audiences to critique the seemingly transparent images on the screen and to question the manipulative techniques of filming and editing\".=== Additional theories ===B.", "Ruby Rich argues that feminist film theory should shift to look at films in a broader sense.", "Rich's essay ''In the Name of Feminist Film Criticism'' claims that films by women often receive praise for certain elements, while feminist undertones are ignored.", "Rich goes on to say that because of this feminist theory needs to focus on how film by women are being received.Coming from a black feminist perspective, American scholar, bell hooks, put forth the notion of the “oppositional gaze,” encouraging black women not to accept stereotypical representations in film, but rather actively critique them.", "The “oppositional gaze” is a response to Mulvey's ''visual pleasure'' and states that just as women do not identify with female characters that are not \"real,\" women of color should respond similarly to the one denominational caricatures of black women.Janet Bergstrom's article “Enunciation and Sexual Difference” (1979) uses Sigmund Freud's ideas of bisexual responses, arguing that women are capable of identifying with male characters and men with women characters, either successively or simultaneously.", "Miriam Hansen, in \"Pleasure, Ambivalence, Identification: Valentino and Female Spectatorship\" (1984) put forth the idea that women are also able to view male characters as erotic objects of desire.", "In \"The Master's Dollhouse: Rear Window,\" Tania Modleski argues that Hitchcock's film, ''Rear Window'', is an example of the power of male gazer and the position of the female as a prisoner of the \"master's dollhouse\".Carol Clover, in her popular and influential book, ''Men, Women, and Chainsaws: Gender in the Modern Horror Film'' (Princeton University Press, 1992), argues that young male viewers of the Horror Genre (young males being the primary demographic) are quite prepared to identify with the female-in-jeopardy, a key component of the horror narrative, and to identify on an unexpectedly profound level.", "Clover further argues that the \"final girl\" in the psychosexual subgenre of exploitation horror invariably triumphs through her own resourcefulness, and is not by any means a passive, or inevitable, victim.", "Laura Mulvey, in response to these and other criticisms, revisited the topic in \"Afterthoughts on 'Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema' inspired by ''Duel in the Sun''\" (1981).", "In addressing the heterosexual female spectator, she revised her stance to argue that women can take two possible roles in relation to film: a masochistic identification with the female object of desire that is ultimately self-defeating, or an identification with men as the active viewers of the text.", "A new version of the gaze was offered in the early 1990s by Bracha Ettinger, who proposed the notion of the \"matrixial gaze\"." ], [ "List of select feminist film theorists and critics", "*Lola Young" ], [ "See also", "* Bechdel test* Cinesexuality* Film theory* List of female film and television directors* List of lesbian filmmakers* List of LGBT films directed by women* Misogyny in horror films* Women's cinema*Camera Obscura (journal)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Sue Thornham (ed.", "), ''Feminist Film Theory.", "A Reader'', Edinburgh University Press 1999* ''Multiple Voices in Feminist Film Criticism'', edited by Diane Carson, Janice R. Welsch, Linda Dittmar, University of Minnesota Press 1994* Kjell R. Soleim (ed.", "), ''Fatal Women''.", "Journal of the Center for Women's and Gender Research, Bergen Univ., Vol.", "11: 115–128, 1999.", "* Bracha L. Ettinger (1999), \"Matrixial Gaze and Screen: Other than Phallic and Beyond the Late Lacan.\"", "In: Laura \t \t \tDoyle (ed.)", "''Bodies of Resistance''.", "Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 2001.", "* Beyond the Gaze: Recent Approaches to Film Feminisms.", "''Signs'' Vol.", "30, no.", "1 (Autumn 2004).", "** Griselda Pollock, ''Differencing the Canon''.", "Routledge, London & N.Y., 1999.", "* Griselda Pollock (ed.", "), ''Psychoanalysis and the Image''.", "Oxford: Blackwell, 2006.", "* Raberger, Ursula: New Queer Oz: Feministische Filmtheorie und weibliche Homosexualiät in zwei Filmen von Samantha Lang.", "VDM Verlag Dr. Müller: 2009, 128 p. (German)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Formalist film theory" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Formalist film theory''' is an approach to film theory that is focused on the formal or technical elements of a film: i.e., the lighting, scoring, sound and set design, use of color, shot composition, and editing.", "This approach was proposed by Hugo Münsterberg, Rudolf Arnheim, Sergei Eisenstein, and Béla Balázs.", "Today, it is a major approach in film studies." ], [ "Overview", "Formalism, at its most general, considers the synthesis (or lack of synthesis) of the multiple elements of film production, and the effects, emotional and intellectual, of that synthesis and of the individual elements.", "For example, take the single element of editing.", "A formalist might study how standard Hollywood \"continuity editing\" creates a more comforting effect and non-continuity or jump cut editing might become more disconcerting or volatile.Or one might consider the synthesis of several elements, such as editing, shot composition, and music.", "The shoot-out that ends Sergio Leone's Spaghetti Western ''Dollars Trilogy'' is a notable example of how these elements work together to produce an effect: the shot selection goes from very wide to very close and tense; the length of shots decreases as the sequence progresses towards its end; the music builds.", "All of these elements, in combination rather than individually, create tension.Formalism is unique in that it embraces both ideological and auteurist branches of criticism.", "In both these cases, the common denominator for formalist criticism is style.", "Ideologues focus on how socio-economic pressures create a particular style, and auteurists on how auteurs put their own stamp on the material.", "Formalism is primarily concerned with style and how it communicates ideas, emotions, and themes (rather than, as critics of formalism point out, concentrating on the themes of a work itself)." ], [ "Ideological formalism", "Two examples of ideological interpretations that are related to formalism are the classical Hollywood cinema and film noir.The classical Hollywood cinema has a very distinct style, sometimes called the institutional mode of representation: continuity editing, massive coverage, three-point lighting, \"mood\" music, dissolves, all designed to make the experience as pleasant as possible.", "The socio-economic ideological explanation for this is that Hollywood wants to make as much money and appeal to as many ticket-buyers as possible.Film noir, which was given its name by Nino Frank, is marked by lower production values, darker images, under lighting, location shooting, and general nihilism: this is because, we are told, during the war and post-war years filmmakers (as well as filmgoers) were generally more pessimistic.", "Also, the German Expressionists (including Fritz Lang, who was not technically an expressionist as popularly believed) immigrated to America and brought their stylized lighting effects (and disillusionment due to the war) to American soil.It can be argued that, by this approach, the style or 'language' of these films is directly affected not by the individuals responsible, but by social, economic, and political pressures, of which the filmmakers themselves may be aware or not.", "It is this branch of criticism that gives us such categories as the classical Hollywood cinema, the American independent movement, the new queer cinema, and the French, German, and Czech new waves." ], [ "Formalism in auteur theory", "If the ideological approach is concerned with broad movements and the effects of the world around the filmmaker, then the auteur theory is diametrically opposite to it, celebrating the individual, usually in the person of the filmmaker, and how their personal decisions, thoughts, and style manifest themselves in the material.This branch of criticism, begun by François Truffaut and the other young film critics writing for '''', was created for two reasons.First, it was created to redeem the art of film itself.", "By arguing that films had auteurs, or authors, Truffaut sought to make films (and their directors) at least as important as the more widely accepted art forms, such as literature, music, and painting.", "Each of these art forms, and the criticism thereof, is primarily concerned with a sole creative force: the author of a novel (not, for example, their editor or type-setter), the composer of a piece of music (though sometimes the performers are given credence, akin to actors in film today), or the painter of a fresco (not their assistants who mix the colours or often do some of the painting themselves).", "By elevating the director, and not the screenwriter, to the same importance as novelists, composers, or painters, it sought to free the cinema from its popular conception as a bastard art, somewhere between theater and literature.Secondly, it sought to redeem many filmmakers who were looked down upon by mainstream film critics.", "It argued that genre filmmakers and low-budget B-movies were just as important, if not more, than the prestige pictures commonly given more press and legitimacy in France and the United States.", "According to Truffaut's theory, auteurs took material that was beneath their talents—a thriller, a pulpy action film, a romance—and, through their style, put their own personal stamp on it." ], [ "See also", "* Clement Greenberg* Clive Bell* Formalism (art)* Medium specificity* Neoformalism (film theory)* Russian formalism* Structuralist film theory" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Bordwell, David, ''Film Art: An Introduction''; McGraw-Hill; 7th edition (June 2003).", "* Braudy, Leo, ed., ''Film Theory and Criticism: Introductory Readings''; Oxford University Press; 6th edition (March 2004).", "* Gianetti, Louis, ''Understanding Movies''; Prentice Hall; 10th edition (March 2004)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Film theory" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Film theory''' is a set of scholarly approaches within the academic discipline of film or cinema studies that began in the 1920s by questioning the formal essential attributes of motion pictures; and that now provides conceptual frameworks for understanding film's relationship to reality, the other arts, individual viewers, and society at large.", "Film theory is not to be confused with general film criticism, or film history, though these three disciplines interrelate.", "Although some branches of film theory are derived from linguistics and literary theory, it also originated and overlaps with the philosophy of film." ], [ "History", "=== Early theory, before 1945 ===French philosopher Henri Bergson's ''Matter and Memory'' (1896) anticipated the development of film theory during the birth of cinema in the early twentieth century.", "Bergson commented on the need for new ways of thinking about movement, and coined the terms \"the movement-image\" and \"the time-image\".", "However, in his 1906 essay ''L'illusion cinématographique'' (in ''L'évolution créatrice''; English: ''The cinematic illusion'') he rejects film as an example of what he had in mind.", "Nonetheless, decades later, in ''Cinéma I and Cinema II'' (1983–1985), the philosopher Gilles Deleuze took ''Matter and Memory'' as the basis of his philosophy of film and revisited Bergson's concepts, combining them with the semiotics of Charles Sanders Peirce.", "Early film theory arose in the silent era and was mostly concerned with defining the crucial elements of the medium.", "Ricciotto Canudo was an early Italian film theoretician who saw cinema as \"''plastic art in motion''\", and gave cinema the label \"''the Sixth Art''\", later changed to \"''the Seventh Art''\".", "In 1915, Vachel Lindsay wrote a book on film, followed a year later by Hugo Münsterberg.", "Lindsay argued that films could be classified into three categories: ''action films'', ''intimate films'', as well as ''films of splendour''.", "According to him, the action film was ''sculpture-in-motion'', while the intimate film was ''painting-in-motion'', and splendour film ''architecture-in-motion''.", "He also argued against the contemporary notion of calling films ''photoplays'' and seen as filmed versions of theatre, instead seeing film with ''camera-born'' opportunities.", "He also described cinema as ''hieroglyphic'' in the sense of containing symbols in its images.", "He believed this visuality gave film the potential for universal accessibility.", "Münsterberg in turn noted the analogies between cinematic techniques and certain mental processes.", "For example, he compared the close-up to the mind paying attention.", "The flashback, in turn, was similar to remembering.", "This was later followed by the ''formalism'' of Rudolf Arnheim, who studied how techniques influenced film as art.Among early French theorists, Germaine Dulac brought the concept of ''impressionism'' to film by describing cinema that explored the malleability of the border between internal experience and external reality, for example through superimposition.", "''Surrealism'' also had an influence on early French film culture.", "The term ''photogénie'' was important to both, having been brought to use by Louis Delluc in 1919 and becoming widespread in its usage to capture the unique power of cinema.", "Jean Epstein noted how filming gives a \"personality\" or a \"spirit\" to objects while also being able to reveal \"the untrue, the unreal, the 'surreal'\".", "This was similar to defamiliarization used by avant-garde artists to recreate the world.", "He saw the close-up as the essence of ''photogénie''.", "Béla Balázs also praised the close-up for similar reasons.", "Arnheim also believed defamiliarization to be a critical element of film.After the Russian Revolution, a chaotic situation in the country also created a sense of excitement at new possibilities.", "This gave rise to montage theory in the work of Dziga Vertov and Sergei Eisenstein.", "After the establishment of the Moscow Film School, Lev Kuleshov set up a workshop to study the formal structure of film, focusing on editing as \"the essence of cinematography\".", "This produced findings on the Kuleshov effect.", "Editing was also associated with the foundational Marxist concept of dialectical materialism.", "To this end, Eisenstein claimed that \"montage is conflict\".", "Eisenstein's theories were focused on montage having the ability create meaning transcending the sum of its parts with a ''thematic effect'' in a way that ideograms turned graphics into abstract symbols.", "Multiple scenes could work to produce themes (''tonal montage''), while multiple themes could create even higher levels of meaning (''intellectual montage'').", "Vertov in turn focused on developing Kino-Pravda, ''film truth,'' and the Kino-Eye , which he claimed showed a deeper truth than could be seen with the naked eye.=== Later theory, after 1945 ===In the years after World War II, the French film critic and theorist André Bazin argued that film's essence lay in its ability to mechanically reproduce reality, not in its difference from reality.", "This had followed the rise of ''poetic realism'' in French cinema in the 1930's.", "He believed that the purpose of art is to preserve reality, even famously claiming that \"The photographic image is the object itself\".", "Based on this, he advocated for the use of long takes and deep focus, to reveal the ''structural depth'' of reality and finding meaning objectively in images.", "This was soon followed by the rise of Italian neorealism.", "Siegfried Kracauer was also notable for arguing that realism is the most important function of cinema.The Auteur theory derived from the approach of critic and filmmaker Alexandre Astruc, among others, and was originally developed in articles in ''Cahiers du Cinéma'', a film journal that had been co-founded by Bazin.", "François Truffaut issued auteurism's manifestos in two ''Cahiers'' essays: \"Une certaine tendance du cinéma français\" (January 1954) and \"Ali Baba et la 'Politique des auteurs'\" (February 1955).", "His approach was brought to American criticism by Andrew Sarris in 1962.The auteur theory was based on films depicting the directors' own worldviews and impressions of the subject matter, by varying lighting, camerawork, staging, editing, and so on.", "Georges Sadoul deemed a film's putative \"author\" potentially even an actor, but a film indeed collaborative.", "Aljean Harmetz cited major control even by film executives.", "David Kipen's view of screenwriter as indeed main author is termed ''Schreiber theory''.In the 1960s and 1970s, film theory took up residence in academia importing concepts from established disciplines like psychoanalysis, gender studies, anthropology, literary theory, semiotics and linguisticsas advanced by scholars such as Christian Metz.", "However, not until the late 1980s or early 1990s did film theory ''per se'' achieve much prominence in American universities by displacing the prevailing humanistic, auteur theory that had dominated cinema studies and which had been focused on the practical elements of film writing, production, editing and criticism.", "American scholar David Bordwell has spoken against many prominent developments in film theory since the 1970s.", "He uses the derogatory term \"SLAB theory\" to refer to film studies based on the ideas of Ferdinand de Saussure, Jacques Lacan, Louis Althusser, and Roland Barthes.", "Instead, Bordwell promotes what he describes as \"neoformalism\" (a revival of formalist film theory).During the 1990s the digital revolution in image technologies has influenced film theory in various ways.", "There has been a refocus onto celluloid film's ability to capture an \"indexical\" image of a moment in time by theorists like Mary Ann Doane, Philip Rosen and Laura Mulvey who was informed by psychoanalysis.", "From a psychoanalytical perspective, after the Lacanian notion of \"the Real\", Slavoj Žižek offered new aspects of \"the gaze\" extensively used in contemporary film analysis.", "From the 1990s onward the Matrixial theory of artist and psychoanalyst Bracha L. Ettinger revolutionized feminist film theory.", "Her concept The Matrixial Gaze, that has established a feminine gaze and has articulated its differences from the phallic gaze and its relation to feminine as well as maternal specificities and potentialities of \"coemergence\", offering a critique of Sigmund Freud's and Jacques Lacan's psychoanalysis, is extensively used in analysis of films by female authors, like Chantal Akerman, as well as by male authors, like Pedro Almodovar.", "The matrixial gaze offers the female the position of a subject, not of an object, of the gaze, while deconstructing the structure of the subject itself, and offers border-time, border-space and a possibility for compassion and witnessing.", "Ettinger's notions articulate the links between aesthetics, ethics and trauma.", "There has also been a historical revisiting of early cinema screenings, practices and spectatorship modes by writers Tom Gunning, Miriam Hansen and Yuri Tsivian.In ''Critical Cinema: Beyond the Theory of Practice'' (2011), Clive Meyer suggests that 'cinema is a different experience to watching a film at home or in an art gallery', and argues for film theorists to re-engage the specificity of philosophical concepts for cinema as a medium distinct from others." ], [ "Specific theories of film" ], [ "See also", "* Cinematography* Digital cinema* 3D film* Film* Film studies* Glossary of motion picture terms* Invisible auditor* List of film periodicals* Narrative film* Philosophy of film* Psychology of film" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Dudley Andrew, ''Concepts in Film Theory'', Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 1984.", "* Dudley Andrew, ''The Major Film Theories: An Introduction'', Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 1976.", "* Francesco Casetti, ''Theories of Cinema, 1945–1990'', Austin: University of Texas Press, 1999.", "* Stanley Cavell, ''The World Viewed: Reflections on the Ontology of Film'' (1971); 2nd enlarged ed.", "(1979)* Bill Nichols, ''Representing Reality: Issues and Concepts in Documentary'', Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991.", "* ''The Oxford Guide to Film Studies'', edited by John Hill and Pamela Church Gibson, Oxford University Press, 1998.", "* ''The Routledge Encyclopedia of Film Theory'', edited by Edward Branigan, Warren Buckland, Routledge, 2015." ] ]
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[ [ "Film noir" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Film noir''' (; ) is a cinematic term used primarily to describe stylized Hollywood crime dramas, particularly those that emphasize cynical attitudes and motivations.", "The 1940s and 1950s are generally regarded as the \"classic period\" of American ''film noir''.", "Film noir of this era is associated with a low-key, black-and-white visual style that has roots in German Expressionist cinematography.", "Many of the prototypical stories and attitudes expressed in classic noir derive from the hardboiled school of crime fiction that emerged in the United States during the Great Depression.The term ''film noir'', French for 'black film' (literal) or 'dark film' (closer meaning), was first applied to Hollywood films by French critic Nino Frank in 1946, but was unrecognized by most American film industry professionals of that era.", "Frank is believed to have been inspired by the French literary publishing imprint Série noire, founded in 1945.Cinema historians and critics defined the category retrospectively.", "Before the notion was widely adopted in the 1970s, many of the classic films noir were referred to as \"melodramas\".", "Whether film noir qualifies as a distinct genre or whether it should be considered a filmmaking style is a matter of ongoing and heavy debate among film scholars.Film noir encompasses a range of plots; common archetypical protagonists include a private investigator (''The Big Sleep''), a plainclothes police officer (''The Big Heat''), an aging boxer (''The Set-Up''), a hapless grifter (''Night and the City''), a law-abiding citizen lured into a life of crime (''Gun Crazy''), a femme fatale (''Gilda'') or simply a victim of circumstance (''D.O.A.'').", "Although film noir was originally associated with American productions, the term has been used to describe films from around the world.", "Many films released from the 1960s onward share attributes with films noir of the classical period, and often treat its conventions self-referentially.", "Latter-day works are typically referred to as neo-noir.", "The clichés of film noir have inspired parody since the mid-1940s." ], [ "Definition", "The Stranger'', full filmThe questions of what defines film noir, and what sort of category it is, provoke continuing debate.", "\"We'd be oversimplifying things in calling film noir oneiric, strange, erotic, ambivalent, and cruel ...\"—this set of attributes constitutes the first of many attempts to define film noir made by French critics Raymond Borde and Étienne Chaumeton in their 1955 book ''Panorama du film noir américain 1941–1953'' (''A Panorama of American Film Noir''), the original and seminal extended treatment of the subject.", "They emphasize that not every noir film embodies all five attributes in equal measure—one might be more dreamlike; another, particularly brutal.", "The authors' caveats and repeated efforts at alternative definition have been echoed in subsequent scholarship, but in the words of cinema historian Mark Bould, film noir remains an \"elusive phenomenon.", "\"Though film noir is often identified with a visual style that emphasizes low-key lighting and unbalanced compositions, films commonly identified as noir evidence a variety of visual approaches, including ones that fit comfortably within the Hollywood mainstream.", "Film noir similarly embraces a variety of genres, from the gangster film to the police procedural to the gothic romance to the social problem picture—any example of which from the 1940s and 1950s, now seen as noir's classical era, was likely to be described as a melodrama at the time.While many critics refer to film noir as a genre itself, others argue that it can be no such thing.", "Foster Hirsch defines a genre as determined by \"conventions of narrative structure, characterization, theme, and visual design.\"", "Hirsch, as one who has taken the position that film noir is a genre, argues that these elements are present \"in abundance.\"", "Hirsch notes that there are unifying features of tone, visual style and narrative sufficient to classify noir as a distinct genre.Others argue that film noir is not a genre.", "It is often associated with an urban setting, but many classic noirs take place in small towns, suburbia, rural areas, or on the open road; setting is not a determinant, as with the Western.", "Similarly, while the private eye and the femme fatale are stock character types conventionally identified with noir, the majority of films in the genre feature neither.", "Nor does film noir rely on anything as evident as the monstrous or supernatural elements of the horror film, the speculative leaps of the science fiction film, or the song-and-dance routines of the musical.An analogous case is that of the screwball comedy, widely accepted by film historians as constituting a \"genre\": screwball is defined not by a fundamental attribute, but by a general disposition and a group of elements, some—but rarely and perhaps never all—of which are found in each of the genre's films.", "Because of the diversity of noir (much greater than that of the screwball comedy), certain scholars in the field, such as film historian Thomas Schatz, treat it as not a genre but a \"style\".", "Alain Silver, the most widely published American critic specializing in film noir studies, refers to film noir as a \"cycle\" and a \"phenomenon\", even as he argues that it has—like certain genres—a consistent set of visual and thematic codes.", "Screenwriter Eric R. Williams labels both film noir and screwball comedy a \"pathway\" in his screenwriters taxonomy; explaining that a pathway has two parts: 1) the way the audience connects with the protagonist and 2) the trajectory the audience expects the story to follow.", "Other critics treat film noir as a \"mood,\" a \"series\", or simply a chosen set of films they regard as belonging to the noir \"canon.\"", "There is no consensus on the matter." ], [ "Background", "===Cinematic sources===Marlene Dietrich, an actress frequently called upon to play a femme fatale.The aesthetics of film noir were influenced by German Expressionism, an artistic movement of the 1910s and 1920s that involved theater, music, photography, painting, sculpture and architecture, as well as cinema.", "The opportunities offered by the booming Hollywood film industry and then the threat of Nazism led to the emigration of many film artists working in Germany who had been involved in the Expressionist movement or studied with its practitioners.", "''M'' (1931), shot only a few years before director Fritz Lang's departure from Germany, is among the first crime films of the sound era to join a characteristically noirish visual style with a noir-type plot, in which the protagonist is a criminal (as are his most successful pursuers).", "Directors such as Lang, Jacques Tourneur, Robert Siodmak and Michael Curtiz brought a dramatically shadowed lighting style and a psychologically expressive approach to visual composition (''mise-en-scène'') with them to Hollywood, where they made some of the most famous classic noirs.By 1931, Curtiz had already been in Hollywood for half a decade, making as many as six films a year.", "Movies of his such as ''20,000 Years in Sing Sing'' (1932) and ''Private Detective 62'' (1933) are among the early Hollywood sound films arguably classifiable as noir—scholar Marc Vernet offers the latter as evidence that dating the initiation of film noir to 1940 or any other year is \"arbitrary\".", "Expressionism-orientated filmmakers had free stylistic rein in Universal horror pictures such as ''Dracula'' (1931), ''The Mummy'' (1932)—the former photographed and the latter directed by the Berlin-trained Karl Freund—and ''The Black Cat'' (1934), directed by Austrian émigré Edgar G. Ulmer.", "The Universal horror film that comes closest to noir, in story and sensibility, is ''The Invisible Man'' (1933), directed by Englishman James Whale and photographed by American Arthur Edeson.", "Edeson later photographed ''The Maltese Falcon'' (1941), widely regarded as the first major film noir of the classic era.Josef von Sternberg was directing in Hollywood during the same period.", "Films of his such as ''Shanghai Express'' (1932) and ''The Devil Is a Woman'' (1935), with their hothouse eroticism and baroque visual style anticipated central elements of classic noir.", "The commercial and critical success of Sternberg's silent ''Underworld'' (1927) was largely responsible for spurring a trend of Hollywood gangster films.", "Successful films in that genre such as ''Little Caesar'' (1931), ''The Public Enemy'' (1931) and ''Scarface'' (1932) demonstrated that there was an audience for crime dramas with morally reprehensible protagonists.", "An important, possibly influential, cinematic antecedent to classic noir was 1930s French poetic realism, with its romantic, fatalistic attitude and celebration of doomed heroes.", "The movement's sensibility is mirrored in the Warner Bros. drama ''I Am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang'' (1932), a forerunner of noir.", "Among films not considered noir, perhaps none had a greater effect on the development of the genre than ''Citizen Kane'' (1941), directed by Orson Welles.", "Its visual intricacy and complex, voiceover narrative structure are echoed in dozens of classic films noir.Italian neorealism of the 1940s, with its emphasis on quasi-documentary authenticity, was an acknowledged influence on trends that emerged in American noir.", "''The Lost Weekend'' (1945), directed by Billy Wilder, another Vienna-born, Berlin-trained American auteur, tells the story of an alcoholic in a manner evocative of neorealism.", "It also exemplifies the problem of classification: one of the first American films to be described as a film noir, it has largely disappeared from considerations of the field.", "Director Jules Dassin of ''The Naked City'' (1948) pointed to the neorealists as inspiring his use of location photography with non-professional extras.", "This semidocumentary approach characterized a substantial number of noirs in the late 1940s and early 1950s.", "Along with neorealism, the style had an American precedent cited by Dassin, in director Henry Hathaway's ''The House on 92nd Street'' (1945), which demonstrated the parallel influence of the cinematic newsreel.===Literary sources===Black Mask'' featured the first appearance of the detective character whom Raymond Chandler developed into the famous Philip Marlowe.The primary literary influence on film noir was the hardboiled school of American detective and crime fiction, led in its early years by such writers as Dashiell Hammett (whose first novel, ''Red Harvest'', was published in 1929) and James M. Cain (whose ''The Postman Always Rings Twice'' appeared five years later), and popularized in pulp magazines such as ''Black Mask''.", "The classic film noirs ''The Maltese Falcon'' (1941) and ''The Glass Key'' (1942) were based on novels by Hammett; Cain's novels provided the basis for ''Double Indemnity'' (1944), ''Mildred Pierce'' (1945), ''The Postman Always Rings Twice'' (1946), and ''Slightly Scarlet'' (1956; adapted from ''Love's Lovely Counterfeit'').", "A decade before the classic era, a story by Hammett was the source for the gangster melodrama ''City Streets'' (1931), directed by Rouben Mamoulian and photographed by Lee Garmes, who worked regularly with Sternberg.", "Released the month before Lang's ''M'', ''City Streets'' has a claim to being the first major film noir; both its style and story had many noir characteristics.Raymond Chandler, who debuted as a novelist with ''The Big Sleep'' in 1939, soon became the most famous author of the hardboiled school.", "Not only were Chandler's novels turned into major noirs—''Murder, My Sweet'' (1944; adapted from ''Farewell, My Lovely''), ''The Big Sleep'' (1946), and ''Lady in the Lake'' (1947)—he was an important screenwriter in the genre as well, producing the scripts for ''Double Indemnity'', ''The Blue Dahlia'' (1946), and ''Strangers on a Train'' (1951).", "Where Chandler, like Hammett, centered most of his novels and stories on the character of the private eye, Cain featured less heroic protagonists and focused more on psychological exposition than on crime solving; the Cain approach has come to be identified with a subset of the hardboiled genre dubbed \"noir fiction\".", "For much of the 1940s, one of the most prolific and successful authors of this often downbeat brand of suspense tale was Cornell Woolrich (sometimes under the pseudonym George Hopley or William Irish).", "No writer's published work provided the basis for more noir films of the classic period than Woolrich's: thirteen in all, including ''Black Angel'' (1946), ''Deadline at Dawn'' (1946), and ''Fear in the Night'' (1947).Another crucial literary source for film noir was W. R. Burnett, whose first novel to be published was ''Little Caesar'', in 1929.It was turned into a hit for Warner Bros. in 1931; the following year, Burnett was hired to write dialogue for ''Scarface'', while ''The Beast of the City'' (1932) was adapted from one of his stories.", "At least one important reference work identifies the latter as a film noir despite its early date.", "Burnett's characteristic narrative approach fell somewhere between that of the quintessential hardboiled writers and their noir fiction compatriots—his protagonists were often heroic in their own way, which happened to be that of the gangster.", "During the classic era, his work, either as author or screenwriter, was the basis for seven films now widely regarded as noir, including three of the most famous: ''High Sierra'' (1941), ''This Gun for Hire'' (1942), and ''The Asphalt Jungle'' (1950)." ], [ "Classic period", "===Overview===The 1940s and 1950s are generally regarded as the classic period of American film noir.", "While ''City Streets'' and other pre-WWII crime melodramas such as ''Fury'' (1936) and ''You Only Live Once'' (1937), both directed by Fritz Lang, are categorized as full-fledged noir in Alain Silver and Elizabeth Ward's film noir encyclopedia, other critics tend to describe them as \"proto-noir\" or in similar terms.The film now most commonly cited as the first \"true\" film noir is ''Stranger on the Third Floor'' (1940), directed by Latvian-born, Soviet-trained Boris Ingster.", "Hungarian émigré Peter Lorre—who had starred in Lang's ''M''—was top-billed, although he did not play the primary lead.", "(He later played secondary roles in several other formative American noirs.)", "Although modestly budgeted, at the high end of the B movie scale, ''Stranger on the Third Floor'' still lost its studio, RKO, US$56,000 (), almost a third of its total cost.", "''Variety'' magazine found Ingster's work: \"...too studied and when original, lacks the flare to hold attention.", "It's a film too arty for average audiences, and too humdrum for others.\"", "''Stranger on the Third Floor'' was not recognized as the beginning of a trend, let alone a new genre, for many decades.Most film noirs of the classic period were similarly low- and modestly-budgeted features without major stars—B movies either literally or in spirit.", "In this production context, writers, directors, cinematographers, and other craftsmen were relatively free from typical big-picture constraints.", "There was more visual experimentation than in Hollywood filmmaking as a whole: the Expressionism now closely associated with noir and the semi-documentary style that later emerged represent two very different tendencies.", "Narrative structures sometimes involved convoluted flashbacks uncommon in non-noir commercial productions.", "In terms of content, enforcement of the Production Code ensured that no film character could literally get away with murder or be seen sharing a bed with anyone but a spouse; within those bounds, however, many films now identified as noir feature plot elements and dialogue that were very risqué for the time.", "''Out of the Past'' (1947) directed by Jacques Tourneur, features many of the genre's hallmarks: a cynical private detective as the protagonist, a femme fatale, multiple flashbacks with voiceover narration, dramatically shadowed photography, and a fatalistic mood leavened with provocative banter.", "Pictured are noir icons Robert Mitchum and Jane Greer.", "Thematically, films noir were most exceptional for the relative frequency with which they centered on portrayals of women of questionable virtue—a focus that had become rare in Hollywood films after the mid-1930s and the end of the pre-Code era.", "The signal film in this vein was ''Double Indemnity'', directed by Billy Wilder; setting the mold was Barbara Stanwyck's femme fatale, Phyllis Dietrichson—an apparent nod to Marlene Dietrich, who had built her extraordinary career playing such characters for Sternberg.", "An A-level feature, the film's commercial success and seven Oscar nominations made it probably the most influential of the early noirs.", "A slew of now-renowned noir \"bad girls\" followed, such as those played by Rita Hayworth in ''Gilda'' (1946), Lana Turner in ''The Postman Always Rings Twice'' (1946), Ava Gardner in ''The Killers'' (1946), and Jane Greer in ''Out of the Past'' (1947).", "The iconic noir counterpart to the femme fatale, the private eye, came to the fore in films such as ''The Maltese Falcon'' (1941), with Humphrey Bogart as Sam Spade, and ''Murder, My Sweet'' (1944), with Dick Powell as Philip Marlowe.The prevalence of the private eye as a lead character declined in film noir of the 1950s, a period during which several critics describe the form as becoming more focused on extreme psychologies and more exaggerated in general.", "A prime example is ''Kiss Me Deadly'' (1955); based on a novel by Mickey Spillane, the best-selling of all the hardboiled authors, here the protagonist is a private eye, Mike Hammer.", "As described by Paul Schrader, \"Robert Aldrich's teasing direction carries ''noir'' to its sleaziest and most perversely erotic.", "Hammer overturns the underworld in search of the 'great whatsit' which turns out to be—joke of jokes—an exploding atomic bomb.\"", "Orson Welles's baroquely styled ''Touch of Evil'' (1958) is frequently cited as the last noir of the classic period.", "Some scholars believe film noir never really ended, but continued to transform even as the characteristic noir visual style began to seem dated and changing production conditions led Hollywood in different directions—in this view, post-1950s films in the noir tradition are seen as part of a continuity with classic noir.", "A majority of critics, however, regard comparable films made outside the classic era to be something other than genuine film noir.", "They regard true film noir as belonging to a temporally and geographically limited cycle or period, treating subsequent films that evoke the classics as fundamentally different due to general shifts in filmmaking style and latter-day awareness of noir as a historical source for allusion.", "These later films are often called neo-noir.===Directors and the business of noir===A scene from ''In a Lonely Place'' (1950), directed by Nicholas Ray and based on a novel by noir fiction writer Dorothy B. Hughes.", "Two of noir's defining actors, Gloria Grahame and Humphrey Bogart, portray star-crossed lovers in the film.While the inceptive noir, ''Stranger on the Third Floor'', was a B picture directed by a virtual unknown, many of the films noir still remembered were A-list productions by well-known film makers.", "Debuting as a director with ''The Maltese Falcon'' (1941), John Huston followed with ''Key Largo'' (1948) and ''The Asphalt Jungle'' (1950).", "Opinion is divided on the noir status of several Alfred Hitchcock thrillers from the era; at least four qualify by consensus: ''Shadow of a Doubt'' (1943), ''Notorious'' (1946), ''Strangers on a Train'' (1951) and ''The Wrong Man'' (1956), Otto Preminger's success with ''Laura'' (1944) made his name and helped demonstrate noir's adaptability to a high-gloss 20th Century-Fox presentation.", "Among Hollywood's most celebrated directors of the era, arguably none worked more often in a noir mode than Preminger; his other noirs include ''Fallen Angel'' (1945), ''Whirlpool'' (1949), ''Where the Sidewalk Ends'' (1950) (all for Fox) and ''Angel Face'' (1952).", "A half-decade after ''Double Indemnity'' and ''The Lost Weekend'', Billy Wilder made ''Sunset Boulevard'' (1950) and ''Ace in the Hole'' (1951), noirs that were not so much crime dramas as satires on Hollywood and the news media respectively.", "''In a Lonely Place'' (1950) was Nicholas Ray's breakthrough; his other noirs include his debut, ''They Live by Night'' (1948) and ''On Dangerous Ground'' (1952), noted for their unusually sympathetic treatment of characters alienated from the social mainstream.Rita Hayworth in the trailer for ''The Lady from Shanghai'' (1947)Orson Welles had notorious problems with financing but his three film noirs were well-budgeted: ''The Lady from Shanghai'' (1947) received top-level, \"prestige\" backing, while ''The Stranger'' (1946), his most conventional film, and ''Touch of Evil'' (1958), an unmistakably personal work, were funded at levels lower but still commensurate with headlining releases.", "Like ''The Stranger'', Fritz Lang's ''The Woman in the Window'' (1944) was a production of the independent International Pictures.", "Lang's follow-up, ''Scarlet Street'' (1945), was one of the few classic noirs to be officially censored: filled with erotic innuendo, it was temporarily banned in Milwaukee, Atlanta and New York State.", "''Scarlet Street'' was a semi-independent, cosponsored by Universal and Lang's Diana Productions, of which the film's co-star, Joan Bennett, was the second biggest shareholder.", "Lang, Bennett and her husband, the Universal veteran and Diana production head Walter Wanger, made ''Secret Beyond the Door'' (1948) in similar fashion.Before leaving the United States while subject to the Hollywood blacklist, Jules Dassin made two classic noirs that also straddled the major/independent line: ''Brute Force'' (1947) and the influential documentary-style ''The Naked City'' (1948) were developed by producer Mark Hellinger, who had an \"inside/outside\" contract with Universal similar to Wanger's.", "Years earlier, working at Warner Bros., Hellinger had produced three films for Raoul Walsh, the proto-noirs ''They Drive by Night'' (1940), ''Manpower'' (1941) and ''High Sierra'' (1941), now regarded as a seminal work in noir's development.", "Walsh had no great name during his half-century as a director but his noirs ''White Heat'' (1949) and ''The Enforcer'' (1951) had A-list stars and are seen as important examples of the cycle.", "Other directors associated with top-of-the-bill Hollywood films noir include Edward Dmytryk (''Murder, My Sweet'' (1944), ''Crossfire'' (1947))—the first important noir director to fall prey to the industry blacklist—as well as Henry Hathaway (''The Dark Corner'' (1946), ''Kiss of Death'' (1947)) and John Farrow (''The Big Clock'' (1948), ''Night Has a Thousand Eyes'' (1948)).Most of the Hollywood films considered to be classic noirs fall into the category of the B movie.", "Some were Bs in the most precise sense, produced to run on the bottom of double bills by a low-budget unit of one of the major studios or by one of the smaller Poverty Row outfits, from the relatively well-off Monogram to shakier ventures such as Producers Releasing Corporation (PRC).", "Jacques Tourneur had made over thirty Hollywood Bs (a few now highly regarded, most forgotten) before directing the A-level ''Out of the Past'', described by scholar Robert Ottoson as \"the ''ne plus ultra'' of forties film noir\".", "Movies with budgets a step up the ladder, known as \"intermediates\" by the industry, might be treated as A or B pictures depending on the circumstances.", "Monogram created Allied Artists in the late 1940s to focus on this sort of production.", "Robert Wise (''Born to Kill'' 1947, ''The Set-Up'' 1949) and Anthony Mann (''T-Men'' 1947 and ''Raw Deal'' 1948) each made a series of impressive intermediates, many of them noirs, before graduating to steady work on big-budget productions.", "Mann did some of his most celebrated work with cinematographer John Alton, a specialist in what James Naremore called \"hypnotic moments of light-in-darkness\".", "''He Walked by Night'' (1948), shot by Alton though credited solely to Alfred Werker, directed in large part by Mann, demonstrates their technical mastery and exemplifies the late 1940s trend of \"police procedural\" crime dramas.", "It was released, like other Mann-Alton noirs, by the small Eagle-Lion company; it was the inspiration for the ''Dragnet'' series, which debuted on radio in 1949 and television in 1951.Detour'' (1945) cost $117,000 to make when the biggest Hollywood studios spent around $600,000 on the average feature.", "Produced at small PRC, however, the film was 30 percent over budget.Several directors associated with noir built well-respected oeuvres largely at the B-movie/intermediate level.", "Samuel Fuller's brutal, visually energetic films such as ''Pickup on South Street'' (1953) and ''Underworld U.S.A.'' (1961) earned him a unique reputation; his advocates praise him as \"primitive\" and \"barbarous\".", "Joseph H. Lewis directed noirs as diverse as ''Gun Crazy'' (1950) and ''The Big Combo'' (1955).", "The former—whose screenplay was written by the blacklisted Dalton Trumbo, disguised by a front—features a bank hold-up sequence shown in an unbroken take of over three minutes that was influential.", "''The Big Combo'' was shot by John Alton and took the shadowy noir style to its outer limits.", "The most distinctive films of Phil Karlson (''The Phenix City Story'' 1955 and ''The Brothers Rico'' 1957) tell stories of vice organized on a monstrous scale.", "The work of other directors in this tier of the industry, such as Felix E. Feist (''The Devil Thumbs a Ride'' 1947, ''Tomorrow Is Another Day'' 1951), has become obscure.", "Edgar G. Ulmer spent most of his Hollywood career working at B studios and once in a while on projects that achieved intermediate status; for the most part, on unmistakable Bs.", "In 1945, while at PRC, he directed a noir cult classic, ''Detour''.", "Ulmer's other noirs include ''Strange Illusion'' (1945), also for PRC; ''Ruthless'' (1948), for Eagle-Lion, which had acquired PRC the previous year and ''Murder Is My Beat'' (1955), for Allied Artists.A number of low- and modestly-budgeted noirs were made by independent, often actor-owned, companies contracting with larger studios for distribution.", "Serving as producer, writer, director and top-billed performer, Hugo Haas made films like ''Pickup'' (1951), ''The Other Woman'' (1954) and Jacques Tourneur, ''The Fearmakers (1958)''.", "It was in this way that accomplished noir actress Ida Lupino established herself as the sole female director in Hollywood during the late 1940s and much of the 1950s.", "She does not appear in the best-known film she directed, ''The Hitch-Hiker'' (1953), developed by her company, The Filmakers, with support and distribution by RKO.", "It is one of the seven classic film noirs produced largely outside of the major studios that have been chosen for the United States National Film Registry.", "Of the others, one was a small-studio release: ''Detour''.", "Four were independent productions distributed by United Artists, the \"studio without a studio\": ''Gun Crazy''; ''Kiss Me Deadly''; ''D.O.A.''", "(1950), directed by Rudolph Maté and ''Sweet Smell of Success'' (1957), directed by Alexander Mackendrick.", "One was an independent distributed by MGM, the industry leader: ''Force of Evil'' (1948), directed by Abraham Polonsky and starring John Garfield, both of whom were blacklisted in the 1950s.", "Independent production usually meant restricted circumstances but ''Sweet Smell of Success'', despite the plans of the production team, was clearly not made on the cheap, though like many other cherished A-budget noirs, it might be said to have a B-movie soul.Perhaps no director better displayed that spirit than the German-born Robert Siodmak, who had already made a score of films before his 1940 arrival in Hollywood.", "Working mostly on A features, he made eight films now regarded as classic-era noir (a figure matched only by Lang and Mann).", "In addition to ''The Killers'', Burt Lancaster's debut and a Hellinger/Universal co-production, Siodmak's other important contributions to the genre include 1944's ''Phantom Lady'' (a top-of-the-line B and Woolrich adaptation), the ironically titled ''Christmas Holiday'' (1944), and ''Cry of the City'' (1948).", "''Criss Cross'' (1949), with Lancaster again the lead, exemplifies how Siodmak brought the virtues of the B-movie to the A noir.", "In addition to the relatively looser constraints on character and message at lower budgets, the nature of B production lent itself to the noir style for economic reasons: dim lighting saved on electricity and helped cloak cheap sets (mist and smoke also served the cause).", "Night shooting was often compelled by hurried production schedules.", "Plots with obscure motivations and intriguingly elliptical transitions were sometimes the consequence of hastily written scripts.", "There was not always enough time or money to shoot every scene.", "In ''Criss Cross'', Siodmak achieved these effects, wrapping them around Yvonne De Carlo, who played the most understandable of femme fatales; Dan Duryea, in one of his many charismatic villain roles; and Lancaster as an ordinary laborer turned armed robber, doomed by a romantic obsession.", "'''Classic-era film noirs in the National Film Registry'''1940–491950–58" ], [ "Outside the United States", "Some critics regard classic film noir as a cycle exclusive to the United States; Alain Silver and Elizabeth Ward, for example, argue, \"With the Western, film noir shares the distinction of being an indigenous American form ... a wholly American film style.\"", "However, although the term \"film noir\" was originally coined to describe Hollywood movies, it was an international phenomenon.", "Even before the beginning of the generally accepted classic period, there were films made far from Hollywood that can be seen in retrospect as films noir, for example, the French productions ''Pépé le Moko'' (1937), directed by Julien Duvivier, and ''Le Jour se lève'' (1939), directed by Marcel Carné.", "In addition, Mexico experienced a vibrant film noir period from roughly 1946 to 1952, which was around the same time film noir was blossoming in the United States.During the classic period, there were many films produced in Europe, particularly in France, that share elements of style, theme, and sensibility with American films noir and may themselves be included in the genre's canon.", "In certain cases, the interrelationship with Hollywood noir is obvious: American-born director Jules Dassin moved to France in the early 1950s as a result of the Hollywood blacklist, and made one of the most famous French film noirs, ''Rififi'' (1955).", "Other well-known French films often classified as noir include ''Quai des Orfèvres'' (1947) and ''Les Diaboliques'' (1955), both directed by Henri-Georges Clouzot.", "''Casque d'Or'' (1952), ''Touchez pas au grisbi'' (1954), and ''Le Trou'' (1960) directed by Jacques Becker; and ''Ascenseur pour l'échafaud'' (1958), directed by Louis Malle.", "French director Jean-Pierre Melville is widely recognized for his tragic, minimalist films noir—''Bob le flambeur'' (1955), from the classic period, was followed by ''Le Doulos'' (1962), ''Le deuxième souffle'' 1966), ''Le Samouraï'' (1967), and ''Le Cercle rouge'' (1970).", "In the 1960s, Greek films noir \"''The Secret of the Red Mantle''\" and \"''The Fear''\" allowed audience for an anti-ableist reading which challenged stereotypes of disability.", ".Stray Dog'' (1949), directed and cowritten by Akira Kurosawa, contains many cinematographic and narrative elements associated with classic American film noir.Scholar Andrew Spicer argues that British film noir evidences a greater debt to French poetic realism than to the expressionistic American mode of noir.", "Examples of British noir (sometimes described as \"Brit noir\") from the classic period include ''Brighton Rock'' (1947), directed by John Boulting; ''They Made Me a Fugitive'' (1947), directed by Alberto Cavalcanti; ''The Small Back Room'' (1948), directed by Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger; ''The October Man'' (1950), directed by Roy Ward Baker; and ''Cast a Dark Shadow'' (1955), directed by Lewis Gilbert.", "Terence Fisher directed several low-budget thrillers in a noir mode for Hammer Film Productions, including ''The Last Page'' (a.k.a.", "''Man Bait''; 1952), ''Stolen Face'' (1952), and ''Murder by Proxy'' (a.k.a.", "''Blackout''; 1954).", "Before leaving for France, Jules Dassin had been obliged by political pressure to shoot his last English-language film of the classic noir period in Great Britain: ''Night and the City'' (1950).", "Though it was conceived in the United States and was not only directed by an American but also stars two American actors—Richard Widmark and Gene Tierney—it is technically a UK production, financed by 20th Century-Fox's British subsidiary.", "The most famous of classic British noirs is director Carol Reed's ''The Third Man'' (1949), from a screenplay by Graham Greene.", "Set in Vienna immediately after World War II, it also stars two American actors, Joseph Cotten and Orson Welles, who had appeared together in ''Citizen Kane''.Elsewhere, Italian director Luchino Visconti adapted Cain's ''The Postman Always Rings Twice'' as ''Ossessione'' (1943), regarded both as one of the great noirs and a seminal film in the development of neorealism.", "(This was not even the first screen version of Cain's novel, having been preceded by the French ''Le Dernier Tournant'' in 1939.)", "In Japan, the celebrated Akira Kurosawa directed several films recognizable as films noir, including ''Drunken Angel'' (1948), ''Stray Dog'' (1949), ''The Bad Sleep Well'' (1960), and ''High and Low'' (1963).", "Spanish author Mercedes Formica's novel ''La ciudad perdida'' (The Lost City) was adapted into film in 1960.Among the first major neo-noir films—the term often applied to films that consciously refer back to the classic noir tradition—was the French ''Tirez sur le pianiste'' (1960), directed by François Truffaut from a novel by one of the gloomiest of American noir fiction writers, David Goodis.", "Noir crime films and melodramas have been produced in many countries in the post-classic area.", "Some of these are quintessentially self-aware neo-noirs—for example, ''Il Conformista'' (1969; Italy), ''Der Amerikanische Freund'' (1977; Germany), ''The Element of Crime'' (1984; Denmark), and ''El Aura'' (2005; Argentina).", "Others simply share narrative elements and a version of the hardboiled sensibility associated with classic noir, such as ''Castle of Sand'' (1974; Japan), ''Insomnia'' (1997; Norway), ''Croupier'' (1998; UK), and ''Blind Shaft'' (2003; China)." ], [ "Neo-noir and echoes of the classic mode", "The neo-noir film genre developed mid-way into the Cold War.", "This cinematological trend reflected much of the cynicism and the possibility of nuclear annihilation of the era.", "This new genre introduced innovations that were not available to earlier noir films.", "The violence was also more potent.===1960s and 1970s===While it is hard to draw a line between some of the noir films of the early 1960s such as ''Blast of Silence'' (1961) and ''Cape Fear'' (1962) and the noirs of the late 1950s, new trends emerged in the post-classic era.", "''The Manchurian Candidate'' (1962), directed by John Frankenheimer, ''Shock Corridor'' (1963), directed by Samuel Fuller, and ''Brainstorm'' (1965), directed by experienced noir character actor William Conrad, all treat the theme of mental dispossession within stylistic and tonal frameworks derived from classic film noir.", "''The Manchurian Candidate'' examined the situation of American prisoners of war (POWs) during the Korean War.", "Incidents that occurred during the war as well as those post-war functioned as an inspiration for a \"Cold War Noir\" subgenre.", "The television series ''The Fugitive'' (1963–67) brought classic noir themes and mood to the small screen for an extended run.As car thief Michel Poiccard, a.k.a.", "Laszlo Kovacs, Jean-Paul Belmondo in ''À bout de souffle'' (''Breathless''; 1960).", "Poiccard reveres and styles himself after Humphrey Bogart's screen persona.", "Here he imitates a characteristic Bogart gesture, one of the film's motifs.In a different vein, films began to appear that self-consciously acknowledged the conventions of classic film noir as historical archetypes to be revived, rejected, or reimagined.", "These efforts typify what came to be known as neo-noir.", "Though several late classic noirs, ''Kiss Me Deadly'' (1955) in particular, were deeply self-knowing and post-traditional in conception, none tipped its hand so evidently as to be remarked on by American critics at the time.", "The first major film to overtly work this angle was French director Jean-Luc Godard's ''À bout de souffle'' (''Breathless''; 1960), which pays its literal respects to Bogart and his crime films while brandishing a bold new style for a new day.", "In the United States, Arthur Penn (1965's ''Mickey One'', drawing inspiration from Truffaut's ''Tirez sur le pianiste'' and other French New Wave films), John Boorman (1967's ''Point Blank'', similarly caught up, though in the ''Nouvelle vague'''s deeper waters), and Alan J. Pakula (1971's ''Klute'') directed films that knowingly related themselves to the original films noir, inviting audiences in on the game.A manifest affiliation with noir traditions—which, by its nature, allows different sorts of commentary on them to be inferred—can also provide the basis for explicit critiques of those traditions.", "In 1973, director Robert Altman flipped off noir piety with ''The Long Goodbye''.", "Based on the novel by Raymond Chandler, it features one of Bogart's most famous characters, but in iconoclastic fashion: Philip Marlowe, the prototypical hardboiled detective, is replayed as a hapless misfit, almost laughably out of touch with contemporary mores and morality.", "Where Altman's subversion of the film noir mythos was so irreverent as to outrage some contemporary critics, around the same time Woody Allen was paying affectionate, at points idolatrous homage to the classic mode with ''Play It Again, Sam'' (1972).", "The \"blaxploitation\" film ''Shaft'' (1971), wherein Richard Roundtree plays the titular African-American private eye, John Shaft, takes conventions from classic noir.The most acclaimed of the neo-noirs of the era was director Roman Polanski's 1974 ''Chinatown''.", "Written by Robert Towne, it is set in 1930s Los Angeles, an accustomed noir locale nudged back some few years in a way that makes the pivotal loss of innocence in the story even crueler.", "Where Polanski and Towne raised noir to a black apogee by turning rearward, director Martin Scorsese and screenwriter Paul Schrader brought the noir attitude crashing into the present day with ''Taxi Driver'' (1976), a crackling, bloody-minded gloss on bicentennial America.", "In 1978, Walter Hill wrote and directed ''The Driver'', a chase film as might have been imagined by Jean-Pierre Melville in an especially abstract mood.Hill was already a central figure in 1970s noir of a more straightforward manner, having written the script for director Sam Peckinpah's ''The Getaway'' (1972), adapting a novel by pulp master Jim Thompson, as well as for two tough private eye films: an original screenplay for ''Hickey & Boggs'' (1972) and an adaptation of a novel by Ross Macdonald, the leading literary descendant of Hammett and Chandler, for ''The Drowning Pool'' (1975).", "Some of the strongest 1970s noirs, in fact, were unwinking remakes of the classics, \"neo\" mostly by default: the heartbreaking ''Thieves Like Us'' (1974), directed by Altman from the same source as Ray's ''They Live by Night'', and ''Farewell, My Lovely'' (1975), the Chandler tale made classically as ''Murder, My Sweet'', remade here with Robert Mitchum in his last notable noir role.", "Detective series, prevalent on American television during the period, updated the hardboiled tradition in different ways, but the show conjuring the most noir tone was a horror crossover touched with shaggy, ''Long Goodbye''-style humor: ''Kolchak: The Night Stalker'' (1974–75), featuring a Chicago newspaper reporter investigating strange, usually supernatural occurrences.===1980s and 1990s===Sharon Stone as Catherine Tramell, archetypal modern femme fatale, in ''Basic Instinct'' (1992).", "Her diabolic nature is underscored by an \"extra-lurid visual code\", as in the notorious interrogation scene.The turn of the decade brought Scorsese's black-and-white ''Raging Bull'' (1980, cowritten by Schrader).", "An acknowledged masterpiecein 2007 the American Film Institute ranked it as the greatest American film of the 1980s and the fourth greatest of all timeit tells the story of a boxer's moral self-destruction that recalls in both theme and visual ambiance noir dramas such as ''Body and Soul'' (1947) and ''Champion'' (1949).", "From 1981, ''Body Heat'', written and directed by Lawrence Kasdan, invokes a different set of classic noir elements, this time in a humid, erotically charged Florida setting.", "Its success confirmed the commercial viability of neo-noir at a time when the major Hollywood studios were becoming increasingly risk averse.", "The mainstreaming of neo-noir is evident in such films as ''Black Widow'' (1987), ''Shattered'' (1991), and ''Final Analysis'' (1992).", "Few neo-noirs have made more money or more wittily updated the tradition of the noir double entendre than ''Basic Instinct'' (1992), directed by Paul Verhoeven and written by Joe Eszterhas.", "The film also demonstrates how neo-noir's polychrome palette can reproduce many of the expressionistic effects of classic black-and-white noir.Like ''Chinatown'', its more complex predecessor, Curtis Hanson's Oscar-winning ''L.A.", "Confidential'' (1997), based on the James Ellroy novel, demonstrates the opposite tendency—the deliberately retro film noir; its tale of corrupt cops and femmes fatale is seemingly lifted straight from a film of 1953, the year in which it is set.", "Director David Fincher followed the immensely successful neo-noir ''Seven'' (1995) with a film that developed into a cult favorite after its original, disappointing release: ''Fight Club'' (1999), a ''sui generis'' mix of noir aesthetic, perverse comedy, speculative content, and satiric intent.Working generally with much smaller budgets, brothers Joel and Ethan Coen have created one of the most extensive oeuvres influenced by classic noir, with films such as ''Blood Simple'' (1984) and ''Fargo'' (1996), the latter considered by some a supreme work in the neo-noir mode.", "The Coens cross noir with other generic traditions in the gangster drama ''Miller's Crossing'' (1990)—loosely based on the Dashiell Hammett novels ''Red Harvest'' and ''The Glass Key''—and the comedy ''The Big Lebowski'' (1998), a tribute to Chandler and an homage to Altman's version of ''The Long Goodbye''.", "The characteristic work of David Lynch combines film noir tropes with scenarios driven by disturbed characters such as the sociopathic criminal played by Dennis Hopper in ''Blue Velvet'' (1986) and the delusionary protagonist of ''Lost Highway'' (1997).", "The ''Twin Peaks'' cycle, both the TV series (1990–91) and a film, ''Fire Walk with Me'' (1992), puts a detective plot through a succession of bizarre spasms.", "David Cronenberg also mixes surrealism and noir in ''Naked Lunch'' (1991), inspired by William S. Burroughs' novel.Perhaps no American neo-noirs better reflect the classic noir B movie spirit than those of director-writer Quentin Tarantino.", "Neo-noirs of his such as ''Reservoir Dogs'' (1992) and ''Pulp Fiction'' (1994) display a relentlessly self-reflexive, sometimes tongue-in-cheek sensibility, similar to the work of the New Wave directors and the Coens.", "Other films from the era readily identifiable as neo-noir (some retro, some more au courant) include director John Dahl's ''Kill Me Again'' (1989), ''Red Rock West'' (1992), and ''The Last Seduction'' (1993); four adaptations of novels by Jim Thompson—''The Kill-Off'' (1989), ''After Dark, My Sweet'' (1990), ''The Grifters'' (1990), and the remake of ''The Getaway'' (1994); and many more, including adaptations of the work of other major noir fiction writers: ''The Hot Spot'' (1990), from ''Hell Hath No Fury'', by Charles Williams; ''Miami Blues'' (1990), from the novel by Charles Willeford; and ''Out of Sight'' (1998), from the novel by Elmore Leonard.", "Several films by director-writer David Mamet involve noir elements: ''House of Games'' (1987), ''Homicide'' (1991), ''The Spanish Prisoner'' (1997), and ''Heist'' (2001).", "On television, ''Moonlighting'' (1985–89) paid homage to classic noir while demonstrating an unusual appreciation of the sense of humor often found in the original cycle.", "Between 1983 and 1989, Mickey Spillane's hardboiled private eye Mike Hammer was played with wry gusto by Stacy Keach in a series and several stand-alone television films (an unsuccessful revival followed in 1997–98).", "The British miniseries ''The Singing Detective'' (1986), written by Dennis Potter, tells the story of a mystery writer named Philip Marlow; widely considered one of the finest neo-noirs in any medium, some critics rank it among the greatest television productions of all time.===Neon-noir===Among big-budget auteurs, Michael Mann has worked frequently in a neo-noir mode, with such films as ''Thief'' (1981) and ''Heat'' (1995) and the TV series ''Miami Vice'' (1984–89) and ''Crime Story'' (1986–88).", "Mann's output exemplifies a primary strain of neo-noir, or as it is affectionately called, \"neon noir\", in which classic themes and tropes are revisited in a contemporary setting with an up-to-date visual style and rock- or hip hop-based musical soundtrack.Neo-noir film borrows from and reflects many of the characteristics of the film noir: the presence of crime and violence, complex characters and plot-lines, mystery, and moral ambivalence, all of which come into play in the neon-noir sub-genre.", "But more than just exhibiting the superficial traits of the genre, neon-noir emphasizes the socio-critique of film noir, recalling the specific socio-cultural dimensions of the interwar years when noirs first became prominent; a time of global existential crisis, depression and the mass movement of the rural population to cities.", "Long shots or montages of cityscapes, often portrayed as dark and menacing, are suggestive of what Dueck referred to as a ‘bleak societal perspective’, providing a critique on global capitalism and consumerism.", "Other characteristics include the use of highly stylized lighting techniques such chiaroscuro, and neon signs and brightly lit buildings that provide a sense of alienation and entrapment.Accentuating the use of artificial and neon lighting in the films-noir of the '40s and '50s, neon-noir films accentuate this aesthetic with electrifying color and manipulated light in order to highlight their socio-cultural critiques and their references to contemporary and pop culture.", "In doing so, neon-noir films present the themes of urban decay, consumerist decadence and capitalism, existentialism, sexuality, and issues of race and violence in the contemporary culture, not only in America, but the globalized world at large.Neon-noirs seek to bring the contemporary noir, somewhat diluted under the umbrella of neo-noir, back to the exploration of culture: class, race, gender, patriarchy, and capitalism.", "Neon-noirs present an existential exploration of society in a hyper-technological and globalized world.", "Illustrating society as decadent and consumerist, and identity as confused and anxious, neon-noirs reposition the contemporary noir in the setting of urban decay, often featuring scenes set in underground city haunts: brothels, nightclubs, casinos, strip bars, pawnshops, laundromats.Neon-noirs were popularized in the '70s and '80s by films such as ''Taxi Driver'' (1976), ''Blade Runner'' (1982), and films from David Lynch, such as ''Blue Velvet'' (1986) and later, ''Lost Highway'' (1997).", "Other titles from this era included Brian De Palma's ''Blow Out'' (1981) and the Coen Brothers' debut ''Blood Simple'' (1984).", "More currently, films such as Harmony Korine’s highly provocative ''Spring Breakers'' (2012), and Danny Boyle’s ''Trance'' (2013) have been especially noted for their neon-infused rendering of film noir; while ''Trance'' was celebrated for ‘shak(ing) the ingredients (of the noir) like colored sand in a jar’, ''Spring Breakers'' notoriously produced a slew of criticism referring to its ‘fever-dream’ aesthetic and ‘neon-caked explosion of excess’ (Kohn).", "Another neon-noir endowed with the 'fever-dream' aesthetic is '' The Persian Connection'', expressly linked to Lynchian aesthetics as a neon-drenched contemporary noir.Neon-noir can be seen as a response to the over-use of the term neo-noir.", "While the term neo-noir functions to bring noir into the contemporary landscape, it has often been criticized for its dilution of the noir genre.", "Author Robert Arnett commented on its \"amorphous\" reach: \"any film featuring a detective or crime qualifies\".", "The neon-noir, more specifically, seeks to revive noir sensibilities in a more targeted manner of reference, focalizing socio-cultural commentary and a hyper-stylized aesthetic.===2000s and 2010s===The Coen brothers make reference to the noir tradition again with ''The Man Who Wasn't There'' (2001); a black-and-white crime melodrama set in 1949; it features a scene apparently staged to mirror one from ''Out of the Past''.", "Lynch's ''Mulholland Drive'' (2001) continued in his characteristic vein, making the classic noir setting of Los Angeles the venue for a noir-inflected psychological jigsaw puzzle.", "British-born director Christopher Nolan's black-and-white debut, ''Following'' (1998), was an overt homage to classic noir.", "During the new century's first decade, he was one of the leading Hollywood directors of neo-noir with the acclaimed ''Memento'' (2000) and the remake of ''Insomnia'' (2002).Director Sean Penn's ''The Pledge'' (2001), though adapted from a very self-reflexive novel by Friedrich Dürrenmatt, plays noir comparatively straight, to devastating effect.", "Screenwriter David Ayer updated the classic noir bad-cop tale, typified by ''Shield for Murder'' (1954) and ''Rogue Cop'' (1954), with his scripts for ''Training Day'' (2001) and, adapting a story by James Ellroy, ''Dark Blue'' (2002); he later wrote and directed the even darker ''Harsh Times'' (2006).", "Michael Mann's ''Collateral'' (2004) features a performance by Tom Cruise as an assassin in the lineage of ''Le Samouraï''.", "The torments of ''The Machinist'' (2004), directed by Brad Anderson, evoke both ''Fight Club'' and ''Memento''.", "In 2005, Shane Black directed ''Kiss Kiss Bang Bang'', basing his screenplay in part on a crime novel by Brett Halliday, who published his first stories back in the 1920s.", "The film plays with an awareness not only of classic noir but also of neo-noir reflexivity itself.With ultra-violent films such as ''Sympathy for Mr. Vengeance'' (2002) and ''Thirst'' (2009), Park Chan-wook of South Korea has been the most prominent director outside of the United States to work regularly in a noir mode in the new millennium.", "The most commercially successful neo-noir of this period has been ''Sin City'' (2005), directed by Robert Rodriguez in extravagantly stylized black and white with splashes of color.", "The film is based on a series of comic books created by Frank Miller (credited as the film's codirector), which are in turn openly indebted to the works of Spillane and other pulp mystery authors.", "Similarly, graphic novels provide the basis for ''Road to Perdition'' (2002), directed by Sam Mendes, and ''A History of Violence'' (2005), directed by David Cronenberg; the latter was voted best film of the year in the annual ''Village Voice'' poll.", "Writer-director Rian Johnson's ''Brick'' (2005), featuring present-day high schoolers speaking a version of 1930s hardboiled argot, won the Special Jury Prize for Originality of Vision at the Sundance Film Festival.", "The television series ''Veronica Mars'' (2004–07) and the movie ''Veronica Mars'' (2014) also brought a youth-oriented twist to film noir.", "Examples of this sort of generic crossover have been dubbed \"teen noir\".Neo-noir films released in the 2010s include Kim Jee-woon’s ''I Saw the Devil'' (2010), Fred Cavaye’s ''Point Blank'' (2010), Na Hong-jin’s ''The Yellow Sea'' (2010), Nicolas Winding Refn’s ''Drive'' (2011), Claire Denis' ''Bastards'' (2013) and Dan Gilroy's ''Nightcrawler'' (2014).===2020s===The Science Channel broadcast the 2021 science documentary series ''Killers of the Cosmos'' in a format it describes as \"space noir.\"", "In the series, actor Aidan Gillen in animated form serves as the host of the series while portraying a private investigator who takes on \"cases\" in which he \"hunts down\" lethal threats to humanity posed by the cosmos.", "The animated sequences combine the characteristics of film noir with those of a pulp fiction graphic novel set in the mid-20th century, and they link conventional live-action documentary segments in which experts describe the potentially deadly phenomena.===Science fiction noir===Harrison Ford as detective Rick Deckard in ''Blade Runner'' (1982).", "Like many classic noirs, the film is set in a version of Los Angeles where it constantly rains.", "The steam in the foreground is a familiar noir trope, while the \"bluish-smoky exterior\" updates the black-and-white mode.In the post-classic era, a significant trend in noir crossovers has involved science fiction.", "In Jean-Luc Godard's ''Alphaville'' (1965), Lemmy Caution is the name of the old-school private eye in the city of tomorrow.", "''The Groundstar Conspiracy'' (1972) centers on another implacable investigator and an amnesiac named Welles.", "''Soylent Green'' (1973), the first major American example, portrays a dystopian, near-future world via a noir detection plot; starring Charlton Heston (the lead in ''Touch of Evil''), it also features classic noir standbys Joseph Cotten, Edward G. Robinson, and Whit Bissell.", "The film was directed by Richard Fleischer, who two decades before had directed several strong B noirs, including ''Armored Car Robbery'' (1950) and ''The Narrow Margin'' (1952).The cynical and stylized perspective of classic film noir had a formative effect on the cyberpunk genre of science fiction that emerged in the early 1980s; the film most directly influential on cyberpunk was ''Blade Runner'' (1982), directed by Ridley Scott, which pays evocative homage to the classic noir mode (Scott subsequently directed the poignant 1987 noir crime melodrama ''Someone to Watch Over Me'').", "Scholar Jamaluddin Bin Aziz has observed how \"the shadow of Philip Marlowe lingers on\" in such other \"future noir\" films as ''12 Monkeys'' (1995), ''Dark City'' (1998) and ''Minority Report'' (2002).", "Fincher's feature debut was ''Alien 3'' (1992), which evoked the classic noir jail film ''Brute Force''.David Cronenberg's ''Crash'' (1996), an adaptation of the speculative novel by J. G. Ballard, has been described as a \"film noir in bruise tones\".", "The hero is the target of investigation in ''Gattaca'' (1997), which fuses film noir motifs with a scenario indebted to ''Brave New World''.", "''The Thirteenth Floor'' (1999), like ''Blade Runner'', is an explicit homage to classic noir, in this case involving speculations about virtual reality.", "Science fiction, noir, and anime are brought together in the Japanese films of 90s ''Ghost in the Shell'' (1995) and ''Ghost in the Shell 2: Innocence'' (2004), both directed by Mamoru Oshii.", "''The Animatrix'' (2003), based on and set within the world of ''The Matrix'' film trilogy, contains an anime short film in classic noir style titled \"A Detective Story\".", "Anime television series with science fiction noir themes include ''Noir'' (2001) and ''Cowboy Bebop'' (1998).The 2015 film ''Ex Machina'' puts an understated film noir spin on the Frankenstein mythos, with the sentient android Ava as a potential ''femme fatale'', her creator Nathan embodying the abusive husband or father trope, and her would-be rescuer Caleb as a \"clueless drifter\" enthralled by Ava." ], [ "Parodies", "Film noir has been parodied many times in many manners.", "In 1945, Danny Kaye starred in what appears to be the first intentional film noir parody, ''Wonder Man''.", "That same year, Deanna Durbin was the singing lead in the comedic noir ''Lady on a Train'', which makes fun of Woolrich-brand wistful miserablism.", "Bob Hope inaugurated the private-eye noir parody with ''My Favorite Brunette'' (1947), playing a baby-photographer who is mistaken for an ironfisted detective.", "In 1947 as well, The Bowery Boys appeared in ''Hard Boiled Mahoney'', which had a similar mistaken-identity plot; they spoofed the genre once more in ''Private Eyes'' (1953).", "Two RKO productions starring Robert Mitchum take film noir over the border into self-parody: ''The Big Steal'' (1949), directed by Don Siegel, and ''His Kind of Woman'' (1951).", "The \"Girl Hunt\" ballet in Vincente Minnelli's ''The Band Wagon'' (1953) is a ten-minute distillation of—and play on—noir in dance.", "''The Cheap Detective'' (1978), starring Peter Falk, is a broad spoof of several films, including the Bogart classics ''The Maltese Falcon'' and ''Casablanca''.", "Carl Reiner's black-and-white ''Dead Men Don't Wear Plaid'' (1982) appropriates clips of classic noirs for a farcical pastiche, while his ''Fatal Instinct'' (1993) sends up noir classic (''Double Indemnity'') and neo-noir (''Basic Instinct'').", "Robert Zemeckis's ''Who Framed Roger Rabbit'' (1988) develops a noir plot set in 1940s Los Angeles around a host of cartoon characters.", "\"Loneliness has followed me my whole life, everywhere.", "In bars, in cars, sidewalks, stores, everywhere.", "There's no escape.", "I'm God's lonely man.\"", "Robert De Niro as neo-noir antihero Travis Bickle in ''Taxi Driver'' (1976)Noir parodies come in darker tones as well.", "''Murder by Contract'' (1958), directed by Irving Lerner, is a deadpan joke on noir, with a denouement as bleak as any of the films it kids.", "An ultra-low-budget Columbia Pictures production, it may qualify as the first intentional example of what is now called a neo-noir film; it was likely a source of inspiration for both Melville's ''Le Samouraï'' and Scorsese's ''Taxi Driver''.", "Belying its parodic strain, ''The Long Goodbye''s final act is seriously grave.", "''Taxi Driver'' caustically deconstructs the \"dark\" crime film, taking it to an absurd extreme and then offering a conclusion that manages to mock every possible anticipated ending—triumphant, tragic, artfully ambivalent—while being each, all at once.", "Flirting with splatter status even more brazenly, the Coens' ''Blood Simple'' is both an exacting pastiche and a gross exaggeration of classic noir.", "Adapted by director Robinson Devor from a novel by Charles Willeford, ''The Woman Chaser'' (1999) sends up not just the noir mode but the entire Hollywood filmmaking process, with each shot seemingly staged as the visual equivalent of an acerbic Marlowe wisecrack.In other media, the television series ''Sledge Hammer!''", "(1986–88) lampoons noir, along with such topics as capital punishment, gun fetishism, and Dirty Harry.", "''Sesame Street'' (1969–curr.)", "occasionally casts Kermit the Frog as a private eye; the sketches refer to some of the typical motifs of noir films, in particular the voiceover.", "Garrison Keillor's radio program ''A Prairie Home Companion'' features the recurring character Guy Noir, a hardboiled detective whose adventures always wander into farce (Guy also appears in the Altman-directed film based on Keillor's show).", "Firesign Theatre's Nick Danger has trodden the same not-so-mean streets, both on radio and in comedy albums.", "Cartoons such as ''Garfield's Babes and Bullets'' (1989) and comic strip characters such as Tracer Bullet of ''Calvin and Hobbes'' have parodied both film noir and the kindred hardboiled tradition—one of the sources from which film noir sprang and which it now overshadows.", "''It’s Always Sunny in Philadelphia'' parodied the noir genre in its season 14 episode \"The Janitor Always Mops Twice.\"" ], [ "Identifying characteristics", "Vertigo'' (1958) a noir on the basis of plot and tone and various motifs, but it has a modernist graphic design typical of the 1950s and a more modern set design, which would remove it from the category of film noir.", "Others say the combination of color and the specificity of director Alfred Hitchcock's vision exclude it from the category.In their original 1955 canon of film noir, Raymond Borde and Etienne Chaumeton identified twenty-two Hollywood films released between 1941 and 1952 as core examples; they listed another fifty-nine American films from the period as significantly related to the field of noir.", "A half-century later, film historians and critics had come to agree on a canon of approximately three hundred films from 1940 to 1958.There remain, however, many differences of opinion over whether other films of the era, among them a number of well-known ones, qualify as films noir or not.", "For instance, ''The Night of the Hunter'' (1955), starring Robert Mitchum in an acclaimed performance, is treated as a film noir by some critics, but not by others.", "Some critics include ''Suspicion'' (1941), directed by Alfred Hitchcock, in their catalogues of noir; others ignore it.", "Concerning films made either before or after the classic period, or outside of the United States at any time, consensus is even rarer.To support their categorization of certain films as noirs and their rejection of others, many critics refer to a set of elements they see as marking examples of the mode.", "The question of what constitutes the set of noir's identifying characteristics is a fundamental source of controversy.", "For instance, critics tend to define the model film noir as having a tragic or bleak conclusion, but many acknowledged classics of the genre have clearly happy endings (e.g., ''Stranger on the Third Floor,'' ''The Big Sleep'', ''Dark Passage'', and ''The Dark Corner''), while the tone of many other noir denouements is ambivalent.", "Some critics perceive classic noir's hallmark as a distinctive visual style.", "Others, observing that there is actually considerable stylistic variety among noirs, instead emphasize plot and character type.", "Still others focus on mood and attitude.", "No survey of classic noir's identifying characteristics can therefore be considered definitive.", "In the 1990s and 2000s, critics have increasingly turned their attention to that diverse field of films called neo-noir; once again, there is even less consensus about the defining attributes of such films made outside the classic period.", "Roger Ebert offered \"A Guide to Film Noir\", writing that \"Film noir is...# A French term meaning 'black film', or film of the night, inspired by the Series Noir, a line of cheap paperbacks that translated hard-boiled American crime authors and found a popular audience in France# A movie which at no time misleads you into thinking there is going to be a happy ending.# Locations that reek of the night, of shadows, of alleys, of the back doors of fancy places, of apartment buildings with a high turnover rate, of taxi drivers and bartenders who have seen it all.# Cigarettes.", "Everyone in film noir is always smoking, as if to say, 'On top of everything else, I've been assigned to get through three packs today.", "The best smoking movie of all time is ''Out of the Past'', in which Robert Mitchum and Kirk Douglas smoke furiously at each other.", "At one point, Mitchum enters a room, Douglas extends a pack and says 'Cigarette?'", "and Mitchum, holding up his hand, says, 'Smoking.", "'# Women who would just as soon kill you as love you, and vice versa.", "# For women: low necklines, floppy hats, mascara, lipstick, dressing rooms, boudoirs, calling the doorman by his first name, high heels, red dresses, elbowlength gloves, mixing drinks, having gangsters as boyfriends, having soft spots for alcoholic private eyes, wanting a lot of someone else's women, sprawling dead on the floor with every limb meticulously arranged and every hair in place.# For men: fedoras, suits and ties, shabby residential hotels with a neon sign blinking through the window, buying yourself a drink out of the office bottle, cars with running boards, all-night diners, protecting kids who shouldn't be playing with the big guys, being on first-name terms with homicide cops, knowing a lot of people whose descriptions end in 'ies,' such as bookies, newsies, junkies, alkys, jockeys and cabbies.# Movies either shot in black-and-white, or feeling like they were.", "# Relationships in which love is only the final flop card in the poker game of death.", "# The most American film genre, because no other society could have created a world so full of doom, fate, fear and betrayal, unless it were essentially naive and optimistic.", "\"===Visual style===The low-key lighting schemes of many classic films noir are associated with stark light/dark contrasts and dramatic shadow patterning—a style known as chiaroscuro (a term adopted from Renaissance painting).", "The shadows of Venetian blinds or banister rods, cast upon an actor, a wall, or an entire set, are an iconic visual in noir and had already become a cliché well before the neo-noir era.", "Characters' faces may be partially or wholly obscured by darkness—a relative rarity in conventional Hollywood filmmaking.", "While black-and-white cinematography is considered by many to be one of the essential attributes of classic noir, the color films ''Leave Her to Heaven'' (1945) and ''Niagara'' (1953) are routinely included in noir filmographies, while ''Slightly Scarlet'' (1956), ''Party Girl'' (1958), and ''Vertigo'' (1958) are classified as noir by varying numbers of critics.Film noir is also known for its use of low-angle, wide-angle, and skewed, or Dutch angle shots.", "Other devices of disorientation relatively common in film noir include shots of people reflected in one or more mirrors, shots through curved or frosted glass or other distorting objects (such as during the strangulation scene in ''Strangers on a Train''), and special effects sequences of a sometimes bizarre nature.", "Night-for-night shooting, as opposed to the Hollywood norm of day-for-night, was often employed.", "From the mid-1940s forward, location shooting became increasingly frequent in noir.In an analysis of the visual approach of ''Kiss Me Deadly'', a late and self-consciously stylized example of classic noir, critic Alain Silver describes how cinematographic choices emphasize the story's themes and mood.", "In one scene, the characters, seen through a \"confusion of angular shapes\", thus appear \"caught in a tangible vortex or enclosed in a trap.\"", "Silver makes a case for how \"side light is used ... to reflect character ambivalence\", while shots of characters in which they are lit from below \"conform to a convention of visual expression which associates shadows cast upward of the face with the unnatural and ominous\".===Structure and narrational devices===Barbara Stanwyck and Burt Lancaster were two of the most prolific stars of classic noir.", "The complex structure of ''Sorry, Wrong Number'' (1948) involves a real-time framing story, multiple narrators, and flashbacks within flashbacks.Films noir tend to have unusually convoluted story lines, frequently involving flashbacks and other editing techniques that disrupt and sometimes obscure the narrative sequence.", "Framing the entire primary narrative as a flashback is also a standard device.", "Voiceover narration, sometimes used as a structuring device, came to be seen as a noir hallmark; while classic noir is generally associated with first-person narration (i.e., by the protagonist), Stephen Neale notes that third-person narration is common among noirs of the semidocumentary style.", "Neo-noirs as varied as ''The Element of Crime'' (surrealist), ''After Dark, My Sweet'' (retro), and ''Kiss Kiss Bang Bang'' (meta) have employed the flashback/voiceover combination.Bold experiments in cinematic storytelling were sometimes attempted during the classic era: ''Lady in the Lake'', for example, is shot entirely from the point of view of protagonist Philip Marlowe; the face of star (and director) Robert Montgomery is seen only in mirrors.", "''The Chase'' (1946) takes oneirism and fatalism as the basis for its fantastical narrative system, redolent of certain horror stories, but with little precedent in the context of a putatively realistic genre.", "In their different ways, both ''Sunset Boulevard'' and ''D.O.A.''", "are tales told by dead men.", "Latter-day noir has been in the forefront of structural experimentation in popular cinema, as exemplified by such films as ''Pulp Fiction'', ''Fight Club'', and ''Memento''.===Plots, characters, and settings===Crime, usually murder, is an element of almost all films noir; in addition to standard-issue greed, jealousy is frequently the criminal motivation.", "A crime investigation—by a private eye, a police detective (sometimes acting alone), or a concerned amateur—is the most prevalent, but far from dominant, basic plot.", "In other common plots the protagonists are implicated in heists or con games, or in murderous conspiracies often involving adulterous affairs.", "False suspicions and accusations of crime are frequent plot elements, as are betrayals and double-crosses.", "According to J. David Slocum, \"protagonists assume the literal identities of dead men in nearly fifteen percent of all noir.\"", "Amnesia is fairly epidemic—\"noir's version of the common cold\", in the words of film historian Lee Server.By the late 1940s, the noir trend was leaving its mark on other genres.", "A prime example is the Western ''Pursued'' (1947), filled with psychosexual tensions and behavioral explanations derived from Freudian theory.Films noir tend to revolve around heroes who are more flawed and morally questionable than the norm, often fall guys of one sort or another.", "The characteristic protagonists of noir are described by many critics as \"alienated\"; in the words of Silver and Ward, \"filled with existential bitterness\".", "Certain archetypal characters appear in many film noirs—hardboiled detectives, femme fatales, corrupt policemen, jealous husbands, intrepid claims adjusters, and down-and-out writers.", "Among characters of every stripe, cigarette smoking is rampant.", "From historical commentators to neo-noir pictures to pop culture ephemera, the private eye and the femme fatale have been adopted as the quintessential film noir figures, though they do not appear in most films now regarded as classic noir.", "Of the twenty-six National Film Registry noirs, in only four does the star play a private eye: ''The Maltese Falcon'', ''The Big Sleep'', ''Out of the Past'', and ''Kiss Me Deadly''.", "Just four others readily qualify as detective stories: ''Laura'', ''The Killers'', ''The Naked City'', and ''Touch of Evil''.", "There is usually an element of drug or alcohol use, particularly as part of the detective's method to solving the crime, as an example the character of Mike Hammer in the 1955 film ''Kiss Me Deadly'' who walks into a bar saying \"Give me a double bourbon, and leave the bottle\".", "Chaumeton and Borde have argued that film noir grew out of the \"literature of drugs and alcohol\".Film noir is often associated with an urban setting, and a few cities—Los Angeles, San Francisco, New York, and Chicago, in particular—are the location of many of the classic films.", "In the eyes of many critics, the city is presented in noir as a \"labyrinth\" or \"maze\".", "Bars, lounges, nightclubs, and gambling dens are frequently the scene of action.", "The climaxes of a substantial number of film noirs take place in visually complex, often industrial settings, such as refineries, factories, trainyards, power plants—most famously the explosive conclusion of ''White Heat'', set at a chemical plant.", "In the popular (and, frequently enough, critical) imagination, in noir it is always night and it always raining.A substantial trend within latter-day noir—dubbed \"film soleil\" by critic D. K. Holm—heads in precisely the opposite direction, with tales of deception, seduction, and corruption exploiting bright, sun-baked settings, stereotypically the desert or open water, to searing effect.", "Significant predecessors from the classic and early post-classic eras include ''The Lady from Shanghai''; the Robert Ryan vehicle ''Inferno'' (1953); the French adaptation of Patricia Highsmith's ''The Talented Mr. Ripley'', ''Plein soleil'' (''Purple Noon'' in the United States, more accurately rendered elsewhere as ''Blazing Sun'' or ''Full Sun''; 1960); and director Don Siegel's version of ''The Killers'' (1964).", "The tendency was at its peak during the late 1980s and 1990s, with films such as ''Dead Calm'' (1989), ''After Dark, My Sweet'' (1990), ''The Hot Spot'' (1990), ''Delusion'' (1991), ''Red Rock West'' (1993) and the television series ''Miami Vice''.===Worldview, morality, and tone===Bogart and Bacall in ''The Big Sleep''.Film noir is often described as essentially pessimistic.", "The noir stories that are regarded as most characteristic tell of people trapped in unwanted situations (which, in general, they did not cause but are responsible for exacerbating), striving against random, uncaring fate, and are frequently doomed.", "The films are seen as depicting a world that is inherently corrupt.", "Classic film noir has been associated by many critics with the American social landscape of the era—in particular, with a sense of heightened anxiety and alienation that is said to have followed World War II.", "In author Nicholas Christopher's opinion, \"it is as if the war, and the social eruptions in its aftermath, unleashed demons that had been bottled up in the national psyche.\"", "Films noir, especially those of the 1950s and the height of the Red Scare, are often said to reflect cultural paranoia; ''Kiss Me Deadly'' is the noir most frequently marshaled as evidence for this claim.Film noir is often said to be defined by \"moral ambiguity\", yet the Production Code obliged almost all classic noirs to see that steadfast virtue was ultimately rewarded and vice, in the absence of shame and redemption, severely punished (however dramatically incredible the final rendering of mandatory justice might be).", "A substantial number of latter-day noirs flout such conventions: vice emerges triumphant in films as varied as the grim ''Chinatown'' and the ribald ''Hot Spot''.The tone of film noir is generally regarded as downbeat; some critics experience it as darker still—\"overwhelmingly black\", according to Robert Ottoson.", "Influential critic (and filmmaker) Paul Schrader wrote in a seminal 1972 essay that \"''film noir'' is defined by tone\", a tone he seems to perceive as \"hopeless\".", "In describing the adaptation of ''Double Indemnity,'' noir analyst Foster Hirsch describes the \"requisite hopeless tone\" achieved by the filmmakers, which appears to characterize his view of noir as a whole.", "On the other hand, definitive film noirs such as ''The Big Sleep'', ''The Lady from Shanghai'', ''Scarlet Street'' and ''Double Indemnity'' itself are famed for their hardboiled repartee, often imbued with sexual innuendo and self-reflexive humor.=== Music ===The music of film noir was typically orchestral, per the Hollywood norm, but often with added dissonance.", "Many of the prime composers, like the directors and cameramen, were European émigrés, e.g., Max Steiner (''The Big Sleep'', ''Mildred Pierce''), Miklós Rózsa (''Double Indemnity'', ''The Killers'', ''Criss Cross''), and Franz Waxman (''Fury'', ''Sunset Boulevard'', ''Night and the City'').", "''Double Indemnity'' is a seminal score, initially disliked by Paramount's music director for its harshness but strongly endorsed by director Billy Wilder and studio chief Buddy DeSylva.", "There is a widespread popular impression that \"sleazy\" jazz saxophone and pizzicato bass constitute the sound of noir, but those characteristics arose much later, as in the late-1950s music of Henry Mancini for ''Touch of Evil'' and television's ''Peter Gunn''.", "Bernard Herrmann's score for ''Taxi Driver'' makes heavy use of saxophone." ], [ "See also", "* Film gris-a term coined by experimental filmmaker Thom Andersen* Scandinavian noir* List of film noir titles* List of neo-noir titles* B movie* Modernist film* Postmodern film* Minimalist film* Maximalist film* Neo-noir" ], [ "Notes", " The plural forms of ''film noir'' in English include ''films noirs'' (derived from the French), ''films noir'', and ''film noirs''.", "Merriam-Webster, which acknowledges all three styles as acceptable, favors ''film noirs'', while the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' lists only ''films noirs''.", "''His Kind of Woman'' was originally directed by John Farrow, then largely reshot under Richard Fleischer after studio owner Howard Hughes demanded rewrites.", "Only Farrow was credited.", "In ''Academic Dictionary of Arts'' (2005), Rakesh Chopra notes that the high-contrast film lighting schemes commonly referred to as \"chiaroscuro\" are more specifically representative of tenebrism, whose first great exponent was the Italian painter Caravaggio (p. 73).", "See also Ballinger and Graydon (2007), p. 16." ], [ "Citations" ], [ "Sources", "* Abbas, M. Ackbar (1997).", "''Hong Kong: Culture and the Politics of Disappearance''.", "Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.", "* Appel, Alfred (1974).", "''Nabokov's Dark Cinema''.", "Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.", "* Aziz, Jamaluddin Bin (2005).", "\"Future Noir\", chap.", "in \"Transgressing Women: Investigating Space and the Body in Contemporary Noir Thrillers\".", "Ph.D. dissertation, Department of English and Creative Writing, Lancaster University (chapter available online).", "* Ballinger, Alexander, and Danny Graydon (2007).", "''The Rough Guide to Film Noir''.", "London: Rough Guides.", "* Bernstein, Matthew (1995).", "\"A Tale of Three Cities: The Banning of ''Scarlet Street''\", ''Cinema Journal'' 35, no.", "1.", "* Biesen, Sheri Chinen (2005).", "''Blackout: World War II and the Origins of Film Noir''.", "Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.", "* Borde, Raymond, and Etienne Chaumeton (2002 1955).", "''A Panorama of American Film Noir, 1941–1953'', trans.", "Paul Hammond.", "San Francisco: City Lights Books.", "* Bould, Mark (2005).", "''Film Noir: From Berlin to Sin City''.", "London and New York: Wallflower.", "* Butler, David (2002).", "''Jazz Noir: Listening to Music from'' Phantom Lady ''to'' The Last Seduction.", "Westport, Conn.: Greenwood.", "* Cameron, Ian, ed.", "(1993).", "''The Book of Film Noir''.", "New York: Continuum.", "* Christopher, Nicholas (1998 1997).", "''Somewhere in the Night: Film Noir and the American City'', 1st paperback ed.", "New York: Owl/Henry Holt.", "* Clarens, Carlos (1980).", "''Crime Movies: An Illustrated History''.", "New York: W.W. Norton.", "* Conard, Mark T. (2007).", "''The Philosophy of Neo-Noir''.", "Lexington: University Press of Kentucky.", "* Copjec, Joan, ed.", "(1993).", "''Shades of Noir''.", "London and New York: Verso.", "* Creeber, Glen (2007).", "''The Singing Detective''.", "London: BFI Publishing.", "* Dancyger, Ken, and Jeff Rush (2002).", "''Alternative Scriptwriting: Successfully Breaking the Rules'', 3d ed.", "Boston and Oxford: Focal Press.", "* Dargis, Manohla (2004).", "\"Philosophizing Sex Dolls amid Film Noir Intrigue\", ''The New York Times'', September 17 (available online ).", "* Davis, Blair (2004).", "\"Horror Meets Noir: The Evolution of Cinematic Style, 1931–1958\", in ''Horror Film: Creating and Marketing Fear'', ed.", "Steffen Hantke.", "Jackson: University Press of Mississippi.", "* Downs, Jacqueline (2002).", "\"Richard Fleischer\", in ''Contemporary North American Film Directors: A Wallflower Critical Guide'', 2d ed., ed.", "Yoram Allon, Del Cullen, and Hannah Patterson.", "London and New York: Wallflower.", "* Durgnat, Raymond (1970).", "\"Paint It Black: The Family Tree of the ''Film Noir''\", ''Cinema'' 6/7 (collected in Gorman et al., ''The Big Book of Noir'', and Silver and Ursini, ''Film Noir Reader 1'').", "* Erickson, Glenn (2004).", "\"Fate Seeks the Loser: Edgar G. Ulmer's ''Detour''\", in Silver and Ursini, ''Film Noir Reader 4'', pp. 25–31.", "* Gorman, Ed, Lee Server, and Martin H. Greenberg, eds.", "(1998).", "''The Big Book of Noir''.", "New York: Carroll & Graf.", "* Greene, Naomi (1999).", "''Landscapes of Loss: The National Past in Postwar French Cinema''.", "Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.", "* Greenspun, Roger (1973).", "\"Mike Hodges's 'Pulp' Opens; A Private Eye Parody Is Parody of Itself\", ''The New York Times'', February 9 (available online ).", "* Hanson, Helen (2008).", "''Hollywood Heroines: Women in Film Noir and the Female Gothic Film''.", "London and New York: I.B.", "Tauris.", "* Hayde, Michael J.", "(2001).", "''My Name's Friday: The Unauthorized But True Story of Dragnet and the Films of Jack Webb''.", "Nashville, Tenn.: Cumberland House.", "* Hirsch, Foster (1999).", "''Detours and Lost Highways: A Map of Neo-Noir''.", "Pompton Plains, N.J.: Limelight.", "* Hirsch, Foster (2001 1981).", "''The Dark Side of the Screen: Film Noir''.", "New York: Da Capo.", "* Holden, Stephen (1999).", "\"Hard-Boiled as a Two-Day-Old Egg at a Two-Bit Diner\", ''The New York Times'', October 8 (available online ).", "* Holm, D. K. (2005).", "''Film Soleil''.", "Harpenden, UK: Pocket Essentials.", "* Hunter, Stephen (1982).", "\"''Blade Runner''\", in his ''Violent Screen: A Critic's 13 Years on the Front Lines of Movie Mayhem'' (1995), pp.", "196–99.Baltimore: Bancroft.", "* Irwin, John T. (2006).", "''Unless the Threat of Death is Behind Them: Hard-Boiled Fiction and Film Noir''.", "Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.", "* James, Nick (2002).", "\"Back to the Brats\", in ''Contemporary North American Film Directors'', 2d ed., ed.", "Yoram Allon, Del Cullen, and Hannah Patterson, pp.", "xvi–xx.", "London: Wallflower.", "* Jones, Kristin M. (2009).", "\"Dark Cynicism, British Style\", ''Wall Street Journal'', August 18 (available online ).", "* Kennedy, Harlan (1982).", "\"Twenty-First Century Nervous Breakdown\", ''Film Comment'', July/August.", "* Kirgo, Julie (1980).", "\"''Farewell, My Lovely'' (1975)\", in Silver and Ward, ''Film Noir: An Encyclopedic Reference'', pp. 101–2.", "* Kolker, Robert (2000).", "''A Cinema of Loneliness'', 3d ed.", "Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.", "* Krutnik, Frank, Steve Neale, and Brian Neve (2008).", "''\"Un-American\" Hollywood: Politics and Film in the Blacklist Era''.", "New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press.", "* Lynch, David, and Chris Rodley (2005).", "''Lynch on Lynch'', rev.", "ed.", "New York and London: Faber and Faber.", "* Lyons, Arthur (2000).", "''Death on the Cheap: The Lost B Movies of Film Noir''.", "New York: Da Capo.", "* Macek, Carl (1980).", "\"''City Streets'' (1931)\", in Silver and Ward, ''Film Noir: An Encyclopedic Reference'', pp. 59–60.", "* Macek, Carl, and Alain Silver (1980).", "\"''House on 92nd Street'' (1945)\", in Silver and Ward, ''Film Noir: An Encyclopedic Reference'', pp. 134–35.", "* Mackendrick, Alexander (2006).", "''On Film-making: An Introduction to the Craft of the Director''.", "New York: Macmillan.", "* Marshman, Donald (1947).", "\"Mister 'See'-Odd-Mack'\", ''Life'', August 25.", "* Martin, Richard (1997).", "''Mean Streets and Raging Bulls: The Legacy of Film Noir in Contemporary American Cinema''.", "Lanham, Md.", ": Scarecrow Press.", "* Maslin, Janet (1996).", "\"Deadly Plot by a Milquetoast Villain\", ''The New York Times'', March 8 (available online ).", "* McGilligan, Patrick (1997).", "''Fritz Lang: The Nature of the Beast''.", "New York and London: Faber and Faber.", "* Muller, Eddie (1998).", "''Dark City: The Lost World of Film Noir''.", "New York: St. Martin's.", "* Naremore, James (2008).", "''More Than Night: Film Noir in Its Contexts'', 2d ed.", "Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press.", "* Neale, Steve (2000).", "''Genre and Hollywood''.", "London and New York: Routledge.", "* Ottoson, Robert (1981).", "''A Reference Guide to the American Film Noir: 1940–1958''.", "Metuchen, N.J., and London: Scarecrow Press.", "* Palmer, R. Barton (2004).", "\"The Sociological Turn of Adaptation Studies: The Example of ''Film Noir''\", in ''A Companion To Literature And Film'', ed.", "Robert Stam and Alessandra Raengo, pp.", "258–77.Maiden, Mass., Oxford, and Carlton, Australia: Blackwell.", "* Place, Janey, and Lowell Peterson (1974).", "\"Some Visual Motifs of ''Film Noir''\", ''Film Comment'' 10, no.", "1 (collected in Silver and Ursini, ''Film Noir Reader 1'').", "* Porfirio, Robert (1980).", "\"''Stranger on the Third Floor'' (1940)\", in Silver and Ward, ''Film Noir: An Encyclopedic Reference'', p. 269.", "* Ray, Robert B.", "(1985).", "''A Certain Tendency of the Hollywood Cinema, 1930–1980''.", "Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.", "* Richardson, Carl (1992).", "''Autopsy: An Element of Realism in Film Noir''.", "Metuchen, N.J., and London: Scarecrow Press.", "* Sanders, Steven M. (2006).", "\"Film Noir and the Meaning of Life\", in ''The Philosophy of Film Noir'', ed.", "Mark T. Conard, pp.", "91–106.Lexington: University Press of Kentucky.", "* Sarris, Andrew (1996 1968).", "''The American Cinema: Directors and Directions, 1929–1968''.", "Cambridge, Massachusetts: Da Capo.", "* Schatz, Thomas (1981).", "''Hollywood Genres: Formulas, Filmmaking, and the Studio System''.", "New York: Random House.", "* Schatz, Thomas (1998 1996).", "''The Genius of the System: Hollywood Filmmaking in the Studio Era'', new ed.", "London: Faber and Faber.", "* Schrader, Paul (1972).", "\"Notes on Film Noir\", ''Film Comment'' 8, no.", "1 (collected in Silver and Ursini, ''Film Noir Reader 1'').", "* Server, Lee (2002).", "''Robert Mitchum: \"Baby I Don't Care\"''.", "New York: Macmillan.", "* Server, Lee (2006).", "''Ava Gardner: \"Love Is Nothing\"''.", "New York: Macmillan.", "* Silver, Alain (1996 1975).", "\"''Kiss Me Deadly'': Evidence of a Style\", rev.", "versions in Silver and Ursini, ''Film Noir Reader 1'', pp.", "209–35 and ''Film Noir Compendium'' (newest with remastered frame captures, 2016), pp. 302–325.", "* Silver, Alain (1996).", "\"Introduction\", in Silver and Ursini, ''Film Noir Reader 1'', pp.", "3–15, rev.", "ver.", "in Silver and Ursini, ''Film Noir Compendium'' (2016), pp. 10–25.", "* Silver, Alain, and James Ursini (and Robert Porfirio—vol.", "3), eds.", "(2004 1996–2004).", "''Film Noir Reader'', vols.", "1–4.Pompton Plains, N.J.: Limelight.", "* Silver, Alain, and Elizabeth Ward (1992).", "''Film Noir: An Encyclopedic Reference to the American Style'', 3d ed.", "Woodstock, N.Y.: Overlook Press.", "(See also: Silver, Ursini, Ward, and Porfirio 2010.", "''Film Noir: The Encyclopedia'', 4th rev., exp.", "ed.", "Overlook.", ")* Slocum, J. David (2001).", "''Violence and American Cinema''.", "London and New York: Routledge.", "* Spicer, Andrew (2007).", "''European Film Noir''.", "Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press.", "* Telotte, J. P. (1989).", "''Voices in the Dark: The Narrative Patterns of Film Noir''.", "Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press.", "* Thomson, David (1998).", "''A Biographical Dictionary of Film'', 3rd ed.", "New York: Knopf.", "* Turan, Kenneth (2008).", "\"UCLA's Pre-Code Series\", ''Los Angeles Times'', January 27 (available online ).", "* Tuska, Jon (1984).", "''Dark Cinema: American Film Noir in Cultural Perspective''.", "Westport, Conn., and London: Greenwood.", "* Tyree, J. M., and Ben Walters (2007).", "''The Big Lebowski''.", "London: BFI Publishing.", "* Ursini, James (1995).", "\"Angst at Sixty Fields per Second\", in Silver and Ursini, ''Film Noir Reader 1'', pp. 275–87.", "* \"''Variety'' staff\" (anon.)", "(1940).", "\"''Stranger on the Third Floor''\" review, ''Variety'' (excerpted online).", "* \"''Variety'' staff\" (anon.)", "(1955).", "\"''Kiss Me Deadly''\" review, ''Variety'' (excerpted online ).", "* Vernet, Marc (1993).", "\"''Film Noir'' on the Edge of Doom\", in Copjec, ''Shades of Noir'', pp. 1–31.", "* Wager, Jans B.", "(2005).", "''Dames in the Driver's Seat: Rereading Film Noir''.", "Austin: University of Texas Press.", "* Walker, Michael (1992).", "\"Robert Siodmak\", in Cameron, ''The Book of Film Noir'', pp. 110–51.", "* White, Dennis L. (1980).", "\"''Beast of the City'' (1932)\", in Silver and Ward, ''Film Noir: An Encyclopedic Reference'', pp. 16–17.", "* Widdicombe, Toby (2001).", "''A Reader's Guide to Raymond Chandler''.", "Westport, Conn.: Greenwood.", "* Williams, Linda Ruth (2005).", "''The Erotic Thriller in Contemporary Cinema''.", "Bloomington: Indiana University Press." ], [ "Suggested reading", "* Auerbach, Jonathan (2011).", "''Film Noir and American Citizenship.''", "Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.", "* Chopra-Gant, Mike (2005).", "''Hollywood Genres and Postwar America: Masculinity, Family and Nation in Popular Movies and Film Noir''.", "London: IB Tauris.", "* Cochran, David (2000).", "''America Noir: Underground Writers and Filmmakers of the Postwar Era''.", "Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.", "* Dickos, Andrew (2002).", "''Street with No Name: A History of the Classic American Film Noir''.", "Lexington: University Press of Kentucky.", "* Dimendberg, Edward (2004).", "''Film Noir and the Spaces of Modernity''.", "Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London: Harvard University Press.", "* Dixon, Wheeler Winston (2009).", "''Film Noir and the Cinema of Paranoia''.", "New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press.", "* García Martín, J. H. (2018).", "La musicalización diegética de la crisis en el cine negro holliwodiense de los años 40.La música clásica como signo del conflicto.", "Área abierta, 18(3), 389-407.https://doi.org/10.5209/ARAB.58492* Grossman, Julie (2009).", "''Rethinking the Femme Fatale in Film Noir: Ready for Her Close-Up''.", "Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.", "* Hannsberry, Karen Burroughs (1998).", "''Femme Noir: Bad Girls of Film''.", "Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland.", "* Hannsberry, Karen Burroughs (2003).", "''Bad Boys: The Actors of Film Noir''.", "Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland.", "* Hare, William (2003).", "''Early Film Noir: Greed, Lust, and Murder Hollywood Style''.", "Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland.", "* Hogan, David J.", "(2013).", "''Film Noir FAQ''.", "Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard.", "* Kaplan, E. Ann, ed.", "(1998).", "''Women in Film Noir'', new ed.", "London: British Film Institute.", "* Keaney, Michael F. (2003).", "''Film Noir Guide: 745 Films of the Classic Era, 1940–1959''.", "Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland.", "* Mason, Fran (2002).", "''American Gangster Cinema: From'' Little Caesar ''to'' Pulp Fiction.", "Houndmills, UK: Palgrave.", "* Mayer, Geoff, and Brian McDonnell (2007).", "''Encyclopedia of Film Noir''.", "Westport, Conn.: Greenwood.", "* McArthur, Colin (1972).", "''Underworld U.S.A.'' New York: Viking.", "* Naremore, James (2019).", "''Film Noir: A Very Short Introduction''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press.", "*Osteen, Mark.", "''Nightmare Alley: Film Noir and the American Dream'' (Johns Hopkins University Press; 2013) 336 pages; interprets film noir as a genre that challenges the American mythology of upward mobility and self-reinvention.", "* Palmer, R. Barton (1994).", "''Hollywood's Dark Cinema: The American Film Noir''.", "New York: Twayne.", "* Palmer, R. Barton, ed.", "(1996).", "''Perspectives on Film Noir''.", "New York: G.K. Hall.", "* Pappas, Charles (2005).", "''It's a Bitter Little World: The Smartest, Toughest, Nastiest Quotes from Film Noir''.", "Iola, Wisc.", ": Writer's Digest Books.", "* Rabinowitz, Paula (2002).", "''Black & White & Noir: America's Pulp Modernism''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", "* Schatz, Thomas (1997).", "''Boom and Bust: American Cinema in the 1940s''.", "Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press.", "* Selby, Spencer (1984).", "''Dark City: The Film Noir''.", "Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland.", "* Shadoian, Jack (2003).", "''Dreams and Dead Ends: The American Gangster Film'', 2d ed.", "Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.", "* Silver, Alain, and James Ursini (1999).", "''The Noir Style''.", "Woodstock, N.Y.: Overlook Press.", "* Silver, Alain, and James Ursini (2016).", "''Film Noir Compendium''.", "Milwaukee, WI: Applause.", "* Spicer, Andrew (2002).", "''Film Noir''.", "Harlow, UK: Pearson Education.", "* Starman, Ray (2006).", "''TV Noir: the 20th Century''.", "Troy, N.Y.: The Troy Bookmakers Press." ], [ "Suggested listening", "* ''Murder is My Beat: Classic Film Noir Themes and Scenes'' (1997, Rhino Movie Music) – 18-track audio CD* ''Maltese Falcons, Third Men & Touches of Evil-The Sound of Film Noir 1941–1950'' (2019, Jasmine Records UK) – 42-track audio CD * ''Film Noir: Six Classic Soundtracks'' (2016, Real Gone Jazz UK) – 57 tracks on 4 audio CDs" ], [ "External links", "* * Film Noir: A Bibliography of Materials and Film Videography holdings of the UC Berkeley Library* Film Noir: An Introduction essay with links to discussions of ten important noirs; part of ''Images: A Journal of Film and Popular Culture''* Film Noir Studies writings by John Blaser, with film noir glossary, timeline, and noir-related media* ''Kiss Me Deadly'': Evidence of A Style (part 1) unrevised online version of essay by Alain Silver in three parts: (2) and (3) * A Guide to Film Noir Genre ten deadeye bullet points from Roger Ebert* An Introduction to Neo-Noir essay by Lee Horsley* ''The Noir Thriller'': Introduction excerpt from 2001 book by Lee Horsley* What Is This Thing Called Noir?", ": Parts I, II and III essay by Alain Silver and Linda Brookover* Arthur Lyons Film Noir Festival, co-sponsored by the Palm Springs Cultural Center* Noir and Neonoir | The Criterion Collection* Notebook Primer: Film Noir* Collection: \"Film Noir, Visuality and Themes\" from the University of Michigan Museum of Art" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Finno-Ugric languages" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Finno-Ugric''' ( or ; '''''Fenno-Ugric''''') or '''Finno-Ugrian''' ('''''Fenno-Ugrian''''') is a traditional grouping of all languages in the Uralic language family except the Samoyedic languages.", "Its formerly commonly accepted status as a subfamily of Uralic is based on criteria formulated in the 19th century and is criticized by some contemporary linguists such as Tapani Salminen and Ante Aikio as inaccurate and misleading.", "The three most-spoken Uralic languages, Hungarian, Finnish, and Estonian, are all included in Finno-Ugric.The term ''Finno-Ugric'', which originally referred to the entire family, is sometimes used as a synonym for the term ''Uralic'', which includes the Samoyedic languages, as commonly happens when a language family is expanded with further discoveries.", "Before the 20th century, the language family might be referred to as ''Finnish'', ''Ugric'', ''Finno-Hungarian'' or with a variety of other names.", "The name ''Finno-Ugric'' came in general use in the late 19th or early 20th century." ], [ "Status", "The validity of Finno-Ugric as a phylogenic grouping is under challenge, with some linguists maintaining that the Finno-Permic languages are as distinct from the Ugric languages as they are from the Samoyedic languages spoken in Siberia, or even that none of the Finno-Ugric, Finno-Permic, or Ugric branches has been established.", "Received opinion is that the easternmost (and last-discovered) Samoyed had separated first and the branching into Ugric and Finno-Permic took place later, but this reconstruction does not have strong support in the linguistic data." ], [ "Origins", "Attempts at reconstructing a Proto-Finno-Ugric proto-language, a common ancestor of all Uralic languages except for the Samoyedic languages, are largely indistinguishable from Proto-Uralic, suggesting that Finno-Ugric might not be a historical grouping but a geographical one, with Samoyedic being distinct by lexical borrowing rather than actually being historically divergent.", "It has been proposed that the area in which Proto-Finno-Ugric was spoken reached between the Baltic Sea and the Ural Mountains.Traditionally, the main set of evidence for the genetic proposal of Proto-Finno-Ugric has come from vocabulary.", "A large amount of vocabulary (e.g.", "the numerals \"one\", \"three\", \"four\" and \"six\"; the body-part terms \"hand\", \"head\") is only reconstructed up to the Proto-Finno-Ugric level, and only words with a Samoyedic equivalent have been reconstructed for Proto-Uralic.", "That methodology has been criticised, as no coherent explanation other than inheritance has been presented for the origin of most of the Finno-Ugric vocabulary (though a small number has been explained as old loanwords from Proto-Indo-European or its immediate successors).The Samoyedic group has undergone a longer period of independent development, and its divergent vocabulary could be caused by mechanisms of replacement such as language contact.", "(The Finno-Ugric group is usually dated to approximately 4,000 years ago, the Samoyedic a little over 2,000.)", "Proponents of the traditional binary division note, however, that the invocation of extensive contact influence on vocabulary is at odds with the grammatical conservatism of Samoyedic.The consonant ''*š'' (voiceless postalveolar fricative, ) has not been conclusively shown to occur in the traditional Proto-Uralic lexicon, but it is attested in some of the Proto-Finno-Ugric material.", "Another feature attested in the Finno-Ugric vocabulary is that ''*i'' now behaves as a neutral vowel with respect to front-back vowel harmony, and thus there are roots such as ''*niwa-'' \"to remove the hair from hides\".Regular sound changes proposed for this stage are few and remain open to interpretation.", "Sammallahti (1988) proposes five, following Janhunen's (1981) reconstruction of Proto-Finno-Permic:* Compensatory lengthening: development of long vowels from the cluster of vowel plus a particular syllable-final element, of unknown quality, symbolized by ''*x''** Long open ''*aa'' and ''*ää'' are then raised to mid ''*oo'' and ''*ee'' respectively.", "*** E.g.", "''*ńäxli-'' → ''*ńääli-'' → ''*ńeeli-'' \"to swallow\" (→ Finnish ''niele-'', Hungarian ''nyel'' etc.", ")* Raising of short ''*o'' to ''*u'' in open syllables before a subsequent ''*i''* Shortening of long vowels in closed syllables and before a subsequent open vowel ''*a'', ''*ä'', predating the raising of ''*ää'' and ''*ee''** E.g.", "''*ńäxl+mä'' → ''*ńäälmä'' → ''*ńälmä'' \"tongue\" (→ Northern Sámi ''njalbmi'', Hungarian ''nyelv'', etc.", ")Sammallahti (1988) further reconstructs sound changes ''*oo'', ''*ee'' → ''*a'', ''*ä'' (merging with original ''*a'', ''*ä'') for the development from Proto-Finno-Ugric to Proto-Ugric.", "Similar sound laws are required for other languages as well.", "Thus, the origin and raising of long vowels may actually belong at a later stage, and the development of these words from Proto-Uralic to Proto-Ugric can be summarized as simple loss of ''*x'' (if it existed in the first place at all; vowel length only surfaces consistently in the Baltic-Finnic languages.)", "The proposed raising of ''*o'' has been alternatively interpreted instead as a lowering ''*u'' → ''*o'' in Samoyedic (PU *''lumi'' → ''*lomə'' → Proto-Samoyedic ''*jom'').Janhunen (2007, 2009) notes a number of derivational innovations in Finno-Ugric, including ''*ńoma'' \"hare\" → ''*ńoma-la'', (vs. Samoyedic ''*ńomå''), ''*pexli'' \"side\" → ''*peel-ka'' → ''*pelka'' \"thumb\", though involving Proto-Uralic derivational elements." ], [ "Structural features", "The Finno-Ugric group is not typologically distinct from Uralic as a whole: the most widespread structural features among the group all extend to the Samoyedic languages as well." ], [ "Classification models", "Modern linguistic research has shown that Volgaic languages is a geographical classification rather than a linguistic one, because the Mordvinic languages are more closely related to the Finno-Lappic languages than the Mari languages.The relation of the Finno-Permic and the Ugric groups is adjudged remote by some scholars.", "On the other hand, with a projected time depth of only 3,000 to 4,000 years, the traditionally accepted Finno-Ugric grouping would be far younger than many major families such as Indo-European or Semitic, and would be about the same age as, for instance, the Eastern subfamily of Nilotic.", "But the grouping is far from transparent or securely established.", "The absence of early records is a major obstacle.", "As for the Finno-Ugric Urheimat, most of what has been said about it is speculation.Some linguists criticizing the Finno-Ugric genetic proposal, especially Angela Marcantonio, also question the validity of the entire Uralic family, instead proposing a Ural–Altaic hypothesis, within which they believe Finno-Permic may be as distant from Ugric as from Turkic.", "However, this approach has been rejected by nearly all other specialists in Uralic linguistics." ], [ "Common vocabulary", "===Loanwords===One argument in favor of the Finno-Ugric grouping has come from loanwords.", "Several loans from the Indo-European languages are present in most or all of the Finno-Ugric languages, while being absent from Samoyedic.According to Häkkinen (1983) the alleged Proto-Finno-Ugric loanwords are disproportionally well-represented in Hungarian and the Permic languages, and disproportionally poorly represented in the Ob-Ugric languages; hence it is possible that such words have been acquired by the languages only after the initial dissolution of the Uralic family into individual dialects, and that the scarcity of loanwords in Samoyedic results from its peripheric location.===Numbers===The number systems among the Finno-Ugric languages are particularly distinct from the Samoyedic languages: only the numerals \"2\", \"5\", and \"7\" have cognates in Samoyedic, while also the numerals, \"1\", \"3\", \"4\", \"6\", \"10\" are shared by all or most Finno-Ugric languages.Below are the numbers 1 to 10 in several Finno-Ugric languages.", "Forms in ''italic'' do not descend from the reconstructed forms.", "Number Baltic Finnic Sámi Mordvinic Mari Permic Ugric Proto-Finno-Ugric Finnish Estonian Võro Livonian Northern Sámi Inari Sámi Erzya Moksha Meadow Mari Komi-Zyrian Mansi Khanty Hungarian 1 gen. , part.", "gen. , part.", "ik/ikyt/iktyt/ikte öťi akwa i 2 kaksigen.", "kahden, part.", "kahta kaksgen.", "kahe, part.", "kaht(e) katś kakš guokte kyeh´ti kavto kaftə kok/kokyt/koktyt kyk ''kitig'' ''kat'' ''kettő/két'' *kakta 3 kolme kolm kolm kuolm golbma kulmâ kolmo kolmə kum/kumyt kuim xūrum xołəm három, harm- *kolme 4 neljä neli nelli nēļa njeallje nelji ńiľe ńiľä nyl/nylyt ńoľ ńila ńał négy *neljä 5 viisi viis viiś vīž vihtta vittâ veƭe veťä vič/vizyt vit at wet öt *viite 6 kuusi kuus kuuś kūž guhtta kuttâ koto kotə kud/kudyt kvajt xōt xot hat *kuute 7 seitsemän seitse säidse seis čieža čiččâm śiśem śiśäm šym/šymyt śiźim sāt łapət hét śäjććemä 8 kahdeksan kaheksa katõsa kōdõks gávcci käävci kavkso kafksə kandaš/kandaše kökjamys ńololow niwł nyolc N/A 9 yhdeksän üheksa ütesä īdõks ovcci oovce vejkse veçksə indeš/indeše ökmys ontolow jarťaŋ kilenc N/A 10 ''kymmenen'' ''kümme'' ''kümme'' ''kim'' logi love ''kemeń'' ''keməń'' lu das low jaŋ ''tíz'' luka/kümmenThe number '2' descends in Ugric from a front-vocalic variant *kektä.The numbers '9' and '8' in Finnic through Mari are considered to be derived from the numbers '1' and '2' as '10–1' and '10–2'.", "One reconstruction is *''yk+teksa'' and *''kak+teksa'', respectively, where *''teksa'' cf.", "''deka'' is an Indo-European loan; the difference between /t/ and /d/ is not phonemic, unlike in Indo-European.", "Another analysis is *''ykt-e-ksa'', *''kakt-e-ksa'', with *''e'' being the negative verb.===Finno-Ugric Swadesh lists===100-word Swadesh lists for certain Finno-Ugric languages can be compared and contrasted at the Rosetta Project website: Finnish, Estonian, Hungarian, and Erzya." ], [ "{{anchor|People}}Speakers", "The four largest ethnic groups that speak Finno-Ugric languages are the Hungarians (14.5 million), Finns (6.5 million), Estonians (1.1 million), and Mordvins (0.85 million).", "Majorities of three (the Hungarians, Finns, and Estonians) inhabit their respective nation states in Europe, i.e.", "Hungary, Finland, and Estonia, while a large minority of Mordvins inhabit the federal Mordovian Republic within Russia (Russian Federation).The indigenous area of the Sámi people is known as Sápmi and it consists of the northern parts of the Fennoscandian Peninsula.", "Some other peoples that speak Finno-Ugric languages have been assigned autonomous republics within Russia.", "These are the Karelians (Republic of Karelia), Komi (Komi Republic), Udmurts (Udmurt Republic) and Mari (Mari El Republic).", "The Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug was set up for the Khanty and Mansi of Russia.", "A once-autonomous Komi-Permyak Okrug was set up for a region of high Komi habitation outside the Komi Republic.Some of the ethnicities speaking Finno-Ugric languages are:===International Finno-Ugric societies===Proposed flag of the Finno-Ugric-speaking peoples.In the Finno-Ugric countries of Finland, Estonia and Hungary that find themselves surrounded by speakers of unrelated tongues, language origins and language history have long been relevant to national identity.", "In 1992, the 1st ''World Congress of Finno-Ugric Peoples'' was organized in Syktyvkar in the Komi Republic in Russia, the 2nd World Congress in 1996 in Budapest in Hungary, the 3rd Congress in 2000 in Helsinki in Finland, the 4th Congress in 2004 in Tallinn in Estonia, the 5th Congress in 2008 in Khanty-Mansiysk in Russia, the 6th Congress in 2012 in Siófok in Hungary, the 7th Congress in 2016 in Lahti in Finland, and the 8th Congress in 2021 in Tartu in Estonia.", "The members of the Finno-Ugric Peoples' Consultative Committee include: the Erzyas, Estonians, Finns, Hungarians, Ingrian Finns, Ingrians, Karelians, Khants, Komis, Mansis, Maris, Mokshas, Nenetses, Permian Komis, Saamis, Tver Karelians, Udmurts, Vepsians; Observers: Livonians, Setos.In 2007, the 1st ''Festival of the Finno-Ugric Peoples'' was hosted by President Vladimir Putin of Russia, and visited by Finnish President, Tarja Halonen, and Hungarian Prime Minister, Ferenc Gyurcsány.The International Finno-Ugric Students' Conference (IFUSCO) is organised annually by students of Finno-Ugric languages to bring together people from all over the world who are interested in the languages and cultures.", "The first conference was held in 1984 in Göttingen in Germany.", "IFUSCO features presentations and workshops on topics such as linguistics, ethnography, history and more.===Population genetics===The linguistic reconstruction of the Finno-Ugric language family has led to the postulation that the ancient Proto-Finno-Ugric people were ethnically related, and that even the modern Finno-Ugric-speaking peoples are ethnically related.", "Such hypotheses are based on the assumption that heredity can be traced through linguistic relatedness, although it must be kept in mind that language shift and ethnic admixture, a relatively frequent and common occurrence both in recorded history and most likely also in prehistory, confuses the picture and there is no straightforward relationship, if at all, between linguistic and genetic affiliation.", "Still, the premise that the speakers of the ancient proto-language were ethnically homogeneous is generally accepted.Modern genetic studies have shown that the Y-chromosome haplogroup N3, and sometimes N2, is almost specific though certainly not restricted to Uralic- or Finno-Ugric-speaking populations, especially as high frequency or primary paternal haplogroup.", "These haplogroups branched from haplogroup N, which probably spread north, then west and east from Northern China about 12,000–14,000 years before present from father haplogroup NO (haplogroup O being the most common Y-chromosome haplogroup in Southeast Asia).A study of the Finno-Ugric-speaking peoples of northern Eurasia (i.e., excluding the Hungarians), carried out between 2002 and 2008 in the Department of Forensic Medicine at the University of Helsinki, showed that the Finno-Ugric-speaking populations do not retain genetic evidence of a common founder.", "Most possess an amalgamation of West and East Eurasian gene pools that may have been present in central Asia, with subsequent genetic drift and recurrent founder effects among speakers of various branches of Finno-Ugric.", "Not all branches show evidence of a single founder effect.", "North Eurasian Finno-Ugric-speaking populations were found to be genetically a heterogeneous group showing lower haplotype diversities compared to more southern populations.", "North Eurasian Finno-Ugric-speaking populations possess unique genetic features due to complex genetic changes shaped by molecular and population genetics and adaptation to the areas of Boreal and Arctic North Eurasia." ], [ "See also", "* Baltic Finnic peoples* * Finnic languages* Volga Finns* Comb Ceramic culture* Uralo-Siberian languages* Old Hungarian script* Old Permic script* Pre-Finno-Ugric substrate* Proto-Finnic language* Proto-Uralic homeland hypotheses* International Finno-Ugric Students' Conference" ], [ "References", "'''Notes''''''Further reading'''* * * Campbell, Lyle: ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction''.", "Edinburgh University Press 1998.", "* Encyclopædia Britannica 15th ed.", ": Languages of the World: Uralic languages.", "Chicago, 1990.", "* Oja, Vilja (2007).", "\"Color naming in Estonian and cognate languages\".", "In: MacLaury, Robert E.; Paramei, Galina V.; Dedrick, Don (Ed.).", "''Anthropology of Color: Interdistiplinary multilevel modeling''.", "Amsterdam, Philadelphia: John Benjamins B V Publ.", "pp. 189–209.", "* Sinor, Denis (ed.", "): ''Studies in Finno-Ugric Linguistics: In Honor of Alo Raun'' (Indiana University Uralic and Altaic Series: Volume 131).", "Indiana Univ Research, 1977, .", "* Vikør, Lars S.", "(ed.", "): Fenno-Ugric.", "In: ''The Nordic Languages.", "Their Status and Interrelations''.", "Novus Press, pp.", "62–74, 1993." ], [ "External links", "* * Swadesh lists for the Finno-Ugric languages (from Wiktionary's Swadesh-list appendix)* Finno-Ugric Electronic Library by the Finno-Ugric Information Center in Syktyvkar, Komi Republic Interface in Russian and English, texts in Mari, Komi, Udmurt, Erzya and Moksha languages.", "* The Finno-Ugrics: The dying fish swims in water The Economist, 20 December 2005* \"Ethnic origins of Finno-Ugric nations and modern Finno-Ugric nationalism in the Russian Federation\" by Konstantin Zamyatin" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Finnish" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Finnish''' may refer to:* Something or someone from, or related to Finland* Culture of Finland* Finnish people or Finns, the primary ethnic group in Finland* Finnish language, the national language of the Finnish people* Finnish cuisine" ], [ "See also", "* Finish (disambiguation)* Finland (disambiguation)* Suomi (disambiguation)*" ] ]
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[ [ "Freestyle music" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Freestyle''', or '''Latin freestyle''' (initially called '''Latin hip hop''') is a form of electronic dance music that emerged in the New York metropolitan area, Philadelphia, and Miami, primarily among Hispanic Americans and Italian Americans in the 1980s.", "It experienced its greatest popularity from the late 1980s until the early 1990s.", "A common theme of freestyle lyricism originated as heartbreak in an urban environment typified by New York City.An important precursor to freestyle is 1982's \"Planet Rock\" by Afrika Bambaataa & Soul Sonic Force.", "Shannon's 1983 hit \"Let the Music Play\" is often considered the first freestyle song and the first major song recorded by a Latin American artist is \"Please Don't Go\" by Nayobe from 1984.From there, freestyle gained a large presence in American clubs, especially in New York and Miami.", "Radio airplay followed in the mid 1980s.Performers such as Exposé, Lisa Lisa and Cult Jam, Stevie B and Sweet Sensation gained mainstream chart success with the genre in the late 1980s and early 1990s, but its popularity largely faded by the end of the decade.", "Both classic and newer freestyle output remain popular as a niche genre in Brazil (where it is an influence on ''funk carioca''), Germany and Canada." ], [ "History", "===1982–1987: Origin===Freestyle music developed in the early 1980s, primarily simultaneously in the Hispanic (mainly Puerto Rican) communities of Upper Manhattan and The Bronx and in the Italian-American communities in Brooklyn, the Bronx, and other boroughs of New York City, New Jersey, Westchester County and Long Island.", "It initially was a fusion of synthetic instrumentation and syncopated percussion of 1980s electro, as favored by fans of breakdancing.", "Sampling, as found in synth-pop music and hip-hop, was incorporated.", "Key influences include Afrika Bambaataa & Soul Sonic Force's \"Planet Rock\" (1982) and Shannon's \"Let the Music Play\" (1983), the latter was a top-ten ''Billboard'' Hot 100 hit.", "In 1984, a Latin presence was established when the first song recorded in the genre by a Latin American artist, \"Please Don't Go\", by newcomer Nayobe (a singer from Brooklyn and of Afro-Cuban descent) was recorded and released.", "The song became a success, reaching No.", "23 on the ''Billboard'' Hot Dance Music/Club Play chart.", "In 1985, a Spanish version of the song was released with the title \"No Te Vayas\".", "By 1987, freestyle began getting more airplay on American pop radio stations.", "Songs such as \"Come Go with Me\" by Exposé, \"Show Me\" by the Cover Girls, \"Fascinated\" by Company B, \"Silent Morning\" by Noel, and \"Catch Me (I'm Falling)\" by Pretty Poison, brought freestyle into the mainstream.", "House music, based partly on disco rhythms, was by 1992 challenging the relatively upbeat, syncopated freestyle sound.", "Pitchfork considers the Miami Mix of ABC's single \"When Smokey Sings\" to be proto-freestyle, despite that version being released in 1987.Many early or popular freestyle artists and DJs, such as Jellybean, Tony Torres, Raul Soto, Roman Ricardo, Lil Suzy, and Nocera were of Hispanic or Italian ancestry, which was one reason for the style's popularity among Hispanic Americans and Italian Americans in the New York City area and Philadelphia.===1988: pop crossover===Freestyle's Top 40 Radio airplay started to really take off by 1987, and it began to disappear from the airwaves in the early 1990s as radio stations moved to Top 40-only formats.", "Artists such as George Lamond, Exposé, Sweet Sensation, and Stevie B were still heard on mainstream radio, but other notable freestyle artists did not fare as well.", "Carlos Berrios and Platinum producer Frankie Cutlass used a freestyle production on \"Temptation\" by Corina and \"Together Forever\" by Lisette Melendez.", "The songs were released in 1991, almost simultaneously, and caused a resurgence in the style when they were embraced by Top 40 radio.", "\"Temptation\" reached the number 6 spot on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 Chart.", "These hits were followed by the success of Lisa Lisa and Cult Jam, who had been one of the earliest freestyle acts.", "Their records were produced by Full Force, who had also worked with UTFO and James Brown.Several primarily freestyle artists released ballads during the 1980s and early 1990s that crossed over to the pop charts and charted higher than their previous work.", "These include \"Seasons Change\" by Exposé, \"Thinking of You\" by Sa-Fire, \"One More Try\" by Timmy T, \"Because I Love You (The Postman Song)\" by Stevie B, and \"If Wishes Came True\" by Sweet Sensation.", "Brenda K. Starr reached the Hot 100 with her ballad \"I Still Believe\".", "Freestyle shortly thereafter gave way to mainstream pop artists such as MC Hammer, Paula Abdul, Bobby Brown, New Kids on the Block, and Milli Vanilli (with some artists utilizing elements of freestyle beginning in the 1980s) using hip hop beats and electro samples in a mainstream form with slicker production and MTV-friendly videos.", "These artists were successful on crossover stations as well as R&B stations, and freestyle was replaced as an underground genre by newer styles such as new jack swing, trance and Eurodance.", "Despite this, some freestyle acts managed to garner hits well into the 1990s, with acts such as Cynthia and Rockell scoring minor hits on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 as late as 1998.===Post-freestyle era===Freestyle remained a largely underground genre with a sizable following in New York, but has recently seen a comeback in the cities where the music originally experienced its greatest success.", "New York City impresario Steve Sylvester and producer Sal Abbatiello of Fever Records launched Stevie Sly's Freestyle Party show at the Manhattan live music venue, Coda on April 1, 2004.The show featured Judy Torres, Cynthia, and the Cover Girls and was attended by several celebrity guests.", "The Coda show was successful, and was followed by a summer 2006 Madison Square Garden concert that showcased freestyle's most successful performers.", "New freestyle releases are popular with enthusiasts and newcomers alike.", "Miami rapper Pitbull collaborated with Miami freestyle artist Stevie B to create an updated version of Stevie B's hit, \"Spring Love\".Currently, freestyle music continues to have a thriving fanbase in certain parts of the country, with New York City Italian-American DJs such as Bad Boy Joe and Louie DeVito helping to maintain an active freestyle scene in the NYC metro area.", "In cities like New York, Miami, and Los Angeles, recent concerts by freestyle artists have been extremely successful, with many events selling out." ], [ "Influence on other genres", "===NYC hard house===As Latin freestyle in the late 1980s and early 1990s gradually became superseded with house music, dance-pop, and regular hip hop on one front and Spanish-language pop music with marginal Latin freestyle influences on another, \"harder strain\" of house music originating in New York City was known to incorporate elements of Latin freestyle and the old school hip hop sound.", "Principal architects of the genre were Todd Terry (early instances include \"Alright Alright,\" and \"Dum Dum Cry\") and Nitro Deluxe.", "Deluxe's \"This Brutal House,\" fusing Latin percussion and the New York electro sound of Man Parrish with brash house music, proved to have an impact on the United Kingdom's club music scene, presaging the early 1990s British rave scene.===Terminology===The genre was recognized as a subgenre of hip-hop in the mid-1980s.", "It was dominated by \"hard\" electro beats of the type used primarily at the time in hip-hop music.", "Freestyle was more appreciated in larger cities." ], [ "Freestyle scenes", "===New York===\"Let the Music Play\" by Shannon, is often named as the genre's first hit, and its sound, called \"The Shannon Sound\", as the foundation of the genre, although also known as the beginnings of the electro genre which then gave birth to techno.", "Afrika Bambaataa's \"Planet Rock\" was arguably the first freestyle song produced.", "\"Let the Music Play\" eventually became freestyle's biggest hit, and still receives frequent airplay.", "Its producers Chris Barbosa and Mark Liggett changed and redefined the electro funk sound with the addition of Latin-American rhythms and a syncopated drum-machine sound.In March 2013, Radio City Music Hall hosted a freestyle concert.", "Top freestyle artists included in the line-up were TKA, Safire, Judy Torres, Cynthia, Cover Girls, Lisa Lisa, Shannon, Noel, and Lisette Melendez.", "Originally scheduled as a one-night event, a second night was added shortly after the first night was sold out in a matter of days.===Miami===Radio stations nationwide began to play hits by artists like TKA, Sweet Sensation, Exposé, and Sa-Fire on the same playlists as Michael Jackson and Madonna.", "\"(You Are My) All and All\" by Joyce Sims became the first freestyle record to cross over into the R&B market, and was one of the first to reach the European market.", "Radio station WPOW/Power 96 was noted for exposing freestyle to South Florida in the mid-'80s through the early '90s, as well as mixing in some local Miami bass into its playlist.", "'Pretty Tony' Butler produced several hits on Miami's Jam-Packed Records, including Debbie Deb's \"When I Hear Music\" and \"Lookout Weekend\", and Trinere's \"I'll Be All You'll Ever Need\" and \"They're Playing Our Song\".", "Company B, Stevie B, Paris by Air, Linear, Will to Power and Exposé's later hits defined Miami freestyle.", "Tolga Katas is credited as one of the first persons to create a hit record entirely on a computer, and produced Stevie B's \"Party Your Body\", \"In My Eyes\" and \"Dreamin' of Love\".", "Katas' record label Futura Records was an incubator for artists such as Linear, who achieved international success after a move from Futura to Atlantic Records.===Philadelphia===The groundbreaking \"Nightime\" by Pretty Poison featuring red headed diva Jade Starling in 1984 initially put Philadelphia on the freestyle map.", "Their follow-up \"Catch Me I'm Falling\" was a worldwide hit and brought freestyle to American Bandstand, Soul Train, Solid Gold and the Arsenio Hall Show.", "\"Catch Me I'm Falling\" broke on the street during the summer of 1987 and was the #1 single at WCAU (98 Hot Hits) and #2 at WUSL (Power 99) during the first two weeks of July.", "Virgin Records was quick to sign Pretty Poison helping to usher in the avalanche of other major label signings from the expanding freestyle scene.Several freestyle acts followed on the heels of Pretty Poison emerging from the metropolitan Philadelphia, PA area in the early 1990s, benefiting from both the clubs and the overnight success of then-Dance friendly Rhythmic Top 40 WIOQ.", "Artists such as T.P.E.", "(The Philadelphia Experiment) enjoyed regional success.===California===Freestyle had a notable following in California, especially Los Angeles, the Central Valley, San Francisco Bay, and San Diego.", "California's large Latino community enjoyed the sounds of America's East Coast club scene, and a number of California artists became popular with East Coast freestyle enthusiasts.", "In Northern California, primarily San Francisco and San Jose, they leaned toward a similar rhythm dance to hi-NRG, so most of the Californian freestyle emerged from the southern regions of the Bay Area and Los Angeles.Timmy T, Bernadette, Caleb-B, SF Spanish Fly, Angelina, One Voice, M:G, Stephanie Fastro and The S Factor were from the Bay Area, and from San Diego were Gustavo Campain, Alex Campain, Jose (Jojo) Santos, Robert Romo of the group Internal Affairs, F. Felix, Leticia and Frankie J.The Filipino American community in California also embraced freestyle music during the late 1980s and early 1990s.", "Jaya was one of the first Filipino-American freestyle singers, reaching number 44 in 1990 with \"If You Leave Me Now\".", "Later Filipino-American freestyle artists include Jocelyn Enriquez, Buffy, Korell, Damien Bautista, One Voice, Kuya, Sharyn Maceren, and others.===Canada===Freestyle's popularity spread outward from the Greater Toronto Area's Italian, Hispanic/Latino and Greek populations in the late 1980s and early 1990s.", "It was showcased alongside house music in various Toronto nightclubs, but by the mid-1990s was replaced almost entirely by house music.Lil' Suzy released several 12-inch singles and performed live on the Canadian live dance music television program ''Electric Circus''.", "Montreal singer Nancy Martinez's 1986 single \"For Tonight\" would become the first Canadian freestyle single to reach the top 40 on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 chart, while the Montreal girl group 11:30 reached the Canadian chart with \"Ole Ole\" in 2000.===Elsewhere in the world===Performers and producers associated with the style also came from around the world, including Turkish-American Murat Konar (the writer of Information Society's \"Running\"), Paul Lekakis from Greece, Asian artist Leonard (Leon Youngboy) who released the song \"Youngboys\", and British musicians including Freeez, Paul Hardcastle, Samantha Fox, and even Robin Gibb of the Bee Gees, who also adopted the freestyle sound in his 1984 album ''Secret Agent'', having worked with producer Chris Barbosa.", "Several British new wave and synthpop bands also teamed up with freestyle producers or were influenced by the genre, and released freestyle songs or remixes.", "These include Duran Duran whose song \"Notorious\" was remixed by the Latin Rascals, and whose album ''Big Thing'' contained several freestyle inspired songs such as \"All She Wants Is\"; New Order who teamed up with Arthur Baker, producing and co-writing the track \"Confusion\"; Erasure and the Der Deutsche mixes of their song \"Blue Savannah\"; and the Pet Shop Boys, whose song \"Domino Dancing\" was produced by Miami-based freestyle producer Lewis Martineé.", "Australian act I'm Talking utilized freestyle elements into their singles \"Trust Me\" and \"Do You Wanna Be?", "\", both becoming top ten hits in their native Australia." ], [ "Record labels", ";Prehistory* Salsoul Records;Golden age Latin freestyle era* Sleeping Bag Records* Fever Records* Vinylmania* Profile Records" ], [ "See also", "*:Category:Freestyle musicians*:Category:Freestyle music albums" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fantasy (psychology)" ], [ "Introduction", "''Psychic mystery'' by Margret Hofheinz-DöringIn psychology, '''fantasy''' is a broad range of mental experiences, mediated by the faculty of imagination in the human brain, and marked by an expression of certain desires through vivid mental imagery.", "Fantasies are generally associated with scenarios that are impossible or unlikely to happen." ], [ "Conscious fantasy", "In everyday life, individuals often find their thoughts \"pursue a series of fantasies concerning things they wish they could do or wish they had done ... fantasies of control or of sovereign choice ...", "daydreams.", "\"George Eman Vaillant in his study of defence mechanisms took as a central example of \"an immature defence ... ''fantasy'' — living in a 'Walter Mitty' dream world where you imagine you are successful and popular, instead of making real efforts to make friends and succeed at a job.", "\"Other researchers and theorists find that fantasy has beneficial elements — providing \"small regressions and compensatory wish fulfilments which are recuperative in effect.\"", "Research by Deirdre Barrett reports that people differ radically in the vividness, as well as frequency of fantasy, and that those who have the most elaborately developed fantasy life are often the people who make productive use of their imaginations in art, literature, or by being especially creative and innovative in more traditional professions." ], [ "Freud and fantasy", "According to Sigmund Freud, a fantasy is constructed around multiple, often repressed wishes, and employs disguise to mask and mark the very defensive processes by which desire is enacted.", "The subject's desire to maintain distance from the repressed wish and simultaneously experience it opens up a type of third person syntax allowing for multiple entry into the fantasy.", "Therefore, in fantasy, vision is multiplied—it becomes possible to see from more than one position at the same time, to see oneself and to see oneself seeing oneself, to divide vision and dislocate subjectivity.", "This radical omission of the “I” position creates space for all those processes that depend upon such a center, including not only identification but also the field and organization of vision itself.For Freud, sexuality is linked from the very beginning to an object of fantasy.", "However, “the object to be rediscovered is not the lost object, but its substitute by displacement; the lost object is the object of self-preservation, of hunger, and the object one seeks to re-find in sexuality is an object displaced in relation to that first object.” This initial scene of fantasy is created out of the frustrated infants' deflection away from the instinctual need for milk and nourishment towards a phantasmization of the mothers' breast, which is in close proximity to the instinctual need.", "Now bodily pleasure is derived from the sucking of the mother's breast itself.", "The mouth that was the original source of nourishment is now the mouth that takes pleasure in its own sucking.", "This substitution of the breast for milk and the breast for a phantasmic scene represents a further level of mediation which is increasingly psychic.", "The child cannot experience the pleasure of milk without the psychic re-inscription of the scene in the mind.", "“The finding of an object is in fact a re-finding of it.” It is in the movement and constant restaging away from the instinct that desire is constituted and mobilized." ], [ "Freud and daydreams", "Daydream), 1901, by Paul César HelleuA similarly positive view of fantasy was taken by Sigmund Freud who considered fantasy () a defence mechanism.", "He considered that men and women \"cannot subsist on the scanty satisfaction which they can extort from reality.", "'We simply cannot do without auxiliary constructions,' as Theodor Fontane once said ... without dwelling on imaginary wish fulfillments.\"", "As childhood adaptation to the reality principle developed, so too \"one species of thought activity was split off; it was kept free from reality-testing and remained subordinated to the pleasure principle alone.", "This activity is ''fantasying'' ... continued as ''day-dreaming''.\"", "He compared such phantasising to the way a \"nature reserve preserves its original state where everything ... including what is useless and even what is noxious, can grow and proliferate there as it pleases.", "\"Daydreams for Freud were thus a valuable resource.", "\"These day-dreams are cathected with a large amount of interest; they are carefully cherished by the subject and usually concealed with a great deal of sensitivity ... such phantasies may be unconscious just as well as conscious.\"", "He considered these fantasies to include a great deal of the true constitutional essence of a personality, and that the energetic man \"is one who succeeds by his efforts in turning his wishful phantasies into reality,\" whereas the artist \"can transform his phantasies into artistic creations instead of into symptoms ... the doom of neurosis.\"" ], [ "Klein and unconscious fantasy", "Melanie Klein extended Freud's concept of fantasy to cover the developing child's relationship to a world of internal objects.", "In her thought, this kind of \"play activity inside the person is known as 'unconscious fantasy'.", "And these phantasies are often very violent and aggressive.", "They are different from ordinary day-dreams or 'fantasies'.", "\"The term \"fantasy\" became a central issue with the development of the Kleinian group as a distinctive strand within the British Psycho-Analytical Society, and was at the heart of the so-called controversial discussions of the wartime years.", "\"A paper by Susan Isaacs (1952) on 'The nature and function of Phantasy' ... has been generally accepted by the Klein group in London as a fundamental statement of their position.\"", "As a defining feature, \"Kleinian psychoanalysts regard the unconscious as made up of phantasies of relations with objects.", "These are thought of as primary and innate, and as the mental representations of instincts ... the psychological equivalents in the mind of defence mechanisms.", "\"Isaacs considered that \"unconscious phantasies exert a continuous influence throughout life, both in normal and neurotic people, the difference lying in the specific character of the dominant phantasies.\"", "Most schools of psychoanalytic thought would now accept that both in analysis and life, we perceive reality through a veil of unconscious fantasy.", "Isaacs however claimed that \"Freud's 'hallucinatory wish-fulfilment' and his 'introjection' and 'projection' are the basis of the fantasy life,\" and how far unconscious fantasy was a genuine development of Freud's ideas, how far it represented the formation of a new psychoanalytic paradigm, is perhaps the key question of the controversial discussions." ], [ "Lacan, fantasy, and desire", "Lacan engaged from early on with \"the phantasies revealed by Melanie Klein ... the ''imago'' of the mother ... this shadow of the ''bad internal objects''\" — with the Imaginary.", "Increasingly, however, it was Freud's idea of fantasy as a kind of \"screen-memory, representing something of more importance with which it was in some way connected\" that was for him of greater importance.", "Lacan came to believe that \"the phantasy is never anything more than the screen that conceals something quite primary, something determinate in the function of repetition.", "\"Phantasies thus both link to and block off the individual's unconscious, his kernel or real core: \"subject and real are to be situated on either side of the split, in the resistance of the phantasy\", which thus comes close to the centre of the individual's personality and its splits and conflicts.", "\"The subject situates himself as determined by the phantasy ... whether in the dream or in any of the more or less well-developed forms of day-dreaming;\" and as a rule \"a subject's fantasies are close variations on a single theme ... the 'fundamental fantasy' ... minimizing the variations in meaning which might otherwise cause a problem for desire.", "\"The goal of therapy thus became \"''la traversée du fantasme'', the crossing over, traversal, or traversing of the fundamental fantasy.\"", "For Lacan, \"The traversing of fantasy involves the subject's assumption of a new position with respect to the Other as language and the Other as desire ... a utopian moment beyond neurosis.\"", "The question he was left with was \"What, then, does he who has passed through the experience ... who has traversed the radical phantasy ...", "become?.\"" ], [ "The ''fantasy principle''", "The postmodern intersubjectivity of the 21st century has seen a new interest in fantasy as a form of interpersonal communication.", "Here, we are told, \"We need to go beyond the pleasure principle, the reality principle, and repetition compulsion to ... the ''fantasy principle'' - not, as Freud did, reduce fantasies to wishes ... but consider all other imaginable emotions\" and thus envisage emotional fantasies as a possible means of moving beyond stereotypes to more nuanced forms of personal and social relating.Such a perspective \"sees emotions as central to developing fantasies about each other that are not determined by collective 'typifications'.\"" ], [ "Narcissistic personality disorder", "Two characteristics of someone with narcissistic personality disorder are:* A pervasive pattern of grandiosity (in fantasy or behavior)* A preoccupation with fantasies of unlimited success, power, brilliance, beauty, or ideal love." ], [ "Schizophrenia", "Fantasy is a common symptom in people suffering from schizophrenia.", "In fact these people depict specific patterns of high-neurological activities in their brains' default mode network, which possibly constitute the biomarker of these fantasies.", "Also people suffering from schizophrenia who committed contact sexual abuses against women, report experiencing aggressive sexual fantasies." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Michael Vannoy Adams, ''The Fantasy Principle: Psychoanalysis of the Imagination'' (East Sussex 2004)* Julia Segal, ''Phantasies in Everyday Life'' (1995)* Riccardo Steiner ed., ''Unconscious fantasy'' (Karnac 2003)* G. Vaillant, ''Adaptation to Life'' (Boston 1977)* https://www.futurehealth.org/articles/1/The-Psychology-of-Fantasy-by-Saberi-Roy-100901-178.html* https://www.theguardian.com/books/booksblog/2007/apr/23/bridgingthegapswhyweneed* https://quizlet.com/338506094/unit-6-altered-states-flash-cards/* https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691636382/a-specter-is-haunting-europe" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Surnames by country" ], [ "Introduction", "Surname conventions and laws vary around the world.", "This article gives an overview of surnames around the world." ], [ "English-speaking countries", "===Gaelic surnames===" ], [ "Spanish-speaking countries", "===Argentina===In Argentina, normally only one family name, the father's paternal family name, is used and registered, as in English-speaking countries.", "However, it is possible to use both the paternal and maternal name.", "For example, if ''Ana Laura Melachenko'' and ''Emanuel Darío Guerrero'' had a daughter named ''Adabel Anahí'', her full name could be ''Adabel Anahí Guerrero Melachenko''.", "Women, however, do not change their family names upon marriage and continue to use their birth family names instead of their husband's family names.", "However, women have traditionally, and some still choose to use the old Spanish custom of adjoining \"''de''\" and her husband's surname to her own name.", "For example, if Paula Segovia marries Felipe Cossia, she might keep her birth name or become ''Paula Segovia de Cossia'' or ''Paula Cossia''.There are some province offices where a married woman can use only her birth name, and some others where she has to use the complete name, for legal purposes.", "The Argentine Civilian Code states both uses are correct, but police offices and passports are issued with the complete name.", "Today most women prefer to maintain their birth name given that \"de\" can be interpreted as meaning they belong to their husbands.When Eva Duarte married Juan Domingo Perón, she could be addressed as Eva Duarte de Perón, but the preferred style was Eva Perón, or the familiar and affectionate ''Evita'' (little Eva).Combined names come from old traditional families and are considered one last name, but are rare.", "Although Argentina is a Spanish-speaking country, it is also composed of other varied European influences, such as Italian, French, Russian, German, etc.Children typically use their fathers' last names only.", "Some state offices have started to use both last names, in the traditional father then mother order, to reduce the risk of a person being mistaken for others using the same name combinations, e.g.", "if Eva Duarte and Juan Perón had a child named Juan, he might be misidentified if he were called ''Juan Perón'', but not if he was known as Juan Perón Duarte.In early 2008, some new legislation is under consideration that will place the mother's last name ahead the father's last name, as it is done in Portuguese-speaking countries and only optionally in Spain, despite Argentina being a Spanish-speaking country.===Chile===In Chile, marriage has no effect at all on either of the spouses' names, so people keep their birth names for all their life, no matter how many times marital status, theirs or that of their parents, may change.", "However, in some upper-class circles or in older couples, even though considered to be old-fashioned, it is still customary for a wife to use her husband's name as reference, as in \"Doña María Inés de Ramírez\" (literally Lady María Inés (wife) of Ramírez).Children will always bear the surname of the father followed by that of the mother, but if there is no known father and the mother is single, the children can bear either both of her mother's surnames or the mother's first surname followed by any of the surnames of the mother's parents or grandparents, or the child may bear the mother's first surname twice in a row." ], [ "French-speaking countries", "'''France''' '''Belgium''' '''Canadian'''" ], [ "German-speaking countries", "There are about 1,000,000 different family names in German.", "German family names most often derive from given names, geographical names, occupational designations, bodily attributes or even traits of character.", "Hyphenations notwithstanding, they mostly consist of a single word; in those rare cases where the family name is linked to the given names by particles such as ''von'' or ''zu'', they usually indicate noble ancestry.", "Not all noble families used these names (see Riedesel), while some farm families, particularly in Westphalia, used the particle ''von'' or ''zu'' followed by their farm or former farm's name as a family name (see ''Meyer zu Erpen'').Family names in German-speaking countries are usually positioned last, after all given names.", "There are exceptions, however: in parts of Austria and Bavaria and the Alemannic-speaking areas, the family name is regularly put in front of the first given name.", "Also in many – especially rural – parts of Germany, to emphasize family affiliation there is often an inversion in colloquial use, in which the family name becomes a possessive: ''Rüters Erich'', for example, would be Erich of the Rüter family.In Germany today, upon marriage, both partners can choose to keep their birth name or choose either partner's name as the common name.", "In the latter case the partner whose name was not chosen can keep their birth name hyphenated to the new name (e.g.", "''Schmidt'' and ''Meyer'' choose to marry under the name ''Meyer''.", "The former ''Schmidt'' can choose to be called ''Meyer'', ''Schmidt-Meyer'' or ''Meyer-Schmidt''), but any children will only get the single common name.", "In the case that both partners keep their birth name they must decide on one of the two family names for all their future children.", "(German name)Changing one's family name for reasons other than marriage, divorce or adoption is possible only if the application is approved by the responsible government agency.", "In Germany, permission will usually be granted if:* the old name is very common and leads to confusion;* the old name is overly long or very difficult to spell or pronounce (especially with names of former nobility and of citizens with non-German ancestry); or* the old name has negative connotations or is easily ridiculed.Otherwise, name changes will normally not be granted." ], [ "Portuguese-speaking countries" ], [ "Dutch-speaking countries", "The '''Netherlands''' and '''Belgium''' (Flanders)" ], [ "Nordic countries", "In the Nordic countries, family names often, but certainly not always, originate from a patronymic.", "In Denmark and Norway, the corresponding ending is ''-sen'', as in ''Karlsen''.", "Names ending with ''dotter/datter'' (daughter), such as ''Olofsdotter'', are rare but occurring, and only apply to women.", "Today, the patronymic names are passed on similarly to family names in other Western countries, and a person's father does not have to be called Karl if he or she has the surname Karlsson.", "However, in 2006 Denmark reinstated patronymic and matronymic surnames as an option.", "Thus, parents Karl Larsen and Anna Hansen can name a son Karlsen or Annasen and a daughter Karlsdotter or Annasdotter.Before the 19th century there was the same system in Scandinavia as in Iceland today.", "Noble families, however, as a rule adopted a family name, which could refer to a presumed or real forefather (e.g.", "Earl Birger Magnusson ''Folkunge'' ) or to the family's coat of arms (e.g.", "King Gustav Eriksson ''Vasa'').", "In many surviving family noble names, such as ''Silfversparre'' (\"silver chevron\"; in modern spelling, ''Silver-'') or ''Stiernhielm'' (\"star-helmet\"; in modernized spelling, ''stjärnhjälm''), the spelling is obsolete, but since it applies to a name, remains unchanged.", "(Some names from relatively modern times also use archaic or otherwise aberrant spelling as a stylistic trait; e.g.", "''-quist'' instead of standard ''-kvist'' \"twig\" or ''-grén'' instead of standard ''-gren'', \"branch\".", ")Later on, people from the Scandinavian middle classes, particularly artisans and town dwellers, adopted names in a similar fashion to that of the nobility.", "Family names joining two elements from nature such as the Swedish ''Bergman'' (\"mountain man\"), ''Holmberg'' (\"island mountain\"), ''Lindgren'' (\"linden branch\"), ''Sandström'' (\"sand stream\") and ''Åkerlund'' (\"field meadow\") were quite frequent and remain common today.", "The same is true for similar Norwegian and Danish names.Another common practice was to adopt one's place of origin as a middle or surname.Even more important a driver of change was the need, for administrative purposes, to develop a system under which each individual had a \"stable\" name from birth to death.", "In the old days, people would be known by their name, patronymic and the farm they lived at.", "This last element would change if a person got a new job, bought a new farm, or otherwise came to live somewhere else.", "(This is part of the origin, in this part of the world, of the custom of women changing their names upon marriage.", "Originally it indicated, basically, a change of address, and from older times, there are numerous examples of men doing the same thing).", "The many patronymic names may derive from the fact that people who moved from the country to the cities, also gave up the name of the farm they came from.", "As a worker, you passed by your father's name, and this name passed on to the next generation as a family name.", "Einar Gerhardsen, the Norwegian prime minister, used a true patronym, as his father was named Gerhard Olsen (Gerhard, the son of Ola).", "Gerhardsen passed his own patronym on to his children as a family name.", "This has been common in many working-class families.", "The tradition of keeping the farm name as a family name got stronger during the first half of the 20th century in Norway.These names often indicated the place of residence of the family.", "For this reason, Denmark and Norway have a very high incidence of last names derived from those of farms, many signified by the suffixes like ''-bø'', ''-rud'', ''-heim/-um'', ''-land'' or ''-set'' (these being examples from Norway).", "In Denmark, the most common suffix is ''-gaard'' — the modern spelling is ''gård'' in Danish and can be either ''gård'' or ''gard'' in Norwegian, but as in Sweden, archaic spelling persists in surnames.", "The most well-known example of this kind of surname is probably ''Kierkegaard'' (combined by the words \"kirke/kierke\" (= church) and \"gaard\" (= farm) meaning \"the farm located by the Church\".", "It is, however, a common misunderstanding that the name relates to its direct translation: churchyard/cemetery), but many others could be cited.", "It should also be noted that, since the names in question are derived from the original owners' domiciles, the possession of this kind of name is no longer an indicator of affinity with others who bear it.In many cases, names were taken from the nature around them.", "In Norway, for instance, there is an abundance of surnames based on coastal geography, with suffixes like ''-strand'', ''-øy'', ''-holm'', ''-vik'', ''-fjord'' or ''-nes''.", "Like the names derived from farms, most of these family names reflected the family's place of residence at the time the family name was \"fixed\", however.", "A family name such as Swedish ''Dahlgren'' is derived from \"dahl\" meaning valley and \"gren\" meaning branch; or similarly ''Upvall'' meaning \"upper-valley\"; It depends on the country, language, and dialect.===Sweden===In Scandinavia family names often, but certainly not always, originate from a patronymic.", "Later on, people from the Scandinavian middle classes, particularly artisans and town dwellers, adopted surnames in a similar fashion to that of the gentry.", "Family names joining two elements from nature such as the Swedish ''Bergman'' (\"mountain man\"), ''Holmberg'' (\"island mountain\"), ''Lindgren'' (\"linden branch\"), ''Sandström'' (\"sand stream\") and ''Åkerlund'' (\"field grove\") were quite frequent and remain common today.===Finland===Finland including Karelia and Estonia was the eastern part of The Kingdom of Sweden from its unification around 1100–1200 AD until the year 1809 when Finland was conquered by Russia.", "During the Russian revolution 1917, Finland proclaimed the republic Finland and Sweden and many European countries rapidly acknowledged the new nation Finland.", "Finland has mainly Finnish (increasing) and Swedish (decreasing) surnames and first names.", "There are two predominant surname traditions among the ''Finnish'' in Finland: the West Finnish and the East Finnish.", "The surname traditions of ''Swedish-speaking'' farmers, fishermen and craftsmen resembles the West Finnish tradition, while smaller populations of ''Sami'' and ''Romani people'' have traditions of their own.", "Finland was exposed to a very small immigration from Russia, so Russian names barely exists.Until the mid-20th century, Finland was a predominantly agrarian society, and the names of West Finns were based on their association with a particular area, farm, or homestead, e.g.", "''Jaakko Jussila'' (\"Jaakko from the farm of Jussi\").", "On the other hand, the East Finnish surname tradition dates back to at least the 13th century.", "There, the Savonians pursued slash-and-burn agriculture which necessitated moving several times during a person's lifetime.", "This in turn required the families to have surnames, which were in wide use among the common folk as early as the 13th century.", "By the mid-16th century, the East Finnish surnames had become hereditary.", "Typically, the oldest East Finnish surnames were formed from the first names of the patriarchs of the families, e.g.", "''Ikävalko'', ''Termonen'', ''Pentikäinen''.", "In the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, new names were most often formed by adding the name of the former or current place of living (e.g.", "''Puumalainen'' < Puumala).", "In the East Finnish tradition, the women carried the family name of their fathers in female form (e.g.", "''Puumalatar'' < ''Puumalainen'').", "By the 19th century, this practice fell into disuse due to the influence of the West-European surname tradition.In Western Finland, agrarian names dominated, and the last name of the person was usually given according to the farm or holding they lived on.", "In 1921, surnames became compulsory for all Finns.", "At this point, the agrarian names were usually adopted as surnames.", "A typical feature of such names is the addition of prefixes ''Ala-'' (Sub-) or ''Ylä-'' (Up-), giving the location of the holding along a waterway in relation of the main holding.", "(e.g.", "''Yli-Ojanperä'', ''Ala-Verronen'').", "The Swedish speaking farmers along the coast of Österbotten usually used two surnames – one which pointed out the father's name (e.g.", "''Eriksson'', ''Andersson'', ''Johansson'') and one which related to the farm or the land their family or bigger family owned or had some connection to (e.g.", "''Holm'', ''Fant'', ''Westergård'', ''Kloo'').", "So a full name could be ''Johan Karlsson Kvist'', for his daughter ''Elvira Johansdotter Kvist'', and when she married a man with the Ahlskog farm, Elvira kept the first surname Johansdotter but changed the second surname to her husbands (e.g.", "''Elvira Johansdotter Ahlskog'').", "During the 20th century they started to drop the -son surname while they kept the second.", "So in Western Finland the Swedish speaking had names like ''Johan Varg'', ''Karl Viskas'', ''Sebastian Byskata'' and ''Elin Loo'', while the Swedes in Sweden at the other side of the Baltic Sea kept surnames ending with ''-son'' (e.g.", "''Johan Eriksson'', ''Thor Andersson'', ''Anna-Karin Johansson'').A third tradition of surnames was introduced in south Finland by the Swedish-speaking upper and middle classes, which used typical German and Swedish surnames.", "By custom, all Finnish-speaking persons who were able to get a position of some status in urban or learned society, discarded their Finnish name, adopting a Swedish, German or (in the case of clergy) Latin surname.", "In the case of enlisted soldiers, the new name was given regardless of the wishes of the individual.In the late 19th and early 20th century, the overall modernization process, and especially the political movement of fennicization, caused a movement for adoption of Finnish surnames.", "At that time, many persons with a Swedish or otherwise foreign surname changed their family name to a Finnish one.", "The features of nature with endings ''-o/ö'', ''-nen'' (''Meriö'' < ''Meri'' \"sea\", ''Nieminen'' < ''Niemi'' \"point\") are typical of the names of this era, as well as more or less direct translations of Swedish names (''Paasivirta'' < ''Hällström'').In 21st-century Finland, the use of surnames follows the German model.", "Every person is legally obligated to have a first and last name.", "At most, three first names are allowed.", "The Finnish married couple may adopt the name of either spouse, or either spouse (or both spouses) may decide to use a double name.", "The parents may choose either surname or the double surname for their children, but all siblings must share the same surname.", "All persons have the right to change their surname once without any specific reason.", "A surname that is un-Finnish, contrary to the usages of the Swedish or Finnish languages, or is in use by any person residing in Finland cannot be accepted as the new name, unless valid family reasons or religious or national customs give a reason for waiving this requirement.", "However, persons may change their surname to any surname that has ever been used by their ancestors if they can prove such claim.", "Some immigrants have had difficulty naming their children, as they must choose from an approved list based on the family's household language.In the Finnish language, both the root of the surname and the first name can be modified by consonant gradation regularly when inflected to a case.===Iceland===In Iceland, most people have no family name; a person's last name is most commonly a patronymic, i.e.", "derived from the father's first name.", "For example, when a man called ''Karl'' has a daughter called ''Anna'' and a son called ''Magnús'', their full names will typically be ''Anna Karlsdóttir'' (\"Karl's daughter\") and ''Magnús Karlsson'' (\"Karl's son\").", "The name is not changed upon marriage." ], [ "Slavic world", "Slavic countries are noted for having masculine and feminine versions for many (but not all) of their names.", "In most countries the use of a feminine form is obligatory in official documents as well as in other communication, except for foreigners.", "In some countries only the male form figures in official use (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, Serbia, Slovenia), but in communication (speech, print) a feminine form is often used.In '''Slovenia''' the last name of a female is the same as the male form in official use (identification documents, letters).", "In speech and descriptive writing (literature, newspapers) a female form of the last name is regularly used.If the name has no suffix, it may or may not have a feminine version.", "Sometimes it has the ending changed (such as the addition of ''-a'').", "In the Czech Republic and Slovakia, suffixless names, such as those of German origin, are feminized by adding ''-ová'' (for example, ''Schusterová'').===Bulgaria===Bulgarian names usually consist of three components – given name, patronymic (based on father's name), family name.Given names have many variations, but the most common names have Christian/Greek (e.g.", "Maria, Ivan, Christo, Peter, Pavel), Slavic (Ognyan, Miroslav, Tihomir) or Protobulgarian (Krum, Asparukh) (pre-Christian) origin.Father's names normally consist of the father's first name and the \"-ov\" (male) or \"-ova\" (female) or \"-ovi\" (plural) suffix.Family names usually also end with the \"-ov\", \"-ev\" (male) or \"-ova\", \"-eva\" (female) or \"-ovi\", \"-evi\" (plural) suffix.In many cases (depending on the name root) the suffixes can be also \"-ski\" (male and plural) or \"-ska\" (female); \"-ovski\", \"-evski\" (male and plural) or \"-ovska\", \"-evska\" (female); \"-in\" (male) or \"-ina\" (female) or \"-ini\" (plural); etc.The meaning of the suffixes is similar to the English word \"of\", expressing membership in/belonging to a family.For example, the family name Ivanova means a person belonging to the Ivanovi family.A father's name Petrov means son of Peter.Regarding the different meaning of the suffixes, \"-ov\", \"-ev\"/\"-ova\", \"-eva\" are used for expressing relationship to the father and \"-in\"/\"-ina\" for relationship to the mother (often for orphans whose father is dead).===Czech Republic and Slovakia===Names of Czech people consist of given name (''křestní jméno'') and surname (''příjmení'').", "Usage of the second or middle name is not common.", "Feminine names are usually derived from masculine ones by a suffix ''-ová'' (''Nováková'') or ''-á'' for names being originally adjectives (''Veselá''), sometimes with a little change of original name's ending (''Sedláčková'' from ''Sedláček'' or ''Svobodová'' from ''Svoboda'').", "Women usually change their family names when they get married.", "The family names are usually nouns (''Svoboda'', ''Král'', ''Růžička'', ''Dvořák'', ''Beneš''), adjectives (''Novotný'', ''Černý'', ''Veselý'') or past participles of verbs (''Pospíšil'').", "There are also a couple of names with more complicated origin which are actually complete sentences (''Skočdopole'', ''Hrejsemnou'' or ''Vítámvás'').", "The most common Czech family name is ''Novák'' / ''Nováková''.In addition, many Czechs and some Slovaks have German surnames due to mixing between the ethnic groups over the past thousand years.", "Deriving women's names from German and other foreign names is often problematic since foreign names do not suit Czech language rules, although most commonly ''-ová'' is simply added (''Schmidtová''; umlauts are often, but not always, dropped, e.g.", "''Müllerová''), or the German name is respelled with Czech spelling (''Šmitová'').", "Hungarian names, which can be found fairly commonly among Slovaks, can also be either left unchanged (Hungarian ''Nagy'', fem.", "''Nagyová'') or respelled according to Czech/Slovak orthography (masc.", "''Naď'', fem.", "''Naďová'').===Poland===In Poland and most of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, surnames first appeared during the late Middle Ages.", "They initially denoted the differences between various people living in the same town or village and bearing the same name.", "The conventions were similar to those of English surnames, using occupations, patronymic descent, geographic origins, or personal characteristics.", "Thus, early surnames indicating occupation include ''Karczmarz'' (\"innkeeper\"), ''Kowal'' (\"blacksmith\"), \"Złotnik\" (\"gold smith\") and ''Bednarczyk'' (\"young cooper\"), while those indicating patronymic descent include ''Szczepaniak'' (\"Son of ''Szczepan''), ''Józefowicz'' (\"Son of ''Józef''), and ''Kaźmirkiewicz'' (\"Son of ''Kazimierz''\").", "Similarly, early surnames like ''Mazur'' (\"the one from Mazury\") indicated geographic origin, while ones like ''Nowak'' (\"the new one\"), ''Biały'' (\"the pale one\"), and ''Wielgus'' (\"the big one\") indicated personal characteristics.In the early 16th century, (the Polish Renaissance), toponymic names became common, especially among the nobility.", "Initially, the surnames were in a form of \"first name ''z'' (\"de\", \"of\") location\".", "Later, most surnames were changed to adjective forms, e.g.", "''Jakub Wiślicki'' (\"James of Wiślica\") and ''Zbigniew Oleśnicki'' (\"''Zbigniew'' of Oleśnica\"), with masculine suffixes ''-ski'', ''-cki'', ''-dzki'' and ''-icz'' or respective feminine suffixes ''-ska'', ''-cka'', ''-dzka'' and ''-icz'' on the east of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.", "Names formed this way are adjectives grammatically, and therefore change their form depending on sex; for example, ''Jan Kowalski'' and ''Maria Kowalska'' collectively use the plural ''Kowalscy''.Names with masculine suffixes ''-ski'', ''-cki'', and ''-dzki'', and corresponding feminine suffixes ''-ska'', ''-cka'', and ''-dzka'' became associated with noble origin.", "Many people from lower classes successively changed their surnames to fit this pattern.", "This produced many ''Kowalski''s, ''Bednarski''s, ''Kaczmarski''s and so on.A separate class of surnames derive from the names of noble clans.", "These are used either as separate names or the first part of a double-barrelled name.", "Thus, persons named ''Jan Nieczuja'' and ''Krzysztof Nieczuja-Machocki'' might be related.", "Similarly, after World War I and World War II, many members of Polish underground organizations adopted their war-time pseudonyms as the first part of their surnames.", "''Edward Rydz'' thus became Marshal of Poland ''Edward Śmigły-Rydz'' and ''Zdzisław Jeziorański'' became ''Jan Nowak-Jeziorański''.===Russia===A full Russian name consists of personal (given) name, patronymic, and family name (surname).Most Russian family names originated from patronymics, that is, father's name usually formed by adding the adjective suffix ''-ov(a)'' or ''-ev(a)''.", "Contemporary patronymics, however, have a substantive suffix ''-ich'' for masculine and the adjective suffix ''-na'' for feminine.For example, the proverbial triad of most common Russian surnames follows:* ''Ivan'''ov''''' (son of Ivan),* ''Petr'''ov''''' (son of Peter),* ''Sidor'''ov''''' (son of Sidor).Feminine forms of these surnames have the ending ''-a'':* ''Ivan'''ova''''' (daughter of Ivan),* ''Petr'''ova''''' (daughter of Peter),* ''Sidor'''ova''''' (daughter of Sidor).Such a pattern of name formation is not unique to Russia or even to the Eastern and Southern Slavs in general; quite common are also names derived from professions, places of origin, and personal characteristics, with various suffixes (e.g.", "''-in(a)'' and ''-sky (-skaya)'').Professions:* ''kuznets'' (smith) → ''Kuznetsov''—''Kuznetsova''* ''portnoi'' (tailor) → ''Portnov''—''Portnova''* ''pastukh'' (shepherd) → ''Pastukhov''—''Pastukhova''.Places of origin:* ''Moskva'' (Moscow) → ''Moskvin''—''Moskvina'', ''Moskovsky''—''Moskovskaya'',* ''Smolensk'' → ''Smolensky''—''Smolenskaya'',* ''Riazan'' → ''Riazanov''—''Riazanova'', ''Riazantsev''—''Riazantseva''.Personal characteristics:* ''tolsty'' (stout, fat) → ''Tolstov''—''Tolstova'', ''Tolstoy''—''Tolstaya'',* ''nos'' (nose) → ''Nosov''—''Nosova'',* ''sedoi'' (grey-haired or -headed) → ''Sedov''—''Sedova''.A considerable number of \"artificial\" names exists, for example, those given to seminary graduates; such names were based on Great Feasts of the Orthodox Church or Christian virtues.Great Orthodox Feasts:* ''rozhdestvo'' (Christmas) → ''Rozhdestvensky''—''Rozhdestvenskaya'',* ''voskresenie'' (Resurrection) → ''Voskresensky''—''Voskresenskaya'',* ''uspenie'' (Assumption) → ''Uspensky''—''Uspenskaya''.Christian virtues:* ''philagathos'' (one who loves goodness) → ''Dobrolubov''—''Dobrolubova'', ''Dobrolubsky''—''Dobrolubskaya'',* ''philosophos'' (one who loves wisdom) → ''Lubomudrov''—''Lubomudrova'',* ''theophilos'' (one who loves God) → ''Bogolubov''—''Bogolubova''.Many freed serfs were given surnames after those of their former owners.", "For example, a serf of the Demidov family might be named ''Demidovsky'', which translates roughly as \"belonging to Demidov\" or \"one of Demidov's bunch\".Grammatically, Russian family names follow the same rules as other nouns or adjectives (names ending with ''-oy'', ''-aya'' are grammatically adjectives), with exceptions: some names do not change in different cases and have the same form in both genders (for example, ''Sedykh'', ''Lata'').=== Ukraine and Belarus ===Ukrainian and Belarusian names evolved from the same Old East Slavic and Ruthenian language (western Rus') origins.", "Ukrainian and Belarusian names share many characteristics with family names from other Slavic cultures.", "Most prominent are the shared root words and suffixes.", "For example, the root ''koval'' (blacksmith) compares to the Polish ''kowal'', and the root ''bab'' (woman) is shared with Polish, Slovakian, and Czech.", "The suffix ''-vych'' (son of) corresponds to the South Slavic ''-vic'', the Russian ''-vich'', and the Polish ''-wicz'', while ''-sky'', ''-ski'', and ''-ska'' are shared with both Polish and Russian, and ''-ak'' with Polish.However some suffixes are more uniquely characteristic to Ukrainian and Belarusian names, especially: ''-chuk'' (Western Ukraine), ''-enko'' (all other Ukraine) (both son of), ''-ko'' (little masculine), ''-ka'' (little feminine), ''-shyn'', and ''-uk''.", "See, for example, Mihalko, Ukrainian Presidents Leonid Kravchuk, and Viktor Yushchenko, Belarusian President Alexander Lukashenko, or former Soviet diplomat Andrei Gromyko.", "Such Ukrainian and Belarusian names can also be found in Russia, Poland, or even other Slavic countries (e.g.", "Croatian general Zvonimir Červenko), but are due to importation by Ukrainian, Belarusian, or Rusyn ancestors.===South Slavs=======Endings in -ić and -ič====Surnames of some South Slavic groups such as Serbs, Croats, Montenegrins, and Bosniaks traditionally end with the suffixes \"'''-ić'''\" and \"-vić\" (often transliterated to English and other western languages as \"ic\", \"ich\", \"vic\" or \"vich\".", "The v is added in the case of a name to which \"-ić\" is appended would otherwise end with a vowel, to avoid double vowels with the \"i\" in \"-ić\".)", "These are a diminutive indicating descent i.e.", "\"son of\".", "In some cases the family name was derived from a profession (e.g.", "blacksmith – \"Kovač\" → \"Kovačević\").An analogous ending is also common in Slovenia.", "As the Slovenian language does not have the softer consonant \"ć\", in Slovene words and names only \"č\" is used.", "So that people from the former Yugoslavia need not change their names, in official documents \"ć\" is also allowed (as well as \"Đ / đ\").", "Thus, one may have two surname variants, e.g.", ": Božič, Tomšič (Slovenian origin or assimilated) and Božić, Tomšić (roots from the Serbo-Croat language continuum area).", "Slovene names ending in -ič do not necessarily have a patrimonial origin.In general family names in all of these countries follow this pattern with some family names being typically Serbian, some typically Croat and yet others being common throughout the whole linguistic region.Children usually inherit their fathers' family name.", "In an older naming convention which was common in Serbia up until the mid-19th century, a person's name would consist of three distinct parts: the person's given name, the patronymic derived from the father's personal name, and the family name, as seen, for example, in the name of the language reformer Vuk Stefanović Karadžić.Official family names do not have distinct male or female forms, except in North Macedonia, though a somewhat archaic unofficial form of adding suffixes to family names to form female form persists, with ''-eva'', implying \"daughter of\" or \"female descendant of\" or ''-ka'', implying \"wife of\" or \"married to\".", "In Slovenia the feminine form of a surname (\"-eva\" or \"-ova\") is regularly used in non-official communication (speech, print), but not for official IDs or other legal documents.Bosniak Muslim names follow the same formation pattern but are usually derived from proper names of Islamic origin, often combining archaic Islamic or feudal Turkish titles i.e.", "Mulaomerović, Šabanović, Hadžihafizbegović, etc.", "Also related to Islamic influence is the prefix ''Hadži-'' found in some family names.", "Regardless of religion, this prefix was derived from the honorary title which a distinguished ancestor earned by making a pilgrimage to either Christian or Islamic holy places; Hadžibegić, being a Bosniak Muslim example, and Hadžiantić an Orthodox Christian one.In Croatia where tribal affiliations persisted longer, Lika, Herzegovina etc., originally a family name, came to signify practically all people living in one area, clan land or holding of the nobles.", "The Šubić family owned land around the Zrin River in the Central Croatian region of Banovina.", "The surname became Šubić Zrinski, the most famous being Nikola Šubić Zrinski.In Montenegro and Herzegovina, family names came to signify all people living within one clan or bratstvo.", "As there exists a strong tradition of inheriting personal names from grandparents to grandchildren, an additional patronymic usually using suffix ''-ov'' had to be introduced to make distinctions between two persons bearing the same personal name and the same family name and living within same area.", "A noted example is Marko Miljanov Popović, i.e.", "Marko, son of Miljan, from Popović family.Due to discriminatory laws in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, some Serb families of Vojvodina discarded the suffix ''-ić'' in an attempt to mask their ethnicity and avoid heavy taxation.The prefix ''Pop-'' in Serbian names indicates descent from a priest, for example Gordana Pop Lazić, i.e.", "descendant of Pop Laza.Some Serbian family names include prefixes of Turkish origin, such as ''Uzun-'' meaning tall, or ''Kara-'', black.", "Such names were derived from nicknames of family ancestors.", "A famous example is Karađorđević, descendants of Đorđe Petrović, known as Karađorđe or Black Đorđe.====Endings -ov and -ski====Among the Bulgarians, another South Slavic people, the typical surname suffix is \"-ov\" (Ivanov, Kovachev), although other popular suffixes also exist.In North Macedonia, the most popular suffix today is \"-ski\".===Slovenia===Slovenes have a great variety of surnames, most of them differentiated according to region.", "Surnames ending in -ič are by far less frequent than among Croats and Serbs.", "There are typically Slovenian surnames ending in -ič, such as Blažič, Stanič, Marušič.", "Many Slovenian surnames, especially in the Slovenian Littoral, end in -čič (Gregorčič, Kocijančič, Miklavčič, etc.", "), which is uncommon for other South Slavic peoples (except the neighboring Croats, e.g.", "Kovačić, Jelačić, Kranjčić, etc.).", "On the other hand, surname endings in -ski and -ov are rare, they can denote a noble origin (especially for the -ski, if it completes a toponym) or a foreign (mostly Czech) origin.", "One of the most typical Slovene surname endings is -nik (Rupnik, Pučnik, Plečnik, Pogačnik, Podobnik) and other used surname endings are -lin (Pavlin, Mehlin, Ahlin, Ferlin), -ar (Mlakar, Ravnikar, Smrekar Tisnikar) and -lj (Rugelj, Pucelj, Bagatelj, Bricelj).", "Many Slovenian surnames are linked to Medieval rural settlement patterns.", "Surnames like Novak (literally, \"the new one\") or Hribar (from ''hrib'', hill) were given to the peasants settled in newly established farms, usually in high mountains.", "Peasant families were also named according to the owner of the land which they cultivated: thus, the surname Kralj (King) or Cesar (Emperor) was given to those working on royal estates, Škof (Bishop) or Vidmar to those working on ecclesiastical lands, etc.", "Many Slovenian surnames are named after animals (Medved – bear, Volk, Vovk or Vouk – wolf, Golob – pigeon, Strnad – yellowhammer, Orel – eagle, Lisjak – fox, or Zajec – rabbit, etc.)", "or plants Pšenica – wheat, Slak – bindweed, Hrast – oak, etc.", "Many are named after neighbouring peoples: Horvat, Hrovat, or Hrovatin (Croat), Furlan (Friulian), Nemec (German), Lah (Italian), Vogrin, Vogrič or Vogrinčič (Hungarian), Vošnjak (Bosnian), Čeh (Czech), Turk (Turk), or different Slovene regions: Kranjc, Kranjec or Krajnc (from Carniola), Kraševec (from the Karst Plateau), Korošec (from Carinthia), Kočevar or Hočevar (from the Gottschee county).==== Use of feminine surnames in Slovenia ====In '''Slovenia''' last name of a female is the same as the male form in official use (identification documents, letters).", "In speech and descriptive writing (literature, newspapers) a female form of the last name is regularly used.", "Examples: Novak (m.) & Novakova (f.), Kralj (m.) & Kraljeva (f.), Mali (m.) & Malijeva (f.).", "Usually surenames on -ova are used together with the title/gender: gospa Novakova (Mrs. Novakova), gospa Kraljeva (Mrs. Kraljeva), gospodična Malijeva (Miss Malijeva, if unmarried), etc.", "or with the name.", "So we have Maja Novak on the ID card and Novakova Maja (extremely rarely Maja Novak'''ova''') in communication; Tjaša Mali and Malijeva Tjaša (rarely Tjaša Malij'''eva'''); respectively.", "Diminutive forms of last names for females are also available: Novakovka, Kraljevka.", "As for pronunciation, in Slovenian there is some leeway regarding accentuation.", "Depending on the region or local usage, you may have either Nóvak & Nóvakova or, more frequently, Novák & Novákova.", "Accent marks are normally not used." ], [ "Arabic-speaking countries", "The given name is always followed by the father's first name, then the father's family surname.Some surnames have a prefix of ''ibn''- (''ould''- in Mauritania) meaning \"son of\".The surnames follow similar rules defining a relation to a clan, family, place etc.Some Arab countries have differences due to historic rule by the Ottoman Empire or due to being a different minority.A large number of Arabic last names start with \"Al-\" which means \"The\"'''Arab States of the Persian Gulf''':Names mainly consist of the person's name followed by the father's first name connected by the word \"ibn\" or \"bin\" (meaning \"son of\").", "The last name either refers to the name of the tribe the person belongs to, or to the region, city, or town he/she originates from.", "In exceptional cases, members of the royal families or ancient tribes mainly, the title (usually H.M./H.E., Prince, or Sheikh) is included in the beginning as a prefix, and the first name can be followed by four names, his father, his grandfather, and great – grandfather, as a representation of the purity of blood and to show the pride one has for his ancestry.In Arabic-speaking Levantine countries (Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria) it's common to have family names associated with a certain profession or craft, such as \"Al-Haddad\"/\"Haddad\" which means \"Blacksmith\" or \"Al-Najjar\"/\"Najjar\" which means \"Carpenter\"." ], [ "South Asia", "===India===In India, surnames are placed as last names or before first names, which often denote: village of origin, caste, clan, office of authority their ancestors held, or trades of their ancestors.", "The use of surnames is a relatively new convention, introduced during British colonisation.", "Typically, parts of northern India follow English-speaking Western naming conventions by having a given name followed by a surname.", "This is not necessarily the case in southern India, where people may adopt a surname out of necessity when migrating or travelling abroad.The largest variety of surnames is found in the states of Maharashtra and Goa, which numbers more than the rest of India together.", "Here surnames are placed last, the order being: the given name, followed by the father's name, followed by the family name.", "The majority of surnames are derived from the place where the family lived, with the 'kar' (Marathi and Konkani) suffix, for example, Mumbaikar, Punekar, Aurangabadkar, Tendulkar, Parrikar, Mangeshkar, Mahendrakar.", "Another common variety found in Maharashtra and Goa are the ones ending in 'e'.", "These are usually more archaic than the 'Kar's and usually denote medieval clans or professions like Rane, Salunkhe, Gupte, Bhonsle, Ranadive, Rahane, Hazare, Apte, Satpute, Shinde, Sathe, Londhe, Salve, Kale, Gore, Godbole, etc.In Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, surnames usually denote family names.", "It is easy to track family history and the caste they belonged to using a surname.In Odisha and West Bengal, surnames denote the caste they belong.", "There are also several local surnames like Das, Patnaik, Mohanty, Jena etc.In Kerala, surnames denote the caste they belong.", "There are also several local surnames like Nair, Menon , Panikkar etc.It is a common in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and some other parts of South India that the spouse adopts her husband's first name instead of his family or surname name after marriage.In Rajasthan, the community name and sometimes the gotra or clan name are used as surnames.", "Usage of community name as surname include: Charan, Jat, Meena, Rajput, etc.", "Sometimes, the faith name (for example: Jain) can also be used as a surname.India is a country with numerous distinct cultural and linguistic groups.", "Thus, Indian surnames, where formalized, fall into seven general types.Surnames are based on:* Patronymics and ancestry, whereby the father's name or an ancestor's given name is used in its original form or in a derived form (e.g.", "Baranwal or Barnwal or Burnwal derived from the ancestor Ahibaran).", "* Occupations (Chamar, Patel or Patil, meaning Village Headman, Gandhi, Kamath, Kulkarni, who used to maintain the accounts and records and collect taxes, Kapadia, Nadkarni, Patwardhan, Patwari, Shenoy, etc.)", "and priestly distinctions (Bhat, Bhattar, Sastry, Trivedi, Shukla, Chaturvedi, Twivedi, Purohit, Mukhopadhyay); Business people: Shetty, Rai, Hegde is commonly used in ruling castes of the Karnataka coastal belt.", "In addition, many Parsi, Bohra and Gujarati families have used English trade names as last names since the 18th and 19th centuries (Contractor, Engineer, Builder).", "* Clan names (Pillai, Gounder, Goud, Gowda, Boyar, Parmar, Sindhi, Vaish, Reddy, Meena, Nair, Nadar and Naidu) are not surnames but suffixes to first names to indicate their clan or caste.", "* Place names or names derived from places of ancestral origin (Aluru, Marwari, Gavaskar, Gaonkar, Mangeshkar, Kapoor, Wamankar, Kokradi, Karnad, Sandhu, Medukonduru, Rachapalli).", "* The father's first name is used as a surname in certain Southern states, such as Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.", "Spouses and children take on the first name of the father as their last name or 'surname'.", "* Muslim surnames generally follow the same rules used in Pakistan.", "Khan is among the most popular surnames, often signifying Afghan/Central Asian descent.", "* Bestowed titles or other honorifics: titles bestowed by kings, rajas, nawabs and other nobles before the British Raj (Wali, Rai, Rao, Babu, Thakur, Gain/Gayen, Panicker, Vallikappen, Moocken, etc.)", "and those bestowed by the British (Rai, Bahadur).The convention is to write the first name followed by middle names and surname.", "It is common to use the father's first name as the middle name or last name even though it is not universal.", "In some Indian states like Maharashtra, official documents list the family name first, followed by a comma and the given names.In modern times, in urban areas at least, this practice is not universal and some wives either suffix their husband's surname or do not alter their surnames at all.", "In some rural areas, particularly in North India, wives may also take a new first name after their nuptials.", "Children inherit their surnames from their father.Jains generally use Jain, Shah, Firodia, Singhal or Gupta as their last names.", "Sikhs generally use the words ''Singh'' (\"lion\") and ''Kaur'' (\"princess\") as surnames added to the otherwise unisex first names of men and women, respectively.", "It is also common to use a different surname after Singh in which case Singh or Kaur are used as middle names (Montek Singh Ahluwalia, Surinder Kaur Badal).", "The tenth Guru of Sikhism ordered (Hukamnama) that any man who considered himself a Sikh must use ''Singh'' in his name and any woman who considered herself a Sikh must use ''Kaur'' in her name.", "Other middle names or honorifics that are sometimes used as surnames include Kumar, Dev, Lal, and Chand.The modern-day spellings of names originated when families translated their surnames to English, with no standardization across the country.", "Variations are regional, based on how the name was translated from the local language to English in the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries during British rule.", "Therefore, it is understood in the local traditions that Baranwal and Barnwal represent the same name derived from Uttar Pradesh and Punjab respectively.", "Similarly, Tagore derives from Bengal while Thakur is from Hindi-speaking areas.", "The officially recorded spellings tended to become the standard for that family.", "In the modern times, some states have attempted standardization, particularly where the surnames were corrupted because of the early British insistence of shortening them for convenience.", "Thus Bandopadhyay became Banerji, Mukhopadhay became Mukherji, Chattopadhyay became Chatterji, etc.", "This coupled with various other spelling variations created several surnames based on the original surnames.", "The West Bengal Government now insists on re-converting all the variations to their original form when the child is enrolled in school.Some parts of Sri Lanka, Thailand, Nepal, Myanmar, and Indonesia have similar patronymic customs to those of India.===Nepal===Nepali surnames are divided into three origins; Indo-Aryan languages, Tibeto-Burman languages and indigenous origins.", "Surnames of Khas community contains toponyms as Ghimire, Dahal, Pokharel, Sapkota from respective villages, occupational names as (Adhikari, Bhandari, Karki, Thapa).", "Many Khas surnames includes suffix as -wal, -al as in Katwal, Silwal, Khanal, Khulal, Rijal.", "Kshatriya titles such as Bista, Kunwar, Rana, Rawal, Shah, Thakuri, Chand, were taken as surnames by various Kshetri and Thakuris.", "Khatri Kshetris share surnames with mainstream Pahari Bahuns.", "Other popular Chhetri surnames include Basnyat, Bogati, Budhathoki, Khadka, Mahat, Raut.", "Similarly, Brahmin surnames such as Acharya, Joshi, Pandit, Sharma, Upadhyay were taken by Pahari Bahuns.", "Bahuns bear distinct surnames as Kattel, and share surnames with mainstream Bahuns.", "Other Bahun surnames include Aryal, Bhattarai, Banskota, Chaulagain, Devkota, Dhakal, Gyawali, Koirala, Mainali, Pandey, Panta, Paudel, Regmi, Subedi, Lamsal, and Dhungel.", "Khas-Dalits surnames include Kami, Bishwakarma or B.K., Damai, Mijar, Pariyar, Sarki.", "Newar groups of multiethnic background bears both Indo-Aryan surnames (like Shrestha, Pradhan) and indigenous surnames like Maharjan, Dangol.", "Magars bear surnames derived from Khas peoples such as Baral, Budhathoki, Lamichhane, Thapa and indigenous origins as Gharti, Pun, Pulami.", "Other Himalayan Mongoloid castes bears Tibeto-Burmese surnames like Gurung, Tamang, Thakali, Sherpa.", "Various Kiranti ethnic group contains many Indo-Aryan surnames of Khas origin which were awarded by the government of Khas peoples.", "These surnames are Rai, Subba depending upon job and position hold by them.", "Terai community consists both Indo-Aryan and Indigenous origin surnames.", "Terai Brahmins bears surnames as Jha.", "Nepalese Muslims bears Islamic surnames such as Ali, Ansari, Begum, Khan, Mohammad, Pathan.", "Other common Terai surnames are Kayastha.===Pakistan===Pakistani surnames are basically divided in three categories: Arab naming convention, tribal or caste names and ancestral names.Family names indicating Arab ancestry, e.g.", "Shaikh, Siddiqui, Abbasi, Syed, Zaidi, Khawaja, Naqvi, Farooqi, Osmani, Alavi, Hassani, and Husseini.People claiming Afghan ancestry include those with family names like Durrani, Gardezi, Suri, Yousafzai, Afridi, Mullagori, Mohmand, Khattak, Wazir, Mehsud, Niazi.Family names indicating Turkic heritage include Mughal, Baig or Beg, Pasha, Barlas, and Seljuki.", "Family names indicating Turkish/Kurd ancestry, Dogar.People claiming Indic ancestry include those with family names Barelwi, Lakhnavi, Delhvi, Godharvi, Bilgrami, and Rajput.", "A large number of Muslim Rajputs have retained their surnames such as Chauhan, Rathore, Parmar, and Janjua.People claiming Iranian ancestry include those with family names Agha, Bukhari, Firdausi, Ghazali, Gilani, Hamadani, Isfahani, Kashani, Kermani, Khorasani, Farooqui, Mir, Mirza, Montazeri, Nishapuri, Noorani, Kayani, Qizilbash, Saadi, Sabzvari, Shirazi, Sistani, Suhrawardi, Yazdani, Zahedi, and Zand.Tribal names include Abro Afaqi, Afridi, Cheema, Khogyani (Khakwani), Amini, Ansari, Ashrafkhel, Awan, Bajwa, Baloch, Barakzai, Baranzai, Bhatti, Bhutto, Ranjha, Bijarani, Bizenjo, Brohi, Khetran, Bugti, Butt, Farooqui, Gabol, Ghaznavi, Ghilzai, Gichki, Gujjar, Jamali, Jamote, Janjua, Jatoi, Jutt Joyo, Junejo, Karmazkhel, Kayani, Khar, Khattak, Khuhro, Lakhani, Leghari, Lodhi, Magsi, Malik, Mandokhel, Mayo, Marwat, Mengal, Mughal, Palijo, Paracha, Panhwar, Phul, Popalzai, Qureshi & qusmani, Rabbani, Raisani, Rakhshani, Sahi, Swati, Soomro, Sulaimankhel, Talpur, Talwar, Thebo, Yousafzai, and Zamani.In Pakistan, the official paperwork format regarding personal identity is as follows:So and so, son of so and so, of such and such tribe or clan and religion and resident of such and such place.", "For example, Amir Khan s/o Fakeer Khan, tribe Mughal Kayani or Chauhan Rajput, Follower of religion Islam, resident of Village Anywhere, Tehsil Anywhere, District." ], [ "Sinosphere", "In modern Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Taiwanese, and Vietnamese, the family name is placed before the given names, although this order may not be observed in translation.", "Generally speaking, Chinese, Korean, and Vietnamese names do not alter their order in English (Mao Zedong, Kim Jong-il, Ho Chi Minh) and Japanese names do (Kenzaburō Ōe).", "However, numerous exceptions exist, particularly for people born in English-speaking countries such as Yo-Yo Ma.", "This is sometimes systematized: in all Olympic events, the athletes of the People's Republic of China list their names in the Chinese ordering, while Chinese athletes representing other countries, such as the United States, use the Western ordering.", "(In Vietnam, the system is further complicated by the cultural tradition of addressing people by their given name, usually with an honorific.", "For example, Phan Văn Khải is ''properly'' addressed as Mr. Khải, even though Phan is his family name.", ")Chinese family names have many types of origins, some claiming dates as early as the legendary Yellow Emperor (2nd millennium BC):* from the land or state that one lived in or awarded: Chen 陳 after the state of Chen, Cai 蔡 after the state of Cai;* from the given name or posthumous name of one's ancestor: Zhuang 莊 after King Zhuang of Chu;* from the nobility status or officer status of one's ancestor: Wang 王 (a king) or Shi 史 (a history-recording officer);* and some other origins.In history, some changed their surnames due to a naming taboo (from Zhuang 莊 to Yan 嚴 during the era of Liu Zhuang 劉莊) or when the imperial surname was awarded by the Emperor (the imperial surname Li was often bestowed on senior officers during the Tang dynasty).In modern times, some Chinese adopt an English name in addition to their native given names: e.g., adopted the English name Martin Lee.", "Particularly in Hong Kong and Singapore, the convention is to write both names together: Martin Lee Chu-ming.", "Owing to the confusion this can cause, a further convention is sometimes observed of capitalizing the surname: Martin L Chu-ming.", "Sometimes, however, the Chinese given name is forced into the Western system as a middle name (\"Martin Chu-ming Lee\"); less often, the English given name is forced into the Chinese system (\"Lee Chu-ming Martin\").In Japan, the civil law forces a common surname for every married couple, unless in a case of international marriage.", "In most cases, women surrender their surnames upon marriage, and use the surnames of their husbands.", "However, a convention that a man uses his wife's family name if the wife is an only child is sometimes observed.", "A similar tradition called ''ru zhui'' (入贅) is common among Chinese when the bride's family is wealthy and has no son but wants the heir to pass on their assets under the same family name.", "The Chinese character ''zhui'' (贅) carries a money radical (貝), which implies that this tradition was originally based on financial reasons.", "All their offspring carry the mother's family name.", "If the groom is the first born with an obligation to carry his own ancestor's name, a compromise may be reached in that the first male child carries the mother's family name while subsequent offspring carry the father's family name.", "The tradition is still in use in many Chinese communities outside mainland China, but largely disused in China because of social changes from communism.", "Due to the economic reform in the past decade, accumulation and inheritance of personal wealth made a comeback to the Chinese society.", "It is unknown if this financially motivated tradition would also come back to mainland China.In Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese and Singaporean cultures, women keep their own surnames, while the family as a whole is referred to by the surnames of the husbands.In Hong Kong, some women would be known to the public with the surnames of their husbands preceding their own surnames, such as Anson Chan Fang On Sang.", "Anson is an English given name, On Sang is the given name in Chinese, Chan is the surname of Anson's husband, and Fang is her own surname.", "A name change on legal documents is not necessary.", "In Hong Kong's English publications, her family names would have been presented in small cap letters to resolve ambiguity, e.g.", "Anson CHAN FANG On Sang in full or simply Anson Chan in short form.In Macau, some people have their names in Portuguese spelt with some Portuguese style, such as ''Carlos do Rosario Tchiang''.Chinese women in Canada, especially Hongkongers in Toronto, would preserve their maiden names before the surnames of their husbands when written in English, for instance, Rosa Chan Leung, where Chan is the maiden name, and Leung is the surname of the husband.In Chinese, Korean, and Vietnamese, surnames are predominantly monosyllabic (written with one character), though a small number of common disyllabic (or written with two characters) surnames exists (e.g.", "the Chinese name ''Ouyang'', the Korean name ''Jegal'' and the Vietnamese name ''Phan-Tran'').Many Chinese, Korean, and Vietnamese surnames are of the same origin, but simply pronounced differently and even transliterated differently overseas in Western nations.", "For example, the common Chinese surnames Chen, Chan, Chin, Cheng and Tan, the Korean surname Jin, as well as the Vietnamese surname Trần are often all the same exact character 陳.", "The common Korean surname Kim is also the common Chinese surname Jin, and written 金.", "The common Mandarin surnames Lin or Lim (林) is also one and the same as the common Cantonese or Vietnamese surname ''Lam'' and Korean family name Lim (written/pronounced as Im in South Korea).", "There are people with the surname of Hayashi (林) in Japan too.", "The common Chinese surname 李, translated to English as Lee, is, in Chinese, the same character but transliterated as Li according to pinyin convention.", "Lee is also a common surname of Koreans, and the character is identical.===Vietnam===40% of all Vietnamese have the surname Nguyen.", "This may be because when a new dynasty took power in Vietnam it was custom to adopt that dynasty's surname.", "The last dynasty in Vietnam was the Nguyen dynasty, so as a result, many people have this surname." ], [ "Africa", "===Burundi and Rwanda===In Burundi and Rwanda, most, if not all surnames have God in it, for example, Hakizimana (meaning God cures), Nshimirimana (I thank God) or Havyarimana/Habyarimana (God gives birth).", "But not all surnames end with the suffix -imana.", "Irakoze is one of these (technically meaning Thank God, though it is hard to translate it correctly in English or probably any other language).", "Surnames are often different among immediate family members, as parents frequently choose unique surnames for each child, and women keep their maiden names when married.", "Surnames are placed before given names and frequently written in capital letters, e.g.", "HAKIZIMANA Jacques.===East Africa===In several Northeast Bantu languages such as Kamba, Taita and Kikuyu in Kenya the word \"wa\" (meaning \"of\") is inserted before the surname, for instance, Mugo wa Kibiru (Kikuyu) and Mekatilili wa Menza (Mijikenda).===Ethiopia and Eritrea===The patronymic custom in most of the Horn of Africa gives children the father's first name as their surname.", "The family then gives the child its first name.", "Middle names are unknown.", "So, for example, a person's name might be ''Bereket Mekonen ''.", "In this case, ''Bereket '' is the first name and ''Mekonen'' is the surname, and also the first name of the father.The paternal grandfather's name is often used if there is a requirement to identify a person further, for example, in school registration.", "Also, different cultures and tribes use the father's or grandfather's given name as the family's name.", "For example, some Oromos use Warra Ali to mean families of Ali, where Ali, is either the householder, a father or grandfather.In Ethiopia, the customs surrounding the bestowal and use of family names is as varied and complex as the cultures to be found there.", "There are so many cultures, nations or tribes, that currently there can be no one formula whereby to demonstrate a clear pattern of Ethiopian family names.", "In general, however, Ethiopians use their father's name as a surname in most instances where identification is necessary, sometimes employing both father's and grandfather's names together where exigency dictates.Many people in Eritrea have Italian surnames, but all of these are owned by Eritreans of Italian descent.===Libya===Libya's names and surnames have a strong Islamic/Arab nature, with some Turkish influence from Ottoman Empire rule of nearly 400 years.Amazigh, Touareg and other minorities also have their own name/surname traditions.Due to its location as a trade route and the different cultures that had their impact on Libya throughout history, one can find names that could have originated in neighboring countries, including clan names from the Arabian Peninsula, and Turkish names derived from military rank or status (''Basha'', ''Agha'')." ], [ "Other countries", "===Albania===A full Albanian name consists of a given name (), patronymic () and family name (), for example ''Agron Mark Gjoni''.", "The patronymic is simply the given name of the individual's father, with no suffix added.", "The family name is typically a noun in the definite form or at the very least ends with a vowel or -j (an approximant close to -i).", "Many traditional last names end with -aj (previously -anj), which is more prevalent in certain regions of Albania and Kosovo.", "For clarification, the \"family name\" is typically the father's father's name (grandfather).Proper names in Albanian are fully declinable like any noun (e.g.", "''Marinelda'', genitive case ''i/e Marineldës'' \"of Marinelda\").===Armenia===Armenian surnames almost always have the ending () transliterated into English as -yan or -ian (spelled -ean (եան) in Western Armenian and pre-Soviet Eastern Armenian, of Ancient Armenian or Iranian origin, presumably meaning \"son of\"), though names with that ending can also be found among Persians and a few other nationalities.", "Armenian surnames can derive from a geographic location, profession, noble rank, personal characteristic or personal name of an ancestor.", "Armenians in the diaspora sometimes adapt their surnames to help assimilation.", "In Russia, many have changed -yan to -ov (or -ova for women).", "In Turkey, many have changed the ending to -oğlu (also meaning \"son of\").", "In English and French-speaking countries, many have shortened their name by removing the ending (for example Charles Aznavour).", "In ancient Armenia, many noble names ended with the locative -t'si (example, Khorenatsi) or -uni (Bagratuni).", "Several modern Armenian names also have a Turkish suffix which appears before -ian/-yan: -lian denotes a placename; -djian denotes a profession.", "Some Western Armenian names have a particle Der, while their Eastern counterparts have Ter.", "This particle indicates an ancestor who was a priest (Armenian priests can choose to marry or remain celibate, but married priests cannot become a bishop).", "Thus someone named Der Bedrosian (Western) or Ter Petrosian (Eastern) is a descendant of an Armenian priest.", "The convention is still in use today: the children of a priest named Hagop Sarkisian would be called Der Sarkisian.", "Other examples of Armenian surnames: Adonts, Sakunts, Vardanyants, Rshtuni.===Azerbaijan===It was common for Azerbaijani names to have 3 components: given name, father's name and family name.", "However in recent years it is becoming increasingly popular to only have 2 components: first name and surname.While under Soviet rule, it was mandatory for Azerbaijanis to register their names, but most people did not have surnames.", "This was normally circumvented by taking the individual's father's name and adding a Russian suffixes such as \"-yev\"/\"-ov\" for men and \"-yeva/-ova\" for women (meaning \"born of\").", "For example from \"Ali\" we get \"Aliyev\" and \"Aliyeva\" and from \"Husein\" we get \"Huseinov\" and \"Huseinova\".", "However as the Soviet era came to an end, many Azerbaijanis dropped these endings in an attempt to derussify.", "Some chose to replace these with traditional suffixes like \"-zade\" (Persian for \"born of\") and \"-li/-lu\" (Turkish for \"with\" or \"belonging to\"), \"-oglu/-oghlu\" (Turkish for \"son of\").", "Some chose to drop the suffixes entirely.===Georgia===Most eastern Georgian surnames end with the suffix of \"-shvili\", (e.g.", "Kartveli'shvili) Georgian for \"child\" or \"offspring\".", "Western Georgian surnames most commonly have the suffix \"-dze\", (e.g.", "Laba'dze) Georgian for \"son\".", "Megrelian surnames usually end in \"-ia\", \"-ua\" or \"-ava\".", "Other location-specific endings exist: In Svaneti \"-iani\", meaning \"belonging to\", or \"hailing from\", is common.", "In the eastern Georgian highlands common endings are \"uri\" and \"uli\".", "Some noble family names end in \"eli\", meaning \"of (someplace)\".In Georgian, the surname is not normally used as the polite form of address; instead, the given name is used together with a title.", "For instance, Nikoloz Kartvelishvili is politely addressed as ''bat'ono Nikoloz'' \"My Lord.", "Nikoloz\".===Greece and Cyprus===Greek surnames are most commonly patronymics.", "Occupation, characteristic, or ethnic background and location/origin-based surnames names also occur; they are sometimes supplemented by nicknames.Commonly, Greek male surnames end in -s, which is the common ending for Greek masculine proper nouns in the nominative case.", "Exceptionally, some end in -ou, indicating the genitive case of this proper noun for patronymic reasons.Although surnames are static today, dynamic and changing patronym usage survives in middle names in Greece where the genitive of the father's first name is commonly the middle name.Because of their codification in the Modern Greek state, surnames have Katharevousa forms even though Katharevousa is no longer the official standard.", "Thus, the Ancient Greek name Eleutherios forms the Modern Greek proper name Lefteris, and former vernacular practice (prefixing the surname to the proper name) was to call John Eleutherios '''Leftero-giannis'''.Modern practice is to call the same person Giannis Eleftheriou: the proper name is vernacular (and not Ioannis), but the surname is an archaic genitive.", "However, children are almost always baptised with the archaic form of the name so in official matters, the child will be referred to as Ioannis Eleftheriou and not Giannis Eleftheriou.Female surnames are most often in the Katharevousa genitive case of a male name.", "This is an innovation of the Modern Greek state; Byzantine practice was to form a feminine counterpart of the male surname (e.g.", "masculine Palaiologos, Byzantine feminine Palaiologina, Modern feminine Palaiologou).In the past, women would change their surname when married to that of their husband (again in the genitive case) signifying the transfer of \"dependence\" from the father to the husband.", "In earlier Modern Greek society, women were named with '''''-aina''''' as a feminine suffix on the husband's first name: \"Giorgaina\", \"Mrs George\", \"Wife of George\".", "Nowadays, a woman's legal surname does not change upon marriage, though she can use the husband's surname socially.", "Children usually receive the paternal surname, though in rare cases, if the bride and groom have agreed before the marriage, the children can receive the maternal surname.Some surnames are prefixed with '''''Papa-''''', indicating ancestry from a priest, e.g.", "''Papageorgiou'', the \"son of a priest named George\".", "Others, like '''''Archi-''''' and '''''Mastro-''''' signify \"boss\" and \"tradesman\" respectively.Prefixes such as '''''Konto-''''', '''''Makro-''''', and '''''Chondro-''''' describe body characteristics, such as \"short\", \"tall/long\" and \"fat\".", "''Gero-'' and ''Palaio-'' signify \"old\" or \"wise\".Other prefixes include '''''Hadji-''''' (Χαντζή- or Χαντζι-) which was an honorific deriving from the Arabic Hadj or pilgrimage, and indicate that the person had made a pilgrimage (in the case of Christians, to Jerusalem) and '''''Kara-''''' which is attributed to the Turkish word for \"black\" deriving from the Ottoman Empire era.", "The Turkish suffix '''''-oglou''''' (derived from a patronym, ''-oğlu'' in Turkish) can also be found.", "Although they are of course more common among Greece's Muslim minority, they still can be found among the Christian majority, often Greeks or Karamanlides who were pressured to leave Turkey after the Turkish Republic was founded (since Turkish surnames only date to the founding of the Republic, when Atatürk made them compulsory).Arvanitic surnames also exist; an example is ''Tzanavaras'' or ''Tzavaras'', from the Arvanitic word ''çanavar'' or ''çavar'' meaning \"brave\" (''pallikari'' in Greek).Most Greek patronymic suffixes are diminutives, which vary by region.", "The most common Hellenic patronymic suffixes are:* '''''-poulos/-poulou''''', which has a Latin origin (''pullus'') and means \"the little\", representing \"the son of ...\", so if a man's family name is \"Christopoulos\", it means that his father was named \"Christos\".", "This suffix is very widespread throughout Greece and is originally from the Peloponessus in particular.", "* '''''-idis/iadis/antis''''' The suffix '''''-idis''''' (often transliterated ''-ides'' in English and French) is the oldest in use.", "Zeus, for example, was also referred to as ''Cronides'' (\"son of Cronus\").", "A common suffix in Byzantium around Bithynia and Byzantine Thrace (Constantinople), also used by Pontic Greeks and Caucasus Greeks in the Pontic Alps, northeast Anatolia, Georgia, and the former Russian Caucasus region of Kars Oblast e.g.", "''Mikhailidis'', the \"clan of Michael\"* '''''-akis/-aki''''' is associated primarily with Crete and the Aegean Islands.", "It is a patronymic signifying \"little\" and/or \"son\"; therefore ''Theodorakis'' is \"little Theodore\".Others, less common, are:* '''''-atos/-atou''''' (from Cephallonia and other Ionian Islands)* '''''-as/-a/-ekas/kas''''' (from Epirus) and Greek Macedonia* '''''-ellis/-elli''''' (from Lesvos Island)* '''''-eas/akos/oggonas''''' (from Mani)* '''''-oglou''''' (from the Turkish suffix for \"child of\" used by both genders)* '''''-ou''''' (genitive, from Cyprus)* '''''-ou/ides/kos''''' (from Macedonia)* '''''-ekas/las''''' (from Epirus)Either the surname or the given name may come first in different contexts; in newspapers and in informal uses, the order is ''given name + surname'', while in official documents and forums (tax forms, registrations, military service, school forms), the surname is often listed or said first.===Hungary===In Hungarian, like Asian languages but unlike most other European ones (see French and German above for exceptions), the family name is placed before the given names.", "This usage does not apply to non-Hungarian names, for example \"Tony Blair\" will remain \"Tony Blair\" when written in Hungarian texts.Names of Hungarian individuals, however, appear in Western order in English writing.===Indonesia===Indonesians comprise more than 1,300 ethnic groups.", "Not all of these groups traditionally have surnames, and in the populous Java surnames are not common at all – regardless of which one of the six officially recognized religions the name carrier profess.", "For instance, a Christian Javanese woman named ''Agnes Mega Rosalin'' has three forenames and no surname.", "\"Agnes\" is her Christian name, but \"Mega\" can be the first name she uses and the name which she is addressed with.", "\"Rosalin\" is only a middle name.", "Nonetheless, Indonesians are well aware of the custom of family names, which is known as ''marga'' or ''fam'', and such names have become a specific kind of identifier.", "People can tell what a person's heritage is by his or her family or clan name.", "* The various ethnicities of Batak people from North Sumatra are known for their strict tradition of preserving their family names, which are actually clan names.", "See Marga (Batak) for details.", "* The matrilineal clan names of the Minangkabau people are passed down from mothers to their children.", "Minangkabau is the largest matrilineal society in the world.", "* The Minahasan people of North Sulawesi have an extensive list of surnames, such as ''Toar, Lumimuut, Emor, Muntuan, Nayoan, Wenas'' and ''Luntungan''.", "* The Ambonese people of the Maluku Islands have family names such as ''Lawalata, Matulessy'' and ''Latumahina''.", "* The various ethnicities of Dayak people from the provinces in Kalimantan have surnames such as ''Dau'' and ''Narang''.", "* The Bugis people from South Sulawesi have surnames such as ''Mappanyukki, Mallarangeng'' and ''Matalatta''.", "* Among the Toraja people of South Sulawesi, common surname elements include ''Rante–, Pong–, Allo–, –bua, –linggi''.", "Examples: ''Rantedatu, Ranteallo, Pongrambu, Pongtiku, Pongrangga, Allodatu, Randebua, Tanabua, Tarukbua, Datubua, Allobua, Senolinggi''.Javanese people are the majority in Indonesia, and most do not have any surname.", "There are some individuals, especially the old generation, who have only one name, such as \"Suharto\" and \"Sukarno\".", "These are not only common with the Javanese but also with other Indonesian ethnic groups who do not have the tradition of surnames.", "If, however, they are Muslims, they might opt to follow Arabic naming customs, but Indonesian Muslims do not automatically follow Arabic name traditions.In conjunction with migration to Europe or America, Indonesians without surnames often adopt a surname based on some family name or middle name.", "The forms for visa application many Western countries use, has a square for writing the last name which cannot be left unfilled by the applicant.Most Chinese Indonesians substituted their Chinese surnames with Indonesian-sounding surnames due to political pressure from 1965 to 1998 under Suharto's regime.===Iranian/Persian/Kazan===Persian last names may be:* Simple nouns; e.g.", "Afshar (\"Of Afsharid dynasty\"), Bahar, Khayyam* Noun plus a suffix; e.g.", "Golzaar (Gol + -zaar), Amouzgaar (Amouz + -gaar), Daadgar (Daad + -gar)* More complex compound nouns; e.g.", "Bolurforushan (Bolur + forush + -an), Ahmedinejad (Ahmed + -i + -nejad), Farshchian (Farsh + -chi + -an)* Two or more nouns; e.g.", "Mostafavi Musavi Khomeini, Hashemi RafsanjaniSuffixes include: -an (plural suffix), -i (\"of\"), -zad/-zadeh (\"born of\"), -pur (\"son of\"), -nejad (\"from the race of\"), -nia (\"descendant of\"), -mand (\"having or pertaining to\"), -vand (\"succeeding\"), -far (\"holder of\"), -doost (\"-phile\"), -khah (\"seeking of\"), -manesh (\"having the manner of\"), -ian/-yan, -gar and -chi (\"whose vocation pertains\").An example is names of geographical locations plus \"-i\": Irani (\"Iranian\"), Gilani (\"of Gilan province\"), Tabrizi (\"of the city of Tabriz\").Another example is last names that indicate relation to religious groups such as Zoroastrian (e.g.", "Goshtaspi, Namiranian, Azargoshasp), Jewish (e.g.", "Yaghubian Jacobean, Hayyem Life, Shaul Saul) or Muslim (e.g.", "Alavi, Islamnia, Montazeri)Last names are arbitrary; their holder need not to have any relation with their meaning.Traditionally in Iran, the wife does not take her husband's surname, although children take the surname of their father.", "Individual reactions notwithstanding, it is possible to call a married woman by her husband's surname.", "This is facilitated by the fact that English words \"Mrs.\", \"Miss\", \"Woman\", \"Lady\" and \"Wife (of)\" in a polite context are all translated into \"خانم\" (Khaanom).", "Context, however, is important: \"خانم گلدوست\" (Khaanom Goldust) may, for instance, refer to the daughter of Mr. Goldust instead of his wife.When most of Iranian surnames are used with a name, the name will be ended with a suffix _E or _ie (of) such as Hasan_e roshan (Hasan is name and roshan is surname) that means Hasan of Roshan or Mosa_ie saiidi (Muses of saiidi).", "The _e is not for surname and it is difficult to say it is a part of surname.===Italy===Italy has around 350,000 surnames.", "Most of them derive from the following sources: patronym or ilk (e.g.", "''Francesco di Marco'', \"Francis, son of Mark\" or ''Eduardo de Filippo'', \"Edward belonging to the family of Philip\"), occupation (e.g.", "''Enzo Ferrari'', \"Heinz (of the) Blacksmiths\"), personal characteristic (e.g.", "nicknames or pet names like ''Dario Forte'', \"Darius the Strong\"), geographic origin (e.g.", "''Elisabetta Romano'', \"Elisabeth from Rome\") and objects (e.g.", "''Carlo Sacchi'', \"Charles Bags\").", "The two most common Italian family names, ''Russo'' and ''Rossi'', mean the same thing, \"Red\", possibly referring to the hair color.Both Western and Eastern orders are used for full names: the given name usually comes first, but the family name may come first in administrative settings; lists are usually indexed according to the last name.Since 1975, women have kept their own surname when married, but until recently (2000) they could have added the surname of the husband according to the civil code, although it was a very seldom-used practice.", "In recent years, the husband's surname cannot be used in any official situation.", "In some unofficial situations, sometimes both surnames are written (the proper first), sometimes separated by ''in'' (e.g.", "''Giuseppina Mauri in Crivelli'') or, in case of widows, ''ved.''", "(''vedova'').===Latvia===Latvian male surnames usually end in ''-s'', ''-š'' or ''-is'' whereas the female versions of the same names end in ''-a'' or ''-e'' or ''s'' in both unmarried and married women.Before the emancipation from serfdom (1817 in Courland, 1819 in Vidzeme, 1861 in Latgale) only noblemen, free craftsmen or people living in towns had surnames.", "Therefore, the oldest Latvian surnames originate from German or Low German, reflecting the dominance of German as an official language in Latvia till the 19th century.", "Examples: ''Meijers/Meijere'' (German: ''Meier'', farm administrator; akin to Mayor), ''Millers/Millere'' (German: ''Müller'', miller), ''Šmits/Šmite'' (German: ''Schmidt'', smith), ''Šulcs/Šulce, Šulca'' (German: ''Schultz'' or ''Schulz'', constable), ''Ulmanis'' (German: ''Ullmann'', a person from Ulm), ''Godmanis'' (a God-man), ''Pētersons'' (son of Peter).", "Some Latvian surnames, mainly from Latgale are of Polish or Belarusian origin by changing the final ''-ski/-cki'' to ''-skis/-ckis'', ''-czyk'' to ''-čiks'' or ''-vich/-wicz'' to ''-vičs'', such as ''Sokolovkis/Sokolovska'', ''Baldunčiks/Baldunčika'' or ''Ratkevičs/Ratkeviča''.Most Latvian peasants received their surnames in 1826 (in Vidzeme), in 1835 (in Courland), and in 1866 (in Latgale).", "Diminutives were the most common form of family names.", "Examples: ''Kalniņš/Kalniņa'' (small hill), ''Bērziņš/Bērziņa'' (small birch).Nowadays many Latvians of Slavic descent have surnames of Russian, Belarusian, or Ukrainian origin, for example ''Volkovs/Volkova'' or ''Antoņenko''.===Lithuania===Lithuanian names follow the Baltic distinction between male and female suffixes of names, although the details are different.", "Male surnames usually end in ''-a'', ''-as'', ''-aitis'', ''-ys'', ''-ius'', or ''-us'', whereas the female versions change these suffixes to ''-aitė, -ytė, -iūtė'', and ''-utė'' respectively (if unmarried), ''-ienė'' (if married), or ''-ė'' (not indicating the marital status).", "Some Lithuanians have names of Polish or another Slavic origin, which are made to conform to Lithuanian by changing the final ''-ski'' to ''-skas'', such as ''Sadauskas'', with the female version bein -''skaitė'' (if unmarried), ''-skienė'' (if married), or ''-skė'' (not indicating the marital status).===Malta===Different cultures have their impact on the demographics of the Maltese islands, and this is evident in the various surnames Maltese citizens bear nowadays.", "There are very few ''Maltese'' surnames per se: the few that originate from Maltese places of origin include ''Chircop'' (Kirkop), ''Lia'' (Lija), ''Balzan'' (Balzan), ''Valletta'' (Valletta), and ''Sciberras'' (Xebb ir-Ras Hill, on which Valletta was built).", "The village of Munxar, Gozo is characterised by the majority of its population having one of two surnames, either ''Curmi'' or ''de Brincat''.", "In Gozo, the surnames ''Bajada'' and ''Farrugia'' are also common.", "* '''Sicilian and Italian surnames'''Sicilian and Italian surnames are common due to the close vicinity to Malta.", "Sicilians were the first to colonise the Maltese islands.", "Common examples include ''Azzopardi'', ''Bonello'', ''Cauchi'', ''Farrugia'', ''Gauci'', ''Rizzo'', ''Schembri'', ''Tabone'', ''Vassallo'', ''Vella''.", "* '''French surnames'''Common examples include ''Depuis'', ''Montfort'', ''Monsenuier'', ''Tafel''.", "* '''English surnames'''English surnames exist for a number of reasons, but mainly due to migration as well as Malta forming a part of the British Empire in the 19th century and most of the 20th.", "Common examples include ''Bone'', ''Harding'', ''Atkins'', ''Mattocks'', ''Smith'', ''Jones'', ''Woods'', ''Turner''.", "* '''Sicilian Arabic surnames'''Arabic surnames occur in part due to the early presence of the Arabs in Malta.", "Common examples include ''Sammut'', ''Camilleri'', ''Zammit'', and ''Xuereb''.", "* '''Spanish surnames'''Common surnames of Spanish origin include ''Abela'', ''Galdes'', ''Herrera'', and ''Guzman''.", "* '''German surnames'''Surnames from foreign countries from the Middle Ages include German,such as ''von Brockdorff'', ''Hyzler'', and ''Schranz''.", "* '''Greek surnames'''Many of the earliest Maltese surnames are Sicilian Greek, e.g.", "''Cilia'', ''Calleia'', ''Brincat'', ''Cauchi''.", "Much less common are recent surnames from Greece; examples include ''Dacoutros'', and ''Trakosopoulos''* '''Jewish surnames'''The original Jewish community of Malta and Gozo has left no trace of their presence on the islands since they were expelled in January 1493.", "* '''Customs'''In line with the practice in other Christian, European states, women generally assume their husband's surname after legal marriage, and this is passed on to any children the couple may bear.", "Some women opt to retain their old name, for professional/personal reasons, or combine their surname with that of their husband.===Mongolia===Mongolians do not use surnames in the way that most Westerners, Chinese or Japanese do.", "Since the socialist period, patronymics – then called ''ovog'', now called ''etsgiin ner'' – are used instead of a surname.", "If the father's name is unknown, a matronymic is used.", "The patro- or matronymic is written before the given name.", "Therefore, if a man with given name Tsakhia has a son, and gives the son the name Elbegdorj, the son's full name is Tsakhia Elbegdorj.", "Very frequently, the patronymic is given in genitive case, i.e.", "Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj.", "However, the patronymic is rather insignificant in everyday use and usually just given as an initial – Ts.", "Elbegdorj.", "People are normally just referred to and addressed by their given name (Elbegdorj ''guai'' – Mr. Elbegdorj), and if two people share a common given name, they are usually just kept apart by their initials, not by the full patronymic.Since 2000, Mongolians have been officially using clan names – ''ovog'', the same word that had been used for the patronymics before – on their IDs.", "Many people chose the names of the ancient clans and tribes such Borjigin, Besud, Jalair, etc.", "Also many extended families chose the names of the native places of their ancestors.", "Some chose the names of their most ancient known ancestor.", "Some just decided to pass their own given names (or modifications of their given names) to their descendants as clan names.", "Some chose other attributes of their lives as surnames.", "Gürragchaa chose Sansar (Cosmos).", "Clan names precede the patronymics and given names, e.g.", "Besud Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj.", "These clan names have a significance and are included in Mongolian passports.===Myanmar (Burma)===People from Myanmar or Burmese, have no family names.", "This, to some, is the only known Asian people having no family names at all.", "Some of those from Myanmar or Burma, who are familiar with European or American cultures, began to put to their younger generations with a family name – adopted from the notable ancestors.", "For example, Ms. Aung San Suu Kyi is the daughter of the late Father of Independence General Aung San; Hayma Ne Win, is the daughter of the famous actor Kawleikgyin Ne Win etc.===Philippines===Until the middle of the 19th century, there was no standardization of surnames in the Philippines.", "There were native Filipinos without surnames, others whose surnames deliberately did not match that of their families, as well as those who took certain surnames simply because they had a certain prestige, usually ones related to the Roman Catholic religion, such as de los Santos (\"of the saints\") and de la Cruz (\"of the cross\"), or of local nobility such as of rajahs or ''datus''.On 21 November 1849, the Spanish Governor-General of the Philippines, Narciso Clavería y Zaldúa, decreed an end to these arbitrary practices, the systematic distribution of surnames to Filipinos without prior surnames and the universal implementation of the Spanish naming system.", "This produced the ''Catálogo alfabético de apellidos'' (\"Alphabetical Catalogue of Surnames\"), which listed permitted surnames with origins in Spanish, Filipino, and Hispanized Chinese words, names, and numbers.", "Thus, many Spanish-sounding Filipino surnames are not surnames common to the rest of the Spanish-speaking world.", "The book contained many words coming from Spanish and the Philippine languages such as Tagalog, as well as many Basque and Catalan surnames.The colonial authorities implemented this decree because many Christianized Filipinos assumed religious names.", "There soon were too many people surnamed ''de los Santos'' (\"of the saints\"), ''de la Cruz'' (\"of the cross\"), ''del Rosario'' (\"of the Rosary\") etc., which made it difficult for the Spanish colonists to control the Filipino people, and most importantly, to collect taxes.", "These extremely common names were also banned by the decree unless the name has been used by a family for at least four generations.", "This Spanish naming custom also countered the native custom before the Spanish period, wherein siblings assumed different surnames.", "Clavería's decree was enforced to different degrees in different parts of the colony.Because of this implementation of Spanish naming customs, of the arrangement \"given name + paternal surname + maternal surname\", in the Philippines, a Spanish surname does not necessarily denote Spanish ancestry.In practice, the application of this decree varied from municipality to municipality.", "Most municipalities received surnames starting with only one initial letter; in others, this was not well enforced.", "For example, the majority of residents of the island of Banton in the province of Romblon have surnames starting with F such as ''Fabicon'', ''Fallarme'', ''Fadrilan'', and ''Ferran''.", "Other examples are most cities and towns in Albay, Catanduanes, Ilocos Sur and Marinduque, where the majority of their residents have surnames beginning with a particular letter.Thus, although perhaps a majority of Filipinos have Spanish surnames, such a surname does not indicate Spanish ancestry.", "In addition, most Filipinos currently do not use Spanish accented letters in their Spanish derived names.", "The lack of accents in Filipino Spanish has been attributed to the lack of accents on the predominantly American typewriters after the United States gained control of the Philippines.The vast majority of Filipinos follow a naming system in the American order (i.e.", "given name + middle name + surname), which is the reverse of the Spanish naming order (i.e.", "given name + paternal surname + maternal surname).", "Children take the mother's surname as their middle name, followed by their father's as their surname; for example, a son of Juan de la Cruz and his wife María Agbayani may be David Agbayani de la Cruz.", "Women usually take the surnames of their husband upon marriage, and consequently lose their maiden middle names; so upon her marriage to David de la Cruz, the full name of Laura Yuchengco Macaraeg would become Laura Macaraeg de la Cruz.", "Their maiden last names automatically become their middle names upon marriage.There are other sources for surnames.", "Many Filipinos also have Chinese-derived surnames, which in some cases could indicate Chinese ancestry.", "Many Hispanized Chinese numerals and other Hispanized Chinese words, however, were also among the surnames in the ''Catálogo alfabético de apellidos''.", "For those whose surname may indicate Chinese ancestry, analysis of the surname may help to pinpoint when those ancestors arrived in the Philippines.", "A Hispanized Chinese surname such as Cojuangco suggests an 18th-century arrival while a Chinese surname such as Lim suggests a relatively recent immigration.", "Some Chinese surnames such as Tiu-Laurel are composed of the immigrant Chinese ancestor's surname as well as the name of that ancestor's godparent on receiving Christian baptism.In the predominantly Muslim areas of the southern Philippines, adoption of surnames was influenced by Islamic religious terms.", "As a result, surnames among Filipino Muslims are largely Arabic-based, and include such surnames as Hassan and Haradji.There are also Filipinos who, to this day, have no surnames at all, particularly if they come from indigenous cultural communities.====Naming customs in the Philippines====Prior to the establishment of the Philippines as a US territory during the earlier part of the 20th century, Filipinos usually followed Iberian naming customs.", "However, upon the promulgation of the Family Code of 1987, Filipinos formalized adopting the American system of using their surnames.A common Filipino name will consist of the given name (mostly 2 given names are given), the initial letter of the mother's maiden name and finally the father's surname (i.e.", "Lucy Anne C. de Guzman).", "Also, women are allowed to retain their maiden name or use both her and her husband's surname as a double-barreled surname, separated by a dash.", "This is common in feminist circles or when the woman holds a prominent office (e.g.", "Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, Miriam Defensor Santiago).", "In more traditional circles, especially those who belong to the prominent families in the provinces, the custom of the woman being addressed as \"Mrs.", "Husband's Full Name\" is still common.For widows, who chose to marry again, two norms are in existence.", "For those who were widowed before the Family Code, the full name of the woman remains while the surname of the deceased husband is attached.", "That is, Maria Andres, who was widowed by Ignacio Dimaculangan will have the name Maria Andres viuda de Dimaculangan.", "If she chooses to marry again, this name will still continue to exist while the surname of the new husband is attached.", "Thus, if Maria marries Rene de los Santos, her new name will be Maria Andres viuda de Dimaculangan de los Santos.However, a new norm is also in existence.", "The woman may choose to use her husband's surname to be one of her middle names.", "Thus, Maria Andres viuda de Dimaculangan de los Santos may also be called Maria A.D. de los Santos.Children will however automatically inherit their father's surname if they are considered legitimate.", "If the child is born out of wedlock, the mother will automatically pass her surname to the child, unless the father gives a written acknowledgment of paternity.", "The father may also choose to give the child both his parents' surnames if he wishes (that is Gustavo Paredes, whose parents are Eulogio Paredes and Juliana Angeles, while having Maria Solis as a wife, may name his child Kevin S. Angeles-Paredes.In some Tagalog regions, the norm of giving patronyms, or in some cases matronyms, is also accepted.", "These names are of course not official, since family names in the Philippines are inherited.", "It is not uncommon to refer to someone as Juan anak ni Pablo (John, the son of Paul) or Juan apo ni Teofilo (John, the grandson of Theophilus).===Romania===In Romania, like in most of Europe, it is customary for a child to take his father's family name, and a wife to take her husband's last name.", "However, this is not compulsory spouses and parents are allowed to choose other options too, as the law is flexible (see Art.", "282, Art.", "449 Art.", "450.of the Civil Code of Romania).Until the 19th century, the names were primarily of the form \"given name father's name grandfather's name\".", "The few exceptions are usually famous people or the nobility (boyars).", "The name reform introduced around 1850 had the names changed to a western style, most likely imported from France, consisting of a given name followed by a family name.As such, the name is called ''prenume'' (French ''prénom''), while the family name is called ''nume'' or, when otherwise ambiguous, ''nume de familie'' (\"family name\").", "Although not mandatory, middle names are common.Historically, when the family name reform was introduced in the mid-19th century, the default was to use a patronym, or a matronym when the father was dead or unknown.", "A common convention was to append the suffix ''-escu'' to the father's name, e.g.", "''Anghelescu'' (\"''Anghel's'' child\") and ''Petrescu'' (\"''Petre's'' child\").", "(The ''-escu'' seems to come from Latin ''-iscum'', thus being cognate with Italian ''-esco'' and French ''-esque''.)", "Another common convention was to append the suffix ''-eanu'' to the name of the place of origin, e.g.", "''Munteanu'' (\"from the mountains\") and ''Moldoveanu'' (\"from ''Moldova''\").", "These uniquely Romanian suffixes strongly identify ancestral nationality.There are also descriptive family names derived from occupations, nicknames, and events, e.g.", "''Botezatu'' (\"baptised\"), ''Barbu'' (\"bushy bearded\"), ''Prodan'' (\"foster\"), ''Bălan'' (\"blond\"), ''Fieraru'' (\"smith\"), ''Croitoru'' (\"tailor\"), \"Păcuraru\" (\"shepherd\").Romanian family names remain the same regardless of the sex of the person.Although given names appear before family names in most Romanian contexts, official documents invert the order, ostensibly for filing purposes.", "Correspondingly, Romanians occasionally introduce themselves with their family names first, e.g.", "a student signing a test paper in school.Romanians bearing names of non-Romanian origin often adopt Romanianised versions of their ancestral surnames.", "For example, ''Jurovschi'' for Polish ''Żurowski'', or Popovici for Serbian Popović (\"son of a priest\"), which preserves the original pronunciation of the surname through transliteration.", "In some cases, these changes were mandated by the state.===Turkey===In Turkey, following the Surname Law imposed in 1934 in the context of Atatürk's Reforms, every family living in Turkey was given a family name.", "The surname was generally selected by the elderly people of the family and could be any Turkish word (or a permitted word for families belonging to official minority groups).Some of the most common family names in Turkey are ''Yılmaz'' ('undaunted'), ''Doğan'' ('falcon'), ''Şahin'' ('hawk'), ''Yıldırım'' ('thunderbolt'), ''Şimşek'' ('lightning'), ''Öztürk'' ('purely Turkish').Patronymic surnames do not necessarily refer to ancestry, or in most cases cannot be traced back historically.", "The most usual Turkish patronymic suffix is ''–oğlu''; ''–ov(a)'', ''–yev(a)'' and ''–zade'' also occur in the surnames of Azeri or other Turkic descendants.Official minorities like Armenians, Greeks, and Jews have surnames in their own mother languages.The Armenian families living in Turkey usually have Armenian surnames and generally have the suffix ''–yan'', ''–ian'', or, using Turkish spelling, ''-can''.", "Greek descendants usually have Greek surnames which might have Greek suffixes like ''–ou'', ''–aki(s)'', ''–poulos/poulou'', ''–idis/idou'', ''–iadis/iadou'' or prefixes like ''papa–''.The Sephardic Jews who were expelled from Spain and settled in Turkey in 1492 have both Jewish/Hebrew surnames, and Spanish surnames, usually indicating their native regions, cities or villages back in Spain, like ''De Leon'' or ''Toledano''." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]
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[ [ "Franc" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''franc''' is any of various units of currency.", "One franc is typically divided into 100 centimes.", "The name is said to derive from the Latin inscription ''francorum rex'' (King of the Franks) used on early French coins and until the 18th century, or from the French ''franc'', meaning \"frank\" (and \"free\" in certain contexts, such as ''coup franc'', \"free kick\").The countries that use francs today include Switzerland, Liechtenstein, and most of Francophone Africa.", "The Swiss franc is a major world currency today due to the prominence of Swiss financial institutions.Before the introduction of the euro in 1999, francs were also used in France, Belgium and Luxembourg, while Andorra and Monaco accepted the French franc as legal tender (Monégasque franc).", "The franc was also used in French colonies including Algeria and Cambodia.", "The franc is sometimes Italianised or Hispanicised as the ''franco'', for instance in Luccan franco." ], [ "Origins", "Jean le Bon's return from captivity from 5 December 1360, and featured combative imagery.", "Gold, 24 karats, 3.73 g. It conveniently coincided with the account value of one livre tournois.The franc was originally a French gold coin of 3.87 g minted in 1360 on the occasion of the release of King John II (\"the Good\"), held by the English since his capture at the Battle of Poitiers four years earlier.", "It was equivalent to one ''livre tournois'' (Tours pound)." ], [ "French franc", "The French franc was originally a gold coin issued in France from 1360 until 1380, then a silver coin issued between 1575 and 1641.The franc finally became the national currency from 1795 until 1999 (franc coins and notes were legal tender until 2002).", "Though abolished as a legal coin by King Louis XIII in 1641 in favor of the gold louis and silver écu, the term franc continued to be used in common parlance for the livre tournois.", "The franc was also minted for many of the former French colonies, such as Morocco, Algeria, French West Africa, and others.", "Today, after independence, many of these countries continue to use the franc as their standard denomination.The value of the French franc was locked to the euro at 1 euro = 6.55957 FRF on 31 December 1998, and after the introduction of the euro notes and coins, ceased to be legal tender after 28 February 2002, although they were still exchangeable at banks until 19 February 2012." ], [ "CFA and CFP francs", "Fourteen African countries use the franc CFA (in west Africa, ''Communauté financière africaine''; in equatorial Africa, ''Coopération financière en Afrique centrale''), originally (1945) worth 1.7 French francs and then from 1948, 2 francs (from 1960: 0.02 new franc) but after January 1994 worth only 0.01 French franc.", "Therefore, from January 1999, 1 CFA franc is equivalent to €0.00152449.On 22 December 2019, it was announced that the CFA franc would be replaced in 2020 by an independent currency to be called Eco.A separate (franc CFP) circulates in France's Pacific territories, worth €0.0084 (formerly 0.055 French franc)." ], [ "Comorian franc", "In 1981, The Comoros established an arrangement with the French government similar to that of the CFA franc.", "Originally, 50 Comorian francs were worth 1 French franc.", "In January 1994, the rate was changed to 75 Comorian francs to the French franc.", "Since 1999, the currency has been pegged to the euro." ], [ "Belgian franc and Luxembourg franc", "The conquest of most of western Europe by Revolutionary and Napoleonic France led to the franc's wide circulation.", "Following independence from the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the new Kingdom of Belgium in 1832 adopted its own Belgian franc, equivalent to the French one, followed by Luxembourg adopting the Luxembourgish franc in 1848 and Switzerland in 1850.Newly unified Italy adopted the lira on a similar basis in 1862.In 1865, France, Belgium, Switzerland and Italy created the Latin Monetary Union (to be joined by Spain and Greece in 1868): each would possess a national currency unit (franc, lira, peseta, drachma) worth 4.5 g of silver or of gold (fine), all freely exchangeable at a rate of 1:1.In the 1870s the gold value was made the fixed standard, a situation which was to continue until 1914.In 1926 Belgium as well as France experienced depreciation and an abrupt collapse of confidence, leading to the introduction of a new gold currency for international transactions, the ''belga'' of 5 francs, and the country's withdrawal from the monetary union, which ceased to exist at the end of the year.", "The 1921 monetary union of Belgium and Luxembourg survived, however, forming the basis for full economic union in 1932.Like the French franc, the Belgian and Luxembourg francs ceased to exist on 1 January 1999, when they became fixed at 1 EUR = 40.3399 BEF/LUF, thus a franc was worth €0.024789.Old franc coins and notes lost their legal tender status on 28 February 2002.One Luxembourg franc was equal to one Belgian franc.", "Belgian francs were legal tender inside Luxembourg, and Luxembourg francs were legal tender in the whole of Belgium.", "(In reality, Luxembourg francs were only accepted as means of payment by shops and businesses in the Belgian province of Luxembourg adjacent to the independent Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, this for historical reasons.", ")The equivalent name of the Belgian franc in Dutch, Belgium's other official language, was .", "As mentioned before, in Luxembourg the franc was called (plural ) in Luxembourgish." ], [ "Swiss franc and Liechtenstein franc", "The Swiss franc (ISO code: CHF or 756; ; ), which appreciated significantly against the new European currency from April to September 2000, remains one of the world's strongest currencies, worth just over one euro.", "The Swiss franc is used in Switzerland and in Liechtenstein.", "Liechtenstein retains the ability to mint its own currency, the Liechtenstein franc, which it does from time to time for commemorative or emergency purposes.The name of the country \"Swiss Confederation\" is found on some of the coins in Latin (''Confoederatio Helvetica''), as Switzerland has four official languages, all of which are used on the notes.", "The denomination is abbreviated \"Fr.\"", "on the coins which is the abbreviation in all four languages." ], [ "Saar franc", "The Saar franc, linked at par to the French franc, was introduced in the Saar Protectorate in 1948.On 1 January 1957, the territory joined the Federal Republic of Germany, nevertheless, in its new member state of Saarland, the Saar franc continued to be the currency until 6 July 1959.The name of the Saar franc in German, the main official language in the Protectorate, was ''Franken''.", "Coins displaying German inscriptions and the coat of arms of the Protectorate were circulated and used together with French francs.", "As banknotes, only French franc bills existed." ], [ "Countries that use a franc", "=== Countries using a franc =======As of 2023==== Countries Currency ISO 4217 code West African CFA franc XOF Burundian franc BIF Central African CFA franc XAF Congolese franc CDF Comorian franc KMF West African CFA franc XOF Djiboutian franc DJF Central African CFA franc XAF Guinean franc GNF West African CFA franc XOF Swiss franc CHF West African CFA franc XOF Rwandan franc RWF West African CFA franc XOF Swiss franc CHF West African CFA franc XOF=====Collectivities franc===== Countries Currency ISO 4217 code French Polynesia CFP franc XPF New Caledonia Wallis and Futuna====Selected obsolete==== Countries Former currency Replaced by Since Algerian franc Algerian dinar 1964 French franc and Spanish peseta euro 2002 Belgian franc (Overseas collectivities) French franc Luxembourgish franc Malagasy francMalagasy ariary 2005 CFA franc Mauritanian ouguiya 1973 French franc and Monégasque franc euro 2002 Moroccan franc Moroccan dirham 1960 Saar franc (used from 1947 -1959) Deutsche Mark 1959 Tunisian franc Tunisian dinar 1958" ], [ "See also", "*Cape Verdean escudo*Latin Monetary Union* The Latverian franc is the currency of the fictional country of Latveria.", "*Special settlement currencies**UIC franc**Gold franc*Livre tournois (French pound)*Roman currency*New Hebrides franc*Westphalian frank*Reunion franc" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Federal Reserve" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Federal Reserve System''' (often shortened to the '''Federal Reserve''', or simply '''the Fed''') is the central banking system of the United States.", "It was created on December 23, 1913, with the enactment of the Federal Reserve Act, after a series of financial panics (particularly the panic of 1907) led to the desire for central control of the monetary system in order to alleviate financial crises.", "Over the years, events such as the Great Depression in the 1930s and the Great Recession during the 2000s have led to the expansion of the roles and responsibilities of the Federal Reserve System.Congress established three key objectives for monetary policy in the Federal Reserve Act: maximizing employment, stabilizing prices, and moderating long-term interest rates.", "The first two objectives are sometimes referred to as the Federal Reserve's dual mandate.", "Its duties have expanded over the years, and currently also include supervising and regulating banks, maintaining the stability of the financial system, and providing financial services to depository institutions, the U.S. government, and foreign official institutions.", "The Fed also conducts research into the economy and provides numerous publications, such as the Beige Book and the FRED database.The Federal Reserve System is composed of several layers.", "It is governed by the presidentially-appointed board of governors or Federal Reserve Board (FRB).", "Twelve regional Federal Reserve Banks, located in cities throughout the nation, regulate and oversee privately-owned commercial banks.", "Nationally chartered commercial banks are required to hold stock in, and can elect some board members of, the Federal Reserve Bank of their region.The Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) sets monetary policy by adjusting the target for the federal funds rate, which influences market interest rates generally and via the monetary transmission mechanism in turn US economic activity.", "The FOMC consists of all seven members of the board of governors and the twelve regional Federal Reserve Bank presidents, though only five bank presidents vote at a time—the president of the New York Fed and four others who rotate through one-year voting terms.", "There are also various advisory councils.", "It has a structure unique among central banks, and is also unusual in that the United States Department of the Treasury, an entity outside of the central bank, prints the currency used.The federal government sets the salaries of the board's seven governors, and it receives all the system's annual profits, after dividends on member banks' capital investments are paid, and an account surplus is maintained.", "In 2015, the Federal Reserve earned a net income of $100.2 billion and transferred $97.7 billion to the U.S. Treasury, and 2020 earnings were approximately $88.6 billion with remittances to the U.S. Treasury of $86.9 billion.", "Although an instrument of the U.S. government, the Federal Reserve System considers itself \"an independent central bank because its monetary policy decisions do not have to be approved by the president or by anyone else in the executive or legislative branches of government, it does not receive funding appropriated by Congress, and the terms of the members of the board of governors span multiple presidential and congressional terms.\"" ], [ "Purpose", "The primary declared motivation for creating the Federal Reserve System was to address banking panics.", "Other purposes are stated in the Federal Reserve Act, such as \"to furnish an elastic currency, to afford means of rediscounting commercial paper, to establish a more effective supervision of banking in the United States, and for other purposes\".", "Before the founding of the Federal Reserve System, the United States underwent several financial crises.", "A particularly severe crisis in 1907 led Congress to enact the Federal Reserve Act in 1913.Today the Federal Reserve System has responsibilities in addition to stabilizing the financial system.Current functions of the Federal Reserve System include:* To address the problem of banking panics* To serve as the central bank for the United States* To strike a balance between private interests of banks and the centralized responsibility of government** To supervise and regulate banking institutions** To protect the credit rights of consumers* To conduct monetary policy by influencing market interest rates to achieve the sometimes-conflicting goals of** maximum employment** stable prices, interpreted as an inflation rate of 2 percent per year on average** moderate long-term interest rates* To maintain the stability of the financial system and contain systemic risk in financial markets* To provide financial services to depository institutions, the U.S. government, and foreign official institutions, including playing a major role in operating the nation's payments system** To facilitate the exchange of payments among regions** To respond to local liquidity needs* To strengthen U.S. standing in the world economyUnemployment vs Inflation vs Inverted yield curve=== Addressing the problem of bank panics ===Banking institutions in the United States are required to hold reservesamounts of currency and deposits in other banksequal to only a fraction of the amount of the bank's deposit liabilities owed to customers.", "This practice is called fractional-reserve banking.", "As a result, banks usually invest the majority of the funds received from depositors.", "On rare occasions, too many of the bank's customers will withdraw their savings and the bank will need help from another institution to continue operating; this is called a bank run.", "Bank runs can lead to a multitude of social and economic problems.", "The Federal Reserve System was designed as an attempt to prevent or minimize the occurrence of bank runs, and possibly act as a lender of last resort when a bank run does occur.", "Many economists, following Nobel laureate Milton Friedman, believe that the Federal Reserve inappropriately refused to lend money to small banks during the bank runs of 1929; Friedman argued that this contributed to the Great Depression.==== Check clearing system ====Because some banks refused to clear checks from certain other banks during times of economic uncertainty, a check-clearing system was created in the Federal Reserve System.", "It is briefly described in ''The Federal Reserve SystemPurposes and Functions'' as follows:==== Lender of last resort ====In the United States, the Federal Reserve serves as the lender of last resort to those institutions that cannot obtain credit elsewhere and the collapse of which would have serious implications for the economy.", "It took over this role from the private sector \"clearing houses\" which operated during the Free Banking Era; whether public or private, the availability of liquidity was intended to prevent bank runs.==== Fluctuations ====Through its discount window and credit operations, Reserve Banks provide liquidity to banks to meet short-term needs stemming from seasonal fluctuations in deposits or unexpected withdrawals.", "Longer-term liquidity may also be provided in exceptional circumstances.", "The rate the Fed charges banks for these loans is called the discount rate (officially the primary credit rate).By making these loans, the Fed serves as a buffer against unexpected day-to-day fluctuations in reserve demand and supply.", "This contributes to the effective functioning of the banking system, alleviates pressure in the reserves market and reduces the extent of unexpected movements in the interest rates.", "For example, on September 16, 2008, the Federal Reserve Board authorized an $85 billion loan to stave off the bankruptcy of international insurance giant American International Group (AIG).=== Central bank ===$1 note issued in 2009In its role as the central bank of the United States, the Fed serves as a banker's bank and as the government's bank.", "As the banker's bank, it helps to assure the safety and efficiency of the payments system.", "As the government's bank or fiscal agent, the Fed processes a variety of financial transactions involving trillions of dollars.", "Just as an individual might keep an account at a bank, the U.S. Treasury keeps a checking account with the Federal Reserve, through which incoming federal tax deposits and outgoing government payments are handled.", "As part of this service relationship, the Fed sells and redeems U.S. government securities such as savings bonds and Treasury bills, notes and bonds.", "It also issues the nation's coin and paper currency.", "The U.S. Treasury, through its Bureau of the Mint and Bureau of Engraving and Printing, actually produces the nation's cash supply and, in effect, sells the paper currency to the Federal Reserve Banks at manufacturing cost, and the coins at face value.", "The Federal Reserve Banks then distribute it to other financial institutions in various ways.", "During the Fiscal Year 2020, the Bureau of Engraving and Printing delivered 57.95 billion notes at an average cost of 7.4 cents per note.==== Federal funds ====Federal funds are the reserve balances (also called Federal Reserve Deposits) that private banks keep at their local Federal Reserve Bank.", "These balances are the namesake reserves of the Federal Reserve System.", "The purpose of keeping funds at a Federal Reserve Bank is to have a mechanism for private banks to lend funds to one another.", "This market for funds plays an important role in the Federal Reserve System as it is what inspired the name of the system and it is what is used as the basis for monetary policy.", "Monetary policy is put into effect partly by influencing how much interest the private banks charge each other for the lending of these funds.Federal reserve accounts contain federal reserve credit, which can be converted into federal reserve notes.", "Private banks maintain their bank reserves in federal reserve accounts.=== Bank regulation ===The Federal Reserve regulates private banks.", "The system was designed out of a compromise between the competing philosophies of privatization and government regulation.", "In 2006 Donald L. Kohn, vice chairman of the board of governors, summarized the history of this compromise:The balance between private interests and government can also be seen in the structure of the system.", "Private banks elect members of the board of directors at their regional Federal Reserve Bank while the members of the board of governors are selected by the president of the United States and confirmed by the Senate.==== Government regulation and supervision ====Ben Bernanke (lower right), former chairman of the Federal Reserve Board of Governors, at a House Financial Services Committee hearing on February 10, 2009.Members of the board frequently testify before congressional committees such as this one.", "The Senate equivalent of the House Financial Services Committee is the Senate Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs.The Federal Banking Agency Audit Act, enacted in 1978 as Public Law 95-320 and 31 U.S.C.", "section 714 establish that the board of governors of the Federal Reserve System and the Federal Reserve banks may be audited by the Government Accountability Office (GAO).The GAO has authority to audit check-processing, currency storage and shipments, and some regulatory and bank examination functions, however, there are restrictions to what the GAO may audit.", "Under the Federal Banking Agency Audit Act, 31 U.S.C.", "section 714(b), audits of the Federal Reserve Board and Federal Reserve banks do not include (1) transactions for or with a foreign central bank or government or non-private international financing organization; (2) deliberations, decisions, or actions on monetary policy matters; (3) transactions made under the direction of the Federal Open Market Committee; or (4) a part of a discussion or communication among or between members of the board of governors and officers and employees of the Federal Reserve System related to items (1), (2), or (3).", "See Federal Reserve System Audits: Restrictions on GAO's Access (GAO/T-GGD-94-44), statement of Charles A. Bowsher.The board of governors in the Federal Reserve System has a number of supervisory and regulatory responsibilities in the U.S. banking system, but not complete responsibility.", "A general description of the types of regulation and supervision involved in the U.S. banking system is given by the Federal Reserve:===== Regulatory and oversight responsibilities =====The board of directors of each Federal Reserve Bank District also has regulatory and supervisory responsibilities.", "If the board of directors of a district bank has judged that a member bank is performing or behaving poorly, it will report this to the board of governors.", "This policy is described in law:=== National payments system ===The Federal Reserve plays a role in the U.S. payments system.", "The twelve Federal Reserve Banks provide banking services to depository institutions and to the federal government.", "For depository institutions, they maintain accounts and provide various payment services, including collecting checks, electronically transferring funds, and distributing and receiving currency and coin.", "For the federal government, the Reserve Banks act as fiscal agents, paying Treasury checks; processing electronic payments; and issuing, transferring, and redeeming U.S. government securities.In the Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act of 1980, Congress reaffirmed that the Federal Reserve should promote an efficient nationwide payments system.", "The act subjects all depository institutions, not just member commercial banks, to reserve requirements and grants them equal access to Reserve Bank payment services.The Federal Reserve plays a role in the nation's retail and wholesale payments systems by providing financial services to depository institutions.", "Retail payments are generally for relatively small-dollar amounts and often involve a depository institution's retail clientsindividuals and smaller businesses.", "The Reserve Banks' retail services include distributing currency and coin, collecting checks, electronically transferring funds through FedACH (the Federal Reserve's automated clearing house system), and beginning in 2023, facilitating instant payments using the FedNow service.", "By contrast, wholesale payments are generally for large-dollar amounts and often involve a depository institution's large corporate customers or counterparties, including other financial institutions.", "The Reserve Banks' wholesale services include electronically transferring funds through the Fedwire Funds Service and transferring securities issued by the U.S. government, its agencies, and certain other entities through the Fedwire Securities Service." ], [ "Structure", "Organization of the Federal Reserve SystemThe Federal Reserve System has a \"unique structure that is both public and private\" and is described as \"independent within the government\" rather than \"independent of government\".", "The System does not require public funding, and derives its authority and purpose from the Federal Reserve Act, which was passed by Congress in 1913 and is subject to Congressional modification or repeal.", "The four main components of the Federal Reserve System are (1) the board of governors, (2) the Federal Open Market Committee, (3) the twelve regional Federal Reserve Banks, and (4) the member banks throughout the country.", "District # Letter Federal Reserve Bank Branches Website Current president 1 A Boston   https://www.bostonfed.org Susan M. Collins 2 B New York City   http://www.newyorkfed.org John C. Williams 3 C Philadelphia   http://www.philadelphiafed.org Patrick T. Harker 4 D Cleveland Cincinnati, OhioPittsburgh, Pennsylvania http://www.clevelandfed.org Loretta J. Mester 5 E Richmond Baltimore, MarylandCharlotte, North Carolina http://www.richmondfed.org Thomas Barkin 6 F Atlanta Birmingham, AlabamaJacksonville, FloridaMiami, FloridaNashville, TennesseeNew Orleans, Louisiana http://www.frbatlanta.org Raphael Bostic 7 G Chicago Detroit, Michigan http://www.chicagofed.org Austan Goolsbee 8 H St. Louis Little Rock, ArkansasLouisville, KentuckyMemphis, Tennessee http://www.stlouisfed.org James B. Bullard 9 I Minneapolis Helena, Montana https://www.minneapolisfed.org Neel Kashkari 10 J Kansas City Denver, ColoradoOklahoma City, OklahomaOmaha, Nebraska http://www.kansascityfed.org Jeffrey Schmid 11 K Dallas El Paso, TexasHouston, TexasSan Antonio, Texas http://www.dallasfed.org Lorie K. Logan 12 L San Francisco Los Angeles, CaliforniaPortland, OregonSalt Lake City, UtahSeattle, Washington http://www.frbsf.org Mary C. Daly=== Board of governors ===The seven-member board of governors is a large federal agency that functions in business oversight by examining national banks.''''''", "It is charged with the overseeing of the 12 District Reserve Banks and setting national monetary policy.", "It also supervises and regulates the U.S. banking system in general.Governors are appointed by the president of the United States and confirmed by the Senate for staggered 14-year terms.", "One term begins every two years, on February 1 of even-numbered years, and members serving a full term cannot be renominated for a second term.", "\"Upon the expiration of their terms of office, members of the Board shall continue to serve until their successors are appointed and have qualified.\"", "The law provides for the removal of a member of the board by the president \"for cause\".", "The board is required to make an annual report of operations to the Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives.The chair and vice chair of the board of governors are appointed by the president from among the sitting governors.", "They both serve a four-year term and they can be renominated as many times as the president chooses, until their terms on the board of governors expire.==== List of members of the board of governors ====Board of governors in April 2019, when two of the seven seats were vacantThe current members of the board of governors are:==== Nominations, confirmations and resignations ====In late December 2011, President Barack Obama nominated Jeremy C. Stein, a Harvard University finance professor and a Democrat, and Jerome Powell, formerly of Dillon Read, Bankers Trust and The Carlyle Group and a Republican.", "Both candidates also have Treasury Department experience in the Obama and George H. W. Bush administrations respectively.", "\"Obama administration officials had regrouped to identify Fed candidates after Peter Diamond, a Nobel Prize-winning economist, withdrew his nomination to the board in June 2011 in the face of Republican opposition.", "Richard Clarida, a potential nominee who was a Treasury official under George W. Bush, pulled out of consideration in August 2011\", one account of the December nominations noted.", "The two other Obama nominees in 2011, Janet Yellen and Sarah Bloom Raskin, were confirmed in September.", "One of the vacancies was created in 2011 with the resignation of Kevin Warsh, who took office in 2006 to fill the unexpired term ending January 31, 2018, and resigned his position effective March 31, 2011.In March 2012, U.S.", "Senator David Vitter (R, LA) said he would oppose Obama's Stein and Powell nominations, dampening near-term hopes for approval.", "However, Senate leaders reached a deal, paving the way for affirmative votes on the two nominees in May 2012 and bringing the board to full strength for the first time since 2006 with Duke's service after term end.", "Later, on January 6, 2014, the United States Senate confirmed Yellen's nomination to be chair of the Federal Reserve Board of Governors; she was the first woman to hold the position.", "Subsequently, President Obama nominated Stanley Fischer to replace Yellen as the vice-chair.In April 2014, Stein announced he was leaving to return to Harvard May 28 with four years remaining on his term.", "At the time of the announcement, the FOMC \"already is down three members as it awaits the Senate confirmation of ... Fischer and Lael Brainard, and as President Obama has yet to name a replacement for ... Duke.", "... Powell is still serving as he awaits his confirmation for a second term.", "\"Allan R. Landon, former president and CEO of the Bank of Hawaii, was nominated in early 2015 by President Obama to the board.In July 2015, President Obama nominated University of Michigan economist Kathryn M. Dominguez to fill the second vacancy on the board.", "The Senate had not yet acted on Landon's confirmation by the time of the second nomination.Daniel Tarullo submitted his resignation from the board on February 10, 2017, effective on or around April 5, 2017.=== Federal Open Market Committee ===The Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) consists of 12 members, seven from the board of governors and 5 of the regional Federal Reserve Bank presidents.", "The FOMC oversees and sets policy on open market operations, the principal tool of national monetary policy.", "These operations affect the amount of Federal Reserve balances available to depository institutions, thereby influencing overall monetary and credit conditions.", "The FOMC also directs operations undertaken by the Federal Reserve in foreign exchange markets.", "The FOMC must reach consensus on all decisions.", "The president of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York is a permanent member of the FOMC; the presidents of the other banks rotate membership at two- and three-year intervals.", "All Regional Reserve Bank presidents contribute to the committee's assessment of the economy and of policy options, but only the five presidents who are then members of the FOMC vote on policy decisions.", "The FOMC determines its own internal organization and, by tradition, elects the chair of the board of governors as its chair and the president of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York as its vice chair.", "Formal meetings typically are held eight times each year in Washington, D.C. Nonvoting Reserve Bank presidents also participate in Committee deliberations and discussion.", "The FOMC generally meets eight times a year in telephone consultations and other meetings are held when needed.There is very strong consensus among economists against politicising the FOMC.=== Federal Advisory Council ===The Federal Advisory Council, composed of twelve representatives of the banking industry, advises the board on all matters within its jurisdiction.=== Federal Reserve Banks ===Map of the 12 Federal Reserve Districts, with the 12 Federal Reserve Banks marked as black squares, and all Branches within each district (24 total) marked as red circles.", "The Washington, DC, headquarters is marked with a star.", "(Also, a 25th branch in Buffalo, NY, was closed in 2008.", ")The 12 Reserve Banks buildings in 1936There are 12 Federal Reserve Banks, each of which is responsible for member banks located in its district.", "They are located in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Cleveland, Richmond, Atlanta, Chicago, St. Louis, Minneapolis, Kansas City, Dallas, and San Francisco.", "The size of each district was set based upon the population distribution of the United States when the Federal Reserve Act was passed.The charter and organization of each Federal Reserve Bank is established by law and cannot be altered by the member banks.", "Member banks do, however, elect six of the nine members of the Federal Reserve Banks' boards of directors.Each regional Bank has a president, who is the chief executive officer of their Bank.", "Each regional Reserve Bank's president is nominated by their Bank's board of directors, but the nomination is contingent upon approval by the board of governors.", "Presidents serve five-year terms and may be reappointed.Each regional Bank's board consists of nine members.", "Members are broken down into three classes: A, B, and C. There are three board members in each class.", "Class A members are chosen by the regional Bank's shareholders, and are intended to represent member banks' interests.", "Member banks are divided into three categories: large, medium, and small.", "Each category elects one of the three class A board members.", "Class B board members are also nominated by the region's member banks, but class B board members are supposed to represent the interests of the public.", "Lastly, class C board members are appointed by the board of governors, and are also intended to represent the interests of the public.==== Legal status of regional Federal Reserve Banks ====The Federal Reserve Banks have an intermediate legal status, with some features of private corporations and some features of public federal agencies.", "The United States has an interest in the Federal Reserve Banks as tax-exempt federally created instrumentalities whose profits belong to the federal government, but this interest is not proprietary.", "In ''Lewis v. United States'', the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit stated that: \"The Reserve Banks are not federal instrumentalities for purposes of the FTCA the Federal Tort Claims Act, but are independent, privately owned and locally controlled corporations.\"", "The opinion went on to say, however, that: \"The Reserve Banks have properly been held to be federal instrumentalities for some purposes.\"", "Another relevant decision is ''Scott v. Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City'', in which the distinction is made between Federal Reserve Banks, which are federally created instrumentalities, and the board of governors, which is a federal agency.Regarding the structural relationship between the twelve Federal Reserve banks and the various commercial (member) banks, political science professor Michael D. Reagan has written:Plaque marking a bank as a member=== Member banks ===A member bank is a private institution and owns stock in its regional Federal Reserve Bank.", "All nationally chartered banks hold stock in one of the Federal Reserve Banks.", "State chartered banks may choose to be members (and hold stock in their regional Federal Reserve bank) upon meeting certain standards.The amount of stock a member bank must own is equal to 3% of its combined capital and surplus.", "However, holding stock in a Federal Reserve bank is not like owning stock in a publicly traded company.", "These stocks cannot be sold or traded, and member banks do not control the Federal Reserve Bank as a result of owning this stock.", "From their Regional Bank, member banks with $10 billion or less in assets receive a dividend of 6%, while member banks with more than $10 billion in assets receive the lesser of 6% or the current 10-year Treasury auction rate.", "The remainder of the regional Federal Reserve Banks' profits is given over to the United States Treasury Department.", "In 2015, the Federal Reserve Banks made a profit of $100.2 billion and distributed $2.5 billion in dividends to member banks as well as returning $97.7 billion to the U.S. Treasury.About 38% of U.S. banks are members of their regional Federal Reserve Bank.=== Accountability ===An external auditor selected by the audit committee of the Federal Reserve System regularly audits the Board of Governors and the Federal Reserve Banks.", "The GAO will audit some activities of the Board of Governors.", "These audits do not cover \"most of the Fed's monetary policy actions or decisions, including discount window lending (direct loans to financial institutions), open-market operations and any other transactions made under the direction of the Federal Open Market Committee\" ...nor may the GAO audit \"dealings with foreign governments and other central banks.", "\"The annual and quarterly financial statements prepared by the Federal Reserve System conform to a basis of accounting that is set by the Federal Reserve Board and does not conform to Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) or government Cost Accounting Standards (CAS).", "The financial reporting standards are defined in the Financial Accounting Manual for the Federal Reserve Banks.", "The cost accounting standards are defined in the Planning and Control System Manual.", ", the Federal Reserve Board has been publishing unaudited financial reports for the Federal Reserve banks every quarter.On November 7, 2008, Bloomberg L.P. brought a lawsuit against the board of governors of the Federal Reserve System to force the board to reveal the identities of firms for which it provided guarantees during the financial crisis of 2007–2008.Bloomberg, L.P. won at the trial court and the Fed's appeals were rejected at both the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit and the U.S. Supreme Court.", "The data was released on March 31, 2011." ], [ "Monetary policy", "The term \"monetary policy\" refers to the actions undertaken by a central bank, such as the Federal Reserve, to influence economic activity (the overall demand for goods and services) to help promote national economic goals.", "The Federal Reserve Act of 1913 gave the Federal Reserve authority to set monetary policy in the United States.", "The Fed's mandate for monetary policy is commonly known as the dual mandate of promoting maximum employment and stable prices, the latter being interpreted as a stable inflation rate of 2 percent per year on average.", "The Fed's monetary policy influences economic activity by influencing the general level of interest rates in the economy, which again via the monetary transmission mechanism affects households' and firms' demand for goods and services and in turn employment and inflation.", "=== Interbank lending ===The Federal Reserve sets monetary policy by influencing the federal funds rate, which is the rate of interbank lending of reserve balances.", "The rate that banks charge each other for these loans is determined in the interbank market, and the Federal Reserve influences this rate through the \"tools\" of monetary policy described in the ''Tools'' section below.", "The federal funds rate is a short-term interest rate that the FOMC focuses on, which affects the longer-term interest rates throughout the economy.", "The Federal Reserve explained the implementation of its monetary policy in 2021:Changes in the target for the federal funds rate affect overall financial conditions through various channels, including subsequent changes in the market interest rates that commercial banks and other lenders charge on short-term and longer-term loans, and changes in asset prices and in currency exchange rates, which again affects private consumption, investment and net export.", "By easening or tightening the stance of monetary policy, i.e.", "lowering or raising its target for the federal funds rate, the Fed can either spur or restrain growth in the overall US demand for goods and services.=== Tools ===There are four main tools of monetary policy that the Federal Reserve uses to implement its monetary policy:ToolDescription Interest on reserve balances (IORB) Interest paid on funds that banks hold in their reserve balance accounts at their Federal Reserve Bank.", "IORB is the primary tool for moving the federal funds rate within the target range.", "Overnight reverse repurchase agreement (ON RRP) facility The Fed’s standing offer to many large nonbank financial institutions to deposit funds at the Fed and earn interest.", "Acts as a supplementary tool for moving the FFR within the target range.", "Open market operations Purchases and sales of U.S. Treasury and federal agency securities.", "Used to maintain an ample supply of reserves.", "Discount window The Fed's lending to banks at the discount rate.", "Helps put a ceiling on the FFR.", "==== Federal funds rate ====rightThe Federal Reserve System implements monetary policy largely by targeting the federal funds rate.", "This is the interest rate that banks charge each other for overnight loans of federal funds, which are the reserves held by banks at the Fed.", "This rate is actually determined by the market and is not explicitly mandated by the Fed.", "The Fed therefore tries to align the effective federal funds rate with the targeted rate, mainly by adjusting its IORB rate.", "The Federal Reserve System usually adjusts the federal funds rate target by 0.25% or 0.50% at a time.==== Interest on reserve balances ====The interest on reserve balances (IORB) is the interest that the Fed pays on funds held by commercial banks in their reserve balance accounts at the individual Federal Reserve System banks.", "It is an administrated interest rate (i.e.", "set directly by the Fed as opposed to a market interest rate which is determined by the forces of supply and demand).", "As banks are unlikely to lend their reserves in the FFR market for less than they get paid by the Fed, the IORB guides the effective FFR and is used as the primary tool of the Fed's monetary policy.==== Open market operations ====Open market operations are done through the sale and purchase of United States Treasury security, sometimes called \"Treasury bills\" or more informally \"T-bills\" or \"Treasuries\".", "The Federal Reserve buys Treasury bills from its primary dealers, which have accounts at depository institutions.The Federal Reserve's objective for open market operations has varied over the years.", "During the 1980s, the focus gradually shifted toward attaining a specified level of the federal funds rate (the rate that banks charge each other for overnight loans of federal funds, which are the reserves held by banks at the Fed), a process that was largely complete by the end of the decade.", "Until the 2007–2008 financial crisis, the Fed used open market operations as its primary tool to adjust the supply of reserve balances in order to keep the federal funds rate around the Fed's target.", "This regime is also known as a limited reserves regime.", "After the financial crisis, the Federal Reserve has adopted a so-called ample reserves regime where open market operations leading to modest changes in the supply of reserves are no longer effective in influencing the FFR.", "Instead the Fed uses its administered rates, in particular the IORB rate, to influence the FFR.", "However, open market operations are still an important maintenance tool in the overall framework of the conduct of monetary policy as they are used for ensuring that reserves remain ample.", "===== Repurchase agreements =====To smooth temporary or cyclical changes in the money supply, the desk engages in repurchase agreements (repos) with its primary dealers.", "Repos are essentially secured, short-term lending by the Fed.", "On the day of the transaction, the Fed deposits money in a primary dealer's reserve account, and receives the promised securities as collateral.", "When the transaction matures, the process unwinds: the Fed returns the collateral and charges the primary dealer's reserve account for the principal and accrued interest.", "The term of the repo (the time between settlement and maturity) can vary from 1 day (called an overnight repo) to 65 days.==== Discount window and discount rate ====The Federal Reserve System also directly sets the '''discount rate''', which is the interest rate for \"discount window lending\", overnight loans that member banks borrow directly from the Fed.", "This rate is generally set at a rate close to 100 basis points above the target federal funds rate.", "The idea is to encourage banks to seek alternative funding before using the \"discount rate\" option.", "The equivalent operation by the European Central Bank is referred to as the \"marginal lending facility\".Both the discount rate and the federal funds rate influence the prime rate, which is usually about 3 percentage points higher than the federal funds rate.==== Term Deposit facility ====The Term Deposit facility is a program through which the Federal Reserve Banks offer interest-bearing term deposits to eligible institutions.", "It is intended to facilitate the implementation of monetary policy by providing a tool by which the Federal Reserve can manage the aggregate quantity of reserve balances held by depository institutions.", "Funds placed in term deposits are removed from the accounts of participating institutions for the life of the term deposit and thus drain reserve balances from the banking system.", "The program was announced December 9, 2009, and approved April 30, 2010, with an effective date of June 4, 2010.Fed Chair Ben S. Bernanke, testifying before the House Committee on Financial Services, stated that the Term Deposit Facility would be used to reverse the expansion of credit during the Great Recession, by drawing funds out of the money markets into the Federal Reserve Banks.", "It would therefore result in increased market interest rates, acting as a brake on economic activity and inflation.", "The Federal Reserve authorized up to five \"small-value offerings\" in 2010 as a pilot program.", "After three of the offering auctions were successfully completed, it was announced that small-value auctions would continue on an ongoing basis.==== Quantitative Easing (QE) policy ====A little-used tool of the Federal Reserve is the quantitative easing policy.", "Under that policy, the Federal Reserve buys back corporate bonds and mortgage backed securities held by banks or other financial institutions.", "This in effect puts money back into the financial institutions and allows them to make loans and conduct normal business.The bursting of the United States housing bubble prompted the Fed to buy mortgage-backed securities for the first time in November 2008.Over six weeks, a total of $1.25 trillion were purchased in order to stabilize the housing market, about one-fifth of all U.S. government-backed mortgages.==== Expired policy tools ========= Reserve requirements =====An instrument of monetary policy adjustment historically employed by the Federal Reserve System was the fractional reserve requirement, also known as the required reserve ratio.", "The required reserve ratio set the balance that the Federal Reserve System required a depository institution to hold in the Federal Reserve Banks.", "The required reserve ratio was set by the board of governors of the Federal Reserve System.", "The reserve requirements have changed over time and some history of these changes is published by the Federal Reserve.As a response to the financial crisis of 2008, the Federal Reserve started making interest payments on depository institutions' required and excess reserve balances.", "The payment of interest on excess reserves gave the central bank greater opportunity to address credit market conditions while maintaining the federal funds rate close to the target rate set by the FOMC.", "The reserve requirement did not play a significant role in the post-2008 interest-on-excess-reserves regime, and in March 2020, the reserve ratio was set to zero for all banks, which meant that no bank was required to hold any reserves, and hence the reserve requirement effectively ceased to exist.", "===== Temporary policy tools during the financial crisis =====In order to address problems related to the subprime mortgage crisis and United States housing bubble, several new tools were created.", "The first new tool, called the Term auction facility, was added on December 12, 2007.It was announced as a temporary tool, but remained in place for a prolonged period of time.", "Creation of the second new tool, called the Term Securities Lending Facility, was announced on March 11, 2008.The main difference between these two facilities was that the Term auction Facility was used to inject cash into the banking system whereas the Term securities Lending Facility was used to inject treasury securities into the banking system.", "Creation of the third tool, called the Primary Dealer Credit Facility (PDCF), was announced on March 16, 2008.The PDCF was a fundamental change in Federal Reserve policy because it enabled the Fed to lend directly to primary dealers, which was previously against Fed policy.", "The differences between these three facilities was described by the Federal Reserve:Some measures taken by the Federal Reserve to address the financial crisis had not been used since the Great Depression.", "===== Term auction facility =====The Term auction Facility was a program in which the Federal Reserve auctioned term funds to depository institutions.", "The creation of this facility was announced by the Federal Reserve on December 12, 2007, and was done in conjunction with the Bank of Canada, the Bank of England, the European Central Bank, and the Swiss National Bank to address elevated pressures in short-term funding markets.", "The reason it was created was that banks were not lending funds to one another and banks in need of funds were refusing to go to the discount window.", "Banks were not lending money to each other because there was a fear that the loans would not be paid back.", "Banks refused to go to the discount window because it was usually associated with the stigma of bank failure.", "Under the Term auction Facility, the identity of the banks in need of funds was protected in order to avoid the stigma of bank failure.", "Foreign exchange swap lines with the European Central Bank and Swiss National Bank were opened so the banks in Europe could have access to U.S. dollars.", "The final Term Auction Facility auction was carried out on March 8, 2010.===== Term securities lending facility =====The Term securities Lending Facility was a 28-day facility that offered Treasury general collateral to the Federal Reserve Bank of New York's primary dealers in exchange for other program-eligible collateral.", "It was intended to promote liquidity in the financing markets for Treasury and other collateral and thus to foster the functioning of financial markets more generally.", "Like the Term auction Facility, the TSLF was done in conjunction with the Bank of Canada, the Bank of England, the European Central Bank, and the Swiss National Bank.", "The resource allowed dealers to switch debt that was less liquid for U.S. government securities that were easily tradable.", "The currency swap lines with the European Central Bank and Swiss National Bank were increased.", "The TSLF was closed on February 1, 2010.===== Primary dealer credit facility =====The Primary Dealer Credit Facility (PDCF) was an overnight loan facility that provided funding to primary dealers in exchange for a specified range of eligible collateral and was intended to foster the functioning of financial markets more generally.", "It ceased extending credit on March 31, 2021.===== Asset Backed Commercial Paper Money Market Mutual Fund Liquidity Facility =====The Asset Backed Commercial Paper Money Market Mutual Fund Liquidity Facility (ABCPMMMFLF) was also called the AMLF.", "The Facility began operations on September 22, 2008, and was closed on February 1, 2010.All U.S. depository institutions, bank holding companies (parent companies or U.S. broker-dealer affiliates), or U.S. branches and agencies of foreign banks were eligible to borrow under this facility pursuant to the discretion of the FRBB.Collateral eligible for pledge under the Facility was required to meet the following criteria:* was purchased by Borrower on or after September 19, 2008 from a registered investment company that held itself out as a money market mutual fund;* was purchased by Borrower at the Fund's acquisition cost as adjusted for amortization of premium or accretion of discount on the ABCP through the date of its purchase by Borrower;* was rated at the time pledged to FRBB, not lower than A1, F1, or P1 by at least two major rating agencies or, if rated by only one major rating agency, the ABCP must have been rated within the top rating category by that agency;* was issued by an entity organized under the laws of the United States or a political subdivision thereof under a program that was in existence on September 18, 2008; and* had stated maturity that did not exceed 120 days if the Borrower was a bank or 270 days for non-bank Borrowers.===== Commercial Paper Funding Facility =====On October 7, 2008, the Federal Reserve further expanded the collateral it would loan against to include commercial paper using the Commercial Paper Funding Facility (CPFF).", "The action made the Fed a crucial source of credit for non-financial businesses in addition to commercial banks and investment firms.", "Fed officials said they would buy as much of the debt as necessary to get the market functioning again.", "They refused to say how much that might be, but they noted that around $1.3 trillion worth of commercial paper would qualify.", "There was $1.61 trillion in outstanding commercial paper, seasonally adjusted, on the market , according to the most recent data from the Fed.", "That was down from $1.70 trillion in the previous week.", "Since the summer of 2007, the market had shrunk from more than $2.2 trillion.", "This program lent out a total $738 billion before it was closed.", "Forty-five out of 81 of the companies participating in this program were foreign firms.", "Research shows that Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP) recipients were twice as likely to participate in the program than other commercial paper issuers who did not take advantage of the TARP bailout.", "The Fed incurred no losses from the CPFF." ], [ "History", "Timeline of central banking in the United States Dates System 1782–1791 Bank of North America (de facto, under the Confederation Congress) 1791–1811 First Bank of the United States 1811–1816 No central bank 1816–1836 Second Bank of the United States 1837–1862 Free Banking Era 1846–1921 Independent Treasury System 1863–1913 National Banks 1913–present Federal Reserve SystemSources:=== Central banking in the United States, 1791–1913 ===The first attempt at a national currency was during the American Revolutionary War.", "In 1775, the Continental Congress, as well as the states, began issuing paper currency, calling the bills \"Continentals\".", "The Continentals were backed only by future tax revenue, and were used to help finance the Revolutionary War.", "Overprinting, as well as British counterfeiting, caused the value of the Continental to diminish quickly.", "This experience with paper money led the United States to strip the power to issue Bills of Credit (paper money) from a draft of the new Constitution on August 16, 1787, as well as banning such issuance by the various states, and limiting the states' ability to make anything but gold or silver coin legal tender on August 28.In 1791, the government granted the First Bank of the United States a charter to operate as the U.S. central bank until 1811.The First Bank of the United States came to an end under President Madison when Congress refused to renew its charter.", "The Second Bank of the United States was established in 1816, and lost its authority to be the central bank of the U.S. twenty years later under President Jackson when its charter expired.", "Both banks were based upon the Bank of England.", "Ultimately, a third national bank, known as the Federal Reserve, was established in 1913 and still exists to this day.==== First Central Bank, 1791 and Second Central Bank, 1816 ====The first U.S. institution with central banking responsibilities was the First Bank of the United States, chartered by Congress and signed into law by President George Washington on February 25, 1791, at the urging of Alexander Hamilton.", "This was done despite strong opposition from Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, among numerous others.", "The charter was for twenty years and expired in 1811 under President Madison, when Congress refused to renew it.In 1816, however, Madison revived it in the form of the Second Bank of the United States.", "Years later, early renewal of the bank's charter became the primary issue in the reelection of President Andrew Jackson.", "After Jackson, who was opposed to the central bank, was reelected, he pulled the government's funds out of the bank.", "Jackson was the only President to completely pay off the national debt but his efforts to close the bank contributed to the Panic of 1837.The bank's charter was not renewed in 1836, and it would fully dissolve after several years as a private corporation.From 1837 to 1862, in the Free Banking Era there was no formal central bank.From 1846 to 1921, an Independent Treasury System ruled.From 1863 to 1913, a system of national banks was instituted by the 1863 National Banking Act during which series of bank panics, in 1873, 1893, and 1907 occurred.==== Creation of Third Central Bank, 1907–1913 ====The main motivation for the third central banking system came from the Panic of 1907, which caused a renewed desire among legislators, economists, and bankers for an overhaul of the monetary system.", "During the last quarter of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, the United States economy went through a series of financial panics.", "According to many economists, the previous national banking system had two main weaknesses: an inelastic currency and a lack of liquidity.", "In 1908, Congress enacted the Aldrich–Vreeland Act, which provided for an emergency currency and established the National Monetary Commission to study banking and currency reform.", "The National Monetary Commission returned with recommendations which were repeatedly rejected by Congress.", "A revision crafted during a secret meeting on Jekyll Island by Senator Aldrich and representatives of the nation's top finance and industrial groups later became the basis of the Federal Reserve Act.", "The House voted on December 22, 1913, with 298 voting yes to 60 voting no.", "The Senate voted 43–25 on December 23, 1913.President Woodrow Wilson signed the bill later that day.===== Federal Reserve Act, 1913 =====Newspaper clipping, December 24, 1913The head of the bipartisan National Monetary Commission was financial expert and Senate Republican leader Nelson Aldrich.", "Aldrich set up two commissions – one to study the American monetary system in depth and the other, headed by Aldrich himself, to study the European central banking systems and report on them.In early November 1910, Aldrich met with five well known members of the New York banking community to devise a central banking bill.", "Paul Warburg, an attendee of the meeting and longtime advocate of central banking in the U.S., later wrote that Aldrich was \"bewildered at all that he had absorbed abroad and he was faced with the difficult task of writing a highly technical bill while being harassed by the daily grind of his parliamentary duties\".", "After ten days of deliberation, the bill, which would later be referred to as the \"Aldrich Plan\", was agreed upon.", "It had several key components, including a central bank with a Washington-based headquarters and fifteen branches located throughout the U.S. in geographically strategic locations, and a uniform elastic currency based on gold and commercial paper.", "Aldrich believed a central banking system with no political involvement was best, but was convinced by Warburg that a plan with no public control was not politically feasible.", "The compromise involved representation of the public sector on the board of directors.Aldrich's bill met much opposition from politicians.", "Critics charged Aldrich of being biased due to his close ties to wealthy bankers such as J. P. Morgan and John D. Rockefeller Jr., Aldrich's son-in-law.", "Most Republicans favored the Aldrich Plan, but it lacked enough support in Congress to pass because rural and western states viewed it as favoring the \"eastern establishment\".", "In contrast, progressive Democrats favored a reserve system owned and operated by the government; they believed that public ownership of the central bank would end Wall Street's control of the American currency supply.", "Conservative Democrats fought for a privately owned, yet decentralized, reserve system, which would still be free of Wall Street's control.The original Aldrich Plan was dealt a fatal blow in 1912, when Democrats won the White House and Congress.", "Nonetheless, President Woodrow Wilson believed that the Aldrich plan would suffice with a few modifications.", "The plan became the basis for the Federal Reserve Act, which was proposed by Senator Robert Owen in May 1913.The primary difference between the two bills was the transfer of control of the board of directors (called the Federal Open Market Committee in the Federal Reserve Act) to the government.", "The bill passed Congress on December 23, 1913, on a mostly partisan basis, with most Democrats voting \"yea\" and most Republicans voting \"nay\".=== Federal Reserve era, 1913–present ===Key laws affecting the Federal Reserve have been:* Federal Reserve Act, 1913* Glass–Steagall Act, 1933* Banking Act of 1935* Employment Act of 1946* Federal Reserve-Treasury Department Accord of 1951* Bank Holding Company Act of 1956 and the amendments of 1970* Federal Reserve Reform Act of 1977* International Banking Act of 1978* Full Employment and Balanced Growth Act (1978)* Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act (1980)* Financial Institutions Reform, Recovery and Enforcement Act of 1989* Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation Improvement Act of 1991* Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act (1999)* Financial Services Regulatory Relief Act (2006)* Emergency Economic Stabilization Act (2008)* Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act (2010)" ], [ "Measurement of economic variables", "The Federal Reserve records and publishes large amounts of data.", "A few websites where data is published are at the board of governors' Economic Data and Research page, the board of governors' statistical releases and historical data page, and at the St. Louis Fed's FRED (Federal Reserve Economic Data) page.", "The Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) examines many economic indicators prior to determining monetary policy.Some criticism involves economic data compiled by the Fed.", "The Fed sponsors much of the monetary economics research in the U.S., and Lawrence H. White objects that this makes it less likely for researchers to publish findings challenging the status quo.=== Net worth of households and nonprofit organizations ===Total Net WorthBalance Sheet of Households and Nonprofit Organizations 1949–2012The net worth of households and nonprofit organizations in the United States is published by the Federal Reserve in a report titled ''Flow of Funds''.", "At the end of the third quarter of fiscal year 2012, this value was $64.8 trillion.", "At the end of the first quarter of fiscal year 2014, this value was $95.5 trillion.=== Money supply ===The most common measures are named M0 (narrowest), M1, M2, and M3.In the United States they are defined by the Federal Reserve as follows:MeasureDefinition M0 The total of all physical currency, plus accounts at the central bank that can be exchanged for physical currency.", "M1 M0 + those portions of M0 held as reserves or vault cash + the amount in demand accounts (\"checking\" or \"current\" accounts).", "M2 M1 + most savings accounts, money market accounts, and small denomination time deposits (certificates of deposit of under $100,000).", "M3 M2 + all other CDs, deposits of eurodollars and repurchase agreements.400pxThe Federal Reserve stopped publishing M3 statistics in March 2006, saying that the data cost a lot to collect but did not provide significantly useful information.", "The other three money supply measures continue to be provided in detail.=== Personal consumption expenditures price index ===The Personal consumption expenditures price index, also referred to as simply the PCE price index, is used as one measure of the value of money.", "It is a United States-wide indicator of the average increase in prices for all domestic personal consumption.", "Using a variety of data including United States Consumer Price Index and U.S. Producer Price Index prices, it is derived from the largest component of the gross domestic product in the BEA's National Income and Product Accounts, personal consumption expenditures.One of the Fed's main roles is to maintain price stability, which means that the Fed's ability to keep a low inflation rate is a long-term measure of their success.", "Although the Fed is not required to maintain inflation within a specific range, their long run target for the growth of the PCE price index is between 1.5 and 2 percent.", "There has been debate among policy makers as to whether the Federal Reserve should have a specific inflation targeting policy.==== Inflation and the economy ====Most mainstream economists favor a low, steady rate of inflation.", "Chief economist, and advisor to the Federal Reserve, the Congressional Budget Office and the Council of Economic Advisers, Diane C. Swonk observed, in 2022, that \"From the Fed's perspective, you have to remember inflation is kind of like cancer.", "If you don't deal with it now with something that may be painful, you could have something that metastasized and becomes much more chronic later on.", "\"Low (as opposed to zero or negative) inflation may reduce the severity of economic recessions by enabling the labor market to adjust more quickly in a downturn, and reduce the risk that a liquidity trap prevents monetary policy from stabilizing the economy.", "The task of keeping the rate of inflation low and stable is usually given to monetary authorities.=== Unemployment rate ===United States unemployment rates 1975–2010 showing variance between the fifty statesOne of the stated goals of monetary policy is maximum employment.", "The unemployment rate statistics are collected by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, and like the PCE price index are used as a barometer of the nation's economic health." ], [ "Budget", "The Federal Reserve is self-funded.", "Over 90percent of Fed revenues come from open market operations, specifically the interest on the portfolio of Treasury securities as well as \"capital gains/losses\" that may arise from the buying/selling of the securities and their derivatives as part of Open Market Operations.", "The balance of revenues come from sales of financial services (check and electronic payment processing) and discount window loans.", "The board of governors (Federal Reserve Board) creates a budget report once per year for Congress.", "There are two reports with budget information.", "The one that lists the complete balance statements with income and expenses, as well as the net profit or loss, is the large report simply titled, \"Annual Report\".", "It also includes data about employment throughout the system.", "The other report, which explains in more detail the expenses of the different aspects of the whole system, is called \"Annual Report: Budget Review\".", "These detailed comprehensive reports can be found at the board of governors' website under the section \"Reports to Congress\"===Remittance payments to the Treasury===U.S.", "Treasury (annually)Treasury (weekly)The Federal Reserve has been remitting interest that it has been receiving back to the United States Treasury.", "Most of the assets the Fed holds are U.S. Treasury bonds and mortgage-backed securities that it has been purchasing as part of quantitative easing since the 2007–2008 financial crisis.", "In 2022 the Fed started quantitative tightening (QT) and selling these assets and taking a loss on them in the secondary bond market.", "As a result, the nearly $100billion that it was remitting annually to the Treasury, is expected to be discontinued during QT." ], [ "Balance sheet", "Federal reserve assets heldTotal combined assets for all 12 Federal Reserve Banks, 2007–2009Total combined liabilities for all 12 Federal Reserve Banks, 2007–2009One of the keys to understanding the Federal Reserve is the Federal Reserve balance sheet (or balance statement).", "In accordance with Section 11 of the Federal Reserve Act, the board of governors of the Federal Reserve System publishes once each week the \"Consolidated Statement of Condition of All Federal Reserve Banks\" showing the condition of each Federal Reserve bank and a consolidated statement for all Federal Reserve banks.", "The board of governors requires that excess earnings of the Reserve Banks be transferred to the Treasury as interest on Federal Reserve notes.The Federal Reserve releases its balance sheet every Thursday.", "Below is the balance sheet (in billions of dollars): ASSETS: Gold Stock   11.04 Special Drawing Rights Certificate Acct.", "5.20 Treasury Currency Outstanding (Coin)   1.46 Securities, unamortized premiums and discounts, repurchase agreements, and loans   7550.43 Securities Held Outright   7146.06 U.S. Treasury Securities   4959.03 Bills   326.04 Notes and Bonds, nominal   4251.66 Notes and Bonds, inflation-indexed   334.76 Inflation Compensation   46.57 Federal Agency Debt Securities   2.35 Mortgage-Backed Securities   2184.68 Unamortized premiums on securities held outright   351.11 Unamortized discounts on securities held outright   -9.56 Repurchase Agreements   0 Loans   62.81 Net portfolio holdings of Commercial Paper Funding Facility II LLC   8.56 Net portfolio holdings of Corporate Credit Facilities LLC   25.94 Net portfolio holdings of MS Facilities LLC (Main Street Lending Program)   30.96 Net portfolio holdings of Municipal Liquidity Facility LLC   11.41 Net portfolio holdings of TALF II LLC   5.28 Items in process of collection   0.04 Bank premises   1.91 Central bank liquidity swaps   0.87 Foreign currency denominated assets   21.37 Other Assets   34.42 Total Assets   7708.88 LIABILITIES: Federal Reserve notes, net of F.R.", "Bank holdings   2101.19 Reverse repurchase agreements   272.07 Deposits   5234.02 Term deposits held by depository institutions   0 Other deposits held by depository institutions   3944.06 U.S. Treasury, general account   954.97 Foreign official   32.25 Other Deposits   302.74 Deferred availability cash items   0.15 Treasury contributions to credit facilities   51.78 Other liabilities and accrued dividends   10.40 Total liabilities   7669.62 CAPITAL (AKA Net Equity) Capital Paid In   32.48 Surplus   6.79 Other Capital   0 Total Capital   39.27 MEMO (off-balance-sheet items) Marketable securities held in custody for foreign official and international accounts   3548.94 MarketableU.S.", "Treasury Securities   3114.90 Federal agency debt and mortgage-backed securities   346.41 Other securities   87.62 Securities lent to dealers   40.45 Overnight   40.45 U.S. Treasury securities   40.45 Federal agency debt securities   0In addition, the balance sheet also indicates which assets are held as collateral against Federal Reserve Notes.Federal Reserve Notes and Collateral Federal Reserve Notes Outstanding  2255.55 Less: Notes held by F.R.", "Banks  154.35 Federal Reserve notes to be collateralized  2101.19 Collateral held against Federal Reserve notes  2101.19 Gold certificate account  11.04 Special drawing rights certificate account  5.20 U.S. Treasury, agency debt, and mortgage-backed securities pledged  2084.96 Other assets pledged  0" ], [ "Criticism", "RecessionsThe Federal Reserve System has faced various criticisms since its inception in 1913.Criticisms include lack of transparency and claims that it is ineffective.", "Money supply decreased significantly between Black Tuesday and the Bank Holiday in March 1933 when there were massive bank runs across the United States" ], [ "See also", "* Consumer leverage ratio* Core inflation* Farm Credit System* Fed model* Federal Home Loan Banks* Federal Reserve Police* Federal Reserve Statistical Release* Free banking* Gold standard* Government debt* Greenspan put* History of Federal Open Market Committee actions* History of central banking in the United States* Independent Treasury* Legal Tender Cases* List of economic reports by U.S. government agencies* Securities market participants (United States)* Title 12 of the Code of Federal Regulations* United States Bullion Depositoryknown as Fort Knox* List of central banks" ], [ "References", "=== Bundled references ===" ], [ "Bibliography", "=== Recent ===* Sarah Binder & Mark Spindel.", "2017.", "''The Myth of Independence: How Congress Governs the Federal Reserve''.", "Princeton University Press.", "* * from the St. Louis Fed* Congressional Research Service Changing the Federal Reserve's Mandate: An Economic Analysis* Congressional Research Service Federal Reserve: Unconventional Monetary Policy Options* Conti-Brown, Peter.", "''The Power and Independence of the Federal Reserve'' (Princeton University Press, 2016).", "* Epstein, Lita & Martin, Preston (2003).", "''The Complete Idiot's Guide to the Federal Reserve''.", "Alpha Books.", ".", "* Greider, William (1987).", "''Secrets of the Temple''.", "Simon & Schuster.", "; nontechnical book explaining the structures, functions, and history of the Federal Reserve, focusing specifically on the tenure of Paul Volcker.", "* Hafer, R. W. ''The Federal Reserve System: An Encyclopedia''.", "Greenwood Press, 2005.451 pp, 280 entries; .", "* Lavelle, Kathryn C. (2013) Money and Banks in the American Political System.", "New York: Cambridge University Press.", "978-1-107-60916-7 Explains basic political processes surrounding the Federal Reserve in the broader system of Congress and the Executive Branch.", "* Meyer, Laurence H. (2004).", "''A Term at the Fed: An Insider's View''.", "HarperBusiness.", "; focuses on the period from 1996 to 2002, emphasizing Alan Greenspan's chairmanship during the 1997 Asian financial crisis, the stock market boom and the financial aftermath of the September 11, 2001 attacks.", "* Woodward, Bob.", "''Maestro: Greenspan's Fed and the American Boom'' (2000) study of Greenspan in the 1990s.=== Historical ===* * * * * * * * Livingston, James.", "''Origins of the Federal Reserve System: Money, Class, and Corporate Capitalism, 1890–1913'' (1986).", "* * * Mayhew, Anne.", "\"Ideology and the Great Depression: Monetary History Rewritten\".", "''Journal of Economic Issues'' '''17''' (June 1983): 353–360.", "* (cloth) and (paper).", "** ** * Mullins, Eustace C. ''The Secrets of the Federal Reserve'', 1952.John McLaughlin.", ".", "* Roberts, Priscilla.", "'Quis Custodiet Ipsos Custodes?'", "The Federal Reserve System's Founding Fathers and Allied Finances in the First World War\", ''Business History Review'' (1998) 72: 585–603.", "* * Shull, Bernard.", "\"The Fourth Branch: The Federal Reserve's Unlikely Rise to Power and Influence\" (2005) .", "* Steindl, Frank G. ''Monetary Interpretations of the Great Depression.''", "(1995).", "* * Wells, Donald R. ''The Federal Reserve System: A History'' (2004)* West, Robert Craig.", "''Banking Reform and the Federal Reserve, 1863–1923'' (1977).", "* Wicker, Elmus.", "\"A Reconsideration of Federal Reserve Policy during the 1920–1921 Depression\", ''Journal of Economic History'' (1966) 26: 223–238.", "** Wicker, Elmus.", "''Federal Reserve Monetary Policy, 1917–33.''", "(1966).", "** Wicker, Elmus.", "''The Great Debate on Banking Reform: Nelson Aldrich and the Origins of the Fed'' Ohio State University Press, 2005.", "* Wood, John H. ''A History of Central Banking in Great Britain and the United States'' (2005)* Wueschner, Silvano A.", "''Charting Twentieth-Century Monetary Policy: Herbert Hoover and Benjamin Strong, 1917–1927''.", "Greenwood Press (1999)." ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * Federal Reserve System in the Federal Register* Records of the Federal Reserve System in the National Archives (Record Group 82)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Francium" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Francium''' is a chemical element; it has symbol '''Fr''' and atomic number 87.It is extremely radioactive; its most stable isotope, francium-223 (originally called ''actinium K'' after the natural decay chain in which it appears), has a half-life of only 22 minutes.", "It is the second-most electropositive element, behind only caesium, and is the second rarest naturally occurring element (after astatine).", "Francium's isotopes decay quickly into astatine, radium, and radon.", "The electronic structure of a francium atom is Rn 7s1; thus, the element is classed as an alkali metal.Bulk francium has never been seen.", "Because of the general appearance of the other elements in its periodic table column, it is presumed that francium would appear as a highly reactive metal if enough could be collected together to be viewed as a bulk solid or liquid.", "Obtaining such a sample is highly improbable since the extreme heat of decay resulting from its short half-life would immediately vaporize any viewable quantity of the element.Francium was discovered by Marguerite Perey in France (from which the element takes its name) in 1939.Before its discovery, francium was referred to as ''eka-caesium'' or ''ekacaesium'' because of its conjectured existence below caesium in the periodic table.", "It was the last element first discovered in nature, rather than by synthesis.", "Outside the laboratory, francium is extremely rare, with trace amounts found in uranium ores, where the isotope francium-223 (in the family of uranium-235) continually forms and decays.", "As little as exists at any given time throughout the Earth's crust; aside from francium-223 and francium-221, its other isotopes are entirely synthetic.", "The largest amount produced in the laboratory was a cluster of more than 300,000 atoms." ], [ "Characteristics", "Francium is one of the most unstable of the naturally occurring elements: its longest-lived isotope, francium-223, has a half-life of only 22 minutes.", "The only comparable element is astatine, whose most stable natural isotope, astatine-219 (the alpha daughter of francium-223), has a half-life of 56 seconds, although synthetic astatine-210 is much longer-lived with a half-life of 8.1 hours.", "All isotopes of francium decay into astatine, radium, or radon.", "Francium-223 also has a shorter half-life than the longest-lived isotope of each synthetic element up to and including element 105, dubnium.Francium is an alkali metal whose chemical properties mostly resemble those of caesium.", "A heavy element with a single valence electron, it has the highest equivalent weight of any element.", "Liquid francium—if created—should have a surface tension of 0.05092 N/m at its melting point.", "Francium's melting point was estimated to be around ; a value of is also often encountered.", "The melting point is uncertain because of the element's extreme rarity and radioactivity; a different extrapolation based on Dmitri Mendeleev's method gave .", "A calculation based on the melting temperatures of binary ionic crystals gives .", "The estimated boiling point of is also uncertain; the estimates and , as well as the extrapolation from Mendeleev's method of , have also been suggested.", "The density of francium is expected to be around 2.48 g/cm3 (Mendeleev's method extrapolates 2.4 g/cm3).Linus Pauling estimated the electronegativity of francium at 0.7 on the Pauling scale, the same as caesium; the value for caesium has since been refined to 0.79, but there are no experimental data to allow a refinement of the value for francium.", "Francium has a slightly higher ionization energy than caesium, 392.811(4) kJ/mol as opposed to 375.7041(2) kJ/mol for caesium, as would be expected from relativistic effects, and this would imply that caesium is the less electronegative of the two.", "Francium should also have a higher electron affinity than caesium and the Fr− ion should be more polarizable than the Cs− ion." ], [ "Compounds", "As a result of francium being very unstable, its salts are only known to a small extent.", "Francium coprecipitates with several caesium salts, such as caesium perchlorate, which results in small amounts of francium perchlorate.", "This coprecipitation can be used to isolate francium, by adapting the radiocaesium coprecipitation method of Lawrence E. Glendenin and C. M. Nelson.", "It will additionally coprecipitate with many other caesium salts, including the iodate, the picrate, the tartrate (also rubidium tartrate), the chloroplatinate, and the silicotungstate.", "It also coprecipitates with silicotungstic acid, and with perchloric acid, without another alkali metal as a carrier, which leads to other methods of separation.===Francium perchlorate===Francium perchlorate is produced by the reaction of francium chloride and sodium perchlorate.", "The francium perchlorate coprecipitates with caesium perchlorate.", "This coprecipitation can be used to isolate francium, by adapting the radiocaesium coprecipitation method of Lawrence E. Glendenin and C. M. Nelson.", "However, this method is unreliable in separating thallium, which also coprecipitates with caesium.", "Francium perchlorate's entropy is expected to be 42.7 e.u (178.7 J mol−1 K−1).===Francium halides===Francium halides are all soluble in water and are expected to be white solids.", "They are expected to be produced by the reaction of the corresponding halogens.", "For example, francium chloride would be produced by the reaction of francium and chlorine.", "Francium chloride has been studied as a pathway to separate francium from other elements, by using the high vapour pressure of the compound, although francium fluoride would have a higher vapour pressure.===Other compounds===Francium nitrate, sulfate, hydroxide, carbonate, acetate, and oxalate, are all soluble in water, while the iodate, picrate, tartrate, chloroplatinate, and silicotungstate are insoluble.", "The insolubility of these compounds are used to extract francium from other radioactive products, such as zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, tin, antimony, the method mentioned in the section above.", "The CsFr molecule is predicted to have francium at the negative end of the dipole, unlike all known heterodiatomic alkali metal molecules.", "Francium superoxide (FrO2) is expected to have a more covalent character than its lighter congeners; this is attributed to the 6p electrons in francium being more involved in the francium–oxygen bonding.", "The relativistic destabilisation of the 6p3/2 spinor may make francium compounds in oxidation states higher than +1 possible, such as FrVF6−; but this has not been experimentally confirmed." ], [ "Isotopes", "There are 37 known isotopes of francium ranging in atomic mass from 197 to 233.Francium has seven metastable nuclear isomers.", "Francium-223 and francium-221 are the only isotopes that occur in nature, with the former being far more common.Francium-223 is the most stable isotope, with a half-life of 21.8 minutes, and it is highly unlikely that an isotope of francium with a longer half-life will ever be discovered or synthesized.", "Francium-223 is a fifth product of the uranium-235 decay series as a daughter isotope of actinium-227; thorium-227 is the more common daughter.", "Francium-223 then decays into radium-223 by beta decay (1.149 MeV decay energy), with a minor (0.006%) alpha decay path to astatine-219 (5.4 MeV decay energy).Francium-221 has a half-life of 4.8 minutes.", "It is the ninth product of the neptunium decay series as a daughter isotope of actinium-225.Francium-221 then decays into astatine-217 by alpha decay (6.457 MeV decay energy).", "Although all primordial 237Np is extinct, the neptunium decay series continues to exist naturally in tiny traces due to (n,2n) knockout reactions in natural 238U.", "Francium-222, with a half-life of 14 minutes, may be produced as a result of the beta decay of natural radon-222; this process, though energetically possible, has nonetheless not yet been observed.The least stable ground state isotope is francium-215, with a half-life of 90 ns: it undergoes a 9.54 MeV alpha decay to astatine-211." ], [ "Applications", "Due to its instability and rarity, there are no commercial applications for francium.", "It has been used for research purposes in the fields of chemistryand of atomic structure.", "Its use as a potential diagnostic aid for various cancers has also been explored, but this application has been deemed impractical.Francium's ability to be synthesized, trapped, and cooled, along with its relatively simple atomic structure, has made it the subject of specialized spectroscopy experiments.", "These experiments have led to more specific information regarding energy levels and the coupling constants between subatomic particles.", "Studies on the light emitted by laser-trapped francium-210 ions have provided accurate data on transitions between atomic energy levels which are fairly similar to those predicted by quantum theory." ], [ "History", "As early as 1870, chemists thought that there should be an alkali metal beyond caesium, with an atomic number of 87.It was then referred to by the provisional name ''eka-caesium''.===Erroneous and incomplete discoveries===In 1914, Stefan Meyer, Viktor F. Hess, and Friedrich Paneth (working in Vienna) made measurements of alpha radiation from various substances, including 227Ac.", "They observed the possibility of a minor alpha branch of this nuclide, though follow-up work could not be done due to the outbreak of World War I.", "Their observations were not precise and sure enough for them to announce the discovery of element 87, though it is likely that they did indeed observe the decay of 227Ac to 223Fr.Soviet chemist Dmitry Dobroserdov was the first scientist to claim to have found eka-caesium, or francium.", "In 1925, he observed weak radioactivity in a sample of potassium, another alkali metal, and incorrectly concluded that eka-caesium was contaminating the sample (the radioactivity from the sample was from the naturally occurring potassium radioisotope, potassium-40).", "He then published a thesis on his predictions of the properties of eka-caesium, in which he named the element ''russium'' after his home country.", "Shortly thereafter, Dobroserdov began to focus on his teaching career at the Polytechnic Institute of Odesa, and he did not pursue the element further.The following year, English chemists Gerald J. F. Druce and Frederick H. Loring analyzed X-ray photographs of manganese(II) sulfate.", "They observed spectral lines which they presumed to be of eka-caesium.", "They announced their discovery of element 87 and proposed the name ''alkalinium'', as it would be the heaviest alkali metal.In 1930, Fred Allison of the Alabama Polytechnic Institute claimed to have discovered element 87 (in addition to 85) when analyzing pollucite and lepidolite using his magneto-optical machine.", "Allison requested that it be named ''virginium'' after his home state of Virginia, along with the symbols Vi and Vm.", "In 1934, H.G.", "MacPherson of UC Berkeley disproved the effectiveness of Allison's device and the validity of his discovery.In 1936, Romanian physicist Horia Hulubei and his French colleague Yvette Cauchois also analyzed pollucite, this time using their high-resolution X-ray apparatus.", "They observed several weak emission lines, which they presumed to be those of element 87.Hulubei and Cauchois reported their discovery and proposed the name ''moldavium'', along with the symbol Ml, after Moldavia, the Romanian province where Hulubei was born.", "In 1937, Hulubei's work was criticized by American physicist F. H. Hirsh Jr., who rejected Hulubei's research methods.", "Hirsh was certain that eka-caesium would not be found in nature, and that Hulubei had instead observed mercury or bismuth X-ray lines.", "Hulubei insisted that his X-ray apparatus and methods were too accurate to make such a mistake.", "Because of this, Jean Baptiste Perrin, Nobel Prize winner and Hulubei's mentor, endorsed moldavium as the true eka-caesium over Marguerite Perey's recently discovered francium.", "Perey took pains to be accurate and detailed in her criticism of Hulubei's work, and finally she was credited as the sole discoverer of element 87.All other previous purported discoveries of element 87 were ruled out due to francium's very limited half-life.===Perey's analysis===Eka-caesium was discovered on January 7, 1939, by Marguerite Perey of the Curie Institute in Paris, when she purified a sample of actinium-227 which had been reported to have a decay energy of 220 keV.", "Perey noticed decay particles with an energy level below 80 keV.", "Perey thought this decay activity might have been caused by a previously unidentified decay product, one which was separated during purification, but emerged again out of the pure actinium-227.Various tests eliminated the possibility of the unknown element being thorium, radium, lead, bismuth, or thallium.", "The new product exhibited chemical properties of an alkali metal (such as coprecipitating with caesium salts), which led Perey to believe that it was element 87, produced by the alpha decay of actinium-227.Perey then attempted to determine the proportion of beta decay to alpha decay in actinium-227.Her first test put the alpha branching at 0.6%, a figure which she later revised to 1%.Perey named the new isotope ''actinium-K'' (it is now referred to as francium-223) and in 1946, she proposed the name ''catium'' (Cm) for her newly discovered element, as she believed it to be the most electropositive cation of the elements.", "Irène Joliot-Curie, one of Perey's supervisors, opposed the name due to its connotation of ''cat'' rather than ''cation''; furthermore, the symbol coincided with that which had since been assigned to curium.", "Perey then suggested ''francium'', after France.", "This name was officially adopted by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) in 1949, becoming the second element after gallium to be named after France.", "It was assigned the symbol Fa, but it was revised to the current Fr shortly thereafter.", "Francium was the last element discovered in nature, rather than synthesized, following hafnium and rhenium.", "Further research into francium's structure was carried out by, among others, Sylvain Lieberman and his team at CERN in the 1970s and 1980s." ], [ "Occurrence", "This sample of alt=A shiny gray 5-centimeter piece of matter with a rough surface.223Fr is the result of the alpha decay of 227Ac and can be found in trace amounts in uranium minerals.", "In a given sample of uranium, there is estimated to be only one francium atom for every 1 × 1018 uranium atoms.", "Only about of francium is present naturally in the earth's crust." ], [ "Production", "alt=A complex experimental setup featuring a horizontal glass tube placed between two copper coils.Francium can be synthesized by a fusion reaction when a gold-197 target is bombarded with a beam of oxygen-18 atoms from a linear accelerator in a process originally developed at the physics department of the State University of New York at Stony Brook in 1995.Depending on the energy of the oxygen beam, the reaction can yield francium isotopes with masses of 209, 210, and 211.:197Au + 18O → 209Fr + 6 n:197Au + 18O → 210Fr + 5 n:197Au + 18O → 211Fr + 4 nThe francium atoms leave the gold target as ions, which are neutralized by collision with yttrium and then isolated in a magneto-optical trap (MOT) in a gaseous unconsolidated state.", "Although the atoms only remain in the trap for about 30 seconds before escaping or undergoing nuclear decay, the process supplies a continual stream of fresh atoms.", "The result is a steady state containing a fairly constant number of atoms for a much longer time.", "The original apparatus could trap up to a few thousand atoms, while a later improved design could trap over 300,000 at a time.", "Sensitive measurements of the light emitted and absorbed by the trapped atoms provided the first experimental results on various transitions between atomic energy levels in francium.", "Initial measurements show very good agreement between experimental values and calculations based on quantum theory.", "The research project using this production method relocated to TRIUMF in 2012, where over 106 francium atoms have been held at a time, including large amounts of 209Fr in addition to 207Fr and 221Fr.Other synthesis methods include bombarding radium with neutrons, and bombarding thorium with protons, deuterons, or helium ions.223Fr can also be isolated from samples of its parent 227Ac, the francium being milked via elution with NH4Cl–CrO3 from an actinium-containing cation exchanger and purified by passing the solution through a silicon dioxide compound loaded with barium sulfate.In 1996, the Stony Brook group trapped 3000 atoms in their MOT, which was enough for a video camera to capture the light given off by the atoms as they fluoresce.", "Francium has not been synthesized in amounts large enough to weigh." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Francium at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham)* WebElements.com – Francium* Stony Brook University Physics Dept.", "* Scerri, Eric (2013).", "''A Tale of Seven Elements'', Oxford University Press, Oxford," ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fermium" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fermium''' is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol '''Fm''' and atomic number 100.It is an actinide and the heaviest element that can be formed by neutron bombardment of lighter elements, and hence the last element that can be prepared in macroscopic quantities, although pure fermium metal has not yet been prepared.", "A total of 20 isotopes are known, with 257Fm being the longest-lived with a half-life of 100.5 days.It was discovered in the debris of the first hydrogen bomb explosion in 1952, and named after Enrico Fermi, one of the pioneers of nuclear physics.", "Its chemistry is typical for the late actinides, with a preponderance of the +3 oxidation state but also an accessible +2 oxidation state.", "Owing to the small amounts of produced fermium and all of its isotopes having relatively short half-lives, there are currently no uses for it outside basic scientific research." ], [ "Discovery", "Fermium was first observed in the fallout from the ''Ivy Mike'' nuclear test.The element was named after Enrico Fermi.The element was discovered by a team headed by Albert Ghiorso.Fermium was first discovered in the fallout from the 'Ivy Mike' nuclear test (1 November 1952), the first successful test of a hydrogen bomb.", "Initial examination of the debris from the explosion had shown the production of a new isotope of plutonium, : this could only have formed by the absorption of six neutrons by a uranium-238 nucleus followed by two β− decays.", "At the time, the absorption of neutrons by a heavy nucleus was thought to be a rare process, but the identification of raised the possibility that still more neutrons could have been absorbed by the uranium nuclei, leading to new elements.Element 99 (einsteinium) was quickly discovered on filter papers which had been flown through the cloud from the explosion (the same sampling technique that had been used to discover ).", "It was then identified in December 1952 by Albert Ghiorso and co-workers at the University of California at Berkeley.", "They discovered the isotope 253Es (half-life 20.5 days) that was made by the capture of 15 neutrons by uranium-238 nuclei – which then underwent seven successive beta decays:Some 238U atoms, however, could capture another amount of neutrons (most likely, 16 or 17).The discovery of fermium (''Z'' = 100) required more material, as the yield was expected to be at least an order of magnitude lower than that of element 99, and so contaminated coral from the Enewetak atoll (where the test had taken place) was shipped to the University of California Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley, California, for processing and analysis.", "About two months after the test, a new component was isolated emitting high-energy α-particles (7.1 MeV) with a half-life of about a day.", "With such a short half-life, it could only arise from the β− decay of an isotope of einsteinium, and so had to be an isotope of the new element 100: it was quickly identified as 255Fm ().The discovery of the new elements, and the new data on neutron capture, was initially kept secret on the orders of the U.S. military until 1955 due to Cold War tensions.", "Nevertheless, the Berkeley team was able to prepare elements 99 and 100 by civilian means, through the neutron bombardment of plutonium-239, and published this work in 1954 with the disclaimer that it was not the first studies that had been carried out on the elements.", "The \"Ivy Mike\" studies were declassified and published in 1955.The Berkeley team had been worried that another group might discover lighter isotopes of element 100 through ion-bombardment techniques before they could publish their classified research, and this proved to be the case.", "A group at the Nobel Institute for Physics in Stockholm independently discovered the element, producing an isotope later confirmed to be 250Fm (''t''1/2 = 30 minutes) by bombarding a target with oxygen-16 ions, and published their work in May 1954.Nevertheless, the priority of the Berkeley team was generally recognized, and with it the prerogative to name the new element in honour of Enrico Fermi, the developer of the first artificial self-sustained nuclear reactor.", "Fermi was still alive when the name was proposed, but had died by the time it became official." ], [ "Isotopes", "Decay pathway of fermium-257There are 20 isotopes of fermium listed in NUBASE 2016, with atomic weights of 241 to 260, of which 257Fm is the longest-lived with a half-life of 100.5 days.", "253Fm has a half-life of 3 days, while 251Fm of 5.3 h, 252Fm of 25.4 h, 254Fm of 3.2 h, 255Fm of 20.1 h, and 256Fm of 2.6 hours.", "All the remaining ones have half-lives ranging from 30 minutes to less than a millisecond.The neutron capture product of fermium-257, 258Fm, undergoes spontaneous fission with a half-life of just 370(14) microseconds; 259Fm and 260Fm are also unstable with respect to spontaneous fission (''t''1/2 = 1.5(3) s and 4 ms respectively).", "This means that neutron capture cannot be used to create nuclides with a mass number greater than 257, unless carried out in a nuclear explosion.", "As 257Fm is an α-emitter, decaying to 253Cf, and no known fermium isotopes undergo beta minus decay to the next element, mendelevium, fermium is also the last element that can be prepared by a neutron-capture process.", "Because of this impediment in forming heavier isotopes, these short-lived isotopes 258–260Fm constitute the so-called \"fermium gap.\"" ], [ "Production", "Elution: chromatographic separation of Fm(100), Es(99), Cf, Bk, Cm and AmFermium is produced by the bombardment of lighter actinides with neutrons in a nuclear reactor.", "Fermium-257 is the heaviest isotope that is obtained via neutron capture, and can only be produced in picogram quantities.", "The major source is the 85 MW High Flux Isotope Reactor (HFIR) at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee, USA, which is dedicated to the production of transcurium (''Z'' > 96) elements.", "Lower mass fermium isotopes are available in greater quantities, though these isotopes (254Fm and 255Fm) are comparatively short-lived.", "In a \"typical processing campaign\" at Oak Ridge, tens of grams of curium are irradiated to produce decigram quantities of californium, milligram quantities of berkelium and einsteinium, and picogram quantities of fermium.", "However, nanogram quantities of fermium can be prepared for specific experiments.", "The quantities of fermium produced in 20–200 kiloton thermonuclear explosions is believed to be of the order of milligrams, although it is mixed in with a huge quantity of debris; 4.0 picograms of 257Fm was recovered from 10 kilograms of debris from the \"Hutch\" test (16 July 1969).", "The Hutch experiment produced an estimated total of 250 micrograms of 257Fm.After production, the fermium must be separated from other actinides and from lanthanide fission products.", "This is usually achieved by ion-exchange chromatography, with the standard process using a cation exchanger such as Dowex 50 or TEVA eluted with a solution of ammonium α-hydroxyisobutyrate.", "Smaller cations form more stable complexes with the α-hydroxyisobutyrate anion, and so are preferentially eluted from the column.", "A rapid fractional crystallization method has also been described.Although the most stable isotope of fermium is 257Fm, with a half-life of 100.5 days, most studies are conducted on 255Fm (''t''1/2 = 20.07(7) hours), since this isotope can be easily isolated as required as the decay product of 255Es (''t''1/2 = 39.8(12) days)." ], [ "Synthesis in nuclear explosions", "The analysis of the debris at the 10-megaton ''Ivy Mike'' nuclear test was a part of long-term project, one of the goals of which was studying the efficiency of production of transuranium elements in high-power nuclear explosions.", "The motivation for these experiments was as follows: synthesis of such elements from uranium requires multiple neutron capture.", "The probability of such events increases with the neutron flux, and nuclear explosions are the most powerful neutron sources, providing densities of the order 1023 neutrons/cm2 within a microsecond, i.e.", "about 1029 neutrons/(cm2·s).", "In comparison, the flux of the HFIR reactor is 5 neutrons/(cm2·s).", "A dedicated laboratory was set up right at Enewetak Atoll for preliminary analysis of debris, as some isotopes could have decayed by the time the debris samples reached the U.S.", "The laboratory was receiving samples for analysis, as soon as possible, from airplanes equipped with paper filters which flew over the atoll after the tests.", "Whereas it was hoped to discover new chemical elements heavier than fermium, those were not found after a series of megaton explosions conducted between 1954 and 1956 at the atoll.Estimated yield of transuranium elements in the U.S. nuclear tests Hutch and Cyclamen.The atmospheric results were supplemented by the underground test data accumulated in the 1960s at the Nevada Test Site, as it was hoped that powerful explosions conducted in confined space might result in improved yields and heavier isotopes.", "Apart from traditional uranium charges, combinations of uranium with americium and thorium have been tried, as well as a mixed plutonium-neptunium charge.", "They were less successful in terms of yield, which was attributed to stronger losses of heavy isotopes due to enhanced fission rates in heavy-element charges.", "Isolation of the products was found to be rather problematic, as the explosions were spreading debris through melting and vaporizing rocks under the great depth of 300–600 meters, and drilling to such depth in order to extract the products was both slow and inefficient in terms of collected volumes.Among the nine underground tests, which were carried between 1962 and 1969 and codenamed Anacostia (5.2 kilotons, 1962), Kennebec (−7 of the total charge.", "The amount of transuranium elements in this 500-kg batch was only 30 times higher than in a 0.4 kg rock picked up 7 days after the test.", "This observation demonstrated the highly nonlinear dependence of the transuranium elements yield on the amount of retrieved radioactive rock.", "In order to accelerate sample collection after explosion, shafts were drilled at the site not after but before the test, so that explosion would expel radioactive material from the epicenter, through the shafts, to collecting volumes near the surface.", "This method was tried in the Anacostia and Kennebec tests and instantly provided hundreds kilograms of material, but with actinide concentration 3 times lower than in samples obtained after drilling; whereas such method could have been efficient in scientific studies of short-lived isotopes, it could not improve the overall collection efficiency of the produced actinides.Although no new elements (apart from einsteinium and fermium) could be detected in the nuclear test debris, and the total yields of transuranium elements were disappointingly low, these tests did provide significantly higher amounts of rare heavy isotopes than previously available in laboratories.", "For example, 6 atoms of 257Fm could be recovered after the Hutch detonation.", "They were then used in the studies of thermal-neutron induced fission of 257Fm and in discovery of a new fermium isotope 258Fm.", "Also, the rare 250Cm isotope was synthesized in large quantities, which is very difficult to produce in nuclear reactors from its progenitor 249Cm; the half-life of 249Cm (64 minutes) is much too short for months-long reactor irradiations, but is very \"long\" on the explosion timescale." ], [ "Natural occurrence", "Because of the short half-life of all isotopes of fermium, any primordial fermium, that is fermium that could be present on the Earth during its formation, has decayed by now.", "Synthesis of fermium from naturally occurring actinides uranium and thorium in the Earth crust requires multiple neutron capture, which is an extremely unlikely event.", "Therefore, most fermium is produced on Earth in scientific laboratories, high-power nuclear reactors, or in nuclear weapons tests, and is present only within a few months from the time of the synthesis.", "The transuranic elements from americium to fermium did occur naturally in the natural nuclear fission reactor at Oklo, but no longer do so." ], [ "Chemistry", "A fermium-ytterbium alloy used for measuring the enthalpy of vaporization of fermium metalThe chemistry of fermium has only been studied in solution using tracer techniques, and no solid compounds have been prepared.", "Under normal conditions, fermium exists in solution as the Fm3+ ion, which has a hydration number of 16.9 and an acid dissociation constant of 1.6 (p''K''a = 3.8).", "Fm3+ forms complexes with a wide variety of organic ligands with hard donor atoms such as oxygen, and these complexes are usually more stable than those of the preceding actinides.", "It also forms anionic complexes with ligands such as chloride or nitrate and, again, these complexes appear to be more stable than those formed by einsteinium or californium.", "It is believed that the bonding in the complexes of the later actinides is mostly ionic in character: the Fm3+ ion is expected to be smaller than the preceding An3+ ions because of the higher effective nuclear charge of fermium, and hence fermium would be expected to form shorter and stronger metal–ligand bonds.Fermium(III) can be fairly easily reduced to fermium(II), for example with samarium(II) chloride, with which fermium(II) coprecipitates.", "In the precipitate, the compound fermium(II) chloride (FmCl2) was produced, though it was not purified or studied in isolation.", "The electrode potential has been estimated to be similar to that of the ytterbium(III)/(II) couple, or about −1.15 V with respect to the standard hydrogen electrode, a value which agrees with theoretical calculations.", "The Fm2+/Fm0 couple has an electrode potential of −2.37(10) V based on polarographic measurements." ], [ "Toxicity", "Although few people come in contact with fermium, the International Commission on Radiological Protection has set annual exposure limits for the two most stable isotopes.", "For fermium-253, the ingestion limit was set at 107 becquerels (1 Bq is equivalent to one decay per second), and the inhalation limit at 105 Bq; for fermium-257, at 105 Bq and 4,000 Bq respectively." ], [ "Notes and references", "===Notes======References===" ], [ "Further reading", "* Robert J. Silva: Fermium, Mendelevium, Nobelium, and Lawrencium, in: Lester R. Morss, Norman M. Edelstein, Jean Fuger (Hrsg.", "): ''The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements'', Springer, Dordrecht 2006; , p. 1621–1651; .", "* Seaborg, Glenn T.", "(ed.)", "(1978) '' Proceedings of the Symposium Commemorating the 25th Anniversary of Elements 99 and 100'', 23 January 1978, Report LBL-7701* ''Gmelins Handbuch der anorganischen Chemie'', System Nr.", "71, Transurane: Teil A 1 II, p. 19–20; Teil A 2, p. 47; Teil B 1, p. 84." ], [ "External links", "* Fermium at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Frédéric Chopin" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Frédéric François Chopin''' (born '''Fryderyk Franciszek Chopin'''; 1 March 181017 October 1849) was a Polish composer and virtuoso pianist of the Romantic period, who wrote primarily for solo piano.", "He has maintained worldwide renown as a leading musician of his era, one whose \"poetic genius was based on a professional technique that was without equal in his generation\".Chopin was born in Żelazowa Wola and grew up in Warsaw, which in 1815 became part of Congress Poland.", "A child prodigy, he completed his musical education and composed his earlier works in Warsaw before leaving Poland at the age of 20, less than a month before the outbreak of the November 1830 Uprising.", "At 21, he settled in Paris.", "Thereafter he gave only 30 public performances, preferring the more intimate atmosphere of the salon.", "He supported himself by selling his compositions and by giving piano lessons, for which he was in high demand.", "Chopin formed a friendship with Franz Liszt and was admired by many of his musical contemporaries, including Robert Schumann.", "After a failed engagement to Maria Wodzińska from 1836 to 1837, he maintained an often troubled relationship with the French writer Aurore Dupin (known by her pen name George Sand).", "A brief and unhappy visit to Mallorca with Sand in 1838–39 would prove one of his most productive periods of composition.", "In his final years, he was supported financially by his admirer Jane Stirling.", "For most of his life, Chopin was in poor health.", "He died in Paris in 1849 at the age of 39.All of Chopin's compositions feature the piano.", "Most are for solo piano, though he also wrote two piano concertos, some chamber music, and 19 songs set to Polish lyrics.", "His piano pieces are technically demanding and expanded the limits of the instrument; his own performances were noted for their nuance and sensitivity.", "Chopin's major piano works include mazurkas, waltzes, nocturnes, polonaises, the instrumental ''ballade'' (which Chopin created as an instrumental genre), études, impromptus, scherzi, preludes, and sonatas, some published only posthumously.", "Among the influences on his style of composition were Polish folk music, the classical tradition of Mozart and Schubert, and the atmosphere of the Paris salons, of which he was a frequent guest.", "His innovations in style, harmony, and musical form, and his association of music with nationalism, were influential throughout and after the late Romantic period.Chopin's music, his status as one of music's earliest celebrities, his indirect association with political insurrection, his high-profile love life, and his early death have made him a leading symbol of the Romantic era.", "His works remain popular, and he has been the subject of numerous films and biographies of varying historical fidelity.", "Among his many memorials is the Fryderyk Chopin Institute, which was created by the Parliament of Poland to research and promote his life and works.", "It hosts the International Chopin Piano Competition, a prestigious competition devoted entirely to his works." ], [ "Life", "===Early life=======Childhood====Chopin's birthplace in Żelazowa WolaFrédéric Chopin was born in Żelazowa Wola, 46 kilometres () west of Warsaw, in what was then the Duchy of Warsaw, a Polish state established by Napoleon.", "The parish baptismal record, which is dated 23 April 1810, gives his birthday as 22 February 1810, and cites his given names in the Latin form (in Polish, he was ).", "The composer and his family used the birthdate 1 March, which is now generally accepted as the correct date.His father, Nicolas Chopin, was a Frenchman from Lorraine who had emigrated to Poland in 1787 at the age of sixteen.", "He married Justyna Krzyżanowska, a poor relative of the Skarbeks, one of the families for whom he worked.", "Chopin was baptised in the same church where his parents had married, in Brochów.", "His eighteen-year-old godfather, for whom he was named, was Fryderyk Skarbek, a pupil of Nicolas Chopin.", "Chopin was the second child of Nicholas and Justyna and their only son; he had an elder sister, Ludwika, and two younger sisters, Izabela and Emilia, whose death at the age of 14 was probably from tuberculosis.", "Nicolas Chopin was devoted to his adopted homeland, and insisted on the use of the Polish language in the household.Chopin's father, Nicolas Chopin, by Mieroszewski, 1829In October 1810, six months after Chopin's birth, the family moved to Warsaw, where his father acquired a post teaching French at the Warsaw Lyceum, then housed in the Saxon Palace.", "Chopin lived with his family on the Palace grounds.", "The father played the flute and violin; the mother played the piano and gave lessons to boys in the boarding house that the Chopins kept.", "Chopin was of slight build, and even in early childhood was prone to illnesses.Chopin may have had some piano instruction from his mother, but his first professional music tutor, from 1816 to 1821, was the Czech pianist Wojciech Żywny.", "His elder sister Ludwika also took lessons from Żywny, and occasionally played duets with her brother.", "It quickly became apparent that he was a child prodigy.", "By the age of seven he had begun giving public concerts, and in 1817 he composed two polonaises, in G minor and B-flat major.", "His next work, a polonaise in A-flat major of 1821, dedicated to Żywny, is his earliest surviving musical manuscript.In 1817 the Saxon Palace was requisitioned by Warsaw's Russian governor for military use, and the Warsaw Lyceum was reestablished in the Kazimierz Palace (today the rectorate of Warsaw University).", "Chopin and his family moved to a building, which still survives, adjacent to the Kazimierz Palace.", "During this period, he was sometimes invited to the Belweder Palace as playmate to the son of the ruler of Russian Poland, Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich of Russia; he played the piano for Konstantin Pavlovich and composed a march for him.", "Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz, in his dramatic eclogue, \"\" (\"Our Discourses\", 1818), attested to \"little Chopin's\" popularity.====Education====Józef Elsner (after 1853)From September 1823 to 1826, Chopin attended the Warsaw Lyceum, where he received organ lessons from the Czech musician Wilhelm Würfel during his first year.", "In the autumn of 1826 he began a three-year course under the Silesian composer Józef Elsner at the Warsaw Conservatory, studying music theory, figured bass, and composition.", "Throughout this period he continued to compose and to give recitals in concerts and salons in Warsaw.", "He was engaged by the inventors of the \"aeolomelodicon\" (a combination of piano and mechanical organ), and on this instrument in May 1825 he performed his own improvisation and part of a concerto by Moscheles.", "The success of this concert led to an invitation to give a recital on a similar instrument (the \"aeolopantaleon\") before Tsar Alexander I, who was visiting Warsaw; the Tsar presented him with a diamond ring.", "At a subsequent aeolopantaleon concert on 10 June 1825, Chopin performed his Rondo Op.", "1.This was the first of his works to be commercially published and earned him his first mention in the foreign press, when the Leipzig ''Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung'' praised his \"wealth of musical ideas\".From 1824 until 1828 Chopin spent his vacations away from Warsaw, at a number of locations.", "In 1824 and 1825, at Szafarnia, he was a guest of Dominik Dziewanowski, the father of a schoolmate.", "Here, for the first time, he encountered Polish rural folk music.", "His letters home from Szafarnia (to which he gave the title \"The Szafarnia Courier\"), written in a very modern and lively Polish, amused his family with their spoofing of the Warsaw newspapers and demonstrated the youngster's literary gift.In 1827, soon after the death of Chopin's youngest sister Emilia, the family moved from the Warsaw University building, adjacent to the Kazimierz Palace, to lodgings just across the street from the university, in the south annex of the Krasiński Palace on Krakowskie Przedmieście, where Chopin lived until he left Warsaw in 1830.Here his parents continued running their boarding house for male students.", "Four boarders at his parents' apartments became Chopin's intimates: Tytus Woyciechowski, Jan Nepomucen Białobłocki, Jan Matuszyński, and Julian Fontana.", "The latter two would become part of his Paris milieu.Chopin was friendly with members of Warsaw's young artistic and intellectual world, including Fontana, Józef Bohdan Zaleski, and Stefan Witwicki.", "Chopin's final Conservatory report (July 1829) read: \"Chopin F., third-year student, exceptional talent, musical genius.\"", "In 1829 the artist Ambroży Mieroszewski executed a set of portraits of Chopin family members, including the first known portrait of the composer.Letters from Chopin to Woyciechowski in the period 1829–30 (when Chopin was about twenty) contain apparent homoerotic references to dreams and to offered kisses.According to Adam Zamoyski, such expressions \"were, and to some extent still are, common currency in Polish and carry no greater implication than the 'love concluding letters today.", "\"The spirit of the times, pervaded by the Romantic movement in art and literature, favoured extreme expression of feeling ... Whilst the possibility cannot be ruled out entirely, it is unlikely that the two were ever lovers.\"", "Chopin's biographer Alan Walker considers that, insofar as such expressions could be perceived as homosexual in nature, they would not denote more than a passing phase in Chopin's life, or be the resultin Walker's wordsof a \"mental twist\".", "The musicologist Jeffrey Kallberg notes that concepts of sexual practice and identity were very different in Chopin's time, so modern interpretation is problematic.", "Other writers believe that these are clear, or potential, demonstrations of homosexual impulses on Chopin's part.Probably in early 1829 Chopin met the singer Konstancja Gładkowska and developed an intense affection for her, although it is not clear that he ever addressed her directly on the matter.", "In a letter to Woyciechowski of 3 October 1829 he refers to his \"ideal, whom I have served faithfully for six months, though without ever saying a word to her about my feelings; whom I dream of, who inspired the Adagio of my Concerto\".", "All of Chopin's biographers, following the lead of Frederick Niecks, agree that this \"ideal\" was Gładkowska.", "After what would be Chopin's farewell concert in Warsaw in October 1830, which included the concerto, played by the composer, and Gładkowska singing an aria by Gioachino Rossini, the two exchanged rings, and two weeks later she wrote in his album some affectionate lines bidding him farewell.", "After Chopin left Warsaw, he and Gładkowska did not meet and apparently did not correspond.===Career===Radziwiłłs, 1829 (painting by Henryk Siemiradzki, 1887)====Travel and domestic success====In September 1828 Chopin, while still a student, visited Berlin with a family friend, zoologist Feliks Jarocki, enjoying operas directed by Gaspare Spontini and attending concerts by Carl Friedrich Zelter, Felix Mendelssohn, and other celebrities.", "On an 1829 return trip to Berlin, he was a guest of Prince Antoni Radziwiłł, governor of the Grand Duchy of Posenhimself an accomplished composer and aspiring cellist.", "For the prince and his pianist daughter Wanda, he composed his Introduction and Polonaise brillante in C major for cello and piano, Op.", "3.Back in Warsaw that year, Chopin heard Niccolò Paganini play the violin, and composed a set of variations, .", "It may have been this experience that encouraged him to commence writing his first Études (1829–32), exploring the capacities of his own instrument.", "After completing his studies at the Warsaw Conservatory, he made his debut in Vienna.", "He gave two piano concerts and received many favourable reviewsin addition to some commenting (in Chopin's own words) that he was \"too delicate for those accustomed to the piano-bashing of local artists\".", "In the first of these concerts, he premiered his Variations on \"Là ci darem la mano\", Op.", "2 (variations on a duet from Mozart's opera ''Don Giovanni'') for piano and orchestra.", "He returned to Warsaw in September 1829, where he premiered his Piano Concerto No.", "2 in F minor, Op.", "21 on 17 March 1830.Chopin's successes as a composer and performer opened the door to western Europe for him, and on 2 November 1830, he set out, in the words of Zdzisław Jachimecki, \"into the wide world, with no very clearly defined aim, forever\".", "With Woyciechowski, he headed for Austria again, intending to go on to Italy.", "Later that month, in Warsaw, the November 1830 Uprising broke out, and Woyciechowski returned to Poland to enlist.", "Chopin, now alone in Vienna, was nostalgic for his homeland, and wrote to a friend, \"I curse the moment of my departure.\"", "When in September 1831 he learned, while travelling from Vienna to Paris, that the uprising had been crushed, he expressed his anguish in the pages of his private journal: \"Oh God! ...", "You are there, and yet you do not take vengeance!\".", "Jachimecki ascribes to these events the composer's maturing \"into an inspired national bard who intuited the past, present and future of his native Poland\".====Paris====Chopin at 25, by his fiancée Maria Wodzińska, 1835When he left Warsaw on 2 November 1830, Chopin had intended to go to Italy, but violent unrest there made that a dangerous destination.", "His next choice was Paris; difficulties obtaining a visa from Russian authorities resulted in his obtaining transit permission from the French.", "In later years he would quote the passport's endorsement \"\" (\"In transit to London via Paris\"), joking that he was in the city \"only in passing\".", "Chopin arrived in Paris on 5 October 1831; he would never return to Poland, thus becoming one of many expatriates of the Polish Great Emigration.", "In France, he used the French versions of his given names, and after receiving French citizenship in 1835, he travelled on a French passport.", "However, Chopin remained close to his fellow Poles in exile as friends and confidants and he never felt fully comfortable speaking French.", "Chopin's biographer Adam Zamoyski writes that he never considered himself to be French, despite his father's French origins, and always saw himself as a Pole.In Paris, Chopin encountered artists and other distinguished figures and found many opportunities to exercise his talents and achieve celebrity.", "During his years in Paris, he was to become acquainted with, among many others, Hector Berlioz, Franz Liszt, Ferdinand Hiller, Heinrich Heine, Eugène Delacroix, Alfred de Vigny, and Friedrich Kalkbrenner, who introduced him to the piano manufacturer Camille Pleyel.", "This was the beginning of a long and close association between the composer and Pleyel's instruments.", "Chopin was also acquainted with the poet Adam Mickiewicz, principal of the Polish Literary Society, some of whose verses he set as songs.", "He also was more than once guest of Marquis Astolphe de Custine, one of his fervent admirers, playing his works in Custine's salon.Two Polish friends in Paris were also to play important roles in Chopin's life there.", "A fellow student at the Warsaw Conservatory, Julian Fontana, had originally tried unsuccessfully to establish himself in England; Fontana was to become, in the words of the music historian Jim Samson, Chopin's \"general factotum and copyist\".", "Albert Grzymała, who in Paris became a wealthy financier and society figure, often acted as Chopin's adviser and, in Zamoyski's words, \"gradually began to fill the role of elder brother in his life\".On 7 December 1831, Chopin received the first major endorsement from an outstanding contemporary when Robert Schumann, reviewing the Op.", "2 Variations in the (his first published article on music), declared: \"Hats off, gentlemen!", "A genius.\"", "On 25 February 1832 Chopin gave a debut Paris concert in the \"salons de MM Pleyel\" at 9 rue Cadet, which drew universal admiration.", "The critic François-Joseph Fétis wrote in the ''Revue et gazette musicale'': \"Here is a young man who ... taking no model, has found, if not a complete renewal of piano music, ... an abundance of original ideas of a kind to be found nowhere else ...\" After this concert, Chopin realised that his essentially intimate keyboard technique was not optimal for large concert spaces.", "Later that year he was introduced to the wealthy Rothschild banking family, whose patronage also opened doors for him to other private salons (social gatherings of the aristocracy and artistic and literary elite).", "By the end of 1832 Chopin had established himself among the Parisian musical elite and had earned the respect of his peers such as Hiller, Liszt, and Berlioz.", "He no longer depended financially upon his father, and in the winter of 1832, he began earning a handsome income from publishing his works and teaching piano to affluent students from all over Europe.", "This freed him from the strains of public concert-giving, which he disliked.Chopin seldom performed publicly in Paris.", "In later years he generally gave a single annual concert at the Salle Pleyel, a venue that seated three hundred.", "He played more frequently at salons but preferred playing at his own Paris apartment for small groups of friends.", "The musicologist Arthur Hedley has observed that \"As a pianist Chopin was unique in acquiring a reputation of the highest order on the basis of a minimum of public appearancesfew more than thirty in the course of his lifetime.\"", "The list of musicians who took part in some of his concerts indicates the richness of Parisian artistic life during this period.", "Examples include a concert on 23 March 1833, in which Chopin, Liszt, and Hiller performed (on pianos) a concerto by J. S. Bach for three keyboards; and, on 3 March 1838, a concert in which Chopin, his pupil Adolphe Gutmann, Charles-Valentin Alkan, and Alkan's teacher Joseph Zimmermann performed Alkan's arrangement, for eight hands, of two movements from Beethoven's 7th symphony.", "Chopin was also involved in the composition of Liszt's ''Hexameron''; he wrote the sixth (and final) variation on Bellini's theme.", "Chopin's music soon found success with publishers, and in 1833 he contracted with Maurice Schlesinger, who arranged for it to be published not only in France but, through his family connections, also in Germany and England.Maria Wodzińska, self-portraitIn the spring of 1834, Chopin attended the Lower Rhenish Music Festival in Aix-la-Chapelle with Hiller, and it was there that Chopin met Felix Mendelssohn.", "After the festival, the three visited Düsseldorf, where Mendelssohn had been appointed musical director.", "They spent what Mendelssohn described as \"a very agreeable day\", playing and discussing music at his piano, and met Friedrich Wilhelm Schadow, director of the Academy of Art, and some of his eminent pupils such as Lessing, Bendemann, Hildebrandt and Sohn.", "In 1835 Chopin went to Carlsbad, where he spent time with his parents; it was the last time he would see them.", "On his way back to Paris, he met old friends from Warsaw, the Wodzińskis, their sons, and their daughters, amongst which Maria, whom he occasionally had given piano lessons in Poland.", "This meeting prompted him to stay for two weeks in Dresden, when he had previously intended to return to Paris via Leipzig.", "The sixteen-year-old girl's portrait of the composer has been considered, along with Delacroix's, as among the best likenesses of Chopin.In October he finally reached Leipzig, where he met Schumann, Clara Wieck, and Mendelssohn, who organised for him a performance of his own oratorio ''St.", "Paul'', and who considered him \"a perfect musician\".", "In July 1836 Chopin travelled to Marienbad and Dresden to be with the Wodziński family, and in September he proposed to Maria, whose mother Countess Wodzińska approved in principle.", "Chopin went on to Leipzig, where he presented Schumann with his G minor Ballade.", "At the end of 1836, he sent Maria an album in which his sister Ludwika had inscribed seven of his songs, and his 1835 Nocturne in C-sharp minor, Op.", "27, No.", "1.The anodyne thanks he received from Maria proved to be the last letter he was to have from her.", "Chopin placed the letters he had received from Maria and her mother into a large envelope, wrote on it the words \"My sorrow\" (), and to the end of his life retained in a desk drawer this keepsake of the second love of his life.====Franz Liszt====Franz Liszt, by Kriehuber, 1838Although it is not known exactly when Chopin first met Franz Liszt after arriving in Paris, on 12 December 1831 he mentioned in a letter to his friend Woyciechowski that \"I have met Rossini, Cherubini, Baillot, etc.also Kalkbrenner.", "You would not believe how curious I was about Herz, Liszt, Hiller, etc.\"", "Liszt was in attendance at Chopin's Parisian debut on 26 February 1832 at the Salle Pleyel, which led him to remark: \"The most vigorous applause seemed not to suffice to our enthusiasm in the presence of this talented musician, who revealed a new phase of poetic sentiment combined with such happy innovation in the form of his art.", "\"The two became friends, and for many years lived close to each other in Paris, Chopin at 38 Rue de la Chaussée-d'Antin, and Liszt at the Hôtel de France on the Rue Laffitte, a few blocks away.", "They performed together on seven occasions between 1833 and 1841.The first, on 2 April 1833, was at a benefit concert organised by Hector Berlioz for his bankrupt Shakespearean actress wife Harriet Smithson, during which they played George Onslow's ''Sonata in F minor'' for piano duet.", "Later joint appearances included a benefit concert for the Benevolent Association of Polish Ladies in Paris.", "Their last appearance together in public was for a charity concert conducted for the Beethoven Monument in Bonn, held at the Salle Pleyel and the Paris Conservatory on 25 and 26 April 1841.Although the two displayed great respect and admiration for each other, their friendship was uneasy and had some qualities of a love–hate relationship.", "Harold C. Schonberg believes that Chopin displayed a \"tinge of jealousy and spite\" towards Liszt's virtuosity on the piano, and others have also argued that he had become enchanted with Liszt's theatricality, showmanship, and success.", "Liszt was the dedicatee of Chopin's Op.", "10 Études, and his performance of them prompted the composer to write to Hiller, \"I should like to rob him of the way he plays my studies.\"", "However, Chopin expressed annoyance in 1843 when Liszt performed one of his nocturnes with the addition of numerous intricate embellishments, at which Chopin remarked that he should play the music as written or not play it at all, forcing an apology.", "Most biographers of Chopin state that after this the two had little to do with each other, although in his letters dated as late as 1848 he still referred to him as \"my friend Liszt\".", "Some commentators point to events in the two men's romantic lives which led to a rift between them; there are claims that Liszt had displayed jealousy of his mistress Marie d'Agoult's obsession with Chopin, while others believe that Chopin had become concerned about Liszt's growing relationship with George Sand.====George Sand====Delacroix's joint portrait of Chopin and Sand, 1838In 1836, at a party hosted by Marie d'Agoult, Chopin met the French author George Sand (born Amantine Aurore Lucile Dupin).", "Short (under five feet, or 152 cm), dark, big-eyed and a cigar smoker, she initially repelled Chopin, who remarked, \"What an unattractive person ''la Sand'' is.", "Is she really a woman?\"", "However, by early 1837 Maria Wodzińska's mother had made it clear to Chopin in correspondence that a marriage with her daughter was unlikely to proceed.", "It is thought that she was influenced by his poor health and possibly also by rumours about his associations with women such as d'Agoult and Sand.", "Chopin finally placed the letters from Maria and her mother in a package on which he wrote, in Polish, \"My Sorrow\".", "Sand, in a letter to Grzymała of June 1838, admitted strong feelings for the composer and debated whether to abandon a current affair to begin a relationship with Chopin; she asked Grzymała to assess Chopin's relationship with Maria Wodzińska, without realising that the affair, at least from Maria's side, was over.In June 1837 Chopin visited London incognito in the company of the piano manufacturer Camille Pleyel, where he played at a musical soirée at the house of English piano maker James Broadwood.", "On his return to Paris his association with Sand began in earnest, and by the end of June 1838 they had become lovers.", "Sand, who was six years older than the composer and had had a series of lovers, wrote at this time: \"I must say I was confused and amazed at the effect this little creature had on me ...", "I have still not recovered from my astonishment, and if I were a proud person I should be feeling humiliated at having been carried away ...\" The two spent a miserable winter on Majorca (8 November 1838 to 13 February 1839), where, together with Sand's two children, they had journeyed in the hope of improving Chopin's health and that of Sand's 15-year-old son Maurice, and also to escape the threats of Sand's former lover Félicien Mallefille.", "After discovering that the couple were not married, the deeply traditional Catholic people of Majorca became inhospitable, making accommodation difficult to find.", "This compelled the group to take lodgings in a former Carthusian monastery in Valldemossa, which gave little shelter from the cold winter weather.George Sand sewing, from Delacroix's joint portrait of Chopin and Sand, 1838On 3 December 1838, Chopin complained about his bad health and the incompetence of the doctors in Majorca, commenting: \"Three doctors have visited me ...", "The first said I was dead; the second said I was dying; and the third said I was about to die.\"", "He also had problems having his Pleyel piano sent to him, having to rely in the meantime on a piano made in Palma by Juan Bauza.", "The Pleyel piano finally arrived from Paris in December, just shortly before Chopin and Sand left the island.", "Chopin wrote to Pleyel in January 1839: \"I am sending you my Preludes Op.", "28.I finished them on your little piano, which arrived in the best possible condition in spite of the sea, the bad weather and the Palma customs.\"", "Chopin was also able to undertake work while in Majorca on his Ballade No.", "2, Op.", "38; on two Polonaises, Op.", "40; and on the Scherzo No.", "3, Op.", "39.Although this period had been productive, the bad weather had such a detrimental effect on Chopin's health that Sand determined to leave the island.", "To avoid further customs duties, Sand sold the piano to a local French couple, the Canuts.", "The group travelled first to Barcelona, then to Marseilles, where they stayed for a few months while Chopin convalesced.", "While in Marseilles, Chopin made a rare appearance at the organ during a requiem mass for the tenor Adolphe Nourrit on 24 April 1839, playing a transcription of Franz Schubert's ''lied'' (D. 939).", "George Sand gives a description of Chopin's playing in a letter of 28 April 1839:Chopin sacrificed himself by playing the organ at the Elevation – and what an organ!", "Anyhow our boy made the best of it by using the less discordant stops, and he played Schubert's , not with a passionate and glowing tone that Nourrit used, but with a plaintive sound as soft as an echo from another world.", "Two or three at most among those present felt its meaning and had tears in their eyes.In May 1839 they headed to Sand's estate at Nohant for the summer, where they spent most of the following summers until 1846.In autumn they returned to Paris, where Chopin's apartment at 5 rue Tronchet was close to Sand's rented accommodation on the rue Pigalle.", "He frequently visited Sand in the evenings, but both retained some independence.", "(In 1842 he and Sand moved to the Square d'Orléans, living in adjacent buildings.", ")On 26 July 1840 Chopin and Sand were present at the dress rehearsal of Berlioz's ''Grande symphonie funèbre et triomphale'', composed to commemorate the tenth anniversary of the July Revolution.", "Chopin was reportedly unimpressed with the composition.", "During the summers at Nohant, particularly in the years 1839–43 (except 1840), Chopin found quiet, productive days during which he composed many works, including his Polonaise in A-flat major, Op.", "53.Sand compellingly describes Chopin's creative process: an inspiration, its painstaking elaboration – sometimes amid tormented weeping and complaining, with hundreds of changes in concept – only to return finally to the initial idea.", "Among the visitors to Nohant were Delacroix and the mezzo-soprano Pauline Viardot, whom Chopin had advised on piano technique and composition.", "Delacroix gives an account of staying at Nohant in a letter of 7 June 1842:The hosts could not be more pleasant in entertaining me.", "When we are not all together at dinner, lunch, playing billiards, or walking, each of us stays in his room, reading or lounging around on a couch.", "Sometimes, through the window which opens on the garden, a gust of music wafts up from Chopin at work.", "All this mingles with the songs of nightingales and the fragrance of roses.====Decline====Gratia, 1838From 1842 onwards, Chopin showed signs of serious illness.", "After a solo recital in Paris on 21 February 1842, he wrote to Grzymała: \"I have to lie in bed all day long, my mouth and tonsils are aching so much.\"", "He was forced by illness to decline a written invitation from Alkan to participate in a repeat performance of the Beethoven 7th Symphony arrangement at Érard's on 1 March 1843.Late in 1844, Charles Hallé visited Chopin and found him \"hardly able to move, bent like a half-opened penknife and evidently in great pain\", although his spirits returned when he started to play the piano for his visitor.", "Chopin's health continued to deteriorate, particularly from this time onwards.", "Modern research suggests that apart from any other illnesses, he may also have suffered from temporal lobe epilepsy.Chopin's output as a composer throughout this period declined in quantity year by year.", "Whereas in 1841 he had written a dozen works, only six were written in 1842 and six shorter pieces in 1843.In 1844 he wrote only the Op.", "58 sonata.", "1845 saw the completion of three mazurkas (Op.", "59).", "Although these works were more refined than many of his earlier compositions, Zamoyski concludes that \"his powers of concentration were failing and his inspiration was beset by anguish, both emotional and intellectual\".", "Chopin's relations with Sand were soured in 1846 by problems involving her daughter Solange and Solange's fiancé, the young fortune-hunting sculptor Auguste Clésinger.", "The composer frequently took Solange's side in quarrels with her mother; he also faced jealousy from Sand's son Maurice.", "Moreover, Chopin was indifferent to Sand's radical political pursuits, including her enthusiasm for the February Revolution of 1848.As the composer's illness progressed, Sand had become less of a lover and more of a nurse to Chopin, whom she called her \"third child\".", "In letters to third parties she vented her impatience, referring to him as a \"child\", a \"poor angel\", a \"sufferer\", and a \"beloved little corpse\".", "In 1847 Sand published her novel ''Lucrezia Floriani'', whose main charactersa rich actress and a prince in weak healthcould be interpreted as Sand and Chopin.", "In Chopin's presence, Sand read the manuscript aloud to Delacroix, who was both shocked and mystified by its implications, writing that \"Madame Sand was perfectly at ease and Chopin could hardly stop making admiring comments\".", "That year their relationship ended following an angry correspondence which, in Sand's words, made \"a strange conclusion to nine years of exclusive friendship\".", "Grzymała, who had followed their romance from the beginning, commented, \"If Chopin had not had the misfortune of meeting G. S. George Sand, who poisoned his whole being, he would have lived to be Cherubini's age.\"", "Chopin would die two years later at thirty-nine; the composer Luigi Cherubini had died in Paris in 1842 at the age of 81.====Tour of Great Britain====Jane Stirling, by Devéria, Chopin's public popularity as a virtuoso began to wane, as did the number of his pupils, and this, together with the political strife and instability of the time, caused him to struggle financially.", "In February 1848, with the cellist Auguste Franchomme, he gave his last Paris concert, which included three movements of the Cello Sonata Op.", "65.In April, during the 1848 Revolution in Paris, he left for London, where he performed at several concerts and numerous receptions in great houses.", "This tour was suggested to him by his Scottish pupil Jane Stirling and her elder sister.", "Stirling also made all the logistical arrangements and provided much of the necessary funding.In London, Chopin took lodgings at Dover Street, where the firm of Broadwood provided him with a grand piano.", "At his first engagement, on 15 May at Stafford House, the audience included Queen Victoria and Prince Albert.", "The Prince, who was himself a talented musician, moved close to the keyboard to view Chopin's technique.", "Broadwood also arranged concerts for him; among those attending were the author William Makepeace Thackeray and the singer Jenny Lind.", "Chopin was also sought after for piano lessons, for which he charged the high fee of one guinea per hour, and for private recitals for which the fee was 20 guineas.", "At a concert on 7 July he shared the platform with Viardot, who sang arrangements of some of his mazurkas to Spanish texts.", "A few days later, he performed for Thomas Carlyle and his wife Jane at their home in Chelsea.", "On 28 August he played at a concert in Manchester's Gentlemen's Concert Hall, sharing the stage with Marietta Alboni and Lorenzo Salvi.In late summer he was invited by Jane Stirling to visit Scotland, where he stayed at Calder House near Edinburgh and at Johnstone Castle in Renfrewshire, both owned by members of Stirling's family.", "She clearly had a notion of going beyond mere friendship, and Chopin was obliged to make it clear to her that this could not be so.", "He wrote at this time to Grzymała: \"My Scottish ladies are kind, but such bores\", and responding to a rumour about his involvement, answered that he was \"closer to the grave than the nuptial bed\".", "He gave a public concert in Glasgow on 27 September, and another in Edinburgh at the Hopetoun Rooms on Queen Street (now Erskine House) on 4 October.", "In late October 1848, while staying at 10 Warriston Crescent in Edinburgh with the Polish physician Adam Łyszczyński, he wrote out his last will and testament\"a kind of disposition to be made of my stuff in the future, if I should drop dead somewhere\", he wrote to Grzymała.Chopin made his last public appearance on a concert platform at London's Guildhall on 16 November 1848, when, in a final patriotic gesture, he played for the benefit of Polish refugees.", "This gesture proved to be a mistake, as most of the participants were more interested in the dancing and refreshments than in Chopin's piano artistry, which drained him.", "By this time he was very seriously ill, weighing under 99 pounds (less than 45 kg), and his doctors were aware that his sickness was at a terminal stage.At the end of November Chopin returned to Paris.", "He passed the winter in unremitting illness, but gave occasional lessons and was visited by friends, including Delacroix and Franchomme.", "Occasionally he played, or accompanied the singing of Delfina Potocka, for his friends.", "During the summer of 1849, his friends found him an apartment in Chaillot, out of the centre of the city, for which the rent was secretly subsidised by an admirer, Princess Yekaterina Dmitrievna Soutzos-Obreskova.", "He was visited here by Jenny Lind in June 1849.===Death and funeral===''Chopin on His Deathbed'', by Teofil Kwiatkowski, 1849, commissioned by Jane Stirling.", "''From left:'' Aleksander Jełowicki; Chopin's sister Ludwika; Marcelina Czartoryska; Wojciech Grzymała; Teofil Kwiatkowski.With his health further deteriorating, Chopin desired to have a family member with him.", "In June 1849 his sister Ludwika came to Paris with her husband and daughter, and in September, supported by a loan from Jane Stirling, he took an apartment at the Hôtel Baudard de Saint-James on the Place Vendôme.", "After 15 October, when his condition took a marked turn for the worse, only a handful of his closest friends remained with him.", "Viardot remarked sardonically, though, that \"all the grand Parisian ladies considered it to faint in his room\".Some of his friends provided music at his request; among them, Potocka sang and Franchomme played the cello.", "Chopin bequeathed his unfinished notes on a piano tuition method, , to Alkan for completion.", "On 17 October, after midnight, the physician leaned over him and asked whether he was suffering greatly.", "\"No longer\", he replied.", "He died a few minutes before two a.m.", "He was 39.Those present at the deathbed appear to have included his sister Ludwika, Fr.", "Aleksander Jełowicki, Princess Marcelina Czartoryska, Sand's daughter Solange, and his close friend Thomas Albrecht.", "Later that morning, Solange's husband Clésinger made Chopin's death mask and a cast of his left hand.The funeral, held at the Church of the Madeleine in Paris, was delayed almost two weeks until 30 October.", "Entrance was restricted to ticket holders, as many people were expected to attend.", "Over 3,000 people arrived without invitations, from as far as London, Berlin and Vienna, and were excluded.Mozart's Requiem was sung at the funeral; the soloists were the soprano Jeanne-Anaïs Castellan, the mezzo-soprano Pauline Viardot, the tenor Alexis Dupont, and the bass Luigi Lablache; Chopin's Preludes No.", "4 in E minor and No.", "6 in B minor were also played.", "The organist was Alfred Lefébure-Wély.", "The funeral procession to Père Lachaise Cemetery, which included Chopin's sister Ludwika, was led by the aged Prince Adam Czartoryski.", "The pallbearers included Delacroix, Franchomme, and Camille Pleyel.", "At the graveside, the ''Funeral March'' from Chopin's Piano Sonata No.", "2 was played, in Reber's instrumentation.Chopin's tombstone, featuring the muse of music, Euterpe, weeping over a broken lyre, was designed and sculpted by Clésinger and installed on the anniversary of his death in 1850.The expenses of the monument, amounting to 4,500 francs, were covered by Jane Stirling, who also paid for the return of the composer's sister Ludwika to Warsaw.", "As requested by Chopin, Ludwika took his heart (which had been removed by his doctor Jean Cruveilhier and preserved in alcohol in a vase) back to Poland in 1850.She also took a collection of 200 letters from Sand to Chopin; after 1851 these were returned to Sand, who destroyed them.Chopin's disease and the cause of his death have been topics of debate.", "His death certificate gave the cause as tuberculosis, and his physician, Cruveilhier, was then the leading French authority on this disease.", "Other possibilities advanced have included cystic fibrosis, cirrhosis, and alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency.", "A visual examination of Chopin's preserved heart (the jar was not opened), conducted in 2014 and first published in the ''American Journal of Medicine'' in 2017, suggested that the likely cause of his death was a rare case of pericarditis caused by complications of chronic tuberculosis." ], [ "Music", "===Overview===Over 230 works of Chopin survive; some compositions from early childhood have been lost.", "All his known works involve the piano, and only a few range beyond solo piano music, as either piano concertos, songs or chamber music.Chopin was educated in the tradition of Beethoven, Haydn, Mozart, and Clementi; he used Clementi's piano method with his students.", "He was also influenced by Hummel's development of virtuoso, yet Mozartian, piano technique.", "He cited Bach and Mozart as the two most important composers in shaping his musical outlook.", "Chopin's early works are in the style of the \"brilliant\" keyboard pieces of his era as exemplified by the works of Ignaz Moscheles, Friedrich Kalkbrenner, and others.", "Less direct in the earlier period are the influences of Polish folk music and of Italian opera.", "Much of what became his typical style of ornamentation (for example, his ''fioriture'') is taken from singing.", "His melodic lines were increasingly reminiscent of the modes and features of the music of his native country, such as drones.Chopin took the new salon genre of the nocturne, invented by the Irish composer John Field, to a deeper level of sophistication.", "He was the first to write ballades and scherzi as individual concert pieces.", "He essentially established a new genre with his own set of free-standing preludes (Op.", "28, published 1839).", "He exploited the poetic potential of the concept of the concert étude, already being developed in the 1820s and 1830s by Liszt, Clementi, and Moscheles, in his two sets of studies (Op.", "10 published in 1833, Op.", "25 in 1837).Chopin also endowed popular dance forms with a greater range of melody and expression.", "Chopin's mazurkas, while originating in the traditional Polish dance (the ''mazurek''), differed from the traditional variety in that they were written for the concert hall rather than the dance hall; as J. Barrie Jones puts it, \"it was Chopin who put the mazurka on the European musical map\".", "The series of seven polonaises published in his lifetime (another nine were published posthumously), beginning with the Op.", "26 pair (published 1836), set a new standard for music in the form.", "His waltzes were also written specifically for the salon recital rather than the ballroom and are frequently at rather faster tempos than their dance-floor equivalents.===Titles, opus numbers and editions===Polonaise Op.", "53, signed by Chopin on 25 May 1845Some of Chopin's well-known pieces have acquired descriptive titles, such as the ''Revolutionary'' Étude (Op. 10, No.", "12), and the ''Minute Waltz'' (Op. 64, No. 1).", "However, except for his ''Funeral March'', the composer never named an instrumental work beyond genre and number, leaving all potential extramusical associations to the listener; the names by which many of his pieces are known were invented by others.", "There is no evidence to suggest that the ''Revolutionary'' Étude was written with the failed Polish uprising against Russia in mind; it merely appeared at that time.", "The ''Funeral March'', the third movement of his Sonata No.", "2 (Op.", "35), the one case where he did give a title, was written before the rest of the sonata, but no specific event or death is known to have inspired it.The last opus number that Chopin himself used was 65, allocated to the Cello Sonata in G minor.", "He expressed a deathbed wish that all his unpublished manuscripts be destroyed.", "At the request of the composer's mother and sisters, however, his musical executor Julian Fontana selected 23 unpublished piano pieces and grouped them into eight further opus numbers (Opp.", "66–73), published in 1855.In 1857, 17 Polish songs that Chopin wrote at various stages of his life were collected and published as Op.", "74, though their order within the opus did not reflect the order of composition.Works published since 1857 have received alternative catalogue designations instead of opus numbers.", "The most up-to-date catalogue is maintained by the Fryderyk Chopin Institute at its Internet Chopin Information Centre.", "The older Kobylańska Catalogue (usually represented by the initials 'KK'), named for its compiler, the Polish musicologist Krystyna Kobylańska, is still considered an important scholarly reference.", "The most recent catalogue of posthumously published works is that of the National Edition of the Works of Fryderyk Chopin, represented by the initials 'WN'.Chopin's original publishers included Maurice Schlesinger and Camille Pleyel.", "His works soon began to appear in popular 19th-century piano anthologies.", "The first collected edition was by Breitkopf & Härtel (1878–1902).", "Among modern scholarly editions of Chopin's works are the version under the name of Paderewski, published between 1937 and 1966, and the more recent Polish National Edition, edited by Jan Ekier and published between 1967 and 2010.The latter is recommended to contestants of the Chopin Competition.", "Both editions contain detailed explanations and discussions regarding choices and sources.Chopin published his music in France, England, and the German states (i.e.", "he worked with as many as three separate publishers for each piece or set of pieces) due to the copyright laws of the time.", "Thus there are often three different \"first editions\" of each work.", "Each edition is different from the others; Chopin edited them separately, and at times he did some revision to the music while editing it.", "Furthermore, Chopin provided his publishers with varying sources, including autographs, annotated proofsheets, and scribal copies.", "Only recently have these differences gained greater recognition.===Form and harmony===A recreation of the composer's last residence in the Place Vendôme, at the Salon Frédéric Chopin, Paris.", "Improvisation stands at the centre of Chopin's creative processes.", "However, this does not imply impulsive rambling: Nicholas Temperley writes that \"improvisation is designed for an audience, and its starting-point is that audience's expectations, which include the current conventions of musical form\".", "The works for piano and orchestra, including the two concertos, are held by Temperley to be \"merely vehicles for brilliant piano playing ... formally longwinded and extremely conservative\".", "After the piano concertos (which are both early, dating from 1830), Chopin made no attempts at large-scale multi-movement forms, save for his late sonatas for piano and cello; \"instead he achieved near-perfection in pieces of simple general design but subtle and complex cell-structure\".", "Rosen suggests that an important aspect of Chopin's individuality is his flexible handling of the four-bar phrase as a structural unit.J.", "Barrie Jones suggests that \"amongst the works that Chopin intended for concert use, the four ballades and four scherzi stand supreme\", and adds that \"the Barcarolle Op.", "60 stands apart as an example of Chopin's rich harmonic palette coupled with an Italianate warmth of melody\".", "Temperley opines that these works, which contain \"immense variety of mood, thematic material and structural detail\", are based on an extended \"departure and return\" form; \"the more the middle section is extended, and the further it departs in key, mood and theme, from the opening idea, the more important and dramatic is the reprise when it at last comes\".Chopin's mazurkas and waltzes are all in straightforward ternary or episodic form, sometimes with a coda.", "The mazurkas often show more folk features than many of his other works, sometimes including modal scales and harmonies and the use of drone basses.", "However, some also show unusual sophistication, for example, Op.", "63 No.", "3, which includes a canon at one beat's distance, a great rarity in music.Chopin's polonaises show a marked advance on those of his Polish predecessors in the form (who included his teachers Żywny and Elsner).", "As with the traditional polonaise, Chopin's works are in triple time and typically display a martial rhythm in their melodies, accompaniments, and cadences.", "Unlike most of their precursors, they also require a formidable playing technique.His nocturnes are more structured, and of greater emotional depth, than those of Field, whom Chopin met in 1833.Many of the Chopin nocturnes have middle sections marked by agitated expression (and often making very difficult demands on the performer), which heightens their dramatic character.Chopin's études are largely in straightforward ternary form.", "He used them to teach his own technique of piano playingfor instance playing double thirds (Op.", "25, No.", "6), playing in octaves (Op.", "25, No.", "10), and playing repeated notes (Op.", "10, No.", "7).The preludes, many of which are very brief, were described by Schumann as \"the beginnings of studies\".", "Inspired by J. S. Bach's ''The Well-Tempered Clavier'', Chopin's preludes move up the circle of fifths (rather than Bach's chromatic scale sequence) to create a prelude in each major and minor tonality.", "The preludes were perhaps not intended to be played as a group, and may even have been used by him and later pianists as generic preludes to others of his pieces, or even to music by other composers.", "This is suggested by Kenneth Hamilton, who has noted a 1922 recording by Ferruccio Busoni in which the Prelude Op.", "28 No.", "7 is followed by the Étude Op.", "10 No.", "5.The two mature Chopin piano sonatas (No.", "2, Op.", "35, written in 1839 and No.", "3, Op.", "58, written in 1844) are in four movements.", "In Op.", "35, Chopin combined within a formal large musical structure many elements of his virtuosic piano technique\"a kind of dialogue between the public pianism of the brilliant style and the German sonata principle\".", "This sonata has been considered as showing the influences of both Bach and Beethoven.", "The Prelude from Bach's Suite No.", "6 in D major for cello (BWV 1012) is quoted; and there are references to two sonatas of Beethoven: the Sonata Opus 111, and the Sonata Opus 26, which, like Chopin's Op.", "35, has a funeral march as its slow movement.", "The last movement of Chopin's Op.", "35, a brief (75-bar) perpetuum mobile in which the hands play in unmodified octave unison throughout, was found shocking and unmusical by contemporaries, including Schumann.", "The Op.", "58 sonata is closer to the German tradition, including many passages of complex counterpoint, \"worthy of Brahms\" according to Samson.Chopin's harmonic innovations may have arisen partly from his keyboard improvisation technique.", "In his works, Temperley says, \"novel harmonic effects often result from the combination of ordinary appoggiaturas or passing notes with melodic figures of accompaniment\", and cadences are delayed by the use of chords outside the home key (neapolitan sixths and diminished sevenths) or by sudden shifts to remote keys.", "Chord progressions sometimes anticipate the shifting tonality of later composers such as Claude Debussy, as does Chopin's use of modal harmony.===Technique and performance style===Nocturne Op.", "62 no.", "1 (1846, composer's manuscript)Schirmer edition).", "The examples show typical use by Chopin of trills, grace notes and detailed pedalling and tempo instructions.In 1841 Léon Escudier wrote of a recital given by Chopin that year, \"One may say that Chopin is the creator of a school of piano and a school of composition.", "In truth, nothing equals the lightness, the sweetness with which the composer preludes on the piano; moreover nothing may be compared to his works full of originality, distinction and grace.\"", "Chopin refused to conform to a standard method of playing and believed that there was no set technique for playing well.", "His style was based extensively on his use of a very independent finger technique.", "In his he wrote: \"Everything is a matter of knowing good fingering ... we need no less to use the rest of the hand, the wrist, the forearm and the upper arm.\"", "He further stated: \"One needs only to study a certain position of the hand in relation to the keys to obtain with ease the most beautiful quality of sound, to know how to play short notes and long notes, and to attain unlimited dexterity.\"", "The consequences of this approach to technique in Chopin's music include the frequent use of the entire range of the keyboard, passages in double octaves and other chord groupings, swiftly repeated notes, the use of grace notes, and the use of contrasting rhythms (four against three, for example) between the hands.Jonathan Bellman writes that modern concert performance styleset in the \"conservatory\" tradition of late 19th- and 20th-century music schools, and suitable for large auditoria or recordingsmilitates against what is known of Chopin's more intimate performance technique.", "The composer himself said to a pupil that \"concerts are never real music, you have to give up the idea of hearing in them all the most beautiful things of art\".", "Contemporary accounts indicate that in performance, Chopin avoided rigid procedures sometimes incorrectly attributed to him, such as \"always crescendo to a high note\", but that he was concerned with expressive phrasing, rhythmic consistency and sensitive colouring.", "Berlioz wrote in 1853 that Chopin \"has created a kind of chromatic embroidery ... whose effect is so strange and piquant as to be impossible to describe ... virtually nobody but Chopin himself can play this music and give it this unusual turn\".", "Hiller wrote that \"What in the hands of others was elegant embellishment, in his hands became a colourful wreath of flowers.", "\"Chopin's music is frequently played with ''rubato'', \"the practice in performance of disregarding strict time, 'robbing' some note-values for expressive effect\".", "There are differing opinions as to how much, and what type, of ''rubato'' is appropriate for his works.", "Charles Rosen comments that \"most of the written-out indications of rubato in Chopin are to be found in his mazurkas ...", "It is probable that Chopin used the older form of rubato so important to Mozart ... where the melody note in the right hand is delayed until after the note in the bass ... An allied form of this rubato is the arpeggiation of the chords thereby delaying the melody note; according to Chopin's pupil Karol Mikuli, Chopin was firmly opposed to this practice.", "\"Pleyel) piano, which he used in 1848–49 (Fryderyk Chopin Museum, Warsaw)Chopin's pupil wrote: His playing was always noble and beautiful; his tones sang, whether in full ''forte'' or softest ''piano''.", "He took infinite pains to teach his pupils this ''legato'', ''cantabile'' style of playing.", "His most severe criticism was 'Heor shedoes not know how to join two notes together.'", "He also demanded the strictest adherence to rhythm.", "He hated all lingering and dragging, misplaced ''rubatos'', as well as exaggerated ''ritardandos'' ... and it is precisely in this respect that people make such terrible errors in playing his works.=== Instruments ===When living in Warsaw, Chopin composed and played on an instrument built by the piano-maker Fryderyk Buchholtz.", "Later in Paris Chopin purchased a piano from Pleyel.", "He rated Pleyel's pianos as \"non plus ultra\" (\"nothing better\").", "Franz Liszt befriended Chopin in Paris and described the sound of Chopin's Pleyel as being \"the marriage of crystal and water\".", "While in London in 1848, Chopin mentioned his pianos in his letters: \"I have a large drawing-room with three pianos, a Pleyel, a Broadwood and an Erard.", "\"=== Polish identity ===The \"Polish character\" of Chopin's work is unquestionable; not because he also wrote polonaises and mazurkas ... which forms ... were often stuffed with alien ideological and literary contents from the outside. ...", "As an artist he looked for forms that stood apart from the literary-dramatic character of music which was a feature of Romanticism, as a Pole he reflected in his work the very essence of the tragic break in the history of the people and instinctively aspired to give the deepest expression of his nation ... For he understood that he could invest his music with the most enduring and truly Polish qualities only by liberating art from the confines of dramatic and historical contents.", "This attitude toward the question of \"national music\"an inspired solution to his artwas the reason why Chopin's works have come to be understood everywhere outside of Poland ...", "Therein lies the strange riddle of his eternal vigour.Karol Szymanowski, 1923With his mazurkas and polonaises, Chopin has been credited with introducing to music a new sense of nationalism.", "Schumann, in his 1836 review of the piano concertos, highlighted the composer's strong feelings for his native Poland, writing: Now that the Poles are in deep mourning after the failure of the November Uprising of 1830, their appeal to us artists is even stronger ...", "If the mighty autocrat in the north i.e.", "Nicholas I of Russia could know that in Chopin's works, in the simple strains of his mazurkas, there lurks a dangerous enemy, he would place a ban on his music.", "Chopin's works are cannon buried in flowers!", "The biography of Chopin published in 1863 under the name of Franz Liszt (but probably written by Carolyne zu Sayn-Wittgenstein) states that Chopin \"must be ranked first among the first musicians ... individualizing in themselves the poetic sense of an entire nation\".Some modern commentators have argued against exaggerating Chopin's primacy as a \"nationalist\" or \"patriotic\" composer.", "George Golos refers to earlier \"nationalist\" composers in Central Europe, including Poland's Michał Kleofas Ogiński and Franciszek Lessel, who utilised polonaise and mazurka forms.", "Barbara Milewski suggests that Chopin's experience of Polish music came more from \"urbanised\" Warsaw versions than from folk music, and that attempts by Jachimecki and others to demonstrate genuine folk music in his works are without basis.", "Richard Taruskin impugns Schumann's attitude toward Chopin's works as patronising, and comments that Chopin \"felt his Polish patriotism deeply and sincerely\" but consciously modelled his works on the tradition of Bach, Beethoven, Schubert, and Field.A reconciliation of these views is suggested by William Atwood: Undoubtedly Chopin's use of traditional musical forms like the polonaise and mazurka roused nationalistic sentiments and a sense of cohesiveness amongst those Poles scattered across Europe and the New World ...", "While some sought solace in them, others found them a source of strength in their continuing struggle for freedom.", "Although Chopin's music undoubtedly came to him intuitively rather than through any conscious patriotic design, it served all the same to symbolize the will of the Polish people ...=== Reception and influence ===Funerary monument on a pillar in Holy Cross Church, Warsaw, enclosing Chopin's heartJones comments that \"Chopin's unique position as a composer, despite the fact that virtually everything he wrote was for the piano, has rarely been questioned.\"", "He also notes that Chopin was fortunate to arrive in Paris in 1831\"the artistic environment, the publishers who were willing to print his music, the wealthy and aristocratic who paid what Chopin asked for their lessons\"and these factors, as well as his musical genius, also fuelled his contemporary and later reputation.", "While his illness and his love affairs conform to some of the stereotypes of romanticism, the rarity of his public recitals (as opposed to performances at fashionable Paris soirées) led Arthur Hutchings to suggest that \"his lack of Byronic flamboyance and his aristocratic reclusiveness make him exceptional\" among his romantic contemporaries such as Liszt and Henri Herz.Chopin's qualities as a pianist and composer were recognised by many of his fellow musicians.", "Schumann named a piece for him in his suite ''Carnaval'', and Chopin later dedicated his Ballade No.", "2 in F major to Schumann.", "Elements of Chopin's music can be found in many of Liszt's later works.", "Liszt later transcribed for piano six of Chopin's Polish songs.", "A less fraught friendship was with Alkan, with whom he discussed elements of folk music, and who was deeply affected by Chopin's death.In Paris, Chopin had a number of pupils, including Friedericke Müller, who left memoirs of his teaching and the prodigy Carl Filtsch, to whom both Chopin and Sand became dedicated, Chopin giving him three lessons a week; Filtsch was the only pupil to whom Chopin gave lessons in composition, and, exceptionally, he on several occasions shared a concert platform with him.", "Two of Chopin's long-standing pupils, Karol Mikuli and Georges Mathias, were themselves piano teachers and passed on details of his playing to their students, some of whom (such as Raoul Koczalski) were to make recordings of his music.", "Other pianists and composers influenced by Chopin's style include Louis Moreau Gottschalk, Édouard Wolff, and Pierre Zimmermann.", "Debussy dedicated his own 1915 piano Études to the memory of Chopin; he frequently played Chopin's music during his studies at the Paris Conservatoire, and undertook the editing of Chopin's piano music for the publisher Jacques Durand.Frédéric Chopin Monument, Łazienki Park, Warsaw, designed by Wacław SzymanowskiPolish composers of the following generation included virtuosi such as Moritz Moszkowski; but, in the opinion of J. Barrie Jones, his \"one worthy successor\" among his compatriots was Karol Szymanowski.", "Edvard Grieg, Antonín Dvořák, Isaac Albéniz, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, and Sergei Rachmaninoff, among others, are regarded by critics as having been influenced by Chopin's use of national modes and idioms.", "Alexander Scriabin was devoted to the music of Chopin, and his early published works include nineteen mazurkas as well as numerous études and preludes; his teacher Nikolai Zverev drilled him in Chopin's works to improve his virtuosity as a performer.", "In the 20th century, composers who paid homage to (or in some cases parodied) the music of Chopin included George Crumb, Leopold Godowsky, Bohuslav Martinů, Darius Milhaud, Igor Stravinsky, and Heitor Villa-Lobos.Chopin's music was used in the 1909 ballet ''Chopiniana'', choreographed by Michel Fokine and orchestrated by Alexander Glazunov.", "Sergei Diaghilev commissioned additional orchestrationsfrom Stravinsky, Anatoly Lyadov, Sergei Taneyev, and Nikolai Tcherepninfor later productions, which used the title .", "Other noted composers have created orchestrations for the ballet, including Benjamin Britten, Roy Douglas, Alexander Gretchaninov, Gordon Jacob, and Maurice Ravel, whose score is lost.Musicologist Erinn Knyt writes: \"In the nineteenth century Chopin and his music were commonly viewed as effeminate, androgynous, childish, sickly, and 'ethnically other.", "Music historian Jeffrey Kallberg says that in Chopin's time, \"listeners to the genre of the piano nocturne often couched their reactions in feminine imagery\", and he cites many examples of such reactions to Chopin's nocturnes.", "One reason for this may be \"demographic\"there were more female than male piano players, and playing such \"romantic\" pieces was seen by male critics as a female domestic pastime.", "Such genderization was not commonly applied to other genres among Chopin's works, such as the scherzo or the polonaise.", "The cultural historian Edward Said has cited the demonstrations by pianist and writer Charles Rosen, in the latter's book ''The Romantic Generation'', of Chopin's skills in \"planning, polyphony, and sheer harmonic creativity\", as effectively overthrowing any legend of Chopin \"as a swooning, 'inspired', small-scale salon composer\".Chopin's music remains very popular and is regularly performed, recorded and broadcast worldwide.", "The world's oldest monographic music competition, the International Chopin Piano Competition, founded in 1927, is held every five years in Warsaw.", "The Fryderyk Chopin Institute lists over eighty societies worldwide devoted to the composer and his music.", "The Institute site also lists over 1500 performances of Chopin works on YouTube ." ], [ "Recordings", "The British Library notes that \"Chopin's works have been recorded by all the great pianists of the recording era.\"", "The earliest recording was an 1895 performance by Paul Pabst of the Nocturne in E major, Op.", "62, No.", "2.The British Library site makes available a number of historic recordings, including some by Alfred Cortot, Ignaz Friedman, Vladimir Horowitz, Benno Moiseiwitsch, Ignacy Jan Paderewski, Arthur Rubinstein, Xaver Scharwenka, Josef Hofmann, Vladimir de Pachmann, Moriz Rosenthal and many others.", "A select discography of recordings of Chopin works by pianists representing the various pedagogic traditions stemming from Chopin is given by James Methuen-Campbell in his work tracing the lineage and character of those traditions.Numerous recordings of Chopin's works are available.", "On the occasion of the composer's bicentenary, the critics of ''The New York Times'' recommended performances by the following contemporary pianists (among many others): Yundi Li, Seong-Jin Cho, Martha Argerich, Vladimir Ashkenazy, Emanuel Ax, Evgeny Kissin, Ivan Moravec, Murray Perahia, Maurizio Pollini, and Krystian Zimerman.", "The Warsaw Chopin Society organises the ''Grand prix du disque de F. Chopin'' for notable Chopin recordings, held every five years." ], [ "In literature, stage, film and television", "Chopin's grave, Père Lachaise Cemetery, ParisChopin has figured extensively in Polish literature, both in serious critical studies and in fictional treatments.", "The earliest manifestation was probably an 1830 sonnet on Chopin by Leon Ulrich.", "French writers on Chopin (apart from Sand) have included Marcel Proust and André Gide, and he has also featured in works of Gottfried Benn and Boris Pasternak.", "There are numerous biographies of Chopin in English (see bibliography for some of these).Possibly the first venture into fictional treatments of Chopin's life was a fanciful operatic version of some of its events: ''Chopin'' (1901).", "The musicbased on Chopin's ownwas assembled by Giacomo Orefice, with a libretto by .Chopin's life has been fictionalised in numerous films.", "As early as 1919, Chopin's relationships with three womenhis youth sweetheart Mariolka, then Polish singer Sonja Radkowska, and later George Sandwere portrayed in the German silent film ''Nocturno der Liebe'' (1919).", "The 1945 biographical film ''A Song to Remember'' earned Cornel Wilde an Academy Award nomination as Best Actor for his portrayal of the composer.", "Other film treatments have included (1928) by Henry Roussel, with Pierre Blanchar as Chopin; ''Impromptu'' (1991), starring Hugh Grant as Chopin; (1991); and ''Chopin: Desire for Love'' (2002).Chopin's life was covered in a 1999 BBC ''Omnibus'' documentary by András Schiff and Mischa Scorer, in a 2010 documentary realised by Angelo Bozzolini and Roberto Prosseda for Italian television, and in a BBC Four documentary ''ChopinThe Women Behind The Music'' (2010)." ], [ "See also", "* International Chopin Piano Competition* The 1st International Chopin Competition on Period Instruments* Memorials to Frédéric Chopin" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * (e-book version of 1994 publication)* * * * * ( English summary)* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** First published as: *" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* BBC 2010 documentary, '' Chopin: the Women behind the Music'', available on YouTube, 90 minutes.", "* * * Biography on official site of the Fryderyk Chopin Institute* Chopin's last piano (Pleyel 14810)* Chopin iconographywebsite in Polish with detailed comment on genuine (and not-so-genuine) representations of the composer* Chopin's pianos* 1st International Chopin Competition on Period Instruments* Chopin's correspondence'''Music scores'''* * ''Chopin Early Editions'', a collection of over 400 first and early printed editions of musical compositions by Frédéric Chopin published before 1881* ''Chopin's First Editions Online'' features an interface that allows three navigable scores to be open simultaneously in frames to facilitate comparison." ] ]
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[ [ "Free Democratic Party (Germany)" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Free Democratic Party''' (; '''FDP''', ) is a liberal political party in Germany.The FDP was founded in 1948 by members of former liberal political parties which existed in Germany before World War II, namely the German Democratic Party and the German People's Party.", "For most of the second half of the 20th century, the FDP held the balance of power in the Bundestag.", "It has been a junior coalition partner to both the CDU/CSU (1949–1956, 1961–1966, 1982–1998 and 2009–2013) and Social Democratic Party (SPD) (1969–1982, 2021–present).", "In the 2013 federal election, the FDP failed to win any directly elected seats in the Bundestag and came up short of the 5 percent threshold to qualify for list representation, being left without representation in the Bundestag for the first time in its history.", "In the 2017 federal election, the FDP regained its representation in the Bundestag, receiving 10.6% of the vote.", "After the 2021 federal election the FDP became part of governing Scholz cabinet in coalition with the Social Democratic Party and the Greens.Since the 1980s, the party, consistently with its ordoliberal tradition, has pushed economic liberalism and has aligned itself closely to the promotion of free markets and privatization, and is aligned to the centre or centre-right of the political spectrum.", "The FDP is a member of the Liberal International, the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe and Renew Europe." ], [ "History", "=== Predecessors ===The history of liberal parties in Germany dates back to 1861, when the German Progress Party (DFP) was founded, being the first political party in the modern sense in Germany.", "From the establishment of the National Liberal Party in 1867 until the demise of the Weimar Republic in 1933, the liberal-democratic camp was divided into a \"national-liberal\" and a \"left-liberal\" line of tradition.", "After 1918 the national-liberal strain was represented by the German People's Party (DVP), the left-liberal one by the German Democratic Party (DDP, which merged into the German State Party in 1930).", "Both parties played an important role in government during the Weimar Republic era, but successively lost votes during the rise of the Nazi Party beginning in the late-1920s.", "After the Nazi seizure of power, both liberal parties agreed to the Enabling Act of 1933 and subsequently dissolved themselves.", "During the 12 years of Hitler's rule, some former liberals collaborated with the Nazis (e.g.", "economy minister Hjalmar Schacht), while others resisted actively against Nazism, with some Liberal leaning members and former members of the military joining up with Henning von Tresckow (e.g.", "the Solf Circle).Soon after World War II, the Soviet Union pushed for the creation of licensed \"anti-fascist\" parties in its occupation zone in East Germany.", "In July 1945, former DDP politicians Wilhelm Külz, Eugen Schiffer and Waldemar Koch called for the establishment of a pan-German liberal party.", "Their Liberal-Democratic Party (LDP) was soon licensed by the Soviet Military Administration in Germany, under the condition that the new party joined the pro-Soviet \"Democratic Bloc\".In September 1945, citizens in Hamburg—including the anti-Nazi resistance circle \"Association Free Hamburg\"—established the ''Party of Free Democrats'' (PFD) as a bourgeois left-wing party and the first liberal Party in the Western occupation zones.", "The German Democratic Party was revived in some states of the Western occupation zones (in the Southwestern states of Württemberg-Baden and Württemberg-Hohenzollern under the name of Democratic People's Party).Many former members of DDP and DVP however agreed to finally overcome the traditional split of German liberalism into a national-liberal and a left-liberal branch, aiming for the creation of a united liberal party.", "In October 1945 a liberal coalition party was founded in the state of Bremen under the name of Bremen Democratic People's Party.", "In January 1946, liberal state parties of the British occupation zone merged into the ''Free Democratic Party of the British Zone'' (FDP).", "A similar state party in Hesse, called the Liberal Democratic Party, was licensed by the U.S. military government in January 1946.In the state of Bavaria, a ''Free Democratic Party'' was founded in May 1946.In the first post-war state elections in 1946, liberal parties performed well in Württemberg-Baden (16.8%), Bremen (18.3%), Hamburg (18.2%) and Greater Berlin (still undivided; 9.3%).", "The LDP was especially strong in the October 1946 state elections of the Soviet zone—the last free parliamentary election in East Germany—obtaining an average of 24.6% (highest in Saxony-Anhalt, 29.9%, and Thuringia, 28.5%), thwarting an absolute majority of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED) that was favoured by the Soviet occupation power.", "This disappointment to the communists however led to a change of electoral laws in the Soviet zone, cutting the autonomy of non-socialist parties including the LDP and forcing it to join the SED-dominated National Front, making it a dependent \"bloc party\".The Democratic Party of Germany (DPD) was established in Rothenburg ob der Tauber on 17 March 1947 as a pan-German party of liberals from all four occupation zones.", "Its leaders were Theodor Heuss (representing the DVP of Württemberg-Baden in the American zone) and Wilhelm Külz (representing the LDP of the Soviet zone).", "However, the project failed in January 1948 as a result of disputes over Külz's pro-Soviet direction.=== Founding of the party ===Theodor Heuss, first chairman of the FDP and first President of West GermanyThe Free Democratic Party was established on 11–12 December 1948 in Heppenheim, in Hesse, as an association of all 13 liberal state parties in the three Western zones of occupation.", "The proposed name, Liberal Democratic Party, was rejected by the delegates, who voted 64 to 25 in favour of the name Free Democratic Party (FDP).The party's first chairman was Theodor Heuss, a member of the Democratic People's Party in Württemberg-Baden; his deputy was Franz Blücher of the FDP in the British zone.", "The place for the party's foundation was chosen deliberately: the \"Heppenheim Assembly\" was held at the Hotel ''Halber Mond'' on 10 October 1847, a meeting of moderate liberals who were preparing for what would be, within a few months, the German revolutions of 1848–1849.The FDP was founded on 11 December 1948 through the merger of nine regional liberal parties formed in 1945 from the remnants of the pre-1933 German People's Party (DVP) and the German Democratic Party (DDP), which had been active in the Weimar Republic.=== 1949–1969: reconstruction of Germany ===—FDP election campaign poster reading \"Draw a line under it\" before the 1949 Bundestag election in Hesse calling for a halt to \"denazification, disenfranchisement, disempowerment, second class citizenship\" and for \"equality of civil rights\"In the first elections to the Bundestag on 14 August 1949, the FDP won a vote share of 11.9 percent (with 12 direct mandates, particularly in Baden-Württemberg and Hesse), and thus obtained 52 of 402 seats.", "It formed a common Bundestag group with the hard-right Deutsche Partei (DP).", "In September of the same year the FDP chairman Theodor Heuss was elected the first President of the Federal Republic of Germany.", "In his 1954 re-election, he received the best election result to date of a President with 871 of 1018 votes (85.6 percent) of the Federal Assembly.", "Adenauer was also elected on the proposal of the new German President with an extremely narrow majority as the first Chancellor.", "The FDP participated with the CDU/CSU and the German Party in Adenauer's coalition cabinet; they had three ministers: Franz Blücher (Vice-Chancellor), Thomas Dehler (justice), and Eberhard Wildermuth (housing).On the most important economic, social and German national issues, the FDP agreed with their coalition partners, the CDU/CSU.", "However, the FDP offered to middle-class voters a secular party that refused the religious schools and accused the opposition parties of clericalization.", "The FDP said they were known also as a consistent representative of the market economy, while the CDU was then dominated nominally from the Ahlen Programme, which allowed a Third Way between capitalism and socialism.", "Ludwig Erhard, the \"father\" of the social market economy, had his followers in the early years of the Federal Republic in the CDU/CSU rather than in the FDP.The FDP won Hesse's 1950 state election with 31.8 percent, the best result in its history, through appealing to East Germans displaced by the war by including them on their ticket.Up to the 1950s, several of the FDP's regional organizations were to the right of the CDU/CSU, which initially had ideas of some sort of Christian socialism, and even former office-holders of the Third Reich were courted with nationalist values.", "The FDP voted in parliament at the end of 1950 against the CDU- and SPD-introduced de-nazification process.", "At their party conference in Munich in 1951 they demanded the release of all \"so-called war criminals\" and welcomed the establishment of the \"Association of German soldiers\" of former Wehrmacht and SS members to advance the integration of the Nazi forces in democracy.", "The FDP members were seen as part of the \"extremist\" block along with the German Party in West Germany by the US intelligence officials.Similarly, a de-Nazification Act could only be passed at the end of 1950 in the Bundestag because the opposition SPD supported the motion along with the governing CDU/CSU; the governing FDP voted along with the hard-right DP and the openly neo-Nazi German Reich Party (DRP) against the law against Nazis.The 1953 Naumann Circle, named after Werner Naumann, consisted of a group of former Nazis who tried to infiltrate the party, which had many right-wing and nationalist members in Hesse, North Rhine-Westphalia and Lower Saxony.", "After the British occupation authorities had arrested seven prominent members of the Naumann Circle, the FDP federal board installed a commission of inquiry, chaired by Thomas Dehler, which particularly sharply criticized the situation in the North Rhine-Westphalian FDP.", "In the following years, the right wing lost power, and the extreme right increasingly sought areas of activity outside the FDP.", "In the 1953 federal election, the FDP received 9.5 percent of the party votes, 10.8 percent of the primary vote (with 14 direct mandates, particularly in Hamburg, Lower Saxony, Hesse, Württemberg and Bavaria) and 48 of 487 seats.In the second term of the Bundestag, the South German Liberal Democrats gained influence in the party.", "Thomas Dehler, a representative of a more social-liberal course took over as party and parliamentary leader.", "The former Minister of Justice Dehler, who in 1933 suffered persecution by the Nazis, was known for his rhetorical focus.", "Generally the various regional associations were independent.", "After the FDP had left in early 1956, the coalition with the CDU in North Rhine-Westphalia and made with SPD and centre a new state government, were a total of 16 members of parliament, including the four federal ministers from the FDP and founded the short-lived Free People's Party, which then up was involved to the end of the legislature instead of FDP in the Federal Government.", "The FDP first took it to the opposition.Only one of the smaller post-war parties, the FDP survived despite many problems.", "In 1957 federal elections they still reached 7.7 percent of the vote to 1990 and their last direct mandate with which they had held 41 of 497 seats in the Bundestag.", "However, they still remained in opposition because the Union won an absolute majority.", "The FDP also called for a nuclear-free zone in Central Europe.Even before the election Dehler was assigned as party chairman.", "At the federal party in Berlin at the end January 1957 relieved him Reinhold Maier.", "Dehler's role as Group Chairman took over after the election of the national set very Erich Mende.", "Mende was also chairman of the party.In the 1961 federal election, the FDP achieved 12.8 percent nationwide, the best result until then, and the FDP entered a coalition with the CDU again.", "Although it was committed before the election to continuing to sit in any case in a government together with Adenauer, Chancellor Adenauer was again, however, to withdraw under the proviso, after two years.", "These events led to the FDP being nicknamed the (\"pushover party\").In the ''Spiegel'' affair, the FDP withdrew their ministers from the federal government.", "Although the coalition was renewed again under Adenauer in 1962, the FDP withdrew again on the condition in October 1963.This occurred even under the new Chancellor, Ludwig Erhard.", "This was for Erich Mende turn the occasion to go into the cabinet: he took the rather unimportant Federal Ministry for All-German Affairs.In the 1965 federal elections the FDP gained 9.5 percent.", "The coalition with the CDU in 1966 broke on the subject of tax increases and it was followed by a grand coalition between the CDU and the SPD.", "The opposition also pioneered a course change: the former foreign policy and the attitude to the eastern territories were discussed.", "The opposition leader for the FDP in the Bundestag was Knut von Kühlmann-Stumm.", "The new chairman elected delegates in 1968 Walter Scheel, a European-oriented liberals, although it came from the national liberal camp, but with Willi Weyer and Hans-Dietrich Genscher led the new center of the party.", "This center strove to make the FDP coalition support both major parties.", "Here, the Liberals approached to by their reorientation in East Germany and politics especially of the SPD.=== 1969–1982: social changes and crises ===Walter Scheel served as Foreign Minister, Vice Chancellor, Acting Chancellor and President of Germany.On 21 October 1969 began the period after the election of a Social-Liberal coalition with the SPD and the German Chancellor Willy Brandt.", "Walter Scheel was he who initiated the foreign policy reversal.", "Despite a very small majority he and Willy Brandt sat by the controversial New Ostpolitik.", "This policy was within the FDP quite controversial, especially since after the entry into the Federal Government defeats in state elections in North Rhine-Westphalia, Lower Saxony and Saarland on 14 June 1970 followed.", "In Hanover and Saarbrücken, the party left the parliament.After the federal party congress in Bonn, just a week later supported the policy of the party leadership and Scheel had confirmed in office, founded by Siegfried party rights Zoglmann 11 July 1970 a \"non-partisan\" organization called the National-Liberal action on the Hohensyburgstraße—to fall with the goal of ending the left-liberal course of the party and Scheel.", "However, this was not.", "Zoglmann supported in October 1970 a disapproval resolution of opposition to Treasury Secretary Alexander Möller, Erich Mende, Heinz Starke, and did the same.", "A little later all three declared their withdrawal from the FDP; Mende and Strong joined the CDU, Zoglmann later founded the German Union ''(Deutsche Union)'', which remained a splinter party.The foreign policy and the socio-political changes were made in 1971 by the Freiburg Thesis, which were as Rowohlt Paperback sold more than 100,000 times, on a theoretical basis, the FDP is committed to \"social liberalism\" and social reforms.", "Walter Scheel was first foreign minister and vice chancellor, 1974, he was then second-liberal President and paving the way for inner-party the previous interior minister Hans-Dietrich Genscher free.From 1969 to 1974 the FDP supported the SPD Chancellor Willy Brandt, who was succeeded by Helmut Schmidt.", "Already by the end of the 70s there did not seem to be enough similarities between the FDP and the SPD to form a new coalition, but the CDU/CSU chancellor candidate of Franz Josef Strauss in 1980 pushed the parties to run together again.", "The FDP's policies, however, began to drift apart from the SPD's, especially when it came to the economy.", "Within the SPD, there was strong grassroots opposition to Chancellor Helmut Schmidt's policies on the NATO Double-Track Decision.", "However, within the FDP, the conflicts and contrasts were always greater.=== 1982–1998: Kohl government, economic transition and reunification ===In the fall of 1982, the FDP reneged on its coalition agreement with the SPD and instead threw its support behind the CDU/CSU.", "On 1 October, the FDP and CDU/CSU were able to oust Schmidt and replace him with CDU party chairman Helmut Kohl as the new Chancellor.", "The coalition change resulted in severe internal conflicts, and the FDP then lost about 20 percent of its 86,500 members, as reflected in the general election in 1983 by a drop from 10.6 percent to 7.0 percent.", "The members went mostly to the SPD, the Greens and newly formed splinter parties, such as the left-liberal party Liberal Democrats (LD).", "The exiting members included the former FDP General Secretary and later EU Commissioner Günter Verheugen.", "At the party convention in November 1982, the Schleswig-Holstein state chairman Uwe Ronneburger challenged Hans-Dietrich Genscher as party chairman.", "Ronneburger received 186 of the votes—about 40 percent—and was just narrowly defeated by Genscher.in 1980, FDP members who did not agree with the politics of the FDP youth organization Young Democrats founded the Young Liberals (JuLis).", "For a time JuLis and the Young Democrats operated side by side, until the JuLis became the sole official youth wing of the FDP in 1983.The Young Democrats split from the FDP and were left as a party-independent youth organization.At the time of reunification, the FDP's objective was a special economic zone in the former East Germany, but could not prevail against the CDU/CSU, as this would prevent any loss of votes in the five new federal states in the general election in 1990.In all federal election campaigns since the 1980s, the party sided with the CDU and CSU, the main conservative parties in Germany.", "Following German reunification in 1990, the FDP merged with the Association of Free Democrats, a grouping of liberals from East Germany and the Liberal Democratic Party of Germany.During the political upheavals of 1989/1990 in the GDR new liberal parties emerged, like the FDP East Germany or the German Forum Party.", "They formed the Liberal Democratic Party, who had previously acted as a bloc party on the side of the SED and with Manfred Gerlach also the last Council of State of the GDR presented, the Alliance of Free Democrats (BFD).", "Within the FDP came in the following years to considerable internal discussions about dealing with the former bloc party.", "Even before the reunification of Germany united on a joint congress in Hanover, the West German FDP united with the other parties to form the first all-German party.", "Both party factions brought the FDP a great, albeit short-lived, increase in membership.", "In the first all-German Bundestag elections, the CDU/CSU/FDP centre-right coalition was confirmed, the FDP received 11.0 percent of the valid votes (79 seats) and won in Genschers city of birth Halle (Saale) the first direct mandate since 1957.During the 1990s, the FDP won between 6.2 and 11 percent of the vote in Bundestag elections.", "It last participated in the federal government by representing the junior partner in the government of Chancellor Helmut Kohl of the CDU.In 1998, the CDU/CSU-FDP coalition lost the federal election, which ended the FDP's nearly three decade reign in government.", "In its 2002 campaign the FDP made an exception to its party policy of siding with the CDU/CSU when it adopted equidistance to the CDU and SPD.", "From 1998 until 2009 the FDP remained in the opposition until it became part of a new centre-right coalition government.=== 2005 federal election ===Former logo (2001–2014)In the 2005 general election the party won 9.8 percent of the vote and 61 federal deputies, an unpredicted improvement from prior opinion polls.", "It is believed that this was partly due to tactical voting by CDU and Christian Social Union of Bavaria (CSU) alliance supporters who hoped for stronger market-oriented economic reforms than the CDU/CSU alliance called for.", "However, because the CDU did worse than predicted, the FDP and the CDU/CSU alliance were unable to form a coalition government.", "At other times, for example after the 2002 federal election, a coalition between the FDP and CDU/CSU was impossible primarily because of the weak results of the FDP.The CDU/CSU parties had achieved the third-worst performance in German postwar history with only 35.2 percent of the votes.", "Therefore, the FDP was unable to form a coalition with its preferred partners, the CDU/CSU parties.", "As a result, the party was considered as a potential member of two other political coalitions, following the election.", "One possibility was a partnership between the FDP, the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) and the Alliance 90/The Greens, known as a \"traffic light coalition\", named after the colors of the three parties.", "This coalition was ruled out, because the FDP considered the Social Democrats and the Greens insufficiently committed to market-oriented economic reform.", "The other possibility was a CDU-FDP-Green coalition, known as a \"Jamaica coalition\" because of the colours of the three parties.", "This coalition wasn't concluded either, since the Greens ruled out participation in any coalition with the CDU/CSU.", "Instead, the CDU formed a Grand coalition with the SPD, and the FDP entered the opposition.", "FDP leader Guido Westerwelle became the unofficial leader of the opposition by virtue of the FDP's position as the largest opposition party in the Bundestag.In the 2009 European election, the FDP received 11% of the national vote (2,888,084 votes in total) and returned 12 MEPs.=== 2009–2013: Merkel II government ===Christian Lindner is the party chairman, having succeeded Philipp Rösler in December 2013.In the September 2009 federal elections, the FDP increased its share of the vote by 4.8 percentage points to 14.6%, an all-time record.", "This percentage was enough to offset a decline in the CDU/CSU's vote compared to 2005, to create a CDU-FDP centre-right governing coalition in the Bundestag with a 53% majority of seats.", "On election night, party leader Westerwelle said his party would work to ensure that civil liberties were respected and that Germany got an \"equitable tax system and better education opportunities\".The party also made gains in the two state elections held at the same time, acquiring sufficient seats for a CDU-FDP coalition in the northernmost state, Schleswig-Holstein, and gaining enough votes in left-leaning Brandenburg to clear the 5% hurdle to enter that state's parliament.However, after reaching its best ever election result in 2009, the FDP's support collapsed.", "The party's policy pledges were put on hold by Merkel as the recession of 2009 unfolded and with the onset of the European debt crisis in 2010.By the end of 2010, the party's support had dropped to as low as 5%.", "The FDP retained their seats in the state elections in North Rhine-Westphalia, which was held six months after the federal election, but out of the seven state elections that have been held since 2009, the FDP have lost all their seats in five of them due to failing to cross the 5% threshold.Support for the party further eroded amid infighting and an internal rebellion over euro-area bailouts during the debt crisis.Westerwelle stepped down as party leader following the 2011 state elections, in which the party was wiped out in Saxony-Anhalt and Rhineland-Palatinate and lost half its seats in Baden-Württemberg.", "Westerwelle was replaced in May 2011 by Philipp Rösler.", "The change in leadership failed to revive the FDP's fortunes, however, and in the next series of state elections, the party lost all its seats in Bremen, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, and Berlin.", "In Berlin, the party lost nearly 75% of the support they had had in the previous election.In March 2012, the FDP lost all their state-level representation in the 2012 Saarland state election.", "However, this was offset by the Schleswig-Holstein state elections, when they achieved 8% of the vote, which was a severe loss of seats but still over the 5% threshold.", "In the snap elections in North Rhine-Westphalia a week later, the FDP not only crossed the electoral threshold, but also increased its share of the votes to 2 percentage points higher than in the previous state election.", "This was attributed to the local leadership of Christian Lindner.=== 2013 federal election ===The FDP last won a directly elected seat in 1990, in Halle—the only time it has won a directly elected seat since 1957.The party's inability to win directly elected seats came back to haunt it at the 2013 election, in which it came up just short of the 5% threshold.", "With no directly elected seats, the FDP was shut out of the Bundestag for the first time since 1949.After the previous chairman Philipp Rösler then resigned, Christian Lindner took over the leadership of the party.=== 2014 European and state elections ===In the 2014 European parliament elections, the FDP received 3.4% of the national vote (986,253 votes in total) and returned 3 MEPs.", "In the 2014 Brandenburg state election the party experienced a 5.8% down-swing and lost all their representatives in the Brandenburg state parliament.", "In the 2014 Saxony state election, the party experienced a 5.2% down-swing, again losing all of its seats.", "In the 2014 Thuringian state election a similar phenomenon was repeated with the party falling below the 5% threshold following a 5.1% drop in popular vote.=== 2015–2020 ===The party managed to enter parliament in the 2015 Bremen state election with the party receiving 6.5% of the vote and gaining 6 seats.", "However, it failed to get into government as a coalition between the Social Democrats and the Greens was created.", "In the 2016 Mecklenburg-Vorpommern state election the party failed to get into parliament despite increasing its vote share by 0.3%.", "The party did manage to get into parliament in Baden-Württemberg, gaining 3% of the vote and a total of 12 seats.", "This represents a five-seat improvement over their previous results.", "In the 2016 Berlin state election the party gained 4.9% of the vote and 12 seats but still failed to get into government.", "A red-red-green coalition was instead formed relegating the FDP to the opposition.", "In the 2016 Rhineland-Palatinate state election, the party managed to enter parliament receiving 6.2% of the vote and 7 seats.", "It also managed to enter government under a traffic light coalition.", "In 2016 Saxony-Anhalt state election the party narrowly missed the 5% threshold, receiving 4.9% of the vote and therefore receiving zero seats despite a 1% swing in their favour.The 2017 North Rhine-Westphalia state election was widely considered a test of the party's future as their chairman Christian Lindner was also leading the party in that state.", "The party experienced a 4% swing in its favour gaining 6 seats and entering into a coalition with the CDU with a bare majority.", "In the 2017 Saarland state election the party again failed to gain any seats despite a 1% swing in their favour.", "The party gained 3 seats and increased its vote share by 3.2% in the 2017 Schleswig-Holstein state election.", "This success was often credited to their state chairman Wolfgang Kubicki.", "They also managed to re-enter the government under a Jamaica coalition.In the 2017 federal election the party scored 10.7% of votes and re-entered the Bundestag, winning 80 seats.", "After the election, a Jamaica coalition was considered between the CDU, Greens, and FDP.", "However, FDP chief Christian Lindner walked out of the coalition talks due to a disagreement over European migration policy, saying \"It is better not to govern than to govern badly.\"", "As a result, the CDU/CSU formed another grand coalition with the SPD.The FDP won 5.4% and 5 seats in the 2019 European election.In the October 2019 Thuringian state election, the FDP won seats in the Landtag of Thuringia for the first time since 2009.It exceeded the 5% threshold by just 5 votes.", "In February 2020, the FDP's Thomas Kemmerich was elected Minister-President of Thuringia by the Landtag with the likely support of the CDU and AfD, becoming the second member of the FDP to serve as head of government in a German state.", "This was also the first time a head of government had been elected with the support of AfD.", "Under intense pressure from state and federal politicians, Kemmerich resigned the following day, stating he would seek new elections.", "The next month, he was replaced by Bodo Ramelow of The Left; the FDP did not run a candidate in the second vote for Minister-President.=== 2021–present ===In 2021, the FDP returned to the Saxony-Anhalt state parliament after five years of absence.", "They had similar success in Baden-Württemberg and Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, but faced setbacks in Baden-Württemberg, Berlin and Rhineland-Palatinate.In the September 2021 federal election, the FDP saw its vote share and number of seats grow, to 11.5% and 92 seats respectively.", "As a result of the defeat of the CDU/CSU under Armin Laschet, the SPD, Greens, and FDP entered talks to form a traffic light coalition.", "The agreement was finalised on 24 November, in which the FDP holds four federal ministries in the Scholz cabinet (Finance, Justice, Digital and Transport and Education and Research).Throughout 2022, the FDP saw poor approval in national opinion polls.", "In State Parliament elections they also performed poorly.", "In March, the FDP didn't win any seats in Saarland.", "In May they lost over half their seats in North Rhine-Westphalia and Schleswig-Holstein.", "In October, the FDP lost all 11 of their seats in Lower Saxony.", "It also lost all 12 seats in the 2023 Berlin repeat state election.", "In the 2023 Bavarian state election, where Martin Hagen is leading the party, all 11 seats were lost." ], [ "Ideology and platform", "Membership development showing the spike around 1990 due to East German LDPD and NDPD fusing with the (West German) FDPThe FDP has been described as liberal, conservative-liberal, classical-liberal, and liberal-conservative.", "The FDP's political position has variously been described as centrist, centre-right, and right-wing.The party is a traditional supporter of ordoliberalism, having been influenced by the economic theories of Wilhelm Röpke and Alexander Rüstow.", "Otto Graf Lambsdorff, who served as Federal Minister of Economics, is a historical FDP grandee who was a proponent of ordoliberalism.", "In 1971 during its federal social-liberal coalition with the SPD, the FDP published the Freiburger Theses programme, heralding an ideological move towards reformism and social liberalism, and support for environmental protection policy.", "However, the party's 1977 Kiel Theses and 1985 Liberal Manifesto returned the FDP towards its traditional free-market, ordoliberal approach.", "Historical members of the party's social-liberal wing included Gerhart Baum and Werner Maihofer.The FDP is a predominantly classical-liberal inspired party, both in the sense of supporting free market economic policies and in the sense of policies emphasizing the minimization of government interference in individual affairs.", "The party has also been described by various media sources as neoliberal.", "Scholars of political science have historically identified the FDP as closer to the CDU/CSU bloc than to the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) on economic issues but closer to the SPD and the Greens on issues such as civil liberties, education, defense, and foreign policy.", "The FDP itself has oriented itself towards a centrist position between the CDU and the SPD.During the 2017 federal election, the party called for Germany to adopt an immigration channel using a Canada-style points-based immigration system; spend up to 3% of GDP on defense and international security; phase out the solidarity surcharge tax (which was first levied in 1991 to pay for the costs of absorbing East Germany after German reunification); cut taxes by 30 billion euro (twice the amount of the tax cut proposed by the CDU); and improve road infrastructure by spending 2 billion euro annually for each of the next two decades, to be funded by selling government stakes in Deutsche Bahn, Deutsche Telekom, and Deutsche Post.", "The FDP also called for the improvement of Germany's digital infrastructure, the establishment of a Ministry of Digital Affairs, and greater investment in education.", "The party also supports allowing dual citizenship (in contrast to the CDU/CSU, which opposes it) but also supports requiring third-generation immigrants to select a single nationality.The FDP supports the legalization of cannabis in Germany and opposes proposals to heighten Internet surveillance.", "The FDP supports same-sex marriage in Germany.", "The FDP supports legalisation of altruistic surrogacy.The FDP has mixed views on European integration.", "In its 2009 campaign manifesto, the FDP pledged support for ratification of the Lisbon Treaty as well as EU reforms aimed at enhancing transparency and democratic responsiveness, reducing bureaucracy, establishing stringent curbs on the EU budget, and fully liberalizing the Single Market.", "At its January 2019 congress ahead of the 2019 European Parliament election, FDP's manifesto called for further EU reforms, including reducing the number of European Commissioners to 18 from the current 28, abolishing the European Economic and Social Committee, and ending the European Parliament's \"traveling circus\" between Brussels and Strasbourg.", "Vice chairwoman and Deputy Leader Nicola Beer stated: \"We want both more and less Europe.\"" ], [ "Electorate", "In 1940s and 1950s, the FDP was the only German party strongly in favour of market economy, while the CDU/CSU was still adhering to a \"third way\" between capitalism and socialism.", "At the time, the FDP wanted former Nazis to be reintegrated into society and demanded a release of Nazi war criminals.The party's membership has historically been largely male; in 1995, less than one-third of the party's members were women, and in the 1980s women made up less than one-tenth of the party's national executive committee.", "By the 1990s, the percentage of women on the FDP's national executive committee rose to 20%.The party tends to draw its support from professionals and self-employed Germans.", "It lacks consistent support from a voting bloc, such as the trade union membership that supports the SPD or the church membership that supports the CDU/CSU, and thus has historically only garnered a small group of ''Stammwähler'' (core voters) who consistently vote for the party.In the 2021 elections, the FDP was the second-most popular party among voters under age 30; among this demographic, the Greens won 22% of the vote, the FDP 19%, the SPD 17%, the CDU/CSU 11%, Die Linke 8%, and the AfD 8%.", "According to Deutsche Welle in 2021, voters for both the FDP and the Greens are similar in being younger, politically centrist professionals living in cities, unlike left working-class voters and right Christian voters." ], [ "European representation", "In the European Parliament the Free Democratic Party sits in the Renew Europe group with five MEPs.In the European Committee of the Regions, the Free Democratic Party sits in the Renew Europe CoR group, with one full member for the 2020–2025 mandate." ], [ "Election results", "=== Federal Parliament (''Bundestag'') ===Below are charts of the results that the FDP has secured in each election to the federal Bundestag.", "Timelines showing the number of seats and percentage of party list votes won are on the right.", "Election Leader Constituency Party list Seats +/– Status Votes % Votes % 1949 Franz Blücher 2,829,920 11.9 (#3) 1953 2,967,566 10.8 (#3) 2,629,163 9.5 (#3) 1 1957 Reinhold Maier 2,276,234 7.5 (#4) 2,307,135 7.7 (#4) 10 1961 Erich Mende 3,866,269 12.1 (#3) 4,028,766 12.8 (#3) 24 1965 2,562,294 7.9 (#4) 3,096,739 9.5 (#4) 17 1969 Walter Scheel 1,554,651 4.8 (#4) 1,903,422 5.8 (#4) 19 1972 1,790,513 4.8 (#4) 3,129,982 8.4 (#4) 11 1976 Hans-Dietrich Genscher 2,417,683 6.4 (#4) 2,995,085 7.9 (#4) 2 1980 2,720,480 7.2 (#4) 4,030,999 10.6 (#3) 14 1983 1,087,918 2.8 (#5) 2,706,942 6.9 (#4) 19 1987 Martin Bangemann 1,760,496 4.7 (#5) 3,440,911 9.1 (#4) 13 1990 Otto Graf Lambsdorff 3,595,135 7.8 (#3) 5,123,233 11.0 (#3) 31 1994 Klaus Kinkel 1,558,185 3.3 (#6) 3,258,407 6.9 (#5) 32 1998 Wolfgang Gerhardt 1,486,433 3.0 (#6) 3,080,955 6.2 (#5) 4 2002 Guido Westerwelle 2,752,796 5.8 (#4) 3,538,815 7.4 (#5) 4 2005 2,208,531 4.7 (#6) 4,648,144 9.8 (#3) 14 2009 4,076,496 9.4 (#4) 6,316,080 14.6 (#3) 32 2013 Philipp Rösler 1,028,645 2.4 (#6) 2,083,533 4.8 (#6) 93 2017 Christian Lindner 3,249,238 7.0 (#7) 4,997,178 10.7 (#4) 80 2021 4,040,783 8.7 (#5) 5,316,698 11.5 (#4) 12 ImageSize = width:610 height:150PlotArea = width:560 height:125 left:35 bottom:20AlignBars = justifyColors = id:FDP value:rgb(0.9999,0.926,0)DateFormat = yyyyPeriod = from:0 till:100TimeAxis = orientation:verticalScaleMajor = unit:year increment:10 start:0PlotData = bar:Seats color:FDP width:24 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:S bar:1949 color:FDP from:start till:52 text:52 align:center bar:1953 color:FDP from:start till:48 text:48 align:center bar:1957 color:FDP from:start till:41 text:41 align:center bar:1961 color:FDP from:start till:67 text:67 align:center bar:1965 color:FDP from:start till:49 text:49 align:center bar:1969 color:FDP from:start till:30 text:30 align:center bar:1972 color:FDP from:start till:41 text:41 align:center bar:1976 color:FDP from:start till:39 text:39 align:center bar:1980 color:FDP from:start till:53 text:53 align:center bar:1983 color:FDP from:start till:34 text:34 align:center bar:1987 color:FDP from:start till:46 text:46 align:center bar:1990 color:FDP from:start till:79 text:79 align:center bar:1994 color:FDP from:start till:47 text:47 align:center bar:1998 color:FDP from:start till:43 text:43 align:center bar:2002 color:FDP from:start till:47 text:47 align:center bar:2005 color:FDP from:start till:61 text:61 align:center bar:2009 color:FDP from:start till:93 text:93 align:center bar:2013 color:FDP from:start till:0 text:0 align:center bar:2017 color:FDP from:start till:80 text:80 align:center bar:2021 color:FDP from:start till:92 text:92 align:centerImageSize = width:610 height:150PlotArea = width:560 height:125 left:35 bottom:20AlignBars = justifyColors = id:FDP value:rgb(0.9999,0.926,0)DateFormat = yyyyPeriod = from:0 till:20TimeAxis = orientation:verticalScaleMajor = unit:year increment:5 start:0PlotData = bar:Vote% color:FDP width:24 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:S bar:1949 color:FDP from:start till:12 text:11.9 align:center bar:1953 color:FDP from:start till:9 text:9.5 align:center bar:1957 color:FDP from:start till:8 text:7.7 align:center bar:1961 color:FDP from:start till:13 text:12.8 align:center bar:1965 color:FDP from:start till:9 text:9.5 align:center bar:1969 color:FDP from:start till:6 text:5.8 align:center bar:1972 color:FDP from:start till:9 text:8.4 align:center bar:1976 color:FDP from:start till:8 text:7.9 align:center bar:1980 color:FDP from:start till:11 text:10.6 align:center bar:1983 color:FDP from:start till:7 text:6.9 align:center bar:1987 color:FDP from:start till:9 text:9.1 align:center bar:1990 color:FDP from:start till:11 text:11.0 align:center bar:1994 color:FDP from:start till:7 text:6.9 align:center bar:1998 color:FDP from:start till:6 text:6.2 align:center bar:2002 color:FDP from:start till:7 text:7.4 align:center bar:2005 color:FDP from:start till:10 text:9.8 align:center bar:2009 color:FDP from:start till:14 text:14.6 align:center bar:2013 color:FDP from:start till:5 text:4.8 align:center bar:2017 color:FDP from:start till:11 text:10.7 align:center bar:2021 color:FDP from:start till:12 text:11.5 align:centerGuido Westerwelle (right) and his partner Michael Mronz in 2009=== European Parliament ===Alexander Graf Lambsdorff, Vice President of the European Parliament (2014–2019) Election Votes % Seats +/– 1979 1,662,621 5.9 (#4) 1984 1,192,624 4.8 (#5) 4 1989 1,576,715 5.6 (#6) 4 1994 1,442,857 4.1 (#6) 4 1999 820,371 3.0 (#6) 0 2004 1,565,431 6.1 (#6) 7 2009 2,888,084 11.0 (#4) 5 2014 986,253 3.3 (#7) 9 2019 2,028,353 5.4 (#7) 2=== State Parliaments ===Werner Klumpp, interim Minister-President of the Saarland from 26 June 1979 to 5 July 1979 State parliament Election Votes % Seats +/– Status Baden-Württemberg 2021 508,278 10.5 (#4) 6 Bremen 2023 64,155 5.1 (#6) 0 Bavaria 2023 413,595 3.0 (#6) 11 Berlin 2023 70,416 4.6 (#6) 12 Brandenburg 2019 51,660 4.1 (#7) 0 Hamburg 2020 199,263 4.9 (#6) 8 Hesse 2023 141,608 5.0 (#5) 3 Lower Saxony 2022 170,298 4.7 (#5) 11 Mecklenburg-Vorpommern 2021 52,945 5.8 (#6) 5 North Rhine-Westphalia 2022 418,460 5.9 (#4) 16 Rhineland-Palatinate 2021 106,835 5.5 (#5) 1 Saarland 2022 21,618 4.8 (#5) 0 Saxony 2019 97,438 4.5 (#6) 0 Saxony-Anhalt 2021 68,277 6.4 (#5) 7 Schleswig-Holstein 2022 88,613 6.4 (#4) 4 Thuringia 2019 55,422 5.0 (#6) 5 ===Results timeline=== Year DE EU BW BY BE BB HB HH HE NI MV NW RP SL SN ST SH TH SB borderWB WH 1946 ''N/A'' ''N/A'' 19.5 5.7 9.3 20.6 18.3 '''18.2''' 15.7 12.5 24.7 29.9 24.6 1947 14.3 17.7 '''19.4''' 8.8 6.0 9.8 7.6 5.0 1948 16.1 1949 11.9 1950 21.1 7.1 '''23.1''' ''N/A'' '''31.8''' ''N/A'' 12.1 ''N/A'' ''N/A'' 7.1 ''N/A'' 1951 11.8 8.3 '''16.7''' 1952 '''18.0''' ''Banned'' 1953 9.5 1954 7.2 12.8 20.5 11.5 7.5 1955 8.6 7.9 12.7 '''24.2''' 1956 16.6 1957 7.7 8.6 1958 5.6 3.8 9.5 7.1 5.4 1959 7.2 5.2 9.7 1960 15.8 13.8 1961 12.8 9.6 1962 5.9 11.4 6.8 7.9 1963 7.9 8.4 8.8 10.1 1964 13.1 1965 9.5 8.3 1966 5.1 6.8 10.4 7.4 1967 7.1 10.5 6.9 8.3 5.9 1968 14.4 1969 5.8 1970 5.6 7.1 10.1 4.4 5.5 4.4 1971 8.4 7.1 5.9 3.8 1972 8.4 8.9 1973 1974 5.2 10.9 7.4 7.0 1975 7.1 13.0 6.7 5.6 7.4 7.1 1976 7.9 7.8 1977 1978 6.2 4.8 6.6 4.2 1979 6.0 8.1 10.7 6.4 5.7 1980 10.6 8.3 5.0 6.9 1981 5.6 1982 3.5 4.9 3.1 5.9 1983 6.9 4.6 2.6 7.6 3.5 2.2 1984 4.8 7.2 1985 8.5 6.0 10.0 1986 3.8 4.8 6.0 1987 9.1 10.0 6.5 7.8 7.3 5.2 1988 5.9 4.4 1989 5.6 3.9 1990 11.0 5.2 7.1 6.6 6.0 5.5 5.8 5.6 5.3 '''13.5''' '''9.3''' 1991 9.5 5.4 7.4 6.9 1992 5.9 5.6 1993 4.2 1994 6.9 4.1 2.8 2.2 4.4 3.8 2.1 1.7 3.6 3.2 1995 2.5 3.4 7.4 4.0 1996 9.6 8.9 5.7 1997 3.5 1998 6.2 1.7 4.9 1.6 4.2 1999 3.0 2.2 1.9 2.5 5.1 2.6 1.1 1.1 2000 9.8 7.6 2001 8.1 9.9 5.1 7.8 2002 7.4 4.7 13.3 2003 2.6 4.2 7.9 8.1 2004 6.1 3.3 2.8 5.2 5.9 3.6 2005 9.8 6.2 6.6 2006 10.7 7.6 '''9.6''' 8.0 6.7 2007 6.0 2008 '''8.0''' 4.8 9.4 8.2 2009 '''14.6''' '''11.0''' '''7.2''' 16.2 9.2 '''10.0''' '''14.9''' 7.6 2010 6.7 2011 5.3 1.8 2.4 6.7 2.8 4.2 3.8 2012 8.6 1.2 8.2 2013 4.8 3.3 5.0 '''9.9''' 2014 3.5 1.5 3.8 2.5 2015 6.6 7.4 2016 8.3 6.7 3.0 6.2 4.9 2017 10.7 7.5 '''12.6''' 3.3 11.5 2018 5.1 7.5 2019 5.4 4.1 5.9 4.5 5.0 2020 4.9 2021 11.5 10.5 7.2 5.8 5.5 6.4 2022 4.7 5.9 4.8 6.4 2023 TBD 4.6 TBD TBD Year DE EU BW BY BE BB HB HH HE NI MV NW RP SL SN ST SH TH '''Bold''' indicates best result to date.", "Present in legislature (in opposition) Junior coalition partner Senior coalition partner" ], [ "Leadership", "Hans-Dietrich Genscher served almost continuously as Foreign Minister and Vice Chancellor from 1974 to 1992.Wolfgang Gerhardt=== Leader of the FDP ===LeaderYear1Theodor Heuss1948–19492Franz Blücher1949–19543Thomas Dehler1954–19574Reinhold Maier1957–19605Erich Mende1960–19686Walter Scheel1968–19747Hans-Dietrich Genscher1974–19858Martin Bangemann1985–19889Otto Graf Lambsdorff1988–199310Klaus Kinkel1993–199511Wolfgang Gerhardt1995–200112Guido Westerwelle2001–201113Philipp Rösler2011–201314Christian Lindner2013–present=== Leader of the FDP in the Bundestag ===Leader in the BundestagYear1Theodor Heuss19492Hermann Schäfer(First term)1949–19513August-Martin Euler1951–1952(2)Hermann Schäfer(Second term)1952–19534Thomas Dehler1953–19575Max Becker19576Erich Mende1957–19637Knut von Kühlmann-Stumm1963–19688Wolfgang Mischnick1968–19919Hermann Otto Solms1991–199810Wolfgang Gerhardt1998–200611Guido Westerwelle2006–200912Birgit Homburger2009–201113Rainer Brüderle2011–2013No seats in the Bundestag2013–201714Christian Lindner2017–202115Christian Dürr2021–present" ], [ "See also", "* Federal Association of Liberal Students Groups* Franz Xaver Kappus* Liberalism in Germany* List of political parties in Germany* Politics of Germany" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fax" ], [ "Introduction", "This fax machine from 1999 used relatively new inkjet printing technology on normal paper.Like many fax machines, this 1990 model used thermal printing on relatively expensive thermal paper which came in rolls.", "The roll was inserted into a compartment in the machine.", "'''Fax''' (short for '''facsimile'''), sometimes called '''telecopying''' or '''telefax''' (short for '''telefacsimile'''), is the telephonic transmission of scanned printed material (both text and images), normally to a telephone number connected to a printer or other output device.", "The original document is scanned with a '''fax machine''' (or a '''telecopier'''), which processes the contents (text or images) as a single fixed graphic image, converting it into a bitmap, and then transmitting it through the telephone system in the form of audio-frequency tones.", "The receiving fax machine interprets the tones and reconstructs the image, printing a paper copy.", "Early systems used direct conversions of image darkness to audio tone in a continuous or analog manner.", "Since the 1980s, most machines transmit an audio-encoded digital representation of the page, using data compression to more quickly transmit areas that are all-white or all-black.Initially a niche product, fax machines became ubiquitous in offices in the 1980s and 1990s.", "They have gradually been rendered obsolete by Internet-based technologies such as email and the World Wide Web, but are still used in medical administration and law enforcement settings." ], [ "History", "=== Wire transmission ===Scottish inventor Alexander Bain worked on chemical-mechanical fax-type devices and in 1846 was able to reproduce graphic signs in laboratory experiments.", "He received British patent 9745 on May 27, 1843, for his \"Electric Printing Telegraph\".", "Frederick Bakewell made several improvements on Bain's design and demonstrated a telefax machine.", "The Pantelegraph was invented by the Italian physicist Giovanni Caselli.", "He introduced the first commercial telefax service between Paris and Lyon in 1865, some 11 years before the invention of the telephone.In 1880, English inventor Shelford Bidwell constructed the ''scanning phototelegraph'' that was the first telefax machine to scan any two-dimensional original, not requiring manual plotting or drawing.", "An account of Henry Sutton's \"telephane\" was published in 1896.Around 1900, German physicist Arthur Korn invented the ''Bildtelegraph'', widespread in continental Europe especially following a widely noticed transmission of a wanted-person photograph from Paris to London in 1908, used until the wider distribution of the radiofax.", "Its main competitors were the ''Bélinographe'' by Édouard Belin first, then since the 1930s the ''Hellschreiber'', invented in 1929 by German inventor Rudolf Hell, a pioneer in mechanical image scanning and transmission.Input (left) and output (right) of a telautograph transmissionThe 1888 invention of the telautograph by Elisha Gray marked a further development in fax technology, allowing users to send signatures over long distances, thus allowing the verification of identification or ownership over long distances.On May 19, 1924, scientists of the AT&T Corporation \"by a new process of transmitting pictures by electricity\" sent 15 photographs by telephone from Cleveland to New York City, such photos being suitable for newspaper reproduction.", "Previously, photographs had been sent over the radio using this process.The Western Union \"Deskfax\" fax machine, announced in 1948, was a compact machine that fit comfortably on a desktop, using special spark printer paper.=== Wireless transmission === Children read a wirelessly transmitted newspaper in 1938.As a designer for the Radio Corporation of America (RCA), in 1924, Richard H. Ranger invented the wireless photoradiogram, or transoceanic radio facsimile, the forerunner of today's \"fax\" machines.", "A photograph of President Calvin Coolidge sent from New York to London on November 29, 1924, became the first photo picture reproduced by transoceanic radio facsimile.", "Commercial use of Ranger's product began two years later.", "Also in 1924, Herbert E. Ives of AT&T transmitted and reconstructed the first color facsimile, a natural-color photograph of silent film star Rudolph Valentino in period costume, using red, green and blue color separations.Beginning in the late 1930s, the Finch Facsimile system was used to transmit a \"radio newspaper\" to private homes via commercial AM radio stations and ordinary radio receivers equipped with Finch's printer, which used thermal paper.", "Sensing a new and potentially golden opportunity, competitors soon entered the field, but the printer and special paper were expensive luxuries, AM radio transmission was very slow and vulnerable to static, and the newspaper was too small.", "After more than ten years of repeated attempts by Finch and others to establish such a service as a viable business, the public, apparently quite content with its cheaper and much more substantial home-delivered daily newspapers, and with conventional spoken radio bulletins to provide any \"hot\" news, still showed only a passing curiosity about the new medium.By the late 1940s, radiofax receivers were sufficiently miniaturized to be fitted beneath the dashboard of Western Union's \"Telecar\" telegram delivery vehicles.In the 1960s, the United States Army transmitted the first photograph via satellite facsimile to Puerto Rico from the Deal Test Site using the Courier satellite.Radio fax is still in limited use today for transmitting weather charts and information to ships at sea.", "The closely related technology of slow-scan television is still used by amateur radio operators.=== Telephone transmission ===A two-page fax message sent in 2006In 1964, Xerox Corporation introduced (and patented) what many consider to be the first commercialized version of the modern fax machine, under the name (LDX) or Long Distance Xerography.", "This model was superseded two years later with a unit that would truly set the standard for fax machines for years to come.", "Up until this point facsimile machines were very expensive and hard to operate.", "In 1966, Xerox released the Magnafax Telecopiers, a smaller, facsimile machine.", "This unit was far easier to operate and could be connected to any standard telephone line.", "This machine was capable of transmitting a letter-sized document in about six minutes.", "The first sub-minute, digital fax machine was developed by Dacom, which built on digital data compression technology originally developed at Lockheed for satellite communication.By the late 1970s, many companies around the world (especially Japanese firms) had entered the fax market.", "Very shortly after this, a new wave of more compact, faster and efficient fax machines would hit the market.", "Xerox continued to refine the fax machine for years after their ground-breaking first machine.", "In later years it would be combined with copier equipment to create the hybrid machines we have today that copy, scan and fax.", "Some of the lesser known capabilities of the Xerox fax technologies included their Ethernet enabled Fax Services on their 8000 workstations in the early 1980s.Prior to the introduction of the ubiquitous fax machine, one of the first being the Exxon Qwip in the mid-1970s, facsimile machines worked by optical scanning of a document or drawing spinning on a drum.", "The reflected light, varying in intensity according to the light and dark areas of the document, was focused on a photocell so that the current in a circuit varied with the amount of light.", "This current was used to control a tone generator (a modulator), the current determining the frequency of the tone produced.", "This audio tone was then transmitted using an acoustic coupler (a speaker, in this case) attached to the microphone of a common telephone handset.", "At the receiving end, a handset's speaker was attached to an acoustic coupler (a microphone), and a demodulator converted the varying tone into a variable current that controlled the mechanical movement of a pen or pencil to reproduce the image on a blank sheet of paper on an identical drum rotating at the same rate.=== Computer facsimile interface ===In 1985, Hank Magnuski, founder of GammaLink, produced the first computer fax board, called GammaFax.", "Such boards could provide voice telephony via Analog Expansion Bus.===In the 21st century===Laser fax having a compact, built-in laser printer, 2001.Although businesses usually maintain some kind of fax capability, the technology has faced increasing competition from Internet-based alternatives.", "In some countries, because electronic signatures on contracts are not yet recognized by law, while faxed contracts with copies of signatures are, fax machines enjoy continuing support in business.", "In Japan, faxes are still used extensively as of September 2020 for cultural and graphemic reasons.", "They are available for sending to both domestic and international recipients from over 81% of all convenience stores nationwide.", "Convenience-store fax machines commonly print the slightly re-sized content of the sent fax in the electronic confirmation-slip, in A4 paper size.", "Use of fax machines for reporting cases during the COVID-19 pandemic has been criticised in Japan for introducing data errors and delays in reporting, slowing response efforts to contain the spread of infections and hindering the transition to remote work.In many corporate environments, freestanding fax machines have been replaced by fax servers and other computerized systems capable of receiving and storing incoming faxes electronically, and then routing them to users on paper or via an email (which may be secured).", "Such systems have the advantage of reducing costs by eliminating unnecessary printouts and reducing the number of inbound analog phone lines needed by an office.Professional laser fax machine for office use with the Super G3 standard for faster fax transmission.The once ubiquitous fax machine has also begun to disappear from the small office and home office environments.", "Remotely hosted fax-server services are widely available from VoIP and e-mail providers allowing users to send and receive faxes using their existing e-mail accounts without the need for any hardware or dedicated fax lines.", "Personal computers have also long been able to handle incoming and outgoing faxes using analog modems or ISDN, eliminating the need for a stand-alone fax machine.", "These solutions are often ideally suited for users who only very occasionally need to use fax services.", "In July 2017 the United Kingdom's National Health Service was said to be the world's largest purchaser of fax machines because the digital revolution has largely bypassed it.", "In June 2018 the Labour Party said that the NHS had at least 11,620 fax machines in operation and in December the Department of Health and Social Care said that no more fax machines could be bought from 2019 and that the existing ones must be replaced by secure email by March 31, 2020.Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust, generally viewed as digitally advanced in the NHS, was engaged in a process of removing its fax machines in early 2019.This involved quite a lot of e-fax solutions because of the need to communicate with pharmacies and nursing homes which may not have access to the NHS email system and may need something in their paper records.In 2018 two-thirds of Canadian doctors reported that they primarily used fax machines to communicate with other doctors.", "Faxes are still seen as safer and more secure and electronic systems are often unable to communicate with each other.Hospitals are the leading users for fax machines in the United States where almost all doctors prefer fax machines over emails, often due to concerns about accidentally violating HIPAA.", "However, fax machines are beginning to decline due to expansion of telehealth as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, and virtual visits often replace the need for a patient to fax or mail information to a doctor, since the doctor would receive the information via a telehealth platform such as Zoom or Microsoft Teams." ], [ "Capabilities", "There are several indicators of fax capabilities: group, class, data transmission rate, and conformance with ITU-T (formerly CCITT) recommendations.", "Since the 1968 Carterfone decision, most fax machines have been designed to connect to standard PSTN lines and telephone numbers.=== Group ======= Analog ====Group 1 and 2 faxes are sent in the same manner as a frame of analog television, with each scanned line transmitted as a continuous analog signal.", "Horizontal resolution depended upon the quality of the scanner, transmission line, and the printer.", "Analog fax machines are obsolete and no longer manufactured.", "ITU-T Recommendations T.2 and T.3 were withdrawn as obsolete in July 1996.", "* Group 1 faxes conform to the ITU-T Recommendation T.2.Group 1 faxes take six minutes to transmit a single page, with a vertical resolution of 96 scan lines per inch.", "Group 1 fax machines are obsolete and no longer manufactured.", "* Group 2 faxes conform to the ITU-T Recommendations T.3 and T.30.Group 2 faxes take three minutes to transmit a single page, with a vertical resolution of 96 scan lines per inch.", "Group 2 fax machines are almost obsolete, and are no longer manufactured.", "Group 2 fax machines can interoperate with Group 3 fax machines.==== Digital ====The Dacom DFC-10—the first digital fax machineThe chip in a fax machine.", "Only about one quarter of the length is shown.", "The thin line in the middle consists of photosensitive pixels.", "The read-out circuit is at left.A major breakthrough in the development of the modern facsimile system was the result of digital technology, where the analog signal from scanners was digitized and then compressed, resulting in the ability to transmit high rates of data across standard phone lines.", "The first digital fax machine was the Dacom Rapidfax first sold in late 1960s, which incorporated digital data compression technology developed by Lockheed for transmission of images from satellites.Group 3 and 4 faxes are digital formats and take advantage of digital compression methods to greatly reduce transmission times.", "* Group 3 faxes conform to the ITU-T Recommendations T.30 and T.4.Group 3 faxes take between 6 and 15 seconds to transmit a single page (not including the initial time for the fax machines to handshake and synchronize).", "The horizontal and vertical resolutions are allowed by the T.4 standard to vary among a set of fixed resolutions:** Horizontal: 100 scan lines per inch*** Vertical: 100 scan lines per inch (\"Basic\")** Horizontal: 200 or 204 scan lines per inch*** Vertical: 100 or 98 scan lines per inch (\"Standard\")*** Vertical: 200 or 196 scan lines per inch (\"Fine\")*** Vertical: 400 or 391 (note not 392) scan lines per inch (\"Superfine\")** Horizontal: 300 scan lines per inch*** Vertical: 300 scan lines per inch** Horizontal: 400 or 408 scan lines per inch*** Vertical: 400 or 391 scan lines per inch (\"Ultrafine\")* Group 4 faxes conform to the ITU-T Recommendations T.563, T.503, T.521, T.6, T.62, T.70, T.411 to T.417.They are designed to operate over 64 kbit/s digital ISDN circuits.", "The allowed resolutions, a superset of those in the T.4 recommendation, are specified in the T.6 recommendation.Fax Over IP (FoIP) can transmit and receive pre-digitized documents at near-realtime speeds using ITU-T recommendation T.38 to send digitised images over an IP network using JPEG compression.", "T.38 is designed to work with VoIP services and often supported by analog telephone adapters used by legacy fax machines that need to connect through a VoIP service.", "Scanned documents are limited to the amount of time the user takes to load the document in a scanner and for the device to process a digital file.", "The resolution can vary from as little as 150 DPI to 9600 DPI or more.", "This type of faxing is not related to the e-mail–to–fax service that still uses fax modems at least one way.=== Class ===Computer modems are often designated by a particular fax class, which indicates how much processing is offloaded from the computer's CPU to the fax modem.", "* Class 1 (also known as Class 1.0) fax devices do fax data transfer, while the T.4/T.6 data compression and T.30 session management are performed by software on a controlling computer.", "This is described in ITU-T recommendation T.31.", "* What is commonly known as \"Class 2\" is an unofficial class of fax devices that perform T.30 session management themselves, but the T.4/T.6 data compression is performed by software on a controlling computer.", "Implementations of this \"class\" are based on draft versions of the standard that eventually significantly evolved to become Class 2.0.All implementations of \"Class 2\" are manufacturer-specific.", "* Class 2.0 is the official ITU-T version of Class 2 and is commonly known as Class 2.0 to differentiate it from many manufacturer-specific implementations of what is commonly known as \"Class 2\".", "It uses a different but standardized command set than the various manufacturer-specific implementations of \"Class 2\".", "The relevant ITU-T recommendation is T.32.", "* Class 2.1 is an improvement of Class 2.0 that implements faxing over V.34 (33.6 kbit/s), which boosts faxing speed from fax classes \"2\" and 2.0, which are limited to 14.4 kbit/s.", "The relevant ITU-T recommendation is T.32 Amendment 1.Class 2.1 fax devices are referred to as \"super G3\".=== Data transmission rate ===Several different telephone-line modulation techniques are used by fax machines.", "They are negotiated during the fax-modem handshake, and the fax devices will use the highest data rate that both fax devices support, usually a minimum of 14.4 kbit/s for Group 3 fax.", ":ITU standardReleased dateData rates (bit/s)Modulation methodV.2719884800, 2400PSKV.2919889600, 7200, 4800QAMV.171991, , 9600, 7200TCMV.341994QAMV.34bis1998QAMISDN1986digital\"Super Group 3\" faxes use V.34bis modulation that allows a data rate of up to 33.6 kbit/s.=== Compression ===As well as specifying the resolution (and allowable physical size) of the image being faxed, the ITU-T T.4 recommendation specifies two compression methods for decreasing the amount of data that needs to be transmitted between the fax machines to transfer the image.", "The two methods defined in T.4 are:* Modified Huffman (MH).", "* Modified READ (MR) (''Relative Element Address Designate''), optional.An additional method is specified in T.6:* Modified Modified READ (MMR).Later, other compression techniques were added as options to ITU-T recommendation T.30, such as the more efficient JBIG (T.82, T.85) for bi-level content, and JPEG (T.81), T.43, MRC (T.44), and T.45 for grayscale, palette, and colour content.", "Fax machines can negotiate at the start of the T.30 session to use the best technique implemented on both sides.==== Modified Huffman ====Modified Huffman (MH), specified in T.4 as the one-dimensional coding scheme, is a codebook-based run-length encoding scheme optimised to efficiently compress whitespace.", "As most faxes consist mostly of white space, this minimises the transmission time of most faxes.", "Each line scanned is compressed independently of its predecessor and successor.==== Modified READ ====Modified READ, specified as an optional two-dimensional coding scheme in T.4, encodes the first scanned line using MH.", "The next line is compared to the first, the differences determined, and then the differences are encoded and transmitted.", "This is effective, as most lines differ little from their predecessor.", "This is not continued to the end of the fax transmission, but only for a limited number of lines until the process is reset, and a new \"first line\" encoded with MH is produced.", "This limited number of lines is to prevent errors propagating throughout the whole fax, as the standard does not provide for error correction.", "This is an optional facility, and some fax machines do not use MR in order to minimise the amount of computation required by the machine.", "The limited number of lines is 2 for \"Standard\"-resolution faxes, and 4 for \"Fine\"-resolution faxes.==== Modified Modified READ ====The ITU-T T.6 recommendation adds a further compression type of Modified Modified READ (MMR), which simply allows a greater number of lines to be coded by MR than in T.4.This is because T.6 makes the assumption that the transmission is over a circuit with a low number of line errors, such as digital ISDN.", "In this case, the number of lines for which the differences are encoded is not limited.==== JBIG ====In 1999, ITU-T recommendation T.30 added JBIG (ITU-T T.82) as another lossless bi-level compression algorithm, or more precisely a \"fax profile\" subset of JBIG (ITU-T T.85).", "JBIG-compressed pages result in 20% to 50% faster transmission than MMR-compressed pages, and up to 30 times faster transmission if the page includes halftone images.JBIG performs adaptive compression, that is, both the encoder and decoder collect statistical information about the transmitted image from the pixels transmitted so far, in order to predict the probability for each next pixel being either black or white.", "For each new pixel, JBIG looks at ten nearby, previously transmitted pixels.", "It counts, how often in the past the next pixel has been black or white in the same neighborhood, and estimates from that the probability distribution of the next pixel.", "This is fed into an arithmetic coder, which adds only a small fraction of a bit to the output sequence if the more probable pixel is then encountered.The ITU-T T.85 \"fax profile\" constrains some optional features of the full JBIG standard, such that codecs do not have to keep data about more than the last three pixel rows of an image in memory at any time.", "This allows the streaming of \"endless\" images, where the height of the image may not be known until the last row is transmitted.ITU-T T.30 allows fax machines to negotiate one of two options of the T.85 \"fax profile\":* In \"basic mode\", the JBIG encoder must split the image into horizontal stripes of 128 lines (parameter L0 = 128) and restart the arithmetic encoder for each stripe.", "* In \"option mode\", there is no such constraint.==== Matsushita Whiteline Skip ====A proprietary compression scheme employed on Panasonic fax machines is Matsushita Whiteline Skip (MWS).", "It can be overlaid on the other compression schemes, but is operative only when two Panasonic machines are communicating with one another.", "This system detects the blank scanned areas between lines of text, and then compresses several blank scan lines into the data space of a single character.", "(JBIG implements a similar technique called \"typical prediction\", if header flag TPBON is set to 1.", ")=== Typical characteristics ===Group 3 fax machines transfer one or a few printed or handwritten pages per minute in black-and-white (bitonal) at a resolution of 204×98 (normal) or 204×196 (fine) dots per square inch.", "The transfer rate is 14.4 kbit/s or higher for modems and some fax machines, but fax machines support speeds beginning with 2400 bit/s and typically operate at 9600 bit/s.", "The transferred image formats are called ITU-T (formerly CCITT) fax group 3 or 4.Group 3 faxes have the suffix .g3 and the MIME type image/g3fax.The most basic fax mode transfers in black and white only.", "The original page is scanned in a resolution of 1728 pixels/line and 1145 lines/page (for A4).", "The resulting raw data is compressed using a modified Huffman code optimized for written text, achieving average compression factors of around 20.Typically a page needs 10 s for transmission, instead of about three minutes for the same uncompressed raw data of 1728×1145 bits at a speed of 9600 bit/s.", "The compression method uses a Huffman codebook for run lengths of black and white runs in a single scanned line, and it can also use the fact that two adjacent scanlines are usually quite similar, saving bandwidth by encoding only the differences.Fax classes denote the way fax programs interact with fax hardware.", "Available classes include Class 1, Class 2, Class 2.0 and 2.1, and Intel CAS.", "Many modems support at least class 1 and often either Class 2 or Class 2.0.Which is preferable to use depends on factors such as hardware, software, modem firmware, and expected use.===Printing process===Fax machines from the 1970s to the 1990s often used direct thermal printers with rolls of thermal paper as their printing technology, but since the mid-1990s there has been a transition towards plain-paper faxes: thermal transfer printers, inkjet printers and laser printers.One of the advantages of inkjet printing is that inkjets can affordably print in color; therefore, many of the inkjet-based fax machines claim to have color fax capability.", "There is a standard called ITU-T30e (formally ITU-T Recommendation T.30 Annex E ) for faxing in color; however, it is not widely supported, so many of the color fax machines can only fax in color to machines from the same manufacturer.=== Stroke speed ===Stroke speed in facsimile systems is the rate at which a fixed line perpendicular to the direction of scanning is crossed in one direction by a scanning or recording spot.", "Stroke speed is usually expressed as a number of strokes per minute.", "When the fax system scans in both directions, the stroke speed is twice this number.", "In most conventional 20th century mechanical systems, the stroke speed is equivalent to drum speed.=== Fax paper ===Paper roll for direct thermal fax machineAs a precaution, thermal fax paper is typically not accepted in archives or as documentary evidence in some courts of law unless photocopied.", "This is because the image-forming coating is eradicable and brittle, and it tends to detach from the medium after a long time in storage.=== Fax tone ===A CNG tone is an 1100 Hz tone transmitted by a fax machine when it calls another fax machine.", "Fax tones can cause complications when implementing fax over IP." ], [ "Internet fax", "One popular alternative is to subscribe to an Internet fax service, allowing users to send and receive faxes from their personal computers using an existing email account.", "No software, fax server or fax machine is needed.", "Faxes are received as attached TIFF or PDF files, or in proprietary formats that require the use of the service provider's software.", "Faxes can be sent or retrieved from anywhere at any time that a user can get Internet access.", "Some services offer secure faxing to comply with stringent HIPAA and Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act requirements to keep medical information and financial information private and secure.", "Utilizing a fax service provider does not require paper, a dedicated fax line, or consumable resources.Another alternative to a physical fax machine is to make use of computer software which allows people to send and receive faxes using their own computers, utilizing fax servers and unified messaging.", "A virtual (email) fax can be printed out and then signed and scanned back to computer before being emailed.", "Also the sender can attach a digital signature to the document file.With the surging popularity of mobile phones, virtual fax machines can now be downloaded as applications for Android and iOS.", "These applications make use of the phone's internal camera to scan fax documents for upload or they can import from various cloud services." ], [ "Related standards", "* T.4 is the umbrella specification for fax.", "It specifies the standard image sizes, two forms of image-data compression (encoding), the image-data format, and references, T.30 and the various modem standards.", "* T.6 specifies a compression scheme that reduces the time required to transmit an image by roughly 50-percent.", "* T.30 specifies the procedures that a sending and receiving terminal use to set up a fax call, determine the image size, encoding, and transfer speed, the demarcation between pages, and the termination of the call.", "T.30 also references the various modem standards.", "* V.21, V.27ter, V.29, V.17, V.34: ITU modem standards used in facsimile.", "The first three were ratified prior to 1980, and were specified in the original T.4 and T.30 standards.", "V.34 was published for fax in 1994.", "* T.37 The ITU standard for sending a fax-image file via e-mail to the intended recipient of a fax.", "* T.38 The ITU standard for sending Fax over IP (FoIP).", "* G.711 pass through - this is where the T.30 fax call is carried in a VoIP call encoded as audio.", "This is sensitive to network packet loss, jitter and clock synchronization.", "When using voice high-compression encoding techniques such as, but not limited to, G.729, some fax tonal signals may not be correctly transported across the packet network.", "* image/t38 MIME-type* SSL Fax An emerging standard that allows a telephone based fax session to negotiate a fax transfer over the internet, but only if both sides support the standard.", "The standard is partially based on T.30 and is being developed by Hylafax+ developers." ], [ "See also", "* 3D Fax* Black fax* Called subscriber identification (CSID)* Error correction mode (ECM)* Fax art* Fax demodulator* Fax modem* Fax server* Faxlore* Fultograph* Image scanner* Internet fax* Junk fax* Radiofax—image transmission over HF radio* Slow-scan television* T.38 Fax-over-IP* Telautograph* Telex* Teletex* Transmitting Subscriber Identification (TSID)* Wirephoto" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Coopersmith, Jonathan, ''Faxed: The Rise and Fall of the Fax Machine'' (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2015) 308 pp.", "* \" Transmitting Photographs by Telegraph\", ''Scientific American'' article, 12 May 1877, p. 297" ], [ "External links", "* Group 3 Facsimile Communication—A '97 essay with technical details on compression and error codes, and call establishment and release.", "* ITU T.30 Recommendation" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Film crew" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''film crew''' is a group of people, hired by a production company, for the purpose of producing a film or motion picture.", "The crew is distinguished from the cast, as the cast are understood to be the actors who appear in front of the camera or provide voices for characters in the film.", "The crew is also separate from the producers, as the producers are the ones who own a portion of either the film studio or the film's intellectual property rights.", "A film crew is divided into different departments, each of which specializes in a specific aspect of the production.", "Film crew positions have evolved over the years, spurred by technological change, but many traditional jobs date from the early 20th century and are common across jurisdictions and filmmaking cultures.Motion picture projects have three discrete stages: development, production, and distribution.", "Within the production stage there are also three clearly defined sequential phases (pre-production, principal photography, and post-production) and many film crew positions are associated with only one or two of the phases.", "Distinctions are also made between above-the-line personnel (such as the director, screenwriter, and producers) who begin their involvement during the project's development stage, and the below-the-line technical crew involved only with the production stage." ], [ "Director", "Film director Dorothy Arzner had a successful career that spanned the silent film era into talkies.", "She started as a film editor and designed the first boom microphone.A director is the person who directs the making of a film.", "The director most often has the highest authority on a film set.", "Generally, a director controls a film's artistic and dramatic aspects and visualizes the screenplay (or script) while guiding the technical crew and actors in the fulfillment of that vision.", "The director has a key role in choosing the cast members, production design, and the creative aspects of filmmaking.", "Under European Union law, the director is viewed as the author of the film.The director gives direction to the cast and crew, and creates an overall vision through which a film eventually becomes realized or noticed.", "Directors need to be able to mediate differences in creative visions and stay within the boundaries of the film's budget.", "There are many pathways to becoming a film director.", "Some directors started as screenwriters, cinematographers, film editors, or actors.", "Other directors have attended a film school.", "Directors use different approaches.", "Some outline a general plotline and let the actors improvise dialogue, while others control every aspect, and demand that the actors and crew follow instructions precisely.", "Some directors also write their own screenplays or collaborate on screenplays with long-standing writing partners.", "Some directors edit or appear in their films, or compose the music score for their films." ], [ "Production", "'''Production''' is generally not considered a department as such, but rather as a series of functional groups.", "These include the film's producers and executive producers and production office staff such as the production manager, the production coordinator, and their assistants; the various assistant directors; the accounting staff and sometimes the locations manager and their assistants.", "; Producer: A film producer creates the conditions for filmmaking.", "The producer initiates, coordinates, supervises, and controls matters such as fund raising, hiring key personnel, and arranging for distributors.", "The producer is involved throughout all phases of the film making process from development to completion of a project.", "There may be several producers on a film who may take a role in a number of areas, such as development, financing or production.", "; Executive producer: An executive producer (EP) is a producer who was not involved in the technical aspects of the filmmaking process in the original definition, but has played a financial or creative role in ensuring that the project goes into production.", "Today, however, the title has become ambiguous, particularly in feature films.", "Since the 1980s, it has become increasingly common for the line producer to be given the title of executive producer, while the initiating producer takes the \"produced by\" credit.", "On other projects, the reverse happens, with the line producer taking the \"produced by\" credit.", "So the two credits have become effectively interchangeable, with no precise definition.=== Production office ===; Line producer: The line producer is the liaison between the studio or producer and the production manager, responsible for managing the production budget.", "The title is associated with the idea that they are the person who is \"on the line\" on a day-to-day basis, and responsible for lining up the resources needed.", "; Production assistant: Production assistants, referred to as PAs, assist in the production office or in various departments with general tasks, such as assisting the first assistant director with set operations.==== Production managements ====; Production manager: The production manager supervises the physical aspects of the production (not the creative aspects) including personnel, technology, budget, and scheduling.", "It is the production manager's responsibility to make sure the filming stays on schedule and within its budget.", "The PM also helps manage the day-to-day budget by managing operating costs such as salaries, production costs, and everyday equipment rental costs.", "The PM often works under the supervision of a line producer and directly supervises the production coordinator.", "; Assistant production manager: The assistant production manager is the assistant to the production manager (PM) and carries out various jobs for the PM.", "Normally only big budget Hollywood feature films have an assistant PM.", "; Unit manager: The unit manager fulfills the same role as the production manager but for secondary \"unit\" shooting.", "In some functional structures, the unit manager subsumes the role of the transport coordinator.", "; Production coordinator: The production coordinator is the information nexus of the production, responsible for organizing all the logistics from hiring crew, renting equipment, and booking talent.", "The PC is an integral part of film production.", "; First assistant director: The first assistant director (1st AD) assists the production manager and director.", "The ultimate aim of any 1st AD is to ensure the film comes in on schedule while maintaining a safe working environment in which the director, principal artists (actors) and crew can be focused on their work.", "They oversee day-to-day management of the cast and crew scheduling, equipment, script, and set.", "A 1st AD may also be responsible for directing background action for major shots or the entirety of relatively minor shots, at the director's discretion.", "; Second assistant director: The second assistant director (2nd AD) is the chief assistant of the 1st AD and helps carry out those tasks delegated to the 1st AD.", "The 2nd AD may also direct background action and extras in addition to helping the 1st AD with scheduling, booking, etc.", "The 2nd AD is responsible for creating call sheets that let the crew know the schedule and important details about the shooting day.", "; Other assistant directors: Sometimes other assistant directors are needed such as in Canadian and British functional structures the 3rd assistant director (3rd AD) and even trainee assistant directors (trainee AD).", "In the American system there are 2nd 2nd assistant director (2nd 2nd AD).", "Normally in the American system 2nd 2nd ADs control big crowd extras and make sure if shooting on location none of the public get into shots.==== Accounting ====; Production accountant: Production accountants manage the money and ensure the production comes in on budget and everyone gets paid.", "The industry is notorious for unusual accounting methods which are collectively labelled Hollywood accounting.", "Production accountants are often assisted by assistant accountants, sometimes called clerks, responsible for accounts receivable, accounts payable and payroll.=== Locations ===; Location manager: Oversees the locations department and its staff, typically reporting directly to the production manager or assistant director (or even director or executive producer).", "Location manager is responsible for final clearing (or guaranteeing permission to use) a location for filming and must often assist production and finance departments in maintaining budget management regarding actual location/permit fees as well as labor costs to production for the locations department at large.", "; Assistant location manager: Works with the location manager and the various departments in arranging technical scouts for the essential staff (grips, electric, camera, etc.)", "to see options which the location manager has selected for filming.", "The assistant location manager will be onset during the filming process to oversee the operation, whereas the location manager continues pre-production from elsewhere (generally an office) on the upcoming locations.", "(On most location-based television shows, there will be two assistant location managers that alternate episodes, allowing one to prep an upcoming episode while the other is on set with the current one); Location scout: Does much of the actual research, footwork and photography to document location possibilities.", "Often the location manager will do some scouting themselves, as well as the assistant location manager.", "; Location assistant: Hired by the location manager to be on set before, during, and after the filming process.", "General responsibilities include arriving first at the location to allow the set dressers into the set for preparation; maintaining the cleanliness of the location areas during filming; fielding complaints from neighbours; and ultimately, at the end of the filming, making sure it seems as though the film crew was never there.", "There are generally one to three assistants on a shoot at any given time.", "; Location production assistant: This position exists generally on larger budget productions.", "The locations PA is the assistant who is almost never on set, but instead is always prepping a location or \"wrapping\" a location; that is, when a location requires several days of setup and breakdown preceding and following the day(s) of filming.", "A location production assistant is what a set production assistant is in Canada.=== Digital service ===Since the turn of the 21st century, several additional professionals are now routinely listed in the production credits on most major motion pictures.", "; Social publicist: The publicist liaises between the film production and the media.", "They create press releases, in collaboration with the producers, and work with the unit still photographer.", "; Legal counsel: Entertainment lawyers negotiate contracts, clear licensing rights for any intellectual property used in the film, obtain tax credits from local governments, and take care of immigration paperwork when cast or crew cross international borders to shoot on location.", "; System administrator: A system administrator or sysadmin, is a person employed to maintain and operate a computer system or network.", "This role is increasingly important for digital monitors on set, digital intermediate editing and post production, digital effects, digital sound, and sometimes for full digital production.=== Continuity ===; Script supervisor: Also known as the continuity person, the script supervisor keeps track of what parts of the script have been filmed and makes notes of any deviations between what was actually filmed and what appeared in the script.", "They make notes on every shot, and keep track of props, blocking, and other details to ensure continuity between shots and scenes.", "An important part of a script supervisor's job is to make sure that the actors' movements, the directions they are looking in a shot, particularly when speaking to or responding to another actor, plus the positions of props they are using and every thing else matches from shot to shot.", "If there is an apparent mismatch, the director must be informed immediately so that it can be reshot before the lighting setup is changed or at least before the location is wrapped and the set is struck.", "Not only does the job of script supervisor require a great deal of awareness and meticulous note-taking skills, it also requires much diplomacy to advise the director that they may have a problem editing something just recorded.", "The script supervisor is also in charge of providing the \"official\" scene numbers and take numbers to the second camera assistant (clapper loader in some countries) for the slate, as well as to the sound mixer, and to clearly note which take the director has chosen to be used (as a \"print,\" in film terms) in the finished product.", "All of this information is then relayed to the editor every day after shooting has wrapped in the form of copies made of both the script supervisor's notes as well as their matching script pages.=== Casting ===; Casting director: The casting director chooses the actors for the characters of the movie.", "This usually involves inviting potential actors to read an excerpt from the script for an audition.", "; Cast Production Assistant: The cast PA assists the actors of the film.", "This usually involves personal and technical requests, that might be highly sensible and private or common domain or knowledge." ], [ "Camera and Lighting", "A camera operator filming a scene from the Hollywood film ''Julius Caesar'' (1950), starring Charlton Heston.Production of the television film ''Sherlock Holmes and the Case of the Silk Stocking'' (2004) at Somerset House in London.", "; Director of photography: The director of photography (sometimes shortened to DP or DoP) is in charge of the look of the \"frame\" of the movie shots, hence the name \"photography\".", "They are the chief of the camera and lighting crew of the film.", "The DP makes decisions on lighting and framing of shots in conjunction with the film's director.", "Typically, the director tells the DP how they want a shot to look, and the DP chooses the correct lens, filter, lighting and composition to achieve the desired aesthetic effect.", "The DP is the senior creative crew member after the director.", ": The term cinematographer is usually synonymous with director of photography, though some professionals insist this only applies when the director of photography and camera operator are the same person.=== Camera ===; Camera operator: The camera operator uses the camera at the direction of the cinematographer, director of photography, or the film director to capture the scenes on film or video.", "Generally, a cinematographer or director of photography does not operate the camera, but sometimes these jobs may be combined.", "; First assistant camera: The first assistant camera, 1st AC or focus puller, is responsible for keeping the camera in focus as it is shooting, as well as building the camera at the beginning of the day and taking it apart at the end.", "They also thread the film when a new magazine is loaded.", "; Second assistant camera: The second assistant camera, 2nd AC or clapper loader, operates the clapperboard commonly referred to in the United States as a \"slate\" at the beginning of each take and loads the raw film stock or blank videocassette into the camera magazines between takes, if there is no additional specifically designated film loader.", "The 2nd AC is also in charge of overseeing the meticulously kept notebooks that record when the film stock is received, used, and sent to the lab for processing.", "Additionally, the 2nd AC oversees organization of camera equipment and transport of the equipment from one shooting location to another.", "; Film loader: The film loader transfers motion picture film from the manufacturer's light-tight canisters to the camera magazines for attachment to the camera by the 2nd AC.", "After exposure during filming, the loader then removes the film from the magazines and places it back into the light-tight cans for transport to the laboratory.", "It is the responsibility of the loader to manage the inventory of film and communicate with the 1st AC on the film usage and remaining stock throughout the day.", "On small production crews, this job is often combined with the 2nd AC.", "With the prevalence of digital photography, this role is taken on by the digital imaging technician.", "; Camera production assistant: The camera PA, '''camera intern''' or '''camera trainee''', assists the crew while learning the trade of the camera assistant, operator or cinematographer.", "; Digital imaging technician: On digital photography productions the digital imaging technician, or DIT, is responsible for the coordination of the internal workings of the digital camera.", "Under the direction of the cinematographer or director of photography, the DIT will make adjustments to the multitude of variables available in most professional digital cameras to creatively or technically manipulate the resulting image.", "It may also be the responsibility of the DIT to archive and manage the digital data, create compressed dailies from raw footage and prepare all digital images for post-production.", "; Steadicam operator: A steadicam operator is someone who is skilled at operating a steadicam (trademark for a camera stabilization rig).", "This person is usually one of the camera operators on the production.", "; Motion control technician / Operator: This technician operates a motion control rig, which essentially is a 'camera robot' able to consistently repeat camera moves for special effects uses.", "Motion control rigs are typically rented with an experienced operator.", "; Set photographer: The Set Photographer is the person who creates film stills, still photographic images specifically intended for use in the marketing and publicity.", "=== Lighting ===; Gaffer: The gaffer is the head of the lighting department, responsible for the design of the lighting plan for a production.", "Sometimes the gaffer is credited as chief lighting technician.", "; Best boy (electric): The best boy electric is the chief assistant to the gaffer.", "They are not usually on set, but dealing with upkeep of the lighting truck, rentals, manpower, and other logistics.", "Sometimes the best boy electric is credited as assistant chief lighting technician.", "; Lighting technician / Electrics: Also called electrics or lamp operators, lighting technicians are involved with setting up and controlling lighting equipment and temporary power distribution on set.=== Grip ===Grips are trained lighting and rigging technicians.", "Their main responsibility is to work closely with the electrical department to put in the non-electrical components of lighting set-ups required for a shot, such as flags, overheads, and bounces.", "On the sound stage, they move and adjust major set pieces when something needs to be moved to get a camera into position.", "In addition to lifting heavy objects and setting rigging points for lights, they also report to the key grip.", "In the US and Canada, grips may belong to the International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees.", "; Key grip: The key grip is the chief grip on a set, and is the head of the set operations department.", "The key grip works with the director of photography to help set up the set and to achieve correct lighting and blocking.", "They are also used to manoeuver the cameras around the set.", "; Best boy (grip): The best boy is chief assistant to the key grip.", "They are also responsible for organizing the grip truck throughout the day.", "; Dolly grip: The grip in charge of operating the camera dollies and camera cranes is called the dolly grip.", "They place, level, and move the dolly track, then push and pull the dolly, and usually a camera operator and camera assistant as riders." ], [ "Sound Production", "; Production sound mixer: The production sound mixer (or sound recordist) is the head of the sound department on location and is responsible for the operation of the audio mixer and recorder(s) which receive feeds from the microphones on set.", "It is their responsibility to decide how they will deploy their team to capture the sound for each shot, select which microphones will be used for each setup, mix audio from all of the microphones in real time into a \"mix track\" that will be used while viewing rushes and during the edit, and sometimes in the final film, and to maintain logs of audio related issues for post production.", "The sound mixer is considered a department head, and is thus completely responsible for all aspects of production sound.", "; Boom operator: The boom operator, first assistant sound or \"1st AS\", is responsible for using microphones on the end of boom poles (lightweight telescopic poles made of aluminium, or more commonly, carbon fibre) held above actor's heads during a scene to capture dialogue.", "It is also their responsibility to relay information from the \"floor\" back to the production sound mixer regarding upcoming shots, troublesome noises that the mixer will need to be made aware of if they can not be silenced, and for mounting radio microphones on actors.", "In France, the boom operator is called the perchman.", "; Second assistant sound: The second assistant sound, utility sound technician, or \"2nd AS\", is the assistant to the boom operator and is responsible for moving and preparing sound equipment for use around the set while the boom op watches rehearsals and prepares for the next shot, as well as handling wireless audio feeds to the director, script supervisor and producers, and laying carpet and other sound dampening materials in locations with problematic floors or a troublesome acoustic.", "In addition, the 2nd AS is regularly called upon to operate a second boom in scenes with a larger number of actors or where actors are physically spaced too far apart for the 1st AS to cover all of the dialogue with one microphone.", "The 2nd AS also regularly aids in the radio mic'ing of cast when there are a large number of actors in a scene.", "The term \"sound utility technician\" is now considered an outdated term by BECTU in the UK and 2nd AS is preferred, with sound utility technician as a role being omitted from recent versions of the rate card.", "The role is sometimes informally known as a \"cable wrangler\" or \"cable boy\"." ], [ "Art department", "The '''art department''' in a major feature film can often number hundreds of people.", "Usually it is considered to include several sub-departments: the art department proper, with its art director, set designers and draftsmen; set decoration, under the set decorator; props, under the props master/mistress; construction, headed by the construction coordinator; scenic, headed by the key scenic artist; and special effects.", "; Production designer: The production designer is responsible for creating the visual appearance of the film – settings, costumes, character makeup; all taken as a unit.", "The production designer works closely with the director and the director of photography to achieve the look of the film.=== Art (sets and graphic art) ===Within the overall art department is a sub-department, also called the art department – which can be confusing.", "This consists of the people who design the sets and create the graphic art.", "; Art director: The art director reports to the production designer, and more directly oversees artists and craftspeople, such as the set designers, graphic artists, and illustrators who give form to the production design as it develops.", "The art director works closely with the construction coordinator and key scenic artist to oversee the aesthetic and textural details of sets as they are realized.", "Typically, the art director oversees the budget and schedule of the overall art department.", "On large-budget productions with numerous sets and several art directors, one might be credited as supervising art director or senior art director.", "; Standby art director: In the organizational system used in Ireland or the United Kingdom, the standby art director monitors the art department's work on set during filming on behalf of the production designer.", "They work closely with the standby painters and standby carpenters, and co-ordinate any changes to the set during filming.", "In the North American system, this work is shared between the props master and the on-set dresser.", "; Assistant art director: The first, second and third assistant art directors carry out the instructions of the art director.", "Their work often involves measuring locations and collecting other pertinent information for the production designer.", "Sometimes a set designer is also the first assistant art director.", "In this capacity, they manage the workflow and act as the foreman of the drawing office.", "; Illustrator: The illustrator draws or paints visual representations of the designs to communicate the ideas imagined by the production designer.", "Illustrators are sometimes credited as concept artists.", "; Graphic artist: The graphic artist is responsible for the design and creation of all graphic elements, including: signs, billboards, posters, logos, nameplates, and automotive-wrapping — that are created specifically for the film.", "They will often create several versions of a design, the preferred of which then being chosen by the production designer.", "On certain productions, they may also be employed, under the direction of the props master, in the creation of small, printed items, such as fliers, receipts, bills of sale, etc.=== Sets ===; Set designer: The set designer is the draftsman, often an architect, who realizes the structures or interior spaces called for by the production designer.", "; Set decorator: The set decorator is in charge of the decorating of a film set, which includes the furnishings and all the other objects that will be seen in the film.", "They work closely with the production designer and coordinate with the art director.", "In recognition of the set decorator's importance, the Academy Award for art direction is given jointly to both the production designer and the set decorator.", "; Buyer: The buyer works with, and reports to, the set decorator.", "The buyer locates, and then purchases or rents the set dressing.", "; Leadman: The leadman (or leadperson) is the foreman of the set dressing crew, often referred to as the swing gang.", "They also assist the set decorator.", "; Set dresser: The set dressers apply and remove the \"dressing\"; i.e., furniture, drapery, carpets, wall signs, vinyl decals – everything one would find in a location, (even doorknobs and wall sockets, when such items do not fall under the purview of construction.)", "Most of the swing gang's work occurs before and after the shooting crew arrives, but one set dresser remains with the shooting crew and is known as the on-set dresser.", "In some countries, such as Ireland or the United Kingdom, the set dressing department is referred to as dressing props department.", "Informally, in the US, the department is often referred to simply as \"set dec\".", "; Greensman: The greensman or greensperson is a specialised set dresser dealing with the artistic arrangement or landscape design of plant material, sometimes real and sometimes artificial, and usually a combination of both.", "Depending on the scope of the greens work in a film, the greensperson may report to the art director or may report directly to the production designer.", "If a significant amount of greens work is required in a film, then the greens may be an identifiable sub-department, with its own team – often of a size numbering double figures – and hierarchy (e.g., greensmaster, greens supervisor, foreperson, leading hand, laborers).", "Specialists from other areas of the art dept.", "(e.g., fabricators, sculptors, painters, scenics) may also be drafted to work exclusively on greens.=== Construction ===; Construction coordinator: The construction coordinator oversees the construction of all the sets.", "The coordinator orders materials, schedules the work, and supervises the often sizeable construction crew of carpenters, painters and labourers.", "In some jurisdictions the construction coordinator is called the '''construction manager'''.", "; Head carpenter: The head carpenter is the foreman of a gang of carpenters and laborers.", "; Propmaker: The propmaker (prop fabricator), as the name implies, builds the props that are used for the film.", "In US jurisdictions, propmakers are carpenters who build props and sets, and are often technicians skilled in wood and metalwork.=== Scenic ===; Key scenic: The key scenic artist (scenic charge) is responsible for the surface treatments of the sets.", "This includes special paint treatments such as aging and gilding, as well as simulating the appearance of wood, stone, brick, metal, stained glass—anything called for by the production designer.", "The key scenic artist supervises the crew of painters, and is often a master craftsperson.", "In the UK, the above responsibilities would normally be those of the head painter, and the scenic artist is responsible for producing artist painted backings.", "In the US, a key scenic is called the charge scenic.", "; Head of the Plastering Department: The Head of the Plastering Department is responsible for managing fibrous plasterers, who are highly skilled plasters who can re-create any period, using mold making and casting abilities.=== Property ===; Propmaster: The property master or mistress is in charge of finding and managing all the props that appear in the film.", "These include any item handled by an actor that is not part of the scenery or costumes, and all consumable food items that appear on screen.", "Job responsibilities include purchasing, renting, and manufacturing anything an actor handles or touches.", "In period works, it is the property master's job to ensure that all the props provided are accurate to the time period.", "The propmistress usually has several assistants.", "The Assistant Propmaster generally is the person running the set and in charge of working directly with the actors, director and on set crew.", "; Weapons master: Any film that is using prop gun that is a \"realistic imitation firearm\" should always with no exception have a weapons master - The weapons master, sometimes credited as the armorer, weapons specialist, weapons handler, weapons wrangler, or weapons coordinator, is a film crew specialist that works with the property master, director, actors, stunt coordinator and script supervisor.", "The weapons master is specifically responsible for maintaining control of any prop weapons, including firearms, knives, swords, bows, and staff weapons." ], [ "Costume department", "; Costume designer: The costume designer is responsible for all the clothing and costumes worn by all the actors that appear on screen.", "They are also responsible for designing, planning, and organizing the construction of the garments down to the fabric, colors, and sizes.", "The costume designer works closely with the director to understand and interpret \"character\", and counsels with the production designer to achieve an overall tone of the film.", "In large productions, the costume designer will usually have one or more assistant costume designers.", "; Costume supervisor: The costume supervisor works closely with the designer.", "In addition to helping with the design of the costumes, they manage the wardrobe workspace.", "They supervise construction or sourcing of garments, hiring and firing of support staff, budget, paperwork, and department logistics.", "It is also called the '''wardrobe supervisor''', although this term is used less and less.", "; Key costumer: The key costumer is employed on larger productions to manage the set costumers, and to handle the star's wardrobe needs.", "; Costume standby: The costume standby is present on set at all times.", "It is his or her responsibility to monitor the quality and continuity of the actors and actresses costumes before and during takes.", "she or he will also assist the actors and actresses with dressing.", "; Breakdown artist: A breakdown artist may be employed during the pre-production period to break down garments.", "This specialized job includes making new clothing appear dirty, faded, and worn.", "; Costume buyer: On large productions a buyer may be employed to source and purchase fabrics and garments.", "A buyer might also be referred to as a '''shopper'''.", "This distinction is often made when the lead actor in a production has control over their wardrobe, and they may personally hire this person.", "; Cutter: A costume technician who fits or tailors costumes, usually on set.", "They might also be called '''fitter''', '''seamstress''', or '''tailor'''.", "Some celebrity actors have favorite cutters, and larger productions may hire several and have them on set at the same time, particularly in period film projects that might have complicated or expensive extras wardrobe.=== Hair and make-up ===Some actors or actresses have personal makeup artists or hair stylists.", "; Key make-up artist: The key makeup artist is the department head that answers directly to the director and production designer.", "They are responsible for planning makeup designs for all leading and supporting cast.", "Their department includes all cosmetic makeup, body makeup and if special effects are involved, the key make-up artist will consult with a special effects makeup team to create all prosthetics and SFX makeup in a production.", "It is common that the key makeup artist performs makeup applications on lead cast, with assistance, and allows other crew members to work with supporting and minor roles.", "The key makeup artist will normally execute especially complicated or important makeup processes that are to be featured on camera.", "; Special make-up effects artist (SFX makeup): A special effects make-up artist works with live models or structures in the entertainment industry, applying make-up effects or prosthetics.", "May be an own department that answers directly to the director and production designer or reports to the Key make-up artist.", "; Make-up supervisor: The make-up supervisor is a supporting position that normally reports to the key makeup artist to assist in running the makeup department.", "Make-up supervisors typically handle production matters and generally serve the needs of senior artists.", "Makeup supervisors rarely do makeup themselves.", "Their duties can include keeping a record of makeup continuity, handing the scheduling of makeup teams and providing for the general needs of the makeup department.", "They are expected to be a connection between the makeup department and the rest of the production departments, making sure that makeup supplies, production assistants or electricians are on hand when needed.", "; Make-up artist: Make-up artists work with makeup, hair and special effects to create the characters look for anyone appearing on screen.", "They assist and report to the key make-up artist.", "; Key hair: The key hair is the department head that answers directly to the director and production designer.", "The key hair will normally design and style the hair of lead actors.", "; Hair stylist: The hair stylist is responsible for maintaining and styling the hair, including wigs and extensions, of anyone appearing on screen.", "They assist and report to the key hair." ], [ "Special effects", "The '''special effects''' department oversees the mechanical effects (also called physical or practical effects) that create optical illusions during live-action shooting.", "It is not to be confused with the visual effects department, which adds photographic effects during filming to be altered later during video editing in the post-production process.", "; Special effects supervisor: The special effects supervisor instructs the special effects crew on how to design moving set elements and props that will safely break, explode, burn, collapse and implode without destroying the film set.", "He or she is also responsible for reproducing weather conditions and other on-camera magic.", "; Special effects assistant: The SFX assistants carry out the instructions of the special effects supervisor, building set pieces like breakaway furniture and cities in miniature, lighting pyrotechnics, and setting up rigging equipment for stunts." ], [ "Stunts", "; Stunt coordinator: Where the film requires a stunt and involves the use of stunt performers, the stunt coordinator will arrange the casting and performance of the stunt, working closely with the director and the 1st AD.", "; Set Medic: Films and TV programs in general should always have a set or unit medic on set at all times from construction, through filming and to strike but a film unit that has stunts must always have trained senior EMT(A) or Paramedic on Set." ], [ "Post-production", "Thelma Schoonmaker, a frequent collaborator on Martin Scorsese films, has received eight Academy Award nominations for Best Film Editing and has won three times—for ''Raging Bull'' (1980), ''The Aviator'' (2004), and ''The Departed'' (2006), which were all Scorsese-directed films.", "; Film editor: The film editor is the creative head of the post production department and is responsible for assembling the picture into a cohesive edited story, with the help of the director.", "They are primarily responsible for selecting performances of the actors with the director, adjusting the tempo, pace, and structure of the final edited film.", "In some cases, the editor may help restructure the story of a film differently from the original script to focus a story point, or increase an emotional response from the audience.", "They are also involved with providing feedback on the sound mix, visual effects, and music with the director.", "They can also collaborate with the colorist and director of photography to adjust framing for mood or eye trace.", "There are usually several assistant editors who creatively support the editor as well as manage footage and data for the entire post production team.", "; Post-production supervisor: Post-production supervisors are responsible for the post-production process, during which they maintain clarity of information and good channels of communication between the producer, editor, supervising sound editor, the facilities companies (such as film labs, CGI studios and negative cutters) and the production accountant.", "Although this is not a creative role, it is pivotal in ensuring that the film's post-production budget is manageable and achievable, and that all deadlines are met.", "Because large amounts of money are involved, and most of a film's budget is spent during production, the post-production period can often be difficult and challenging.=== Editorial ===; Negative cutter: The negative cutter cuts and splices the negatives as directed by the film editor, and then provides the assembled negative reels to the lab for prints (positives for projection) to be made.", "; Colorist: With a photochemical process, the color timer adjusts the color of the film via printer lights for greater consistency in the film's colors.", "With a digital intermediate process, the colorist can use digital tools in manipulating the image and has greater creative freedom in changing the aesthetic of a film.", "; Telecine colorist: A telecine colorist is responsible for a ''grade'', a look that has been created with a grading system, which adjusts brightness, contrast and color.=== Visual effects ===Visual effects commonly refers to post-production alterations of the film's images.", "The on set VFX crew works to prepare shots and plates for future visual effects.", "This may include adding tracking markers, taking and asking for reference plates and helping the director understand the limitations and ease of certain shots that will effect the future post production.", "A VFX crew can also work alongside the special effects department for any on-set optical effects that need physical representation during filming (on camera).", "; Visual effects producer: The visual effects producer works with the visual effects supervisor to break down the script into storyboards, and advises the director as to how she or he should approach the scenes.", "Together they determine which sequences are to be shot as live action elements, which would work well in miniature, and which (if any) should be computer generated.", "; Visual effects creative director: VFX creative directors are very much like production designers, except they direct and supervise the creative side of the film's visual effects.", "The position is particularly in demand for films with massive amounts of computer generated imagery and scenes.", "; Visual effects supervisor: The visual effects supervisor is in charge of the VFX crew, working with production and the film's director to achieve the desired in-camera optical effects of the film.", "; Visual effects editor: The visual effects editor incorporates visual effects into the current cuts of live action sequences, producing multiple versions of each shot.", "Altered scenes are then evaluated by the visual effects supervisor and creative director for aesthetic and technical direction, and by the producers for review and final editing.", "; Compositor: A compositor is a visual effects artist responsible for compositing images from different sources such as video, film, computer generated 3D imagery, 2D animations, matte paintings, photographs, and text.", "; Rotoscope artists / Paint artists: Rotoscope and paint artists may rotoscope the footage, manually creating mattes for use in compositing.", "They may also paint visual information into or out of a scene, such as removing wires and rigs, logos, dust busting, scratch removal, etc.", "; Matte painter: Matte painters draw and paint entire sets or extend portions of an existing set.=== Sound and music ===; Sound designer: The sound designer, or supervising sound editor, is in charge of the post-production sound of a movie.", "Sometimes this may involve great creative license, and other times it may simply mean working with the director and editor to balance the sound to their liking.", "; Dialogue editor: The dialogue editor is responsible for assembling and editing all the dialog in the soundtrack.", "; Sound editor: The sound editor is responsible for assembling and editing all the sound effects in the soundtrack.", "; Re-recording mixer: The re-recording mixer balances all of the sounds prepared by the dialogue, music and effects editors, and finalizes the film's audio track.", "; Music supervisor: The music supervisor works with the composer, mixers and editors to create and integrate the film's music.", "In Hollywood, a music supervisor's primary responsibility is to act as liaison between the film production and the recording industry, negotiating the use rights for all source music used in a film.", "; Composer: The composer is responsible for writing the musical score for a film.", "; Foley artist: The foley artist is the person who creates the post-sync sound effects for a film.", "These sound effects are recorded in sync to picture and are mostly body movements, footsteps or object manipulations.", "The most common reason for recording these effects live to picture is the fact that such sounds are lost when the dialogue is removed to be replaced by a foreign-language version.", "Unsatisfactorily recorded sync sound effects can also be replaced with foley effects.", "Foley artists are also known as foley walkers.", "Foley is named after its first known practitioner, an early Hollywood sound editor named Jack Foley.", "; Conductor / Orchestrator: A conductor is supposed to be knowledgeable of special synchronization procedures to conduct the score to an orchestra.", "An orchestrator is someone who furthers the composer's notes and symbols and fills out the intended notation for the film score.", "; Score recorder / mixer: A score's recorder is someone who records the film score and a score's mixer is someone who mixes the film score.", "; Music preparation: A music preparer is someone who prepares out the score for orchestra performers and who copies out the music.", "; Music editor: A music editor is someone who edits the film score and works with the composer to make sure it goes with the film.", "; Additional orchestration: Additional orchestration people work with the conductor and orchestrator, and edit the film score." ], [ "Previsualization", "Previsualization (also known as previs, previz, pre-rendering, preview, or wireframe windows) is the visualizing of complex scenes in a film before filming.", "It is also a concept in still photography.", "It is also used to describe techniques such as storyboarding, either in the form of charcoal sketches or in digital technology, in the planning and conceptualization of film scenes." ], [ "Animation", "'''Animation''' film crews have many of the same roles and departments as live-action films (including directing, production, editing, camera, sound, etc.", "), but nearly all on-set departments (lighting, electrical, grip, sets, props, costume, hair, makeup, special effects, and stunts) were traditionally replaced with a single animation department made up of various types of animators (character, effects, in-betweeners, cleanup, etc.).", "In traditional animation, the nature of the medium meant that everything was literally flattened into the drawn lines and solid colors that became the characters, making nearly all live-action positions irrelevant.", "Because animation has traditionally been so labor-intensive and thus expensive, animation films normally have a separate story department in which storyboard artists painstakingly develop scenes to make sure they make sense before they are actually animated.However, since the turn of the 21st century, modern 3D computer graphics and computer animation have made possible a level of rich detail never seen before.", "Many animated films now have specialized artists and animators who act as the virtual equivalent of lighting technicians, grips, costume designers, props masters, set decorators, set dressers, and cinematographers.", "They make artistic decisions strongly similar to those of their live-action counterparts, but implement them in a virtual space that exists only in software rather than on a physical set.", "There have been major breakthroughs in the simulation of hair since 2005, meaning that hairstylists have been called in since then to consult on a few animation projects." ], [ "See also", "* Cinematography* Outline of film* Production team* Glossary of motion picture terms" ], [ "References", "=== Further reading ===* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fear" ], [ "Introduction", "A girl showing signs of fear'''Fear''' is an intensely unpleasant emotion in response to perceiving or recognizing a danger or threat.", "Fear causes psychological changes that may produce behavioral reactions such as mounting an aggressive response or fleeing the threat.", "Fear in human beings may occur in response to a certain stimulus occurring in the present, or in anticipation or expectation of a future threat perceived as a risk to oneself.", "The fear response arises from the perception of danger leading to confrontation with or escape from/avoiding the threat (also known as the fight-or-flight response), which in extreme cases of fear (horror and terror) can be a freeze response.In humans and other animals, fear is modulated by the process of cognition and learning.", "Thus, fear is judged as rational and appropriate, or irrational and inappropriate.", "An irrational fear is called a phobia.Fear is closely related to the emotion anxiety, which occurs as the result of often future threats that are perceived to be uncontrollable or unavoidable.", "The fear response serves survival by engendering appropriate behavioral responses, so it has been preserved throughout evolution.", "Sociological and organizational research also suggests that individuals' fears are not solely dependent on their nature but are also shaped by their social relations and culture, which guide their understanding of when and how much fear to feel.Fear is sometimes incorrectly considered the opposite of courage.", "For the reason that courage is a willingness to face adversity, fear is an example of a condition that makes the exercise of courage possible." ], [ "Physiological signs", "\"The Man Made Mad with Fear\", a painting by Gustave CourbetMany physiological changes in the body are associated with fear, summarized as the fight-or-flight response.", "An innate response for coping with danger, it works by accelerating the breathing rate (hyperventilation), heart rate, vasoconstriction of the peripheral blood vessels leading to blood pooling, increasing muscle tension including the muscles attached to each hair follicle to contract and causing \"goosebumps\", or more clinically, piloerection (making a cold person warmer or a frightened animal look more impressive), sweating, increased blood glucose (hyperglycemia), increased serum calcium, increase in white blood cells called neutrophilic leukocytes, alertness leading to sleep disturbance and \"butterflies in the stomach\" (dyspepsia).", "This primitive mechanism may help an organism survive by either running away or fighting the danger.", "With the series of physiological changes, the consciousness realizes an emotion of fear.There are observable physical reactions in individuals who experience fear.", "An individual might experience a feeling of dizziness, lightheaded, like they are being choked, sweating, shortness of breath, vomiting or nausea, numbness or shaking and any other like symptoms.", "These bodily reactions informs the individual that they are afraid and should proceed to remove or get away from the stimulus that is causing that fear." ], [ "Causes", "An influential categorization of stimuli causing fear was proposed by psychologist Jeffrey Alan Gray; namely, intensity, novelty, special evolutionary dangers, stimuli arising during social interaction, and conditioned stimuli.", "Another categorization was proposed by Archer, who, besides conditioned fear stimuli, categorized fear-evoking (as well as aggression-evoking) stimuli into three groups; namely, pain, novelty, and frustration, although he also described \"looming\", which refers to an object rapidly moving towards the visual sensors of a subject, and can be categorized as \"intensity\".", "Russell described a more functional categorization of fear-evoking stimuli, in which for instance novelty is a variable affecting more than one category: 1) Predator stimuli (including movement, suddenness, proximity, but also learned and innate predator stimuli); 2) Physical environmental dangers (including intensity and heights); 3) Stimuli associated with increased risk of predation and other dangers (including novelty, openness, illumination, and being alone); 4) Stimuli stemming from conspecifics (including novelty, movement, and spacing behavior); 5) Species-predictable fear stimuli and experience (special evolutionary dangers); and 6) Fear stimuli that are not species predictable (conditioned fear stimuli).=== Nature ===A prisoner at Abu Graib shows fear of a US army dog during prisoner abuse.", "Although many fears are learned, the capacity to fear is part of human nature.", "Many studies have found that certain fears (e.g.", "animals, heights) are much more common than others (e.g.", "flowers, clouds).", "These fears are also easier to induce in the laboratory.", "This phenomenon is known as preparedness.", "Because early humans that were quick to fear dangerous situations were more likely to survive and reproduce; preparedness is theorized to be a genetic effect that is the result of natural selection.From an evolutionary psychology perspective, different fears may be different adaptations that have been useful in our evolutionary past.", "They may have developed during different time periods.", "Some fears, such as fear of heights, may be common to all mammals and developed during the mesozoic period.", "Other fears, such as fear of snakes, may be common to all simians and developed during the cenozoic time period (the still-ongoing geological era encompassing the last 66 million of history).", "Still others, such as fear of mice and insects, may be unique to humans and developed during the paleolithic and neolithic time periods (when mice and insects become important carriers of infectious diseases and harmful for crops and stored foods).=== Conditioning ===Nonhuman animals and humans innovate specific fears as a result of learning.", "This has been studied in psychology as fear conditioning, beginning with John B. Watson's Little Albert experiment in 1920, which was inspired after observing a child with an irrational fear of dogs.", "In this study, an 11-month-old boy was conditioned to fear a white rat in the laboratory.", "The fear became generalized to include other white, furry objects, such as a rabbit, dog, and even a Santa Claus mask with white cotton balls in the beard.Fear can be learned by experiencing or watching a frightening traumatic accident.", "For example, if a child falls into a well and struggles to get out, he or she may develop a fear of wells, heights (acrophobia), enclosed spaces (claustrophobia), or water (aquaphobia).", "There are studies looking at areas of the brain that are affected in relation to fear.", "When looking at these areas (such as the amygdala), it was proposed that a person learns to fear regardless of whether they themselves have experienced trauma, or if they have observed the fear in others.", "In a study completed by Andreas Olsson, Katherine I.", "Nearing and Elizabeth A. Phelps, the amygdala were affected both when subjects observed someone else being submitted to an aversive event, knowing that the same treatment awaited themselves, and when subjects were subsequently placed in a fear-provoking situation.", "This suggests that fear can develop in both conditions, not just simply from personal history.Fear is affected by cultural and historical context.", "For example, in the early 20th century, many Americans feared polio, a disease that can lead to paralysis.", "There are consistent cross-cultural differences in how people respond to fear.", "Display rules affect how likely people are to express the facial expression of fear and other emotions.Fear of victimization is a function of perceived risk and seriousness." ], [ "Common triggers", "\"Fear\", from Charles le Brun: \"Caractères des passions\", === Phobias ===According to surveys, some of the most common fears are of demons and ghosts, the existence of evil powers, cockroaches, spiders, snakes, heights, water, enclosed spaces, tunnels, bridges, needles, social rejection, failure, examinations, and public speaking.", "Regionally some may more so fear terrorist attacks, death, war, criminal or gang violence, being alone, the future, nuclear war, flying, clowns, intimacy, people, and driving.===Uncertainty===Fear of the unknown or '''irrational fear''' is caused by negative thinking (worry) which arises from anxiety accompanied by a subjective sense of apprehension or dread.", "Irrational fear shares a common neural pathway with other fears, a pathway that engages the nervous system to mobilize bodily resources in the face of danger or threat.", "Many people are scared of the \"unknown\".", "The irrational fear can branch out to many areas such as the hereafter, the next ten years or even tomorrow.", "Chronic irrational fear has deleterious effects since the elicitor stimulus is commonly absent or perceived from delusions.", "Such fear can create comorbidity with the anxiety disorder umbrella.", "Being scared may cause people to experience anticipatory fear of what may lie ahead rather than planning and evaluating for the same.", "For example, \"continuation of scholarly education\" is perceived by many educators as a risk that may cause them fear and stress, and they would rather teach things they've been taught than go and do research.The ambiguity of situations that tend to be uncertain and unpredictable can cause anxiety in addition to other psychological and physical problems in some populations; especially those who engage it constantly, for example, in war-ridden places or in places of conflict, terrorism, abuse, etc.", "Poor parenting that instills fear can also debilitate a child's psyche development or personality.", "For example, parents tell their children not to talk to strangers in order to protect them.", "In school, they would be motivated to not show fear in talking with strangers, but to be assertive and also aware of the risks and the environment in which it takes place.", "Ambiguous and mixed messages like this can affect their self-esteem and self-confidence.", "Researchers say talking to strangers isn't something to be thwarted but allowed in a parent's presence if required.", "Developing a sense of equanimity to handle various situations is often advocated as an antidote to irrational fear and as an essential skill by a number of ancient philosophies.Fear of the unknown (FOTU) \"may be a, or possibly the, fundamental fear\" from early times when there were many threats to life." ], [ "Behavior", "Although fear behavior varies from species to species, it is often divided into two main categories; namely, avoidance/flight and immobility.", "To these, different researchers have added different categories, such as threat display and attack, protective responses (including startle and looming responses), defensive burying, and social responses (including alarm vocalizations and submission).", "Finally, immobility is often divided into freezing and tonic immobility.The decision as to which particular fear behavior to perform is determined by the level of fear as well as the specific context, such as environmental characteristics (escape route present, distance to refuge), the presence of a discrete and localized threat, the distance between threat and subject, threat characteristics (speed, size, directness of approach), the characteristics of the subject under threat (size, physical condition, speed, degree of crypsis, protective morphological structures), social conditions (group size), and the amount of experience with the type of the threat." ], [ "Mechanism", "Often laboratory studies with rats are conducted to examine the acquisition and extinction of conditioned fear responses.", "In 2004, researchers conditioned rats (''Rattus norvegicus'') to fear a certain stimulus, through electric shock.", "The researchers were able to then cause an extinction of this conditioned fear, to a point that no medications or drugs were able to further aid in the extinction process.", "The rats showed signs of avoidance learning, not fear, but simply avoiding the area that brought pain to the test rats.", "The avoidance learning of rats is seen as a conditioned response, and therefore the behavior can be unconditioned, as supported by the earlier research.Species-specific defense reactions (SSDRs) or avoidance learning in nature is the specific tendency to avoid certain threats or stimuli, it is how animals survive in the wild.", "Humans and animals both share these species-specific defense reactions, such as the flight-or-fight, which also include pseudo-aggression, fake or intimidating aggression and freeze response to threats, which is controlled by the sympathetic nervous system.", "These SSDRs are learned very quickly through social interactions between others of the same species, other species, and interaction with the environment.", "These acquired sets of reactions or responses are not easily forgotten.", "The animal that survives is the animal that already knows what to fear and how to avoid this threat.", "An example in humans is the reaction to the sight of a snake, many jump backwards before cognitively realizing what they are jumping away from, and in some cases, it is a stick rather than a snake.As with many functions of the brain, there are various regions of the brain involved in deciphering fear in humans and other nonhuman species.", "The amygdala communicates both directions between the prefrontal cortex, hypothalamus, the sensory cortex, the hippocampus, thalamus, septum, and the brainstem.", "The amygdala plays an important role in SSDR, such as the ventral amygdalofugal, which is essential for associative learning, and SSDRs are learned through interaction with the environment and others of the same species.", "An emotional response is created only after the signals have been relayed between the different regions of the brain, and activating the sympathetic nervous systems; which controls the flight, fight, freeze, fright, and faint response.", "Often a damaged amygdala can cause impairment in the recognition of fear (like the human case of patient S.M.).", "This impairment can cause different species to lack the sensation of fear, and often can become overly confident, confronting larger peers, or walking up to predatory creatures.Robert C. Bolles (1970), a researcher at University of Washington, wanted to understand species-specific defense reactions and avoidance learning among animals, but found that the theories of avoidance learning and the tools that were used to measure this tendency were out of touch with the natural world.", "He theorized the species-specific defense reaction (SSDR).", "There are three forms of SSDRs: flight, fight (pseudo-aggression), or freeze.", "Even domesticated animals have SSDRs, and in those moments it is seen that animals revert to atavistic standards and become \"wild\" again.", "Dr. Bolles states that responses are often dependent on the reinforcement of a safety signal, and not the aversive conditioned stimuli.", "This safety signal can be a source of feedback or even stimulus change.", "Intrinsic feedback or information coming from within, muscle twitches, increased heart rate, are seen to be more important in SSDRs than extrinsic feedback, stimuli that comes from the external environment.", "Dr. Bolles found that most creatures have some intrinsic set of fears, to help assure survival of the species.", "Rats will run away from any shocking event, and pigeons will flap their wings harder when threatened.", "The wing flapping in pigeons and the scattered running of rats are considered species-specific defense reactions or behaviors.", "Bolles believed that SSDRs are conditioned through Pavlovian conditioning, and not operant conditioning; SSDRs arise from the association between the environmental stimuli and adverse events.", "Michael S. Fanselow conducted an experiment, to test some specific defense reactions, he observed that rats in two different shock situations responded differently, based on instinct or defensive topography, rather than contextual information.Species-specific defense responses are created out of fear, and are essential for survival.", "Rats that lack the gene stathmin show no avoidance learning, or a lack of fear, and will often walk directly up to cats and be eaten.", "Animals use these SSDRs to continue living, to help increase their chance of fitness, by surviving long enough to procreate.", "Humans and animals alike have created fear to know what should be avoided, and this fear can be learned through association with others in the community, or learned through personal experience with a creature, species, or situations that should be avoided.", "SSDRs are an evolutionary adaptation that has been seen in many species throughout the world including rats, chimpanzees, prairie dogs, and even humans, an adaptation created to help individual creatures survive in a hostile world.Fear learning changes across the lifetime due to natural developmental changes in the brain.", "This includes changes in the prefrontal cortex and the amygdala.The visual exploration of an emotional face does not follow a fixed pattern but modulated by the emotional content of the face.", "Scheller et al.", "found that participants paid more attention to the eyes when recognising fearful or neutral faces, while the mouth was fixated on when happy faces are presented, irrespective of task demands and spatial locations of face stimuli.", "These findings were replicated when fearful eyes are presented and when canonical face configurations are distorted for fearful, neutral and happy expressions.===Neurocircuitry in mammals===* The thalamus collects sensory data from the senses* Sensory cortex receives data from the thalamus and interprets it* Sensory cortex organizes information for dissemination to the hypothalamus (fight or flight), amygdalae (fear), hippocampus (memory)The brain structures that are the center of most neurobiological events associated with fear are the two amygdalae, located behind the pituitary gland.", "Each amygdala is part of a circuitry of fear learning.", "They are essential for proper adaptation to stress and specific modulation of emotional learning memory.", "In the presence of a threatening stimulus, the amygdalae generate the secretion of hormones that influence fear and aggression.", "Once a response to the stimulus in the form of fear or aggression commences, the amygdalae may elicit the release of hormones into the body to put the person into a state of alertness, in which they are ready to move, run, fight, etc.", "This defensive response is generally referred to in physiology as the fight-or-flight response regulated by the hypothalamus, part of the limbic system.", "Once the person is in safe mode, meaning that there are no longer any potential threats surrounding them, the amygdalae will send this information to the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) where it is stored for similar future situations, which is known as memory consolidation.Some of the hormones involved during the state of fight-or-flight include epinephrine, which regulates heart rate and metabolism as well as dilating blood vessels and air passages, norepinephrine increasing heart rate, blood flow to skeletal muscles and the release of glucose from energy stores, and cortisol which increases blood sugar, increases circulating neutrophilic leukocytes, calcium amongst other things.After a situation which incites fear occurs, the amygdalae and hippocampus record the event through synaptic plasticity.", "The stimulation to the hippocampus will cause the individual to remember many details surrounding the situation.", "Plasticity and memory formation in the amygdala are generated by activation of the neurons in the region.", "Experimental data supports the notion that synaptic plasticity of the neurons leading to the lateral amygdalae occurs with fear conditioning.", "In some cases, this forms permanent fear responses such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or a phobia.", "MRI and fMRI scans have shown that the amygdalae in individuals diagnosed with such disorders including bipolar or panic disorder are larger and wired for a higher level of fear.Pathogens can suppress amygdala activity.", "Rats infected with the toxoplasmosis parasite become less fearful of cats, sometimes even seeking out their urine-marked areas.", "This behavior often leads to them being eaten by cats.", "The parasite then reproduces within the body of the cat.", "There is evidence that the parasite concentrates itself in the amygdala of infected rats.", "In a separate experiment, rats with lesions in the amygdala did not express fear or anxiety towards unwanted stimuli.", "These rats pulled on levers supplying food that sometimes sent out electrical shocks.", "While they learned to avoid pressing on them, they did not distance themselves from these shock-inducing levers.Several brain structures other than the amygdalae have also been observed to be activated when individuals are presented with fearful vs. neutral faces, namely the occipitocerebellar regions including the fusiform gyrus and the inferior parietal / superior temporal gyri.", "Fearful eyes, brows and mouth seem to separately reproduce these brain responses.", "Scientists from Zurich studies show that the hormone oxytocin related to stress and sex reduces activity in your brain fear center.====Pheromones and contagion====In threatening situations, insects, aquatic organisms, birds, reptiles, and mammals emit odorant substances, initially called alarm substances, which are chemical signals now called alarm pheromones.", "This is to defend themselves and at the same time to inform members of the same species of danger and leads to observable behavior change like freezing, defensive behavior, or dispersion depending on circumstances and species.", "For example, stressed rats release odorant cues that cause other rats to move away from the source of the signal.After the discovery of pheromones in 1959, alarm pheromones were first described in 1968 in ants and earthworms, and four years later also found in mammals, both mice and rats.", "Over the next two decades, identification and characterization of these pheromones proceeded in all manner of insects and sea animals, including fish, but it was not until 1990 that more insight into mammalian alarm pheromones was gleaned.In 1985, a link between odors released by stressed rats and pain perception was discovered: unstressed rats exposed to these odors developed opioid-mediated analgesia.", "In 1997, researchers found that bees became less responsive to pain after they had been stimulated with isoamyl acetate, a chemical smelling of banana, and a component of bee alarm pheromone.", "The experiment also showed that the bees' fear-induced pain tolerance was mediated by an endorphin.By using the forced swimming test in rats as a model of fear-induction, the first mammalian \"alarm substance\" was found.", "In 1991, this \"alarm substance\" was shown to fulfill criteria for pheromones: well-defined behavioral effect, species specificity, minimal influence of experience and control for nonspecific arousal.", "Rat activity testing with the alarm pheromone, and their preference/avoidance for odors from cylinders containing the pheromone, showed that the pheromone had very low volatility.In 1993 a connection between alarm chemosignals in mice and their immune response was found.", "Pheromone production in mice was found to be associated with or mediated by the pituitary gland in 1994.In 2004, it was demonstrated that rats' alarm pheromones had different effects on the \"recipient\" rat (the rat perceiving the pheromone) depending which body region they were released from: Pheromone production from the face modified behavior in the recipient rat, e.g.", "caused sniffing or movement, whereas pheromone secreted from the rat's anal area induced autonomic nervous system stress responses, like an increase in core body temperature.", "Further experiments showed that when a rat perceived alarm pheromones, it increased its defensive and risk assessment behavior, and its acoustic startle reflex was enhanced.It was not until 2011 that a link between severe pain, neuroinflammation and alarm pheromones release in rats was found: real time RT-PCR analysis of rat brain tissues indicated that shocking the footpad of a rat increased its production of proinflammatory cytokines in deep brain structures, namely of IL-1β, heteronuclear Corticotropin-releasing hormone and c-fos mRNA expressions in both the paraventricular nucleus and the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, and it increased stress hormone levels in plasma (corticosterone).The neurocircuit for how rats perceive alarm pheromones was shown to be related to the hypothalamus, brainstem, and amygdalae, all of which are evolutionary ancient structures deep inside or in the case of the brainstem underneath the brain away from the cortex, and involved in the fight-or-flight response, as is the case in humans.Alarm pheromone-induced anxiety in rats has been used to evaluate the degree to which anxiolytics can alleviate anxiety in humans.", "For this, the change in the acoustic startle reflex of rats with alarm pheromone-induced anxiety (i.e.", "reduction of defensiveness) has been measured.", "Pretreatment of rats with one of five anxiolytics used in clinical medicine was able to reduce their anxiety: namely midazolam, phenelzine (a nonselective monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitor), propranolol, a nonselective beta blocker, clonidine, an alpha 2 adrenergic agonist or CP-154,526, a corticotropin-releasing hormone antagonist.Faulty development of odor discrimination impairs the perception of pheromones and pheromone-related behavior, like aggressive behavior and mating in male rats: The enzyme Mitogen-activated protein kinase 7 (MAPK7) has been implicated in regulating the development of the olfactory bulb and odor discrimination and it is highly expressed in developing rat brains, but absent in most regions of adult rat brains.", "Conditional deletion of the MAPK7gene in mouse neural stem cells impairs several pheromone-mediated behaviors, including aggression and mating in male mice.", "These behavior impairments were not caused by a reduction in the level of testosterone, by physical immobility, by heightened fear or anxiety or by depression.", "Using mouse urine as a natural pheromone-containing solution, it has been shown that the impairment was associated with defective detection of related pheromones, and with changes in their inborn preference for pheromones related to sexual and reproductive activities.Lastly, alleviation of an acute fear response because a friendly peer (or in biological language: an affiliative conspecific) tends and befriends is called \"social buffering\".", "The term is in analogy to the 1985 \"buffering\" hypothesis in psychology, where social support has been proven to mitigate the negative health effects of alarm pheromone mediated distress.", "The role of a \"social pheromone\" is suggested by the recent discovery that olfactory signals are responsible in mediating the \"social buffering\" in male rats.", "\"Social buffering\" was also observed to mitigate the conditioned fear responses of honeybees.", "A bee colony exposed to an environment of high threat of predation did not show increased aggression and aggressive-like gene expression patterns in individual bees, but decreased aggression.", "That the bees did not simply habituate to threats is suggested by the fact that the disturbed colonies also decreased their foraging.Biologists have proposed in 2012 that fear pheromones evolved as molecules of \"keystone significance\", a term coined in analogy to keystone species.", "Pheromones may determine species compositions and affect rates of energy and material exchange in an ecological community.", "Thus pheromones generate structure in a food web and play critical roles in maintaining natural systems.====Humans====Evidence of chemosensory alarm signals in humans has emerged slowly: Although alarm pheromones have not been physically isolated and their chemical structures have not been identified in humans so far, there is evidence for their presence.", "Androstadienone, for example, a steroidal, endogenous odorant, is a pheromone candidate found in human sweat, axillary hair and plasma.", "The closely related compound androstenone is involved in communicating dominance, aggression or competition; sex hormone influences on androstenone perception in humans showed a high testosterone level related to heightened androstenone sensitivity in men, a high testosterone level related to unhappiness in response to androstenone in men, and a high estradiol level related to disliking of androstenone in women.A German study from 2006 showed when anxiety-induced versus exercise-induced human sweat from a dozen people was pooled and offered to seven study participants, of five able to olfactorily distinguish exercise-induced sweat from room air, three could also distinguish exercise-induced sweat from anxiety induced sweat.", "The acoustic startle reflex response to a sound when sensing anxiety sweat was larger than when sensing exercise-induced sweat, as measured by electromyography analysis of the orbital muscle, which is responsible for the eyeblink component.", "This showed for the first time that fear chemosignals can modulate the startle reflex in humans without emotional mediation; fear chemosignals primed the recipient's \"defensive behavior\" prior to the subjects' conscious attention on the acoustic startle reflex level.In analogy to the social buffering of rats and honeybees in response to chemosignals, induction of empathy by \"smelling anxiety\" of another person has been found in humans.A study from 2013 provided brain imaging evidence that human responses to fear chemosignals may be gender-specific.", "Researchers collected alarm-induced sweat and exercise-induced sweat from donors extracted it, pooled it and presented it to 16 unrelated people undergoing functional brain MRI.", "While stress-induced sweat from males produced a comparably strong emotional response in both females and males, stress-induced sweat from females produced markedly stronger arousal in women than in men.", "Statistical tests pinpointed this gender-specificity to the right amygdala and strongest in the superficial nuclei.", "Since no significant differences were found in the olfactory bulb, the response to female fear-induced signals is likely based on processing the meaning, i.e.", "on the emotional level, rather than the strength of chemosensory cues from each gender, i.e.", "the perceptual level.An approach-avoidance task was set up where volunteers seeing either an angry or a happy cartoon face on a computer screen pushed away or pulled toward them a joystick as fast as possible.", "Volunteers smelling androstadienone, masked with clove oil scent responded faster, especially to angry faces than those smelling clove oil only, which was interpreted as androstadienone-related activation of the fear system.", "A potential mechanism of action is, that androstadienone alters the \"emotional face processing\".", "Androstadienone is known to influence the activity of the fusiform gyrus which is relevant for face recognition.===Cognitive-consistency theory===Cognitive-consistency theories assume that \"when two or more simultaneously active cognitive structures are logically inconsistent, arousal is increased, which activates processes with the expected consequence of increasing consistency and decreasing arousal.\"", "In this context, it has been proposed that fear behavior is caused by an inconsistency between a preferred, or expected, situation and the actually perceived situation, and functions to remove the inconsistent stimulus from the perceptual field, for instance by fleeing or hiding, thereby resolving the inconsistency.", "This approach puts fear in a broader perspective, also involving aggression and curiosity.", "When the inconsistency between perception and expectancy is small, learning as a result of curiosity reduces inconsistency by updating expectancy to match perception.", "If the inconsistency is larger, fear or aggressive behavior may be employed to alter the perception in order to make it match expectancy, depending on the size of the inconsistency as well as the specific context.", "Aggressive behavior is assumed to alter perception by forcefully manipulating it into matching the expected situation, while in some cases thwarted escape may also trigger aggressive behavior in an attempt to remove the thwarting stimulus." ], [ "Research", "In order to improve our understanding of the neural and behavioral mechanisms of adaptive and maladaptive fear, investigators use a variety of translational animal models.", "These models are particularly important for research that would be too invasive for human studies.", "Rodents such as mice and rats are common animal models, but other species are used.", "Certain aspects of fear research still requires more research such as sex, gender, and age differences.===Models===These animal models include, but are not limited to, fear conditioning, predator-based psychosocial stress, single prolonged stress, chronic stress models, inescapable foot/tail shocks, immobilization or restraint, and stress enhanced fear learning.", "While the stress and fear paradigms differ between the models, they tend to involve aspects such as acquisition, generalization, extinction, cognitive regulation, and reconsolidation.==== Pavlovian ====Fear conditioning, also known as Pavlovian or classical conditioning, is a process of learning that involves pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditional stimulus (US).", "A neutral stimulus is something like a bell, tone, or room that doesn't illicit a response normally where a US is a stimulus that results in a natural or unconditioned response (UR) – in Pavlov's famous experiment the neutral stimulus is a bell and the US would be food with the dog's salvation being the UR.", "Pairing the neutral stimulus and the US results in the UR occurring not only with the US but also the neutral stimulus.", "When this occurs the neutral stimulus is referred to as the conditional stimulus (CS) and the response the conditional response (CR).", "In the fear conditioning model of Pavlovian conditioning the US is an aversive stimulus such as a shock, tone, or unpleasant odor.==== Predator-based psychosocial stress ====Predator-based psychosocial stress (PPS) involves a more naturalistic approach to fear learning.", "Predators such as a cat, a snake, or urine from a fox or cat are used along with other stressors such as immobilization or restraint in order to generate instinctual fear responses.==== Chronic stress models ====Chronic stress models include chronic variable stress, chronic social defeat, and chronic mild stress.", "These models are often used to study how long-term or prolonged stress/pain can alter fear learning and disorders.==== Single prolonged stress ====Single prolonged stress (SPS) is a fear model that is often used to study PTSD.", "It's paradigm involves multiple stressors such as immobilization, a force swim, and exposure to ether delivered concurrently to the subject.", "This is used to study non-naturalistic, uncontrollable situations that can cause a maladaptive fear responses that is seen in a lot of anxiety and traumatic based disorders.==== Stress enhanced fear learning ====Stress enhanced fear learning (SEFL) like SPS is often used to study the maladaptive fear learning involved in PTSD and other traumatic based disorders.", "SEFL involves a single extreme stressor such as a large number of footshocks simulating a single traumatic stressor that somehow enhances and alters future fear learning." ], [ "Management", "===Pharmaceutical===A drug treatment for fear conditioning and phobias via the amygdalae is the use of glucocorticoids.", "In one study, glucocorticoid receptors in the central nuclei of the amygdalae were disrupted in order to better understand the mechanisms of fear and fear conditioning.", "The glucocorticoid receptors were inhibited using lentiviral vectors containing Cre-recombinase injected into mice.", "Results showed that disruption of the glucocorticoid receptors prevented conditioned fear behavior.", "The mice were subjected to auditory cues which caused them to freeze normally.", "A reduction of freezing was observed in the mice that had inhibited glucocorticoid receptors.=== Psychological ===Cognitive behavioral therapy has been successful in helping people overcome their fear.", "Because fear is more complex than just forgetting or deleting memories, an active and successful approach involves people repeatedly confronting their fears.", "By confronting their fears in a safe manner a person can suppress the \"fear-triggering memories\" or stimuli.Exposure therapy has known to have helped up to 90% of people with specific phobias to significantly decrease their fear over time.Another psychological treatment is systematic desensitization, which is a type of behavior therapy used to completely remove the fear or produce a disgusted response to this fear and replace it.", "The replacement that occurs will be relaxation and will occur through conditioning.", "Through conditioning treatments, muscle tensioning will lessen and deep breathing techniques will aid in de-tensioning.=== Literary and religious ===There are other methods for treating or coping with one's fear, such as writing down rational thoughts regarding fears.", "Journal entries are a healthy method of expressing one's fears without compromising safety or causing uncertainty.", "Another suggestion is a fear ladder.", "To create a fear ladder, one must write down all of their fears and score them on a scale of one to ten.", "Next, the person addresses their phobia, starting with the lowest number.Religion can help some individuals cope with fear." ], [ "Incapability", "People who have damage to their amygdalae, which can be caused by a rare genetic disease known as Urbach–Wiethe disease, are unable to experience fear.", "The disease destroys both amygdalae in late childhood.", "Since the discovery of the disease, there have only been 400 recorded cases.", "A lack of fear can allow someone to get into a dangerous situation they otherwise would have avoided." ], [ "Society and culture", "Painting by Guido Reni === Death ===The fear of the end of life and its existence is, in other words, the fear of death.", "Historically, attempts were made to reduce this fear by performing rituals which have helped collect the cultural ideas that we now have in the present.", "These rituals also helped preserve the cultural ideas.", "The results and methods of human existence had been changing at the same time that social formation was changing.When people are faced with their own thoughts of death, they either accept that they are dying or will die because they have lived a full life or they will experience fear.", "A theory was developed in response to this, which is called the terror management theory.", "The theory states that a person's cultural worldviews (religion, values, etc.)", "will mitigate the terror associated with the fear of death through avoidance.", "To help manage their terror, they find solace in their death-denying beliefs, such as their religion.", "Another way people cope with their death related fears is pushing any thoughts of death into the future or by avoiding these thoughts all together through distractions.", "Although there are methods for one coping with the terror associated with their fear of death, not everyone suffers from these same uncertainties.", "People who believe they have lived life to the \"fullest\" typically do not fear death.Death anxiety is multidimensional; it covers \"fears related to one's own death, the death of others, fear of the unknown after death, fear of obliteration, and fear of the dying process, which includes fear of a slow death and a painful death\".The Yale philosopher Shelly Kagan examined fear of death in a 2007 Yale open course by examining the following questions: Is fear of death a reasonable appropriate response?", "What conditions are required and what are appropriate conditions for feeling fear of death?", "What is meant by fear, and how much fear is appropriate?", "According to Kagan for fear in general to make sense, three conditions should be met:# the object of fear needs to be \"something bad\"# there needs to be a non-negligible chance that the bad state of affairs will happen# there needs to be some uncertainty about the bad state of affairsThe amount of fear should be appropriate to the size of \"the bad\".", "If the three conditions are not met, fear is an inappropriate emotion.", "He argues, that death does not meet the first two criteria, even if death is a \"deprivation of good things\" and even if one believes in a painful afterlife.", "Because death is certain, it also does not meet the third criterion, but he grants that the unpredictability of when one dies ''may'' be cause to a sense of fear.In a 2003 study of 167 women and 121 men, aged 65–87, low self-efficacy predicted fear of the unknown after death and fear of dying for women and men better than demographics, social support, and physical health.", "Fear of death was measured by a \"Multidimensional Fear of Death Scale\" which included the 8 subscales Fear of Dying, Fear of the Dead, Fear of Being Destroyed, Fear for Significant Others, Fear of the Unknown, Fear of Conscious Death, Fear for the Body After Death, and Fear of Premature Death.", "In hierarchical multiple regression analysis, the most potent predictors of death fears were low \"spiritual health efficacy\", defined as beliefs relating to one's perceived ability to generate spiritually based faith and inner strength, and low \"instrumental efficacy\", defined as beliefs relating to one's perceived ability to manage activities of daily living.Psychologists have tested the hypotheses that fear of death motivates religious commitment, and that assurances about an afterlife alleviate the fear, with equivocal results.", "Religiosity can be related to fear of death when the afterlife is portrayed as time of punishment.", "\"Intrinsic religiosity\", as opposed to mere \"formal religious involvement\", has been found to be negatively correlated with death anxiety.", "In a 1976 study of people of various Christian denominations, those who were most firm in their faith, who attended religious services weekly, were the least afraid of dying.", "The survey found a negative correlation between fear of death and \"religious concern\".In a 2006 study of white, Christian men and women the hypothesis was tested that traditional, church-centered religiousness and de-institutionalized spiritual seeking are ways of approaching fear of death in old age.", "Both religiousness and spirituality were related to positive psychosocial functioning, but only church-centered religiousness protected subjects against the fear of death.=== Religion ===Statius in the ''Thebaid'' (Book 3, line 661) aired the irreverent suggestion that \"fear first made gods in the world\".From a Christian theological perspective, the word ''fear'' can encompass more than simple dread.", "Robert B. Strimple says that fear includes the \"... convergence of awe, reverence, adoration...\".", "Some translations of the Bible, such as the New International Version, sometimes express the concept of ''fear'' with the word ''reverence''.A similar phrase, \"God-fearing\", is sometimes used as a rough synonym for \"pious\".", "It is a standard translation for the Arabic word taqwa (; \"forbearance, restraint\") in Muslim contexts.", "In Judaism, \"fear of God\" describes obedience to Jewish law even when invisible to others.=== Manipulation ===Fear may be politically and culturally manipulated to persuade citizenry of ideas which would otherwise be widely rejected or dissuade citizenry from ideas which would otherwise be widely supported.", "In contexts of disasters, nation-states manage the fear not only to provide their citizens with an explanation about the event or blaming some minorities, but also to adjust their previous beliefs.Fear can alter how a person thinks or reacts to situations because fear has the power to inhibit one's rational way of thinking.", "As a result, people who do not experience fear, are able to use fear as a tool to manipulate others.", "People who are experiencing fear, seek preservation through safety and can be manipulated by a person who is there to provide that safety that is being sought after.", "\"When we're afraid, a manipulator can talk us out of the truth we see right in front of us.", "Words become more real than reality\" By this, a manipulator is able to use our fear to manipulate us out the truth and instead make us believe and trust in their truth.", "Politicians are notorious for using fear to manipulate the people into supporting their policies.=== Fiction and mythology ===A still from the film ''Carnival of Souls''Fear is found and reflected in mythology and folklore as well as in works of fiction such as novels and films.Works of dystopian and (post)apocalyptic fiction convey the fears and anxieties of societies.The fear of the world's end is about as old as civilization itself.", "In a 1967 study, Frank Kermode suggests that the failure of religious prophecies led to a shift in how society apprehends this ancient mode.", "Scientific and critical thought supplanting religious and mythical thought as well as a public emancipation may be the cause of eschatology becoming replaced by more realistic scenarios.", "Such might constructively provoke discussion and steps to be taken to prevent depicted catastrophes.", "''The Story of the Youth Who Went Forth to Learn What Fear Was'' is a German fairy tale dealing with the topic of not knowing fear.Many stories also include characters who fear the antagonist of the plot.", "One important characteristic of historical and mythical heroes across cultures is to be fearless in the face of big and often lethal enemies.=== Athletics ===In the world of athletics, fear is often used as a means of motivation to not fail.", "This situation involves using fear in a way that increases the chances of a positive outcome.", "In this case, the fear that is being created is initially a cognitive state to the receiver.", "This initial state is what generates the first response of the athlete, this response generates a possibility of fight or flight reaction by the athlete (receiver), which in turn will increase or decrease the possibility of success or failure in the certain situation for the athlete.", "The amount of time that the athlete has to determine this decision is small but it is still enough time for the receiver to make a determination through cognition.", "Even though the decision is made quickly, the decision is determined through past events that have been experienced by the athlete.", "The results of these past events will determine how the athlete will make his cognitive decision in the split second that he or she has.Fear of failure as described above has been studied frequently in the field of sport psychology.", "Many scholars have tried to determine how often fear of failure is triggered within athletes, as well as what personalities of athletes most often choose to use this type of motivation.", "Studies have also been conducted to determine the success rate of this method of motivation.Murray's Exploration in Personal (1938) was one of the first studies that actually identified fear of failure as an actual motive to avoid failure or to achieve success.", "His studies suggested that inavoidance, the need to avoid failure, was found in many college-aged men during the time of his research in 1938.This was a monumental finding in the field of psychology because it allowed other researchers to better clarify how fear of failure can actually be a determinant of creating achievement goals as well as how it could be used in the actual act of achievement.In the context of sport, a model was created by R.S.", "Lazarus in 1991 that uses the cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotion.", "Another study was done in 2001 by Conroy, Poczwardowski, and Henschen that created five aversive consequences of failing that have been repeated over time.", "The five categories include (a) experiencing shame and embarrassment, (b) devaluing one's self-estimate, (c) having an uncertain future, (d) important others losing interest, (e) upsetting important others.", "These five categories can help one infer the possibility of an individual to associate failure with one of these threat categories, which will lead them to experiencing fear of failure.In summary, the two studies that were done above created a more precise definition of fear of failure, which is \"a dispositional tendency to experience apprehension and anxiety in evaluative situations because individuals have learned that failure is associated with aversive consequences\"." ], [ "See also", "* Appeal to fear* Culture of fear* Ecology of fear* Hysteria* Nightmare* Night terror* Ontogenetic parade* Panic attack* Paranoia* Phobophobia* Psychological trauma* Social anxiety disorder* Social anxiety* Stockholm syndrome* Voodoo death* Anger" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * *" ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Football team" ], [ "Introduction", "Chelsea's football squad in 1905 pictured with support staffA '''football team''' is a group of players selected to play together in the various team sports known as football.", "Such teams could be selected to play in a match against an opposing team, to represent a '''football club''', group, state or nation, an all-star team or even selected as a hypothetical team (such as a Dream Team or Team of the Century) and never play an actual match.The difference between a football team and a football club is incorporation, a football club is an entity which is formed and governed by a committee and has members which may consist of supporters in addition to players.", "The benefit of club formation is that it gives teams access to additional volunteer or paid support staff, facilities and equipment." ], [ "Summary", "There are several varieties of football, including association football, gridiron football, Australian rules football, Gaelic football, rugby league and rugby union.", "The number of players selected for each team, within these varieties and their associated codes, can vary substantially.", "Sometimes, the word \"team\" is limited to those who play on the field in a match and does not always include other players who may take part as replacements or emergency players.", "\"Football squad\" may be used to be inclusive of these support and reserve players.The words team and club are sometimes used interchangeably by supporters, typically referring to the team within the club playing in the highest division or competition.", "A football club is a type of sports club which is an organized or incorporated body.", "Typically these will have a committee, secretary, president or chairperson, registrar and members.", "Football clubs typically have a set of rules, including rules under which they play and are themselves typically members of a league or association which are affiliated with a governing body within their sport.", "Clubs may field multiple teams from their registered players (which may participate in several different divisions or leagues).", "A club is responsible for ensuring the continued existence of its teams in their respective competitions.", "The oldest football clubs date back to the early 19th century.", "While records exist for most incorporated clubs, they do not exist for all football clubs.", "Standalone clubs are usually run like businesses and appear on official registers.", "However many football clubs were formed as part of larger organisations (schools, athletic clubs, societies) and therefore public records of their formation and operation may not be kept unless they compete with other teams.", "Football clubs may also be dormant for periods and be re-formed (for example going into recess for reasons such as war or lack of a league or competition to participate in) and even switch between football codes.", "Likewise, a football club may fold if it becomes insolvent or is incapable of fielding a team to play matches." ], [ "Variation of player numbers among football codes", "The 18 senior players of Port Adelaide Football Club's 1914 Champions of Australia teamThe number of players that take part in the sport simultaneously, thus forming the team are:*Association football: 11**Seven-a-side football:7**Indoor soccer: 5–7**Futsal, beach football, five-a-side football: 5*American football: 11**Arena football: 8*Canadian football: 12*Rugby league: 13**Rugby league nines: 9*Rugby union: 15**Rugby sevens: 7*Gaelic football: 15*Australian rules football: 18" ], [ "Lists of association football teams", "*Lists of association football clubs*List of men's national association football teams*List of women's association football clubs*List of women's national association football teams" ], [ "Lists of Australian rules football teams", "*List of Australian rules football clubs" ], [ "See also", "*Football club (association football)*Football club (East Germany)" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "F" ], [ "Introduction", "'''F''', or '''f''', is the sixth letter in the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide.", "Its name in English is ''ef'' (pronounced ), and the plural is ''efs''." ], [ "History", " Proto-Sinaitic Phoenician''waw'' Early Greek''Digamma'' Greek''Digamma'' EtruscanV or W LatinF 40px 40x40px 40px 55px 30px Latin FThe origin of 'F' is the Semitic letter ''waw'' that represented a sound like or .", "Graphically it originally probably depicted either a hook or a club.", "It may have been based on a comparable Egyptian hieroglyph such as that which represented the word ''mace'' (transliterated as ḥ(dj)): T3The Phoenician form of the letter was adopted into Greek as a vowel, ''upsilon'' (which resembled its descendant 'Y' but was also the ancestor of the Roman letters 'U', 'V', and 'W'); and, with another form, as a consonant, ''digamma'', which indicated the pronunciation , as in Phoenician.", "Latin 'F,' despite being pronounced differently, is ultimately descended from digamma and closely resembles it in form.After sound changes eliminated from spoken Greek, ''digamma'' was used only as a numeral.", "However, the Greek alphabet also gave rise to other alphabets, and some of these retained letters descended from digamma.", "In the Etruscan alphabet, 'F' probably represented , as in Greek, and the Etruscans formed the digraph 'FH' to represent .", "(At the time these letters were borrowed, there was no Greek letter that represented /f/: the Greek letter phi 'Φ' then represented an aspirated voiceless bilabial plosive , although in Modern Greek it has come to represent .)", "When the Romans adopted the alphabet, they used 'V' (from Greek ''upsilon'') not only for the vowel , but also for the corresponding semivowel , leaving 'F' available for .", "And so out of the various ''vav'' variants in the Mediterranean world, the letter F entered the Roman alphabet attached to a sound which the Greeks did not have.", "The Roman alphabet forms the basis of the alphabet used today for English and many other languages.The lowercase 'f' is not related to the visually similar long s, 'ſ' (or medial s).", "The use of the ''long s'' largely died out by the beginning of the 19th century, mostly to prevent confusion with 'f' when using a short mid-bar." ], [ "Use in writing systems", "=== English ===In the English writing system is used to represent the sound , the voiceless labiodental fricative.", "It is often doubled at the end of words.", "Exceptionally, it represents the voiced labiodental fricative in the common word \"of\".", "F is the eleventh least frequently used letter in the English language (after G, Y, P, B, V, K, J, X, Q, and Z), with a frequency of about 2.23% in words.=== Other languages ===In the writing systems of other languages, commonly represents , or .", "* In French orthography, is used to represent .", "It may also be silent at the end of words.", "* In Spanish orthography, is used to represent .", "* In Esperanto orthography, is used to represent .", "* In the Hepburn romanization of Japanese, is used to represent .", "This sound is usually considered to be an allophone of , which is pronounced in different ways depending upon its context; Japanese is pronounced as before .", "* In Welsh orthography, represents while represents .", "* In Slavic languages, is used primarily in words of foreign (Hellenic, Romance, or Germanic) origin.", "* In spoken Icelandic, in the middle of a word is often voiced to (e.g.", "Að sofa - to sleep).=== International Phonetic Alphabet ===The International Phonetic Alphabet uses to represent the voiceless labiodental fricative.=== In mathematics ===An italic letter is conventionally used to denote an arbitrary function.", "See also f with hook (ƒ).=== In music ===A bold italic letter is used in musical notation as a dynamic indicator for \"loud or strong\".", "It stands for the Italian word ''forte''.=== In education ===In countries such as the United States, the letter \"F\" is defined as a failure in terms of academic evaluation.", "Other countries that use this system include Saudi Arabia, Venezuela, and the Netherlands.=== In computing ===In the hexadecimal number system, the letter \"F\" or \"f\" is used to represent the hexadecimal digit fifteen (equivalent to 1510)." ], [ "Other uses", "The letter F has become an Internet meme, where it is used to pay respects.", "This use is derived from the 2014 video game ''Call of Duty: Advanced Warfare'', where in a quick-time event protagonist Jack Mitchell must pay his respects to his friend Will Irons who fell in combat in a previous mission, represented by the player pressing F when playing the PC version.", "People on the Internet use the letter F usually in a genuine way to express respects, sadness or condolences towards other Internet personalities, Internet memes or other players on certain events, such as death, misfortune or the end of a phenomenon, company, game, series, etc." ], [ "Related characters", "=== Ancestors, descendants and siblings ===* F with diacritics:** Ƒ ƒ** Ḟ ḟ** ᵮ ** ᶂ** Ꞙ ꞙ : F with stroke is used in the Anthropos phonetic transcription system and older Ewe writing* ꬵ : Lenis F is used in the Teuthonista phonetic transcription system* f: Superscript \"f\", encoded as in the Phonetic Extensions Supplement block of Unicode, is used in some forms of the International Phonetic Alphabet.", "* ꜰ : Small capital F was used in the Icelandic First Grammatical Treatise to mark gemination* ꟳ : Modifier letter capital F - Used to mark tone for the Chatino orthography in Oaxaca, Mexico; Used as a generic transcription for a falling tone; Used in para-IPA notation* Ꝼ ꝼ : Insular F is used in Norse and Old English contexts* ꟻ : Reversed F was used in ancient Roman texts to stand for (daughter) or (woman)* Ⅎ ⅎ : Claudian letters* 𐤅: Semitic letter Waw, from which the following symbols originally derive** Ϝ ϝ : Greek letter Digamma, from which F derives*** 𐌅 : Old Italic V/F (originally used for V, in languages such as Etruscan and Oscan), which derives from Greek Digamma, and is the ancestor of modern Latin F*** Y y : Latin letter Y, sharing its roots with F*** V v : Latin letter V, also sharing its roots with F**** U u : Latin letter U, which is descended from V**** W w : Latin letter W, also descended from V=== Ligatures and abbreviations ===* ₣ : French franc, Latin capital letter F with stroke* : degree Fahrenheit* F : Fluorine, a chemical element uses the symbol F" ], [ "Code points <span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Computing codes\"></span>", "These are the code points for the forms of the letter in various systems: 1" ], [ "Other representations" ], [ "Use as a number", "In the hexadecimal (base 16) numbering system, F is a number that corresponds to the number 15 in decimal (base 10) counting." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Food preservation" ], [ "Introduction", "A food scientist is preparing a meal for astronauts in space.", "'''Food preservation''' includes processes that make food more resistant to microorganism growth and slow the oxidation of fats.", "This slows down the decomposition and rancidification process.", "Food preservation may also include processes that inhibit visual deterioration, such as the enzymatic browning reaction in apples after they are cut during food preparation.", "By preserving food, food waste can be reduced, which is an important way to decrease production costs and increase the efficiency of food systems, improve food security and nutrition and contribute towards environmental sustainability.", "For instance, it can reduce the environmental impact of food production.Many processes designed to preserve food involve more than one food preservation method.", "Preserving fruit by turning it into jam, for example, involves boiling (to reduce the fruit's moisture content and to kill bacteria, etc.", "), sugaring (to prevent their re-growth) and sealing within an airtight jar (to prevent recontamination).Different food preservation methods have different impacts on the quality of the food and food systems.", "Some traditional methods of preserving food have been shown to have a lower energy input and carbon footprint compared to modern methods.", "Some methods of food preservation are known to create carcinogens.", "In 2015, the International Agency for Research on Cancer of the World Health Organization classified processed meat—i.e., meat that has undergone salting, curing, fermenting, and smoking—as \"carcinogenic to humans\"." ], [ "Traditional techniques", "Some techniques of food preservation pre-date the dawn of agriculture.", "Others were discovered more recently.=== Boiling ===Boiling liquids can kill any existing microbes.", "Milk and water are often boiled to kill any harmful microbes that may be present in them.=== Burial ===Burial of food can preserve it due to a variety of factors: lack of light, lack of oxygen, cool temperatures, pH level, or desiccants in the soil.", "Burial may be combined with other methods such as salting or fermentation.", "Most foods can be preserved in soil that is very dry and salty (thus a desiccant) such as sand, or soil that is frozen.Many root vegetables are very resistant to spoilage and require no other preservation than storage in cool dark conditions, for example by burial in the ground, such as in a storage clamp (not to be confused with a root cellar).", "Cabbage was traditionally buried during Autumn in northern US farms for preservation.", "Some methods keep it crispy while other methods produce sauerkraut.", "A similar process is used in the traditional production of kimchi.Sometimes meat is buried under conditions that cause preservation.", "If buried on hot coals or ashes, the heat can kill pathogens, the dry ash can desiccate, and the earth can block oxygen and further contamination.", "If buried where the earth is very cold, the earth acts like a refrigerator, or, in areas of permafrost, a freezer.In Orissa, India, it is practical to store rice by burying it underground.", "This method helps to store for three to six months during the dry season.Butter and similar substances have been preserved as bog butter in Irish peat bogs for centuries.", "Century eggs are traditionally created by placing eggs in alkaline mud (or other alkaline substance), resulting in their \"inorganic\" fermentation through raised pH instead of spoiling.", "The fermentation preserves them and breaks down some of the complex, less flavorful proteins and fats into simpler, more flavorful ones.=== Canning ===Preserved foodCanning involves cooking food, sealing it in sterilized cans or jars, and boiling the containers to kill or weaken any remaining bacteria as a form of sterilization.", "It was invented by the French confectioner Nicolas Appert.", "By 1806, this process was used by the French Navy to preserve meat, fruit, vegetables, and even milk.", "Although Appert had discovered a new way of preservation, it was not understood until 1864 when Louis Pasteur found the relationship between microorganisms, food spoilage, and illness.Foods have varying degrees of natural protection against spoilage and may require that the final step occurs in a pressure cooker.", "High-acid fruits like strawberries require no preservatives to can and only a short boiling cycle, whereas marginal vegetables such as carrots require longer boiling and the addition of other acidic elements.", "Low-acid foods, such as vegetables and meats, require pressure canning.", "Food preserved by canning or bottling is at immediate risk of spoilage once the can or bottle has been opened.Lack of quality control in the canning process may allow ingress of water or micro-organisms.", "Most such failures are rapidly detected as decomposition within the can cause gas production and the can will swell or burst.", "However, there have been examples of poor manufacture (underprocessing) and poor hygiene allowing contamination of canned food by the obligate anaerobe ''Clostridium botulinum'', which produces an acute toxin within the food, leading to severe illness or death.", "This organism produces no gas or obvious taste and remains undetected by taste or smell.", "Its toxin is denatured by cooking, however.", "Cooked mushrooms, when handled poorly and then canned, can support the growth of ''Staphylococcus aureus'', which produces a toxin that is not destroyed by canning or subsequent reheating.=== Confit ===Meat can be preserved by salting it, cooking it at or near in some kind of fat (such as lard or tallow), and then storing it immersed in the fat.", "These preparations were popular in Europe before refrigerators became ubiquitous.", "They are still popular in France, where the term originates.", "The preparation will keep longer if stored in a cold cellar or buried in cold ground.=== Cooling ===Cooling preserves food by slowing down the growth and reproduction of microorganisms and the action of enzymes that causes the food to rot.", "The introduction of commercial and domestic refrigerators drastically improved the diets of many in the Western world by allowing food such as fresh fruit, salads and dairy products to be stored safely for longer periods, particularly during warm weather.Before the era of mechanical refrigeration, cooling for food storage occurred in the forms of root cellars and iceboxes.", "Rural people often did their own ice cutting, whereas town and city dwellers often relied on the ice trade.", "Today, root cellaring remains popular among people who value various goals, including local food, heirloom crops, traditional home cooking techniques, family farming, frugality, self-sufficiency, organic farming, and others.=== Curing ===Bag of Prague powder#1, also known as \"curing salt\" or \"pink salt\".", "It is typically a combination of salt and sodium nitrite, with the pink color added to distinguish it from ordinary salt.The earliest form of curing was dehydration or drying, used as early as 12,000BC.", "Smoking and salting techniques improve on the drying process and add antimicrobial agents that aid in preservation.", "Smoke deposits a number of pyrolysis products onto the food, including the phenols syringol, guaiacol and catechol.", "Salt accelerates the drying process using osmosis and also inhibits the growth of several common strains of bacteria.", "More recently nitrites have been used to cure meat, contributing a characteristic pink colour.=== Fermentation ===Some foods, such as many cheeses, wines, and beers, use specific micro-organisms that combat spoilage from other less-benign organisms.", "These micro-organisms keep pathogens in check by creating an environment toxic for themselves and other micro-organisms by producing acid or alcohol.", "Methods of fermentation include, but are not limited to, starter micro-organisms, salt, hops, controlled (usually cool) temperatures and controlled (usually low) levels of oxygen.", "These methods are used to create the specific controlled conditions that will support the desirable organisms that produce food fit for human consumption.Fermentation is the microbial conversion of starch and sugars into alcohol.", "Not only can fermentation produce alcohol, but it can also be a valuable preservation technique.", "Fermentation can also make foods more nutritious and palatable.", "For example, drinking water in the Middle Ages was dangerous because it often contained pathogens that could spread disease.", "When the water is made into beer, the boiling during the brewing process kills any bacteria in the water that could make people sick.", "Additionally, the water now has the nutrients from the barley and other ingredients, and the microorganisms can also produce vitamins as they ferment.=== Freezing ===Freezing is also one of the most commonly used processes, both commercially and domestically, for preserving a very wide range of foods, including prepared foods that would not have required freezing in their unprepared state.", "For example, potato waffles are stored in the freezer, but potatoes themselves require only a cool dark place to ensure many months' storage.", "Cold stores provide large-volume, long-term storage for strategic food stocks held in case of national emergency in many countries.=== Heating ===Heating to temperatures which are sufficient to kill microorganisms inside the food is a method used with perpetual stews.=== Jellying ===Food may be preserved by cooking in a material that solidifies to form a gel.", "Such materials include gelatin, agar, maize flour, and arrowroot flour.Some animal flesh forms a protein gel when cooked.", "Eels and elvers, and sipunculid worms, are a delicacy in Xiamen, China, as are jellied eels in the East End of London, where they are eaten with mashed potatoes.", "British cuisine has a rich tradition of potted meats.", "Meat off-cuts were, until the 1950s, preserved in aspic, a gel made from gelatin and clarified meat broth.", "Another form of preservation is setting the cooked food in a container and covering it with a layer of fat.", "Potted chicken liver can be prepared in this way, and so can potted shrimps, to be served on toast.", "Calf's foot jelly used to be prepared for invalids.Jellying is one of the steps in producing traditional pâtés.", "Many jugged meats (see below) are also jellied.Another type of jellying is fruit preserves, which are preparations of cooked fruits, vegetables and sugar, often stored in glass jam jars and Mason jars.", "Many varieties of fruit preserves are made globally, including sweet fruit preserves, such as those made from strawberry or apricot, and savory preserves, such as those made from tomatoes or squash.", "The ingredients used and how they are prepared determine the type of preserves; jams, jellies, and marmalades are all examples of different styles of fruit preserves that vary based upon the fruit used.", "In English, the word ''preserves'', in plural form, is used to describe all types of jams and jellies.=== ''Kangina'' ===In rural Afghanistan, grapes are preserved in disc-shaped vessels made of mud and straw, called ''kangina''.", "The vessels, which can preserve fresh grapes for up to 6 months, passively control their internal environments to restrict gas exchange and water loss, prolonging the lives of late-harvested grapes stored within them.=== Jugging ===Meat can be preserved by jugging.", "Jugging is the process of stewing the meat (commonly game or fish) in a covered earthenware jug or casserole.", "The animal to be jugged is usually cut into pieces, placed into a tightly sealed jug with brine or gravy, and stewed.", "Red wine and/or the animal's own blood is sometimes added to the cooking liquid.", "Jugging was a popular method of preserving meat up until the middle of the 20th century.=== Lye ===Sodium hydroxide (lye) makes food too alkaline for bacterial growth.", "Lye will saponify fats in the food, which will change its flavor and texture.", "Lutefisk uses lye in its preparation, as do some olive recipes.", "Modern recipes for century eggs also call for lye.=== Pickling ===Pickling is a method of preserving food in an edible, antimicrobial liquid.", "Pickling can be broadly classified into two categories: chemical pickling and fermentation pickling.In chemical pickling, the food is placed in an edible liquid that inhibits or kills bacteria and other microorganisms.", "Typical pickling agents include brine (high in salt), vinegar, alcohol, and vegetable oil.", "Many chemical pickling processes also involve heating or boiling so that the food being preserved becomes saturated with the pickling agent.", "Common chemically pickled foods include cucumbers, peppers, corned beef, herring, and eggs, as well as mixed vegetables such as piccalilli.In fermentation pickling, bacteria in the liquid produce organic acids as preservation agents, typically by a process that produces lactic acid through the presence of lactobacillales.", "Fermented pickles include sauerkraut, nukazuke, kimchi, and surströmming.=== Sugaring ===The earliest cultures have used sugar as a preservative, and it was commonplace to store fruit in honey.", "Similar to pickled foods, sugar cane was brought to Europe through the trade routes.", "In northern climates without sufficient sun to dry foods, preserves are made by heating the fruit with sugar.", "\"Sugar tends to draw water from the microbes (plasmolysis).", "This process leaves the microbial cells dehydrated, thus killing them.", "In this way, the food will remain safe from microbial spoilage.\"", "Sugar is used to preserve fruits, either in an antimicrobial syrup with fruit such as apples, pears, peaches, apricots, and plums, or in crystallized form where the preserved material is cooked in sugar to the point of crystallization and the resultant product is then stored dry.", "This method is used for the skins of citrus fruit (candied peel), angelica, and ginger.", "Sugaring can be used in the production of jam and jelly." ], [ "Modern industrial techniques", "Techniques of food preservation were developed in research laboratories for commercial applications.===Aseptic processing===Aseptic processing works by placing sterilized food (typically by heat, see ultra-high temperature processing) into sterlized packaging material under sterile conditions.", "The end result is a sealed, sterile food product similar to canned food, but depending on the technique used, damage to food quality is typically reduced compared to canned food.", "A greater variety of packaging materials can be used as well.Besides UHT, aseptic processing may be used in conjunction with any of the microbe-reduction technologies listed below.", "With pasturization and \"high pressure pasturization\", the food may not be completely sterilized (instead achiving a specified log reduction), but the use of sterile packaging and enviornments is retained.=== Pasteurization ===Pasteurization is a process for preservation of liquid food.", "It was originally applied to combat the souring of young local wines.", "Today, the process is mainly applied to dairy products.", "In this method, milk is heated at about for 15–30 seconds to kill the bacteria present in it and cooling it quickly to to prevent the remaining bacteria from growing.", "The milk is then stored in sterilized bottles or pouches in cold places.", "This method was invented by Louis Pasteur, a French chemist, in 1862.=== Vacuum packing ===Vacuum-packing stores food in a vacuum environment, usually in an air-tight bag or bottle.", "The vacuum environment strips bacteria of oxygen needed for survival.", "Vacuum-packing is commonly used for storing nuts to reduce loss of flavor from oxidization.", "A major drawback to vacuum packaging, at the consumer level, is that vacuum sealing can deform contents and rob certain foods, such as cheese, of its flavor.=== Freeze drying ====== Preservatives ===Preservative food additives can be ''antimicrobial'' – which inhibit the growth of bacteria or fungi, including mold – or ''antioxidant'', such as oxygen absorbers, which inhibit the oxidation of food constituents.", "Common antimicrobial preservatives include nisin, sorbates, calcium propionate, sodium nitrate/nitrite, sulfites (sulfur dioxide, sodium bisulfite, potassium hydrogen sulfite, etc.", "), EDTA, hinokitiol, and ε-polylysine.", "Antioxidants include tocopherols (Vitamin E), butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT).", "Other preservatives include ethanol.There is also another approach of impregnating packaging materials (plastic films or other) with antioxidants and antimicrobials.=== Irradiation ===Irradiation of food is the exposure of food to ionizing radiation.", "Multiple types of ionizing radiation can be used, including beta particles (high-energy electrons) and gamma rays (emitted from radioactive sources such as cobalt-60 or cesium-137).", "Irradiation can kill bacteria, molds, and insect pests, reduce the ripening and spoiling of fruits, and at higher doses induce sterility.", "The technology may be compared to pasteurization; it is sometimes called \"cold pasteurization\", as the product is not heated.", "Irradiation may allow lower-quality or contaminated foods to be rendered marketable.National and international expert bodies have declared food irradiation as \"wholesome\"; organizations of the United Nations, such as the World Health Organization and Food and Agriculture Organization, endorse food irradiation.", "Consumers may have a negative view of irradiated food based on the misconception that such food is radioactive; in fact, irradiated food does not and cannot become radioactive.", "Activists have also opposed food irradiation for other reasons, for example, arguing that irradiation can be used to sterilize contaminated food without resolving the underlying cause of the contamination.", "International legislation on whether food may be irradiated or not varies worldwide from no regulation to a full ban.Approximately 500,000 tons of food items are irradiated per year worldwide in over 40 countries.", "These are mainly spices and condiments, with an increasing segment of fresh fruit irradiated for fruit fly quarantine.=== Pulsed electric field electroporation ===Pulsed electric field (PEF) electroporation is a method for processing cells by means of brief pulses of a strong electric field.", "PEF holds potential as a type of low-temperature alternative pasteurization process for sterilizing food products.", "In PEF processing, a substance is placed between two electrodes, then the pulsed electric field is applied.", "The electric field enlarges the pores of the cell membranes, which kills the cells and releases their contents.", "PEF for food processing is a developing technology still being researched.", "There have been limited industrial applications of PEF processing for the pasteurization of fruit juices.", "To date, several PEF treated juices are available on the market in Europe.", "Furthermore, for several years a juice pasteurization application in the US has used PEF.", "For cell disintegration purposes especially potato processors show great interest in PEF technology as an efficient alternative for their preheaters.", "Potato applications are already operational in the US and Canada.", "There are also commercial PEF potato applications in various countries in Europe, as well as in Australia, India, and China.=== Modified atmosphere ===Modifying atmosphere is a way to preserve food by operating on the atmosphere around it.", "It is often used to package:* Fresh fruits and vegetables, especially salds crops, which contain living cells that respire even while refrigerated.", "Reducing oxygen () concentration and increasing the carbon dioxide () concentration slows down their respiration, conserves stored energy, and therefore increases shelf life.", "High humidity is also used to reduce water loss.", "* Red meat, which needs high to reduce oxidation of myoglobin and maintain an attractive bright red color of the meat.", "* Other meat and fish, which uses higher to reduce oxidation and slow down some microbes.=== Nonthermal plasma ===This process subjects the surface of food to a \"flame\" of ionized gas molecules, such as helium or nitrogen.", "This causes micro-organisms to die off on the surface.=== High-pressure food preservation ===High pressure can be used to disable harmful microorganisms and spoilage enzymes while retaining the food's fresh appearance, flavor, texture and nutrients.", "By 2005, the process was being used for products ranging from orange juice to guacamole to deli meats and widely sold.", "Depending on temperature and pressure settings, HP processing can achieve either pasteurization-equivalent log reduction or go all the way to achieve sterilization of all microbes.=== Biopreservation ===3D stick model of nisin.", "Some lactic acid bacteria manufacture nisin.", "It is a particularly effective preservative.Biopreservation is the use of natural or controlled microbiota or antimicrobials as a way of preserving food and extending its shelf life.", "Beneficial bacteria or the fermentation products produced by these bacteria are used in biopreservation to control spoilage and render pathogens inactive in food.", "It is a benign ecological approach which is gaining increasing attention.Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) have antagonistic properties that make them particularly useful as biopreservatives.", "When LABs compete for nutrients, their metabolites often include active antimicrobials such as lactic acid, acetic acid, hydrogen peroxide, and peptide bacteriocins.", "Some LABs produce the antimicrobial nisin, which is a particularly effective preservative.LAB bacteriocins are used in the present day as an integral part of hurdle technology.", "Using them in combination with other preservative techniques can effectively control spoilage bacteria and other pathogens, and can inhibit the activities of a wide spectrum of organisms, including inherently resistant Gram-negative bacteria.=== Hurdle technology ===Hurdle technology is a method of ensuring that pathogens in food products can be eliminated or controlled by combining more than one approach.", "These approaches can be thought of as \"hurdles\" the pathogen has to overcome if it is to remain active in the food.", "The right combination of hurdles can ensure all pathogens are eliminated or rendered harmless in the final product.Hurdle technology has been defined by Leistner (2000) as an intelligent combination of hurdles that secures the microbial safety and stability as well as the organoleptic and nutritional quality and the economic viability of food products.", "The organoleptic quality of the food refers to its sensory properties, that is its look, taste, smell, and texture.Examples of hurdles in a food system are high temperature during processing, low temperature during storage, increasing the acidity, lowering the water activity or redox potential, and the presence of preservatives or biopreservatives.", "According to the type of pathogens and how risky they are, the intensity of the hurdles can be adjusted individually to meet consumer preferences in an economical way, without sacrificing the safety of the product.+ Principal hurdles used for food preservation (after Leistner, 1995) Parameter Symbol Application High temperature F Heating Low temperature T Chilling, freezing Reduced water activity a Drying, curing, conserving Increased acidity pH Acid addition or formation Reduced redox potential E Removal of oxygen or addition of ascorbate Biopreservatives Competitive flora such as microbial fermentation Other preservatives Sorbates, sulfites, nitrites" ], [ "See also", "* Blast chilling* Food engineering* Food microbiology* Food packaging* Food rheology* Food science* Food spoilage* Freeze-drying* Fresherized* List of dried foods* List of pickled foods* List of smoked foods* Refrigerate after opening* Shelf life" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Sources", "*" ], [ "References", "* * *" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* A c. 1894 Gustav Hammer & Co. commercial cooking machinery catalogue.", "* Preserving foods ~ from the Clemson Extension Home and Garden Information Center* National Center for Home Food Preservation* BBC News Online – US army food... just add urine* Home Economics Archive: Tradition, Research, History (HEARTH) An e-book collection of over 1,000 classic books on home economics spanning 1850 to 1950, created by Cornell University's Mann Library.", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Frequency modulation" ], [ "Introduction", "AM or FM radio wave.|alt=Animation of audio, AM and FM signalsRFI) rejection than AM, as shown in this dramatic New York publicity demonstration by General Electric in 1940.The radio has both AM and FM receivers.", "With a million-volt electric arc as a source of interference behind it, the AM receiver produced only a roar of static, while the FM receiver clearly reproduced a music program from Armstrong's experimental FM transmitter W2XMN in New Jersey.", "'''Frequency modulation''' ('''FM''') is the encoding of information in a carrier wave by varying the instantaneous frequency of the wave.", "The technology is used in telecommunications, radio broadcasting, signal processing, and computing.In analog frequency modulation, such as radio broadcasting, of an audio signal representing voice or music, the instantaneous frequency deviation, i.e.", "the difference between the frequency of the carrier and its center frequency, has a functional relation to the modulating signal amplitude.Digital data can be encoded and transmitted with a type of frequency modulation known as frequency-shift keying (FSK), in which the instantaneous frequency of the carrier is shifted among a set of frequencies.", "The frequencies may represent digits, such as '0' and '1'.", "FSK is widely used in computer modems, such as fax modems, telephone caller ID systems, garage door openers, and other low-frequency transmissions.", "Radioteletype also uses FSK.Frequency modulation is widely used for FM radio broadcasting.", "It is also used in telemetry, radar, seismic prospecting, and monitoring newborns for seizures via EEG, two-way radio systems, sound synthesis, magnetic tape-recording systems and some video-transmission systems.", "In radio transmission, an advantage of frequency modulation is that it has a larger signal-to-noise ratio and therefore rejects radio frequency interference better than an equal power amplitude modulation (AM) signal.", "For this reason, most music is broadcast over FM radio.", "However, under severe enough multipath conditions it performs much more poorly than AM, with distinct high frequency noise artifacts that are audible with lower volumes and less complex tones.", "With high enough volume and carrier deviation audio distortion starts to occur that otherwise wouldn't be present without multipath or with an AM signal.Frequency modulation and phase modulation are the two complementary principal methods of angle modulation; phase modulation is often used as an intermediate step to achieve frequency modulation.", "These methods contrast with amplitude modulation, in which the amplitude of the carrier wave varies, while the frequency and phase remain constant." ], [ "Theory", "If the information to be transmitted (i.e., the baseband signal) is and the sinusoidal carrier is , where ''fc'' is the carrier's base frequency, and ''Ac'' is the carrier's amplitude, the modulator combines the carrier with the baseband data signal to get the transmitted signal: :where , being the sensitivity of the frequency modulator and being the amplitude of the modulating signal or baseband signal.In this equation, is the ''instantaneous frequency'' of the oscillator and is the ''frequency deviation'', which represents the maximum shift away from ''fc'' in one direction, assuming ''x''''m''(''t'') is limited to the range ±1.It is important to realize that this process of integrating the instantaneous frequency to create an instantaneous phase is quite different from what the term \"frequency modulation\" naively implies, namely directly adding the modulating signal to the carrier frequency:which would result in a modulated signal that has spurious local minima and maxima that do not correspond to those of the carrier.", "While most of the energy of the signal is contained within ''fc'' ± ''f''Δ, it can be shown by Fourier analysis that a wider range of frequencies is required to precisely represent an FM signal.", "The frequency spectrum of an actual FM signal has components extending infinitely, although their amplitude decreases and higher-order components are often neglected in practical design problems.===Sinusoidal baseband signal===Mathematically, a baseband modulating signal may be approximated by a sinusoidal continuous wave signal with a frequency ''fm''.", "This method is also named as single-tone modulation.", "The integral of such a signal is::In this case, the expression for y(t) above simplifies to::where the amplitude of the modulating sinusoid is represented in the peak deviation (see frequency deviation).The harmonic distribution of a sine wave carrier modulated by such a sinusoidal signal can be represented with Bessel functions; this provides the basis for a mathematical understanding of frequency modulation in the frequency domain.===Modulation index===As in other modulation systems, the modulation index indicates by how much the modulated variable varies around its unmodulated level.", "It relates to variations in the carrier frequency::where is the highest frequency component present in the modulating signal ''x''''m''(''t''), and is the peak frequency-deviationi.e.", "the maximum deviation of the ''instantaneous frequency'' from the carrier frequency.", "For a sine wave modulation, the modulation index is seen to be the ratio of the peak frequency deviation of the carrier wave to the frequency of the modulating sine wave.If , the modulation is called '''narrowband FM''' (NFM), and its bandwidth is approximately .", "Sometimes modulation index  is considered as NFM, otherwise wideband FM (WFM or FM).For digital modulation systems, for example, binary frequency shift keying (BFSK), where a binary signal modulates the carrier, the modulation index is given by::where is the symbol period, and is used as the highest frequency of the modulating binary waveform by convention, even though it would be more accurate to say it is the highest ''fundamental'' of the modulating binary waveform.", "In the case of digital modulation, the carrier is never transmitted.", "Rather, one of two frequencies is transmitted, either or , depending on the binary state 0 or 1 of the modulation signal.If , the modulation is called ''wideband FM'' and its bandwidth is approximately .", "While wideband FM uses more bandwidth, it can improve the signal-to-noise ratio significantly; for example, doubling the value of , while keeping constant, results in an eight-fold improvement in the signal-to-noise ratio.", "(Compare this with chirp spread spectrum, which uses extremely wide frequency deviations to achieve processing gains comparable to traditional, better-known spread-spectrum modes).With a tone-modulated FM wave, if the modulation frequency is held constant and the modulation index is increased, the (non-negligible) bandwidth of the FM signal increases but the spacing between spectra remains the same; some spectral components decrease in strength as others increase.", "If the frequency deviation is held constant and the modulation frequency increased, the spacing between spectra increases.Frequency modulation can be classified as narrowband if the change in the carrier frequency is about the same as the signal frequency, or as wideband if the change in the carrier frequency is much higher (modulation index > 1) than the signal frequency.", "For example, narrowband FM (NFM) is used for two-way radio systems such as Family Radio Service, in which the carrier is allowed to deviate only 2.5 kHz above and below the center frequency with speech signals of no more than 3.5 kHz bandwidth.", "Wideband FM is used for FM broadcasting, in which music and speech are transmitted with up to 75 kHz deviation from the center frequency and carry audio with up to a 20 kHz bandwidth and subcarriers up to 92 kHz.===Bessel functions===Frequency spectrum and waterfall plot of a 146.52MHz carrier, frequency modulated by a 1,000Hz sinusoid.", "The modulation index has been adjusted to around 2.4, so the carrier frequency has small amplitude.", "Several strong sidebands are apparent; in principle an infinite number are produced in FM but the higher-order sidebands are of negligible magnitude.For the case of a carrier modulated by a single sine wave, the resulting frequency spectrum can be calculated using Bessel functions of the first kind, as a function of the sideband number and the modulation index.", "The carrier and sideband amplitudes are illustrated for different modulation indices of FM signals.", "For particular values of the modulation index, the carrier amplitude becomes zero and all the signal power is in the sidebands.Since the sidebands are on both sides of the carrier, their count is doubled, and then multiplied by the modulating frequency to find the bandwidth.", "For example, 3 kHz deviation modulated by a 2.2 kHz audio tone produces a modulation index of 1.36.Suppose that we limit ourselves to only those sidebands that have a relative amplitude of at least 0.01.Then, examining the chart shows this modulation index will produce three sidebands.", "These three sidebands, when doubled, gives us (6 × 2.2 kHz) or a 13.2 kHz required bandwidth.", "Modulationindex Sideband amplitude Carrier 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 0.00 1.00 0.25 0.98 0.12 0.5 0.94 0.24 0.03 1.0 0.77 0.44 0.11 0.02 1.5 0.51 0.56 0.23 0.06 0.01 2.0 0.22 0.58 0.35 0.13 0.03 2.40483 0.00 0.52 0.43 0.20 0.06 0.02 2.5 −0.05 0.50 0.45 0.22 0.07 0.02 0.01 3.0 −0.26 0.34 0.49 0.31 0.13 0.04 0.01 4.0 −0.40 −0.07 0.36 0.43 0.28 0.13 0.05 0.02 5.0 −0.18 −0.33 0.05 0.36 0.39 0.26 0.13 0.05 0.02 5.52008 0.00 −0.34 −0.13 0.25 0.40 0.32 0.19 0.09 0.03 0.01 6.0 0.15 −0.28 −0.24 0.11 0.36 0.36 0.25 0.13 0.06 0.02 7.0 0.30 0.00 −0.30 −0.17 0.16 0.35 0.34 0.23 0.13 0.06 0.02 8.0 0.17 0.23 −0.11 −0.29 −0.10 0.19 0.34 0.32 0.22 0.13 0.06 0.03 8.65373 0.00 0.27 0.06 −0.24 −0.23 0.03 0.26 0.34 0.28 0.18 0.10 0.05 0.02 9.0 −0.09 0.25 0.14 −0.18 −0.27 −0.06 0.20 0.33 0.31 0.21 0.12 0.06 0.03 0.01 10.0 −0.25 0.04 0.25 0.06 −0.22 −0.23 −0.01 0.22 0.32 0.29 0.21 0.12 0.06 0.03 0.01 12.0 0.05 −0.22 −0.08 0.20 0.18 −0.07 −0.24 −0.17 0.05 0.23 0.30 0.27 0.20 0.12 0.07 0.03 0.01===Carson's rule===A rule of thumb, ''Carson's rule'' states that nearly all (≈98 percent) of the power of a frequency-modulated signal lies within a bandwidth of::where , as defined above, is the peak deviation of the instantaneous frequency from the center carrier frequency , is the Modulation index which is the ratio of frequency deviation to highest frequency in the modulating signal and is the highest frequency in the modulating signal.Condition for application of Carson's rule is only sinusoidal signals.", "For non-sinusoidal signals::where W is the highest frequency in the modulating signal but non-sinusoidal in nature and D is the Deviation ratio which the ratio of frequency deviation to highest frequency of modulating non-sinusoidal signal." ], [ "Noise reduction", "FM provides improved signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), as compared for example with AM.", "Compared with an optimum AM scheme, FM typically has poorer SNR below a certain signal level called the noise threshold, but above a higher level – the full improvement or full quieting threshold – the SNR is much improved over AM.", "The improvement depends on modulation level and deviation.", "For typical voice communications channels, improvements are typically 5–15 dB.", "FM broadcasting using wider deviation can achieve even greater improvements.", "Additional techniques, such as pre-emphasis of higher audio frequencies with corresponding de-emphasis in the receiver, are generally used to improve overall SNR in FM circuits.", "Since FM signals have constant amplitude, FM receivers normally have limiters that remove AM noise, further improving SNR." ], [ "{{anchor|Practical Implementation}}Implementation", "===Modulation===FM signals can be generated using either direct or indirect frequency modulation:* Direct FM modulation can be achieved by directly feeding the message into the input of a voltage-controlled oscillator.", "* For indirect FM modulation, the message signal is integrated to generate a phase-modulated signal.", "This is used to modulate a crystal-controlled oscillator, and the result is passed through a frequency multiplier to produce an FM signal.", "In this modulation, narrowband FM is generated leading to wideband FM later and hence the modulation is known as indirect FM modulation.===Demodulation===FM modulationMany FM detector circuits exist.", "A common method for recovering the information signal is through a Foster–Seeley discriminator or ratio detector.", "A phase-locked loop can be used as an FM demodulator.", "''Slope detection'' demodulates an FM signal by using a tuned circuit which has its resonant frequency slightly offset from the carrier.", "As the frequency rises and falls the tuned circuit provides a changing amplitude of response, converting FM to AM.", "AM receivers may detect some FM transmissions by this means, although it does not provide an efficient means of detection for FM broadcasts.", "In Software-Defined Radio implementations the demodulation may be carried out by using the Hilbert transform (implemented as a filter) to recover the instantaneous phase, and thereafter differentiating this phase (using another filter) to recover the instantaneous frequency.", "Alternatively, a complex mixer followed by a bandpass filter may be used to translate the signal to baseband, and then proceeding as before." ], [ "Applications", "=== Doppler effect===When an echolocating bat approaches a target, its outgoing sounds return as echoes, which are Doppler-shifted upward in frequency.", "In certain species of bats, which produce constant frequency (CF) echolocation calls, the bats compensate for the Doppler shift by lowering their call frequency as they approach a target.", "This keeps the returning echo in the same frequency range of the normal echolocation call.", "This dynamic frequency modulation is called the '''Doppler Shift Compensation''' (DSC), and was discovered by Hans Schnitzler in 1968.===Magnetic tape storage===FM is also used at intermediate frequencies by analog VCR systems (including VHS) to record the luminance (black and white) portions of the video signal.", "Commonly, the chrominance component is recorded as a conventional AM signal, using the higher-frequency FM signal as bias.", "FM is the only feasible method of recording the luminance (\"black-and-white\") component of video to (and retrieving video from) magnetic tape without distortion; video signals have a large range of frequency components – from a few hertz to several megahertz, too wide for equalizers to work with due to electronic noise below −60 dB.", "FM also keeps the tape at saturation level, acting as a form of noise reduction; a limiter can mask variations in playback output, and the FM capture effect removes print-through and pre-echo.", "A continuous pilot-tone, if added to the signal – as was done on V2000 and many Hi-band formats – can keep mechanical jitter under control and assist timebase correction.These FM systems are unusual, in that they have a ratio of carrier to maximum modulation frequency of less than two; contrast this with FM audio broadcasting, where the ratio is around 10,000.Consider, for example, a 6-MHz carrier modulated at a 3.5-MHz rate; by Bessel analysis, the first sidebands are on 9.5 and 2.5 MHz and the second sidebands are on 13 MHz and −1 MHz.", "The result is a reversed-phase sideband on +1 MHz; on demodulation, this results in unwanted output at 6 – 1 = 5 MHz.", "The system must be designed so that this unwanted output is reduced to an acceptable level.===Sound===FM is also used at audio frequencies to synthesize sound.", "This technique, known as FM synthesis, was popularized by early digital synthesizers and became a standard feature in several generations of personal computer sound cards.===Radio===An American FM radio transmitter in Buffalo, NY at WEDGEdwin Howard Armstrong (1890–1954) was an American electrical engineer who invented wideband frequency modulation (FM) radio.He patented the regenerative circuit in 1914, the superheterodyne receiver in 1918 and the super-regenerative circuit in 1922.Armstrong presented his paper, \"A Method of Reducing Disturbances in Radio Signaling by a System of Frequency Modulation\", (which first described FM radio) before the New York section of the Institute of Radio Engineers on November 6, 1935.The paper was published in 1936.As the name implies, wideband FM (WFM) requires a wider signal bandwidth than amplitude modulation by an equivalent modulating signal; this also makes the signal more robust against noise and interference.", "Frequency modulation is also more robust against signal-amplitude-fading phenomena.", "As a result, FM was chosen as the modulation standard for high frequency, high fidelity radio transmission, hence the term \"FM radio\" (although for many years the BBC called it \"VHF radio\" because commercial FM broadcasting uses part of the VHF bandthe FM broadcast band).", "FM receivers employ a special detector for FM signals and exhibit a phenomenon known as the ''capture effect'', in which the tuner \"captures\" the stronger of two stations on the same frequency while rejecting the other (compare this with a similar situation on an AM receiver, where both stations can be heard simultaneously).", "However, frequency drift or a lack of selectivity may cause one station to be overtaken by another on an adjacent channel.", "Frequency drift was a problem in early (or inexpensive) receivers; inadequate selectivity may affect any tuner.An FM signal can also be used to carry a stereo signal; this is done with multiplexing and demultiplexing before and after the FM process.", "The FM modulation and demodulation process is identical in stereo and monaural processes.", "A high-efficiency radio-frequency switching amplifier can be used to transmit FM signals (and other constant-amplitude signals).", "For a given signal strength (measured at the receiver antenna), switching amplifiers use less battery power and typically cost less than a linear amplifier.", "This gives FM another advantage over other modulation methods requiring linear amplifiers, such as AM and QAM.FM is commonly used at VHF radio frequencies for high-fidelity broadcasts of music and speech.", "Analog TV sound is also broadcast using FM.", "Narrowband FM is used for voice communications in commercial and amateur radio settings.", "In broadcast services, where audio fidelity is important, wideband FM is generally used.", "In two-way radio, narrowband FM (NBFM) is used to conserve bandwidth for land mobile, marine mobile and other radio services.There are reports that on October 5, 1924, Professor Mikhail A. Bonch-Bruevich, during a scientific and technical conversation in the Nizhny Novgorod Radio Laboratory, reported about his new method of telephony, based on a change in the period of oscillations.", "Demonstration of frequency modulation was carried out on the laboratory model." ], [ "See also", "* Amplitude modulation* Continuous-wave frequency-modulated radar* Chirp* FM broadcasting* FM stereo* FM-UWB (FM and Ultra Wideband)* History of radio* Modulation, for a list of other modulation techniques* Phase modulation" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* Analog Modulation online interactive demonstration using Python in Google Colab Platform, by C Foh." ] ]
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[ [ "Faith and rationality" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Faith and rationality''' exist in varying degrees of conflict or compatibility.", "Rationality is based on reason or facts.", "Faith is belief in inspiration, revelation, or authority.", "The word ''faith'' sometimes refers to a belief that is held in spite of or against reason or empirical evidence, or it can refer to belief based upon a degree of evidential warrant." ], [ "Relationship between faith and reason", "Rationalists point out that many people hold irrational beliefs, for many reasons.", "There may be evolutionary causes for irrational beliefs — irrational beliefs may increase our ability to survive and reproduce.One more reason for irrational beliefs can perhaps be explained by operant conditioning.", "For example, in one study by B. F. Skinner in 1948, pigeons were awarded grain at regular time intervals regardless of their behaviour.", "The result was that each of the pigeons developed their own idiosyncratic response which had become associated with the consequence of receiving grain.Believers in the value of faith — for example those who believe salvation is possible through faith alone — frequently suggest that everyone holds beliefs arrived at by faith, not reason.One form of belief held \"by faith\" may be seen existing in a faith as based on warrant.", "In this view some degree of evidence provides warrant for faith; it consists in other words in \"explaining great things by small.\"" ], [ "Christianity", "=== Catholic views ===Thomas Aquinas was the first to write a full treatment of the relationship, differences, and similarities between faith, which he calls \"an intellectual assent\", and reason.", "''Dei Filius'' was a dogmatic constitution of the First Vatican Council on the Roman Catholic faith.", "It was adopted unanimously on 24 April 1870.It states that \"not only can faith and reason never be opposed to one another, but they are of mutual aid one to the other\".Recent popes have spoken about faith and rationality: ''Fides et ratio'', an encyclical letter promulgated by Pope John Paul II on 14 September 1998, deals with the relationship between faith and reason.", "Pope Benedict XVI's Regensburg lecture, delivered on 12 September 2006, was on the subject of \"faith, reason and the university\".=== Lutheran views ====== Reformed views ===Alvin Plantinga upholds that faith may be the result of evidence testifying to the reliability of the source of truth claims, but although it may involve this, he sees faith as being the result of hearing the truth of the gospel with the internal persuasion by the Holy Spirit moving and enabling him to believe.", "\"Christian belief is produced in the believer by the internal instigation of the Holy Spirit, endorsing the teachings of Scripture, which is itself divinely inspired by the Holy Spirit.", "The result of the work of the Holy Spirit is faith.", "\"=== Evangelical views ===American biblical scholar Archibald Thomas Robertson stated that the Greek word ''pistis'' used for faith in the New Testament (over two hundred forty times), and rendered \"assurance\" in Acts 17:31 (KJV), is \"an old verb to furnish, used regularly by Demosthenes for bringing forward evidence.\"", "Likewise Tom Price (Oxford Centre for Christian Apologetics) affirms that when the New Testament talks about faith positively it only uses words derived from the Greek root pistis which means \"to be persuaded.", "\"In contrast to faith meaning blind trust, in the absence of evidence, even in the teeth of evidence, Alister McGrath quotes Oxford Anglican theologian W. H. Griffith-Thomas, (1861-1924), who states faith is \"not blind, but intelligent\" and \"commences with the conviction of the mind based on adequate evidence\", which McGrath sees as \"a good and reliable definition, synthesizing the core elements of the characteristic Christian understanding of faith.\"" ], [ "Jewish views", "The 14th-century Jewish philosopher Levi ben Gerson tried to reconcile faith and reason.", "He wrote: \"the Law cannot prevent us from considering to be true that which our reason urges us to believe.\"" ], [ "Islamic view" ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "**" ] ]
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[ [ "List of film institutes" ], [ "Introduction", "Some notable institutions celebrating film, including both national film institutes and independent and non-profit organizations.", "For the purposes of this list, institutions that do not have their own article on Wikipedia are not considered notable.", "* American Film Institute* Asia Pacific Film Institute* Asian Academy of Film & Television* Australian Film Institute* British Film Institute * Canadian Film Institute * Danish Film Institute* Doha Film Institute* Film and Television Institute of India* Finnish Film Foundation* German Film Institute* Irish Film Institute* K. R. Narayanan National Institute of Visual Science and Arts* Mowelfund Film Institute* Norwegian Film Institute* Satyajit Ray Film and Television Institute* Sundance Institute * Swedish Film Institute* University of the Philippines Film Institute" ], [ "See also", "*List of film schools and programs" ] ]
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[ [ "Forth" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Forth''' or '''FORTH''' may refer to:" ], [ "Arts and entertainment", "* ''forth'' magazine, an Internet magazine* ''Forth'' (album), by The Verve, 2008* ''Forth'', a 2011 album by Proto-Kaw* Radio Forth, a group of independent local radio stations in Scotland" ], [ "People", "* Eric Forth (1944–2006), British politician* Frederick Forth (1808–1876), British colonial administrator* Hugh Forth (1610–1676), English politician* Jane Forth (born 1953), American actress and model* John Forth (c. 1769 – 1848), British jockey and racehorse trainer* Lisette Denison Forth (c. 1786 – 1866), American slave who became a landowner and philanthropist* Tasman Forth, pen name of Alexander Rud Mills (1885–1964), Australian Odinist" ], [ "Places", "* Forth, Tasmania, Australia* Forth, Eckental, Germany* Forth, South Lanarkshire, Scotland* River Forth, in Scotland* River Forth (Tasmania), Australia* Forth (County Carlow barony), Ireland* Forth (County Wexford barony), Ireland* Forth (Edinburgh ward), Scotland" ], [ "Ships", "* , the name of several ships of the Royal Navy* , a sailing ship built at Calcutta, British India* , a sailing ship built at Leith, Scotland" ], [ "Other uses", "* Forth (programming language)* Foundation for Research & Technology – Hellas, a research centre in Greece" ], [ "See also", "* Fort (disambiguation)* Fourth (disambiguation)* Sally Forth (disambiguation)* Firth of Forth, an estuary in Scotland** Islands of the Forth" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "F wave" ], [ "Introduction", "In neuroscience, an '''F wave''' is one of several motor responses which may follow the direct motor response (M) evoked by electrical stimulation of peripheral motor or mixed (sensory and motor) nerves.", "F-waves are the second of two late voltage changes observed after stimulation is applied to the skin surface above the distal region of a nerve, in addition to the H-reflex (Hoffman's Reflex) which is a muscle reaction in response to electrical stimulation of innervating sensory fibers.", "Traversal of F-waves along the entire length of peripheral nerves between the spinal cord and muscle, allows for assessment of motor nerve conduction between distal stimulation sites in the arm and leg, and related motoneurons (MN's) in the cervical and lumbosacral cord.", "F-waves are able to assess both afferent and efferent loops of the alpha motor neuron in its entirety.", "As such, various properties of F-wave motor nerve conduction are analyzed in nerve conduction studies (NCS), and often used to assess polyneuropathies, resulting from states of neuronal demyelination and loss of peripheral axonal integrity.With respect to its nomenclature, the F-wave is so named as it was initially studied in the smaller muscles of the foot.", "The observation of F-waves in the same motor units (MU) as those present in the direct motor response (M), along with the presence of F-waves in deafferented animal and human models, indicates that F-waves require direct activation of motor axons to be elicited, and do not involve conduction along afferent sensory nerves.", "Thus, the F-wave is considered a wave, as opposed to a reflex." ], [ "Physiology", "F-waves are evoked by strong electrical stimuli (supramaximal) applied to the skin surface above the distal portion of a nerve.", "This impulse travels both in orthodromic fashion (towards the muscle fibers) and antidromic fashion (towards the cell body in the spinal cord) along the alpha motor neuron.", "As the orthodromic impulse reaches innervated muscle fibers, a strong direct motor response (M) is evoked in these muscle fibers, resulting in a primary compound muscle action potential (CMAP).", "As the antidromic impulse reaches the cell bodies within the anterior horn of the motor neuron pool by retrograde transmission, a select portion of these alpha motor neurons, (roughly 5-10% of available motor neurons), 'backfire' or rebound.", "This antidromic 'backfiring' elicits an orthodromic impulse that follows back down the alpha motor neuron, towards innervated muscle fibers.", "Conventionally, axonal segments of motor neurons previously depolarized by preceding antidromic impulses enter a hyperpolarized state, disallowing the travel of impulses along them.", "However, these same axonal segments remains excitable or relatively depolarized for a sufficient period of time, allowing for rapid antidromic backfiring, and thus the continuation of the orthodromic impulse towards innervated muscle fibers.", "This successive orthodromic stimulus then evokes a smaller population of muscle fibers, resulting in a smaller CMAP known as an F-wave.Several physiological factors may possibly influence the presence of F-waves after peripheral nerve stimulation.", "The shape and size of F-waves, along with the probability of their presence is small, as a high degree of variability exists in motor unit (MU) activation for any given stimulation.", "Thus, the generation of CMAP's which elicit F-waves is subject to the variability in activation of motor units in a given pool over successive stimuli.", "Moreover, stimulation of peripheral nerve fibers account for both orthodromic impulses (along sensory fibers, towards the dorsal horn), as well as antidromic activity (along alpha motor neurons towards the ventral horn).", "Antidromic activity along collateral branches of alpha motor neurons may result in the activation of inhibitory Renshaw cells or direct inhibitory collaterals between motorneurons.", "Inhibition by these means may lower excitability of adjacent motor neurons and decrease the potential for antidromic backfiring and resultant F-waves; although it has been argued Renshaw cells preferentially inhibit smaller alpha motor neurons limited influence on modulation of antidromic backfiring.Because a different population of anterior horn cells is stimulated with each stimulation, F waves are characterized as ubiquitous, low amplitude, late motor responses, which can vary in amplitude, latency and configuration across a series of stimuli." ], [ "Properties", "F waves can be analyzed by several properties including:* ''amplitude'' (μV) - height or voltage of F wave* ''duration'' (ms) - length of F wave* ''latency'' (ms) - period between initial stimulation and F wave elicitation" ], [ "Measurements", "Several measurements can be done on the F responses, including:* ''minimal and maximal F wave latencies (ms) -'' frequently used in the assessment of demyelinating neuropathic conditions including Guillain-Barré syndrome.", "* ''chronodispersion -'' difference in maximal and minimal latencies across a series of F waves* ''F wave persistence -'' measure of alpha motor neuron excitability calculated as the number of F responses elicited divided by the number of stimuli presented.The minimal F wave latency is typically 25-32 ms in the upper extremities and 45-56 ms in the lower extremities.F wave persistence is the number of F waves obtained per the number of stimulations, which is normally 80-100% (or above 50%)." ], [ "See also", "* H reflex* Electromyography (EMG)" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fruit" ], [ "Introduction", "Various fruits arranged at a stall in the alt=see captionblackberries, strawberries, and raspberriesIn botany, a '''fruit''' is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants that is formed from the ovary after flowering (see Fruit anatomy).Fruits are the means by which flowering plants (also known as angiosperms) disseminate their seeds.", "Edible fruits in particular have long propagated using the movements of humans and other animals in a symbiotic relationship that is the means for seed dispersal for the one group and nutrition for the other; in fact, humans and many other animals have become dependent on fruits as a source of food.", "Consequently, fruits account for a substantial fraction of the world's agricultural output, and some (such as the apple and the pomegranate) have acquired extensive cultural and symbolic meanings.In common language usage, ''fruit'' normally means the seed-associated fleshy structures (or produce) of plants that typically are sweet or sour and edible in the raw state, such as apples, bananas, grapes, lemons, oranges, and strawberries.", "In botanical usage, the term ''fruit'' also includes many structures that are not commonly called 'fruits' in everyday language, such as nuts, bean pods, corn kernels, tomatoes, and wheat grains." ], [ "Botanical vs. culinary", "corn (maize), tomatoes, and various squashMany common language terms used for fruit and seeds differ from botanical classifications.", "For example, in botany, a ''fruit'' is a ripened ovary or carpel that contains seeds, e.g., an orange, pomegranate, tomato or a pumpkin.", "A ''nut'' is a type of fruit (and not a seed), and a ''seed'' is a ripened ovule.In culinary language, a ''fruit'' is the sweet- or not sweet- (even sour-) tasting produce of a specific plant (e.g., a peach, pear or lemon); ''nuts'' are hard, oily, non-sweet plant produce in shells (hazelnut, acorn).", "''Vegetables'', so called, typically are savory or non-sweet produce (zucchini, lettuce, broccoli, and tomato); but some may be sweet-tasting (sweet potato).Examples of botanically classified fruit that are typically called vegetables include: cucumber, pumpkin, and squash (all are cucurbits); beans, peanuts, and peas (all legumes); corn, eggplant, bell pepper (or sweet pepper), and tomato.", "The spices chili pepper and allspice are fruits, botanically speaking.", "In contrast, rhubarb is often called a fruit when used in making pies, but the edible produce of rhubarb is actually the leaf stalk or petiole of the plant.", "Edible gymnosperm seeds are often given fruit names, e.g., ginkgo nuts and pine nuts.Botanically, a cereal grain, such as corn, rice, or wheat is a kind of fruit (termed a caryopsis).", "However, the fruit wall is thin and fused to the seed coat, so almost all the edible grain-fruit is actually a seed." ], [ "Structure", "Pomegranate fruit – whole and piece with arilsThe outer layer, often edible, of most fruits is called the ''pericarp''.", "Typically formed from the ovary, it surrounds the seeds; in some species, however, other structural tissues contribute to or form the edible portion.", "The pericarp may be described in three layers from outer to inner, i.e., the ''epicarp'', ''mesocarp'' and ''endocarp''.Fruit that bears a prominent pointed terminal projection is said to be ''beaked''." ], [ "Development", "A fruit results from the fertilizing and maturing of one or more flowers.", "The gynoecium, which contains the ''stigma-style-ovary'' system, is centered in the flower-head, and it forms all or part of the fruit.", "Inside the ovary(ies) are one or more ovules.", "Here begins a complex sequence called ''double fertilization'': a female gametophyte produces an egg cell for the purpose of fertilization.", "(A female gametophyte is called a ''megagametophyte'', and also called the ''embryo sac''.)", "After double fertilization, the ovules will become seeds.Ovules are fertilized in a process that starts with pollination, which is the movement of pollen from the stamens to the stigma-style-ovary system within the flower-head.", "After pollination, a pollen tube grows from the (deposited) pollen through the stigma down the style into the ovary to the ovule.", "Two sperm are transferred from the pollen to a megagametophyte.", "Within the megagametophyte, one sperm unites with the egg, forming a zygote, while the second sperm enters the central cell forming the endosperm mother cell, which completes the double fertilization process.", "Later, the zygote will give rise to the embryo of the seed, and the endosperm mother cell will give rise to endosperm, a nutritive tissue used by the embryo.As the ovules develop into seeds, the ovary begins to ripen and the ovary wall, the ''pericarp'', may become fleshy (as in berries or drupes), or it may form a hard outer covering (as in nuts).", "In some multi-seeded fruits, the extent to which a fleshy structure develops is proportional to the number of fertilized ovules.", "The pericarp typically is differentiated into two or three distinct layers; these are called the ''exocarp'' (outer layer, also called epicarp), ''mesocarp'' (middle layer), and ''endocarp'' (inner layer).In some fruits, the sepals, petals, stamens and/or the style of the flower fall away as the fleshy fruit ripens.", "However, for simple fruits derived from an ''inferior ovary'' – i.e., one that lies the attachment of other floral parts – there are parts (including petals, sepals, and stamens) that fuse with the ovary and ripen with it.", "For such a case, when floral parts other than the ovary form a significant part of the fruit that develops, it is called an accessory fruit.", "Examples of accessory fruits include apple, rose hip, strawberry, and pineapple.Because several parts of the flower besides the ovary may contribute to the structure of a fruit, it is important to understand how a particular fruit forms.", "There are three general modes of fruit development:* Apocarpous fruits develop from a ''single flower'' (while having one or more separate, unfused, carpels); they are the simple fruits.", "* Syncarpous fruits develop from a ''single gynoecium'' (having two or more carpels fused together).", "* Multiple fruits form from many flowers – i.e., an inflorescence of flowers.File:Nectarine Fruit Development.jpg|The development sequence of a typical drupe, the nectarine (''Prunus persica'') over a 7.5-month period, from bud formation in early winter to fruit ripening in midsummerFile:Mature flower diagram.svg|right|The parts of a flower, showing the stigma-style-ovary system.File:Pome apples text.jpg|An apple is a simple, fleshy fruit.", "Key parts are the epicarp, or exocarp, or outer skin (not labelled); and the mesocarp and endocarp (labelled).image:Ovary position.svg|right|upright 1.5|Insertion point: There are three positions of insertion of the ovary at the base of a flower: I superior; II half-inferior; III inferior.", "The 'insertion point' is where the androecium parts (a), the petals (p), and the sepals (s) all converge and attach to the receptacle (r).", "(Ovary=gynoecium (g).", ")File:Noni fruit dev.jpg|upright 1.5|In the noni, flowers are produced in time-sequence along the stem.", "It is possible to see a progression of flowering, fruit development, and fruit ripening.Tweelinggroei appels.jpg|Twin apples." ], [ "Classification of fruits", "Dewberry flowers.", "Note the multiple pistils, each of which will produce a drupelet.", "Each flower will become a blackberry-like aggregate fruit.Dewberry fruitConsistent with the three modes of fruit development, plant scientists have classified fruits into three main groups: simple fruits, aggregate fruits, and multiple (or composite) fruits.", "The groupings reflect how the ovary and other flower organs are arranged and how the fruits develop, but they are not evolutionarily relevant as diverse plant taxa may be in the same group.While the section of a fungus that produces spores is called a ''fruiting'' body, fungi are members of the fungi kingdom and not of the plant kingdom.=== Simple fruits ===A dry simple fruit: milkweed (''Asclepias syriaca''); dehiscence of the follicular fruit reveals seeds within.Simple fruits are the result of the ripening-to-fruit of a simple or compound ovary in a ''single flower'' with a ''single pistil''.", "In contrast, a single flower with numerous pistils typically produces an aggregate fruit; and the merging of several flowers, or a 'multiple' of flowers, results in a 'multiple' fruit.", "A simple fruit is further classified as either dry or fleshy.To distribute their seeds, dry fruits may split open and discharge their seeds to the winds, which is called dehiscence.", "Or the distribution process may rely upon the decay and degradation of the fruit to expose the seeds; or it may rely upon the eating of fruit and excreting of seeds by frugivores – both are called indehiscence.", "Fleshy fruits do not split open, but they also are indehiscent and they may also rely on frugivores for distribution of their seeds.", "Typically, the entire outer layer of the ovary wall ripens into a potentially edible pericarp.Types of dry simple fruits, (with examples) include:* Achene – most commonly seen in aggregate fruits (e.g., strawberry, see below).", "* Capsule – (Brazil nut: botanically, it is not a nut).", "* Caryopsis – (cereal grains, including wheat, rice, oats, barley).", "* Cypsela – an achene-like fruit derived from the individual florets in a capitulum: (dandelion).", "* Fibrous drupe – (coconut, walnut: botanically, neither is a true nut.).", "* Follicle – follicles are formed from a single carpel, and opens by one suture: (milkweed); also commonly seen in aggregate fruits: (magnolia, peony).", "* Legume – (bean, pea, peanut: botanically, the peanut is the seed of a legume, not a nut).", "* Loment – a type of indehiscent legume: (sweet vetch or wild potato).", "* Nut – (beechnut, hazelnut, acorn (of the oak): botanically, these are true nuts).", "* Samara – (ash, elm, maple key).", "* Schizocarp, see below – (carrot seed).", "* Silique – (radish seed).", "* Silicle – (shepherd's purse).", "* Utricle – (beet, ''Rumex'').Fruits in which part or all of the ''pericarp'' (fruit wall) is fleshy at maturity are termed ''fleshy simple fruits''.Types of fleshy simple fruits, (with examples) include:* Berry – the berry is the most common type of fleshy fruit.", "The entire outer layer of the ovary wall ripens into a potentially edible \"pericarp\", (see below).", "* Stone fruit or drupe – the definitive characteristic of a drupe is the hard, \"lignified\" stone (sometimes called the \"pit\").", "It is derived from the ovary wall of the flower: apricot, cherry, olive, peach, plum, mango.", "* Pome – the pome fruits: apples, pears, rosehips, saskatoon berry, etc., are a syncarpous (fused) fleshy fruit, a simple fruit, developing from a half-inferior ovary.", "Pomes are of the family Rosaceae.==== Berries ====banana cultivars (Bananas are berries.", ")aggregate accessory fruit.", "''Magnolia'' × ''wieseneri'' showing the many pistils making up the gynoecium in the middle of the flower.", "The fruit of this flower is an aggregation of follicles.Berries are a type of simple fleshy fruit that issue from a single ovary.", "(The ovary itself may be compound, with several carpels.)", "The botanical term ''true berry'' includes grapes, currants, cucumbers, eggplants (aubergines), tomatoes, chili peppers, and bananas, but excludes certain fruits that are called \"-berry\" by culinary custom or by common usage of the term – such as strawberries and raspberries.", "Berries may be formed from one or more carpels (i.e., from the simple or compound ovary) from the same, single flower.", "Seeds typically are embedded in the fleshy interior of the ovary.Examples include:* Tomato – in culinary terms, the tomato is regarded as a vegetable, but it is botanically classified as a fruit and a berry.", "* Banana – the fruit has been described as a \"leathery berry\".", "In cultivated varieties, the seeds are diminished nearly to non-existence.", "* Pepo – berries with skin that is hardened: cucurbits, including gourds, squash, melons.", "* Hesperidium – berries with a rind and a juicy interior: most citrus fruit.", "* Cranberry, gooseberry, redcurrant, grape.The strawberry, regardless of its appearance, is classified as a dry, not a fleshy fruit.", "Botanically, it is not a berry; it is an aggregate-accessory fruit, the latter term meaning the fleshy part is derived not from the plant's ovaries but from the receptacle that holds the ovaries.", "Numerous dry achenes are attached to the outside of the fruit-flesh; they appear to be seeds but each is actually an ovary of a flower, with a seed inside.Schizocarps are dry fruits, though some appear to be fleshy.", "They originate from syncarpous ovaries but do not actually dehisce; rather, they split into segments with one or more seeds.", "They include a number of different forms from a wide range of families, including carrot, parsnip, parsley, cumin.=== Aggregate fruits ===stigma is the apical (at the apex) nodule that receives pollen; the style is the stem-like column that extends down to the ovary, which is the basal part that contains the seed-forming ovule.", "''Lilium'' unripe capsule fruit; an aggregate fruit.An aggregate fruit is also called an aggregation, or ''etaerio''; it develops from a single flower that presents numerous simple pistils.", "Each pistil contains one carpel; together, they form a fruitlet.", "The ultimate (fruiting) development of the aggregation of pistils is called an ''aggregate fruit'', ''etaerio fruit'', or simply an ''etaerio''.Different types of aggregate fruits can produce different etaerios, such as achenes, drupelets, follicles, and berries.", "* For example, the Ranunculaceae species, including ''Clematis'' and ''Ranunculus'', produces an etaerio of achenes;* ''Rubus'' species, including raspberry: an etaerio of drupelets;* ''Calotropis'' species: an etaerio of follicles fruit;* ''Annona'' species: an etaerio of berries.Some other broadly recognized species and their etaerios (or aggregations) are:* Teasel; fruit is an aggregation of cypselas.", "* Tuliptree; fruit is an aggregation of samaras.", "* Magnolia and peony; fruit is an aggregation of follicles.", "* American sweet gum; fruit is an aggregation of capsules.", "* Sycamore; fruit is an aggregation of achenes.The pistils of the raspberry are called ''drupelets'' because each pistil is like a small drupe attached to the receptacle.", "In some bramble fruits, such as blackberry, the receptacle, an accessory part, elongates and then develops as part of the fruit, making the blackberry an aggregate-accessory fruit.", "The strawberry is also an aggregate-accessory fruit, of which the seeds are contained in the achenes.", "Notably in all these examples, the fruit develops from a single flower, with numerous pistils.=== Multiple fruits ===A multiple fruit is formed from a cluster of flowers, (a 'multiple' of flowers) – also called an ''inflorescence''.", "Each ('smallish') flower produces a single fruitlet, which, as all develop, all merge into one mass of fruit.", "Examples include pineapple, fig, mulberry, Osage orange, and breadfruit.", "An inflorescence (a cluster) of white flowers, called a head, is produced first.", "After fertilization, each flower in the cluster develops into a drupe; as the drupes expand, they develop as a ''connate'' organ, merging into a multiple fleshy fruit called a ''syncarp''.Progressive stages of multiple flowering and fruit development can be observed on a single branch of the Indian mulberry, or ''noni''.", "During the sequence of development, a progression of second, third, and more inflorescences are initiated in turn at the head of the branch or stem.=== Accessory fruit forms ===Fruits may incorporate tissues derived from other floral parts besides the ovary, including the receptacle, hypanthium, petals, or sepals.", "Accessory fruits occur in all three classes of fruit development – simple, aggregate, and multiple.", "Accessory fruits are frequently designated by the hyphenated term showing both characters.", "For example, a pineapple is a multiple-accessory fruit, a blackberry is an aggregate-accessory fruit, and an apple is a simple-accessory fruit.=== Table of fleshy fruit examples ===+ Types of fleshy fruits Type Examples Simple fleshy fruit True berry, stone fruit, pome Aggregate fruit Boysenberry, lilium, magnolia, raspberry, pawpaw, blackberry, strawberry Multiple fruit Fig, osage orange, mulberry, pineapple True berry Banana, blackcurrant, blueberry, chili pepper, cranberry, eggplant, gooseberry, grape, guava, kiwifruit, lucuma, pomegranate, redcurrant, tomato, watermelon True berry: Pepo Cucumber, gourd, melon, pumpkin True berry: Hesperidium Grapefruit, lemon, lime, orange Accessory fruit Apple, rose hip, stone fruit, pineapple, blackberry, strawberry" ], [ "Seedless fruits", "The fruit of a pineapple includes tissue from the sepals as well as the pistils of many flowers.", "It is a multiple-accessory fruit.Seedlessness is an important feature of some fruits of commerce.", "Commercial cultivars of bananas and pineapples are examples of seedless fruits.", "Some cultivars of citrus fruits (especially grapefruit, mandarin oranges, navel oranges), satsumas, table grapes, and of watermelons are valued for their seedlessness.", "In some species, seedlessness is the result of ''parthenocarpy'', where fruits set without fertilization.", "Parthenocarpic fruit-set may (or may not) require pollination, but most seedless citrus fruits require a stimulus from pollination to produce fruit.", "Seedless bananas and grapes are triploids, and seedlessness results from the abortion of the embryonic plant that is produced by fertilization, a phenomenon known as ''stenospermocarpy'', which requires normal pollination and fertilization." ], [ "Seed dissemination", "Variations in fruit structures largely depend on the modes of dispersal applied to their seeds.", "Dispersal is achieved by wind or water, by explosive dehiscence, and by interactions with animals.Some fruits present their outer skins or shells coated with spikes or hooked burrs; these evolved either to deter would-be foragers from feeding on them or to serve to attach themselves to the hair, feathers, legs, or clothing of animals, thereby using them as dispersal agents.", "These plants are termed zoochorous; common examples include cocklebur, unicorn plant, and beggarticks (or Spanish needle).By developments of mutual evolution, the fleshy produce of fruits typically appeals to hungry animals, such that the seeds contained within are taken in, carried away, and later deposited (i.e., defecated) at a distance from the parent plant.", "Likewise, the nutritious, oily kernels of nuts typically motivate birds and squirrels to hoard them, burying them in soil to retrieve later during the winter of scarcity; thereby, uneaten seeds are sown effectively under natural conditions to germinate and grow a new plant some distance away from the parent.Other fruits have evolved flattened and elongated wings or helicopter-like blades, e.g., elm, maple, and tuliptree.", "This mechanism increases dispersal distance away from the parent via wind.", "Other wind-dispersed fruit have tiny \"parachutes\", e.g., dandelion, milkweed, salsify.Coconut fruits can float thousands of miles in the ocean, thereby spreading their seeds.", "Other fruits that can disperse via water are nipa palm and screw pine.Some fruits have evolved propulsive mechanisms that fling seeds substantial distances – perhaps up to in the case of the sandbox tree – via explosive dehiscence or other such mechanisms (see impatiens and squirting cucumber)." ], [ "Food uses", "Picking blackberries in Oklahoma A cornucopia of fruits – fleshy (simple) fruits from apples to berries to watermelon; dry (simple) fruits including beans and rice and coconuts; aggregate fruits including strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, pawpaw; and multiple fruits such as pineapple, fig, mulberries – are commercially valuable as human food.", "They are eaten both fresh and as jams, marmalade and other fruit preserves.", "They are used extensively in manufactured and processed foods (cakes, cookies, baked goods, flavorings, ice cream, yogurt, canned vegetables, frozen vegetables and meals) and beverages such as fruit juices and alcoholic beverages (brandy, fruit beer, wine).", "Spices like vanilla, black pepper, paprika, and allspice are derived from berries.", "Olive fruit is pressed for olive oil and similar processing is applied to other oil-bearing fruits and vegetables.", "Some fruits are available all year round, while others (such as blackberries and apricots in the UK) are subject to seasonal availability.Fruits are also used for socializing and gift-giving in the form of fruit baskets and fruit bouquets.Typically, many botanical fruits – \"vegetables\" in culinary parlance – (including tomato, green beans, leaf greens, bell pepper, cucumber, eggplant, okra, pumpkin, squash, zucchini) are bought and sold daily in fresh produce markets and greengroceries and carried back to kitchens, at home or restaurant, for preparation of meals.=== Storage ===All fruits benefit from proper post-harvest care, and in many fruits, the plant hormone ethylene causes ripening.", "Therefore, maintaining most fruits in an efficient cold chain is optimal for post-harvest storage, with the aim of extending and ensuring shelf life.=== Nutritional value ===recommended daily allowance, RDA) in a serving of fruit (see key at upper right).", "The amount of vitamin C (as percent RDA) is plotted on the x–axis and the amount of potassium (K), in mg on the y–axis.", "Bananas are high in value for fiber and potassium, and oranges for fiber and vitamin C. (Apricots are highest in potassium; strawberries are rich in vitamin C.) Watermelon, providing low levels of both K and vitamin C and almost no fiber, is of least value for the three nutrients together.Various culinary fruits provide significant amounts of fiber and water, and many are generally high in vitamin C. An overview of numerous studies showed that fruits (e.g., whole apples or whole oranges) are satisfying (filling) by simply eating and chewing them.The dietary fiber consumed in eating fruit promotes satiety, and may help to control body weight and aid reduction of blood cholesterol, a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases.", "Fruit consumption is under preliminary research for the potential to improve nutrition and affect chronic diseases.", "Regular consumption of fruit is generally associated with reduced risks of several diseases and functional declines associated with aging.=== Food safety ===For food safety, the CDC recommends proper fruit handling and preparation to reduce the risk of food contamination and foodborne illness.", "Fresh fruits and vegetables should be carefully selected; at the store, they should not be damaged or bruised; and precut pieces should be refrigerated or surrounded by ice.All fruits and vegetables should be rinsed before eating.", "This recommendation also applies to produce with rinds or skins that are not eaten.", "It should be done just before preparing or eating to avoid premature spoilage.Fruits and vegetables should be kept separate from raw foods like meat, poultry, and seafood, as well as from utensils that have come in contact with raw foods.", "Fruits and vegetables that are not going to be cooked should be thrown away if they have touched raw meat, poultry, seafood, or eggs.All cut, peeled, or cooked fruits and vegetables should be refrigerated within two hours.", "After a certain time, harmful bacteria may grow on them and increase the risk of foodborne illness.=== Allergies ===Fruit allergies make up about 10 percent of all food-related allergies." ], [ "Nonfood uses", "Porcelain vine is usually planted for its showy, colourful berries.Because fruits have been such a major part of the human diet, various cultures have developed many different uses for fruits they do not depend on for food.", "For example:* Bayberry fruits provide a wax often used to make candles;* Many dry fruits are used as decorations or in dried flower arrangements (e.g., annual honesty, cotoneaster, lotus, milkweed, unicorn plant, and wheat).", "Ornamental trees and shrubs are often cultivated for their colorful fruits, including beautyberry, cotoneaster, holly, pyracantha, skimmia, and viburnum.", "* Fruits of opium poppy are the source of opium, which contains the drugs codeine and morphine, as well as the biologically inactive chemical theabaine from which the drug oxycodone is synthesized.", "* Osage orange fruits are used to repel cockroaches.", "* Many fruits provide natural dyes (e.g., cherry, mulberry, sumac, and walnut).", "* Dried gourds are used as bird houses, cups, decorations, dishes, musical instruments, and water jugs.", "* Pumpkins are carved into Jack-o'-lanterns for Halloween.", "* The fibrous core of the mature and dry Luffa fruit is used as a sponge.", "* The spiny fruit of burdock or cocklebur inspired the invention of Velcro.", "* Coir fiber from coconut shells is used for brushes, doormats, floor tiles, insulation, mattresses, sacking, and as a growing medium for container plants.", "The shell of the coconut fruit is used to make bird houses, bowls, cups, musical instruments, and souvenir heads.", "* The hard and colorful grain fruits of Job's tears are used as decorative beads for jewelry, garments, and ritual objects.", "* Fruit is often a subject of still life paintings." ], [ "See also", "* Fruit tree* Fruitarianism* List of countries by fruit production* List of culinary fruits* List of foods* List of fruit dishes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Gollner, Adam J.", "(2010).", "''The Fruit Hunters: A Story of Nature, Adventure, Commerce, and Obsession''.", "Scribner.", ".", "* Watson, R. R., and Preedy, V.R.", "(2010, eds.).", "''Bioactive Foods in Promoting Health: Fruits and Vegetables''.", "Academic Press.", "." ], [ "External links", "* Images of fruit development from flowers at bioimages.Vanderbilt.edu (archived 18 February 2007)* Fruit and seed dispersal images at bioimages.Vanderbilt.edu (archived 25 April 2017)* Fruit Facts ( from California Rare Fruit Growers, Inc.)* Photo ID of Fruits ( by Capt.", "Pawanexh Kohli)*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "French materialism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''French materialism''' is the name given to a handful of French 18th-century philosophers during the Age of Enlightenment, many of them clustered around the salon of Baron d'Holbach.", "Although there are important differences between them, all of them were materialists who believed that the world was made up of a single substance, matter, the motions and properties of which could be used to explain all phenomena.", "Prominent French materialists of the 18th century include:* Julien Offray de La Mettrie* Denis Diderot* Baron d'Holbach* Claude Adrien Helvétius* Pierre Jean Georges Cabanis* Jacques-André Naigeon" ], [ "See also", "* Atheism during the Age of Enlightenment* German materialism* Mechanism (philosophy)* Metaphysical naturalism" ], [ "External links", "* Marx's essay on French Materialism on WikiSource" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "February" ], [ "Introduction", "'''February''' is the second month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars.", "The month has 28 days in common years or 29 in leap years, with the 29th day being called the ''leap day''.", "It is the first of five months not to have 31 days (the other four being April, June, September, and November) and the only one to have fewer than 30 days.February is the third and last month of meteorological winter in the Northern Hemisphere.", "In the Southern Hemisphere, February is the third and last month of meteorological summer (being the seasonal equivalent of what is August in the Northern Hemisphere)." ], [ "Pronunciation", "\"February\" is pronounced in several different ways.", "The beginning of the word is commonly pronounced either as or ; many people drop the first \"r\", replacing it with , as if it were spelled \"Febuary\".", "This comes about by analogy with \"January\" (), as well as by a dissimilation effect whereby having two \"r\"s close to each other causes one to change.", "The ending of the word is pronounced in the US and in the UK.A colloquial pronunciation (by haplology and metathesis) seen across dialects is (as if written ''Febry'', an attested vulgar form in e.g.", "unlearned writing, poetry, abbreviation)." ], [ "History", "February, from the ''February'', Leandro BassanoThe Roman month was named after the Latin term , which means \"purification\", via the purification ritual held on February 15 (full moon) in the old lunar Roman calendar.", "January and February were the last two months to be added to the Roman calendar, since the Romans originally considered winter a monthless period.", "They were added by Numa Pompilius about 713 BC.", "February remained the last month of the calendar year until the time of the decemvirs (), when it became the second month.", "At certain times February was truncated to 23 or 24 days, and a 27-day intercalary month, Intercalaris, was occasionally inserted immediately after February to realign the year with the seasons.February observances in Ancient Rome included Amburbium (precise date unknown), Sementivae (February 2), Februa (February 13–15), Lupercalia (February 13–15), Parentalia (February 13–22), Quirinalia (February 17), Feralia (February 21), Caristia (February 22), Terminalia (February 23), Regifugium (February 24), and Agonium Martiale (February 27).", "These days do not correspond to the modern Gregorian calendar.Under the reforms that instituted the Julian calendar, Intercalaris was abolished, leap years occurred regularly every fourth year, and in leap years February gained a 29th day.", "Thereafter, it remained the second month of the calendar year, meaning the order that months are displayed (January, February, March, ..., December) within a year-at-a-glance calendar.", "Even during the Middle Ages, when the numbered Anno Domini year began on March 25 or December 25, the second month was February whenever all twelve months were displayed in order.", "The Gregorian calendar reforms made slight changes to the system for determining which years were leap years, but also contained a 29-day February.Historical names for February include the Old English terms Solmonath (mud month) and Kale-monath (named for cabbage) as well as Charlemagne's designation Hornung.", "In Finnish, the month is called , meaning \"month of the pearl\"; when snow melts on tree branches, it forms droplets, and as these freeze again, they are like pearls of ice.", "In Polish and Ukrainian, respectively, the month is called or (), meaning the month of ice or hard frost.", "In Macedonian the month is (), meaning month of cutting (wood).", "In Czech, it is called , meaning month of submerging (of river ice).In Slovene, February is traditionally called , related to icicles or Candlemas.", "This name originates from , written as in the ''New Carniolan Almanac'' from 1775 and changed to its final form by Franc Metelko in his ''New Almanac'' from 1824.The name was also spelled , meaning \"the month of cutting down of trees\".", "In 1848, a proposal was put forward in ''Kmetijske in rokodelske novice'' by the Slovene Society of Ljubljana to call this month (related to ice melting), but it did not stick.", "The idea was proposed by a priest, Blaž Potočnik.", "Another name of February in Slovene was , after the mythological character Vesna." ], [ "Patterns", "Chocolates for St. Valentine's DayHaving only 28 days in common years, February is the only month of the year that can pass without a single full moon.", "Using Coordinated Universal Time as the basis for determining the date and time of a full moon, this last happened in 2018 and will next happen in 2037.The same is true regarding a new moon: again using Coordinated Universal Time as the basis, this last happened in 2014 and will next happen in 2033.February is also the only month of the calendar that, at intervals alternating between one of six years and two of eleven years, has exactly four full 7-day weeks.", "In countries that start their week on a Monday, it occurs as part of a common year starting on Friday, in which February 1st is a Monday and the 28th is a Sunday; the most recent occurrence was 2021, and the next one will be 2027.In countries that start their week on a Sunday, it occurs in a common year starting on Thursday; the most recent occurrence was 2015 and the next occurrence will be 2026.The pattern is broken by a skipped leap year, but no leap year has been skipped since 1900 and no others will be skipped until 2100." ], [ "Astronomy", "February meteor showers include the Alpha Centaurids (appearing in early February), the March Virginids (lasting from February 14 to April 25, peaking around March 20), the Delta Cancrids (appearing December 14 to February 14, peaking on January 17), the Omicron Centaurids (late January through February, peaking in mid-February), Theta Centaurids (January 23 – March 12, only visible in the southern hemisphere), Eta Virginids (February 24 and March 27, peaking around March 18), and Pi Virginids (February 13 and April 8, peaking between March 3 and March 9)." ], [ "Symbols", "violetWhite and mauve primrosesSiberian irisAmethyst crystalsThe zodiac signs of February are Aquarius (until February 18) and Pisces (February 19 onward).Its birth flowers are the violet (''Viola''), the common primrose (''Primula vulgaris''), and the Iris.", "Its birthstone is the amethyst, which symbolizes piety, humility, spiritual wisdom, and sincerity." ], [ "Observances", "''This list does not necessarily imply either official status nor general observance.", "''=== Month-long ===* In Catholic tradition, February is the Month of the Purification of the Blessed Virgin Mary.", "* American Heart Month (United States)* Black History Month (United States, Canada)* National Bird-Feeding Month (United States)* National Children's Dental Health Month (United States)* Season for Nonviolence: January 30 – April 4 (International observance)* Turner Syndrome Awareness Month (United States)* LGBT History Month (United Kingdom, Ireland)=== Non-Gregorian ===''(All Baha'i, Islamic, and Jewish observances begin at the sundown prior to the date listed, and end at sundown of the date in question unless otherwise noted.", ")''* List of observances set by the Bahá'í calendar* List of observances set by the Chinese calendar* List of observances set by the Hebrew calendar* List of observances set by the Islamic calendar* List of observances set by the Solar Hijri calendar=== Movable ===* Food Freedom Day (Canada): Date changes each year* Safer Internet Day: First day of second week* National Day of the Sun (Argentina): Date varies based on province'''First Saturday'''* Ice Cream for Breakfast Day'''First Sunday '''* Mother's Day (Kosovo)'''First Week of February (first Monday, ending on Sunday)'''* Doppelganger Week* World Interfaith Harmony Week'''First Monday'''* Constitution Day (Mexico)* National Frozen Yogurt Day (United States)'''First Friday '''* National Wear Red Day (United States)'''Second Saturday '''* International Purple Hijab Day'''Second Sunday'''* Autism Sunday (United Kingdom)* Children's Day (Cook Islands, Nauru, Niue, Tokelau, Cayman Islands)* Mother's Day (Norway)* Super Bowl Sunday (United States)* World Marriage Day'''Second Monday'''* Meal Monday (Scotland)'''Second Tuesday '''* National Sports Day (Qatar)'''Week of February 22 '''* National Engineers Week (U.S.)'''Third Monday'''* Family Day (Canada) (provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island.", ")* President's Day/Washington's Birthday (United States)'''Third Thursday'''* Global Information Governance Day'''Third Friday '''* Yukon Heritage Day (Canada)'''Last Friday'''* International Stand Up to Bullying Day'''Last Saturday'''* Open That Bottle Night'''Last day of February'''* Rare Disease Day=== Fixed ===* February 1** Abolition of Slavery Day (Mauritius)** Air Force Day (Nicaragua)** Federal Territory Day (Kuala Lumpur, Labuan and Putrajaya, Malaysia)** Heroes' Day (Rwanda)** Imbolc (Ireland, Scotland, Isle of Man, and some Neopagan groups in the Northern hemisphere)** Lammas (some Neopagan groups in the Southern hemisphere)** Memorial Day of the Republic (Hungary)** National Freedom Day (United States)* February 2** Anniversary of Treaty of Tartu (Estonia)** Constitution Day (Philippines)** Day of Youth (Azerbaijan)** Feast of the Presentation of Jesus at the Temple (or Candlemas) (Western Christianity), and its related observances:*** A quarter day in the Christian liturgical calendar (due to Candlemas) (Scotland)*** Celebration of Yemanja (Candomblé)** Groundhog Day (United States and Canada)*** Marmot Day (Alaska, United States)** Inventor's Day (Thailand)** National Tater Tot Day (United States)** World Wetlands Day* February 3** Anniversary of The Day the Music Died (United States)** Communist Party of Vietnam Foundation Anniversary (Vietnam)** Day of the Virgin of Suyapa (Honduras)** Heroes' Day (Mozambique)** Martyrs' Day (São Tomé and Príncipe)** Setsubun (Japan)** Veterans' Day (Thailand)* February 4** Day of the Armed Struggle (Angola)** Independence Day (Sri Lanka)** Rosa Parks Day (California and Missouri, United States)** World Cancer Day* February 5** Crown Princess Mary's birthday (Denmark)** Kashmir Solidarity Day (Pakistan)** Liberation Day (San Marino)** National Weatherperson's Day (United States)** Runeberg's Birthday (Finland)** Unity Day (Burundi)* February 6** International Day of Zero Tolerance to Female Genital Mutilation** Ronald Reagan Day (California, United States)** Sami National Day (Russia, Finland, Norway and Sweden)** Waitangi Day (New Zealand)* February 7** Independence Day (Grenada)* February 8** Parinirvana Day (some Mahayana Buddhist traditions, most celebrate on February 15)** Prešeren Day (Slovenia)** Propose Day* February 9** National Pizza Day (United States)** St. Maroun's Day (Maronite Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, public holiday in Lebanon)* February 10** Feast of St. Paul's Shipwreck (Public holiday in Malta)** Fenkil Day (Eritrea)** National Memorial Day of the Exiles and Foibe (Italy)* February 11** 112 day (European Union)** Armed Forces Day (Liberia)** Day of Revenue Service (Azerbaijan)** Evelio Javier Day (Panay Island, the Philippines)** Feast day of Our Lady of Lourdes (Catholic Church), and its related observance:*** World Day of the Sick (Roman Catholic Church)** Inventors' Day (United States)** National Foundation Day (Japan)** Youth Day (Cameroon)* February 12** Darwin Day (International)** Georgia Day (Georgia (U.S. state))** International Day of Women's Health** Lincoln's Birthday (United States)** National Freedom to Marry Day (United States)** Red Hand Day (United Nations)** Sexual and Reproductive Health Awareness Day (Canada)** Union Day (Myanmar)** Youth Day (Venezuela)* February 13** Children's Day (Myanmar)** World Radio Day* February 14** Statehood Day (Arizona, United States)** Statehood Day (Oregon, United States)** Presentation of Jesus at the Temple (Armenian Apostolic Church)** V-Day (movement) (International)** Valentine's Day (International)*** Singles Awareness Day* February 15** Candlemas (Eastern Orthodox Church)** International Duties Memorial Day (Russia, regional)** John Frum Day (Vanuatu)** Liberation Day (Afghanistan)** National Flag of Canada Day (Canada)** National I Want Butterscotch Day (United States)** Parinirvana Day (most Mahayana Buddhist traditions, some celebrate on February 8)** Serbia's National Day** Statehood Day (Serbia)** Susan B. Anthony Day (United States)** The ENIAC Day (Philadelphia, United States)** Total Defence Day (Singapore)* February 16** Day of the Shining Star (North Korea)** Restoration of Lithuania's Statehood Day (Lithuania)* February 17** Independence Day (Kosovo)** Random Acts of Kindness Day (United States)** Revolution Day (Libya)* February 18** National Democracy Day (Nepal)** Dialect Day (Amami Islands, Japan)** Independence Day (Gambia)** Kurdish Students Union Day (Iraqi Kurdistan)** Wife's Day (Iceland)* February 19** Armed Forces Day (Mexico)** Brâncuși Day (Romania)** Commemoration of Vasil Levski (Bulgaria)** Flag Day (Turkmenistan)** Shivaji Jayanti (Maharashtra, India)* February 20** Day of Heavenly Hundred Heroes (Ukraine)** World Day of Social Justice* February 21** International Mother Language Day** Language Movement Day (Bangladesh)* February 22** Feast of the Chair of Saint Peter (Roman Catholic Church)** Independence Day (Saint Lucia)** Founder's Day (Saudi Arabia)** Founder's Day or \"B.-P. day\" (World Organization of the Scout Movement)** National Margarita Day (United States)** World Thinking Day (World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts)* February 23** Mashramani-Republic Day (Guyana)** Meteņi (Latvia)** National Banana Bread Day (United States)** National Day (Brunei)** Red Army Day or Day of Soviet Army and Navy in the former Soviet Union, also held in various former Soviet republics:*** Defender of the Fatherland Day (Russia)*** Defender of the Fatherland and Armed Forces day (Belarus)** Emperor's Birthday (Japan)* February 24** Dragobete (Romania)** Engineer's Day (Iran)** Flag Day in Mexico** Independence Day (Estonia)** National Artist Day (Thailand)** Sepandārmazgān or \"Women's Day\" (Zoroastrian, Iran)* February 25** Armed Forces Day (Dominican Republic)** ''Kitano Baika-sai'' or \"Plum Blossom Festival\" (Kitano Tenman-gū Shrine, Kyoto, Japan)** Meher Baba's birthday (followers of Meher Baba)** Memorial Day for the Victims of the Communist Dictatorships (Hungary)** National Day (Kuwait)** People Power Day (Philippines)** Revolution Day (Suriname)** Soviet Occupation Day (Georgia)* February 26** Liberation Day (Kuwait)** Day of Remembrance for Victims of Khojaly massacre (Azerbaijan)** National Wear Red Day (United Kingdom)** Saviours' Day (Nation of Islam)* February 27** Anosmia Awareness Day (International observance)** Doctors' Day (Vietnam)** International Polar Bear Day** Majuba Day (some Afrikaners in South Africa)** Marathi Language Day (Maharashtra, India)** Independence Day (Dominican Republic)** Anti-Bullying Day (Canada)* February 28** Day of Remembrance for Victims of Massacres in Armenia (Armenia)** Andalusia Day (Andalusia, Spain)** Kalevala Day (Finland)** National Science Day (India)** Peace Memorial Day (Taiwan)** Teachers' Day (Arab states)* February 29** Bachelor's Day (Ireland, United Kingdom)** National Frog Legs Day (United States)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Anthony Aveni, \"February's Holidays: Prediction, Purification, and Passionate Pursuit,\" ''The Book of the Year: A Brief History of Our Seasonal Holidays'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 29–46." ], [ "External links", "* The Straight Dope: How come February has only 28 days?", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "February 1" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*1327 – The teenaged Edward III is crowned King of England, but the country is ruled by his mother Queen Isabella and her lover Roger Mortimer.", "*1411 – The First Peace of Thorn is signed in Thorn (Toruń), Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights (Prussia).===1601–1900===*1662 – The Chinese general Koxinga seizes the island of Taiwan after a nine-month siege.", "*1713 – The ''Kalabalik'' or ''Skirmish at Bender'' results from the Ottoman sultan's order that his unwelcome guest, King Charles XII of Sweden, be seized.", "*1793 – French Revolutionary Wars: France declares war on the United Kingdom and the Netherlands.", "*1796 – The capital of Upper Canada is moved from Newark to York.", "*1814 – Mayon in the Philippines erupts, killing around 1,200 people, the most devastating eruption of the volcano.", "*1835 – Slavery is abolished in Mauritius.", "*1861 – American Civil War: Texas secedes from the United States and joins the Confederacy a week later.", "*1864 – Second Schleswig War: Prussian forces crossed the border into Schleswig, starting the war.", "*1865 – President Abraham Lincoln signs the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution.", "*1884 – The first volume (''A'' to ''Ant'') of the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' is published.", "*1893 – Thomas A. Edison finishes construction of the first motion picture studio, the Black Maria in West Orange, New Jersey.", "*1895 – Fountains Valley, Pretoria, the oldest nature reserve in Africa, is proclaimed by President Paul Kruger.", "*1896 – ''La bohème'' premieres in Turin at the Teatro Regio (Turin), conducted by the young Arturo Toscanini.", "*1897 – Shinhan Bank, the oldest bank in South Korea, opens in Seoul.", "*1900 – Great Britain, defeated by Boers in key battles, names Lord Roberts commander of British forces in South Africa.===1901–present===*1908 – Lisbon Regicide: King Carlos I of Portugal and Infante Luis Filipe are shot dead in Lisbon.", "*1924 – Russia–United Kingdom relations are restored, over six years after the Communist revolution.", "*1942 – World War II: Josef Terboven, Reichskommissar of German-occupied Norway, appoints Vidkun Quisling the Minister President of the National Government.", "* 1942 – World War II: U.S. Navy conducts Marshalls–Gilberts raids, the first offensive action by the United States against Japanese forces in the Pacific Theater.", "* 1942 – Voice of America, the official external radio and television service of the United States government, begins broadcasting with programs aimed at areas controlled by the Axis powers.", "* 1942 – Mao Zedong makes a speech on \"Reform in Learning, the Party and Literature\", which puts into motion the Yan'an Rectification Movement.", "*1946 – Trygve Lie of Norway is picked to be the first United Nations Secretary-General.", "* 1946 – The Parliament of Hungary abolishes the monarchy after nine centuries, and proclaims the Hungarian Republic.", "*1950 – The first prototype of the MiG-17 makes its maiden flight.", "*1957 – Northeast Airlines Flight 823 crashes on Rikers Island in New York City, killing 20 people and injuring 78 others.", "*1960 – Four black students stage the first of the Greensboro sit-ins at a lunch counter in Greensboro, North Carolina.", "*1964 – The Beatles have their first number one hit in the United States with \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\".", "*1968 – Vietnam War: The execution of Viet Cong officer Nguyễn Văn Lém by South Vietnamese National Police Chief Nguyễn Ngọc Loan is recorded on motion picture film, as well as in an iconic still photograph taken by Eddie Adams.", "* 1968 – Canada's three military services, the Royal Canadian Navy, the Canadian Army and the Royal Canadian Air Force, are unified into the Canadian Forces.", "* 1968 – The New York Central Railroad and the Pennsylvania Railroad are merged to form Penn Central Transportation.", "*1972 – Kuala Lumpur becomes a city by a royal charter granted by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia.", "*1974 – A fire in the 25-story Joelma Building in São Paulo, Brazil kills 189 and injures 293.", "*1979 – Iranian Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini returns to Tehran after nearly 15 years of exile.", "*1981 – The Underarm bowling incident of 1981 occurred when Trevor Chappell bowls underarm on the final delivery of a game between Australia and New Zealand at the Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG).", "*1991 – A runway collision between USAir Flight 1493 and SkyWest Flight 5569 at Los Angeles International Airport results in the deaths of 34 people, and injuries to 30 others.", "*1992 – The Chief Judicial Magistrate of Bhopal court declares Warren Anderson, ex-CEO of Union Carbide, a fugitive under Indian law for failing to appear in the Bhopal disaster case.", "*1996 – The Communications Decency Act is passed by the U.S.", "Congress.", "*1998 – Rear Admiral Lillian E. Fishburne becomes the first female African American to be promoted to rear admiral.", "*2002 – Daniel Pearl, American journalist and South Asia Bureau Chief of ''The Wall Street Journal'', kidnapped on January 23, is beheaded and mutilated by his captors.", "*2003 – Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' disintegrated during the reentry of mission STS-107 into the Earth's atmosphere, killing all seven astronauts aboard.", "*2004 – Hajj pilgrimage stampede: In a stampede at the Hajj pilgrimage in Saudi Arabia, 251 people are trampled to death and 244 injured.", "* 2004 – Double suicide attack in Erbil on the offices of Iraqi Kurdish political parties by members of Jama'at al-Tawhid wal-Jihad*2005 – King Gyanendra of Nepal carries out a coup d'état to capture the democracy, becoming Chairman of the Councils of ministers.", "*2007 – The National Weather Service in the United States switches from the Fujita scale to the new Enhanced Fujita scale to measure the intensity and strength of tornadoes.", "*2009 – The first cabinet of Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir was formed in Iceland, making her the country's first female prime minister and the world's first openly gay head of government.", "*2012 – Seventy-four people are killed and over 500 injured as a result of clashes between fans of Egyptian football teams Al Masry and Al Ahly in the city of Port Said.", "*2013 – The Shard, the sixth-tallest building in Europe, opens its viewing gallery to the public.", "*2021 – A coup d'état in Myanmar removes Aung San Suu Kyi from power and restores military rule.", "*2022 – Five-year-old Moroccan boy Rayan Aourram falls into a 32-meter (105 feet) deep well in Ighran village in Tamorot commune, Chefchaouen Province, Morocco, but dies four days later, before rescue workers reached him." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1261 – Walter de Stapledon, English bishop and politician, Lord High Treasurer (d. 1326)*1435 – Amadeus IX, Duke of Savoy (d. 1472)*1447 – Eberhard II, Duke of Württemberg (d. 1504)*1459 – Conrad Celtes, German poet and scholar (d. 1508)*1462 – Johannes Trithemius, German lexicographer, historian, and cryptographer (d. 1516)*1552 – Edward Coke, English lawyer, judge, and politician, Attorney General for England and Wales (d. 1634)*1561 – Henry Briggs, British mathematician (d. 1630)===1601–1900===*1635 – Marquard Gude, German archaeologist and scholar (d. 1689)*1648 – Elkanah Settle, English poet and playwright (d. 1724)*1659 – Jacob Roggeveen, Dutch explorer (d. 1729)*1663 – Ignacia del Espíritu Santo, Filipino nun, founded the Religious of the Virgin Mary (d. 1748)*1666 – Marie Thérèse de Bourbon, Princess of Conti and titular queen of Poland (d.1732)*1687 – Johann Adam Birkenstock, German violinist and composer (d. 1733)*1690 – Francesco Maria Veracini, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1768)*1701 – Johan Agrell, Swedish-German pianist and composer (d. 1765)*1761 – Christiaan Hendrik Persoon, South African-French mycologist and academic (d. 1836)*1763 – Thomas Campbell, Irish minister and theologian (d. 1854)*1796 – Abraham Emanuel Fröhlich, Swiss minister, poet, and educator (d. 1865)*1801 – Émile Littré, French lexicographer and philosopher (d. 1881)*1820 – George Hendric Houghton, American clergyman and theologian (d. 1897)*1836 – Emil Hartmann, Danish organist and composer (d. 1898)*1844 – G. Stanley Hall, American psychologist and academic (d. 1924)*1851 – Durham Stevens, American lawyer and diplomat (d. 1908)*1858 – Ignacio Bonillas, Mexican diplomat (d. 1942)*1859 – Victor Herbert, Irish-American cellist, composer, and conductor (d. 1924)*1866 – Agda Meyerson, Swedish nurse and healthcare activist (d. 1924)*1868 – Ștefan Luchian, Romanian painter and illustrator (d. 1917)*1870 – Erik Adolf von Willebrand, Finnish physician (d. 1949)*1872 – Clara Butt, English opera singer (d. 1936)* 1872 – Jerome F. Donovan, American lawyer and politician (d. 1949)*1873 – John Barry, Irish soldier, Victoria Cross recipient (d. 1901)*1874 – Hugo von Hofmannsthal, Austrian author, poet, and playwright (d. 1929)*1878 – Alfréd Hajós, Hungarian swimmer and architect, designed the Grand Hotel Aranybika (d. 1955)* 1878 – Milan Hodža, Slovak journalist and politician, 10th Prime Minister of Czechoslovakia (d. 1944)*1881 – Tip Snooke, South African cricketer (d. 1966) *1882 – Louis St. Laurent, Canadian lawyer and politician, 12th Prime Minister of Canada (d. 1973)*1884 – Bradbury Robinson, American football player and physician (d. 1949)* 1884 – Yevgeny Zamyatin, Russian journalist and author (d. 1937)*1887 – Charles Nordhoff, English-American lieutenant, pilot, and author (d. 1947)*1890 – Nikolai Reek, Estonian general and politician, 11th Estonian Minister of War (d. 1942)*1894 – John Ford, American director and producer (d. 1973)* 1894 – James P. Johnson, American pianist and composer (d. 1955)*1895 – Conn Smythe, Canadian businessman (d. 1980)*1897 – Denise Robins, English journalist and author (d. 1985)*1898 – Leila Denmark, American pediatrician and author (d. 2012)===1901–present===*1901 – Frank Buckles, American soldier (d. 2011)* 1901 – Clark Gable, American actor (d. 1960)*1902 – Therese Brandl, German concentration camp guard (d. 1947)* 1902 – Langston Hughes, American poet, social activist, novelist, and playwright (d. 1967)*1904 – S.J.", "Perelman, American humorist and screenwriter (d. 1979)*1905 – Emilio G. Segrè, Italian-American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1989)*1906 – Adetokunbo Ademola, Nigerian lawyer and jurist, 2nd Chief Justice of Nigeria (d. 1993)*1907 – Günter Eich, German author and songwriter (d. 1972)* 1907 – Camargo Guarnieri, Brazilian pianist and composer (d. 1993)*1908 – George Pal, Hungarian-American animator and producer (d. 1980)* 1908 – Louis Rasminsky, Canadian economist and banker (d. 1998)*1909 – George Beverly Shea, Canadian-American singer-songwriter (d. 2013)*1910 – Ngapoi Ngawang Jigme, Chinese general and politician (d. 2009)*1915 – Stanley Matthews, English footballer and manager (d. 2000)*1917 – José Luis Sampedro, Spanish economist and author (d. 2013)* 1917 – Eiji Sawamura, Japanese baseball player and soldier (d. 1944)*1918 – Muriel Spark, Scottish novelist (d. 2006)* 1918 – Ignacy Tokarczuk, Polish archbishop (d. 2012)*1920 – Mike Scarry, American football player and coach (d. 2012)* 1920 – Zao Wou-Ki, Chinese-French painter (d. 2013)*1921 – Teresa Mattei, Italian feminist partisan and politician (d. 2013)* 1921 – Patricia Robins, English writer and WAAF officer (d. 2016)* 1921 – Peter Sallis, English actor (d. 2017)*1922 – Renata Tebaldi, Italian soprano and actress (d. 2004)*1923 – Ben Weider, Canadian businessman, co-founded the International Federation of BodyBuilding & Fitness (d. 2008)*1924 – Richard Hooker, American novelist (d. 1997)* 1924 – Emmanuel Scheffer, German-Israeli footballer, coach, and manager (d. 2012)*1927 – Galway Kinnell, American poet and academic (d. 2014)*1928 – Sam Edwards, Welsh physicist and academic (d. 2015)* 1928 – Tom Lantos, Hungarian-American academic and politician (d. 2008)* 1928 – Stuart Whitman, American actor (d. 2020)*1930 – Shahabuddin Ahmed, Bangladeshi judge and politician, 12th President of Bangladesh (d. 2022)* 1930 – Hussain Muhammad Ershad,Bangladeshi general and politician, 10th President of Bangladesh (d. 2019)*1931 – Boris Yeltsin, Russian politician, 1st President of Russia (d. 2007)*1932 – Hassan Al-Turabi, Sudanese activist and politician (d. 2016)*1934 – Nicolae Breban, Romanian author, poet, and playwright*1936 – Tuncel Kurtiz, Turkish actor, playwright, and director (d. 2013)* 1936 – Azie Taylor Morton, American educator and politician, 36th Treasurer of the United States (d. 2003)*1937 – Don Everly, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2021)* 1937 – Garrett Morris, American actor and comedian*1938 – Jimmy Carl Black, American drummer and singer (d. 2008)* 1938 – Jacky Cupit, American golfer* 1938 – Sherman Hemsley, American actor and singer (d. 2012)*1939 – Fritjof Capra, Austrian physicist, author, and academic* 1939 – Claude François, Egyptian-French singer-songwriter and dancer (d. 1978)* 1939 – Paul Gillmor, American lawyer and politician (d. 2007)* 1939 – Ekaterina Maximova, Russian ballerina (d. 2009)* 1939 – Joe Sample, American pianist and composer (d. 2014)*1941 – Jerry Spinelli, American author*1942 – Bibi Besch, Austrian-American actress (d. 1996)* 1942 – Terry Jones, Welsh actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2020)* 1942 – David Sincock, Australian cricketer*1944 – Petru Popescu, Romanian-American director, producer, and author* 1944 – Burkhard Ziese, German footballer and manager (d. 2010)*1945 – Serge Joyal, Canadian lawyer and politician, 50th Secretary of State for Canada* 1945 – Ferruccio Mazzola, Italian footballer and manager (d. 2013)* 1945 – Mary Jane Reoch, American cyclist (d. 1993)*1946 – Karen Krantzcke, Australian tennis player (d. 1977)* 1946 – Elisabeth Sladen, English actress (d. 2011)*1947 – Adam Ingram, Scottish computer programmer and politician, Minister of State for the Armed Forces* 1947 – Normie Rowe, Australian singer-songwriter and actor* 1947 – Jessica Savitch, American journalist (d. 1983)*1948 – Rick James, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2004)*1950 – Mike Campbell, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer * 1950 – Ali Haydar Konca, Turkish politician, 4th Turkish Minister of European Union Affairs* 1950 – Rich Williams, American guitarist and songwriter *1951 – Sonny Landreth, American guitarist and songwriter*1952 – Owoye Andrew Azazi, Nigerian general (d. 2012)*1954 – Chuck Dukowski, American singer-songwriter and bass player* 1954 – Bill Mumy, American actor, writer, and musician*1955 – T. R. Dunn, American basketball player and coach*1956 – Exene Cervenka, American singer-songwriter and guitarist *1957 – Gilbert Hernandez, American author and illustrator* 1957 – Mohammed Jamal Khalifa, Saudi Arabian businessman (d. 2007)*1958 – Luther Blissett, Jamaican-English footballer and manager* 1958 – Eleanor Laing, Scottish lawyer and politician, Shadow Secretary of State for Scotland*1959 – Wade Wilson, American football player and coach (d. 2019)*1961 – Volker Fried, German field hockey player and coach* 1961 – Kaduvetti Guru, Indian politician (d. 2018)* 1961 – Daniel M. Tani, American engineer and astronaut*1962 – José Luis Cuciuffo, Argentinian footballer (d. 2004)* 1962 – Tomoyasu Hotei, Japanese singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1962 – Takashi Murakami, Japanese painter and sculptor*1964 – Jani Lane, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2011)* 1964 – Eli Ohana, Israeli football player, and club chairman* 1964 – Mario Pelchat, Canadian singer-songwriter* 1964 – Linus Roache, English actor*1965 – Sherilyn Fenn, American actress* 1965 – Brandon Lee, American actor and martial artist (d. 1993)* 1965 – Stéphanie of Monaco*1966 – Michelle Akers, American soccer player*1967 – Meg Cabot, American author and screenwriter*1968 – Lisa Marie Presley, American singer-songwriter and actress (d. 2023)* 1968 – Mark Recchi, Canadian ice hockey player and coach* 1968 – Pauly Shore, American actor and comedian*1969 – Gabriel Batistuta, Argentinian footballer* 1969 – Andrew Breitbart, American journalist, author, and publisher (d. 2012)* 1969 – Brian Krause, American actor* 1969 – Joshua Redman, American musician and composer* 1969 – Franklyn Rose, Jamaican cricketer* 1969 – Patrick Wilson, American musician and songwriter*1970 – Yasuyuki Kazama, Japanese racing driver* 1970 – Malik Sealy, American basketball player and actor (d. 2000)*1971 – Michael C. Hall, American actor and producer * 1971 – Tommy Salo, Swedish ice hockey player*1972 – Leymah Gbowee, Liberian peace activist* 1972 – Christian Ziege, German footballer*1973 – Andrew DeClercq, American basketball player and coach* 1973 – Óscar Pérez Rojas, Mexican footballer*1974 – Walter McCarty, American basketball player and coach*1975 – Big Boi, American rapper* 1975 – Martijn Reuser, Dutch footballer* 1975 – Tomáš Vlasák, Czech ice hockey player*1976 – Phil Ivey, American poker player* 1976 – Mat Rogers, Australian rugby player*1977 – Robert Traylor, American basketball player (d. 2011)*1978 – Tim Harding, Australian singer and actor*1979 – Valentín Elizalde, Mexican singer-songwriter (d. 2006)* 1979 – Jason Isbell, American singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1979 – Juan, Brazilian footballer*1980 – Héctor Luna, Dominican baseball player*1981 – Hins Cheung, Hong Kong singer-songwriter* 1981 – Christian Giménez, Argentinian footballer* 1981 – Graeme Smith, South African cricketer*1982 – Gavin Henson, Welsh rugby player* 1982 – Shoaib Malik, Pakistani cricketer*1983 – Heather DeLoach, American actress* 1983 – Kevin Martin, American basketball player* 1983 – Jurgen Van den Broeck, Belgian cyclist* 1983 – Andrew VanWyngarden, American singer-songwriter and musician*1984 – Darren Fletcher, Scottish footballer*1985 – Dean Shiels, Irish footballer*1986 – Jorrit Bergsma, Dutch speed skater* 1986 – Lauren Conrad, American fashion designer and author* 1986 – Ladislav Šmíd, Czech ice hockey player*1987 – Sebastian Boenisch, Polish footballer* 1987 – Moises Henriques, Portuguese-Australian cricketer* 1987 – Austin Jackson, American baseball player* 1987 – Heather Morris, American actress, singer, and dancer* 1987 – Giuseppe Rossi, Italian footballer* 1987 – Ronda Rousey, American mixed martial artist, wrestler and actress*1988 – Brett Anderson, American baseball player*1989 – Ricky Pinheiro, Portuguese footballer*1990 – Tyler Myers, American-Canadian ice hockey player*1991 – Blake Austin, Australian rugby league player* 1991 – Kyle Palmieri, American hockey player*1992 – Sean Manaea, American baseball player*1993 – Diego Mella, Italian footballer*1994 – Anna-Lena Friedsam, German tennis player* 1994 – Julia Garner, American actress* 1994 – Harry Styles, English singer-songwriter and actor *1997 – Drew Eubanks, American basketball player* 1997 – Jihyo, South Korean singer*1999 – Mohamed Abdelmonem, Egyptian footballer*2000 – Talanoa Hufanga, American football player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 583 – Kan B'alam I, ruler of Palenque (b.", "524)* 772 – Pope Stephen III (b.", "720)* 850 – Ramiro I, king of Asturias*1222 – Alexios Megas Komnenos, first Emperor of Trebizond*1248 – Henry II, Duke of Brabant (b.", "1207)*1328 – Charles IV of France (b.", "1294)*1501 – Sigismund of Bavaria (b.", "1439)*1542 – Girolamo Aleandro, Italian cardinal (b.", "1480)*1563 – Menas of Ethiopia*1590 – Lawrence Humphrey, English theologian and academic (b.", "1527)===1601–1900===*1691 – Pope Alexander VIII (b.", "1610)*1718 – Charles Talbot, 1st Duke of Shrewsbury, English politician, Lord High Treasurer (b.", "1660)*1733 – Augustus II the Strong, Polish king (b.", "1670)*1734 – John Floyer, English physician and author (b.", "1649)*1743 – Giuseppe Ottavio Pitoni, Italian organist and composer (b.", "1657)*1750 – Bakar of Georgia (b.", "1699)*1761 – Pierre François Xavier de Charlevoix, French priest and historian (b.", "1682)*1768 – Sir Robert Rich, 4th Baronet, English field marshal and politician (b.", "1685)*1793 – William Barrington, 2nd Viscount Barrington, English politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (b.", "1717)*1803 – Anders Chydenius, Finnish economist, philosopher and Lutheran priest (b.", "1729)*1832 – Archibald Murphey, American judge and politician (b.", "1777)*1851 – Mary Shelley, English novelist and playwright (b.", "1797)*1871 – Alexander Serov, Russian composer and critic (b.", "1820)*1893 – George Henry Sanderson, American lawyer and politician, 22nd Mayor of San Francisco (b.", "1824)*1897 – Constantin von Ettingshausen, Austrian geologist and botanist (b.", "1826)===1901–present===*1903 – Sir George Stokes, Anglo-Irish physicist, mathematician, and politician (b.", "1819)*1907 – Léon Serpollet, French businessman (b.", "1858)*1908 – Carlos I of Portugal (b.", "1863)*1916 – James Boucaut, English-Australian politician, 11th Premier of South Australia (b.", "1831)*1922 – William Desmond Taylor, American actor and director (b.", "1872)*1924 – Maurice Prendergast, American painter (b.", "1858)*1928 – Hughie Jennings, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1869)*1936 – Georgios Kondylis, Greek general and politician, 128th Prime Minister of Greece (b.", "1878)*1940 – Philip Francis Nowlan, American author, created ''Buck Rogers'' (b.", "1888)* 1940 – Zacharias Papantoniou, Greek journalist and critic (b.", "1877)*1944 – Piet Mondrian, Dutch-American painter (b.", "1872)*1949 – Nicolae Dumitru Cocea, Romanian journalist, author, and activist (b.", "1880)* 1949 – Herbert Stothart, American conductor and composer (b.", "1885)*1957 – Friedrich Paulus, German general (b.", "1890)*1958 – Clinton Davisson, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1888)*1959 – Madame Sul-Te-Wan, American actress (b.", "1873)*1966 – Hedda Hopper, American actress and journalist (b.", "1885)* 1966 – Buster Keaton, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1895)*1968 – Echol Cole and Robert Walker - sparking the Memphis Sanitation Workers Strike*1970 – Alfréd Rényi, Hungarian mathematician and academic (b.", "1921)*1976 – Werner Heisenberg, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1901)* 1976 – George Whipple, American physician and pathologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1878)*1979 – Abdi İpekçi, Turkish journalist and activist (b.", "1929)*1981 – Donald Wills Douglas, Sr., American engineer and businessman, founded the Douglas Aircraft Company (b.", "1892)* 1981 – Geirr Tveitt, Norwegian pianist and composer (b.", "1908)*1986 – Alva Myrdal, Swedish sociologist and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1902)*1987 – Alessandro Blasetti, Italian director and screenwriter (b.", "1900)*1988 – Heather O'Rourke, American child actress (b.", "1975)*1989 – Elaine de Kooning, American painter and academic (b.", "1918)*1991 – Ahmad Abd al-Ghafur Attar, Saudi Arabian writer and journalist (b.", "1916) *1992 – Jean Hamburger, French physician and surgeon (b.", "1909)*1996 – Ray Crawford, American race car driver, pilot, and businessman (b.", "1915)*1997 – Herb Caen, American journalist and author (b.", "1916)*1999 – Paul Mellon, American art collector and philanthropist (b.", "1907)*2001 – André D'Allemagne, Canadian political scientist and academic (b.", "1929)*2002 – Aykut Barka, Turkish geologist and academic (b.", "1951)* 2002 – Hildegard Knef, German actress and singer (b.", "1925)*2003 – Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' crew** Michael P. Anderson, American colonel, pilot, and astronaut (b.", "1959)** David M. Brown, American captain, pilot, and astronaut (b.", "1956)** Kalpana Chawla, Indian-American engineer and astronaut (b.", "1961)** Laurel Clark, American captain, surgeon, and astronaut (b.", "1961)** Rick Husband, American colonel, pilot, and astronaut (b.", "1957)** William C. McCool, American commander, pilot, and astronaut (b.", "1961)** Ilan Ramon, Israeli colonel, pilot, and astronaut (b.", "1954)* 2003 – Mongo Santamaría, Cuban-American drummer and bandleader (b.", "1922)*2004 – Suha Arın, Turkish director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1942)*2005 – John Vernon, Canadian-American actor (b.", "1932)*2007 – Gian Carlo Menotti, Italian-American playwright and composer (b.", "1911)*2008 – Beto Carrero, Brazilian actor and businessman (b.", "1937)*2012 – Don Cornelius, American television host and producer (b.", "1936)* 2012 – Wisława Szymborska, Polish poet and translator, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1923)*2013 – Helene Hale, American politician (b.", "1918)* 2013 – Ed Koch, American lawyer, judge, and politician, 105th Mayor of New York City (b.", "1924)* 2013 – Shanu Lahiri, Indian painter and educator (b.", "1928)* 2013 – Cecil Womack, American singer-songwriter and producer (b.", "1947)*2014 – Luis Aragonés, Spanish footballer and manager (b.", "1938)* 2014 – Vasily Petrov, Russian marshal (b.", "1917)* 2014 – Rene Ricard, American poet, painter, and critic (b.", "1946)* 2014 – Maximilian Schell, Austrian-Swiss actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1930)*2015 – Aldo Ciccolini, Italian-French pianist (b.", "1925)* 2015 – Udo Lattek, German footballer, manager, and sportscaster (b.", "1935)* 2015 – Monty Oum, American animator, director, and screenwriter (b.", "1981)*2016 – Óscar Humberto Mejía Victores, Guatemalan general and politician, 27th President of Guatemala (b.", "1930)*2017 – Desmond Carrington, British actor and broadcaster (b.", "1926)*2018 – Barys Kit, Belarusian rocket scientist (b.", "1910)* 2018 – Mowzey Radio, Ugandan singer and songwriter (b.", "1985) *2019 – Jeremy Hardy, English comedian, radio host and panelist (b.", "1961)* 2019 – Clive Swift, English actor (b.", "1936)* 2019 – Wade Wilson, American football player and coach (b.", "1959)*2021 – Dustin Diamond, American actor, director, stand-up comedian, and musician (b.", "1977)* 2021 – Temur Tsiklauri, Georgian pop singer and actor (b.", "1946)*2022 – Remi De Roo, Canadian bishop of the Catholic Church (b.", "1924)*2024 – Carl Weathers, American football player and actor (b.", "1948)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "* Abolition of Slavery Day (Mauritius)* Air Force Day (Nicaragua)* Christian feast day:** Blessed Candelaria of San José** Brigid of Ireland (Saint Brigid's Day)** Verdiana** February 1 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Earliest day on which Constitution Day can fall, while February 7 is the latest; celebrated on the first Monday in February.", "(Mexico)* Federal Territory Day (Kuala Lumpur, Labuan and Putrajaya, Malaysia)* Heroes Day (Rwanda)* Saint Brigid's Day/Imbolc (Ireland, Scotland, Isle of Man, and some Neopagan groups in the Northern hemisphere)* Memorial Day of the Republic (Hungary)* National Freedom Day (United States)* The start of Black History Month (United States and Canada)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on February 1" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "First Lady of the United States" ], [ "Introduction", "'''First Lady of the United States''' ('''FLOTUS''') is the title held by the hostess of the White House, usually the wife of the president of the United States, concurrent with the president's term in office.", "Although the first lady's role has never been codified or officially defined, she figures prominently in the political and social life of the United States.", "Since the early 20th century, the first lady has been assisted by official staff, known as the Office of the First Lady and headquartered in the East Wing of the White House.Jill Biden has served as the first lady of the United States since 2021, as the wife of the 46th president, Joe Biden.While the title was not in general use until much later, Martha Washington, the wife of George Washington, the first U.S. president (1789–1797), is considered to be the inaugural first lady of the United States.", "During her lifetime, she was often referred to as \"Lady Washington\".Since the 1900s, the role of first lady has changed considerably.", "It has come to include involvement in political campaigns, management of the White House, championship of social causes, and representation of the president at official and ceremonial occasions.", "Additionally, over the years individual first ladies have held influence in a range of sectors, from fashion to public opinion on policy, as well as advocacy for female empowerment.", "Historically, when a president has been unmarried or a widower, he has usually asked a relative to act as White House hostess." ], [ "Origins of the title", "Martha Washington, who was referred to as \"Lady Washington\" during her husband's presidency, ; the painting hangs at the National Portrait Gallery.The use of the title ''First Lady'' to describe the spouse or hostess of an executive began in the United States.", "In the early days of the republic, there was not a generally accepted title for the wife of the president.", "Many early first ladies expressed their own preference for how they were addressed, including the use of such titles as \"Lady\", \"Mrs. President\" and \"Mrs. Presidentress\"; Martha Washington was often referred to as \"Lady Washington\".", "One of the earliest uses of the term \"First Lady\" was applied to her in an 1838 newspaper article that appeared in the ''St.", "Johnsbury Caledonian'', the author, \"Mrs. Sigourney\", discusses how Martha Washington had not changed, even after her husband George became president.", "She wrote that \"The first lady of the nation still preserved the habits of early life.", "Indulging in no indolence, she left the pillow at dawn, and after breakfast, retired to her chamber for an hour for the study of the scriptures and devotion.", "\"Dolley Madison is said to be the first wife of a president to be referred to as \"First Lady\" (at her funeral in 1849).According to popular belief, Dolley Madison was referred to as first lady in 1849 at her funeral in a eulogy delivered by President Zachary Taylor; however, no written record of this eulogy exists, nor did any of the newspapers of her day refer to her by that title.", "Sometime after 1849, the title began being used in Washington, D.C., social circles.", "The first person to have the title applied to her while she was actually holding the office was Harriet Lane, the niece of James Buchanan; ''Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper'' used the phrase to describe her in an 1860 article about her duties as White House hostess.", "Another of the earliest known written examples comes from a November 3, 1863, diary entry of William Howard Russell, in which he referred to gossip about \"the First Lady in the Land\", referring to Mary Todd Lincoln.", "The title first gained nationwide recognition in 1877, when newspaper journalist Mary C. Ames referred to Lucy Webb Hayes as \"the First Lady of the Land\" while reporting on the inauguration of Rutherford B. Hayes.", "The frequent reporting on Lucy Hayes' activities helped spread use of the title outside Washington.", "A popular 1911 comedic play about Dolley Madison by playwright Charles Nirdlinger, titled ''The First Lady in the Land'', popularized the title further.", "By the 1930s, it was in wide use.", "Use of the title later spread from the United States to other nations.When Edith Wilson took control of her husband's schedule in 1919 after he had a debilitating stroke, one Republican senator labeled her \"the Presidentress who had fulfilled the dream of the suffragettes by changing her title from First Lady to Acting First Man\".According to the Nexis database, the abbreviation FLOTUS (pronounced ) was first used in 1983 by Donnie Radcliffe, writing in ''The Washington Post''.=== Non-spouses in the role ===Several women (at least thirteen) who were not presidents' wives have served as first lady, as when the president was a bachelor or widower, or when the wife of the president was unable to fulfill the duties of the first lady herself.", "In these cases, the position has been filled by a female relative of the president, such as Jefferson's daughter Martha Jefferson Randolph, Jackson's daughter-in-law Sarah Yorke Jackson and his wife's niece Emily Donelson, Taylor's daughter Mary Elizabeth Bliss, Benjamin Harrison's daughter Mary Harrison McKee, Buchanan's niece Harriet Lane, and Cleveland's sister Rose Cleveland.", "=== Potential male title ===Each of the 45 presidents of the United States have been male, and all have either had their wives, or a female hostess, assume the role of first lady.", "Thus, a male equivalent of the title of first lady has never been needed.", "However, in 2016, as Hillary Clinton became the first woman to win a major party's presidential nomination, questions were raised as to what her husband Bill would be titled if she were to win the presidency.", "During the campaign, the title of '''First Gentleman of the United States''' was most frequently suggested for Bill Clinton, although as a former president himself, he might have been called \"Mr. President\".", "In addition, state governors' male spouses are typically called the First Gentleman of their respective state (for example, Michael Haley was the first gentleman of South Carolina while his wife, Nikki, served as governor).", "Ultimately, Hillary Clinton lost the election, rendering this a moot point.In 2021, Kamala Harris became the first woman to hold a nationally elected office when she took office as vice president, making her husband Doug Emhoff the first male spouse of a nationally elected officeholder.", "Emhoff assumed the title of Second Gentleman of the United States (\"gentleman\" replacing \"lady\" in the title) making it likely that any future male spouse of a president will be given the title of first gentleman." ], [ "Role", "First Lady Barbara Bush, joined by Missouri governor John Ashcroft, with a \"Parents as Teachers\" group at the Greater St. Louis Ferguson-Florissant School District in October 1991.Mrs.", "Bush, who championed literacy as first lady, is reading ''Brown Bear, Brown Bear'' to the children.The position of the first lady is not an elected one and carries only ceremonial duties.", "Nonetheless, first ladies have held a highly visible position in American society.", "The role of the first lady has evolved over the centuries.", "She is, first and foremost, the hostess of the White House.", "She organizes and attends official ceremonies and functions of state either along with, or in place of, the president.", "Lisa Burns identifies four successive main themes of the first ladyship: as public woman (1900–1929); as political celebrity (1932–1961); as political activist (1964–1977); and as political interloper (1980–2001).Martha Washington created the role and hosted many affairs of state at the national capital (New York and Philadelphia).", "This socializing became known as the Republican Court and provided elite women with opportunities to play backstage political roles.", "Both Martha Washington and Abigail Adams were treated as if they were \"ladies\" of the British royal court.Dolley Madison popularized the first ladyship by engaging in efforts to assist orphans and women, by dressing in elegant fashions and attracting newspaper coverage, and by risking her life to save iconic treasures during the War of 1812.Madison set the standard for the ladyship and her actions were the model for nearly every first lady until Eleanor Roosevelt in the 1930s.", "Roosevelt traveled widely and spoke to many groups, often voicing personal opinions to the left of the president's.", "She authored a weekly newspaper column and hosted a radio show.", "Jacqueline Kennedy led an effort to redecorate and restore the White House.First ladies (from left to right) Rosalynn Carter, Sen. Hillary Clinton, Barbara Bush and first lady Laura Bush at the opening of the Clinton Presidential Center in 2004Many first ladies became significant fashion trendsetters.", "Some have exercised a degree of political influence by virtue of being an important adviser to the president.Over the course of the 20th century, it became increasingly common for first ladies to select specific causes to promote, usually ones that are not politically divisive.", "It is common for the first lady to hire a staff to support these activities.", "Lady Bird Johnson pioneered environmental protection and beautification.", "Pat Nixon encouraged volunteerism and traveled extensively abroad; Betty Ford supported women's rights; Rosalynn Carter aided those with mental disabilities; Nancy Reagan founded the Just Say No drug awareness campaign; Barbara Bush promoted literacy; Hillary Clinton sought to reform the healthcare system in the U.S.; Laura Bush supported women's rights groups, and encouraged childhood literacy.", "Michelle Obama became identified with supporting military families and tackling childhood obesity; and Melania Trump used her position to help children, including prevention of cyberbullying and support for those whose lives are affected by drugs.Since 1964, the incumbent and all living former first ladies are honorary members of the board of trustees of the National Cultural Center, the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts.Near the end of her husband's presidency, Hillary Clinton became the first first lady to seek political office, when she ran for United States Senate.", "During the campaign, her daughter Chelsea took over much of the first lady's role.", "Victorious, Clinton served as junior senator from New York from 2001 to 2009, when she resigned to become President Obama's secretary of state.", "Later, she was the Democratic Party nominee for president in the 2016 election, but lost to Donald Trump." ], [ "Office of the First Lady", "First ladies (from left to right) Nancy Reagan, Lady Bird Johnson, Hillary Clinton, Rosalynn Carter, Betty Ford, and Barbara Bush at the \"National Garden Gala, A Tribute to America's First Ladies\", May 11, 1994.Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, absent due to illness, died 8 days after this photograph was taken.The Office of the First Lady of the United States is accountable to the first lady for her to carry out her duties as hostess of the White House, and is also in charge of all social and ceremonial events of the White House.", "The first lady has her own staff that includes a chief of staff, press secretary, White House Social Secretary, and Chief Floral Designer.", "The Office of the First Lady is an entity of the White House Office, a branch of the Executive Office of the President.", "When First Lady Hillary Clinton decided to pursue a run for Senator of New York, she set aside her duties as first lady and moved to Chappaqua, New York, to establish state residency.", "She resumed her duties as first lady after winning her senatorial campaign, and retained her duties as both first lady and a U.S. senator for the seventeen-day overlap before Bill Clinton's term came to an end." ], [ "Exhibitions and collections", "Established in 1912, the First Ladies Collection has been one of the most popular attractions at the Smithsonian Institution.", "The original exhibition opened in 1914 and was one of the first at the Smithsonian to prominently feature women.", "Originally focused largely on fashion, the exhibition now delves deeper into the contributions of first ladies to the presidency and American society.", "In 2008, \"First Ladies at the Smithsonian\" opened at the National Museum of American History as part of its reopening year celebration.", "That exhibition served as a bridge to the museum's expanded exhibition on first ladies' history that opened on November 19, 2011.", "\"The First Ladies\" explores the unofficial but important position of first lady and the ways that different women have shaped the role to make their own contributions to the presidential administrations and the nation.", "The exhibition features 26 dresses and more than 160 other objects, ranging from those of Martha Washington to Michelle Obama, and includes White House china, personal possessions and other objects from the Smithsonian's unique collection of first ladies' materials.Official portrait of Jacqueline Kennedy at the White House" ], [ "Fashion influence", "Some first ladies have garnered attention for their dress and style.", "Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, for instance, became a global fashion icon: her style was copied by commercial manufacturers and imitated by many young women, and she was named to the International Best Dressed List Hall of Fame in 1965.Mamie Eisenhower was named one of the twelve best-dressed women in the country by the New York Dress Institute every year that she was First Lady.", "The \"Mamie Look\" involved a full-skirted dress, charm bracelets, pearls, little hats, and bobbed, banged hair.", "Michelle Obama also received significant attention for her fashion choices: style writer Robin Givhan praised her in ''The Daily Beast'', arguing that the First Lady's style had helped to enhance the public image of the office." ], [ "Causes and initiatives", "First lady Melania Trump attending a \"Be Best\" rally with childrenSince the 1920s, many first ladies have become public speakers, adopting specific causes.", "It also became common for the First Lady to hire a staff to support her agenda.", "Recent causes of the First Lady are:* Eleanor Roosevelt; Women's rights, civil rights, and humanitarian efforts * Jacqueline Kennedy; White House restoration and the Arts * Lady Bird Johnson; Environmental protection and Beautification * Pat Nixon; Volunteerism * Betty Ford; Women's rights, Substance abuse * Rosalynn Carter; Mental health * Nancy Reagan; \"Just Say No\", drug awareness * Barbara Bush; Childhood literacy * Hillary Clinton; Healthcare in the United States * Laura Bush; Childhood literacy * Michelle Obama; \"Let's Move!", "\"; reducing childhood obesity * Michelle Obama; \"Let Girls Learn\"; increasing education for girls* Melania Trump; \"Be Best\"; cyberbullying awareness* Jill Biden; \"Joining Forces\"; military families" ], [ "See also", "* ''First Ladies: Influence & Image''* First Ladies National Historic Site (Canton, Ohio)* First Spouse $1 Coin Program* List of current United States first spouses* Second ladies and gentlemen of the United States* Lewis L. Gould, pioneer scholar on First Ladies* Sally Hemings* Dolly Johnson" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Abrams, Jeanne E. .", "''First Ladies of the Republic: Martha Washington, Abigail Adams, Dolley Madison, and the Creation of an Iconic American Role''.", "New York New York University Press, 2018..* excerpt and text search * Curriculum unit based on primary sources.", "* Popular essays by scholars.", "* * * Caroli, Betty Boyd.", "\"The Role of First Lady\" in Graff, Henry F., ed.", "''The presidents: A Reference History'' (3rd ed.", "2002)* * Gould, Lewis L. \"First Lady as Catalyst: Lady Bird Johnson and Highway Beautification in the 1960s\".", "Environmental Review 10.2 (1986): 77–92.online * Gould, Lewis L. ''Lady Bird Johnson and the Environment'' (UP Kansas, 1988) online * Gould, Lewis L. ''Helen Taft: Our Musical First Lady'' (UP Kansas, 2010).", "* Gould, Lewis L. ''Edith Kermit Roosevelt: Creating the Modern First Lady'' (2012) online * Hummer, Jill Abraham.", "''First Ladies and American Women: In Politics and at Home'' (UP of Kansas, 2017); 269 pages;* On media images of Michelle Obama.", "* Heavily illustrated.", "* excerpt and text search * Schwartz, Marie Jenkins.", "''Ties That Bound: Founding First Ladies and Slaves'' (U of Chicago Press, 2017), 420 pp.", "* By a leading political historian.", "* excerpt and text search *" ], [ "External links", "* Alphabetical List of First Ladies of the United States* Office of the First Lady* First Lady's Gallery* The National First Ladies' Library* The First Ladies at the Smithsonian" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Frank Herbert" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Franklin Patrick Herbert Jr.''' (October 8, 1920February 11, 1986) was an American science-fiction author best known for the 1965 novel ''Dune'' and its five sequels.", "Though he became famous for his novels, he also wrote short stories and worked as a newspaper journalist, photographer, book reviewer, ecological consultant, and lecturer.The ''Dune'' saga, set in the distant future, and taking place over millennia, explores complex themes, such as the long-term survival of the human species, human evolution, planetary science and ecology, and the intersection of religion, politics, economics and power in a future where humanity has long since developed interstellar travel and settled many thousands of worlds.", "''Dune'' is the best-selling science fiction novel of all time, and the entire series is considered to be among the classics of the science-fiction genre." ], [ "Biography", "Herbert's novella ''The Priests of Psi'' was the cover story for the February 1960 issue of ''Fantastic''.===Early life===Frank Patrick Herbert Jr. was born on October 8, 1920, in Tacoma, Washington, to Frank Patrick Herbert Sr. and Eileen (née McCarthy) Herbert.", "His upbringing included spending a lot of time on the rural Olympic and Kitsap Peninsulas.", "He was fascinated by books, could read much of the newspaper before the age of five, had an excellent memory, and learned quickly.", "He had an early interest in photography, buying a Kodak box camera at age ten, a new folding camera in his early teens, and a color film camera in the mid-1930s.", "Due to an impoverished home environment, largely due to the Great Depression, he left home in 1938 to live with an aunt and uncle in Salem, Oregon.===Education===He enrolled in high school at Salem High School (now North Salem High School), where he graduated the next year.", "In 1939 he lied about his age to get his first newspaper job at the ''Glendale Star''.", "Herbert then returned to Salem in 1940 where he worked for the ''Oregon Statesman'' newspaper (now ''Statesman Journal'') in a variety of positions, including photographer.Herbert married Flora Lillian Parkinson in San Pedro, California, in 1941.They had one daughter, Penelope (b. February 16, 1942), and divorced in 1943.During 1942, after the U.S. entry into World War II, he served in the Navy's Seabees for six months as a photographer, but suffered a head injury and was given a medical discharge.", "Herbert subsequently moved to Portland, Oregon where he reported for ''The Oregon Journal''.After the war, Herbert attended the University of Washington, where he met Beverly Ann Stuart at a creative writing class in 1946.They were the only students who had sold any work for publication; Herbert had sold two pulp adventure stories to magazines, the first to ''Esquire'' in 1945, and Stuart had sold a story to ''Modern Romance'' magazine.", "They married in Seattle in 1946, and had two sons, Brian (b.", "1947) and Bruce (1951–1993).", "In 1949 Herbert and his wife moved to California to work on the Santa Rosa ''Press-Democrat''.", "Here they befriended the psychologists Ralph and Irene Slattery.", "The Slatterys introduced Herbert to the work of several thinkers who would influence his writing, including Freud, Jung, Jaspers and Heidegger; they also familiarized Herbert with Zen Buddhism.Herbert never graduated from college.", "According to his son Brian, he wanted to study only what interested him and so did not complete the required curriculum.", "He returned to journalism and worked at the ''Seattle Star'' and the ''Oregon Statesman''.", "He was a writer and editor for the ''San Francisco Examiner'' ''California Living'' magazine for a decade.===Early career===In a 1973 interview, Herbert stated that he had been reading science fiction \"about ten years\" before he began writing in the genre, and he listed his favorite authors as H. G. Wells, Robert A. Heinlein, Poul Anderson and Jack Vance.Herbert's first science fiction story, \"Looking for Something\", was published in the April 1952 issue of ''Startling Stories'', then a monthly edited by Samuel Mines.", "Three more of his stories appeared in 1954 issues of ''Astounding Science Fiction'' and ''Amazing Stories''.", "His career as a novelist began in 1955 with the serial publication of ''Under Pressure'' in ''Astounding'' from November 1955; afterward it was issued as a book by Doubleday titled ''The Dragon in the Sea''.", "The story explored sanity and madness in the environment of a 21st-century submarine and predicted worldwide conflicts over oil consumption and production.", "It was a critical success but not a major commercial one.", "During this time Herbert also worked as a speechwriter for Republican senator Guy Cordon.=== ''Dune'' ===Oregon Dunes near Florence, Oregon, served as an inspiration for the ''Dune'' saga.Herbert began researching ''Dune'' in 1959.He was able to devote himself wholeheartedly to his writing career because his wife returned to work full-time as an advertising writer for department stores, becoming the breadwinner during the 1960s.", "The novel ''Dune'' was published in 1965, which spearheaded the ''Dune'' franchise.", "He later told Willis E. McNelly that the novel originated when he was assigned to write a magazine article about sand dunes in the Oregon Dunes near Florence, Oregon.", "He got overinvolved and ended up with far more raw material than needed for an article.", "The article was never written, but it planted the seed that led to ''Dune''.", "Another significant source of inspiration for ''Dune'' was Herbert's experiences with psilocybin and his hobby of cultivating mushrooms, according to mycologist Paul Stamets's account.", "''Dune'' took six years of research and writing to complete and was much longer than other commercial science fiction of the time.", "''Analog'' (the renamed ''Astounding'', still edited by John W. Campbell) published it in two parts comprising eight installments, \"Dune World\" from December 1963 and \"Prophet of Dune\" in 1965.It was then rejected by nearly twenty book publishers.", "One editor prophetically wrote, \"I might be making the mistake of the decade, but...\"Sterling E. Lanier, an editor of Chilton Book Company (known mainly for its auto-repair manuals) had read the Dune serials and offered a $7,500 advance plus future royalties for the rights to publish them as a hardcover book.", "Herbert rewrote much of his text.", "''Dune'' was soon a critical success.", "It won the Nebula Award for Best Novel in 1965 and shared the Hugo Award in 1966 with ''...And Call Me Conrad'' by Roger Zelazny.", "''Dune'' was not an immediate bestseller.", "By 1968 Herbert had made $20,000 from it, far more than most science fiction novels of the time were generating, but not enough to let him take up full-time writing.", "However, the publication of ''Dune'' did open doors for him.", "He was the ''Seattle Post-Intelligencer'' education writer from 1969 to 1972 and lecturer in general studies and interdisciplinary studies at the University of Washington (1970–1972).", "He worked in Vietnam and Pakistan as a social and ecological consultant in 1972.In 1973 he was director-photographer of the television show ''The Tillers''.By the end of 1972, Herbert had retired from newspaper writing and became a full-time fiction writer.", "During the 1970s and 1980s, he enjoyed considerable commercial success as an author.", "He divided his time between homes in Hawaii and Washington's Olympic Peninsula; his home in Port Townsend on the peninsula was intended to be an \"ecological demonstration project\".", "During this time he wrote numerous books and pushed ecological and philosophical ideas.", "He continued his ''Dune'' saga with ''Dune Messiah'' (1969), ''Children of Dune'' (1976), ''God Emperor of Dune'' (1981), ''Heretics of Dune'' (1984) and ''Chapterhouse: Dune'' (1985).", "Herbert planned to write a seventh novel to conclude the series, but his death in 1986 left storylines unresolved.Other works by Herbert include ''The Godmakers'' (1972), ''The Dosadi Experiment'' (1977), ''The White Plague'' (1982) and the books he wrote in partnership with Bill Ransom: ''The Jesus Incident'' (1979), ''The Lazarus Effect'' (1983) and ''The Ascension Factor'' (1988), which were sequels to Herbert's 1966 novel ''Destination: Void''.", "He also helped launch the career of Terry Brooks with a very positive review of Brooks' first novel, ''The Sword of Shannara'', in 1977.=== Success, family changes, and death ===Herbert's change in fortune was shadowed by tragedy.", "In 1974, his wife Beverly underwent an operation for lung cancer.", "She lived ten more years, but her health was adversely affected by the surgery.", "During this period, Herbert was the featured speaker at the Octocon II science fiction convention held at the El Rancho Tropicana in Santa Rosa, California, in October 1978.In 1979, he met anthropologist Jim Funaro with whom he conceived the Contact Conference.", "Beverly Herbert died on February 7, 1984.Herbert completed and published ''Heretics of Dune'' that year.", "In his afterword to 1985's ''Chapterhouse: Dune'', Herbert included a dedication to Beverly.1984 was a tumultuous year in Herbert's life.", "During this same year of his wife's death, his career took off with the release of David Lynch's film version of ''Dune''.", "Despite high expectations, a big-budget production design and an A-list cast, the movie drew mostly poor reviews in the United States.", "However, despite a disappointing response in the US, the film was a critical and commercial success in Europe and Japan.In 1985, after Beverly's death, Herbert married his former Putnam representative Theresa Shackleford.", "The same year he published ''Chapterhouse: Dune'', which tied up many of the saga's story threads.", "This would be Herbert's final single work (the collection ''Eye'' was published that year, and ''Man of Two Worlds'' was published in 1986).", "He died of a massive pulmonary embolism while recovering from surgery for pancreatic cancer on February 11, 1986, in Madison, Wisconsin, aged 65.=== Criticism of government ===Herbert was a strong critic of the Soviet Union.", "He was a distant relative of the Republican senator Joseph McCarthy, whom he referred to as \"Cousin Joe\".", "However, he was appalled to learn of McCarthy's blacklisting of suspected communists from working in certain careers and believed that he was endangering essential freedoms of citizens of the United States.", "Herbert believed that governments lie to protect themselves and that, following the Watergate scandal, President Richard Nixon had unwittingly taught an important lesson in not trusting government.", "Herbert also opposed American involvement in the war in Vietnam.In ''Chapterhouse: Dune'', he wrote:" ], [ "Ideas and themes", "Frank Herbert used his science fiction novels to explore complex ideas involving philosophy, religion, psychology, politics and ecology.", "The underlying thrust of his work was a fascination with the question of human survival and evolution.", "Herbert has attracted a sometimes fanatical fan base, many of whom have tried to read everything he wrote, fiction or non-fiction, and see Herbert as something of an authority on the subject matters of his books.", "Indeed, such was the devotion of some of his readers that Herbert was at times asked if he was founding a cult, something he was very much against.There are a number of key themes in Herbert's work:* A concern with leadership.", "He explored the human tendency to slavishly follow charismatic leaders.", "He delved into both the flaws and potentials of bureaucracy and government.", "* Herbert was among the first science fiction authors to popularize ideas about ecology and systems thinking.", "He stressed the need for humans to think both systematically and long-term.", "* The relationship between religion, politics and power.", "* Human survival and evolution: Herbert writes of the Fremen, the Sardaukar, and the Dosadi, who are molded by their terrible living conditions into dangerous super races.", "* Human possibilities and potential: Herbert offered Mentats, the Bene Gesserit and the Bene Tleilax as different visions of human potential.", "* The nature of sanity and madness.", "Frank Herbert was interested in the work of Thomas Szasz and the anti-psychiatry movement.", "Often, Herbert poses the question, \"''What is sane?", "''\", and while there are clearly insane behaviors and psychopathies as evinced by characters (Piter De Vries for instance), it is often suggested that normal and abnormal are relative terms which humans are sometimes ill-equipped to apply to one another, especially on the basis of statistical regularity.", "* The possible effects and consequences of consciousness-altering chemicals, such as the spice in the ''Dune'' saga, as well as the \"Jaspers\" fungus in ''The Santaroga Barrier'', and the Kelp in the Destination: Void sequence.", "* How language shapes thought.", "More specifically, Herbert was influenced by Alfred Korzybski's ''General Semantics''.", "Algis Budrys wrote that his knowledge of language and linguistics \"is worth at least one PhD and the Chair of Philology at a good New England college\".", "* Learning, teaching, and thinking.Frank Herbert refrained from offering his readers formulaic answers to many of the questions he explored." ], [ "Status and influence on science fiction", "The Dune Peninsula at Point Defiance Park in Tacoma, Washington, with Mount Rainier in the distance''Dune'' and the ''Dune'' saga constitute one of the world's best-selling science fiction series and novels; ''Dune'' in particular has received widespread critical acclaim, winning the Nebula Award in 1965 and sharing the Hugo Award in 1966, and is frequently considered one of the best science fiction novels ever, if not the best.", "''Locus'' subscribers voted it the all-time best SF novel in 1975, again in 1987, and the best \"before 1990\" in 1998.", "''Dune'' is considered a landmark novel for a number of reasons:* ''Dune'' is a landmark of soft science fiction.", "Herbert deliberately suppressed technology in his ''Dune'' universe so that he could address the future of humanity, rather than the future of humanity's technology.", "''Dune'' considers the way humans and their institutions might change over time.", "* Frank Herbert was a great popularizer of scientific ideas; many of his fans credit Frank Herbert for introducing them to philosophy and psychology.", "In ''Dune'', he helped popularize the term ''ecology''.", "Gerald Jonas explains in ''The New York Times Book Review'': \"So completely did Mr. Herbert work out the interactions of man and beast and geography and climate that ''Dune'' became the standard for an emerging subgenre of 'ecological' science fiction.", "\"* ''Dune'' is considered an epic example of literary world-building.", "''The Library Journal'' reports that \"''Dune'' is to science fiction what ''The Lord of the Rings'' is to fantasy\".", "Arthur C. Clarke is quoted as making a similar statement on the back cover of a paper edition of ''Dune''.", "Frank Herbert imagined every facet of his creation.", "He lovingly included glossaries, quotes, documents, and histories, to bring his universe alive to his readers.", "No science fiction novel before it had so vividly realized life on another world.Herbert never again equalled the critical acclaim he received for ''Dune''.", "Neither his sequels to ''Dune'' nor any of his other books won a Hugo or Nebula Award, although almost all of them were ''New York Times'' Best Sellers.Malcolm Edwards wrote, in ''The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction'':The Science Fiction Hall of Fame inducted Herbert in 2006.California State University, Fullerton's Pollack Library has several of Herbert's draft manuscripts of ''Dune'' and other works, with the author's notes, in their Frank Herbert Archives.Metro Parks Tacoma built Dune Peninsula and the Frank Herbert Trail at Point Defiance Park in July 2019 to honor the hometown writer." ], [ "Bibliography", "=== Posthumously published works ===Beginning in 2012, Herbert's estate and WordFire Press have released four previously unpublished novels in e-book and paperback formats: ''High-Opp'' (2012), ''Angels' Fall'' (2013), ''A Game of Authors'' (2013), and ''A Thorn in the Bush'' (2014).In recent years, Frank Herbert's son Brian Herbert and author Kevin J. Anderson have added to the ''Dune'' franchise, using notes left behind by Frank Herbert and discovered over a decade after his death.", "Brian Herbert and Anderson have written three prequel trilogies (''Prelude to Dune'', ''Legends of Dune'' and ''Great Schools of Dune'') exploring the history of the ''Dune'' universe before the events of the original novel, two novels that take place between novels of the original ''Dune'' sequels (with plans for more), as well as two post-''Chapterhouse Dune'' novels that complete the original series (''Hunters of Dune'' and ''Sandworms of Dune'') based on Frank Herbert's own ''Dune 7'' outline." ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "* Allen, L. David.", "''Cliffs Notes on Herbert's Dune & Other Works''.", "Lincoln, NE: Cliffs Notes, 1975.", "* Clarke, Jason.", "''SparkNotes: Dune, Frank Herbert''.", "New York: Spark Publishing, 2002.", "* * Herbert, Brian.", "''Dreamer of Dune : The Biography of Frank Herbert''.", "New York: Tor Books, 2003.", "* Levack, Daniel JH; Willard, Mark.", "''Dune Master: A Frank Herbert Bibliography''.", "Westport, CT: Meckler, 1988.", "* McNelly, Dr. Willis E.", "(ed.)", "''The Dune Encyclopedia''.", "New York: Berkeley Publishing Group, 1984.", "* Miller, David M. ''Starmont Reader's Guide 5: Frank Herbert''.", "Mercer Island, WA: Starmont, 1980.", "* O'Reilly, Timothy.", "''Frank Herbert''.", "New York: Frederick Ungar, 1980.", "* O'Reilly, Timothy (ed.)", "''The Maker of Dune''.", "New York: Berkeley Publishing Group, 1987." ], [ "External links", "* Official website for Brian Herbert and Kevin Anderson* Frank Herbert SF Hall of Fame induction (Kevin Anderson report with his speech)* * * 1984 interview with ''L.", "A.", "Reader'': part 1, 2, 3* Frank Herbert on the Literature Map===Biography and criticism===* Frank Herbert biography at the Encyclopedia of Science Fiction* Arabic and Islamic themes in Frank Herbert's ''Dune'' novels* Study by Tim O'Reilly of Frank Herbert's work up to the ''Jesus Incident''; one of the more in-depth studies of Frank Herbert's thoughts and ideas* Article on the inspirations for ''Dune''* \"Frank Herbert, the Dune Man\" – (Frederik Pohl)** \"Frank Herbert, the Dune Man, Part 2\"===Bibliography and works===* * * * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fictional language" ], [ "Introduction", "Tolkien's Quenya, one of the languages of the elves, written in Tengwar with transliteration into a Latin-based alphabet.", "It translates to \"Ah!", "like gold fall the leaves in the wind, long years numberless as the wings of trees!", "\"'''Fictional languages''' are the subset of constructed languages (conlangs) that have been created as part of a fictional setting (e.g.", "for use in a book, movie, television show, or video game).", "Typically they are the creation of one individual, while natural languages evolve out of a particular culture or people group, and other conlangs may have group involvement.", "Fictional languages are also distinct from natural languages in that they have no native speakers.", "By contrast, the constructed language of Esperanto now has native speakers.Fictional languages are intended to be the languages of a fictional world and are often designed with the intent of giving more depth, and an appearance of plausibility, to the fictional worlds with which they are associated.", "The goal of the author may be to have their characters communicate in a fashion which is both alien and dislocated.", "Within their fictional world, these languages do function as natural languages, helping to identify certain races or people groups and set them apart from others.While some less-formed fictional languages are created as distorted versions or dialects of a pre-existing natural language, many are independently designed conlangs with their own lexicon (some more robust than others) and rules of grammar.", "Some of the latter are fully formed enough to be learned as a speakable language, and many subcultures exist of those who are 'fluent' in one or more of these fictional languages.", "Often after the creator of a fictional language has accomplished their task, the fandom of that fictional universe will pick up where the creator left off and continue to flesh out the language, making it more like a natural language and therefore more usable." ], [ "Purpose", "Fictional languages are separated from artistic languages by both purpose and relative completion: a fictional language often has the least amount of grammar and vocabulary possible, and rarely extends beyond the absolutely necessary.", "At the same time, some others have developed languages in detail for their own sake, such as J. R. R. Tolkien's Quenya and Sindarin (two Elvish languages), ''Star Trek''s Klingon language and ''Avatar'''s Na'vi language which exist as functioning, usable languages.By analogy with the word \"conlang\", the term ''conworld'' is used to describe these fictional worlds, inhabited by fictional constructed cultures.", "The conworld influences vocabulary (what words the language will have for flora and fauna, articles of clothing, objects of technology, religious concepts, names of places and tribes, etc.", "), as well as influencing other factors such as pronouns, or how their cultures view the break-off points between colors or the gender and age of family members.", "Sound is also a directing factor, as creators seek to show their audience through phonology the type of race or people group to whom the language belongs." ], [ "Commercial fictional languages", "'''Commercial fictional languages''' are those languages created for use in various commercial media, such as:* Books (''The Lord of the Rings'' Quenya and Sindarin)* Films (''Avatar''s Na'vi, Baahubali's Kiliki and ''Star Wars'' Huttese.", ")* Television shows (''Star Trek''s Klingon, ''Game of Thrones''' Valyrian and Dothraki)* Video games (''Far Cry Primal''s Wenja, ''The Sims'' Simlish, ''Splatoon''s inkling typeface.", ")* Comics (''The Adventures of Tintin''s Bordurian and Syldavian)* Toys (''Furby'''s Furbish)* Musical albums (''Magma''s Kobaïan)*Children's TV shows (''Pingu''s Penguinese)While some languages are created purely from the desire of the creator, language creation can be a profession.", "In 1974, Victoria Fromkin was the first person hired to create a language (''Land of the Lost'''s Paku).", "Since then, notable professional language creators have included Marc Okrand (Klingon), David Peterson (Dothraki and others in ''Game of Thrones''), and Paul Frommer (Na'vi)." ], [ "Alien languages", "''Qapla'' means 'success' in the Klingon language.A notable subgenre of fictional languages are alien languages, the ones that are used or might be used by putative extraterrestrial life forms.", "Alien languages are subject of both science fiction and scientific research.", "Perhaps the most fully developed fictional alien language is the Klingon language of the ''Star Trek'' universe – a fully developed constructed language.The problem of alien language has confronted generations of science fiction writers; some have created fictional languages for their characters to use, while others have circumvented the problem through translation devices or other fantastic technology.", "For example, the ''Star Trek'' universe makes use of a \"universal translator\", which explains why such different races, often meeting for the first time, are able to communicate with each other.", "Another more humorous example would be the Babel fish from ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'', an aurally-inserted fish that instantaneously translates alien speech to the speaker's native language.While in many cases an alien language is but an element of a fictional reality, in a number of science fiction works the core of the plot involves linguistic and psychological problems of communication between various alien species.=== Visual alien languages ===Circular Gallifreyan from ''Doctor Who'', an example of a visual language.", "The sentence translates to \"Welcome to Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia that anyone can edit.", "\"A further subgenre of alien languages are those that are visual, rather than auditory.", "Notable examples of this type are Sherman's Circular Gallifreyan from BBC's ''Doctor Who'' series and the heptapod's written language, which is distinct from their spoken language, from the 2016 film ''Arrival''." ], [ "Internet-based fictional languages", "'''Internet-based fictional languages''' are hosted along with their \"conworlds\" on the internet, and based at these sites, becoming known to the world through the visitors to these sites.", "Verdurian, the language of Mark Rosenfelder's Verduria on the planet of Almea, is an Internet-based fictional language.Many other fictional languages and their associated conworlds are created privately by their inventor, known only to the inventor and perhaps a few friends." ], [ "See also", "*List of fictional languages*Communication with extraterrestrial intelligence*Constructed languages*Languages in Star Wars" ], [ "References", ";Citations;General references* *" ], [ "External links", "* A Primer In SF XENOLINGUISTICS, by Justin B. Rye* Interstellar Communication, a collection of references* Are Elvish, Klingon, Dothraki and Na'vi real languages?", "* The Klingon Language Institute* Accent Expert Breaks Down 6 Fictional Languages From Film & TV" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Formula One" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Formula One''', commonly known as '''Formula 1''' or '''F1''', is the highest class of international racing for open-wheel single-seater formula racing cars sanctioned by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA).", "The FIA Formula One World Championship has been one of the premier forms of racing around the world since its inaugural running in 1950.The word ''formula'' in the name refers to the set of rules to which all participants' cars must conform.", "A Formula One season consists of a series of races, known as ''Grands Prix''.", "Grands Prix take place in multiple countries and continents around the world on either purpose-built circuits or closed public roads.A points system is used at Grands Prix to determine two annual World Championships: one for the drivers, and one for the constructors (the teams).", "Each driver must hold a valid Super Licence, the highest class of racing licence issued by the FIA, and the races must be held on grade one tracks, the highest grade-rating issued by the FIA for tracks.Formula One cars are the fastest regulated road-course racing cars in the world, owing to very high cornering speeds achieved through generating large amounts of aerodynamic downforce.", "Much of this downforce is generated by front and rear wings, which have the side effect of causing severe turbulence behind each car.", "The turbulence reduces the downforce generated by the cars following directly behind, making it hard to overtake.", "Major changes made to the cars for the season have resulted in greater use of ground effect aerodynamics and modified wings to reduce the turbulence behind the cars, with the goal of making overtaking easier.", "The cars are dependent on electronics, aerodynamics, suspension, and tyres.", "Traction control, launch control, and automatic shifting, plus other electronic driving aids, were first banned in .", "They were briefly reintroduced in , and have more recently been banned since and , respectively.With the average annual cost of running a team – designing, building, and maintaining cars, pay, transport – being approximately £220,000,000 (or $265,000,000), its financial and political battles are widely reported.", "The Formula One Group is currently owned by Liberty Media, who acquired it in January 2017 from private-equity firm CVC Capital Partners for £6.4 billion ($8 billion)." ], [ "History", "Formula One originated from the European Motor Racing Championships of the 1920s and 1930s.", "The formula consists of a set of rules that all participants' cars must follow.", "Formula One was a new formula agreed upon during 1946 to officially become effective from 1st January 1947.The first Grand Prix in accordance with the new regulations was the 1946 Turin Grand Prix anticipating the official start of the formula.", "Before World War II, a number of Grand Prix racing organisations had made suggestions for a new championship to replace the European Championship before but due to the suspension of racing during the conflict, the new International Formula for cars did not become formalised until 1946, to become effective from 1st January 1947.The new World Championship was instituted to commence in 1950.The first world championship race took place at Silverstone Circuit in the United Kingdom on 13 May 1950.Giuseppe Farina, competing for Alfa Romeo, won the first Drivers' World Championship, narrowly defeating his teammate Juan Manuel Fangio.", "Fangio went on to win the championship in , , , , and .", "This set the record for the most World Championships won by a single driver, a record that stood for 46 years until Michael Schumacher won his sixth championship in 2003.Juan Manuel Fangio's title-winning Alfa Romeo 159A Constructors' Championship was added in the 1958 season.", "Stirling Moss, despite being regarded as one of the greatest Formula One drivers in the 1950s and 1960s, never won the Formula One championship.", "Between 1955 and 1961, Moss finished second place in the championship four times and in third place the other three times.", "Fangio won 24 of the 52 races he entered – still the record for the highest Formula One wins percentage by an individual driver.", "National championships existed in South Africa and the UK in the 1960s and 1970s.", "Non-championship Formula One events were held by promoters for many years.", "Due to the increasing cost of competition, the last of these was held in 1983.This era featured teams managed by road-car manufacturers, such as: Alfa Romeo, Ferrari, Mercedes-Benz and Maserati.", "The first seasons featured pre-war cars like Alfa Romeo's 158, which were front-engined, with narrow tyres and 1.5-litre supercharged or 4.5-litre naturally aspirated engines.", "The and seasons were run to Formula Two regulations, for smaller, less powerful cars, due to concerns over the lack of Formula One cars available.", "When a new Formula One formula for engines limited to 2.5 litres was reinstated to the world championship for 1954, Mercedes-Benz introduced their W196.The W196 featured things never seen on Formula One cars before, such as: desmodromic valves, fuel injection and enclosed streamlined bodywork.", "Mercedes drivers won the championship for the next two years, before the team withdrew from all motorsport competitions due to the 1955 Le Mans disaster.=== Technological developments ===Stirling Moss's Lotus 18 at the Nürburgring during The first major technological development in the sport was Bugatti's introduction of mid-engined cars.", "Jack Brabham, the world champion in , , and , soon proved the mid-engine's superiority over all other engine positions.", "By all teams had switched to mid-engined cars.", "The Ferguson P99, a four-wheel drive design, was the last front-engined Formula One car to enter a world championship race.", "It was entered in the 1961 British Grand Prix, the only front-engined car to compete that year.During , Lotus introduced a car with an aluminium-sheet monocoque chassis instead of the traditional space-frame design.", "This proved to be the greatest technological breakthrough since the introduction of mid-engined cars.", "In sponsorship was introduced to the sport.", "Team Gunston became the first team to run cigarette sponsorship on their Brabham cars, which privately entered in orange, brown and gold colours of Gunston cigarettes in the 1968 South African Grand Prix on 1 January 1968.Five months later, Lotus as the first works team followed this example when they entered their cars painted in the red, gold and white colours of the Imperial Tobacco's Gold Leaf livery at the 1968 Spanish Grand Prix.Aerodynamic downforce slowly gained importance in car design with the appearance of aerofoils during the 1968 season.", "During the late 1970s, Lotus introduced ground-effect aerodynamics, previously used on Jim Hall's Chaparral 2J in 1970, that provided enormous downforce and greatly increased cornering speeds.", "The aerodynamic forces pressing the cars to the track were up to five times the car's weight.", "As a result, extremely stiff springs were needed to maintain a constant ride height, leaving the suspension virtually solid.", "This meant that the drivers were depending entirely on the tyres for any small amount of cushioning of the car and driver from irregularities of the road surface.===Big business===Beginning in the 1970s, Bernie Ecclestone rearranged the management of Formula One's commercial rights; he is widely credited with transforming the sport into the multibillion-dollar business it now is.", "When Ecclestone bought the Brabham team during 1971, he gained a seat on the Formula One Constructors' Association and during 1978, he became its president.", "Previously, the circuit owners controlled the income of the teams and negotiated with each individually; however, Ecclestone persuaded the teams to \"hunt as a pack\" through FOCA.", "He offered Formula One to circuit owners as a package, which they could take or leave.", "In return for the package, almost all that was required was to surrender trackside advertising.The formation of the Fédération Internationale du Sport Automobile (FISA) during 1979 set off the FISA–FOCA war, during which FISA and its president Jean-Marie Balestre argued repeatedly with FOCA over television revenues and technical regulations.", "''The Guardian'' said that Ecclestone and Max Mosley \"used FOCA to wage a guerrilla war with a very long-term aim in view\".", "FOCA threatened to establish a rival series, boycotted a Grand Prix and FISA withdrew its sanction from races.", "The result was the 1981 Concorde Agreement, which guaranteed technical stability, as teams were to be given reasonable notice of new regulations.", "Although FISA asserted its right to the TV revenues, it handed the administration of those rights to FOCA.FISA imposed a ban on ground-effect aerodynamics during .", "By then, however, turbocharged engines, which Renault had pioneered in , were producing over and were essential to be competitive.", "By , a BMW turbocharged engine achieved a flash reading of pressure, estimated to be over in qualifying for the .", "The next year, power in race trim reached around , with boost pressure limited to only 4.0 bar.", "These cars were the most powerful open-wheel circuit racing cars ever.", "To reduce engine power output and thus speeds, the FIA limited fuel tank capacity in , and boost pressures in , before banning turbocharged engines completely in .The development of electronic driver aids began during the 1980s.", "Lotus began to develop a system of active suspension, which first appeared during 1983 on the Lotus 92.By 1987, this system had been perfected and was driven to victory by Ayrton Senna in the Monaco Grand Prix that year.", "In the early 1990s, other teams followed suit and semi-automatic gearboxes and traction control were a natural progression.", "The FIA, due to complaints that technology was determining the outcome of races more than driver skill, banned many such aids for the season.", "This resulted in cars that were previously dependent on electronic aids becoming very \"twitchy\" and difficult to drive.", "Observers felt the ban on driver aids was in name only, as they \"proved difficult to police effectively\".The teams signed a second Concorde Agreement during 1992 and a third in 1997.Stefan Johansson driving for Ferrari at the 1985 European Grand PrixOn the track, the McLaren and Williams teams dominated the 1980s and 1990s.", "Brabham were also being competitive during the early part of the 1980s, winning two Drivers' Championships with Nelson Piquet.", "Powered by Porsche, Honda, and Mercedes-Benz, McLaren won sixteen championships (seven constructors' and nine drivers') in that period, while Williams used engines from Ford, Honda, and Renault to also win sixteen titles (nine constructors' and seven drivers').", "The rivalry between racers Ayrton Senna and Alain Prost became F1's central focus during and continued until Prost retired at the end of .", "Senna died at the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix after crashing into a wall on the exit of the notorious curve Tamburello.", "The FIA worked to improve the sport's safety standards since that weekend, during which Roland Ratzenberger also died in an accident during Saturday qualifying.", "No driver died of injuries sustained on the track at the wheel of a Formula One car for 20 years until the 2014 Japanese Grand Prix, where Jules Bianchi collided with a recovery vehicle after aquaplaning off the circuit, dying nine months later from his injuries.", "Since 1994, three track marshals have died, one at the 2000 Italian Grand Prix, the second at the 2001 Australian Grand Prix and the third at the 2013 Canadian Grand Prix.Since the deaths of Senna and Ratzenberger, the FIA has used safety as a reason to impose rule changes that otherwise, under the Concorde Agreement, would have had to be agreed upon by all the teams – most notably the changes introduced for .", "This so-called 'narrow track' era resulted in cars with smaller rear tyres, a narrower track overall, and the introduction of grooved tyres to reduce mechanical grip.", "The objective was to reduce cornering speeds and to produce racing similar to rainy conditions by enforcing a smaller contact patch between tyre and track.", "This, according to the FIA, was to reduce cornering speeds in the interest of safety.Damon Hill driving for Williams at the 1995 Canadian Grand PrixResults were mixed, as the lack of mechanical grip resulted in the more ingenious designers clawing back the deficit with aerodynamic grip.", "This resulted in pushing more force onto the tyres through wings and aerodynamic devices, which in turn resulted in less overtaking as these devices tended to make the wake behind the car turbulent or 'dirty'.", "This prevented other cars from following closely due to their dependence on 'clean' air to make the car stick to the track.", "The grooved tyres also had the unfortunate side effect of initially being of a harder compound to be able to hold the grooved tread blocks, which resulted in spectacular accidents in times of aerodynamic grip failure, as the harder compound could not grip the track as well.Drivers from McLaren, Williams, Renault (formerly Benetton), and Ferrari, dubbed the \"Big Four\", won every World Championship from to .", "The teams won every Constructors' Championship from to , as well as placing themselves as the top four teams in the Constructors' Championship in every season between and , and winning every race but one (the 1996 Monaco Grand Prix) between and .", "Due to the technological advances of the 1990s, the cost of competing in Formula One increased dramatically, thus increasing financial burdens.", "This, combined with the dominance of four teams (largely funded by big car manufacturers such as Mercedes-Benz), caused the poorer independent teams to struggle not only to remain competitive but to stay in business.", "This effectively forced several teams to withdraw.===Manufacturers' return===Michael Schumacher (pictured here in 2001) won five consecutive titles with Ferrari.", "Michael Schumacher and Ferrari won five consecutive Drivers' Championships (2000–2004) and six consecutive Constructors' Championships (1999–2004).", "Schumacher set many new records, including those for Grand Prix wins (91, since beaten by Lewis Hamilton), wins in a season (thirteen, since beaten by Max Verstappen), and most Drivers' Championships (seven, tied with Lewis Hamilton as of 2021).", "Schumacher's championship streak ended on 25 September 2005, when Renault driver Fernando Alonso became Formula One's youngest champion at that time (until Lewis Hamilton in and followed by Sebastian Vettel in 2010).", "During 2006, Renault and Alonso won both titles again.", "Schumacher retired at the end of 2006 after sixteen years in Formula One, but came out of retirement for the 2010 season, racing for the newly formed Mercedes works team, following the rebrand of Brawn GP.During this period, the championship rules were changed frequently by the FIA with the intention of improving the on-track action and cutting costs.", "Team orders, legal since the championship started during 1950, were banned during 2002, after several incidents, in which teams openly manipulated race results, generating negative publicity, most famously by Ferrari at the 2002 Austrian Grand Prix.", "Other changes included the qualifying format, the points scoring system, the technical regulations, and rules specifying how long engines and tyres must last.", "A \"tyre war\" between suppliers Michelin and Bridgestone saw lap times fall, although, at the 2005 United States Grand Prix at Indianapolis, seven out of ten teams did not race when their Michelin tyres were deemed unsafe for use, leading to Bridgestone becoming the sole tyre supplier to Formula One for the 2007 season by default.", "Bridgestone then went on to sign a contract on 20 December 2007 that officially made them the exclusive tyre supplier for the next three seasons.During 2006, Max Mosley outlined a \"green\" future for Formula One, in which efficient use of energy would become an important factor.Starting in 2000, with Ford's purchase of Stewart Grand Prix to form the Jaguar Racing team, new manufacturer-owned teams entered Formula One for the first time since the departure of Alfa Romeo and Renault at the end of 1985.By 2006, the manufacturer teams – Renault, BMW, Toyota, Honda, and Ferrari – dominated the championship, taking five of the first six places in the Constructors' Championship.", "The sole exception was McLaren, which at the time was part-owned by Mercedes-Benz.", "Through the Grand Prix Manufacturers Association (GPMA), the manufacturers negotiated a larger share of Formula One's commercial profit and a greater say in the running of the sport.===Manufacturers' decline and return of the privateers===In 2008 and 2009, Honda, BMW, and Toyota all withdrew from Formula One racing within the space of a year, blaming the economic recession.", "This resulted in the end of manufacturer dominance within the sport.", "The Honda F1 team went through a management buyout to become Brawn GP with Ross Brawn and Nick Fry running and owning the majority of the organisation.", "Brawn GP laid off hundreds of employees, but eventually won the year's world championships.", "BMW F1 was bought out by the original founder of the team, Peter Sauber.", "The Lotus F1 Team were another, formerly manufacturer-owned team that reverted to \"privateer\" ownership, together with the buy-out of the Renault team by Genii Capital investors.", "A link with their previous owners still survived, however, with their car continuing to be powered by a Renault engine until 2014.McLaren also announced that it was to reacquire the shares in its team from Mercedes-Benz (McLaren's partnership with Mercedes was reported to have started to sour with the McLaren Mercedes SLR road car project and tough F1 championships which included McLaren being found guilty of spying on Ferrari).", "Hence, during the 2010 season, Mercedes-Benz re-entered the sport as a manufacturer after its purchase of Brawn GP and split with McLaren after 15 seasons with the team.During the season of Formula One, the sport was gripped by the FIA–FOTA dispute.", "The FIA President Max Mosley proposed numerous cost-cutting measures for the following season, including an optional budget cap for the teams; teams electing to take the budget cap would be granted greater technical freedom, adjustable front and rear wings and an engine not subject to a rev limiter.", "The Formula One Teams Association (FOTA) believed that allowing some teams to have such technical freedom would have created a 'two-tier' championship, and thus requested urgent talks with the FIA.", "However, talks broke down and FOTA teams announced, with the exception of Williams and Force India, that 'they had no choice' but to form a breakaway championship series.Bernie Ecclestone, the former Chief executive of the Formula One GroupOn 24 June, an agreement was reached between Formula One's governing body and the teams to prevent a breakaway series.", "It was agreed teams must cut spending to the level of the early 1990s within two years; exact figures were not specified, and Max Mosley agreed he would not stand for re-election to the FIA presidency in October.", "Following further disagreements, after Max Mosley suggested he would stand for re-election, FOTA made it clear that breakaway plans were still being pursued.", "On 8 July, FOTA issued a press release stating they had been informed they were not entered for the 2010 season, and an FIA press release said the FOTA representatives had walked out of the meeting.", "On 1 August, it was announced FIA and FOTA had signed a new Concorde Agreement, bringing an end to the crisis and securing the sport's future until 2012.To compensate for the loss of manufacturer teams, four new teams were accepted entry into the 2010 season ahead of a much anticipated 'cost-cap'.", "Entrants included a reborn Team Lotus – which was led by a Malaysian consortium including Tony Fernandes, the boss of Air Asia; Hispania Racing – the first Spanish Formula One team; as well as Virgin Racing – Richard Branson's entry into the series following a successful partnership with Brawn the year before.", "They were also joined by the US F1 Team, which planned to run out of the United States as the only non-European-based team in the sport.", "Financial issues befell the squad before they even made the grid.", "Despite the entry of these new teams, the proposed cost-cap was repealed and these teams – who did not have the budgets of the midfield and top-order teams – ran around at the back of the field until they inevitably collapsed; HRT in 2012, Caterham (formerly Lotus) in 2014 and Manor (formerly Virgin then Marussia), having survived falling into administration in 2014, went under at the end of 2016.=== Hybrid era ===A major rule shake-up in saw the 2.4-litre naturally aspirated V8 engines replaced by 1.6-litre turbocharged hybrid power units.", "This prompted Honda to return to the sport in 2015 as the championship's fourth power unit manufacturer.", "Mercedes emerged as the dominant force after the rule shake-up, with Lewis Hamilton winning the championship closely followed by his main rival and teammate, Nico Rosberg, with the team winning 16 out of the 19 races that season.", "The team continued this form in the following two seasons, again winning 16 races in before taking a record 19 wins in 2016, with Hamilton claiming the title in the former year and Rosberg winning it in the latter by five points.", "The 2016 season also saw a new team, Haas, join the grid, while Max Verstappen became the youngest-ever race winner at the age of 18 in Spain.Mercedes won eight consecutive constructors' titles and Lewis Hamilton won six drivers' titles during the beginning of the hybrid era.After revised aerodynamic regulations were introduced, the 2017 and 2018 seasons featured a title battle between Mercedes and Ferrari.", "However, Mercedes ultimately won the titles with multiple races to spare and continued to experience dominance in the next two years, eventually winning seven consecutive Drivers' Championships from 2014 to 2020 and eight consecutive Constructors' titles from 2014 to 2021.During this eight-year period between 2014 and 2021, 111 of the 160 races were won by a Mercedes driver, with Hamilton winning 81 of these races and taking six Drivers' Championships during this period to equal Schumacher's record of seven titles.", "In 2021, the Honda-powered Red Bull team began to seriously challenge Mercedes, with their driver Max Verstappen beating Hamilton to the Drivers' Championship after a season-long battle that saw the pair exchange the championship lead multiple times.", "This era has seen an increase in car manufacturer presence in the sport.", "After Honda's return as an engine manufacturer in 2015, Renault came back as a team in 2016 after buying back the Lotus F1 team.", "In 2018, Aston Martin and Alfa Romeo became Red Bull and Sauber's title sponsors, respectively.", "Sauber was rebranded as Alfa Romeo Racing for the 2019 season, while Racing Point part-owner Lawrence Stroll bought a stake in Aston Martin to rebrand the Racing Point team as Aston Martin for 2021.In August 2020, a new Concorde Agreement was signed by all ten F1 teams committing them to the sport until 2025, including a $145M budget cap for car development to support equal competition and sustainable development in the future.The COVID-19 pandemic forced the sport to adapt to budgetary and logistical limitations.", "A significant overhaul of the technical regulations intended to be introduced in the 2021 season was pushed back to 2022, with constructors instead using their 2020 chassis for two seasons and a token system limiting which parts could be modified was introduced.", "The start of the season was delayed by several months, and both it and seasons were subject to several postponements, cancellations and rescheduling of races due to the shifting restrictions on international travel.", "Many races took place behind closed doors and with only essential personnel present to maintain social distancing.In 2022, a major rule and car design change was announced by the F1 governing body, intended to promote closer racing through the use of ground effects, new aerodynamics, larger wheels with low-profile tires, and redesigned nose and wing regulations.", "Red Bull emerged as the dominant force after the rule shake-up.", "The 2022 and 2023 Constructors' and Drivers' Championships were won by Red Bull and Verstappen with multiple races to spare.In early 2024, the Formula One landscape underwent a significant change in the sphere of team sponsorships and collaborations.", "Having competed for five seasons under the Alfa Romeo name, Sauber introduced a title partnership with the online casino Stake.com, resulting in the team's new identity as Stake F1 Team Kick Sauber.", "Sauber will hold Stake's sponsorship name until the end of 2025." ], [ "Racing and strategy", "A Formula One Grand Prix event spans a weekend.", "It typically begins with two free practice sessions on Friday, and one free practice on Saturday.", "Additional drivers (commonly known as third drivers) are allowed to run on Fridays, but only two cars may be used per team, requiring a race driver to give up their seat.", "A qualifying session is held after the last free practice session.", "This session determines the starting order for the race on Sunday.===Tyre rules===The 2023 Pirelli tyres include (from left to right) the three slick compound tyres: soft (red), medium (yellow), and hard (white) and the two wet-weather tyre compounds: intermediate (green), and full-wet (blue).Each driver may use no more than thirteen sets of dry-weather tyres, four sets of intermediate tyres, and three sets of wet-weather tyres during a race weekend.===Qualifying===For much of the sport's history, qualifying sessions differed little from practice sessions; drivers would have one or more sessions in which to set their fastest time, with the grid order determined by each driver's best single lap, with the fastest getting first place on the grid, referred to as pole position.", "From 1996 to 2002, the format was a one-hour shootout.", "This approach lasted until the end of 2002 before the rules were changed again because the teams were not running in the early part of the session to take advantage of better track conditions later on.Grids were generally limited to 26 cars – if the race had more entries, qualification would also decide which drivers would start the race.", "During the early 1990s, the number of entries was so high that the worst-performing teams had to enter a pre-qualifying session, with the fastest cars allowed through to the main qualifying session.", "The qualifying format began to change in the early 2000s, with the FIA experimenting with limiting the number of laps, determining the aggregate time over two sessions, and allowing each driver only one qualifying lap.The current qualifying system was adopted in the 2006 season.", "Known as \"knock-out\" qualifying, it is split into three periods, known as Q1, Q2, and Q3.In each period, drivers run qualifying laps to attempt to advance to the next period, with the slowest drivers being \"knocked out\" of qualification (but not necessarily the race) at the end of the period and their grid positions set within the rearmost five based on their best lap times.", "Drivers are allowed as many laps as they wish within each period.", "After each period, all times are reset, and only a driver's fastest lap in that period (barring infractions) counts.", "Any timed lap started before the end of that period may be completed and will count toward that driver's placement.", "The number of cars eliminated in each period is dependent on the total number of cars entered into the championship.", "Currently, with 20 cars, Q1 runs for 18 minutes, and eliminates the slowest five drivers.", "During this period, any driver whose best lap takes longer than 107% of the fastest time in Q1 will not be allowed to start the race without permission from the stewards.", "Otherwise, all drivers proceed to the race albeit in the worst starting positions.", "This rule does not affect drivers in Q2 or Q3.In Q2, the 15 remaining drivers have 15 minutes to set one of the ten fastest times and proceed to the next period.", "Finally, Q3 lasts 12 minutes and sees the remaining ten drivers decide the first ten grid positions.", "At the beginning of the 2016 Formula 1 season, the FIA introduced a new qualifying format, whereby drivers were knocked out every 90 seconds after a certain amount of time had passed in each session.", "The aim was to mix up grid positions for the race, but due to unpopularity, the FIA reverted to the above qualifying format for the Chinese GP, after running the format for only two races.Each car is allocated one set of the softest tyres for use in Q3.The cars that qualify for Q3 must return them after Q3; the cars that do not qualify for Q3 can use them during the race.", "As of 2022, all drivers are given a free choice of tyre to use at the start of the Grand Prix, whereas in previous years only the drivers that did not participate in Q3 had free tyre choice for the start of the race.", "Any penalties that affect grid position are applied at the end of qualifying.", "Grid penalties can be applied for driving infractions in the previous or current Grand Prix, or for changing a gearbox or engine component.", "If a car fails scrutineering, the driver will be excluded from qualifying but will be allowed to start the race from the back of the grid at the race stewards' discretion.2021 saw the trialling of a 'sprint qualifying' race on the Saturday of three race weekends, with the intention of testing the new approach to qualifying.", "The traditional qualifying would determine the starting order for the sprint, and the result of the sprint would then determine the start order for the Grand Prix.", "The system returned for the 2022 season, now titled the 'sprint'.", "From 2023, sprint races no longer impacted the start order for the main race, which would be determined by traditional qualifying.", "Sprints would have their own qualifying session, titled the 'sprint shootout'; such a system made its debut at the 2023 Azerbaijan Grand Prix and is set to be used throughout all sprint sessions in place of the traditional second free practice session.", "Sprint qualifying sessions are run much shorter than traditional qualifying, and each session required teams to fit new tyres - mediums for SQ1 and SQ2, and softs for SQ3 - otherwise they cannot participate in the session.===Race===The race begins with a warm-up lap, after which the cars assemble on the starting grid in the order they qualified.", "This lap is often referred to as the formation lap, as the cars lap in formation with no overtaking (although a driver who makes a mistake may regain lost ground).", "The warm-up lap allows drivers to check the condition of the track and their car, gives the tyres a chance to warm up to increase traction and grip, and also gives the pit crews time to clear themselves and their equipment from the grid for the race start.Jacques Villeneuve qualifying at the 2005 United States Grand Prix in his Sauber C24Once all the cars have formed on the grid, after the medical car positions itself behind the pack, a light system above the track indicates the start of the race: five red lights are illuminated at intervals of one second; they are all then extinguished simultaneously after an unspecified time (typically less than 3 seconds) to signal the start of the race.", "The start procedure may be abandoned if a driver stalls on the grid or on the track in an unsafe position, signalled by raising their arm.", "If this happens, the procedure restarts: a new formation lap begins with the offending car removed from the grid.", "The race may also be restarted in the event of a serious accident or dangerous conditions, with the original start voided.", "The race may be started from behind the Safety Car if race control feels a racing start would be excessively dangerous, such as extremely heavy rainfall.", "As of the season, there will always be a standing restart.", "If due to heavy rainfall a start behind the safety car is necessary, then after the track has dried sufficiently, drivers will form up for a standing start.", "There is no formation lap when races start behind the Safety Car.Under normal circumstances, the winner of the race is the first driver to cross the finish line having completed a set number of laps.", "Race officials may end the race early (putting out a red flag) due to unsafe conditions such as extreme rainfall, and it must finish within two hours, although races are only likely to last this long in the case of extreme weather or if the safety car is deployed during the race.", "When a situation justifies pausing the race without terminating it, the red flag is deployed; since 2005, a ten-minute warning is given before the race is resumed behind the safety car, which leads the field for a lap before it returns to the pit lane (before then the race resumed in race order from the penultimate lap before the red flag was shown).In the 1950s, race distances varied from to .", "The maximum race length was reduced to in 1966 and in 1971.The race length was standardised to the current in 1989.However, street races like Monaco have shorter distances, to keep under the two-hour limit.Drivers may overtake one another for position over the course of the race.", "If a leader comes across a backmarker (slower car) who has completed fewer laps, the back marker is shown a blue flag telling them that they are obliged to allow the leader to overtake them.", "The slower car is said to be \"lapped\" and, once the leader finishes the race, is classified as finishing the race \"one lap down\".", "A driver can be lapped numerous times, by any car in front of them.", "A driver who fails to complete more than 90% of the race distance is shown as \"not classified\" in the results.Throughout the race, drivers may make pit stops to change tyres and repair damage (from 1994 to 2009 inclusive, they could also refuel).", "Different teams and drivers employ different pit stop strategies in order to maximise their car's potential.", "Three dry tyre compounds, with different durability and adhesion characteristics, are available to drivers.", "Over the course of a race, drivers must use two of the three available compounds.", "The different compounds have different levels of performance and choosing when to use which compound is a key tactical decision to make.", "Different tyres have different colours on their sidewalls; this allows spectators to understand the strategies.", "Under wet conditions, drivers may switch to one of two specialised wet weather tyres with additional grooves (one \"intermediate\", for mild wet conditions, such as after recent rain, one \"full wet\", for racing in or immediately after rain).", "A driver must make at least one stop to use two tyre compounds; up to three stops are typically made, although further stops may be necessary to fix damage or if weather conditions change.", "If rain tyres are used, drivers are no longer obliged to use both types of dry tyres.====Race director====This role involves managing the logistics of each F1 Grand Prix, inspecting cars in parc fermé before a race, enforcing FIA rules, and controlling the lights which start each race.", "As the head of the race officials, the race director also plays a large role in resolving disputes among teams and drivers.", "The race director may also refer incidents to the race stewards, who may give penalties, such as drive-through penalties (or stop-and-go penalties), demotions on a pre-race start grid, race disqualifications and fines should parties break regulations.", "As of 2023, the race director is Niels Wittich, with Herbie Blash as a permanent advisor.====Safety car====Mercedes-AMG GT R safety car at the 2019 Hungarian Grand PrixIn the event of an incident that risks the safety of competitors or trackside race marshals, race officials may choose to deploy the safety car.", "This in effect suspends the race, with drivers following the safety car around the track at its speed in race order, with overtaking not permitted.", "Cars that have been lapped may, during the safety car period and depending on circumstances permitted by the race director, be allowed to un-lap themselves in order to ensure a smoother restart and to avoid blue flags being immediately thrown upon the resumption of the race with many of the cars in very close proximity to each other.", "The safety car circulates until the danger is cleared; after it comes in, the race restarts with a \"rolling start\".", "Pit stops are permitted under the safety car.", "Since 2000, the main safety car driver has been German ex-racing driver Bernd Mayländer.", "On the lap in which the safety car returns to the pits, the leading car takes over the role of the safety car until the timing line.", "After crossing this line, drivers are allowed to start racing for track position once more.", "Mercedes-Benz supplies Mercedes-AMG models to Formula One to use as the safety cars.", "From 2021 onwards, Aston Martin supplies the Vantage to Formula One to use as the safety car, sharing the duty with Mercedes-Benz.=== Flags ===Flags specifications and usage are prescribed by Appendix H of the FIA's International Sporting Code.FlagNameMeaning50pxSC Board(Safety Car)Shown in conjunction with a yellow flag to indicate that the Safety Car is on track.", "Full course yellow flag applies.", "Drivers must hold position and slow down.VSC Board(Virtual Safety Car)Shown in conjunction with a yellow flag to indicate that the virtual safety car is in use.", "During this time, the drivers are given minimum sector times that they must stay above.", "Full course double yellow flag applies.", "The car's time relative to this set time is measured at each marshalling post (approximately every 50 m), and the difference is referred to as the car's \"delta\" time.", "This delta time is reported to the driver, and must remain positive throughout the VSC period else the driver will be penalised.YellowIndicates a hazard on or near the track (waved yellows indicate a hazard ''on the track'', frozen yellows indicate a hazard ''near the track'').", "Double waved yellows inform drivers that they must slow down as marshals are working on or near to the track and drivers should be prepared to stop.50pxGreenNormal racing conditions apply.", "This is usually shown following a yellow flag to indicate that the hazard has been passed.", "A green flag is shown at all stations for the lap following the end of a full-course yellow (or safety car).", "A green flag is also shown at the start of a session.50pxYellow and red stripedSlippery track, due to oil, water, or loose debris.", "Can be seen 'rocked' from side to side (not waved) to indicate a small animal on track.50pxBlueA blue flag indicates that the driver in front must let faster cars behind them pass because they are being lapped.", "If the flag is missed 3 times, the driver could be penalised.", "Accompanied by the driver's number.50pxWhiteIndicates that there is a slow car ahead, either a race car or a course vehicle.", "Often waved at the end of the pit lane when a car is about to leave the pits.50pxBlack and orange circleCar is damaged or has a mechanical problem, must return to the pit lane immediately.", "Will be accompanied by driver's number50pxHalf black half whiteWarns a driver for poor sportsmanship or dangerous behaviour.", "Can be followed by a Black flag upon further infringement.", "Accompanied by the driver's number.50pxBlackDriver is disqualified.", "Will be accompanied by the driver's number.", "This can be issued after a Half Black Half White flag.50pxRedA red flag immediately halts a race or session when conditions become too dangerous to continue.50pxChequered flagEnd of the practice, qualifying, or racing session.The format of the race has changed little through Formula One's history.", "The main changes have revolved around what is allowed at pit stops.", "In the early days of Grand Prix racing, a driver would be allowed to continue a race in their teammate's car should theirs develop a problem – in the modern era, cars are so carefully fitted to drivers that this has become impossible.", "In recent years, the emphasis has been on changing refuelling and tyre change regulations.", "Since the 2010 season, refuelling – which was reintroduced in 1994 – has not been allowed, to encourage less tactical racing following safety concerns.", "The rule requiring both compounds of tyre to be used during the race was introduced in 2007, again to encourage racing on the track.", "The safety car is another relatively recent innovation that reduced the need to deploy the red flag, allowing races to be completed on time for a growing international live television audience.===Points system===1st2nd3rd4th5th6th7th8th9th10th*2518151210864211A driver must finish within the top ten to receive a point for setting the fastest lap of the race.", "If the driver who set the fastest lap finishes outside of the top ten, then the point for fastest lap will not be awarded for that race.The Formula One trophy given to the drivers' champion at the end of the yearVarious systems for awarding championship points have been used since 1950.The current system, in place since 2010, awards the top ten cars points in the Drivers' and Constructors' Championships, with the winner receiving 25 points.", "All points won at each race are added up, and the driver and constructor with the most points at the end of the season are crowned World Champions.", "Regardless of whether a driver stays with the same team throughout the season, or switches teams, all points earned by them count for the Drivers' Championship.A driver must be classified in order to receive points, , a driver must complete at least 90% of the race distance in order to receive points.", "Therefore, it is possible for a driver to receive points even if they retired before the end of the race.From some time between the 1977 and 1980 seasons to the end of the 2021 season if less than 75% of the race laps were completed by the winner, then only half of the points listed in the table were awarded to the drivers and constructors.", "This has happened on only five occasions in the history of the championship, and it had a notable influence on the final standing of the season.", "The last occurrence was at the 2021 Belgian Grand Prix when the race was called off after just three laps behind a safety car due to torrential rain.", "The half points rule was replaced by a distance-dependent gradual scale system for 2022." ], [ "Constructors", "Ferrari (pictured with Charles Leclerc) have competed in every season.A Formula One constructor is the entity credited for designing the chassis and the engine.", "If both are designed by the same company, that company receives sole credit as the constructor (e.g., Ferrari).", "If they are designed by different companies, both are credited, and the name of the chassis designer is placed before that of the engine designer (e.g., ).", "All constructors are scored individually, even if they share either chassis or engine with another constructor (e.g., Williams-Ford, Williams-Honda in ).Since , Formula One teams have been required to build the chassis in which they compete, and consequently the distinction between the terms \"team\" and \"constructor\" became less pronounced, though engines may still be produced by a different entity.", "This requirement distinguishes the sport from series such as the IndyCar Series which allows teams to purchase chassis, and \"spec series\" such as Formula 2 which require all cars be kept to an identical specification.", "It also effectively prohibits privateers, which were common even in Formula One well into the 1970s.The sport's debut season, , saw eighteen teams compete, but due to high costs, many dropped out quickly.", "In fact, such was the scarcity of competitive cars for much of the first decade of Formula One that Formula Two cars were admitted to fill the grids.", "Ferrari is the oldest Formula One team, the only still-active team which competed in 1950.Honda.Renault (pictured here with Nico Hülkenberg) has had an active role in Formula One as both constructor and engine supplier since .Early manufacturer involvement came in the form of a \"factory team\" or \"works team\" (that is, one owned and staffed by a major car company), such as those of Alfa Romeo, Ferrari, or Renault.", "Ferrari holds the record for having won the most Constructors' Championships (sixteen).Companies such as Climax, Repco, Cosworth, Hart, Judd and Supertec, which had no direct team affiliation, often sold engines to teams that could not afford to manufacture them.", "In the early years, independently owned Formula One teams sometimes also built their engines, though this became less common with the increased involvement of major car manufacturers such as BMW, Ferrari, Honda, Mercedes-Benz, Renault, and Toyota, whose large budgets rendered privately built engines less competitive.", "Cosworth was the last independent engine supplier.", "It is estimated the major teams spend between €100 and €200 million ($125–$225 million) per year per manufacturer on engines alone.In the 2007 season, for the first time since the 1981 rule, two teams used chassis built by other teams.", "Super Aguri started the season using a modified Honda Racing RA106 chassis (used by Honda the previous year), while Scuderia Toro Rosso used the same chassis used by the parent Red Bull Racing team, which was formally designed by a separate subsidiary.", "The usage of these loopholes was ended for 2010 with the publication of new technical regulations, which require each constructor to own the intellectual property rights to their chassis, The regulations continue to allow a team to subcontract the design and construction of the chassis to a third-party, an option used by the HRT team in 2010 and Haas currently.Although teams rarely disclose information about their budgets, it is estimated they range from US$66 million to US$400 million each.Entering a new team in the Formula One World Championship requires a $200 million up-front payment to the FIA, which is then shared equally among the existing teams.", "As a consequence, constructors desiring to enter Formula One often prefer to buy an existing team: BAR's purchase of Tyrrell and Midland's purchase of Jordan allowed both of these teams to sidestep the large deposit and secure the benefits the team already had, such as TV revenue.Seven out of the ten teams competing in Formula One are based close to London in an area centred around Oxford.", "Ferrari have both their chassis and engine assembly in Maranello, Italy.", "The AlphaTauri team are based close to Ferrari in Faenza, whilst the Alfa Romeo team are based near Zurich in Switzerland." ], [ "Drivers", "2005 Canadian Grand Prix: Kimi Räikkönen leading Michael Schumacher, with Jarno Trulli (Toyota) and Takuma Sato (BAR-Honda) fighting for positionEvery team in Formula One must run two cars in every session in a Grand Prix weekend, and every team may use up to four drivers in a season.", "A team may also run two additional drivers in Free Practice sessions, which are often used to test potential new drivers for a career as a Formula One driver or gain experienced drivers to evaluate the car.", "Most drivers are contracted for at least the duration of a season, with driver changes taking place in-between seasons, in comparison to early years when drivers often competed on an ad hoc basis from race to race.", "Each competitor must be in the possession of a FIA Super Licence to compete in a Grand Prix, which is issued to drivers who have met the criteria of success in junior motorsport categories and having achieved of running in a Formula One car.", "Drivers may also be issued a Super Licence by the World Motor Sport Council if they fail to meet the criteria.", "Although most drivers earn their seat on ability, commercial considerations also come into play with teams having to satisfy sponsors and financial demands.Teams also contract test and reserve drivers to stand in for regular drivers when necessary and develop the team's car; although with the reduction on testing the reserve drivers' role mainly takes places on a simulator, such as rFactor Pro, which is used by most of the F1 teams.Each driver chooses an unassigned number from 2 to 99 (excluding 17 which was retired following the death of Jules Bianchi) upon entering Formula One and keeps that number during their time in the series.", "The number one is reserved for the reigning Drivers' Champion, who retains their previous number and may choose to use it instead of the number one.", "At the onset of the championship, numbers were allocated by race organisers on an ad hoc basis from race to race.", "Permanent numbers were introduced in to take effect in , when teams were allocated numbers in ascending order based on the Constructors' Championship standings at the end of the 1973 season.", "The teams would hold those numbers from season to season with the exception of the team with the World Drivers' Champion, which would swap its numbers with the one and two of the previous champion's team.", "New entrants were allocated spare numbers, with the exception of the number 13 which had been unused since .", "As teams kept their numbers for long periods of time, car numbers became associated with a team, such as Ferrari's 27 and 28.A different system was used from to : at the start of each season, the current Drivers' Champion was designated number one, their teammate number two, and the rest of the teams assigned ascending numbers according to previous season's Constructors' Championship order., a total of 34 separate drivers have won the World Drivers' Championship, with Michael Schumacher and Lewis Hamilton holding the record for most championships with seven.", "Lewis Hamilton achieved the most race wins, too, in 2020.Jochen Rindt is the only posthumous World Champion, after his points total was not surpassed despite his fatal accident at the 1970 Italian Grand Prix, with 4 races still remaining in the season.", "Drivers from the United Kingdom have been the most successful in the sport, with 18 championships among 10 drivers, and wins.===Feeder series===FIA Formula 2 Championship, the main F1 feeder series since 2017FIA Formula 3 Championship, the main F1 and F2 feeder series since 2019Most F1 drivers start in kart racing competitions, and then come up through traditional European single-seater series like Formula Ford and Formula Renault to Formula 3, and finally the GP2 Series.", "GP2 started in 2005, replacing Formula 3000, which itself had replaced Formula Two as the last major stepping-stone into F1.GP2 was rebranded as the FIA Formula 2 Championship in 2017.Most champions from this level graduate into F1, but 2006 GP2 champion Lewis Hamilton became the first F2, F3000 or GP2 champion to win the Formula One drivers' title in 2008.Drivers are not required to have competed at this level before entering Formula One.", "British F3 has supplied many F1 drivers, with champions, including Nigel Mansell, Ayrton Senna and Mika Häkkinen having moved straight from that series to Formula One, and Max Verstappen made his F1 debut following a single season in European F3.More rarely a driver may be picked from an even lower level, as was the case with 2007 World Champion Kimi Räikkönen, who went straight from Formula Renault to F1.American open-wheel car racing has also contributed to the Formula One grid.", "CART champions Mario Andretti and Jacques Villeneuve became F1 World Champions, while Juan Pablo Montoya won seven races in F1.Other CART (also known as ChampCar) champions, like Michael Andretti and Alessandro Zanardi won no races in F1.Other drivers have taken different paths to F1; Damon Hill raced motorbikes, and Michael Schumacher raced in sports cars, albeit after climbing through the junior single-seater ranks.", "Former F1 driver Paul di Resta raced in DTM until he was signed with Force India in 2011." ], [ "Grands Prix", "World map showing the location of Formula 1 Grands Prix: countries marked in green are on the current race schedule, those in dark grey have hosted a Formula One race in the past.", "(''De facto'' status of the territories is shown.", ")The number of Grands Prix held in a season has varied over the years.", "The inaugural world championship season comprised only seven races, while the season contained 21 races.", "There were no more than 11 Grands Prix per season during the early decades of the championship, although a large number of non-championship Formula One events also took place.", "The number of Grands Prix increased to an average of 16 to 17 by the late 1970s, while non-championship events ended in 1983.More Grands Prix began to be held in the 2000s, and recent seasons have seen an average of 19 races.", "In and , the calendar peaked at 22 events, the highest number of world championship races in one season.Six of the original seven races took place in Europe; the only non-European race that counted towards the World Championship in 1950 was the Indianapolis 500, which was held to different regulations and later replaced by the United States Grand Prix.", "The F1 championship gradually expanded to other non-European countries.", "Argentina hosted the first South American Grand Prix in , and Morocco hosted the first African World Championship race in .", "Asia and Oceania followed (Japan in and Australia in ), and the first race in the Middle East was held in .", "The 19 races of the season were spread over every populated continent except for Africa, with 10 Grands Prix held outside Europe.Some of the Grands Prix pre-date the formation of the World Championship, such as the French Grand Prix and were incorporated into the championship as Formula One races in 1950.The British and Italian Grands Prix are the only events to have been held every Formula One season; other long-running races include the Belgian, German, and French Grands Prix.", "The Monaco Grand Prix was first held in 1929 and has run continuously since 1955 (with the exception of 2020) and is widely considered to be one of the most important and prestigious automobile races in the world.All Grands Prix have traditionally been run during the day, until the inaugural hosted the first Formula One night race in 2008, which was followed by the day–night Abu Dhabi Grand Prix in 2009 and the Bahrain Grand Prix which converted to a night race in 2014.Other Grands Prix in Asia have had their start times adjusted to benefit the European television audience.===Returning additions (2008–present)==='''Bold''' denotes the Grands Prix scheduled as part of the season.", "* European Grand Prix at Valencia Street Circuit (2008–2012)* '''United States Grand Prix''' at Circuit of the Americas (2012–2019, 2021–present)* '''Austrian Grand Prix''' at Red Bull Ring (2014–present)* Mexican Grand Prix at Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez (2015–2019); renamed '''Mexico City Grand Prix''' (2021–present)* European Grand Prix at Baku City Circuit (2016; renamed the '''Azerbaijan Grand Prix''' for 2017–2019, 2021–present)* French Grand Prix at Circuit Paul Ricard (2018–2019, 2021–2022)* Portuguese Grand Prix at Algarve International Circuit (2020–2021)* Imola Circuit with the '''Emilia Romagna Grand Prix''' (2020–present; previously hosted the Italian Grand Prix and the San Marino Grand Prix)* '''Dutch Grand Prix''' at Circuit Zandvoort (2021–present)===New Locations Initiative (2008–present)==='''Bold''' denotes the Grands Prix scheduled as part of the season.Since 2008, the Formula One Group has been targeting new \"destination cities\" to expand its global reach, with the aim to produce races from countries that have not previously been involved in the sport.", "This initiative started with the 2008 Singapore Grand Prix.", "Race Years Circuit Notes '''Singapore Grand Prix''' –, – Marina Bay Street Circuit First race to take place outside of daylight hours.", "2020 and 2021 races cancelled due to COVID-19 pandemic.", "'''Abu Dhabi Grand Prix''' – Yas Marina Circuit Korean Grand Prix – Korea International Circuit Discontinued due to poor attendance figures.", "Indian Grand Prix – Buddh International Circuit Discontinued due to local government tax classification dispute.", "Russian Grand Prix – Sochi AutodromThe Russian Grand Prix was due to move to Igora Drive from 2023.This move, and the 2022 Russian Grand Prix were cancelled following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.", "'''Azerbaijan Grand Prix''' –, – Baku City Circuit Previously called the European Grand Prix in 2016.2020 race cancelled due to COVID-19 pandemic.", "'''Saudi Arabian Grand Prix''' – Jeddah Corniche Circuit '''Qatar Grand Prix''' , – Losail International CircuitCalled in last minute to replace the Australian Grand Prix.", "Has a ten-year contract from 2023.Was originally due to be held at a new venue from 2023 onwards, although this did not transpire.", "'''Miami Grand Prix''' – Miami International Autodrome '''Las Vegas Grand Prix''' – Las Vegas Street Circuit" ], [ "Circuits", "The Autodromo Nazionale Monza, home to the Italian Grand Prix, is the oldest purpose-built track still in use today.Sochi Autodrom, host venue for the Russian Grand Prix from 2014 to 2021Formula One races must be held on grade one tracks, the highest grade-rating issued by the FIA for tracks.", "A typical circuit features a stretch of straight road on which the starting grid is situated.", "The ''pit lane'', where the drivers stop for tyres, aerodynamic adjustments and minor repairs (such as changing the car's nose due to front wing damage) during the race, retirements from the race, and where the teams work on the cars before the race, is normally located next to the starting grid.", "The layout of the rest of the circuit varies widely, although in most cases the circuit runs in a clockwise direction.", "Those few circuits that run anticlockwise (and therefore have predominantly left-handed corners) can cause drivers neck problems due to the enormous lateral forces generated by F1 cars pulling their heads in the opposite direction to normal.", "A single race requires hotel rooms to accommodate at least 5,000 visitors.Most of the circuits currently in use are specially constructed for competition.", "The current street circuits are Monaco, Melbourne, Singapore, Baku, Miami, Jeddah, and Las Vegas although races in other urban locations come and go (Detroit, for example) and proposals for such races.", "The glamour and history of the Monaco race are the primary reasons why the circuit is still in use, even though it does not meet the strict safety requirements imposed on other tracks.", "Three-time World champion Nelson Piquet famously described racing in Monaco as \"like riding a bicycle around your living room\".Circuit design to protect the safety of drivers is becoming increasingly sophisticated, as exemplified by the Bahrain International Circuit, added in and designed – like most of F1's new circuits – by Hermann Tilke.", "Several of the new circuits in F1, especially those designed by Tilke, have been criticised as lacking the \"flow\" of such classics as Spa-Francorchamps and Imola.", "His redesign of the Hockenheim circuit in Germany for example, while providing more capacity for grandstands and eliminating extremely long and dangerous straights, has been frowned upon by many who argue that part of the character of the Hockenheim circuits was the long and blinding straights into dark forest sections.", "These newer circuits, however, are generally agreed to meet the safety standards of modern Formula One better than the older ones.The Circuit of the Americas in Austin, the Sochi Autodrom in Sochi and the Baku City Circuit in Azerbaijan have all been introduced as brand new tracks since 2012.In 2020, Algarve International Circuit debuted on the F1 calendar as the venue of the Portuguese Grand Prix, with the country having last hosted a race in 1996.In 2021, Circuit Zandvoort returned to the F1 calendar as the Dutch Grand Prix, having last hosted a race in 1985.The Las Vegas Grand Prix entered the sport in 2023." ], [ "Cars and technology", "Jenson Button in the Brawn BGP 001Modern Formula One cars are mid-engined, hybrid, semi-open cockpit, open-wheel single-seaters.", "The chassis is made largely of carbon-fibre composites, rendering it light but extremely stiff and strong.", "The whole car, including the driver but not fuel, weighs only – the minimum weight set by the regulations.", "If the construction of the car is lighter than the minimum, it can be ballasted up to add the necessary weight.", "The race teams take advantage of this by placing this ballast at the extreme bottom of the chassis, thereby locating the centre of gravity as low as possible in order to improve handling and weight transfer.The cornering speed of Formula One cars is largely determined by the aerodynamic downforce that they generate, which pushes the car down onto the track.", "This is provided by \"wings\" mounted at the front and rear of the vehicle, and by ground effect created by low air pressure under the flat bottom of the car.", "The aerodynamic design of the cars is very heavily constrained to limit performance.", "The previous generation of cars sported a large number of small winglets, \"barge boards\", and turning vanes designed to closely control the flow of the air over, under, and around the car.The other major factor controlling the cornering speed of the cars is the design of the tyres.", "From to , the tyres in Formula One were not \"slicks\" (tyres with no tread pattern) as in most other circuit racing series.", "Instead, each tyre had four large circumferential grooves on its surface designed to limit the cornering speed of the cars.", "Slick tyres returned to Formula One in the season.", "Suspension is double wishbone or multilink front and rear, with pushrod operated springs and dampers on the chassis – one exception being that of the 2009 specification Red Bull Racing car (RB5) which used pullrod suspension at the rear, the first car to do so since the Minardi PS01 in 2001.Ferrari used a pullrod suspension at both the front and rear in their car.", "Both Ferrari (F138) and McLaren (MP4-28) of the 2013 season used a pullrod suspension at both the front and the rear.", "In , McLaren (MCL36) and Red Bull Racing (RB18) switched to a pullrod front suspension and push rod rear suspension.Carbon-carbon disc brakes are used for reduced weight and increased frictional performance.", "These provide a very high level of braking performance and are usually the element that provokes the greatest reaction from drivers new to the formula.In , the technical regulations changed considerably in order to reduce the turbulence (commonly referred to as \"dirty air\") produced by the aerodynamics of the car.", "This includes a redesigned front and rear wing, larger wheels with a lower tyre profile, wheel covers, small winglets, the banning of barge boards, and the reintroduction of Ground effect downforce production.", "These have been changed to promote racing, meaning cars lose less downforce when following another car.", "It allows cars to follow another at a much closer distance, without extending the gap due to the turbulent air.", "(See 2022 Formula One World Championship Technical regulations)Formula One cars must have four wheels made of the same metallic material, which must be one of two magnesium alloys specified by the FIA.", "Magnesium alloy wheels made by forging are used to achieve maximum unsprung rotating weight reduction.", "As of 2022, the wheels are covered with \"spec\" (Standardised) Wheel Covers, the wheel diameter has increased from 13 inches to 18 inches (reducing the \"tyre profile\"), and small winglets have been placed over the front tyres.A BMW Sauber P86 V8 engine, which powered their F1.06Starting with the 2014 Formula 1 season, the engines have changed from a 2.4-litre naturally aspirated V8 to turbocharged 1.6-litre V6 \"power-units\".", "These get a significant amount of their power from electric motors.", "In addition, they include a lot of energy recovery technology.", "Engines run on unleaded fuel closely resembling publicly available petrol.", "The oil which lubricates and protects the engine from overheating is very similar in viscosity to water.", "The 2006 generation of engines spun up to 20,000 rpm and produced over .", "For , engines were restricted to 19,000 rpm with limited development areas allowed, following the engine specification freeze since the end of .", "For the 2009 Formula One season the engines were further restricted to 18,000 rpm.A wide variety of technologies – including active suspension are banned under the current regulations.", "Despite this the current generation of cars can reach speeds in excess of at some circuits.", "The highest straight line speed recorded during a Grand Prix was , set by Juan Pablo Montoya during the 2005 Italian Grand Prix.", "A BAR-Honda Formula One car, running with minimum downforce on a runway in the Mojave Desert achieved a top speed of in 2006.According to Honda, the car fully met the FIA Formula One regulations.", "Even with the limitations on aerodynamics, at aerodynamically generated downforce is equal to the weight of the car, and the oft-repeated claim that Formula One cars create enough downforce to \"drive on the ceiling\", while possible in principle, has never been put to the test.", "Downforce of 2.5 times the car's weight can be achieved at full speed.", "The downforce means that the cars can achieve a lateral force with a magnitude of up to 3.5 times that of the force of gravity (3.5g) in cornering.", "Consequently, the driver's head is pulled sideways with a force equivalent to the weight of 20 kg in corners.", "Such high lateral forces are enough to make breathing difficult and the drivers need supreme concentration and fitness to maintain their focus for the one to two hours that it takes to complete the race.", "A high-performance road car like the Enzo Ferrari only achieves around 1g., each team may have no more than two cars available for use at any time.", "Each driver may use no more than four engines during a championship season unless they drive for more than one team.", "If more engines are used, they drop ten places on the starting grid of the event at which an additional engine is used.", "The only exception is where the engine is provided by a manufacturer or supplier taking part in its first championship season, in which case up to five may be used by a driver.", "Each driver may use no more than one gearbox for six consecutive events; every unscheduled gearbox change requires the driver to drop five places on the grid unless they failed to finish the previous race due to reasons beyond the team's control., each driver is limited to three power units per season, before incurring grid penalties." ], [ "Revenue and profits", "413x413pxIn March 2007, ''F1 Racing'' published its annual estimates of spending by Formula One teams.", "The total spending of all eleven teams in 2006 was estimated at $2.9 billion US.", "This was broken down as follows: Toyota $418.5 million, Ferrari $406.5 m, McLaren $402 m, Honda $380.5 m, BMW Sauber $355 m, Renault $324 m, Red Bull $252 m, Williams $195.5 m, Midland F1/Spyker-MF1 $120 m, Toro Rosso $75 m, and Super Aguri $57 million.Costs vary greatly from team to team.", "Honda, Toyota, McLaren-Mercedes, and Ferrari were estimated to have spent approximately $200 million on engines in 2006, Renault spent approximately $125 million and Cosworth's 2006 V8 was developed for $15 million.", "In contrast to the 2006 season on which these figures are based, the 2007 sporting regulations banned all performance-related engine development.Formula One teams pay entry fees of $500,000, plus $5,000 per point scored the previous year or $6,000 per point for the winner of the Constructors' Championship.", "Formula One drivers pay a FIA Super Licence fee, which in 2013 was €10,000 plus €1,000 per point.There have been controversies with the way profits are shared among the teams.", "The smaller teams have complained that the profits are unevenly shared, favouring established top teams.", "In September 2015, Force India and Sauber officially lodged a complaint with the European Union against Formula One questioning the governance and stating that the system of dividing revenues and determining the rules is unfair and unlawful.The cost of building a brand-new permanent circuit can be up to hundreds of millions of dollars, while the cost of converting a public road, such as Albert Park, into a temporary circuit is much less.", "Permanent circuits, however, can generate revenue all year round from leasing the track for private races and other races, such as MotoGP.", "The Shanghai International Circuit cost over $300 million and the Istanbul Park circuit cost $150 million to build.A number of Formula One drivers earn the highest salary of any drivers in auto racing.", "The highest-paid driver in 2021 is Lewis Hamilton, who received $55 million in salary from Mercedes AMG Petronas F1 – a record for any driver.", "The very top Formula One drivers get paid more than IndyCar or NASCAR drivers; however, the earnings immediately fall off after the top three F1 drivers, and the majority of NASCAR racers will make more money than their F1 counterparts.", "Most top IndyCar drivers are paid around a tenth of their Formula One counterparts.In the second quarter of 2020, Formula One reported a loss revenue of $122 million and an income of $24 million.", "This was a result of the delay of the racing championship start as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic.", "The company grossed revenues of $620 million for the same quarter the previous year." ], [ "Future", "A sign announcing that the safety car (SC) is deployedThe expense of Formula One has seen the FIA and the Formula One Commission attempt to create new regulations to lower the costs for a team to compete in the sport.Following their purchase of the commercial rights to the sport in 2017, Liberty Media announced their vision for the future of Formula One at the 2018 Bahrain Grand Prix.", "The proposal identified five key areas, including streamlining the governance of the sport, emphasising cost-effectiveness, maintaining the sport's relevance to road cars and encouraging new manufacturers to enter the championship whilst enabling them to be competitive.", "Liberty cited as their target date as it coincided with the need to renew commercial agreements with the teams and the end of the seven-year cycle of engine development that started in .On 19 August 2020, it was announced that all 10 teams had signed the new Concorde Agreement.", "This came into effect at the start of the 2021 season and changed how prize money and TV revenue is distributed.===Responsibility towards the environment===Formula One has launched a plan to become carbon neutral by 2030.By 2025, all events should become \"sustainable\", including eliminating single-use plastics and ensuring all waste is reused, recycled or composted.A report conducted by Formula One estimated that the series was responsible for 256,000 tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions in the 2019 season, finding that 45% of emissions were from logistics and only 0.7% were from emissions from the cars themselves.In January 2020, FIA and Formula One signed the United Nations \"Sports for Climate Action\" framework.", "After the signing was announced, FIA President Jean Todt said: \"As an international Federation comprising 244 members in 140 countries and the leader in motor sport and mobility development, we are fully committed to global environmental protection.", "The signing of this UN Sports for Climate Action Framework reinforces the momentum that has been growing in our Federation for many years.", "Since the introduction of the hybrid power unit in F1 to the creation of the Environment and Sustainability Commission, the entire FIA community has been investing time, energy and financial resources to the benefit of environmental innovations.", "We aim to inspire greater awareness and best practice in sustainability motor sport standards.", "\"From the 2021–22 season, all cars will increase the bio-component of their fuel, using E10 fuel, rather than the 5.75% of ethanol currently used.", "This percentage is expected to grow again in the future.", "In December 2020, the FIA claimed that it had developed a fuel with 100% sustainability, to be used in Formula One from either 2025 or 2026, when new engine regulations come into force.=== Responsibility towards social inequities in the sport ===Prior to the beginning of the 2020 Formula One World Championship, F1 announced and launched the #WeRaceAsOne initiative.", "The initiative primarily focuses on visible displays of solidarity in the fight against racism on Grand Prix Weekends, as well as the creation of a Formula 1 Task Force that will \"listen to people from across the paddock ... and make conclusions on the actions required to improve the diversity and opportunity in Formula 1 at all levels\".", "The move spurs from the growing questions about racism and global inequalities perpetuated by the sport.", "The 70-year history of the World Championship has been dominated by European and white drivers, with the first (and only) black driver, Lewis Hamilton, participating in the world championship since 2007.In addition to organization-wide measures, individual teams have also acknowledged deficiencies in the sport's cultural and political activism.", "During the 2020 season, the Mercedes-AMG Petronas F1 Team conducted a study of its racial composition and found that approximately 95% of its workforce was white.", "Due to the results of the study, the team changed the car's livery to promote anti-racism messages and also launched the Accelerate 25 programme.", "The program vows that approximately 25% of all new hires to the team will come from underrepresented minorities in the sport until 2025.The 20 drivers on the grid have also stood in solidarity on multiple occasions in the fight against racism both on and off the track.", "Following the murder of George Floyd in the summer of 2020, all twenty drivers wore \"End Racism\" shirts and took part in an organised anti-racism protest during the pre-race formalities.", "In the year since, Lewis Hamilton has remained vocal in his pre-race attire, with other drivers occasionally wearing change-demanding clothing." ], [ "Media coverage", "Formula One can be seen live, or tape delayed in almost every country and territory and attracts one of the largest global television audiences.", "The 2008 season attracted a global audience of 600 million people per race.", "The cumulative television audience was calculated to be 54 billion for the 2001 season, broadcast to 200 territories.During the early 1990s, Formula One Group created a number of trademarks, an official logo, an official TV graphics package and in 2003, an official website for the sport in an attempt to give it a corporate identity.TV stations all take what is known as the \"World Feed\", either produced historically by the \"host broadcaster\" or by Formula One Management (FOM).", "The host broadcaster either had one feed for all, or two separate feeds – a feed for local viewers and a feed for international viewers.", "The one size fits all approach meant that there was bias to a certain team or driver during the event, which led to viewers missing out on more important action and incidents, while the two-feed approach meant that replays (for when returning from an ad break) and local bias action could be overlaid on the local feed while the international feed was left unaffected.The only station that differed from this set up was \"DF1\" (re-branded to \"Premiere\" then to \"Sky Deutschland\") – a German channel which offers all sessions live and interactive, with features such as the onboard and pit-lane channels.", "This service was purchased by Bernie Ecclestone at the end of 1996 and became F1 Digital Plus, which was made more widely available around Europe until the end of 2002, when the cost of the digital interactive service was thought too much.On 12 January 2011, F1 announced that it would adopt the HD format for the 2011 season.It was announced on 29 July 2011, that Sky Sports and the BBC would team up to show the races in F1 from 2012 to 2018.Sky launched a dedicated channel, Sky Sports F1 which covered all races live without commercial interruption as well as live practice and qualifying sessions, along with F1 programming, including interviews, archive action and magazine shows.", "In 2012 the BBC broadcast live coverage of half of the races in the season.", "The BBC ended its television contract after the 2015 season, three years earlier than planned.", "The free-to-air TV rights were picked up by Channel 4 until the end of the 2018 season.", "Sky Sports F1 coverage remained unaffected and BBC Radio 5 Live and 5 Sports Extra coverage was extended until 2021.As of 2022, BBC Radio 5 Live and 5 Sports Extra has rights to such coverage until 2024.While Sky Sports and Channel 4 are the two major broadcasters of Formula 1, other countries show Formula One races.", "Many use commentary from either Sky Sports or Channel 4.In most of Asia (excluding China), the two main broadcasters of Formula one includes the Fox network and Star Sports (in India).", "In the United States, ESPN holds the official rights to broadcast the sport while ABC also holds free-to-air rights for some races under the ESPN on ABC banner.", "In Germany, Austria and Switzerland, the two main broadcasters are RTL Germany and n-TV.", "In China, there are multiple channels that broadcast Formula One which include CCTV, Tencent, Guangdong TV and Shanghai TV.", "Currently in France, the only channel that broadcasts Formula one is the pay TV channel Canal+, having renewed its broadcasting rights until 2024.The official Formula One website has live timing charts that can be used during the race to follow the leaderboard in real time.", "An official application has been available for the Apple App Store since 2009, and on Google Play since 2011, that shows users a real-time feed of driver positions, timing and commentary.", "On 26 November 2017 Formula One unveiled a new logo, which replaced the previous \"flying one\" in use since 1993.In March 2018, FOM announced the launch of F1 TV, an over-the-top (OTT) streaming platform that lets viewers watch multiple simultaneous video feeds and timing screens in addition to traditional directed race footage and commentary." ], [ "Distinction between Formula One and World Championship races", "Currently, the terms \"Formula One race\" and \"World Championship race\" are effectively synonymous.", "Since 1984, every Formula One race has counted towards the World Championship, and every World Championship race has been run to Formula One regulations.", "However, the two terms are not interchangeable.", "* The first Formula One race was held in 1946, whereas the World Championship did not start until 1950.", "* In the 1950s and 1960s, there were many Formula One races that did not count for the World Championship; in 1950, a total of twenty-two Formula One races were held, of which only six counted towards the World Championship.", "The number of non-championship Formula One events decreased throughout the 1970s and 1980s, to the point where the last non-championship Formula One race was the 1983 Race of Champions.", "* The World Championship was not always exclusively composed of Formula One events:** The World Championship was originally established as the \"World Championship for Drivers\", i.e.", "without the term \"Formula One\" in the title.", "It only officially became the FIA Formula One World Championship in 1981.", "** From 1950 to 1960, the Indianapolis 500 race counted towards the World Championship.", "This race was run to American Automobile Association, and later United States Automobile Club, Championship Car regulations, rather than to Formula One regulations.", "Only one of the World Championship regulars, Alberto Ascari in 1952, started at Indianapolis during this period.", "** From 1952 to 1953, all races counting towards the World Championship (except the Indianapolis 500) were run to Formula Two regulations.", "Formula One was not changed to Formula Two during this period; the Formula One regulations remained the same, and numerous non-championship Formula One races were staged during this time.The distinction is most relevant when considering career summaries and all-time lists.", "For example, in the List of Formula One drivers, Clemente Biondetti is shown with a single race against his name.", "Biondetti actually competed in four Formula One races in 1950, but only one of these counted for the World Championship.In the earlier history of Formula One, many races took place outside the World Championship, and local championships run to Formula One regulations also occurred.", "These events often took place on circuits that were not always suitable for the World Championship and featured local cars and drivers as well as those competing in the championship.===European non-championship racing===In the early years of Formula One, before the world championship was established, there were around twenty races held from late Spring to early Autumn in Europe, although not all of these were considered significant.", "Most competitive cars came from Italy, particularly Alfa Romeo.", "After the start of the world championship, these non-championship races continued.", "In the 1950s and 1960s, there were many Formula One races which did not count for the World Championship; in a total of twenty-two Formula One races were held, of which only six counted towards the World Championship.", "In 1952 and 1953, when the world championship was run to Formula Two regulations, non-championship events were the only Formula One races that took place.Some races, particularly in the UK, including the Race of Champions, Oulton Park International Gold Cup and the International Trophy, were attended by the majority of the world championship contenders.", "Other smaller events were regularly held in locations not part of the championship, such as the Syracuse and Danish Grands Prix, although these only attracted a small amount of the championship teams and relied on private entries and lower Formula cars to make up the grid.", "These became less common through the 1970s and 1983 saw the last non-championship Formula One race; the 1983 Race of Champions at Brands Hatch, won by reigning World Champion Keke Rosberg in a Williams-Cosworth in a close fight with American Danny Sullivan.===South African Formula One championship===South Africa's flourishing domestic Formula One championship ran from 1960 through to 1975.The frontrunning cars in the series were recently retired from the world championship although there was also a healthy selection of locally built or modified machines.", "===British Formula One Championship===The DFV helped in making the UK domestic Formula One championship possible between 1978 and 1980.As in South Africa a decade before, second hand cars from manufacturers like Lotus and Fittipaldi Automotive were the order of the day, although some, such as the March 781, were built specifically for the series.", "In 1980, the series saw South African Desiré Wilson become the only woman to win a Formula One race when she triumphed at Brands Hatch in a Wolf WR3." ], [ "See also", "* Formula One video games" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Arron, Simon & Hughes, Mark (2003).", "''The Complete Book of Formula One''.", "Motorbooks International.", ".", "* Gross, Nigel et al.", "(1999).", "\"Grand Prix Motor Racing\".", "In, ''100 Years of Change: Speed and Power'' (pp. 55–84).", "Parragon.", "* Hayhoe, David & Holland, David (2006).", "''Grand Prix Data Book (4th edition)''.", "Haynes, Sparkford, UK.", ".", "* Higham, Peter (2003).", "''The international motor racing guide''.", "David Bull, Phoenix, AZ, USA.", ".", "* * Jones, Bruce (1997).", "''The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Formula One''.", "Hodder & Stoughton.", "* Jones, Bruce (1998).", "''Formula One: The Complete Stats and Records of Grand Prix Racing''.", "Parragon.", "* Jones, Bruce (2003).", "''The Official ITV Sport Guide: Formula One Grand Prix 2003''.", "Carlton.", "Includes foreword by Martin Brundle.", ".", "* Jones, Bruce (2005).", "''The Guide to 2005 FIA Formula One World Championship: The World's Bestselling Grand Prix Guide''.", "Carlton.", ".", "* Lang, Mike (1981–1992).", "''Grand Prix!", "volumes 1–4''.", "Haynes, Sparkford, UK.", "* Menard, Pierre (2006).", "''The Great Encyclopedia of Formula 1, 5th edition''.", "Chronosport, Switzerland.", "* Miltner, Harry (2007).", "''Race Travel Guide 2007''.", "egoth: Vienna, Austria.", "* Small, Steve (2000).", "''Grand Prix Who's Who (3rd edition)''.", "Travel Publishing, UK.", ".", "* Tremayne, David & Hughes, Mark (1999).", "''The Concise Encyclopedia of Formula One''.", "Parragon* Twite, Mike.", "\"Formula Regulations: Categories for International Racing\" in Northey, Tom, ed.", "''The World Of Automobiles'', Volume 6, pp.", "701–3.London: Phoebus, 1978." ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Franco Baresi" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Franchino Baresi''' (; born 8 May 1960) is an Italian football youth team coach and a former player and manager.", "He mainly played as a sweeper or as a central defender, and spent his entire 20-year career with Serie A club AC Milan, captaining the club for 15 seasons.", "He is considered to be one of the best defenders of all-time.", "He was ranked 19th in ''World Soccer'' magazine's list of the 100 greatest players of the 20th century.", "With Milan, he won three UEFA Champions League titles, six Serie A titles, four Supercoppa Italiana titles, two European Super Cups and two Intercontinental Cups.With the Italy national team, he was a member of the Italian squad that won the 1982 FIFA World Cup.", "He also played in the 1990 World Cup, where he was named in the FIFA World Cup All-Star Team, finishing third in the competition.", "At the 1994 World Cup, he was named Italy's captain and was part of the squad that reached the final, although he would miss a penalty in the resulting shoot-out as Brazil lifted the trophy.", "Baresi also represented Italy at two UEFA European Championships, in 1980 and 1988, and at the 1984 Olympics, reaching the semi-finals on each occasion.The younger brother of former footballer Giuseppe Baresi, after joining the Milan senior team as a youngster, Franco Baresi was initially nicknamed \"Piscinin\", Milanese for \"little one\".", "Due to his skill and success, he was later known as \"Kaiser Franz\", a reference to fellow sweeper Franz Beckenbauer.", "In 1999, he was voted Milan's Player of the Century.", "After his final season at Milan in 1997, the club retired Baresi's shirt number 6.He was named by Pelé one of the 125 Greatest Living Footballers at the FIFA centenary awards ceremony in 2004.Baresi was inducted into the Italian Football Hall of Fame in 2013." ], [ "Early life", "Baresi grew up in a farmstead on the outskirts of a small north Italian town, Travagliato.", "He did not watch football on television until he was 10." ], [ "Club career", "Originally an AC Milan youth product, Baresi went on to spend his entire 20-year professional career with Milan, making his Serie A debut at age 17 during the 1977–78 season on 23 April 1978.He had initially been rejected by the Internazionale youth team, who chose his brother Giuseppe instead, hence the Milan youth team signed Franco Baresi.", "The two brothers ended up captaining their respective teams shortly after, with their image while exchanging pennants became the trademark of Milan's ''derby della Madonnina'' throughout the 80s.The following season, he was made a member of the starting 11, playing as a sweeper or as a centreback, winning the 1978–79 Serie A title, Milan's tenth overall, playing alongside Fabio Capello and Gianni Rivera.Baresi with AC Milan in 1979This success was soon followed by a dark period in the club's history, when Milan was relegated to Serie B twice during the early 1980s.", "Milan were relegated in 1980 for being involved in the match fixing scandal of 1980, and once again after finishing third-last in the 1981–82 season, after having just returned to Serie A the previous season, after winning the 1980–81 Serie B title.", "Despite being a member of the Euro 1980 Italy squad that had finished fourth, and the 1982 World Cup-winning team, Baresi elected to stay with Milan, winning the Serie B title for the second time during the 1982–83 season and bringing Milan back to Serie A.", "After Aldo Maldera and Fulvio Collovati left the club in 1982, Baresi was appointed Milan's captain, at age 22, and would hold this position for much of his time at the club, becoming a symbol and a leader for the team.", "During this bleak period for Milan, Baresi did manage to win a Mitropa Cup in 1982 and reached the Coppa Italia final during 1984–85 season, although the team failed to dominate in Serie A.During the end of the 1980s and the first half of the 1990s, Baresi was at the heart of a notable all-Italian defence alongside Paolo Maldini, Alessandro Costacurta, Mauro Tassotti and later Christian Panucci, under managers Arrigo Sacchi and Fabio Capello, a defence which is regarded by many as one of the greatest of all time.", "When the attacking Dutch trio of Marco van Basten, Ruud Gullit and Frank Rijkaard arrived at the club in the late 1980s, Milan began a period of domestic and international triumphs, and between 1987 and 1996, at the height of the club's success, the Milan squad contained many Italian and international stars, such as Roberto Donadoni, Carlo Ancelotti, Marco van Basten, Ruud Gullit, Frank Rijkaard and later Demetrio Albertini, Dejan Savićević, Zvonimir Boban, Marcel Desailly, George Weah, Jean-Pierre Papin, Brian Laudrup and Roberto Baggio.", "Under Sacchi, Milan won the Serie A title in 1987–88, with Baresi helping Milan to concede only 14 goals.", "This title was immediately followed by a Supercoppa Italiana in 1988 the next season, and back-to-back European Cups in 1988–89 and 1989–90; In the 1990 European Cup Final, Baresi turned in a dominant performance as the team's captain, helping Milan to defend the European Cup title and keep a clean sheet in a 1–0 victory over Benfica.", "Baresi was also runner-up to teammate Van Basten for the Ballon d'Or in 1989, finishing ahead of his other teammate Frank Rijkaard, and was named Serie A Footballer of the Year in 1989–90.Milan also reached the Coppa Italia final during the 1989–90 season.Baresi went on to win four more Serie A titles with Milan under Fabio Capello, including three consecutive titles in 1991–92, 1992–93 and the 1993–94 seasons.", "Baresi helped Milan win the 1991–92 title undefeated, helping Milan to go unbeaten for an Italian record of 58 matches.", "Milan also scored a record 74 goals that season.", "During the 1993–94 season, Baresi helped Milan concede a mere 15 goals in Serie A, helping the club to finish the season with the best defence.", "Baresi also won three consecutive Supercoppa Italiana under Capello, in 1992, 1993 and 1994.Milan also reached three consecutive UEFA Champions League finals during the 1992–93, 1993–94 and 1994–95 seasons, losing to Marseille in 1992–93 and Ajax in 1994–95.Baresi won the third European Cup/UEFA Champions League of his career in 1993–94 when Milan defeated Johan Cruyff's Barcelona \"Dream Team\" 4–0 in the final.", "Baresi also managed to win the 1994 European Super Cup, although Milan were defeated in the 1994 Intercontinental Cup, the 1993 European Super Cup and the 1993 Intercontinental Cup.", "Under Capello, Milan and Baresi were able to capture another Serie A title during 1995–96 season, Baresi's sixth.Baresi retired at the end of the 1996–97 Serie A season, at age 37.In his 20 seasons with Milan, he won six Serie A titles, three European Cup/UEFA Champions League titles (reaching five finals in total), two Intercontinental Cups (four finals in total), four European Supercups (five finals in total), four Supercoppa Italiana (five finals in total), two Serie B titles and a Mitropa Cup.", "He scored 31 goals for Milan, 21 of which were on penalties, and, despite being a defender, he was the top scorer of the Coppa Italia during the 1989–90 season, the only trophy which he failed to win with Milan, reaching the final twice during his career.", "His final goal for Milan was scored in a 2–1 win against Padova on 27 August 1995.In his honour, Milan retired his number 6 shirt, which he had worn throughout his career.", "The captain's armband, which he had worn for 15 seasons, was handed over to Paolo Maldini.", "Milan organised a celebration match in his honour, which was played on 28 October 1997 at the San Siro, featuring many footballing stars." ], [ "International career", "At age 20, while still playing in the Italy under-21 side, Baresi was named in Italy's 22-man squad for the 1980 European Championship (along with his older brother Giuseppe) by manager Enzo Bearzot.", "The tournament was held on home soil and Italy finished fourth.", "However, unlike his brother, Franco Baresi did not play a single match in the tournament.", "Euro 1980 would be the only time the two brothers were on the Italy squad together at a major tournament.", "At age 22, Baresi was named in Italy's squad for the 1982 FIFA World Cup.", "The ''Azzurri'' won their third World Cup, defeating West Germany in the final, but Baresi, once again, was not selected to play a match throughout the tournament.", "Baresi was also a member of the Italy squad that took part in the 1984 Olympics.", "Italy finished in fourth place after a semi-final defeat to Brazil, and losing the bronze medal match to Yugoslavia.", "Baresi scored a goal against the United States during the group stage.Baresi won his first senior international cap in a 1984 UEFA Championship qualifying match against Romania in Florence, on 14 December 1982, a 0–0 draw.", "Italy, however, ultimately failed to qualify for the final tournament.Baresi was not included in Italy's squad for the 1986 World Cup by coach Enzo Bearzot, who saw him as being more of a midfielder than a defender (although his brother Giuseppe was selected as a defender for the World Cup, as well as Roberto Tricella).", "He returned to the team for the 1988 European Championship, playing as a sweeper, where Italy reached the semi-finals under Azeglio Vicini, becoming an undisputed first team member and playing in every match.", "He made his first appearance in a World Cup finals match in the 1990 tournament, which was held on home soil, and he played in every match as one of the starting centre-backs, as Italy finished in third-place, after being eliminated by defending champions Argentina in a penalty shootout in the semi-finals.", "Baresi helped the Italian defence to keep five consecutive clean sheets, only conceding two goals, and going unbeaten for a World Cup record of 518 minutes, until they were beaten by an Argentinian equaliser in the semi-final.", "His performances earned him a spot on the 1990 World Cup Team of the tournament.After replacing Giuseppe Bergomi as captain for the 1994 World Cup under his former manager at Milan, Arrigo Sacchi, Baresi sustained an injury to his meniscus in Italy's second group match, a 1–0 win against Norway, and missed most of the tournament.", "He returned to the squad 25 days later, in time for the final, with a dominant defensive performance, helping Italy to keep a clean sheet against Brazil, despite the key defensive absences of his Milan teammates Alessandro Costacurta and Mauro Tassotti.", "After a 0–0 deadlock following extra time, the match went to a penalty shootout, and Baresi subsequently missed his penalty, suffering from severe cramps and fatigue.", "Following misses by Daniele Massaro and Roberto Baggio, Italy were defeated by Brazil in the penalty shootout.Following the World Cup defeat, Baresi made one more appearance for Italy, in an away UEFA Euro 1996 qualifying match against Slovenia on 7 September 1994, which ended in a 1–1 draw.", "Baresi subsequently retired from the national side at age 34, passing the captain's armband to his Milan teammate Paolo Maldini.", "Baresi amassed 81 caps for Italy, scoring one goal in a friendly win against the Soviet Union, and he is one of seven players to have achieved the rare feat of winning Gold, Silver and Bronze FIFA World Cup medals during his international career." ], [ "Style of play", "Baresi is regarded as one of the greatest defenders of all time.", "He played his entire 20-year career with Milan, becoming a club legend.", "At Milan, he formed one of the most formidable defensive units of all time, alongside Paolo Maldini, Alessandro Costacurta, Mauro Tassotti, Filippo Galli and later Christian Panucci.", "He was a complete and consistent defender who combined power with elegance and was gifted with outstanding physical and mental attributes, such as pace, strength, tenacity, concentration and stamina, which made him effective in the air, despite his lack of notable height for a centre-back.Baresi's Italy jersey (6) next to Paolo Maldini's jersey at the San Siro museum, September 2018Although Baresi was capable of playing anywhere along the backline, he primarily excelled as a centreback and as sweeper, where he combined his defensive attributes, and his ability to read the game, with his excellent vision, technique, distribution and ball skills.", "These qualities also enabled him to excel in a zonal marking system, maintain a high defensive line, and play the offside trap, in particular during his time at Milan under Sacchi; indeed, Baresi came to be known for often raising his arm towards the linesman whenever his team attempted to play the offside trap.", "Baresi's passing range, technical ability and ball control allowed him to advance forward into the midfield to start attacking plays from the back, enabling him to function as a secondary playmaker for his team, and also play as a defensive or central midfielder when necessary.", "Despite being a defender, he was also an accurate penalty kick taker.", "Baresi was known for being a strong and accurate tackler, who was very good at winning back possession, and at anticipating and intercepting plays, due to his acute tactical intelligence, speed of thought, marking ability and positional sense.", "A precocious talent in his youth, throughout the course of his career, he also stood out for his professionalism, athleticism, longevity, and discipline in training, as well as his outstanding leadership, commanding presence on the pitch and his organisational skills; indeed, he captained both Milan and the Italy national team.Baresi also shares the record of most own goals scored in Serie A history (eight, along with Riccardo Ferri)." ], [ "Coaching career", "On 1 June 2002, Baresi was officially appointed as director of football at Fulham, but tensions between Baresi and then Fulham manager Jean Tigana led to resignation from the club in August.He was appointed head coach of Milan's ''Primavera'' Under-20 squad.", "In 2006, he was moved by the club to coach the ''Berretti'' Under-19 squad, with his former teammate Filippo Galli replacing him at the helm of the Primavera squad.", "He retired from coaching and was replaced by Roberto Bertuzzo." ], [ "Personal life", "Franco Baresi is the younger brother of Internazionale legendary defender Giuseppe Baresi.", "As youngsters, both players had tryouts for Inter, but Franco was rejected, and purchased by local rivals Milan.", "As he was the younger player, Franco was initially known as \"Baresi 2\".", "However, due to Franco's eventual great success and popularity throughout his career, which surpassed even that of his older brother's, Giuseppe later became known as \"the other Baresi\", despite also achieving notable success." ], [ "Media", "Baresi is featured in the EA Sports football video game series ''FIFA 14'''s Classic XI – a multi-national all-star team, along with compatriots Bruno Conti, Gianni Rivera and Giacinto Facchetti.", "He was also named in the Ultimate Team Legends in ''FIFA 15''." ], [ "Career statistics", "===Club===+ Appearances and goals by club, season and competitionClubSeasonLeagueCoppa ItaliaEuropeOtherTotalDivisionAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAC Milan1977–78Serie A1020––301978–79Serie A3004060–4001979–80Serie A2806010–3501980–81Serie B3104100–3511981–82Serie A18240322541982–83Serie B30492––3961983–84Serie A21392––3051984–85Serie A260100––3601985–86Serie A2004030303001986–87Serie A29263––3551987–88Serie A2716030–3611988–89Serie A3328280105041989–90Serie A3017480104651990–91Serie A3101050103801991–92Serie A33061––3911992–93Serie A2907080104501993–94Serie A31000110204401994–95Serie A28000130204301995–96Serie A3013070–4011996–97Serie A260102010301Career total53216971575015271933===International===+ Appearances and goals by national team and yearNational teamYearAppsGoalsItaly198210198330198450198500198630198750198811119891001990110199190199270199370199490Total811:''Scores and results list Italy's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Baresi goal.", "''+ List of international goals scored by Franco BaresiNo.DateVenueOpponentScoreResultCompetition1 20 February 1988 Stadio della Vittoria, Bari, Italy 1–0 4–1 Friendly" ], [ "Honours", "'''AC Milan'''*Serie A: 1978–79, 1987–88, 1991–92, 1992–93, 1993–94, 1995–96*Serie B: 1980–81, 1982–83*Supercoppa Italiana: 1988, 1992, 1993, 1994*European Cup/UEFA Champions League: 1988–89, 1989–90, 1993–94*European Super Cup: 1990, 1994*Intercontinental Cup: 1989, 1990;Italy*FIFA World Cup: 1982; runner-up: 1994; third-place: 1990*Scania 100 Tournament: 1991'''Individual'''*Ballon d'Or: runner-up 1989*Coppa Italia top scorer: 1989–90*Guerin d'Oro: 1989–90*FIFA World Cup All-Star Team: 1990*Onze de Onze: 1990, 1991, 1992*Premio Nazionale Carriera Esemplare \"Gaetano Scirea\": 1994*World Soccer The Greatest Players of the 20th century #19*AC Milan Player of the Century: 1999*AIC Serie A Player of the Century: 2000*FIFA 100: 2004*UEFA Golden Jubilee Poll: #17th*AC Milan Hall of Fame*FICTS Hall of Fame and Excellence Guirlande d'Honneur*Golden Foot: 2012 (under the category of \"Football Legend\")*Italian Football Hall of Fame: 2013*Ballon d'Or Dream Team (Silver): 2020*IFFHS All-time Men's Dream Team: 2021'''Orders''':*50px 4th Class / Officer: ''Ufficiale Ordine al Merito della Repubblica Italiana'': 1991" ], [ "See also", "* List of one-club men in association football" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* 2009 Interview at fourfourtwo.com* * * * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Stage (stratigraphy)" ], [ "Introduction", "In chronostratigraphy, a '''stage''' is a succession of rock strata laid down in a single age on the geologic timescale, which usually represents millions of years of deposition.", "A given stage of rock and the corresponding age of time will by convention have the same name, and the same boundaries.Rock series are divided into stages, just as geological epochs are divided into ages.", "Stages can be divided into smaller stratigraphic units called chronozones.", "(See chart at right for full terminology hierarchy.)", "Stages may also be divided into substages or indeed grouped as superstages.The term '''faunal stage''' is sometimes used, referring to the fact that the same fauna (animals) are found throughout the layer (by definition)." ], [ "Definition", "Stages are primarily defined by a consistent set of fossils (biostratigraphy) or a consistent magnetic polarity (see paleomagnetism) in the rock.", "Usually one or more index fossils that are common, found worldwide, easily recognized, and limited to a single, or at most a few, stages are used to define the stage's bottom.", "Thus, for example in the local North American subdivision, a paleontologist finding fragments of the trilobite ''Olenellus'' would identify the beds as being from the Waucoban Stage whereas fragments of a later trilobite such as ''Elrathia'' would identify the stage as Albertan.", "Stages were important in the 19th and early 20th centuries as they were the major tool available for dating and correlating rock units prior to the development of seismology and radioactive dating in the second half of the 20th century.", "Microscopic analysis of the rock (petrology) is also sometimes useful in confirming that a given segment of rock is from a particular age.Originally, faunal stages were only defined regionally; however, as additional stratigraphic and geochronologic tools were developed, stages were defined over broader and broader areas.", "More recently, the adjective \"faunal\" has been dropped as regional and global correlations of rock sequences have become relatively certain and there is less need for faunal labels to define the age of formations.", "A tendency developed to use European and, to a lesser extent, Asian stage names for the same time period worldwide, even though the faunas in other regions often had little in common with the stage as originally defined." ], [ "International standardization", "Boundaries and names are established by the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) of the International Union of Geological Sciences.", "As of 2008, the ICS is nearly finished with a task begun in 1974, subdividing the Phanerozoic eonothem into internationally accepted stages using two types of benchmark.", "For younger stages, a Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP), a physical outcrop clearly demonstrates the boundary.", "For older stages, a Global Standard Stratigraphic Age (GSSA) is an absolute date.", "The benchmarks will give a much greater certainty that results can be compared with confidence in the date determinations, and such results will have farther scope than any evaluation based solely on local knowledge and conditions.", "In many regions local subdivisions and classification criteria are still used along with the newer internationally coordinated uniform system, but once the research establishes a more complete international system, it is expected that local systems will be abandoned." ], [ "Stages and lithostratigraphy", "Stages can include many lithostratigraphic units (for example formations, beds, members, etc.)", "of differing rock types that were being laid down in different environments at the same time.", "In the same way, a lithostratigraphic unit can include a number of stages or parts of them." ], [ "See also", "*European land mammal age*Geologic record*Geologic time scale*North American land mammal age*Type locality (geology)*List of geochronologic names*List of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "** Hedberg, H.D., (editor), ''International stratigraphic guide: A guide to stratigraphic classification, terminology, and procedure'', New York, John Wiley and Sons, 1976* International Stratigraphic Chart from the International Commission on Stratigraphy" ], [ "External links", "* The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP): overview* Chart of The Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP): chart* Geotime chart displaying geologic time periods compared to the fossil record, deals with chronology and classifications for laymen (not GSSPs)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Franz Kafka" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Franz Kafka''' (in Czech: ''František Kafka''; 3 July 1883 – 3 June 1924) was a German-speaking Bohemian Jewish novelist and short-story writer based in Prague, who is widely regarded as one of the major figures of 20th-century literature.", "His work fuses elements of realism and the fantastic.", "It typically features isolated protagonists facing bizarre or surrealistic predicaments and incomprehensible socio-bureaucratic powers.", "It has been interpreted as exploring themes of alienation, existential anxiety, guilt, and absurdity.", "His best known works include the novella ''The Metamorphosis'' and novels ''The Trial'' and ''The Castle''.", "The term ''Kafkaesque'' has entered English to describe absurd situations like those depicted in his writing.Kafka was born into a middle-class German-speaking Czech Jewish family in Prague, the capital of the Kingdom of Bohemia, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (today the capital of the Czech Republic).", "He trained as a lawyer, and after completing his legal education was employed full-time by an insurance company, forcing him to relegate writing to his spare time.", "Over the course of his life, Kafka wrote hundreds of letters to family and close friends, including his father, with whom he had a strained and formal relationship.", "He became engaged to several women but never married.", "He died in obscurity in 1924 at the age of 40 from tuberculosis.Kafka was a prolific writer, spending most of his free time writing, often late in the night.", "He burned an estimated 90 per cent of his total work due to his persistent struggles with self-doubt.", "Much of the remaining 10 per cent is lost or otherwise unpublished.", "Few of Kafka's works were published during his lifetime: the story collections ''Contemplation'' and ''A Country Doctor'', and individual stories (such as his novella ''The Metamorphosis'') were published in literary magazines but received little public attention.In his will, Kafka instructed his close friend and literary executor Max Brod to destroy his unfinished works, including his novels ''The Trial'', ''The Castle'', and , but Brod ignored these instructions and had much of his work published.", "Kafka's writings became famous in German-speaking countries after World War II, influencing their literature, and its influence spread elsewhere in the world in the 1960s.", "It has also influenced artists, composers, and philosophers." ], [ "Life", "=== Early life ===Franz Kafka's sisters as children, from the left Valli, Elli, OttlaKafka was born near the Old Town Square in Prague, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.", "His family were German-speaking middle-class Ashkenazi Jews.", "His father, Hermann Kafka (1854–1931), was the fourth child of Jakob Kafka, a or ritual slaughterer in Osek, a Czech village with a large Jewish population located near Strakonice in southern Bohemia.", "Hermann brought the Kafka family to Prague.", "After working as a travelling sales representative, he eventually became a fashion retailer who employed up to 15 people and used the image of a jackdaw ( in Czech, pronounced and colloquially written as ''kafka'') as his business logo.", "Kafka's mother, Julie (1856–1934), was the daughter of Jakob Löwy, a prosperous retail merchant in Poděbrady, and was better educated than her husband.Kafka's parents probably spoke a German influenced by Yiddish that was sometimes pejoratively called Mauscheldeutsch, but, as German was considered the vehicle of social mobility, they probably encouraged their children to speak Standard German.", "Hermann and Julie had six children, of whom Franz was the eldest.", "Franz's two brothers, Georg and Heinrich, died in infancy before Franz was seven; his three sisters were Gabriele (\"Elli\") (1889–1944), Valerie (\"Valli\") (1890–1942) and Ottilie (\"Ottla\") (1892–1943).", "All three were murdered in the Holocaust of World War II.", "Valli was deported to the Łódź Ghetto in occupied Poland in 1942, but that is the last documentation of her; it is assumed she did not survive the war.", "Ottilie was Kafka's favourite sister.Hermann is described by the biographer Stanley Corngold as a \"huge, selfish, overbearing businessman\" and by Franz Kafka as \"a true Kafka in strength, health, appetite, loudness of voice, eloquence, self-satisfaction, worldly dominance, endurance, presence of mind, and knowledge of human nature\".", "On business days, both parents were absent from the home, with Julie Kafka working as many as 12 hours each day helping to manage the family business.", "Consequently, Kafka's childhood was somewhat lonely, and the children were reared largely by a series of governesses and servants.", "Kafka's troubled relationship with his father is evident in his (''Letter to His Father'') of more than 100 pages, in which he complains of being profoundly affected by his father's authoritarian and demanding character; his mother, in contrast, was quiet and shy.", "The dominating figure of Kafka's father had a significant influence on Kafka's writing.The Kafka family had a servant girl living with them in a cramped apartment.", "Franz's room was often cold.", "In November 1913 the family moved into a bigger apartment, although Ellie and Valli had married and moved out of the first apartment.", "In early August 1914, just after World War I began, the sisters did not know where their husbands were in the military and moved back in with the family in this larger apartment.", "Both Ellie and Valli also had children.", "Franz at age 31 moved into Valli's former apartment, quiet by contrast, and lived by himself for the first time.=== Education ===From 1889 to 1893, Kafka attended the German boys' elementary school at the (meat market), now known as Masná Street.", "His Jewish education ended with his ''bar mitzvah'' celebration at the age of 13.Kafka never enjoyed attending the synagogue and went with his father only on four high holidays a year.Kinský Palace where Kafka attended gymnasium and his father owned a shop|alt=An ornate four-storey palatial buildingAfter leaving elementary school in 1893, Kafka was admitted to the rigorous classics-oriented state gymnasium, , an academic secondary school at Old Town Square, within the Kinský Palace.", "German was the language of instruction, but Kafka also spoke and wrote in Czech.", "He studied the latter at the gymnasium for eight years, achieving good grades.", "Although Kafka received compliments for his Czech, he never considered himself fluent in the language, though he spoke German with a Czech accent.", "He completed his Matura exams in 1901.Admitted to the of Prague in 1901, Kafka began studying chemistry but switched to law after two weeks.", "Although this field did not excite him, it offered a range of career possibilities which pleased his father.", "In addition, law required a longer course of study, giving Kafka time to take classes in German studies and art history.", "He also joined a student club, (Reading and Lecture Hall of the German students), which organised literary events, readings and other activities.", "Among Kafka's friends were the journalist Felix Weltsch, who studied philosophy, the actor Yitzchak Lowy who came from an orthodox Hasidic Warsaw family, and the writers Ludwig Winder, Oskar Baum and Franz Werfel.At the end of his first year of studies, Kafka met Max Brod, a fellow law student who became a close friend for life.", "Years later, Brod coined the term (\"The Close Prague Circle\") to describe the group of writers, which included Kafka, Felix Weltsch and Brod himself.", "Brod soon noticed that, although Kafka was shy and seldom spoke, what he said was usually profound.", "Kafka was an avid reader throughout his life; together he and Brod read Plato's ''Protagoras'' in the original Greek, on Brod's initiative, and Flaubert's and (''The Temptation of Saint Anthony'') in French, at his own suggestion.", "Kafka considered Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Gustav Flaubert, Nikolai Gogol, Franz Grillparzer, and Heinrich von Kleist to be his \"true blood brothers\".", "Besides these, he took an interest in Czech literature and was also very fond of the works of Goethe.", "Kafka was awarded the degree of Doctor of Law on 18 June 1906 and performed an obligatory year of unpaid service as law clerk for the civil and criminal courts.=== Employment ===Former home of the Worker's Accident Insurance InstituteOn 1 November 1907, Kafka was employed at the , an insurance company, where he worked for nearly a year.", "His correspondence during that period indicates that he was unhappy with a work schedule—from 08:00 until 18:00—that made it extremely difficult to concentrate on writing, which was assuming increasing importance to him.", "On 15 July 1908, he resigned.", "Two weeks later, he found employment more amenable to writing when he joined the Worker's Accident Insurance Institute for the Kingdom of Bohemia.", "The job involved investigating and assessing compensation for personal injury to industrial workers; accidents such as lost fingers or limbs were commonplace, owing to poor work safety policies at the time.", "It was especially true of factories fitted with machine lathes, drills, planing machines and rotary saws, which were rarely fitted with safety guards.His father often referred to his son's job as an insurance officer as a , literally \"bread job\", a job done only to pay the bills; Kafka often claimed to despise it.", "Kafka was rapidly promoted and his duties included processing and investigating compensation claims, writing reports, and handling appeals from businessmen who thought their firms had been placed in too high a risk category, which cost them more in insurance premiums.", "He would compile and compose the annual report on the insurance institute for the several years he worked there.", "The reports were well received by his superiors.", "Kafka usually got off work at 2 p.m., so that he had time to spend on his literary work, to which he was committed.", "Kafka's father also expected him to help out at and take over the family fancy goods store.", "In his later years, Kafka's illness often prevented him from working at the insurance bureau and at his writing.In late 1911, Elli's husband Karl Hermann and Kafka became partners in the first asbestos factory in Prague, known as Prager Asbestwerke Hermann & Co., having used dowry money from Hermann Kafka.", "Kafka showed a positive attitude at first, dedicating much of his free time to the business, but he later resented the encroachment of this work on his writing time.", "During that period, he also found interest and entertainment in the performances of Yiddish theatre.", "After seeing a Yiddish theatre troupe perform in October 1911, for the next six months Kafka \"immersed himself in Yiddish language and in Yiddish literature\".", "This interest also served as a starting point for his growing exploration of Judaism.", "It was at about this time that Kafka became a vegetarian.", "Around 1915, Kafka received his draft notice for military service in World WarI, but his employers at the insurance institute arranged for a deferment because his work was considered essential government service.", "He later attempted to join the military but was prevented from doing so by medical problems associated with tuberculosis, with which he was diagnosed in 1917.In 1918, the Worker's Accident Insurance Institute put Kafka on a pension due to his illness, for which there was no cure at the time, and he spent most of the rest of his life in sanatoriums.=== Private life ===Felice Bauer and Franz KafkaKafka never married.", "According to Brod, Kafka was \"tortured\" by sexual desire, and Kafka's biographer Reiner Stach states that his life was full of \"incessant womanising\" and that he was filled with a fear of \"sexual failure\".", "Kafka visited brothels for most of his adult life and was interested in pornography.", "In addition, he had close relationships with several women during his lifetime.", "On 13 August 1912, Kafka met Felice Bauer, a relative of Brod's, who worked in Berlin as a representative of a dictaphone company.", "A week after the meeting at Brod's home, Kafka wrote in his diary:Shortly after this meeting, Kafka wrote the story \"\" (\"The Judgment\") in only one night and in a productive period worked on (''The Man Who Disappeared'') and ''Die Verwandlung'' (''The Metamorphosis'').", "Kafka and Felice Bauer communicated mostly through letters over the next five years, met occasionally, and were engaged twice.", "Kafka's extant letters to Bauer were published as (''Letters to Felice''); her letters do not survive.", "After he had written to Bauer's father asking to marry her, Kafka wrote in his diary:According to the biographers Stach and James Hawes, Kafka became engaged a third time around 1920, to Julie Wohryzek, a poor and uneducated hotel chambermaid.", "Kafka's father objected to Julie because of her Zionist beliefs.", "Although Kafka and Julie rented a flat and set a wedding date, the marriage never took place.", "During this time, Kafka began a draft of ''Letter to His Father''.", "Before the date of the intended marriage, he took up with yet another woman.", "While he needed women and sex in his life, he had low self-confidence, felt sex was dirty, and was cripplingly shy—especially about his body.Stach and Brod state that during the time that Kafka knew Felice Bauer, he had an affair with a friend of hers, Margarethe \"Grete\" Bloch, a Jewish woman from Berlin.", "Brod says that Bloch gave birth to Kafka's son, although Kafka never knew about the child.", "The boy, whose name is not known, was born in 1914 or 1915 and died in Munich in 1921.However, Kafka's biographer Peter-André Alt says that, while Bloch had a son, Kafka was not the father, as the pair were never intimate.", "Stach points out that there is a great deal of contradictory evidence around the claim that Kafka was the father.Kafka was diagnosed with tuberculosis in August 1917 and moved for a few months to the Bohemian village of Zürau (Siřem in Czech), where his sister Ottla worked on the farm of her brother-in-law Karl Hermann.", "He felt comfortable there and later described this time as perhaps the best period of his life, probably because he had no responsibilities.", "He kept diaries and (octavo).", "From the notes in these books, Kafka extracted 109 numbered pieces of text on ''Zettel'', single pieces of paper in no given order.", "They were later published as (The Zürau Aphorisms or Reflections on Sin, Hope, Suffering, and the True Way).In 1920, Kafka began an intense relationship with Milena Jesenská, a Czech journalist and writer who was non-Jewish and who was married, but when she met Kafka, her marriage was a \"sham\".", "His letters to her were later published as .", "During a vacation in July 1923 to Graal-Müritz on the Baltic Sea, Kafka met Dora Diamant, a 25-year-old kindergarten teacher from an orthodox Jewish family.", "Kafka, hoping to escape the influence of his family to concentrate on his writing, moved briefly to Berlin (September 1923-March 1924) and lived with Diamant.", "She became his lover and sparked his interest in the Talmud.", "He worked on four stories, including (''A Hunger Artist''), which were published shortly after his death.=== Personality ===Kafka had a lifelong suspicion that people found him mentally and physically repulsive.", "However, many of those who met him found him to possess obvious intelligence and a sense of humour; they also found him handsome, although of austere appearance.Brod compared Kafka to Heinrich von Kleist, noting that both writers had the ability to describe a situation realistically with precise details.", "Brod thought Kafka was one of the most entertaining people he had met; Kafka enjoyed sharing humour with his friends, but also helped them in difficult situations with good advice.", "According to Brod, he was a passionate reciter, able to phrase his speech as though it were music.", "Brod felt that two of Kafka's most distinguishing traits were \"absolute truthfulness\" () and \"precise conscientiousness\" ().", "He explored details, the inconspicuous, in depth and with such love and precision that things surfaced that were unforeseen, seemingly strange, but absolutely true ().Although Kafka showed little interest in exercise as a child, he later developed a passion for games and physical activity, and was an accomplished rider, swimmer, and rower.", "On weekends, he and his friends embarked on long hikes, often planned by Kafka himself.", "His other interests included alternative medicine, modern education systems such as Montessori, and technological novelties such as airplanes and film.", "Writing was vitally important to Kafka; he considered it a \"form of prayer\".", "He was highly sensitive to noise and preferred absolute quiet when writing.Pérez-Álvarez has claimed that Kafka had symptomatology consistent with schizoid personality disorder.", "His style, it is claimed, not only in ''Die Verwandlung'' (''The Metamorphosis'') but in other writings, appears to show low- to medium-level schizoid traits, which Pérez-Álvarez claims to have influenced much of his work.", "His anguish can be seen in this diary entry from 21 June 1913:and in Zürau Aphorism number 50:Alessia Coralli and Antonio Perciaccante of San Giovanni di Dio Hospital have posited that Kafka may have had borderline personality disorder with co-occurring psychophysiological insomnia.", "Joan Lachkar interpreted ''Die Verwandlung'' as \"a vivid depiction of the borderline personality\" and described the story as \"model for Kafka's own abandonment fears, anxiety, depression, and parasitic dependency needs.", "Kafka illuminated the borderline's general confusion of normal and healthy desires, wishes, and needs with something ugly and disdainful.", "\"Though Kafka never married, he held marriage and children in high esteem.", "He had several girlfriends and lovers across his life.", "He may have suffered from an eating disorder.", "Doctor Manfred M. Fichter of the Psychiatric Clinic, University of Munich, presented \"evidence for the hypothesis that the writer Franz Kafka had suffered from an atypical anorexia nervosa\", and that Kafka was not just lonely and depressed but also \"occasionally suicidal\".", "In his 1995 book ''Franz Kafka, the Jewish Patient'', Sander Gilman investigated \"why a Jew might have been considered 'hypochondriacal' or 'homosexual' and how Kafka incorporates aspects of these ways of understanding the Jewish male into his own self-image and writing\".", "Kafka considered suicide at least once, in late 1912.=== Political views ===Before World War I, Kafka attended several meetings of the ''Klub mladých'', a Czech anarchist, anti-militarist, and anti-clerical organization.", "Hugo Bergmann, who attended the same elementary and high schools as Kafka, fell out with Kafka during their last academic year (1900–1901) because \"Kafka's socialism and my Zionism were much too strident\".", "Bergmann said: \"Franz became a socialist, I became a Zionist in 1898.The synthesis of Zionism and socialism did not yet exist.\"", "Bergmann claims that Kafka wore a red carnation to school to show his support for socialism.", "In one diary entry, Kafka made reference to the influential anarchist philosopher Peter Kropotkin: \"Don't forget Kropotkin!", "\"During the communist era, the legacy of Kafka's work for Eastern Bloc socialism was hotly debated.", "Opinions ranged from the notion that he satirised the bureaucratic bungling of a crumbling Austro-Hungarian Empire, to the belief that he embodied the rise of socialism.", "A further key point was Marx's theory of alienation.", "While the orthodox position was that Kafka's depictions of alienation were no longer relevant for a society that had supposedly eliminated alienation, a 1963 conference held in Liblice, Czechoslovakia, on the eightieth anniversary of his birth, reassessed the importance of Kafka's portrayal of bureaucracy.", "Whether or not Kafka was a political writer is still an issue of debate.=== Judaism and Zionism ===Kafka in 1910Kafka grew up in Prague as a German-speaking Jew.", "He was deeply fascinated by the Jews of Eastern Europe, who he thought possessed an intensity of spiritual life that was absent from Jews in the West.", "His diary contains many references to Yiddish writers.", "Yet he was at times alienated from Judaism and Jewish life.", "On 8 January 1914, he wrote in his diary:In his adolescent years, Kafka declared himself an atheist.Hawes suggests that Kafka, though very aware of his own Jewishness, did not incorporate it into his work, which, according to Hawes, lacks Jewish characters, scenes or themes.", "In the opinion of literary critic Harold Bloom, although Kafka was uneasy with his Jewish heritage, he was the quintessential Jewish writer.", "Lothar Kahn is likewise unequivocal: \"The presence of Jewishness in Kafka's is no longer subject to doubt\".", "Pavel Eisner, one of Kafka's first translators, interprets (''The Trial'') as the embodiment of the \"triple dimension of Jewish existence in Prague... his protagonist Josef K. is (symbolically) arrested by a German (Rabensteiner), a Czech (Kullich), and a Jew (Kaminer).", "He stands for the 'guiltless guilt' that imbues the Jew in the modern world, although there is no evidence that he himself is a Jew\".In his essay ''Sadness in Palestine?!", "'', Dan Miron explores Kafka's connection to Zionism: \"It seems that those who claim that there was such a connection and that Zionism played a central role in his life and literary work, and those who deny the connection altogether or dismiss its importance, are both wrong.", "The truth lies in some very elusive place between these two simplistic poles.\"", "Kafka considered moving to Palestine with Felice Bauer, and later with Dora Diamant.", "He studied Hebrew while living in Berlin, hiring a friend of Brod's from Palestine, Pua Bat-Tovim, to tutor him and attending Rabbi Julius Grünthal and Rabbi Julius Guttmann's classes in the Berlin (College for the Study of Judaism), where he also studied Talmud.Livia Rothkirchen calls Kafka the \"symbolic figure of his era\".", "His contemporaries included numerous Jewish, Czech, and German writers who were sensitive to Jewish, Czech, and German culture.", "According to Rothkirchen, \"This situation lent their writings a broad cosmopolitan outlook and a quality of exaltation bordering on transcendental metaphysical contemplation.", "An illustrious example is Franz Kafka\".Towards the end of his life Kafka sent a postcard to his friend Hugo Bergmann in Tel Aviv, announcing his intention to emigrate to Palestine.", "Bergmann refused to host Kafka because he had young children and was afraid that Kafka would infect them with tuberculosis." ], [ "Death", "alt=A tapering six-sided stone structure lists the names of three deceased persons: Franz, Hermann, and Julie Kafka.", "Each name has a passage in Hebrew below it.Kafka's laryngeal tuberculosis worsened and in March 1924 he returned from Berlin to Prague, where members of his family, principally his sister Ottla and Dora Diamant, took care of him.", "He went to Hugo Hoffmann's sanatorium in Kierling just outside Vienna for treatment on 10 April, and died there on 3 June 1924.The cause of death seemed to be starvation: the condition of Kafka's throat made eating too painful for him, and since parenteral nutrition had not yet been developed, there was no way to feed him.", "Kafka was editing \"A Hunger Artist\" on his deathbed, a story whose composition he had begun before his throat closed to the point that he could not take any nourishment.", "His body was brought back to Prague where he was buried on 11 June 1924, in the New Jewish Cemetery in Prague-Žižkov.", "Kafka was virtually unknown during his own lifetime, but he did not consider fame important.", "He rose to fame rapidly after his death, particularly after World War II.", "The Kafka tombstone was designed by architect Leopold Ehrmann." ], [ "Works", "First page of Kafka's alt=an old letter with text written in GermanAll of Kafka's published works, except some letters he wrote in Czech to Milena Jesenská, were written in German.", "What little was published during his lifetime attracted scant public attention.Kafka finished none of his full-length novels and burned around 90 percent of his work, much of it during the period he lived in Berlin with Diamant, who helped him burn the drafts.", "In his early years as a writer he was influenced by von Kleist, whose work he described in a letter to Bauer as frightening and whom he considered closer than his own family.Kafka drew and sketched extensively.", "Until May 2021, only about 40 of his drawings were known.", "In 2022, Yale University Press published ''Franz Kafka: The Drawings''.=== Stories ===Kafka's earliest published works were eight stories that appeared in 1908 in the first issue of the literary journal ''Hyperion'' under the title (''Contemplation'').", "He wrote the story \"\" (\"Description of a Struggle\") in 1904; he showed it to Brod in 1905 who advised him to continue writing and convinced him to submit it to ''Hyperion''.", "Kafka published a fragment in 1908 and two sections in the spring of 1909, all in Munich.In a creative outburst on the night of 22 September 1912, Kafka wrote the story \"Das Urteil\" (\"The Judgment\", literally: \"The Verdict\") and dedicated it to Felice Bauer.", "Brod noted the similarity in names of the main character and his fictional fiancée, Georg Bendemann and Frieda Brandenfeld, to Franz Kafka and Felice Bauer.", "The story is often considered Kafka's breakthrough work.", "It deals with the troubled relationship of a son and his dominant father, facing a new situation after the son's engagement.", "Kafka later described writing it as \"a complete opening of body and soul\", a story that \"evolved as a true birth, covered with filth and slime\".", "The story was first published in Leipzig in 1912 and dedicated \"to Miss Felice Bauer\", and in subsequent editions \"for F.\"In 1912, Kafka wrote ''Die Verwandlung'' (''The Metamorphosis'', or ''The Transformation''), published in 1915 in Leipzig.", "The story begins with a travelling salesman waking to find himself transformed into an , a monstrous vermin, being a general term for unwanted and unclean pests, especially insects.", "Critics regard the work as one of the seminal works of fiction of the 20th century.", "The story \"In der Strafkolonie\" (\"In the Penal Colony\"), dealing with an elaborate torture and execution device, was written in October 1914, revised in 1918, and published in Leipzig during October 1919.The story \"Ein Hungerkünstler\" (\"A Hunger Artist\"), published in the periodical in 1924, describes a victimized protagonist who experiences a decline in the appreciation of his strange craft of starving himself for extended periods.", "His last story, \"Josefine, die Sängerin oder Das Volk der Mäuse\" (\"Josephine the Singer, or the Mouse Folk\"), also deals with the relationship between an artist and his audience.National Library of Israel.=== Novels ===Kafka began his first novel in 1912; its first chapter is the story \"Der Heizer\" (\"The Stoker\").", "He called the work, which remained unfinished, (''The Man Who Disappeared'' or ''The Missing Person''), but when Brod published it after Kafka's death he named it ''Amerika''.", "The inspiration for the novel was the time Kafka spent in the audience of Yiddish theatre the previous year, bringing him to a new awareness of his heritage, which led to the thought that an innate appreciation for one's heritage lives deep within each person.", "More explicitly humorous and slightly more realistic than most of Kafka's works, the novel shares the motif of an oppressive and intangible system putting the protagonist repeatedly in bizarre situations.", "It uses many details of experiences from his relatives who had emigrated to America and is the only work for which Kafka considered an optimistic ending.In 1914 Kafka began the novel (''The Trial''), the story of a man arrested and prosecuted by a remote, inaccessible authority, with the nature of his crime revealed neither to him nor to the reader.", "He did not complete the novel, although he finished the final chapter.", "According to Nobel Prize winner and Kafka scholar Elias Canetti, Felice is central to the plot of ''Der Process'' and Kafka said it was \"her story\".", "Canetti titled his book on Kafka's letters to Felice ''Kafka's Other Trial'', in recognition of the relationship between the letters and the novel.", "Michiko Kakutani notes in a review for ''The New York Times'' that Kafka's letters have the \"earmarks of his fiction: the same nervous attention to minute particulars; the same paranoid awareness of shifting balances of power; the same atmosphere of emotional suffocation—combined, surprisingly enough, with moments of boyish ardour and delight.", "\"According to his diary, Kafka was already planning his novel (''The Castle''), by 11 June 1914; however, he did not begin writing it until 27 January 1922.The protagonist is the (land surveyor) named K., who struggles for unknown reasons to gain access to the mysterious authorities of a castle who govern the village.", "Kafka's intent was that the castle's authorities notify K. on his deathbed that his \"legal claim to live in the village was not valid, yet, taking certain auxiliary circumstances into account, he was to be permitted to live and work there\".", "Dark and at times surreal, the novel is focused on alienation, bureaucracy, the seemingly endless frustrations of man's attempts to stand against the system, and the futile and hopeless pursuit of an unattainable goal.", "Hartmut M. Rastalsky noted in his thesis: \"Like dreams, his texts combine precise 'realistic' detail with absurdity, careful observation and reasoning on the part of the protagonists with inexplicable obliviousness and carelessness.", "\"=== Publishing history ===alt=A simple book cover displays the name of the book and the authorKafka's stories were initially published in literary periodicals.", "His first eight were printed in 1908 in the first issue of the bi-monthly ''Hyperion''.", "Franz Blei published two dialogues in 1909 which became part of \"Beschreibung eines Kampfes\" (\"Description of a Struggle\").", "A fragment of the story \"Die Aeroplane in Brescia\" (\"The Aeroplanes at Brescia\"), written on a trip to Italy with Brod, appeared in the daily ''Bohemia'' on 28 September 1909.On 27 March 1910, several stories that later became part of the book were published in the Easter edition of ''Bohemia''.", "In Leipzig during 1913, Brod and publisher Kurt Wolff included \"\" (\"The Judgment.", "A Story by Franz Kafka.\")", "in their literary yearbook for the art poetry ''Arkadia''.", "In the same year, Wolff published \"Der Heizer\" (\"The Stoker\") in the Jüngste Tag series, where it enjoyed three printings.", "The story \"\" (\"Before the Law\") was published in the 1915 New Year's edition of the independent Jewish weekly ; it was reprinted in 1919 as part of the story collection (''A Country Doctor'') and became part of the novel .", "Other stories were published in various publications, including Martin Buber's ''Der Jude'', the paper , and the periodicals , ''Genius'', and ''Prager Presse''.Kafka's first published book, (''Contemplation'', or ''Meditation''), was a collection of 18stories written between 1904 and 1912.On a summer trip to Weimar, Brod initiated a meeting between Kafka and Kurt Wolff; Wolff published in the at the end of 1912 (with the year given as 1913).", "Kafka dedicated it to Brod, \"\", and added in the personal copy given to his friend \"\" (\"As it is already printed here, for my dearest Max\").Kafka's novella ''Die Verwandlung'' (''The Metamorphosis'') was first printed in the October 1915 issue of , a monthly edition of expressionist literature, edited by René Schickele.", "Another story collection, (''A Country Doctor''), was published by Kurt Wolff in 1919, dedicated to Kafka's father.", "Kafka prepared a final collection of four stories for print, ''(A Hunger Artist)'', which appeared in 1924 after his death, in .", "On 20 April 1924, the published Kafka's essay on Adalbert Stifter.==== Max Brod ====alt=A simple book cover in green displays the name of the author and the bookKafka left his work, both published and unpublished, to his friend and literary executor Max Brod with explicit instructions that it should be destroyed on Kafka's death; Kafka wrote: \"Dearest Max, my last request: Everything I leave behind me... in the way of diaries, manuscripts, letters (my own and others'), sketches, and so on, is to be burned unread.\"", "Brod ignored this request and published the novels and collected works between 1925 and 1935.Brod defended his action by claiming that he had told Kafka, \"I shall not carry out your wishes\", and that \"Franz should have appointed another executor if he had been absolutely determined that his instructions should stand\".Brod took many of Kafka's papers, which remain unpublished, with him in suitcases to Palestine when he fled there in 1939.Kafka's last lover, Dora Diamant (later, Dymant-Lask), also ignored his wishes, secretly keeping 20notebooks and 35letters.", "These were confiscated by the Gestapo in 1933, but scholars continue to search for them.As Brod published the bulk of the writings in his possession, Kafka's work began to attract wider attention and critical acclaim.", "Brod found it difficult to arrange Kafka's notebooks in chronological order.", "One problem was that Kafka often began writing in different parts of the book; sometimes in the middle, sometimes working backwards from the end.", "Brod finished many of Kafka's incomplete works for publication.", "For example, Kafka left with unnumbered and incomplete chapters and with incomplete sentences and ambiguous content; Brod rearranged chapters, copy-edited the text, and changed the punctuation.", "appeared in 1925 in .", "Kurt Wolff published two other novels, in 1926 and ''Amerika'' in 1927.In 1931, Brod edited a collection of prose and unpublished stories as (''The Great Wall of China''), including the story of the same name.", "The book appeared in the .", "Brod's sets are usually called the \"Definitive Editions\".==== Modern editions ====In 1961 Malcolm Pasley acquired for the Oxford Bodleian Library most of Kafka's original handwritten works.", "The text for was later purchased through auction and is stored at the German Literary Archives in Marbach am Neckar, Germany.", "Subsequently, Pasley headed a team (including Gerhard Neumann, Jost Schillemeit and Jürgen Born) which reconstructed the German novels; republished them.", "Pasley was the editor for , published in 1982, and (''The Trial''), published in 1990.Jost Schillemeit was the editor of () published in 1983.These are called the \"Critical Editions\" or the \"Fischer Editions\".In 2023, the first unexpurgated edition of Kafka's diaries was published in English, \"more than three decades after this complete text appeared in German.", "The sole previous English edition, with Brod’s edits, was issued in the late 1940s\".==== Unpublished papers ====When Brod died in 1968, he left Kafka's unpublished papers, which are believed to number in the thousands, to his secretary Esther Hoffe.", "She released or sold some, but left most to her daughters, Eva and Ruth, who also refused to release the papers.", "A court battle began in 2008 between the sisters and the National Library of Israel, which claimed these works became the property of the nation of Israel when Brod emigrated to British Palestine in 1939.Esther Hoffe sold the original manuscript of for US$2 million in 1988 to the German Literary Archive Museum of Modern Literature in Marbach am Neckar.", "A ruling by a Tel Aviv family court in 2010 held that the papers must be released and a few were, including a previously unknown story, but the legal battle continued.", "The Hoffes claim the papers are their personal property, while the National Library of Israel argues they are \"cultural assets belonging to the Jewish people\".", "The National Library also suggests that Brod bequeathed the papers to them in his will.", "The Tel Aviv Family Court ruled in October 2012, six months after Ruth's death, that the papers were the property of the National Library.", "The Israeli Supreme Court upheld the decision in December 2016." ], [ "Critical response", "=== Critical interpretations ===The poet W. H. Auden called Kafka \"the Dante of the twentieth century\"; the novelist Vladimir Nabokov placed him among the greatest writers of the 20th century.", "Gabriel García Márquez noted the reading of Kafka's ''The Metamorphosis'' showed him \"that it was possible to write in a different way\".", "A prominent theme of Kafka's work, first established in the short story \"Das Urteil\", is father–son conflict: the guilt induced in the son is resolved through suffering and atonement.", "Other prominent themes and archetypes include alienation, physical and psychological brutality, characters on a terrifying quest, and mystical transformation.Kafka's style has been compared to that of Kleist as early as 1916, in a review of \"Die Verwandlung\" and \"Der Heizer\" by Oscar Walzel in ''Berliner Beiträge''.", "The nature of Kafka's prose allows for varied interpretations and critics have placed his writing into a variety of literary schools.", "Marxists, for example, have sharply disagreed over how to interpret Kafka's works.", "Some accused him of distorting reality whereas others claimed he was critiquing capitalism.", "The hopelessness and absurdity common to his works are seen as emblematic of existentialism.", "Some of Kafka's books are influenced by the expressionist movement, though the majority of his literary output was associated with the experimental modernist genre.", "Kafka also touches on the theme of human conflict with bureaucracy.", "William Burrows claims that such work is centred on the concepts of struggle, pain, solitude, and the need for relationships.", "Others, such as Thomas Mann, see Kafka's work as allegorical: a quest, metaphysical in nature, for God.According to Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, the themes of alienation and persecution, although present in Kafka's work, have been overemphasised by critics.", "They argue that Kafka's work is more deliberate and subversive—and more joyful—than may first appear.", "They point out that reading Kafka while focusing on the futility of his characters' struggles reveals Kafka's humour; he is not necessarily commenting on his own problems, but rather pointing out how people tend to invent problems.", "In his work, Kafka often creates malevolent, absurd worlds.", "Kafka read drafts of his works to his friends, typically concentrating on his humorous prose.", "The writer Milan Kundera suggests that Kafka's surrealist humour may have been an inversion of Dostoyevsky's presentation of characters who are punished for a crime.", "In Kafka's work, a character is punished although a crime has not been committed.", "Kundera believes that Kafka's inspirations for his characteristic situations came both from growing up in a patriarchal family and from living in a totalitarian state.Attempts have been made to identify the influence of Kafka's legal background and the role of law in his fiction.", "Most interpretations identify aspects of law and legality as important in his work, in which the legal system is often oppressive.", "The law in Kafka's works, rather than being representative of any particular legal or political entity, is usually interpreted to represent a collection of anonymous, incomprehensible forces.", "These are hidden from the individual but control the lives of the people, who are innocent victims of systems beyond their control.", "Critics who support this absurdist interpretation cite instances where Kafka describes himself in conflict with an absurd universe, such as the following entry from his diary:However, James Hawes argues many of Kafka's descriptions of the legal proceedings in —metaphysical, absurd, bewildering and nightmarish as they might appear—are based on accurate and informed descriptions of German and Austrian criminal proceedings of the time, which were inquisitorial rather than adversarial.", "Although he worked in insurance, as a trained lawyer Kafka was \"keenly aware of the legal debates of his day\".", "In an early 21st-century publication that uses Kafka's office writings as its point of departure, Pothik Ghosh states that with Kafka, law \"has no meaning outside its fact of being a pure force of domination and determination\".=== Translations ===The first instance of Kafka being translated into English was in 1925, when William A. Drake published \"A Report for an Academy\" in'' The New York Herald Tribune''.", "Eugene Jolas translated Kafka's \"The Judgment\" for the modernist journal ''transition'' in 1928.In 1930, Edwin and Willa Muir translated the first German edition of .", "This was published as ''The Castle'' by Secker & Warburg in England and Alfred A. Knopf in the United States.", "A 1941 edition, including a homage by Thomas Mann, spurred a surge in Kafka's popularity in the United States during the late 1940s.", "The Muirs translated all shorter works that Kafka had seen fit to print; they were published by Schocken Books in 1948 as ''The Penal Colony: Stories and Short Pieces'', including additionally ''The First Long Train Journey'', written by Kafka and Brod, Kafka's \"A Novel about Youth\", a review of Felix Sternheim's ''Die Geschichte des jungen Oswald'', his essay on Kleist's \"Anecdotes\", his review of the literary magazine ''Hyperion'', and an epilogue by Brod.Later editions, notably those of 1954 (''Dearest Father: Stories and Other Writings''), included text, translated by Eithne Wilkins and Ernst Kaiser, that had been deleted by earlier publishers.", "Known as \"Definitive Editions\", they include translations of ''The Trial, Definitive'', ''The Castle, Definitive'', and other writings.", "These translations are generally accepted to have a number of biases and are considered to be dated in interpretation.", "Published in 1961 by Schocken Books, ''Parables and Paradoxes'' presented in a bilingual edition by Nahum N. Glatzer selected writings, drawn from notebooks, diaries, letters, short fictional works and the novel ''Der Process''.New translations were completed and published based on the recompiled German text of Pasley and Schillemeit''The Castle, Critical'' by Mark Harman (Schocken Books, 1998), ''The Trial, Critical'' by Breon Mitchell (Schocken Books, 1998), and ''The Man Who Disappeared (Amerika)'' by Michael Hofmann (Penguin Books, 1996) and ''Amerika: The Missing Person'' by Mark Harman (Schocken Books, 2008).==== Translation problems to English ====Kafka often made extensive use of a characteristic particular to German, which permits long sentences that sometimes can span an entire page.", "Kafka's sentences then deliver an unexpected impact just before the full stop—this being the finalizing meaning and focus.", "This is due to the construction of subordinate clauses in German, which require that the verb be at the end of the sentence.", "Such constructions are difficult to duplicate in English, so it is up to the translator to provide the reader with the same (or at least equivalent) effect as the original text.", "German's more flexible word order and syntactical differences provide for multiple ways in which the same German writing can be translated into English.", "An example is the first sentence of Kafka's ''The Metamorphosis'', which is crucial to the setting and understanding of the entire story:The sentence above also exemplifies an instance of another difficult problem facing translators: dealing with the author's intentional use of ambiguous idioms and words that have several meanings, which results in phrasing that is difficult to translate precisely.", "English translators often render the word as 'insect'; in Middle German, however, literally means 'an animal unclean for sacrifice'; in today's German, it means 'vermin'.", "It is sometimes used colloquially to mean 'bug'—a very general term, unlike the scientific 'insect'.", "Kafka had no intention of labeling Gregor, the protagonist of the story, as any specific thing but instead wanted to convey Gregor's disgust at his transformation.", "Another example of this can be found in the final sentence of \"Das Urteil\" (\"The Judgement\"), with Kafka's use of the German noun .", "Literally, means 'intercourse' and, as in English, can have either a sexual or a non-sexual meaning.", "The word is additionally used to mean 'transport' or 'traffic', therefore the sentence can also be translated as: \"At that moment an unending stream of traffic crossed over the bridge.\"", "The double meaning of ''Verkehr'' is given added weight by Kafka's confession to Brod that when he wrote that final line he was thinking of \"a violent ejaculation.\"" ], [ "Legacy", "=== Literary and cultural influence ===Jaroslav Róna's bronze ''Statue of Franz Kafka'' in Prague|alt=The statue is a man with no head or arms, with another man sitting on his shouldersUnlike many famous writers, Kafka is rarely quoted by others.", "Instead, he is noted more for his visions and perspective.", "Kafka had a strong influence on Gabriel García Márquez, Milan Kundera and the novel ''The Palace of Dreams'' by Ismail Kadare.", "Shimon Sandbank, a professor, literary critic, and writer, also identifies Kafka as having influenced Jorge Luis Borges, Albert Camus, Eugène Ionesco, J. M. Coetzee and Jean-Paul Sartre.", "A ''Financial Times'' literary critic credits Kafka with influencing José Saramago, and Al Silverman, a writer and editor, states that J. D. Salinger loved to read Kafka's works.The Romanian writer Mircea Cărtărescu said \"Kafka is the author I love the most and who means, for me, the gate to literature\"; he also described Kafka as \"the saint of literature\".Kafka has been cited as an influence on the Swedish writer Stig Dagerman, and the Japanese writer Haruki Murakami, who paid homage to Kafka in his novel ''Kafka on the Shore'' with the namesake protagonist.In 1999 a committee of 99 authors, scholars, and literary critics ranked and the second and ninth most significant German-language novels of the 20th century.", "Harold Bloom said \"when he is most himself, Kafka gives us a continuous inventiveness and originality that rivals Dante and truly challenges Proust and Joyce as that of the dominant Western author of our century\".", "Sandbank argues that despite Kafka's pervasiveness, his enigmatic style has yet to be emulated.", "Neil Christian Pages, a professor of German Studies and Comparative Literature at Binghamton University who specialises in Kafka's works, says Kafka's influence transcends literature and literary scholarship; it impacts visual arts, music, and popular culture.", "Harry Steinhauer, a professor of German and Jewish literature, says that Kafka \"has made a more powerful impact on literate society than any other writer of the twentieth century\".", "Brod said that the 20th century will one day be known as the \"century of Kafka\".Michel-André Bossy writes that Kafka created a rigidly inflexible and sterile bureaucratic universe.", "Kafka wrote in an aloof manner full of legal and scientific terms.", "Yet his serious universe also had insightful humour, all highlighting the \"irrationality at the roots of a supposedly rational world\".", "His characters are trapped, confused, full of guilt, frustrated, and lacking understanding of their surreal world.", "Much post-Kafka fiction, especially science fiction, follows the themes and precepts of Kafka's universe.", "This can be seen in the works of authors such as George Orwell and Ray Bradbury.The following are examples of works across a range of dramatic, literary, and musical genres that demonstrate the extent of Kafka's cultural influence: Title Year Medium Remarks Ref ''Ein Landarzt'' 1951 opera by Hans Werner Henze, based on Kafka's story \"A Friend of Kafka\" 1962 short story by Nobel Prize winner Isaac Bashevis Singer, about a Yiddish actor called Jacques Kohn who said he knew Franz Kafka; in this story, according to Jacques Kohn, Kafka believed in the Golem, a legendary creature from Jewish folklore ''The Trial'' 1962 film the film's director, Orson Welles, said, \"Say what you like, but The Trial is my greatest work, even greater than Citizen Kane\" ''Watermelon Man'' 1970 film partly inspired by ''The Metamorphosis'', where a white bigot wakes up as a black man ''Kafka-Fragmente, Op.", "24'' 1985 music by Hungarian composer György Kurtág for soprano and violin, using fragments of Kafka's diary and letters ''A Letter to Elise'' 1992 music by English rock band The Cure, was heavily influenced by ''Letters to Felice'' by Kafka ''Kafka's Dick'' 1986 play by Alan Bennett, in which the ghosts of Kafka, his father Hermann and Brod arrive at the home of an English insurance clerk (and Kafka aficionado) and his wife ''Better Morphosis'' 1991 short story parodic short story by Brian W. Aldiss, where a cockroach wakes up one morning to find out that it has turned into Franz Kafka ''Kafka'' 1991 film stars Jeremy Irons as the eponymous author; written by Lem Dobbs and directed by Steven Soderbergh, the movie mixes his life and fiction providing a semi-biographical presentation of Kafka's life and works; Kafka investigates the disappearance of one of his colleagues, taking Kafka through many of the writer's own works, most notably ''The Castle'' and ''The Trial'' ''Das Schloß'' 1992 opera German-language opera by Aribert Reimann who wrote his own libretto based on Kafka's novel and its dramatization by Max Brod, premiered on 2 September 1992 at the Deutsche Oper Berlin, staged by Willy Decker and conducted by Michael Boder.", "''Franz Kafka's It's a Wonderful Life'' 1993 film short comedy film made for BBC Scotland, won an Oscar, was written and directed by Peter Capaldi, and starred Richard E. Grant as Kafka ''Bad Mojo'' 1996 computer game loosely based on ''The Metamorphosis'', with characters named Franz and Roger Samms, alluding to Gregor Samsa ''In the Penal Colony'' 2000 opera by Philip Glass, to a libretto by Rudy Wurlitzer ''Kafka on the Shore'' 2002 novel by Japanese writer Haruki Murakami, on ''The New York Times'' 10 Best Books of 2005 list, World Fantasy Award recipient ''Statue of Franz Kafka'' 2003 sculpture an outdoor sculpture on Vězeňská street in the Jewish Quarter of Prague, by artist Jaroslav Róna ''Kafka's Trial'' 2005 opera by Danish composer Poul Ruders, based on the novel and parts of Kafka's life; first performed in 2005, released on CD ''Kafka's Soup'' 2005 book by Mark Crick, is a literary pastiche in the form of a cookbook, with recipes written in the style of a famous author ''Kafka the Musical'' 2011 radio play by BBC Radio 3 produced as part of their ''Play of the Week'' programme.", "Franz Kafka was played by David Tennant ''Sound InterpretationsDedication To Franz Kafka'' 2012 music HAZE Netlabel released musical compilation ''Sound Interpretations – Dedication To Franz Kafka''.", "In this release musicians rethink the literary heritage of Kafka Google Doodle 2013 internet culture Google had a sepia-toned doodle of a roach in a hat opening a door, honoring Kafka's 130th birthday ''The Metamorphosis'' 2013 dance Royal Ballet production of ''The Metamorphosis'' with Edward Watson ''Café Kafka'' 2014 opera by Spanish composer Francisco Coll on a text by Meredith Oakes, built from texts and fragments by Franz Kafka; Commissioned by Aldeburgh Music, Opera North and Royal Opera Covent Garden ''Head of Franz Kafka'' 2014 sculpture an outdoor sculpture in Prague by David Černý ''VRwandlung'' 2018 virtual reality a virtual reality experience of the first part of ''The Metamorphosis'', directed by Mika Johnson === \"Kafkaesque\" ===The term \"'''Kafkaesque'''\" is used to describe concepts and situations reminiscent of Kafka's work, particularly (''The Trial'') and ''Die Verwandlung'' (''The Metamorphosis'').", "Examples include instances in which bureaucracies overpower people, often in a surreal, nightmarish milieu that evokes feelings of senselessness, disorientation, and helplessness.", "Characters in a Kafkaesque setting often lack a clear course of action to escape a labyrinthine situation.", "Kafkaesque elements often appear in existential works, but the term has transcended the literary realm to apply to real-life occurrences and situations that are incomprehensibly complex, bizarre, or illogical.Numerous films and television works have been described as Kafkaesque, and the style is particularly prominent in dystopian science fiction.", "Works in this genre that have been thus described include Patrick Bokanowski's film ''The Angel'' (1982), Terry Gilliam's film ''Brazil'' (1985), and Alex Proyas' science fiction film noir, ''Dark City'' (1998).", "Films from other genres which have been similarly described include Roman Polanski's ''The Tenant'' (1976) and the Coen brothers' ''Barton Fink'' (1991).", "The television series ''The Prisoner'' and ''The Twilight Zone'' are also frequently described as Kafkaesque.However, with common usage, the term has become so ubiquitous that Kafka scholars note it is often misused.", "More accurately then, according to author Ben Marcus, paraphrased in \"What it Means to be Kafkaesque\" by Joe Fassler in ''The Atlantic'', \"Kafka's quintessential qualities are affecting use of language, a setting that straddles fantasy and reality, and a sense of striving even in the face of bleakness—hopelessly and full of hope.", "\"=== Commemorations ===Plaque marking the birthplace of Franz Kafka in Prague, designed by Karel Hladík and Jan Kaplický, 19663412 Kafka is an asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 6 kilometers in diameter.", "It was discovered on 10 January 1983 by American astronomers Randolph Kirk and Donald Rudy at Palomar Observatory in California, United States, and named after Kafka by them.The Franz Kafka Museum in Prague is dedicated to Kafka and his work.", "A major component of the museum is an exhibit, ''The City of K. Franz Kafka and Prague'', which was first shown in Barcelona in 1999, moved to the Jewish Museum in New York City, and finally established in Prague in Malá Strana (Lesser Town), along the Moldau, in 2005.The Franz Kafka Museum calls its display of original photos and documents ''Město K. Franz Kafka a Praha'' (\"City K. Kafka and Prague\") and aims to immerse the visitor into the world in which Kafka lived and about which he wrote.The Franz Kafka Prize, established in 2001, is an annual literary award of the Franz Kafka Society and the City of Prague.", "It recognizes the merits of literature as \"humanistic character and contribution to cultural, national, language and religious tolerance, its existential, timeless character, its generally human validity, and its ability to hand over a testimony about our times\".", "The selection committee and recipients come from all over the world, but are limited to living authors who have had at least one work published in Czech.", "The recipient receives $10,000, a diploma, and a bronze statuette at a presentation in Prague's Old Town Hall, on the Czech State Holiday in late October.San Diego State University operates the Kafka Project, which began in 1998 as the official international search for Kafka's last writings." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* * * * * -left* * * * * * * * * * * * * Review* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ;Journals* PDF Version * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ;Newspapers* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ;Online sources* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Anderson, Mark, ed.", "(1989).", "''Reading Kafka: Prague, Politics, and the'' Fin de Siècle.", "New York: Schocken Books.", "* * * * * * * * * * Duttlinger, Carolin (2007).", "''Kafka and Photography''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press.", ".", "* Duttlinger, Carolin (2013).", "''The Cambridge Introduction to Franz Kafka''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.", ".", "* * Gilman, Sander L. (1995).", "''Franz Kafka: The Jewish Patient''.", "New York: Routledge.", ".", "* Gilman, Sander L. (2005).", "''Franz Kafka''.", "London: Reaktion Books Ltd.", ".", "* * * * * * * * * * Mairowitz, David Zane, and Crumb, Robert (1993).", "''Kafka for Beginners''.", "Cheltenham, England: Icon Publishing Ltd; also published as ''Introducing Kafka'' (1994).", "Northampton, Massachusetts: Kitchen Sink Press.", "* * * * * Robertson, Ritchie (2004).", "''Kafka: A Very Short Introduction''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press; illustrated edition titled ''Kafka: A Brief Insight'' (New York: Sterling Publishing Co., Inc., 2010).", "* Wagenbach, Klaus (1984).", "''Franz Kafka: Pictures of a Life''.", "New York: Pantheon Books.", "'''Books on Kafka and Prague'''* Eisner, Pavel (1950).", "''Franz Kafka and Prague''.", "New York: Golden Griffin Books.", "* Frynta, Emanuel (1960).", "''Kafka and Prague''.", "London: Batchworth Press Limited.", "* Hatefutsoth, Beth (1980).", "''Kafka–Prague''.", "Tel Aviv: The Nahum Goldman Museum of the Jewish Diaspora.", "* Kállay, Karol (2005).", "''Franz Kafka and Prague''.", "Bratislava: Slovart Publishing Ltd. (Chicago, Illinois: Independent Publishers Group).", "* Salfellner, Harald (1998).", "''Franz Kafka and Prague: Third greatly revised and enlarged edition''.", "Prague: Vitalis.", "* Salfellner, Harald (2011).", "''Franz Kafka and Prague: A Literary Guide''.", "Prague: Vitallis.", "* Wagenbach, Klaus (1996).", "''Kafka's Prague: A Travel Reader''.", "Woodstock, New York: The Overlook Press.", "* Wagenbach, Klaus (2019).", "''Kafka's Prague''.", "London: Armchair Traveller (first published in English by Haus Publishing Ltd, 2003).", "* Železná, Marta, ed.", "(1998).", "''Kafka and Prague''.", "Third revised edition.", "Prague: Franz Kafka Publishers.", "'''Journals'''* * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * * Oxford Kafka Research Centre – information on ongoing international Kafka research* Translated excerpts from Kafka's Diaries 1910–1923* * The Album of Franz Kafka, Franz Kafka receives a tribute in this album of \"recomposed photographs\".", "* Journeys of Franz Kafka Photographs of places where Kafka lived and worked* Franz Kafka: Manuscripts, drawings and personal letters BBC* Společnost Franze Kafky a nakladatelství Franze Kafky Franz Kafka Society and Publishing House in Prague* What makes something \"Kafkaesque\"?", "A Ted talk on Kafka, his works and his legacy, by Noah Tavlin" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fields Medal" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Fields Medal''' is a prize awarded to two, three, or four mathematicians under 40 years of age at the International Congress of the International Mathematical Union (IMU), a meeting that takes place every four years.", "The name of the award honours the Canadian mathematician John Charles Fields.The Fields Medal is regarded as one of the highest honors a mathematician can receive, and has been described as the Nobel Prize of Mathematics, although there are several major differences, including frequency of award, number of awards, age limits, monetary value, and award criteria.", "According to the annual Academic Excellence Survey by ARWU, the Fields Medal is consistently regarded as the top award in the field of mathematics worldwide, and in another reputation survey conducted by IREG in 2013–14, the Fields Medal came closely after the Abel Prize as the second most prestigious international award in mathematics.The prize includes a monetary award which, since 2006, has been 15,000.Fields was instrumental in establishing the award, designing the medal himself, and funding the monetary component, though he died before it was established and his plan was overseen by John Lighton Synge.The medal was first awarded in 1936 to Finnish mathematician Lars Ahlfors and American mathematician Jesse Douglas, and it has been awarded every four years since 1950.Its purpose is to give recognition and support to younger mathematical researchers who have made major contributions.", "In 2014, the Iranian mathematician Maryam Mirzakhani became the first female Fields Medalist.", "In total, 64 people have been awarded the Fields Medal.The most recent group of Fields Medalists received their awards on 5 July 2022 in an online event which was live-streamed from Helsinki, Finland.", "It was originally meant to be held in Saint Petersburg, Russia, but was moved following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine." ], [ "Conditions of the award", "The Fields Medal has for a long time been regarded as the most prestigious award in the field of mathematics and is often described as the Nobel Prize of Mathematics.", "Unlike the Nobel Prize, the Fields Medal is only awarded every four years.", "The Fields Medal also has an age limit: a recipient must be under age 40 on 1 January of the year in which the medal is awarded.", "The under-40 rule is based on Fields's desire that \"while it was in recognition of work already done, it was at the same time intended to be an encouragement for further achievement on the part of the recipients and a stimulus to renewed effort on the part of others.\"", "Moreover, an individual can only be awarded one Fields Medal; winners are ineligible to be awarded future medals.First awarded in 1936, 64 people have won the medal as of 2022.With the exception of two PhD holders in physics (Edward Witten and Martin Hairer), only people with a PhD in mathematics have won the medal." ], [ "List of Fields medalists", "In certain years, the Fields medalists have been officially cited for particular mathematical achievements, while in other years such specificities have not been given.", "However, in every year that the medal has been awarded, noted mathematicians have lectured at the International Congress of Mathematicians on each medalist's body of work.", "In the following table, official citations are quoted when possible (namely for the years 1958, 1998, and every year since 2006).", "For the other years through 1986, summaries of the ICM lectures, as written by Donald Albers, Gerald L. Alexanderson, and Constance Reid, are quoted.", "In the remaining years (1990, 1994, and 2002), part of the text of the ICM lecture itself has been quoted.", "Year ICM locationMedalists Affiliation(when awarded) Affiliation(current/last) Reasons 1936 Oslo, Norway 60px University of Helsinki, Finland Harvard University, US \"Awarded medal for research on covering surfaces related to Riemann surfaces of inverse functions of entire and meromorphic functions.", "Opened up new fields of analysis.\"", "60px Massachusetts Institute of Technology, US City College of New York, US \"Did important work on the Plateau problem which is concerned with finding minimal surfaces connecting and determined by some fixed boundary.\"", "1950 Cambridge, US 60px University of Nancy, France University of Paris VII, France \"Developed the theory of distributions, a new notion of generalized function motivated by the Dirac delta-function of theoretical physics.\"", "60px Institute for Advanced Study, US Institute for Advanced Study, US \"Developed generalizations of the sieve methods of Viggo Brun; achieved major results on zeros of the Riemann zeta function; gave an elementary proof of the prime number theorem (with P. Erdős), with a generalization to prime numbers in an arbitrary arithmetic progression.\"", "1954 Amsterdam, Netherlands 60px Princeton University, US, University of Tokyo, Japan and Institute for Advanced Study, US University of Tokyo, Japan \"Achieved major results in the theory of harmonic integrals and numerous applications to Kählerian and more specifically to algebraic varieties.", "He demonstrated, by sheaf cohomology, that such varieties are Hodge manifolds.\"", "60px University of Nancy, France Collège de France, France \"Achieved major results on the homotopy groups of spheres, especially in his use of the method of spectral sequences.", "Reformulated and extended some of the main results of complex variable theory in terms of sheaves.\"", "1958 Edinburgh, UK University College London, UK Imperial College London, UK \"for solving a famous problem of number theory, namely, the determination of the exact exponent in the Thue-Siegel inequality\" 60px University of Strasbourg, France Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques, France \"for creating the theory of 'Cobordisme' which has, within the few years of its existence, led to the most penetrating insight into the topology of differentiable manifolds.\"", "1962 Stockholm, Sweden 60px University of Stockholm, Sweden Lund University, Sweden \"Worked in partial differential equations.", "Specifically, contributed to the general theory of linear differential operators.", "The questions go back to one of Hilbert's problems at the 1900 congress.\"", "60px Princeton University, US Stony Brook University, US \"Proved that a 7-dimensional sphere can have several differential structures; this led to the creation of the field of differential topology.\"", "1966 Moscow, USSR 60px University of Oxford, UK University of Edinburgh, UK \"Did joint work with Hirzebruch in K-theory; proved jointly with Singer the index theorem of elliptic operators on complex manifolds; worked in collaboration with Bott to prove a fixed point theorem related to the 'Lefschetz formula'.\"", "Stanford University, US Stanford University, US \"Used technique called \"forcing\" to prove the independence in set theory of the axiom of choice and of the generalized continuum hypothesis.", "The latter problem was the first of Hilbert's problems of the 1900 Congress.\"", "60px Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques, France Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, France \"Built on work of Weil and Zariski and effected fundamental advances in algebraic geometry.", "He introduced the idea of K-theory (the Grothendieck groups and rings).", "Revolutionized homological algebra in his celebrated ‘''Tôhoku'' paper’.\"", "60px University of California, Berkeley, US City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong \"Worked in differential topology where he proved the generalized Poincaré conjecture in dimension n≥5: Every closed, n-dimensional manifold homotopy-equivalent to the n-dimensional sphere is homeomorphic to it.", "Introduced the method of handle-bodies to solve this and related problems.\"", "1970 Nice, France 60px University of Cambridge, UK Trinity College, Cambridge, UK \"Generalized the Gelfond-Schneider theorem (the solution to Hilbert's seventh problem).", "From this work he generated transcendental numbers not previously identified.\"", "60px Harvard University, US Kyoto University, Japan \"Generalized work of Zariski who had proved for dimension ≤ 3 the theorem concerning the resolution of singularities on an algebraic variety.", "Hironaka proved the results in any dimension.\"", "60px Moscow State University, USSR Steklov Mathematical Institute, RussiaMoscow State University, RussiaUniversity of Maryland-College Park, US \"Made important advances in topology, the most well-known being his proof of the topological invariance of the Pontryagin classes of the differentiable manifold.", "His work included a study of the cohomology and homotopy of Thom spaces.\"", "60px University of Cambridge, UK University of Cambridge, UKUniversity of Florida, US \"Proved jointly with W. Feit that all non-cyclic finite simple groups have even order.", "The extension of this work by Thompson determined the minimal simple finite groups, that is, the simple finite groups whose proper subgroups are solvable.\"", "1974 Vancouver, Canada 60px University of Pisa, Italy Institute for Advanced Study, US \"Major contributions in the primes, in univalent functions and the local Bieberbach conjecture, in theory of functions of several complex variables, and in theory of partial differential equations and minimal surfaces – in particular, to the solution of Bernstein's problem in higher dimensions.\"", "60px Harvard University, US Brown University, US \"Contributed to problems of the existence and structure of varieties of moduli, varieties whose points parametrize isomorphism classes of some type of geometric object.", "Also made several important contributions to the theory of algebraic surfaces.\"", "1978 Helsinki, Finland 60px Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques, France Institute for Advanced Study, US \"Gave solution of the three Weil conjectures concerning generalizations of the Riemann hypothesis to finite fields.", "His work did much to unify algebraic geometry and algebraic number theory.\"", "60px Princeton University, US Princeton University, US \"Contributed several innovations that revised the study of multidimensional complex analysis by finding correct generalizations of classical (low-dimensional) results.\"", "60px Moscow State University, USSR Yale University, US \"Provided innovative analysis of the structure of Lie groups.", "His work belongs to combinatorics, differential geometry, ergodic theory, dynamical systems, and Lie groups.\"", "Massachusetts Institute of Technology, US University of Oxford, UK \"The prime architect of the higher algebraic K-theory, a new tool that successfully employed geometric and topological methods and ideas to formulate and solve major problems in algebra, particularly ring theory and module theory.\"", "1982 Warsaw, Poland 60px Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques, France Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques, FranceCollège de France, FranceOhio State University, US \"Contributed to the theory of operator algebras, particularly the general classification and structure theorem of factors of type III, classification of automorphisms of the hyperfinite factor, classification of injective factors, and applications of the theory of C*-algebras to foliations and differential geometry in general.\"", "60px Princeton University, US Cornell University, US \"Revolutionized study of topology in 2 and 3 dimensions, showing interplay between analysis, topology, and geometry.", "Contributed idea that a very large class of closed 3-manifolds carry a hyperbolic structure.\"", "60px Institute for Advanced Study, US Tsinghua University, China \"Made contributions in differential equations, also to the Calabi conjecture in algebraic geometry, to the positive mass conjecture of general relativity theory, and to real and complex Monge–Ampère equations.\"", "1986 Berkeley, US 60px University of Oxford, UK Imperial College London, UK Stony Brook University, US \"Received medal primarily for his work on topology of four-manifolds, especially for showing that there is a differential structure on euclidian four-space which is different from the usual structure.\"", "60px Princeton University, US Max Planck Institute for Mathematics, Germany \"Using methods of arithmetic algebraic geometry, he received medal primarily for his proof of the Mordell Conjecture.\"", "60px University of California, San Diego, US Microsoft Station Q, US \"Developed new methods for topological analysis of four-manifolds.", "One of his results is a proof of the four-dimensional Poincaré Conjecture.\"", "1990 Kyoto, Japan B Verkin Institute for Low Temperature Physics and Engineering, USSR University of Chicago, US \"Drinfeld's main preoccupation in the last decade are Langlands' program and quantum groups.", "In both domains, Drinfeld's work constituted a decisive breakthrough and prompted a wealth of research.\"", "60px University of California, Berkeley, US University of California, Berkeley, USVanderbilt University, US \"Jones discovered an astonishing relationship between von Neumann algebras and geometric topology.", "As a result, he found a new polynomial invariant for knots and links in 3-space.\"", "60px Kyoto University, Japan Kyoto University, Japan \"The most profound and exciting development in algebraic geometry during the last decade or so was ... ''Mori's Program'' in connection with the classification problems of algebraic varieties of dimension three.\"", "\"Early in 1979, Mori brought to algebraic geometry a completely new excitement, that was his proof of Hartshorne's conjecture.\"", "60px Institute for Advanced Study, US Institute for Advanced Study, US \"Time and again he has surprised the mathematical community by a brilliant application of physical insight leading to new and deep mathematical theorems.\"", "1994 Zürich, Switzerland 60px Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques, France Institute for Advanced Study, US \"Bourgain's work touches on several central topics of mathematical analysis: the geometry of Banach spaces, convexity in high dimensions, harmonic analysis, ergodic theory, and finally, nonlinear partial differential equations from mathematical physics.\"", "60px University of Paris 9, France Collège de France, FranceÉcole polytechnique, France \"His contributions cover a variety of areas, from probability theory to partial differential equations (PDEs).", "Within the PDE area he has done several beautiful things in nonlinear equations.", "The choice of his problems have always been motivated by applications.\"", "60px Paris-Sud 11 University, France Collège de France, France \"Yoccoz obtained a very enlightening proof of Bruno's theorem, and he was able to prove the converse ... Palis and Yoccoz obtained a complete system of C∞ conjugation invariants for Morse-Smale diffeomorphisms.\"", "60px University of Wisconsin-Madison University of Chicago, US Steklov Mathematical Institute, Russia,University of California, San Diego, US \"For the solution of the restricted Burnside problem.\"", "1998 Berlin, Germany 60px University of California, Berkeley, USUniversity of Cambridge, UK University of California, Berkeley, US \"For his contributions to algebra, the theory of automorphic forms, and mathematical physics, including the introduction of vertex algebras and Borcherds' Lie algebras, the proof of the Conway–Norton moonshine conjecture and the discovery of a new class of automorphic infinite products.\"", "60px University of Cambridge, UK University of Cambridge, UK \"For his contributions to functional analysis and combinatorics, developing a new vision of infinite-dimensional geometry, including the solution of two of Banach's problems and the discovery of the so called Gowers' dichotomy: every infinite dimensional Banach space contains either a subspace with many symmetries (technically, with an unconditional basis) or a subspace every operator on which is Fredholm of index zero.\"", "60px Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques, FranceRutgers University, US Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques, FranceRutgers University, US \"For his contributions to algebraic geometry, topology, and mathematical physics, including the proof of Witten's conjecture of intersection numbers in moduli spaces of stable curves, construction of the universal Vassiliev invariant of knots, and formal quantization of Poisson manifolds.\"", "60px Harvard University, US Harvard University, US \"For his contributions to the theory of holomorphic dynamics and geometrization of three-manifolds, including proofs of Bers' conjecture on the density of cusp points in the boundary of the Teichmüller space, and Kra's theta-function conjecture.\"", "2002 Beijing, China 60px Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques, France Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques, France \"Laurent Lafforgue has been awarded the Fields Medal for his proof of the Langlands correspondence for the full linear groups GLr (r≥1) over function fields of positive characteristic.\"", "60px Institute for Advanced Study, US Institute for Advanced Study, US \"He defined and developed motivic cohomology and the A1-homotopy theory, provided a framework for describing many new cohomology theories for algebraic varieties; he proved the Milnor conjectures on the K-theory of fields.\"", "2006 Madrid, Spain 60px Princeton University, US Columbia University, USUniversity of California, Berkeley, US \"For his contributions bridging probability, representation theory and algebraic geometry.\"", "60px ''(declined)'' None St. Petersburg Department of Steklov Institute of Mathematics of Russian Academy of Sciences, Russia \"For his contributions to geometry and his revolutionary insights into the analytical and geometric structure of the Ricci flow.\"", "60px University of California, Los Angeles, US University of California, Los Angeles, US \"For his contributions to partial differential equations, combinatorics, harmonic analysis and additive number theory.\"", "60px Paris-Sud 11 University, France ETH Zurich, Switzerland \"For his contributions to the development of stochastic Loewner evolution, the geometry of two-dimensional Brownian motion, and conformal field theory.\"", "2010 Hyderabad, India 60px Hebrew University of Jerusalem, IsraelPrinceton University, US Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel \"For his results on measure rigidity in ergodic theory, and their applications to number theory.\"", "60px Ngô Bảo Châu Paris-Sud 11 University, FranceInstitute for Advanced Study, US University of Chicago, USInstitute for Advanced Study, US \"For his proof of the Fundamental Lemma in the theory of automorphic forms through the introduction of new algebra-geometric methods.\"", "60px University of Geneva, Switzerland University of Geneva, SwitzerlandSt.", "Petersburg State University, Russia \"For the proof of conformal invariance of percolation and the planar Ising model in statistical physics.\"", "60px École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, FranceInstitut Henri Poincaré, France Lyon University, FranceInstitut Henri Poincaré, France \"For his proofs of nonlinear Landau damping and convergence to equilibrium for the Boltzmann equation.\"", "2014 Seoul, South Korea 60px University of Paris VII, FranceCNRS, FranceInstituto Nacional de Matemática Pura e Aplicada, Brazil University of Zurich, SwitzerlandInstituto Nacional de Matemática Pura e Aplicada, Brazil \"For his profound contributions to dynamical systems theory, which have changed the face of the field, using the powerful idea of renormalization as a unifying principle.\"", "60px Princeton University, US Princeton University, US \"For developing powerful new methods in the geometry of numbers, which he applied to count rings of small rank and to bound the average rank of elliptic curves.\"", "60px University of Warwick, UK Imperial College London, UK \"For his outstanding contributions to the theory of stochastic partial differential equations, and in particular for the creation of a theory of regularity structures for such equations.\"", "60px Stanford University, US Stanford University, US \"For her outstanding contributions to the dynamics and geometry of Riemann surfaces and their moduli spaces.\"", "2018 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 60px University of Cambridge, UK University of Cambridge, UK \"For the proof of the boundedness of Fano varieties and for contributions to the minimal model program.\"", "60px Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich, Switzerland Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich, Switzerland \"For contributions to the theory of optimal transport and its applications in partial differential equations, metric geometry and probability.\"", "60px University of Bonn, Germany University of Bonn, Germany \"For having transformed arithmetic algebraic geometry over p-adic fields.\"", "60px Stanford University, US Institute for Advanced Study, US\"For his synthesis of analytic number theory, homogeneous dynamics, topology, and representation theory, which has resolved long-standing problems in areas such as the equidistribution of arithmetic objects.\"", "2022 Helsinki, Finland 60px Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques, France University of Geneva, Switzerland Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques, France University of Geneva, Switzerland \"For solving longstanding problems in the probabilistic theory of phase transitions in statistical physics, especially in dimensions three and four.\"", "60px Princeton University, US Princeton University, US \"For bringing the ideas of Hodge theory to combinatorics, the proof of the Dowling–Wilson conjecture for geometric lattices, the proof of the Heron–Rota–Welsh conjecture for matroids, the development of the theory of Lorentzian polynomials, and the proof of the strong Mason conjecture.\"", "60px University of Oxford, UK University of Oxford, UK \"For contributions to analytic number theory, which have led to major advances in the understanding of the structure of prime numbers and in Diophantine approximation.\"", "60px École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Switzerland École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Switzerland \"For the proof that the lattice provides the densest packing of identical spheres in 8 dimensions, and further contributions to related extremal problems and interpolation problems in Fourier analysis.\"" ], [ "Landmarks", "The medal was first awarded in 1936 to the Finnish mathematician Lars Ahlfors and the American mathematician Jesse Douglas, and it has been awarded every four years since 1950.Its purpose is to give recognition and support to younger mathematical researchers who have made major contributions.In 1954, Jean-Pierre Serre became the youngest winner of the Fields Medal, at 27.He retains this distinction.In 1966, Alexander Grothendieck boycotted the ICM, held in Moscow, to protest Soviet military actions taking place in Eastern Europe.", "Léon Motchane, founder and director of the Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques, attended and accepted Grothendieck's Fields Medal on his behalf.In 1970, Sergei Novikov, because of restrictions placed on him by the Soviet government, was unable to travel to the congress in Nice to receive his medal.In 1978, Grigory Margulis, because of restrictions placed on him by the Soviet government, was unable to travel to the congress in Helsinki to receive his medal.", "The award was accepted on his behalf by Jacques Tits, who said in his address: \"I cannot but express my deep disappointment—no doubt shared by many people here—in the absence of Margulis from this ceremony.", "In view of the symbolic meaning of this city of Helsinki, I had indeed grounds to hope that I would have a chance at last to meet a mathematician whom I know only through his work and for whom I have the greatest respect and admiration.", "\"In 1982, the congress was due to be held in Warsaw but had to be rescheduled to the next year, because of martial law introduced in Poland on 13 December 1981.The awards were announced at the ninth General Assembly of the IMU earlier in the year and awarded at the 1983 Warsaw congress.In 1990, Edward Witten became the first physicist to win the award.In 1998, at the ICM, Andrew Wiles was presented by the chair of the Fields Medal Committee, Yuri I. Manin, with the first-ever IMU silver plaque in recognition of his proof of Fermat's Last Theorem.", "Don Zagier referred to the plaque as a \"quantized Fields Medal\".", "Accounts of this award frequently make reference that at the time of the award Wiles was over the age limit for the Fields medal.", "Although Wiles was slightly over the age limit in 1994, he was thought to be a favorite to win the medal; however, a gap (later resolved by Taylor and Wiles) in the proof was found in 1993.In 2006, Grigori Perelman, who proved the Poincaré conjecture, refused his Fields Medal and did not attend the congress.In 2014, Maryam Mirzakhani became the first Iranian as well as the first woman to win the Fields Medal, and Artur Avila became the first South American and Manjul Bhargava became the first person of Indian origin to do so.In 2022, Maryna Viazovska became the first Ukrainian to win the Fields Medal, and June Huh became the first person of Korean origin to do so." ], [ "Medal", "The reverse of the Fields MedalThe medal was designed by Canadian sculptor R. Tait McKenzie.", "It is made of 14KT gold, has a diameter of 63.5mm, and weighs 169g.", "* On the obverse is Archimedes and a quote attributed to 1st century AD poet Manilius, which reads in Latin: \"Transire suum pectus mundoque potiri\" (\"To surpass one's understanding and master the world\").", "The year number 1933 is written in Roman numerals and contains an error (\"MCNXXXIII\" rather than \"MCMXXXIII\").", "In capital Greek letters the word ΑΡΧΙΜΗΔΟΥΣ, or \"of Archimedes,\" is inscribed.", "* On the reverse is the inscription (in Latin):: : : : : Translation: \"Mathematicians gathered from the entire world have awarded understood but not written: 'this prize' for outstanding writings.", "\"In the background, there is the representation of Archimedes' tomb, with the carving illustrating his theorem On the Sphere and Cylinder, behind an olive branch.", "(This is the mathematical result of which Archimedes was reportedly most proud: Given a sphere and a circumscribed cylinder of the same height and diameter, the ratio between their volumes is equal to .", ")The rim bears the name of the prizewinner." ], [ "Female recipients", "The Fields Medal has had two female recipients, Maryam Mirzakhani from Iran in 2014, and Maryna Viazovska from Ukraine in 2022." ], [ "In popular culture", "The Fields Medal gained some recognition in popular culture due to references in the 1997 film, ''Good Will Hunting''.", "In the movie, Gerald Lambeau (Stellan Skarsgård) is an MIT professor who won the award prior to the events of the story.", "Throughout the film, references made to the award are meant to convey its prestige in the field." ], [ "See also", "* Abel Prize* Kyoto Prize* List of prizes known as the Nobel or the highest honors of a field* List of mathematics awards * Nevanlinna Prize* Rolf Schock Prizes* Turing Award* Wolf Prize in Mathematics" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * ." ], [ "External links", "* * Overview at britannica.com" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "The Trial" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''The Trial''''' () is a novel written by Franz Kafka in 1914 and 1915 and published posthumously on 26 April 1925.One of his best-known works, it tells the story of Josef K., a man arrested and prosecuted by a remote, inaccessible authority, with the nature of his crime revealed neither to him nor to the reader.", "Heavily influenced by Dostoevsky's ''Crime and Punishment'' and ''The Brothers Karamazov'', Kafka even went so far as to call Dostoevsky a blood relative.", "Like Kafka's two other novels, ''The Castle'' and ''Amerika'', ''The Trial'' was never completed, although it does include a chapter which appears to bring the story to an intentionally abrupt ending.After Kafka's death in 1924 his friend and literary executor Max Brod edited the text for publication by Verlag Die Schmiede.", "The original manuscript is held at the Museum of Modern Literature, Marbach am Neckar, Germany.", "The first English-language translation, by Willa and Edwin Muir, was published in 1937.In 1999, the book was listed in ''Le Monde'' 100 Books of the Century and as No.", "2 of the Best German Novels of the Twentieth Century." ], [ "Development", "Kafka drafted the opening sentence of ''The Trial'' in August 1914, and continued work on the novel throughout 1915.This was an unusually productive period for Kafka, despite the outbreak of World War I, which significantly increased the pressures of his day job as an insurance agent.Having begun by writing the opening and concluding sections of the novel, Kafka worked on the intervening scenes in a haphazard manner, using several different notebooks simultaneously.", "His friend Max Brod, knowing Kafka's habit of destroying his own work, eventually took the manuscript into safekeeping.", "This manuscript consisted of 161 loose pages torn from notebooks, which Kafka had bundled together into chapters.", "The order of the chapters was not made clear to Brod, nor was he told which parts were complete and which unfinished.", "Following Kafka's death in 1924, Brod edited the work and assembled it into a novel to the best of his ability.", "Further editorial work has been done by later scholars, but Kafka's final vision for ''The Trial'' remains unknown." ], [ "Plot summary", "Cover, 1925On the morning of his thirtieth birthday, Josef K., the chief clerk of a bank, is unexpectedly arrested by two unidentified agents from an unspecified agency for an unspecified crime.", "Josef is not imprisoned, however, but left \"free\" and told to await instructions from the Committee of Affairs.", "Josef's landlady, Frau Grubach, tries to console Josef about the trial, but insinuates that the procedure may be related to an immoral relationship with his neighbor Fräulein Bürstner.", "Josef visits Bürstner to vent his worries, and then kisses her.A few days later, Josef finds that Fräulein Montag, a lodger from another room, has moved in with Fräulein Bürstner.", "He suspects that this maneuver is meant to distance him from Bürstner.", "Josef is ordered to appear at the court's address the coming Sunday, without being told the exact time or room.", "After a period of exploration, Josef finds the court in the attic.", "Josef is severely reproached for his tardiness, and he arouses the assembly's hostility after a passionate plea about the absurdity of the trial and the emptiness of the accusation.Josef later tries to confront the presiding judge over his case, but only finds an attendant's wife.", "The woman gives him information about the process and attempts to seduce him before a law student bursts into the room and takes the woman away, claiming her to be his mistress.", "The woman's husband then takes Josef on a tour of the court offices, which ends after Josef becomes extremely weak in the presence of other court officials and accused.One evening, in a storage room at his own bank, Josef discovers the two agents who arrested him being whipped by a flogger for asking Josef for bribes and as a result of complaints Josef made at court.", "Josef tries to argue with the flogger, saying that the men need not be whipped, but the flogger cannot be swayed.", "The next day he returns to the storage room and is shocked to find everything as he had found it the day before, including the whipper and the two agents.Josef is visited by his uncle, a traveling countryman.", "Worried by the rumors about his nephew, the uncle introduces Josef to Herr Huld, a sickly and bedridden lawyer tended to by Leni, a young nurse who shows an immediate attraction to Josef.", "During the conversation, Leni calls Josef away and takes him to the next room for a sexual encounter.", "Afterward, Josef meets his angry uncle outside, who claims that Josef's lack of respect for the process has hurt his case.During subsequent visits to Huld, Josef realizes that he is a capricious character who will not be of much help.", "At the bank, one of Josef's clients recommends him to seek the advice of Titorelli, the court's official painter.", "Titorelli has no real influence within the court, but his deep experience of the process is painfully illuminating to Josef, and he can only suggest complex and unpleasant hypothetical options, as no definitive acquittal has ever been managed.", "Josef finally decides to dismiss Huld and take control of matters himself.", "Upon arriving at Huld's office, Josef meets a downtrodden individual, Rudi Block, a client who offers Josef some insight from a client's perspective.", "Block's case has continued for five years and he has gone from being a successful businessman to being almost bankrupt and is virtually enslaved by his dependence on the lawyer and Leni, with whom he appears to be sexually involved.", "The lawyer mocks Block in front of Josef for his dog-like subservience.", "This experience further poisons Josef's opinion of his lawyer.Josef is put in charge of accompanying an important Italian client to the city's cathedral.", "While inside the cathedral, a priest calls Josef by name and tells him a fable (which was published earlier as \"Before the Law\") that is meant to explain his situation.", "The priest tells Josef that the parable is an ancient text of the court, and many generations of court officials have interpreted it differently.", "On the eve of Josef's thirty-first birthday, two men arrive at his apartment to execute him.", "They lead him to a small quarry outside the city, and kill him with a butcher's knife.", "Josef summarizes his situation with his last words: \"Like a dog!\"" ], [ "Characters", "* '''Josef K.''' – The tale's protagonist: a thirty-year-old, unmarried bank administrator living in an unnamed city.", "* '''Fräulein Bürstner''' – A boarder in the same house as Josef K. She lets him kiss her one night, but then rebuffs his advances.", "K. briefly catches sight of her, or someone who looks similar to her, in the final pages of the novel.", "* '''Fräulein Montag''' – Friend of Fräulein Bürstner, she talks to K. about ending his relationship with Fräulein Bürstner after his arrest.", "She claims she can bring him insight, because she is an objective third party.", "* '''Willem and Franz''' – Officers who arrest K. one morning but refuse to disclose the crime he is said to have committed.", "They are later flogged.", "* '''Inspector''' – Man who conducts a proceeding at Josef K.'s boardinghouse to inform K. officially that he is under arrest.", "* '''Rabinsteiner, Kullich and Kaminer''' – Junior bank employees who attend the proceeding at the boardinghouse.", "* '''Frau Grubach''' – The proprietress of the lodging house in which K. lives.", "She holds K. in high esteem, despite his arrest.", "* '''Woman in the Court''' – The first judgement of K happens in her house.", "She claims help from K. because she does not want to be abused by the magistrates.", "* '''Student''' – Deformed man who acts under orders of the instruction judge.", "Will be a powerful man in the future.", "* '''Instruction Judge''' – First Judge of K. In his trial, he confuses K. with a wall painter.", "* '''Uncle Karl''' – K.'s impetuous uncle from the country, formerly his guardian.", "Upon hearing of the trial, Karl insists that K. hire Herr Huld, the lawyer.", "* '''Herr Huld, the Lawyer''' – K.'s pompous and pretentious advocate who provides little in the way of action and far too much in the way of anecdote.", "* '''Leni''' – Herr Huld's nurse, she has feelings for Josef K. and soon becomes his lover.", "She shows him her webbed hand, yet another reference to the motif of the hand throughout the book.", "Apparently, she finds accused men extremely attractive — the fact of their indictment makes them irresistible to her.", "* '''Albert''' – Office director at the court, and a friend of Huld.", "* '''Flogger''' – Man who punishes Franz and Willem in the Bank after K.'s complaints against the two agents in his first Judgement.", "* '''Vice-president''' – K.'s unctuous rival at the Bank, only too willing to catch K. in a compromising situation.", "He repeatedly takes advantage of K.'s preoccupation with the trial to advance his own ambitions.", "* '''President''' – Manager of the Bank.", "A sickly figure, whose position the vice-president is trying to assume.", "Gets on well with K., inviting him to various engagements.", "* '''Rudi Block, the Merchant''' – Block is another accused man and client of Huld.", "His case is five years old, and he is but a shadow of the prosperous grain dealer he once was.", "All his time, energy, and resources are now devoted to his case, to the detriment of his own life.", "Although he has hired five additional lawyers on the side, he is completely and pathetically subservient to Huld.", "* '''Manufacturer''' – Person who hears about K.'s case and advises him to see a painter who knows how the court system works.", "* '''Titorelli, the Painter''' – Titorelli inherited the position of Court Painter from his father.", "He knows a great deal about the comings and goings of the court's lowest level.", "He offers to help K., and manages to unload a few identical landscape paintings on the accused man.", "* '''Priest''' – Prison chaplain whom K. encounters in a cathedral.", "The priest advises K. that his case is going badly and tells him to accept his fate.", "* '''Doorkeeper and Farmer''' – The characters of the Chaplain's Tale." ], [ "English translations", "* Everyman's Library, 30 June 1992, Translation: Willa and Edwin Muir, * Penguin Books, 1994, Translation: Idris Parry* Schocken Books, 1998, Translation: Breon Mitchell, .", "Translator's preface is available online.", "* Hesperus Press Limited, 2005, Translation: Richard Stokes, * Dover Thrift Editions, 22 July 2009, Translation: David Wyllie (2003), * Oxford World's Classics, 4 October 2009, Translation: Mike Mitchell, * , 15 September 2012, Translation: Susanne Lück and Maureen Fitzgibbons," ], [ "Adaptations", "===Stage===* The writer and director Steven Berkoff adapted several of Kafka's novels into plays and directed them for stage.", "His version of ''The Trial'' was first performed in 1970 in London and published in 1981.", "* Israeli director Rina Yerushalmi adapted ''The Trial'' (paired with Samuel Beckett's ''Malone Dies'') for a production called ''Ta, Ta, Tatata'' presented in June 1970 at La MaMa Experimental Theatre Club.", "* Chicago based writer, Greg Allen, wrote and directed ''K.", "'', based on ''The Trial''.", "After award-winning runs in Chicago and New York, it was produced by The Hypocrites and ran for several months in 2010 at The Chopin Theater in Chicago.", "* ''Joseph K'', written by Tom Basden and based on ''The Trial'', takes place in modern-day London, with the protagonist cast as a City banker.", "It ran at the Gate Theatre, Notting Hill, London, in late 2010.", "* Gottfried von Einem wrote an opera, ''Der Prozeß'', based on the novel.", "Its American debut was directed by Otto Preminger.", "* The writer Serge Lamothe adapted ''The Trial'' for the stage.", "Directed by François Girard, his version of ''The Trial'' was first performed in 2004 in Montreal and Ottawa, Canada, and published in 2005.", "* Between June and August 2015 The Young Vic theatre in London staged a version of ''The Trial'' adapted by Nick Gill and starring Rory Kinnear as K.*Jean-Louis Barrault and Andre Gide adapted the novel for the stage, performed in Paris in 1947.", "*An operatic adaptation of ''The Trial'' by the composer Philip Glass was premiered by Music Theatre Wales in October 2014.===Radio===* On 19 May 1946, ''Columbia Workshop'' broadcast an adaptation of ''The Trial'' by Davidson Taylor with an original musical score by Bernard Herrmann and starring Karl Swenson as Joseph K.* In 1982, Mike Gwilym starred as Josef K. with Miriam Margolyes as Leni in an adaptation on BBC Radio 4 dramatised for radio by Hanif Kureishi.", "* Sam Troughton starred as Joseph Kay in a new adaptation by Mark Ravenhill titled ''The Process'' directed by Polly Thomas and broadcast on 10 May 2015 on BBC Radio 3's ''Drama on 3'' program.===Film===* In the 1962 film adaptation by Orson Welles, Josef K. is played by Anthony Perkins and The Advocate by Welles.", "* The 1993 film ''The Trial'' was based on Harold Pinter's screenplay adaptation.", "Directed by David Jones, it starred Kyle MacLachlan as Josef K. and Anthony Hopkins as The Priest.=== Graphic novel ===* A graphic novel adaptation by Chantal Montellier (illustrations) and David Zane Mairowitz (adaptation) appeared on April 15, 2008." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* * ''Der Prozeß'', original text in German* * * Kafka's parable \"Before the Law\", Herbert Deinert, May 1964, Cornell University" ] ]
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[ [ "The Metamorphosis" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Metamorphosis''''' () is a novella written by Franz Kafka and first published in 1915.One of Kafka's best-known works, ''Metamorphosis'' tells the story of salesman Gregor Samsa, who wakes one morning to find himself inexplicably transformed into a huge insect (, \"monstrous vermin\") and subsequently struggles to adjust to this new condition.", "The novella has been widely discussed among literary critics, who have offered varied interpretations.", "In popular culture and adaptations of the novella, the insect is commonly depicted as a cockroach.", "With a length of about 70 printed pages over three chapters, it is the longest of the stories Kafka considered complete and published during his lifetime.", "The text was first published in 1915 in the October issue of the journal ''Die weißen Blätter'' under the editorship of René Schickele.", "The first edition in book form appeared in December 1915 in the series ''Der jüngste Tag'', edited by Kurt Wolff." ], [ "Plot", "Gregor Samsa wakes up one morning to find himself transformed into a \"monstrous vermin\".", "He initially considers the transformation to be temporary and slowly ponders the consequences of this metamorphosis.", "Stuck on his back and unable to get up and leave the bed, Gregor reflects on his job as a traveling salesman and cloth merchant, which he characterizes as being full of \"temporary and constantly changing human relationships, which never come from the heart\".", "He sees his employer as a despot and would quickly quit his job if he were not his family's sole breadwinner and working off his bankrupt father's debts.", "While trying to move, Gregor finds that his office manager, the chief clerk, has shown up to check on him, indignant about Gregor's unexcused absence.", "Gregor attempts to communicate with both the manager and his family, but all they can hear from behind the door is incomprehensible vocalizations.", "Gregor laboriously drags himself across the floor and opens the door.", "The clerk, upon seeing the transformed Gregor, flees the apartment.", "Gregor's family is horrified, and his father drives him back into his room, injuring his side by shoving him when he gets stuck in the doorway.With Gregor's unexpected transformation, his family is deprived of financial stability.", "They keep Gregor locked in his room, and he begins to accept his new identity and adapt to his new body.", "His sister Grete is the only one willing to bring him food, which they find Gregor only likes if it is rotten.", "He spends much of his time crawling around on the floor, walls, and ceiling and, upon discovering Gregor's new pastime, Grete decides to remove his furniture to give him more space.", "She and her mother begin to empty the room of everything, except the sofa under which Gregor hides whenever anyone comes in, but he finds their actions deeply distressing in fear that he might forget his past, while he still was a human, and desperately tries to save a particularly loved portrait on the wall of a woman clad in fur.", "His mother loses consciousness at the sight of him clinging to the image to protect it.", "When Grete rushes out of the room to get some aromatic spirits, Gregor follows her and is slightly hurt when she drops a medicine bottle and it breaks.", "Their father returns home and angrily hurls apples at Gregor, one of which becomes lodged in a sensitive spot in his back and severely wounds him.Gregor suffers from his injuries for the rest of his life and takes very little food.", "His father, mother, and sister all get jobs and increasingly begin to neglect him, and his room begins to be used for storage.", "For a time, his family leaves Gregor's door open in the evenings so he can listen to them talk to each other, but this happens less frequently once they rent a room in the apartment to three male tenants, since they are not told about Gregor.", "One day the charwoman, who briefly looks in on Gregor each day when she arrives and before she leaves, neglects to close his door fully.", "Attracted by Grete's violin-playing in the living room, Gregor crawls out and is spotted by the unsuspecting tenants, who complain about the apartment's unhygienic conditions and say they are leaving, will not pay anything for the time they have already stayed, and may take legal action.", "Grete, who has tired of taking care of Gregor and realizes the burden his existence puts on each member of the family, tells her parents they must get rid of \"it\" or they will all be ruined.", "Gregor, understanding that he is no longer wanted, laboriously makes his way back to his room and dies of starvation before sunrise.", "His body is discovered by the charwoman, who alerts his family and then disposes of the corpse.", "The relieved and optimistic father, mother, and sister all take the day off work.", "They travel by tram into the countryside and make plans to move to a smaller apartment to save money.", "During the short trip, Mr. and Mrs. Samsa realize that, despite the hardships that have brought some paleness to her face, Grete has grown up into a pretty young lady with a good figure and they think about finding her a husband." ], [ "Characters", "===Gregor Samsa===Gregor is the main character of the story.", "He works as a traveling salesman in order to provide money for his sister and parents.", "He wakes up one morning finding himself transformed into an insect.", "After the metamorphosis, Gregor becomes unable to work and is confined to his room for most of the remainder of the story.", "This prompts his family to begin working once again.", "Gregor is depicted as isolated from society and often both misunderstands the true intentions of others and is misunderstood.The name \"Gregor Samsa\" appears to derive partly from literary works Kafka had read.", "A character in ''The Story of Young Renate Fuchs'', by German novelist Jakob Wassermann (1873–1934), is named Gregor Samassa.", "The Viennese author Leopold von Sacher-Masoch, whose sexual imagination gave rise to the idea of masochism, is also an influence.", "Sacher-Masoch wrote ''Venus in Furs'' (1870), a novel whose hero assumes the name Gregor at one point.", "A \"Venus in furs\" recurs in ''The Metamorphosis'' in the picture that Gregor Samsa has hung on his bedroom wall.===Grete Samsa===Grete is Gregor's younger sister, and she becomes his caretaker after his metamorphosis.", "They initially have a close relationship, but this quickly fades.", "At first, she volunteers to feed him and clean his room, but she grows increasingly impatient with the burden and begins to leave his room in disarray out of spite.", "Her initial decision to take care of Gregor may have come from a desire to contribute and be useful to the family, since she becomes angry and upset when the mother cleans his room.", "It is made clear that Grete is disgusted by Gregor, as she always opens the window upon entering his room to keep from feeling nauseous and leaves without doing anything if Gregor is in plain sight.", "She plays the violin and dreams of going to the conservatory to study, a dream Gregor had intended to make happen; he had planned on making the announcement on Christmas Day.", "To help provide an income for the family after Gregor's transformation, she starts working as a salesgirl.", "Grete is also the first to suggest getting rid of Gregor, which causes Gregor to plan his own death.", "At the end of the story, Grete's parents realize that she has become beautiful and full-figured and decide to consider finding her a husband.===Mr Samsa===Mr Samsa is Gregor's father.", "After the metamorphosis, he is forced to return to work in order to support the family financially.", "His attitude towards his son is harsh.", "He regards the transformed Gregor with disgust and possibly even fear and attacks Gregor on several occasions.", "Even when Gregor was human, Mr Samsa regarded him mostly as a source of income for the family.", "Gregor's relationship with his father is modelled after Kafka's own relationship with his father.", "The theme of alienation becomes quite evident here.===Mrs Samsa===Mrs Samsa is Gregor's mother.", "She is portrayed as a submissive wife.", "She suffers from asthma, which is a constant source of concern for Gregor.", "She is initially shocked at Gregor's transformation, but she still wants to enter his room.", "However, it proves too much for her and gives rise to a conflict between her maternal impulse and sympathy and her fear and revulsion at Gregor's new form.===The Charwoman===The charwoman is an old widowed lady who is employed by the Samsa family after their previous maid begs to be dismissed on account of the fright she experiences owing to Gregor's new form.", "She is paid to take care of their household duties.", "Apart from Grete and her father, the charwoman is the only person who is in close contact with Gregor, and she is unafraid in her dealings with Gregor.", "She does not question his changed state; she seemingly accepts it as a normal part of his existence.", "She is the one who notices Gregor has died and disposes of his body." ], [ "Interpretation", "Like most of Kafka's works, ''Metamorphosis'' tends to be given a religious (Max Brod) or psychological interpretation by most of its interpreters.", "It has been particularly common to read the story as an expression of Kafka's father complex, as was first done by Charles Neider in his ''The Frozen Sea: A Study of Franz Kafka'' (1948).", "Besides the psychological approach, interpretations focusing on sociological aspects, which see the Samsa family as a portrayal of general social circumstances, have also gained a large following.Vladimir Nabokov rejected such interpretations, noting that they do not live up to Kafka's art.", "He instead chose an interpretation guided by the artistic detail, but categorically excluded any attempts at deciphering a symbolic or allegoric level of meaning.", "Arguing against the popular father-complex theory, he observed that it is the sister more than the father who should be considered the cruelest person in the story, since she is the one backstabbing Gregor.", "In Nabokov's view, the central narrative theme is the artist's struggle for existence in a society replete with philistines that destroys him step by step.", "Commenting on Kafka's style he writes \"The transparency of his style underlines the dark richness of his fantasy world.", "Contrast and uniformity, style and the depicted, portrayal and fable are seamlessly intertwined\".In 1989, Nina Pelikan Straus wrote a feminist interpretation of ''Metamorphosis'', noting that the story is not only about the metamorphosis of Gregor, but also about the metamorphosis of his family, and in particular, his younger sister Grete.", "Straus suggested that the social and psychoanalytic resonances of the text depend on Grete's role as woman, daughter, and sister, and that prior interpretations failed to recognize Grete's centrality to the story.In 1999, Gerhard Rieck pointed out that Gregor and his sister, Grete, form a pair, which is typical of many of Kafka's texts: it is made up of one passive, rather austere, person and another active, more libidinal, person.", "The appearance of figures with such almost irreconcilable personalities who form couples in Kafka's works has been evident since he wrote his short story \"Description of a Struggle\" (e.g.", "the narrator/young man and his \"acquaintance\").", "They also appear in \"The Judgment\" (Georg and his friend in Russia), in all three of his novels (e.g.", "Robinson and Delamarche in ''Amerika'') as well as in his short stories \"A Country Doctor\" (the country doctor and the groom) and \"A Hunger Artist\" (the hunger artist and the panther).", "Rieck views these pairs as parts of one single person (hence the similarity between the names Gregor and Grete) and in the final analysis as the two determining components of the author's personality.", "Not only in Kafka's life but also in his oeuvre does Rieck see the description of a fight between these two parts.Reiner Stach argued in 2004 that no elucidating comments were needed to illustrate the story and that it was convincing by itself, self-contained, even absolute.", "He believes that there is no doubt the story would have been admitted to the canon of world literature even if we had known nothing about its author.According to Peter-André Alt (2005), the figure of the insect becomes a drastic expression of Gregor Samsa's deprived existence.", "Reduced to carrying out his professional responsibilities, anxious to guarantee his advancement and vexed with the fear of making commercial mistakes, he is the creature of a functionalistic professional life.In 2007, Ralf Sudau took the view that particular attention should be paid to the motifs of self-abnegation and disregard for reality.", "Gregor's earlier behavior was characterized by self-renunciation and his pride in being able to provide a secure and leisured existence for his family.", "When he finds himself in a situation where he himself is in need of attention and assistance and in danger of becoming a parasite, he doesn't want to admit this new role to himself and be disappointed by the treatment he receives from his family, which is becoming more and more careless and even hostile over time.", "According to Sudau, Gregor is self-denyingly hiding his nauseating appearance under the sofa and gradually famishing, thus pretty much complying with the more or less blatant wish of his family.", "His gradual emaciation and \"self-reduction\" shows signs of a fatal hunger strike (which on the part of Gregor is unconscious and unsuccessful, on the part of his family not understood or ignored).", "Sudau also lists the names of selected interpreters of ''The Metamorphosis'' (e.g.", "Beicken, Sokel, Sautermeister and Schwarz).", "According to them, the narrative is a metaphor for the suffering resulting from leprosy, an escape into the disease or a symptom onset, an image of an existence which is defaced by the career, or a revealing staging which cracks the veneer and superficiality of everyday circumstances and exposes its cruel essence.", "He further notes that Kafka's representational style is on one hand characterized by an idiosyncratic interpenetration of realism and fantasy, a worldly mind, rationality, and clarity of observation, and on the other hand by folly, outlandishness, and fallacy.", "He also points to the grotesque and tragicomical, silent film-like elements.Fernando Bermejo-Rubio (2012) argued that the story is often viewed unjustly as inconclusive.", "He derives his interpretative approach from the fact that the descriptions of Gregor and his family environment in ''The Metamorphosis'' contradict each other.", "Diametrically opposed versions exist of Gregor's back, his voice, of whether he is ill or already undergoing the metamorphosis, whether he is dreaming or not, which treatment he deserves, of his moral point of view (false accusations made by Grete), and whether his family is blameless or not.", "Bermejo-Rubio emphasizes that Kafka ordered in 1915 that there should be no illustration of Gregor.", "He argues that it is exactly this absence of a visual narrator that is essential for Kafka's project, for he who depicts Gregor would stylize himself as an omniscient narrator.", "Another reason why Kafka opposed such an illustration is that the reader should not be biased in any way before reading.", "That the descriptions are not compatible with each other is indicative of the fact that the opening statement is not to be trusted.", "If the reader isn't hoodwinked by the first sentence and still thinks of Gregor as a human being, he will view the story as conclusive and realize that Gregor is a victim of his own degeneration.Volker Drüke (2013) believes that the crucial metamorphosis in the story is that of Grete.", "She is the character the title is directed at.", "Gregor's metamorphosis is followed by him languishing and ultimately dying.", "Grete, by contrast, has matured as a result of the new family circumstances and assumed responsibility.", "In the end – after the brother's death – the parents also notice that their daughter, \"who was getting more animated all the time, ... had recently blossomed into a pretty and shapely girl\", and they want to look for a partner for her.", "From this standpoint Grete's transition, her metamorphosis from a girl into a woman, is the subtextual theme of the story." ], [ "Translation of the opening sentence", "Translators of the novel into English have given widely different texts, including of the opening sentence, which in the original is \"\".", "In their 1933 translation of the story — the first into English — Willa Muir and Edwin Muir rendered it as \"As Gregor Samsa awoke one morning from uneasy dreams he found himself transformed in his bed into a gigantic insect\".The phrase \"ungeheuren Ungeziefer\" in particular has been rendered in many different ways by translators.", "These include the following:* \"gigantic insect\" (Willa and Edwin Muir, 1933)* \"monstrous kind of vermin\" (A. L. Lloyd, 1946)* \"monstrous vermin\" (Stanley Corngold, 1972, Joachim Neugroschel, 1993, Donna Freed, 1996)* \"giant bug\" (J.", "A. Underwood, 1981)* \"monstrous insect\" (Malcolm Pasley, 1992, Richard Stokes, 2002, Katja Pelzer, 2017)* \"enormous bug\" (Stanley Appelbaum, 1996)* \"gargantuan pest\" (M. A. Roberts, 2005)* \"monstrous cockroach\" (Michael Hofmann, 2007)* \"monstrous verminous bug\" (Ian Johnston, 2007)* \"a vile insect, one of gigantic proportions\" (Philip Lundberg, 2007)* \"some kind of monstrous vermin\" (Joyce Crick, 2009)* \"horrible vermin\" (David Wyllie, 2011)* \"some sort of monstrous insect\" (Susan Bernofsky, 2014)* \"some kind of monstrous bedbug\" (Christopher Moncrieff, 2014)* \"large verminous insect\" (John R. Williams, 2014)In Middle High German, ''Ungeziefer'' literally means \"unclean animal not suitable for sacrifice\" and is sometimes used colloquially to mean \"bug\", with the gist of \"dirty, nasty bug\".", "It can also be translated as \"vermin\".", "English translators of ''The Metamorphosis'' have often rendered it as \"insect\".What kind of bug or vermin Kafka envisaged remains a debated mystery.", "Kafka had no intention of labeling Gregor as any specific thing, but instead was trying to convey Gregor's disgust at his transformation.", "In his letter to his publisher of 25 October 1915, in which he discusses his concern about the cover illustration for the first edition, Kafka does use the term ''Insekt'', though, saying \"The insect itself is not to be drawn.", "It is not even to be seen from a distance.", "\"Vladimir Nabokov, who was a lepidopterist as well as a writer and literary critic, concluded from details in the text that Gregor was not a cockroach, but a beetle with wings under his shell, and capable of flight.", "Nabokov left a sketch annotated \"just over three feet long\" on the opening page of his English teaching copy.", "In his accompanying lecture notes, he discusses the type of insect Gregor has been transformed into.", "Noting that the cleaning lady addressed Gregor as \"dung beetle\" (''Mistkäfer''), e.g., 'Come here for a bit, old dung beetle!'", "or 'Hey, look at the old dung beetle!", "'\", Nabokov remarks that this was just her way of friendly addressing and that Gregor \"is not, technically, a dung beetle.", "He is merely a big beetle.\"" ], [ "In popular culture" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "'''Online editions'''* ''Die Verwandlung'' at DigBib.org (text, pdf, HTML) * ''The Metamorphosis'' , translated 2009 by Ian Johnston of Malaspina University-College, Nanaimo, BC* ''The Metamorphosis'' at The Kafka project, translated by Ian Johnston released to public domain* '' The Metamorphosis'' - Annotated text aligned to Common Core Standards.", "A subscription is required to view the annotations.", "* , translated by David Wyllie* * Lecture on ''The Metamorphosis'' by Vladimir Nabokov'''Commentary'''* Lesson on the difficulties of translating the story into English '''Related'''* Metamorphosis: The Game by Mito Studio, based on the story by Franz Kafka." ] ]
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[ [ "FSF" ], [ "Introduction", "'''FSF''' may refer to:" ], [ "Organizations", "* Free Software Foundation, an American non-profit organization with a mission to promote computer user freedom* Federal Security Force (Pakistan)* Federación de Sindicatos Ferroviarios, a defunct Argentine trade union* Financial Stability Forum, a defunct international organization of financial regulators* Flight Safety Foundation, an international independent, non-profit organization for research, education, and communications in the field of civil aviation flight safety* Föreningen Sveriges Filmfotografer, the Swedish Society of Cinematographers* Progressive Party, an Icelandic political party (in Icelandic: ''Framsóknarflokkurinn'')" ], [ "Arts and entertainment", "* Folsom Street Fair, a street fair in San Francisco, California, United States* Further Seems Forever, a rock band* Fugitive Strike Force, a 2006 television series* ''The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction'', also abbreviated ''F&SF''* Speculative fiction (genre) containing the subgenre of ''fantasy/science fiction'' (F/SF)* Science fantasy (genre), a mixed genre of fantasy and science fiction elements" ], [ "Sports", "* Faroe Islands Football Association (Faroese: '''')* Federação Sergipana de Futebol, the Football Federation of Sergipe, Brazil* Football Supporters' Federation* Fuerte San Francisco, a Salvadoran football club* Sahrawi Football Federation (Spanish: '''')* São Toméan Football Federation (Portuguese: '''')* Senegalese Footrrball Federation (French: '''')" ], [ "Other uses", "* Familial Shar Pei fever* Fibrin-stabilizing factor* Flexible Support Fund in the United Kingdom* Fourth suit forcing, a bidding convention in the game of contract bridge* Free speech fights, a series of 20th-century labor-related conflicts in the United States* Full state feedback" ] ]
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[ [ "Francisco Goya" ], [ "Introduction", "''Yard with Lunatics'', '''Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes''' (; ; 30 March 174616 April 1828) was a Spanish romantic painter and printmaker.", "He is considered the most important Spanish artist of the late 18th and early 19th centuries.", "His paintings, drawings, and engravings reflected contemporary historical upheavals and influenced important 19th- and 20th-century painters.", "Goya is often referred to as the last of the Old Masters and the first of the moderns.Goya was born to a middle-class family in 1746, in Fuendetodos in Aragon.", "He studied painting from age 14 under José Luzán y Martinez and moved to Madrid to study with Anton Raphael Mengs.", "He married Josefa Bayeu in 1773.Goya became a court painter to the Spanish Crown in 1786 and this early portion of his career is marked by portraits of the Spanish aristocracy and royalty, and Rococo-style tapestry cartoons designed for the royal palace.Although Goya's letters and writings survive, little is known about his thoughts.", "He had a severe and undiagnosed illness in 1793 that left him deaf, after which his work became progressively darker and pessimistic.", "His later easel and mural paintings, prints and drawings appear to reflect a bleak outlook on personal, social and political levels, and contrast with his social climbing.", "He was appointed Director of the Royal Academy in 1795, the year Manuel Godoy made an unfavorable treaty with France.", "In 1799, Goya became ''Primer Pintor de Cámara'' (Prime Court Painter), the highest rank for a Spanish court painter.", "In the late 1790s, commissioned by Godoy, he completed his ''La maja desnuda'', a remarkably daring nude for the time and clearly indebted to Diego Velázquez.", "In 1800–01, he painted ''Charles IV of Spain and His Family'', also influenced by Velázquez.In 1807, Napoleon led the French army into the Peninsular War against Spain.", "Goya remained in Madrid during the war, which seems to have affected him deeply.", "Although he did not speak his thoughts in public, they can be inferred from his ''Disasters of War'' series of prints (although published 35 years after his death) and his 1814 paintings ''The Second of May 1808'' and ''The Third of May 1808''.", "Other works from his mid-period include the ''Caprichos'' and ''Los Disparates'' etching series, and a wide variety of paintings concerned with insanity, mental asylums, witches, fantastical creatures and religious and political corruption, all of which suggest that he feared for both his country's fate and his own mental and physical health.His late period culminates with the ''Black Paintings'' of 1819–1823, applied on oil on the plaster walls of his house the Quinta del Sordo (''House of the Deaf Man'') where, disillusioned by political and social developments in Spain, he lived in near isolation.", "Goya eventually abandoned Spain in 1824 to retire to the French city of Bordeaux, accompanied by his much younger maid and companion, Leocadia Weiss, who may have been his lover.", "There he completed his ''La Tauromaquia'' series and a number of other works.", "Following a stroke that left him paralyzed on his right side, Goya died and was buried on 16 April 1828 aged 82." ], [ "Early years (1746–1771)", "Birth house of Francisco Goya, Fuendetodos, ZaragozaFrancisco de Goya was born in Fuendetodos, Aragón, Spain, on 30 March 1746 to José Benito de Goya y Franque and Gracia de Lucientes y Salvador.", "The family had moved that year from the city of Zaragoza, but there is no record why; likely José was commissioned to work there.", "They were lower middle-class.", "José was the son of a notary and of Basque origin, his ancestors being from Zerain, earning his living as a gilder, specialising in religious and decorative craftwork.", "He oversaw the gilding and most of the ornamentation during the rebuilding of the Basilica of Our Lady of the Pillar (''Santa Maria del Pilar''), the principal cathedral of Zaragoza.", "Francisco was their fourth child, following his sister Rita (b.", "1737), brother Tomás (b.", "1739) (who was to follow in his father's trade) and second sister Jacinta (b.", "1743).", "There were two younger sons, Mariano (b.", "1750) and Camilo (b.", "1753).His mother's family had pretensions of nobility and the house, a modest brick cottage, was owned by her family and, perhaps fancifully, bore their crest.", "About 1749 José and Gracia bought a home in Zaragoza and were able to return to live in the city.", "Although there are no surviving records, it is thought that Goya may have attended the Escuelas Pías de San Antón, which offered free schooling.", "His education seems to have been adequate but not enlightening; he had reading, writing and numeracy, and some knowledge of the classics.", "According to Robert Hughes the artist \"seems to have taken no more interest than a carpenter in philosophical or theological matters, and his views on painting ... were very down to earth: Goya was no theoretician.\"", "At school he formed a close and lifelong friendship with fellow pupil Martín Zapater; the 131 letters Goya wrote to him from 1775 until Zapater's death in 1803 give valuable insight into Goya's early years at the court in Madrid." ], [ "Visit to Italy", "''Sacrifice to Pan'', 1771.Colección José Gudiol, BarcelonaAt age 14 Goya studied under the painter José Luzán, where he copied stamps for 4 years until he decided to work on his own, as he wrote later on \"paint from my invention\".", "He moved to Madrid to study with Anton Raphael Mengs, a popular painter with Spanish royalty.", "He clashed with his master, and his examinations were unsatisfactory.", "Goya submitted entries for the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando in 1763 and 1766 but was denied entrance into the academia.Rome was then the cultural capital of Europe and held all the prototypes of classical antiquity, while Spain lacked a coherent artistic direction, with all of its significant visual achievements in the past.", "Having failed to earn a scholarship, Goya relocated at his own expense to Rome in the old tradition of European artists stretching back at least to Albrecht Dürer.", "He was an unknown at the time and so the records are scant and uncertain.", "Early biographers have him travelling to Rome with a gang of bullfighters, where he worked as a street acrobat, or for a Russian diplomat, or fell in love with a beautiful young nun whom he plotted to abduct from her convent.", "It is possible that Goya completed two surviving mythological paintings during the visit, a ''Sacrifice to Vesta'' and a ''Sacrifice to Pan'', both dated 1771.", "''Portrait of Josefa Bayeu'' (1747–1812)In 1771 he won second prize in a painting competition organized by the City of Parma.", "That year he returned to Zaragoza and painted elements of the cupolas of the Basilica of the Pillar (including ''Adoration of the Name of God''), a cycle of frescoes for the monastic church of the Charterhouse of Aula Dei, and the frescoes of the Sobradiel Palace.", "He studied with the Aragonese artist Francisco Bayeu y Subías and his painting began to show signs of the delicate tonalities for which he became famous.", "He befriended Francisco Bayeu and married his sister Josefa (he nicknamed her \"Pepa\") on 25 July 1773.Their first child, Antonio Juan Ramon Carlos, was born on 29 August 1774.Of their seven children only one, a son named Javier, survived into adulthood." ], [ "Madrid (1775–1789)", "''Caza con reclamo'' (1775)''The Parasol'', 1777Francisco Bayeu (Josefa Bayeu's brother), 1765 membership of the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, and directorship of the tapestry works from 1777 helped Goya earn a commission for a series of tapestry cartoons for the Royal Tapestry Factory.", "Over five years he designed some 42 patterns, many of which were used to decorate and insulate the stone walls of El Escorial and the Palacio Real del Pardo, the residences of the Spanish monarchs.", "While designing tapestries was neither prestigious nor well paid, his cartoons are mostly popularist in a rococo style, and Goya used them to bring himself to wider attention.The cartoons were not his only royal commissions, and were accompanied by a series of engravings, mostly copies after old masters such as Marcantonio Raimondi and Velázquez.", "Goya had a complicated relationship to the latter artist; while many of his contemporaries saw folly in Goya's attempts to copy and emulate him, he had access to a wide range of the long-dead painter's works that had been contained in the royal collection.", "Nonetheless, etching was a medium that the young artist was to master, a medium that was to reveal both the true depths of his imagination and his political beliefs.", "His etching of ''The Garrotted Man'' (\"El agarrotado\") was the largest work he had produced to date, and an obvious foreboding of his later \"Disasters of War\" series.", "''The Garroted Man'', before 1780.National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.Goya was beset by illness, and his condition was used against him by his rivals, who looked jealously upon any artist seen to be rising in stature.", "Some of the larger cartoons, such as ''The Wedding'', were more than 8 by 10 feet, and had proved a drain on his physical strength.", "Ever resourceful, Goya turned this misfortune around, claiming that his illness had allowed him the insight to produce works that were more personal and informal.", "However, he found the format limiting, as it did not allow him to capture complex color shifts or texture, and was unsuited to the impasto and glazing techniques he was by then applying to his painted works.", "The tapestries seem as comments on human types, fashion and fads.Other works from the period include a canvas for the altar of the Church of San Francisco El Grande in Madrid, which led to his appointment as a member of the Royal Academy of Fine Art." ], [ "Court painter", "In 1783, the Count of Floridablanca, favorite of King Charles III, commissioned Goya to paint his portrait.", "He became friends with the King's half-brother Luis, and spent two summers working on portraits of both the Infante and his family.", "During the 1780s, his circle of patrons grew to include the Duke and Duchess of Osuna, the King and other notable people of the kingdom whom he painted.", "In 1786, Goya was given a salaried position as painter to Charles III.Goya was appointed court painter to Charles IV in 1789.The following year he became First Court Painter, with a salary of 50,000 reales and an allowance of 500 ducats for a coach.", "He painted portraits of the king and the queen, and the Spanish Prime Minister Manuel de Godoy and many other nobles.", "These portraits are notable for their disinclination to flatter; his ''Charles IV of Spain and His Family'' is an especially brutal assessment of a royal family.", "Modern interpreters view the portrait as satirical; it is thought to reveal the corruption behind the rule of Charles IV.", "Under his reign his wife Louisa was thought to have had the real power, and thus Goya placed her at the center of the group portrait.", "From the back left of the painting one can see the artist himself looking out at the viewer, and the painting behind the family depicts Lot and his daughters, thus once again echoing the underlying message of corruption and decay.Goya earned commissions from the highest ranks of the Spanish nobility, including Pedro Téllez-Girón, 9th Duke of Osuna and his wife María Josefa Pimentel, 12th Countess-Duchess of Benavente, José Álvarez de Toledo, Duke of Alba and his wife María del Pilar de Silva, and María Ana de Pontejos y Sandoval, Marchioness of Pontejos.", "In 1801 he painted Godoy in a commission to commemorate the victory in the brief War of the Oranges against Portugal.", "The two were friends, even if Goya's 1801 portrait is usually seen as satire.", "Yet even after Godoy's fall from grace the politician referred to the artist in warm terms.", "Godoy saw himself as instrumental in the publication of the Caprichos and is widely believed to have commissioned ''La maja desnuda''." ], [ "Middle period (1793–1799)", "''La Maja Desnuda'' (''La maja desnuda'') has been described as \"the first totally profane life-size female nude in Western art\" without pretense to allegorical or mythological meaning.", "The identity of the ''Majas'' is uncertain.", "The most popularly cited models are the Duchess of Alba, with whom Goya was sometimes thought to have had an affair, and Pepita Tudó, mistress of Manuel de Godoy.", "Neither theory has been verified, and it remains as likely that the paintings represent an idealized composite.", "The paintings were never publicly exhibited during Goya's lifetime and were owned by Godoy.", "In 1808 all Godoy's property was seized by Ferdinand VII after his fall from power and exile, and in 1813 the Inquisition confiscated both works as 'obscene', returning them in 1836 to the Academy of Fine Arts of San Fernando.In 1798 he painted luminous and airy scenes for the pendentives and cupola of the Real Ermita (Chapel) of San Antonio de la Florida in Madrid.", "His depiction of a miracle of Saint Anthony of Padua is devoid of the customary angels and instead treats the miracle as if it were a theatrical event performed by ordinary people.", "''The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters'', , At some time between late 1792 and early 1793 an undiagnosed illness left Goya deaf.", "He became withdrawn and introspective while the direction and tone of his work changed.", "He began the series of aquatinted etchings, published in 1799 as the ''Caprichos''—completed in parallel with the more official commissions of portraits and religious paintings.", "In 1799 Goya published 80 ''Caprichos'' prints depicting what he described as \"the innumerable foibles and follies to be found in any civilized society, and from the common prejudices and deceitful practices which custom, ignorance, or self-interest have made usual\".", "The visions in these prints are partly explained by the caption \"The sleep of reason produces monsters\".", "Yet these are not solely bleak; they demonstrate the artist's sharp satirical wit, as in ''Capricho'' number 52, ''What a Tailor Can Do!", "''While convalescing between 1793 and 1794, Goya completed a set of eleven small pictures painted on tin that mark a significant change in the tone and subject matter of his art, and draw from the dark and dramatic realms of fantasy nightmare.", "''Yard with Lunatics'' is a vision of loneliness, fear and social alienation.", "The condemnation of brutality towards prisoners (whether criminal or insane) is a subject that Goya assayed in later works that focused on the degradation of the human figure.", "It was one of the first of Goya's mid-1790s cabinet paintings, in which his earlier search for ideal beauty gave way to an examination of the relationship between naturalism and fantasy that would preoccupy him for the rest of his career.", "He was undergoing a nervous breakdown and entering prolonged physical illness, and admitted that the series was created to reflect his own self-doubt, anxiety and fear that he was losing his mind.", "Goya wrote that the works served \"to occupy my imagination, tormented as it is by contemplation of my sufferings.\"", "The series, he said, consisted of pictures which \"normally find no place in commissioned works.", "\"Goya's physical and mental breakdown seems to have happened a few weeks after the French declaration of war on Spain.", "A contemporary reported, \"The noises in his head and deafness aren't improving, yet his vision is much better and he is back in control of his balance.\"", "These symptoms may indicate a prolonged viral encephalitis, or possibly a series of miniature strokes resulting from high blood pressure and which affected the hearing and balance centers of the brain.", "Symptoms of tinnitus, episodes of imbalance and progressive deafness are typical of Ménière's disease.", "It is possible that Goya had cumulative lead poisoning, as he used massive amounts of lead white—which he ground himself—in his paintings, both as a canvas primer and as a primary color.Other postmortem diagnostic assessments point toward paranoid dementia, possibly due to brain trauma, as evidenced by marked changes in his work after his recovery, culminating in the \"black\" paintings.", "Art historians have noted Goya's singular ability to express his personal demons as horrific and fantastic imagery that speaks universally, and allows his audience to find its own catharsis in the images." ], [ "Peninsular War (1808–1814)", "The French army invaded Spain in 1808, leading to the Peninsular War of 1808–1814.The extent of Goya's involvement with the court of the \"intruder king\", Joseph I, the brother of Napoleon Bonaparte, is not known; he painted works for French patrons and sympathisers, but kept neutral during the fighting.", "After the restoration of the Spanish King Ferdinand VII in 1814, Goya denied any involvement with the French.", "By the time of his wife Josefa's death in 1812, he was painting ''The Second of May 1808'' and ''The Third of May 1808'', and preparing the series of etchings later known as ''The Disasters of War'' (''Los desastres de la guerra'').", "Ferdinand VII returned to Spain in 1814 but relations with Goya were not cordial.", "The artist completed portraits of the king for a variety of ministries, but not for the king himself.Although Goya did not make his intention known when creating ''The Disasters of War'', art historians view them as a visual protest against the violence of the 1808 Dos de Mayo Uprising, the subsequent Peninsular War and the move against liberalism in the aftermath of the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in 1814.The scenes are singularly disturbing, sometimes macabre in their depiction of battlefield horror, and represent an outraged conscience in the face of death and destruction.", "They were not published until 1863, 35 years after his death.", "It is likely that only then was it considered politically safe to distribute a sequence of artworks criticising both the French and restored Bourbons.The first 47 plates in the series focus on incidents from the war and show the consequences of the conflict on individual soldiers and civilians.", "The middle series (plates 48 to 64) record the effects of the famine that hit Madrid in 1811–12, before the city was liberated from the French.", "The final 17 reflect the bitter disappointment of liberals when the restored Bourbon monarchy, encouraged by the Catholic hierarchy, rejected the Spanish Constitution of 1812 and opposed both state and religious reform.", "Since their first publication, Goya's scenes of atrocities, starvation, degradation and humiliation have been described as the \"prodigious flowering of rage\".File:El Tres de Mayo, by Francisco de Goya, from Prado thin black margin.jpg|''The Third of May 1808'', 1814.Oil on canvas, .", ", MadridFile:El dos de mayo de 1808 en Madrid.jpg|''The Second of May 1808'', 1814File:Prado - Los Desastres de la Guerra - No.", "04 - Las mugeres dan valor.jpg|Plate 4: ''Las mujeres dan valor'' (''The women are courageous'').", "This plate depicts a struggle between a group of civilians fighting soldiers.File:Prado - Los Desastres de la Guerra - No.", "05 - Y son fieras.jpg|Plate 5: ''Y son fieras'' (''And they are fierce'' or ''And they fight like wild beasts'').", "Civilian women fight against soldiers with spears and rocks.File:Prado - Los Desastres de la Guerra - No.", "46 - Esto es malo.jpg|alt=Soldiers in large fur hats, long coats and winter uniforms murder priests by running them through with their long bladed swords.|Plate 46: ''Esto es malo'' (''This is bad'').", "A monk is killed by French soldiers looting church treasures.", "A rare sympathetic image of clergy generally shown on the side of oppression and injustice.File:Prado - Los Desastres de la Guerra - No.", "47 - Así sucedió.jpg|Plate 47: ''Así sucedió'' (''This is how it happened'').", "The last print in the first group.", "Murdered monks lie by French soldiers looting church treasures.His works from 1814 to 1819 are mostly commissioned portraits, but also include the altarpiece of Santa Justa and Santa Rufina for the Cathedral of Seville, the print series of ''La Tauromaquia'' depicting scenes from bullfighting, and probably the etchings of ''Los Disparates''." ], [ "Quinta del Sordo and Black Paintings (1819–1822)", "''Saturn Devouring His Son'', 1819–1823.Records of Goya's later life are relatively scant, and ever politically aware, he suppressed a number of his works from this period, working instead in private.", "He was tormented by a dread of old age and fear of madness.", "Goya had been a successful and royally placed artist, but withdrew from public life during his final years.", "From the late 1810s he lived in near-solitude outside Madrid in a farmhouse converted into a studio.", "The house had become known as \"La Quinta del Sordo\" (The House of the Deaf Man), after the nearest farmhouse that had coincidentally also belonged to a deaf man.Art historians assume Goya felt alienated from the social and political trends that followed the 1814 restoration of the Bourbon monarchy, and that he viewed these developments as reactionary means of social control.", "In his unpublished art he seems to have railed against what he saw as a tactical retreat into Medievalism.", "It is thought that he had hoped for political and religious reform, but like many liberals became disillusioned when the restored Bourbon monarchy and Catholic hierarchy rejected the Spanish Constitution of 1812.At the age of 75, alone and in mental and physical despair, he completed the work of his 14 ''Black Paintings'', all of which were executed in oil directly onto the plaster walls of his house.", "Goya did not intend for the paintings to be exhibited, did not write of them, and likely never spoke of them.", "Around 1874, 50 years after his death, they were taken down and transferred to a canvas support by owner Baron Frédéric Émile d'Erlanger.", "Many of the works were significantly altered during the restoration, and in the words of Arthur Lubow what remain are \"at best a crude facsimile of what Goya painted.\"", "The effects of time on the murals, coupled with the inevitable damage caused by the delicate operation of mounting the crumbling plaster on canvas, meant that most of the murals suffered extensive damage and loss of paint.", "Today, they are on permanent display at the , Madrid.", "''Witches' Sabbath'' or ''Aquelarre'' is one of 14 from the ''Black Paintings'' series.|alt=In an array of earthen colors, a black silhouetted horned figure to the left foreground presides over and addresses a large circle of a tightly packed group of wide-eyed intense, scary, elderly and unruly women" ], [ "Bordeaux (October 1824 – 1828)", "''The Milkmaid of Bordeaux'', 1825–27, is the third and final Goya portrait which may depict Leocadia Weiss.Leocadia Weiss (née Zorrilla, 1790–1856), the artist's maid, younger by 35 years, and a distant relative, lived with and cared for Goya after Bayeu's death.", "She stayed with him in his Quinta del Sordo villa until 1824 with her daughter Rosario.", "Leocadia was probably similar in features to Goya's first wife Josefa Bayeu, to the point that one of his well-known portraits bears the cautious title of ''Josefa Bayeu (or Leocadia Weiss)''.Not much is known about her beyond her fiery temperament.", "She was likely related to the Goicoechea family, a wealthy dynasty into which the artist's son, Javier, had married.", "It is known that Leocadia had an unhappy marriage with a jeweler, Isidore Weiss, but was separated from him since 1811, after he had accused her of \"illicit conduct\".", "She had two children before that time, and bore a third, Rosario, in 1814 when she was 26.Isidore was not the father, and it has often been speculated—although with little firm evidence—that the child belonged to Goya.", "There has been much speculation that Goya and Weiss were romantically linked; however, it is more likely the affection between them was sentimental.Goya died on 16 April 1828.Leocadia was left nothing in Goya's will; mistresses were often omitted in such circumstances, but it is also likely that he did not want to dwell on his mortality by thinking about or revising his will.", "She wrote to a number of Goya's friends to complain of her exclusion but many of her friends were Goya's also and by then were old men or had died, and did not reply.", "Largely destitute, she moved into rented accommodation, later passing on her copy of the ''Caprichos'' for free.Goya's body was later re-interred in the Real Ermita de San Antonio de la Florida in Madrid.", "Goya's skull was missing, a detail the Spanish consul immediately communicated to his superiors in Madrid, who wired back, \"Send Goya, with or without head.\"" ], [ "Films and television", "* ''Goya: Crazy Like a Genius'' (2002), a documentary by Ian MacMillan, presented by Robert Hughes* ''Goya's Ghosts'' (2006), directed by Miloš Forman* ''Volavérunt'' (1999), directed by Bigas Luna and based on the novel by Antonio Larreta* ''Goya in Bordeaux'' (1999), Spanish historical drama film written and directed by Carlos Saura about the life of Francisco de Goya* ''Goya or the Hard Way to Enlightenment'' (1971) (German: ''Goya – oder der arge Weg der Erkenntnis'') is a 1971 East German drama film directed by Konrad Wolf.", "It was entered into the 7th Moscow International Film Festival where it won a Special Prize.", "It is based on a novel with the same title by Lion Feuchtwanger.", "* ''The Naked Maja'' (1958), directed by Henry Koster.", "A film about the painter Francisco Goya and the Duchess of Alba; Anthony Franciosa played Goya and Ava Gardner played The Duchess.", "* ''Tiempo de ilustrados (Time of the Enlightened)'' in the series ''The Ministry of Time''.", "Goya (played by Pedro Casablanc) must repaint ''La maja desnuda'' after a cult called the Exterminating Angels destroy it." ], [ "Goya's influence on modern and contemporary artists and writers", "* The Spanish composer Enrique Granados wrote a suite for solo piano in 1911 based on Goya's paintings called ''Goyescas'', and later wrote an opera of the same name based on the suite.", "* In the early 20th century, Spanish masters Pablo Picasso and Salvador Dalí drew influence from ''Los caprichos'' and the ''Black Paintings'' of Goya.", "* In the 21st century, American postmodern painters such as Michael Zansky and Bradley Rubenstein draw inspiration from \"The Dream of Reason Produces Monsters\" (1796–98) and Goya's ''Black Paintings''.", "Zanksy's \"Giants and Dwarf Series\" (1990–2002) of large-scale paintings and wood carvings use imagery from Goya.", "*Spanish author Fernando Arrabal's novel ''The Burial of the Sardine'' was inspired by Goya's painting.", "* Russian poet Andrei Voznesensky's ''I Am Goya'' was inspired by Goya's anti-war paintings.", "* The video game Impasto was based on the works of Goya." ], [ "References", "===Footnotes====== Citations ===" ], [ "Further reading", "* Baticle, Jeannine.", "''Goya: Painter of Terrible Splendor'', \"Abrams Discoveries\" series.", "New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1994* Buchholz, Elke Linda.", "''Francisco de Goya''.", "Cologne: Könemann, 1999.", "* Ciofalo, John J.", "''The Self-Portraits of Francisco Goya.''", "Cambridge University Press, 2002* Connell, Evan S. ''Francisco Goya: A Life''.", "New York: Counterpoint, 2004.", "* Eitner, Lorenz.", "''An Outline of 19th Century European Painting''.", "New York: Harper & Row, 1997.", "* Gassier, Pierre.", "''Goya: A Biographical and Critical Study''.", "New York: Skira, 1955* Gassier, Piere and Juliet Wilson.", "''The Life and Complete Work of Francisco Goya''.", "New York 1971.", "* Glendinning, Nigel.", "''Goya and his Critics''.", "New Haven 1977.", "* Glendinning, Nigel.", "\"The Strange Translation of Goya's Black Paintings\".", "''The Burlington Magazine'', Volume 117, No.", "868, 1975 * Hagen, Rose-Marie & Hagen, Rainer.", "''Francisco Goya, 1746–1828''.", "London: Taschen, 1999.", "* Havard, Robert.", "\"Goya's House Revisited: Why a Deaf Man Painted his Walls Black\".", "''Bulletin of Spanish Studies'', Volume 82, Issue 5 July 2005* Hennigfeld, Ursula (ed.).", "''Goya im Dialog der Medien, Kulturen und Disziplinen.''", "Freiburg: Rombach, 2013.", "* Hilt, Douglas.", "\"Goya: Turmoils of a Patriot\" ''History Today'' (Aug 1973), Vol.", "23 Issue 8, pp 536–545, online* Hughes, Robert.", "''Goya''.", "New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004.", "* Junquera, Juan José.", "''The Black Paintings of Goya''.", "London: Scala Publishers, 2008.", "* Kravchenko, Anastasiia.", "''Mythological subjects in Francisco Goya's work''.", "2019* Licht, Fred S. ''Goya in Perspective''.", "New York 1973.", "* Licht, Fred.", "''Goya: The Origins of the Modern Temper in Art''.", "Universe Books, 1979.", "* Litroy, Jo.", "''Jusqu'à la mort''.", "Paris: Editions du Masque, 2013.", "* Symmons, Sarah.", "''Goya: A Life in Letters''.", "Pimlico, 2004.", "* Tomlinson, Janis.", "''Francisco Goya y Lucientes 1746–1828''.", "London: Phaidon, 1994.", "* Tomlinson, Janis.", "\"Burn It, Hide It, Flaunt It: Goya's Majas and the Censorial Mind\".", "''The Art Journal'', Volume 50, No.", "4, 1991" ], [ "External links", "* Francisco Goya's Cats* www.FranciscoGoya.com* Goya in Aragon Foundation: Online catalogue* ''Goya, the Secret of the Shadows'', a documentary film by David Mauas, Spain, 2011, 77'* Goya: The Most Spanish of Artists, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston*   (PDF in the Arno Schmidt Reference Library )*   (PDF in the Arno Schmidt Reference Library )* Etching series by Goya* * \"His Majesty's Giant Anteater – A New Goya is Discovered!", "\"* Bibliothèque numérique de l'INHA – Estampes de Francisco de Goya* ''Goya in the Metropolitan Museum of Art'', an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF)* ''Prints & People: A Social History of Printed Pictures'', an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains a significant amount of material on the prints of Goya* Francisco Goya Prints in the Claremont Colleges Digital Library* Goya hidden micro-signatures, a revolutionary discovery* A Closer Look at Francisco Goya's 'Disasters of War' (Spanish title: 'Los Desastres de la Guerra')" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Frequentist probability" ], [ "Introduction", "John Venn, who provided a thorough exposition of frequentist probability in his book, The Logic of Chance (1866)'''Frequentist probability''' or '''frequentism''' is an interpretation of probability; it defines an event's probability as the limit of its relative frequency in many trials (the '''long-run probability''').", "Probabilities can be found (in principle) by a repeatable objective process (and are thus ideally devoid of opinion).", "The continued use of frequentist methods in scientific inference, however, has been called into question.The development of the frequentist account was motivated by the problems and paradoxes of the previously dominant viewpoint, the classical interpretation.", "In the classical interpretation, probability was defined in terms of the principle of indifference, based on the natural symmetry of a problem, so, for example, the probabilities of dice games arise from the natural symmetric 6-sidedness of the cube.", "This classical interpretation stumbled at any statistical problem that has no natural symmetry for reasoning." ], [ "Definition", "In the frequentist interpretation, probabilities are discussed only when dealing with well-defined random experiments.", "The set of all possible outcomes of a random experiment is called the sample space of the experiment.", "An event is defined as a particular subset of the sample space to be considered.", "For any given event, only one of two possibilities may hold: it occurs or it does not.", "The relative frequency of occurrence of an event, observed in a number of repetitions of the experiment, is a measure of the '''probability''' of that event.", "This is the core conception of probability in the frequentist interpretation.A claim of the frequentist approach is that, as the number of trials increases, the change in the relative frequency will diminish.", "Hence, one can view a probability as the ''limiting value'' of the corresponding relative frequencies." ], [ "Scope", "The frequentist interpretation is a philosophical approach to the definition and use of probabilities; it is one of several such approaches.", "It does not claim to capture all connotations of the concept 'probable' in colloquial speech of natural languages.As an interpretation, it is not in conflict with the mathematical axiomatization of probability theory; rather, it provides guidance for how to apply mathematical probability theory to real-world situations.", "It offers distinct guidance in the construction and design of practical experiments, especially when contrasted with the Bayesian interpretation.", "As to whether this guidance is useful, or is apt to mis-interpretation, has been a source of controversy.", "Particularly when the frequency interpretation of probability is mistakenly assumed to be the only possible basis for frequentist inference.", "So, for example, a list of mis-interpretations of the meaning of p-values accompanies the article on p-values; controversies are detailed in the article on statistical hypothesis testing.", "The Jeffreys–Lindley paradox shows how different interpretations, applied to the same data set, can lead to different conclusions about the 'statistical significance' of a result.As William Feller noted:Feller's comment was criticism of Pierre-Simon Laplace, who published a solution to the sunrise problem using an alternative probability interpretation.", "Despite Laplace's explicit and immediate disclaimer in the source, based on expertise in astronomy as well as probability, two centuries of criticism have followed." ], [ "History", "The frequentist view may have been foreshadowed by Aristotle, in ''Rhetoric'', when he wrote:Poisson clearly distinguished between objective and subjective probabilities in 1837.Soon thereafter a flurry of nearly simultaneous publications by Mill, Ellis (\"On the Foundations of the Theory of Probabilities\" and \"Remarks on the Fundamental Principles of the Theory of Probabilities\"), Cournot (''Exposition de la théorie des chances et des probabilités'') and Fries introduced the frequentist view.", "Venn provided a thorough exposition (''The Logic of Chance: An Essay on the Foundations and Province of the Theory of Probability'' (published editions in 1866, 1876, 1888)) two decades later.", "These were further supported by the publications of Boole and Bertrand.", "By the end of the 19th century the frequentist interpretation was well established and perhaps dominant in the sciences.", "The following generation established the tools of classical inferential statistics (significance testing, hypothesis testing and confidence intervals) all based on frequentist probability.Alternatively, Jacob Bernoulli (AKA James or Jacques) understood the concept of frequentist probability and published a critical proof (the weak law of large numbers) posthumously in ''1713''.", "He is also credited with some appreciation for subjective probability (prior to and without Bayes theorem).", "Gauss and Laplace used frequentist (and other) probability in derivations of the least squares method a century later, a generation before Poisson.", "Laplace considered the probabilities of testimonies, tables of mortality, judgments of tribunals, etc.", "which are unlikely candidates for classical probability.", "In this view, Poisson's contribution was his sharp criticism of the alternative \"inverse\" (subjective, Bayesian) probability interpretation.", "Any criticism by Gauss and Laplace was muted and implicit.", "(Their later derivations did not use inverse probability.", ")Major contributors to \"classical\" statistics in the early 20th century included Fisher, Neyman and Pearson.", "Fisher contributed to most of statistics and made significance testing the core of experimental science, although he was critical of the frequentist concept of \"repeated sampling from the same population\" ( Rubin, 2020); Neyman formulated confidence intervals and contributed heavily to sampling theory; Neyman and Pearson paired in the creation of hypothesis testing.", "All valued objectivity, so the best interpretation of probability available to them was frequentist.", "All were suspicious of \"inverse probability\" (the available alternative) with prior probabilities chosen by using the principle of indifference.", "Fisher said, \"...the theory of inverse probability is founded upon an error, referring to Bayes theorem and must be wholly rejected.\"", "(from his Statistical Methods for Research Workers).", "While Neyman was a pure frequentist, Fisher's views of probability were unique; Both had nuanced view of probability.", "von Mises offered a combination of mathematical and philosophical support for frequentism in the era." ], [ "Etymology", "According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', the term 'frequentist' was first used by M. G. Kendall in 1949, to contrast with Bayesians, whom he called \"non-frequentists\".", "He observed:3....we may broadly distinguish two main attitudes.", "One takes probability as 'a degree of rational belief', or some similar idea...the second defines probability in terms of frequencies of occurrence of events, or by relative proportions in 'populations' or 'collectives'; (p. 101):...:12.It might be thought that the differences between the frequentists and the non-frequentists (if I may call them such) are largely due to the differences of the domains which they purport to cover.", "(p. 104):...:''I assert that this is not so'' ...", "The essential distinction between the frequentists and the non-frequentists is, I think, that the former, in an effort to avoid anything savouring of matters of opinion, seek to define probability in terms of the objective properties of a population, real or hypothetical, whereas the latter do not.", "emphasis in original\"The Frequency Theory of Probability\" was used a generation earlier as a chapter title in Keynes (1921).The historical sequence: probability concepts were introduced and much of probability mathematics derived (prior to the 20th century), classical statistical inference methods were developed, the mathematical foundations of probability were solidified and current terminology was introduced (all in the 20th century).", "The primary historical sources in probability and statistics did not use the current terminology of classical, subjective (Bayesian) and frequentist probability." ], [ "Alternative views", "Probability theory is a branch of mathematics.", "While its roots reach centuries into the past, it reached maturity with the axioms of Andrey Kolmogorov in 1933.The theory focuses on the valid operations on probability values rather than on the initial assignment of values; the mathematics is largely independent of any interpretation of probability.Applications and interpretations of probability are considered by philosophy, the sciences and statistics.", "All are interested in the extraction of knowledge from observations—inductive reasoning.", "There are a variety of competing interpretations; All have problems.", "The frequentist interpretation does resolve difficulties with the classical interpretation, such as any problem where the natural symmetry of outcomes is not known.", "It does not address other issues, such as the dutch book.", "* Classical probability assigns probabilities based on physical idealized symmetry (dice, coins, cards).", "The classical definition is at risk of circularity; Probabilities are defined by assuming equality of probabilities.", "In the absence of symmetry the utility of the definition is limited.", "* Subjective (Bayesian) probability (a family of competing interpretations) considers degrees of belief.", "All practical \"subjective\" probability interpretations are so constrained to rationality as to avoid most subjectivity.", "Real subjectivity is repellent to some definitions of science which strive for results independent of the observer and analyst.", "Other applications of Bayesianism in science (e.g.", "logical Bayesianism) embrace the inherent subjectivity of many scientific studies and objects and use Bayesian reasoning to place boundaries and context on the influence of subjectivities on all analysis.", "The historical roots of this concept extended to such non-numeric applications as legal evidence.", "* Propensity probability views probability as a causative phenomenon rather than a purely descriptive or subjective one." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* P W Bridgman, ''The Logic of Modern Physics'', 1927* Alonzo Church, ''The Concept of a Random Sequence'', 1940* Harald Cramér, ''Mathematical Methods of Statistics'', 1946* William Feller, ''An Introduction to Probability Theory and its Applications'', 1957* P Martin-Löf, ''On the Concept of a Random Sequence'', 1966* Richard von Mises, ''Probability, Statistics, and Truth'', 1939 (German original 1928)* Jerzy Neyman, ''First Course in Probability and Statistics'', 1950* Hans Reichenbach, ''The Theory of Probability'', 1949 (German original 1935)* Bertrand Russell, ''Human Knowledge'', 1948* PS" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "List of French-language poets" ], [ "Introduction", "'''List of poets who have written in the French language''':==A==* Louise-Victorine Ackermann (1813–1890)* Adam de la Halle (v.1250 – v.1285)* Dominique Aguessy (1937– )* Pierre Albert-Birot (1876–1967)* Anne-Marie Albiach (1937–2012)* Pierre Alféri (1963)* Marc Alyn (1937)* Catherine d'Amboise (1475–1550)* Jean Amrouche (1906–1962)* Guillaume Apollinaire (1880–1918)* Louis Aragon (1897–1982)* Jacques Arnold (1912–1995)* Hans Arp (1887–1966)* Antonin Artaud (1896–1948)* Théodore Agrippa d'Aubigné (1552–1630)* Jacques Audiberti (1899–1965)* Pierre Autin-Grenier (1947–2014)==B==* Jean-Antoine de Baïf (1532–1589)* Théodore de Banville (1823–1891)* Jules Barbey d'Aurevilly (1807–1889)* Henri Auguste Barbier (1805–1882)* Natalie Clifford Barney (1876–1972)* Linda Maria Baros (1981)* Guillaume de Salluste Du Bartas (1544–1590)* Henry Bataille (1872–1922)* Henry Bauchau (1913–2012)* Charles Baudelaire (1821–1867)* Marcel Béalu (1908–1993)* Philippe Beck (1963)* Samuel Beckett (1906–1989)* Joachim du Bellay (1522–1560)* Rémy Belleau (1528–1577)* Charles Beltjens (1832–1890)* Tahar Ben Jelloun (1944)* Isaac de Benserade (1612–1691)* Annie Bentoiu (1927–2015)* Pierre-Jean de Béranger (1780–1857)* Christian Bernard (1950)* Béroul (12th century)* Louky Bersianik (1965)* Aloysius Bertrand (1807–1841)* Gérard Bessière (1928)* Maurice Blanchot (1907–2003)* Blondel de Nesle (12th–13th centuries)* Christian Bobin (1951–2022)* Jean Bodel (1165–1210)* Étienne de La Boétie (1530–1563)* Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux (1636–1711)* Bonaventure Des Périers (1500–1544)* Yves Bonnefoy (1923–2016)* Pétrus Borel (1809–1859)* Bertran de Born (1150–1215 ?", ")* Robert de Boron (12th–13th centuries)* Théodore Botrel (1868–1925)* André du Bouchet (1924–2001)* Daniel Boulanger (1922–2014)* Stéphane Bouquet (1967)* Joë Bousquet (1897–1950)* Georges Brassens (1921–1981)* Jacques Brault (1933–2022)* André Breton (1896–1966)* Nicole Brossard (1943)* Aristide Bruant (1851–1925)* Gace Brulé (c.1160 – after 1213)* Andrée Brunin (1937–1993)* Michel Butor (1926–2016)==C==* Louis Calaferte (1928–1994)* Susana Calandrelli (1901–1978)* Jean-Pierre Calloc'h (1888–1917)* Émile Cammaerts (1878–1953)* Côtis-Capel (1915–1986)* Placide Cappeau (1808–1877)* Adolphe Joseph Carcassonne (1826–1891)* Francis Carco (1886–1958)* Maurice Carême (1899–1978)* Jean Cayrol (1911–2005)* Blaise Cendrars (1887–1961)* Aimé Césaire (1913–2008)* Jean Chapelain (1595–1674)* Maurice Chappaz (1916–2009)* René Char (1907–1988)* Alain Chartier (1385–1430)* François-René de Chateaubriand (1768–1848)* Malcolm de Chazal (1902–1981)* Andrée Chedid (1920–2011)* Charles-Julien Lioult de Chênedollé (1769–1833)* François Cheng (1929)* André Chénier (1762–1794)* Jacques Chessex (1934–2009)* Chrétien de Troyes (c.1135 – c.1183)* Paul Claudel (1868–1955)* William Cliff (1940)* Jean Cocteau (1889–1963)* Gabrielle de Coignard (1550–1586)* Louise Colet (1810–1876)* Danielle Collobert (1940–1978)* Claude Confortès (1928–2016)* Conon de Béthune (c.1150 – 1220)* Benoît Conort (1956)* François Coppée (1842–1908)* Tristan Corbière (1845–1875)* Pierre Corneille (1606–1684)* Charles Cotin (1604–1681)* Gaston Couté (1880–1911)* Watriquet de Couvin (active 1319–1329)* Octave Crémazie (1827–1879)* René Crevel (1900–1935)* Charles Cros (1842–1888)==D==* Jean Daive (1941)* Léon-Gontran Damas (1914–1978)* René Daumal (1908–1944)* François David (1870–1939)* Anne-Marie de Backer (1908–1987)* Lise Deharme (1898–1979)* Lucie Delarue-Mardrus (1880–1945)* Yanette Delétang-Tardif (1902–1976)* Jacques Delille (1738–1813)* René Depestre (1926)* Tristan Derème (1889–1941)* Paul Déroulède (1846–1914)* Maryline Desbiolles (1959)* Marceline Desbordes-Valmore (1786–1859)* Émile Deschamps (1791–1871)* Eustache Deschamps (1346–1406)* Robert Desnos (1900–1945)* Philippe Desportes (1546–1606)* Jean-Pierre Desthuilliers (1939–2013)* Bruno Destrée (1867–1919)* Léon Deubel (1879–1913)* Souéloum Diagho* Mohammed Dib (1920–2003)* David Diop (1927–1960)* Charles Dobzynski (1929–2014)* Jean Dorat (1508–1588)* Hélène Dorion (1958)* Christian Dotremont (1922–1979)* Minou Drouet (1947)* Caroline Dubois (1960)* Bernard Dubourg (1945–1992)* Georges Duhamel (1884–1966)* Jacques Dupin (1927–2012)* Jean-Pierre Duprey (1930–1959)* Marie Dauguet (1860-1942)==E==* Paul Éluard (1895–1952)* Claude Esteban (1935–2006)==F==* Nabile Farès (1940–2016)* Léon-Paul Fargue (1876–1947)* Jean-Pierre Faye (1925)* Léo Ferré (1916–1993)* Jean Follain (1903–1971)* Xavier Forneret (1809–1884)* Paul Fort (1872–1960)* Marie de France (1154–1189)* Martin Le Franc (1410–1461)* Frankétienne (1936)* Pauline Fréchette (1889-1943)* André Frédérique (1915–1957)* Jean Froissart (v.1337-v.1410)==G==* Pierre Gabriel (1926–1994)* Serge Gainsbourg (1928–1991)* Augièr Galhard (16th-century)* Pierre Gamarra (1919–2009)* Joachim Gasquet (1873–1921)* Armand Gatti (1924–2017)* Théophile Gautier (1811–1872)* Jean Genet (1910–1986)* Amélie Gex (1835–1883)* Henri Ghéon (1875–1644)* Roger Gilbert-Lecomte (1907–1943)* Iwan Gilkin (1858–1924)* Roger Giroux (1925–1974)* Edouard Glissant (1928–2011)* Guy Goffette (1947)* Claire Goll (1890–1977)* Yvan Goll (1891–1950)* Jean Ogier de Gombauld (1576–1666)* Remy de Gourmont (1858–1915)* Xavier Grall (1930–1981)* Benoît Gréan* Jean-Baptiste-Louis Gresset (1709–1777)* Jacques Grévin (1538–1570)* Jean Grosjean (1912–2006)* Maurice de Guérin (1810–1839)* Georges Guillain (1876–1961)* Guillaume de Lorris (c.1200 – c.1238)* Pernette du Guillet (1520–1545)* Eugène Guillevic (1907–1997)==H==* Adam de la Halle (1237–1288)* Anne Hébert (1916–2000)* Markus Hediger (1959)* Bernard Heidsieck (1928–2014)* Georges Henein (1914–1973)* José-Maria de Heredia (1842–1905)*Antoine Héroet (d. 1567)* Michel Houellebecq (1958)* Victor Hugo (1802–1885)* Marie Huot (1965)==I==* Jacques Izoard (1936–2008)==J==* Edmond Jabès (1912–1991)* Philippe Jaccottet (1925–2021)* Max Jacob (1876–1944)* Francis Jammes (1868–1938)* Amadis Jamyn (1538–1592)* Alfred Jarry (1873–1907)* Sandra Jayat (c.1939)* Georges Jean (1920–2011)* Jean de Meung (1250 – c.1305)* Étienne Jodelle (1532–1573)* Jean Joubert (1928–2015)* Jacques Jouet (1947)* Alain Jouffroy (1928–2015)* Pierre Jean Jouve (1887–1976)* Charles Juliet (1934)==K==* Gustave Kahn (1859–1936)* Kama Sywor Kamanda (1952)*Abdelkebir Khatibi (1938–2009)* Vénus Khoury-Ghata (1937)* Tristan Klingsor (1874–1966)* Anise Koltz (1928–2023)* Petr Kral (1941–2020)* Seyhan Kurt (1971)==L==* Abdellatif Laâbi (1942)* Louise Labé (1524–1566)* Pierre Labrie (1972)* Jacques Lacarrière (1925–2005)* Jean de La Fontaine (1621–1695)* Jules Laforgue (1860–1887)* Jean Lahor (1840–1909)* Alphonse de Lamartine (1790–1869)* Bernard de La Monnoye (1641–1728)* Jane de La Vaudère (1857-1908)* Valery Larbaud (1881–1957)* Josaphat-Robert Large (1942–2017)* Rina Lasnier (1910–1997)* Isidore Ducasse, comte de Lautréamont (1846–1870)* Pierre-Antoine Lebrun (1785–1873)* Félix Leclerc (1914–1988)* Leconte de Lisle (1818–1894)* Michel Leiris (1901–1990)* Jean Lemaire de Belges (1473–1520)* Charles Le Quintrec (1926–2008)* Jean-François Leriget de La Faye (1674–1731)* Alain Le Roux (c. 1040 – 1093)* Hervé Le Tellier (1957)* Henry Jean-Marie Levet (1874–1906)* Tristan L'Hermite (1601–1655)* Liska (1956–2011)* Guillaume de Lorris (1200–1240)* Pierre Louÿs (1870–1925)* Ghérasim Luca (1913–1994)* Jean-Pierre Luminet (1951)==M==*Guillaume de Machaut (1300–1377)*Maurice Maeterlinck (1862–1949)*François de Malherbe (1555–1628)*Stéphane Mallarmé (1842–1898)*Pierre de Marbeuf (1595–1645)*Clément Marot (1495–1544)*Jean Marot (1450–1526)*Anne de Marquets (1533-1588)*Fabien Marsaud (born 1977)*Charles Maurras (1868–1952)*Catulle Mendès (1841–1909)*Élisa Mercœur (1809–1835)*Thierry Metz (1956–1997)*Jean de Meun (1240–1304)*Henri Michaux (1899-1984)*Jean Michel (c. 1435–1501)*Jean Moréas (1856—1910)*Hégésippe Moreau (1810–1838)*Camille de Morel *Colin Muset*Alfred de Musset (1810–1857)==N==*Marguerite de Navarre (1492–1549)*Émile Nelligan (1879–1941)*Gérard de Nerval (1808–1855)==O==*René de Obaldia (1918–2022)*Charles, duc d'Orléans (1394–1465)==P==*Évariste de Parny (1753–1814)*Charles Péguy (1873–1914)*Benjamin Péret (1899–1959)*Louis Pergaud (1882–1915)*Saint-John Perse (1887–1975)*Christine de Pizan (1364–c.", "1430)*Francis Ponge (1899–1988)*Jacques Prévert (1900–1977)*Guiot de Provins*Sully Prudhomme (1839–1907)==Q==*Raymond Queneau (1903–1976)==R==*Nicolas Rapin (1535–1608)*Henri de Régnier (1864–1936)*Pierre Reverdy (1889–1960)*Arthur Rimbaud (1854–1891)*Jules Romains (1885–1972)*Pierre de Ronsard (1524–1585)*Jaufré Rudel (1113–1170) *Rutebeuf (1245–1285)==S==*Janou Saint-Denis (1930–2000)*Hector de Saint-Denys Garneau (1912–1943)*Mellin de Saint-Gelais (1491–1558)*Jean François de Saint-Lambert (1716–1803)*Benoît de Sainte-Maure*André Salmon (1881–1969)*Albert Samain (1858–1900)*Henriette Sauret (1890–1976)*Paul Scarron (1610–1660)*Maurice Scève (1501–1564)*Georges Schehadé (1907–1989)*Pierre Seghers (1906–1987)*Léopold Senghor (1906–2001)*Louisa Siefert (1845–1877)*Dominique Sorrente (born 1953)*Philippe Soupault (1897–1990)*André Spire (1868–1966)*Jules Supervielle (1884-1960)==T==*Taillefer (1001–1066)*Jean de La Taille (1535–1608)*Jean Tardieu (1903–1995)*Thomas of Britain*Khal Torabully (born 1956)*Julien Torma (1902–1933)*Paul-Jean Toulet (1867–1920)*Roland Michel Tremblay (born 1972)*Chrétien de Troyes*Pontus de Tyard (1521–1605)*Tristan Tzara (1896–1963)==V==*Paul Valéry (1871–1945)*Jean-Pierre Vallotton (born 1955)*Léonise Valois (1868–1936) *Jean Venturini (1919–1940)*Serge Venturini (born 1955)*Emile Verhaeren (1855–1916)*Paul Verlaine (1844–1896)*Francis Viélé-Griffin (1864–1937)*Boris Vian (1920–1959)*Claude Vigée (1921–2020)*Alfred de Vigny (1797–1863)*François Villon (1431–1463)*Roger Vitrac (1899–1952)*Vincent Voiture (1597–1648)*Voltaire (1694–1778)" ], [ "See also", "*Other French poets in the French Wikipedia*French literature*Francophone literature*List of French-language authors*List of French novelists*List of French people*Lists of Canadians" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "FM-2030" ], [ "Introduction", "'''FM-2030''' (born '''Fereidoun M. Esfandiary'''; ; October 15, 1930 – July 8, 2000) was a Belgian-born Iranian-American author, teacher, transhumanist philosopher, futurist, consultant, and Olympic athlete.He became notable as a transhumanist with the book ''Are You a Transhuman?", ": Monitoring and Stimulating Your Personal Rate of Growth in a Rapidly Changing World'', published in 1989.In addition, he wrote a number of works of fiction under his original name F. M. Esfandiary." ], [ "Early life and education", "FM-2030 was born Fereydoon M. Esfandiary on October 15, 1930, in Belgium to Iranian diplomat Abdol-Hossein “A.", "H.” Sadigh Esfandiary (1894–1986), who served from 1920 to 1960.He travelled widely as a child, having lived in 17 countries including Iran, India, and Afghanistan, by age 11.He represented Iran as a basketball player and wrestler at the 1948 Olympic Games in London.", "He attended primary school in Iran and England and completed his secondary education at Colleges Des Freres, a Jesuit school in Jerusalem.", "By the time he was 18, aside from his native Persian, he learned to speak 4 languages: Arabic, Hebrew, French and English.", "He then started his college education at the University of California, Berkeley, but later transferred to the University of California, Los Angeles, where he graduated in 1952.Afterwards, he served on the United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine from 1952 to 1954." ], [ "Name change and views", "In 1970, after publishing his book ''Optimism One'', F. M. Esfandiary started going by FM-2030 for two main reasons: firstly, to reflect the hope and belief that he would live to celebrate his 100th birthday in 2030; secondly, and more importantly, to break free of the widespread practice of naming conventions that he saw as rooted in a collectivist mentality, and existing only as a relic of humankind's tribalistic past.", "He formalized his name change in 1988.He viewed traditional names as almost always stamping a label of collective identity – varying from gender to nationality – on the individual, thereby existing as prima facie elements of thought processes in the human cultural fabric, that tended to degenerate into stereotyping, factionalism, and discrimination.", "In his own words, \"Conventional names define a person's past: ancestry, ethnicity, nationality, religion.", "I am not who I was ten years ago and certainly not who I will be in twenty years.", "...", "The name 2030 reflects my conviction that the years around 2030 will be a magical time.", "In 2030 we will be ageless and everyone will have an excellent chance to live forever.", "2030 is a dream and a goal.\"", "As a staunch anti-nationalist, he believed \"There are no illegal immigrants, only irrelevant borders.", "\"In 1973, he published a political manifesto ''UpWingers: A Futurist Manifesto'' in which he portrays both the ideological left and right as outdated, and in their place proposes a schema of UpWingers (those who look to the sky and the future) and DownWingers (those who look to the earth and the past).", "FM-2030 identified with the former.", "He argued that the nuclear family structure and the idea of a city would disappear, being replaced by modular social communities he called ''mobilia'', powered by communitarianism, which would persist and then disappear.FM-2030 believed that synthetic body parts would one day make life expectancy irrelevant; shortly before his death from pancreatic cancer, he described the pancreas as \"a stupid, dumb, wretched organ.", "\"In terms of civilization, he stated: \"No civilization of the past was great.", "They were all primitive and persecutory, founded on mass subjugation and mass murder.\"", "In terms of identity, he stated \"The young modern is not losing his identity.", "He is gladly disencumbering himself of it.\"", "He believed that eventually, nations would disappear and that identities would shift from cultural to personal.", "In a 1972 op-Ed in ''The New York Times'', he wrote that the leadership in the Arab–Israeli conflict had failed, and that the warring sides were \"acting like adolescents, refuse to resolve their wasteful 25-year-old brawl\" and believed that the world was \"irreversibly evolving beyond the concept of national homeland.\"" ], [ "Personal life", "FM-2030 was a lifelong vegetarian and said he would not eat anything that had a mother.", "He famously refused to answer any questions about his nationality, age and upbringing, claiming that such questions were irrelevant and that he was a “global person”.", "FM-2030 once said, \"I am a 21st century person who was accidentally launched in the 20th.", "I have a deep nostalgia for the future.\"", "As he spent much of his childhood in India, he was noted to have spoken English with a slight Indian accent.", "He taught at The New School, University of California, Los Angeles, and Florida International University.", "He worked as a corporate consultant for Lockheed and J. C. Penney.", "He was also an atheist.FM-2030 was, in his own words, a follower of \"upwing\" politics (i.e.", "neither right-wing nor left-wing but something else), and by which he meant that he endorsed universal progress.", "He had been in a non-exclusive \"friendship\" (his preferred term for relationship) with Flora Schnall, a lawyer and fellow Harvard Law Class of 1959 graduate, from the 1960s until his death.", "FM-2030 and Schnall attended the same class as Ruth Bader Ginsburg.", "He resided in Westwood, Los Angeles as well as Miami." ], [ "Death", "FM-2030 died on July 8, 2000, from pancreatic cancer at a friend's apartment in Manhattan.", "He was placed in cryonic suspension at the Alcor Life Extension Foundation in Scottsdale, Arizona, where his body remains today.", "He did not yet have remote standby arrangements, so no Alcor team member was present at his death, but FM-2030 was the first person to be vitrified, rather than simply frozen as previous cryonics patients had been.", "FM-2030 was survived by four sisters and one brother." ], [ "Published works", ";Fiction*''The Day of Sacrifice'' (1959) available as an eBook*''The Beggar'' (1965)*''Identity Card'' (1966) () available as an eBook;Non-fiction*''Optimism one; the emerging radicalism'' (1970) ()*''UpWingers: A Futurist Manifesto'' (1973) () (pbk.)", "Available as an eBook ISBN FW00007527, Publisher: e-reads, Pub.", "Date: Jan 1973, File Size: 153K*''Telespheres'' (1977) ()*''Are You a Transhuman?", ": Monitoring and Stimulating Your Personal Rate of Growth in a Rapidly Changing World'' (1989) ()." ], [ "Cultural references", "* In Dan Brown's novel ''Inferno'', transhumanist characters who admire FM-2030 pay tribute to him by adopting his naming convention and taking names such as FS2080.", "* Several musical artists, such as the Reptaliens, Dataport, Ghosthack, Vorja, Gavin Osborn and Philip Sumner have created songs and albums named after FM-2030.", "* A film titled ''2030'' released in 2020, which explored the possibility of FM-2030's future revival." ], [ "See also", "* Blue skies research* Steve Fuller* Breakthrough Institute* Proactionary Principle* Transhumanist politics* Bright green environmentalism* Lifeboat Foundation* Space colonization* Colonization of Mars" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Intimacy in a Fluid World, by F.M.", "Esfandiary* NPR story about FM-2030* Ilija Trojanow on F.M.", "Esfandiary: Searching for Identity in Iran's Labyrinthine Bureaucracy* \"Are You a Transhuman?", ": Monitoring and Stimulating Your Personal Rate of Growth in a Rapidly Changing World\" (PDF)* FM-2030 interview on CNN Larry King Live, in 1990* Upwingers website* Up-wingers page at hpluspedia" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "West Flemish" ], [ "Introduction", "'''West Flemish''' (''West-Vlams'' or ''West-Vloams'' or ''Vlaemsch'' (in French-Flanders), , ) is a collection of Dutch dialects spoken in western Belgium and the neighbouring areas of France and the Netherlands.West Flemish is spoken by about a million people in the Belgian province of West Flanders, and a further 50,000 in the neighbouring Dutch coastal district of Zeelandic Flanders (200,000 if including the closely related dialects of Zeelandic) and 10-20,000 in the northern part of the French department of Nord.", "Some of the main cities where West Flemish is widely spoken are Bruges, Dunkirk, Kortrijk, Ostend, Roeselare and Ypres.West Flemish is listed as a \"vulnerable\" language in UNESCO's online Red Book of Endangered Languages.Position of West Flemish (colour: ''light blue'') among the other minority languages, regional languages and dialects in Belgium, the Netherlands and French department NordFlemish (green) and French (red/brown) as spoken in the arrondissement of Dunkirk in France, in 1874 and 1972 scenic road sign." ], [ "Phonology", "West Flemish has a phonology that differs significantly from that of Standard Dutch, being similar to Afrikaans in the case of long E, O and A.", "Also where Standard Dutch has ''sch'', in some parts of West Flanders, West-Flemish, like Afrikaans, has ''sk''.", "However, the best known traits are the replacement of Standard Dutch (pre-)velar fricatives ''g'' and ''ch'' in Dutch () with glottal ''h'' ,.", "The following differences are listed by their Dutch spelling, as some different letters have merged their sounds in Standard Dutch but remained separate sounds in West Flemish.", "Pronunciations can also differ slightly from region to region.", "* ''sch'' - is realised as , or (''sh'' or ''sk'').", "* ''ei'' - is realised as or (''è'' or ''jè'').", "* ''ij '' - is realised as (short ''ie'', also written as ''y'') and in some words as .", "* ''ui '' - is realised as (short ''u'') and in some words as .", "* ''au'' - is realised as (''ow'')* ''ou'' - is realised as (short ''oe''), it is very similar to the long \"oe\" that is also used in Standard Dutch (), which can cause confusion* ''e'' - is realised as or .", "* ''i'' - is realised as .", "* ''ie'' - is longer * ''aa'' - is realised as .The absence of and in West Flemish makes pronouncing them very difficult for native speakers.", "That often causes hypercorrection of the sounds to a or .Standard Dutch also has many words with an ''-en'' () suffix (mostly plural forms of verbs and nouns).", "While Standard Dutch and most dialects do not pronounce the final ''n'', West Flemish typically drops the ''e'' and pronounces the ''n'' inside the base word.", "For base words already ending with ''n'', the final ''n'' sound is often lengthened to clarify the suffix.", "That makes many words become similar to those of English: ''beaten'', ''listen'' etc.The short ''o'' () can also be pronounced as a short ''u'' (), a phenomenon also occurring in Russian and some other Slavic languages, called akanye.", "That happens spontaneously to some words, but other words keep their original short ''o'' sounds.", "Similarly, the short ''a'' () can turn into a short ''o'' () in some words spontaneously.The diphthong ''ui'' () does not exist in West Flemish and is replaced by a long ''u'' () or a long ''ie'' ().", "Like for the ''ui'', the long ''o'' () can be replaced by an (''eu'') for some words but a for others.", "That often causes similarities to ranchers English.", "Here are some examples showing the sound shifts that are part of the vocabulary: Dutch West Flemish English vol (short ''o'') vul full zon (short ''o'') zunne sun kom (short ''o'') kom* come boter (long ''o'') beuter butter boot (long ''o'') boot boat kuiken kiek'n chick bruin brun brown This is as an example as a lot of words are not the same.", "The actual word used for ''kom'' is ''menne''." ], [ "Grammar", "=== Plural form ===Plural forms in Standard Dutch most often add ''-en'', but West Flemish usually uses ''-s'', like the Low Saxon dialects and even more prominently in English in which ''-en'' has become very rare.", "Under the influence of Standard Dutch, ''-s'' is being used by fewer people, and younger speakers tend to use ''-en''.=== Verb conjugation ===The verbs ''zijn'' (\"to be\") and ''hebben'' (\"to have\") are also conjugated differently.", "Dutch West Flemish English Dutch West Flemish English zijn zyn to be hebben èn to have ik ben 'k zyn I am ik heb 'k è I have jij bent gy zyt you are jij hebt gy èt you have hij is ie is he is hij heeft ie èt he has wij zijn wydder zyn we are wij hebben wydder èn we have jullie zijn gydder zyt you are jullie hebben gydder èt you have zij zijn zydder zyn they are zij hebben zydder èn they have=== Double subject ===West Flemish often has a double subject.", "Dutch West Flemish English You have done that.", "I didn't do that.=== Articles ===Standard Dutch has an indefinite article that does not depend on gender, unlike in West Flemish.", "However, a gender-independent article is increasingly used.", "Like in English, ''n'' is pronounced only if the next word begins with a vowel sound.", "Dutch West Flemish English een stier (m) ne stier a bull een koe (f) e koeje a cow een kalf (o) e kolf a calf een aap (m) nen oap an ape een huis (o) en 'us a house=== Conjugation of ''yes'' and ''no'' ===Another feature of West Flemish is the conjugation of ''ja'' and ''nee'' (\"yes\" and \"no\") to the subject of the sentence.", "That is somewhat related to the double subject, but even when the rest of the sentence is not pronounced, ''ja'' and ''nee'' are generally used with the first part of the double subject.", "There is also an extra word, ''toet'' (), negates the previous sentence but gives a positive answer.", "It is an abbreviation of \" 't en doe 't\" - it does it.Ja and nee can also all be strengthened by adding mo- or ba-.", "Both mean \"but\" and are derived from Dutch but or maar) and can be even used together (mobajoat).", "Dutch West Flemish English Heb jij dat gedaan?", "- Ja / Nee Èj gy da gedoan?", "- Joak / Nink Did you do that?", "- Yes / No Je hebt dat niet gedaan, hé?", "- Maar jawel J'èt da nie gedoan, é?", "- Bajoat You didn't do that, eh?", "- On the contrary (But yes I did.).", "Heeft hij dat gedaan?", "- Ja / Nee Èt ie da gedoan?", "- Joan / Nin (Joaj/Nij - Joas/Nis) Did he do that?", "- Yes / No (Yes/No - Yes/No) Gaan we verder?", "- Ja / Nee Zyn we?", "- Joat / Ninck Can we go?", "- Yes / No" ], [ "See also", "Apartment building in Blankenberge (Belgium) with West Flemish name \"Yzeren Rampe\" (Iron embankment)* Flemish dialects* Dutch dialects* Flemish people (''Flemings'' or ''Vlamingen'')* French Flemish* Hebban olla vogala* Westhoek" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Euromosaic report on West Flemish (thus Dutch) in France" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fritz Leiber" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fritz Reuter Leiber Jr.''' ( ; December 24, 1910 – September 5, 1992) was an American writer of fantasy, horror, and science fiction.", "He was also a poet, actor in theater and films, playwright, and chess expert.", "With writers such as Robert E. Howard and Michael Moorcock, Leiber is one of the fathers of sword and sorcery and coined the term." ], [ "Life", "Fritz Leiber was born December 24, 1910, in Chicago, Illinois, to the actors Fritz Leiber and Virginia Bronson Leiber.", "For a time, he seemed inclined to follow in his parents' footsteps; the theater and actors feature in his fiction.", "He spent 1928 touring with his parents' Shakespeare company (Fritz Leiber & Co.) before entering the University of Chicago, where he was elected to Phi Beta Kappa and received an undergraduate Ph.B.", "degree in psychology and physiology or biology with honors in 1932.From 1932 to 1933, he worked as a lay reader and studied as a candidate for the ministry, without taking a degree, at the General Theological Seminary in Chelsea, Manhattan, an affiliate of the Episcopal Church.After pursuing graduate studies in philosophy at the University of Chicago from 1933 to 1934 and again not taking a degree, he remained in Chicago while touring under the stage name of \"Francis Lathrop\" intermittently with his parents' company and pursuing a literary career.", "Six short stories later included in the 2010 collection ''Strange Wonders: A Collection of Rare Fritz Leiber Works'' carry 1934 and 1935 dates.", "He also appeared alongside his father in uncredited parts in George Cukor's ''Camille'' (1936), James Whale's ''The Great Garrick'' (1937), and William Dieterle's ''The Hunchback of Notre Dame'' (1939).In 1936, he initiated a brief, intense correspondence with H. P. Lovecraft, who \"encouraged and influenced Leiber's literary development\" before Lovecraft died in March 1937.Leiber introduced Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser in \"Two Sought Adventure\", his first professionally published short story in the August 1939 edition of ''Unknown'', edited by John W. Campbell.Leiber married Jonquil Stephens on January 16, 1936.Their only child, philosopher and science fiction writer Justin Leiber, was born in 1938.From 1937 to 1941, Fritz Leiber was employed by Consolidated Book Publishing as a staff writer for the ''Standard American Encyclopedia''.", "In 1941, the family moved to California, where Leiber served as a speech and drama instructor at Occidental College during the 1941–1942 academic year.Unable to conceal his disdain for academic politics as the United States entered World War II, he decided that the struggle against fascism mattered more than his long-held pacifist convictions.", "He accepted a position with Douglas Aircraft in quality inspection, primarily working on the C-47 Skytrain.", "Throughout the war, he continued to regularly publish fiction.Thereafter, the family returned to Chicago, where Leiber served as associate editor of ''Science Digest'' from 1945 to 1956.During this decade (forestalled by a fallow interregnum from 1954 to 1956), his output (including the 1947 Arkham House anthology ''Night's Black Agents'') was characterized by Poul Anderson as \"a lot of the best science fiction and fantasy in the business\".", "In 1958, the Leibers returned to Los Angeles.", "By then, he could afford to relinquish his journalistic career and support his family as a full-time fiction writer.Leiber and Katherine MacLean at the 1952 World Science Fiction ConventionJonquil's death in 1969 precipitated Leiber's permanent relocation to San Francisco and exacerbated his longstanding alcoholism after twelve years of fellowship in Alcoholics Anonymous.", "He gradually regained sobriety, an effort impeded by comorbid barbiturate abuse, over the next two decades.", "Perhaps as a result of his substance abuse, Leiber seems to have suffered periods of penury in the 1970s; Harlan Ellison wrote of his anger at finding that the much-awarded Leiber had to write his novels on a manual typewriter propped up over the sink in his apartment.", "Marc Laidlaw wrote that, when visiting Leiber as a fan in 1976, he \"was shocked to find him occupying one small room of a seedy San Francisco residence hotel, its squalor relieved mainly by walls of books\".", "Other reports suggest that Leiber preferred to live simply in the city, spending his money on dining, movies, and travel.", "In the last years of his life, royalty checks from TSR, Inc. (the makers of ''Dungeons & Dragons'', who had licensed the mythos of the Fafhrd and Gray Mouser series) were enough in themselves to ensure that he lived comfortably.", "In 1977, he returned to his original form with a fantasy novel set in modern-day San Francisco, ''Our Lady of Darkness'', which is about a writer of weird tales who must deal with the death of his wife and his recovery from alcoholism.In 1992, the last year of his life, Leiber married his second wife, Margo Skinner, a journalist and poet with whom he had been friends for years.", "Leiber died a few weeks after a physical collapse while traveling from a science fiction convention in London, Ontario, with Skinner.", "His cause of death was a stroke.He wrote a 100-page-plus memoir, ''Not Much Disorder and Not So Early Sex'', which can be found in ''The Ghost Light'' (1984).Leiber's own literary criticism, including several essays on Lovecraft, was collected in the volume ''Fafhrd and Me'' (1990)." ], [ "Theater", "As the child of two Shakespearean actors, Leiber was fascinated with the stage, describing itinerant Shakespearean companies in stories like \"No Great Magic\" and \"Four Ghosts in Hamlet\", and creating an actor/producer protagonist for his novel ''A Specter is Haunting Texas''.Although his ''Change War'' novel, ''The Big Time'', is about a war between two factions, the \"Snakes\" and the \"Spiders\", changing and rechanging history throughout the universe, all the action takes place in a small bubble of isolated space-time the size of a theatrical stage, and with only a handful of characters.", "Judith Merril (in the July 1969 issue of ''The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction'') remarks on Leiber's acting skills when the writer won a science fiction convention costume ball.", "Leiber's costume consisted of a cardboard military collar over turned-up jacket lapels, cardboard insignia, an armband, and a spider pencilled large in black on his forehead, thus turning him into an officer of the Spiders, one of the combatants in his Change War stories.", "\"The only other component,\" Merril writes, \"was the Leiber instinct for theatre.\"" ], [ "Films", "The similarity of the names of the father and the son caused some filmographies to incorrectly attribute to Fritz Jr. roles which were in fact played by his father, Fritz Leiber Sr., who was the evil Inquisitor in the Errol Flynn adventure film ''The Sea Hawk'' (1940) and had played in many other movies from 1917 to the late 1950s.", "It is the elder Leiber, not the younger, who appears in the Vincent Price vehicle ''The Web'' (1947) and in Charlie Chaplin's ''Monsieur Verdoux'' (1947).The younger Leiber can be seen briefly as Valentin in the 1936 film version of ''Camille'' starring Greta Garbo, probably his most widely-seen film performance.", "In the cult horror film ''Equinox'' (1970) directed by Dennis Muren and Jack Woods, Leiber has a cameo appearance as a geologist, Dr. Watermann.", "In the edited second version of the movie, Leiber has no spoken dialogue but appears in a few scenes.", "The original version of the movie has a longer appearance by Leiber recounting the ancient book and a brief speaking role; all were cut from the re-release.He also appears as Chavez in the 1979 Schick Sunn Classics documentary ''The Bermuda Triangle'', based on the book by Charles Berlitz." ], [ "Writing career", "Leiber was heavily influenced by H. P. Lovecraft, Robert Graves, John Webster, and Shakespeare in the first two decades of his career.", "Beginning in the late 1950s, he was increasingly influenced by the works of Carl Jung, particularly by the concepts of the anima and the shadow.", "In the mid-1960s, he began incorporating elements of Joseph Campbell's ''The Hero with a Thousand Faces''.", "These concepts are often mentioned in his stories, especially the anima, which becomes a method of exploring his fascination with, but estrangement from, the female.Leiber liked cats, which are featured in many of his stories.", "Tigerishka, for example, is a cat-like alien who is sexually attractive to the human protagonist yet repelled by human customs in the novel ''The Wanderer''.", "Leiber's \"Gummitch\" stories feature a kitten with an I.Q.", "of 160, just waiting for his ritual cup of coffee so that he can become human, too.His first stories in the 1930s and 40s were inspired by Lovecraft's Cthulhu Mythos.", "A notable critic and historian of the wider Mythos, S. T. Joshi, has singled out Leiber's \"The Sunken Land\" (''Unknown Worlds'', February 1942) as the most accomplished of the early stories based on Lovecraft's Mythos.", "Leiber also later wrote several essays on Lovecraft the man, such as \"A Literary Copernicus\" (1949), the publication of which formed a key moment in the emergence of a serious critical appreciation of Lovecraft's life and work.Leiber's first professional sale was \"Two Sought Adventure\" (''Unknown'', August 1939), which introduced his most famous characters, Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser.", "In 1943, his first two novels were serialized in ''Unknown'' (the supernatural horror-oriented ''Conjure Wife'', inspired by his experiences on the faculty of Occidental College) and ''Astounding Science Fiction'' (''Gather, Darkness'').1947 marked the publication of his first book, ''Night's Black Agents'', a short story collection containing seven stories grouped as 'Modern Horrors', one as a 'Transition', and two grouped as 'Ancient Adventures': \"The Sunken Land\" and \"Adept's Gambit\", which are both stories of Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser.The science fiction novel ''Gather, Darkness'' followed in 1950.It deals with a futuristic world that follows the Second Atomic Age which is ruled by scientists, until in the throes of a new Dark Age, the witches revolt.In 1951, Leiber was Guest of Honor at the World Science Fiction Convention in New Orleans.", "Further novels followed during the 1950s, and in 1958 ''The Big Time'' won the Hugo Award for Best Novel.Leiber continued to publish in the 1960s.", "His novel ''The Wanderer'' (1964) also won the Hugo for Best Novel.", "In the novel, an artificial planet nicknamed the Wanderer materializes from hyperspace within earth's orbit.", "The Wanderer's gravitational field captures the moon and shatters it into something like one of Saturn's rings.", "On Earth, the Wanderer's gravity well triggers earthquakes, tsunamis, and tidal phenomena.", "The multi-threaded plot follows the exploits of an ensemble cast as they struggle to survive the global disaster.In the same period, Leiber published \"Black Gondolier\", a short story in which a protagonist uncovers a cosmic conspiracy in which oil from ancient fossils preys upon human beings and human civilizations.", "Leiber received the Hugo Award for Best Novella in 1970 and 1971 for \"Ship of Shadows\" (1969) and \"Ill Met in Lankhmar\" (1970).", "\"Gonna Roll the Bones\" (1967), his contribution to Harlan Ellison's ''Dangerous Visions'' anthology, won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette and the Nebula Award for Best Novelette in 1968.", "''Our Lady of Darkness'' (1977), originally serialized in short form in ''The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction'' under the title \"The Pale Brown Thing\" (1977), featured cities as the breeding grounds for new types of elementals called paramentals, summonable by the dark art of megapolisomancy, with such activities centering on the Transamerica Pyramid.", "Its main characters include Franz Westen, Jaime Donaldus Byers, and the magician Thibault de Castries.", "''Our Lady of Darkness'' won the World Fantasy Award—Novel.Leiber also wrote the 1966 novelization of the Clair Huffaker screenplay of ''Tarzan and the Valley of Gold''.Many of Leiber's most acclaimed works are short stories, especially in the horror genre.", "Owing to such stories as \"The Smoke Ghost\", \"The Girl With the Hungry Eyes\", and \"You're All Alone\" (later expanded as ''The Sinful Ones''), he is one of the forerunners of the modern urban horror story.", "Leiber also challenged the conventions of science fiction through reflexive narratives such as \"A Bad Day For Sales\" (first published in ''Galaxy Science Fiction'', July 1953), in which the protagonist, Robie, \"America’s only genuine mobile salesrobot\", references the title character of Isaac Asimov's idealistic robot story, \"Robbie\".", "Questioning Isaac Asimov's Three Laws of Robotics, Leiber imagines the futility of automatons in a post-apocalyptic New York City.", "In his later years, Leiber returned to short story horror in such works as \"Horrible Imaginings\", \"Black Has Its Charms\" and the award-winning \"The Button Moulder\".The short parallel worlds story \"Catch That Zeppelin!\"", "(1975) won the Hugo Award for Best Short Story and the Nebula Award for Best Short Story in 1976.It presents an alternate reality much better than our own, as opposed to the usual parallel universe story depicting a world worse than our own.", "\"Belsen Express\" (1975) won the World Fantasy Award—Short Fiction.", "Both stories reflect Leiber's uneasy fascination with Nazism, an uneasiness compounded by his mixed feelings about his German ancestry and his philosophical pacifism during World War II.Leiber was named the second Gandalf Grand Master of Fantasy by participants in the 1975 World Science Fiction Convention (Worldcon), after the posthumous inaugural award to J. R. R. Tolkien.", "Next year he won the World Fantasy Award for Life Achievement.", "He was Guest of Honor at the 1979 Worldcon in Brighton, England (1979).", "The Science Fiction Writers of America made him its fifth SFWA Grand Master in 1981; the Horror Writers Association made him an inaugural winner of the Bram Stoker Award for Lifetime Achievement in 1988 (named in 1987); and the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame inducted him in 2001, its sixth class of two deceased and two living writers.Leiber was a founding member of the Swordsmen and Sorcerers' Guild of America (SAGA), a loose-knit group of Heroic fantasy authors founded in the 1960s and led by Lin Carter.", "Some works by SAGA members were published in Lin Carter's ''Flashing Swords!''", "anthologies.", "Leiber himself is credited with inventing the term sword and sorcery for the particular subgenre of epic fantasy exemplified by his Fafhrd and Grey Mouser stories.In an appreciation in the July 1969 \"Special Fritz Leiber Issue\" of ''The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction'', Judith Merril writes of Leiber's connection with his readers: \"That this kind of ''personal'' response...is shared by thousands of other readers, has been made clear on several occasions.\"", "The November 1959 issue of ''Fantastic'', for instance: Leiber had just come out of one of his recurrent dry spells, and editor Cele Lalli bought up all his new material until there was enough five stories to fill an issue; the magazine came out with a big black headline across its cover — ''Leiber Is Back!''" ], [ "Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser", "His legacy has been consolidated by his most famous creations, the ''Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser'' stories, written over a span of 50 years.", "The first, \"Two Sought Adventure\", appeared in ''Unknown'', August 1939.The stories are about an unlikely pair of heroes found in and around the city of Lankhmar.", "Fafhrd was based on Leiber himself and the Mouser on his friend Harry Otto Fischer, and the two characters were created in a series of letters exchanged by the two in the mid-1930s.", "These stories were among the progenitors of many of the tropes of sword and sorcery.", "They are also notable among sword and sorcery stories in that, over the course of the stories, his two heroes mature, take on more responsibilities, and eventually settle down into marriage.Some Fafhrd and Mouser stories were recognized by annual genre awards: \"Scylla's Daughter\" (1961) was \"Short Story\" Hugo finalist, and \"Ill Met in Lankhmar\" (1970) won the \"Best Novella\" Hugo and Nebula Awards.", "Leiber's last major work, ''The Knight and Knave of Swords'' (1991), closed out the series while leaving room for possible sequels.", "In his last year, Leiber considered allowing other writers to continue the series, but his sudden death made this more difficult.", "One new Fafhrd and the Mouser novel, ''Swords Against the Shadowland'', by Robin Wayne Bailey, appeared in 1998.The stories influenced the shaping of sword and sorcery and other works.", "Joanna Russ' stories about thief-assassin Alyx (collected in 1976 in ''The Adventures of Alyx'') were in part inspired by Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser, and Alyx made guest appearances in two of Leiber's stories.", "Numerous writers have paid homage to the stories.", "For instance, Terry Pratchett's city of Ankh-Morpork bears something more than a passing resemblance to Lankhmar (acknowledged by Pratchett by the placing of the swordsman-thief \"The Weasel\" and his giant barbarian comrade \"Bravd\" in the opening scenes of the first Discworld novel).", "More recently, playing off the visit of Fafhrd and the Grey Mouser to our world in ''Adept's Gambit'' (set in second century B.C.", "Tyre), Steven Saylor's short story \"Ill Seen in Tyre\" takes his Roma Sub Rosa series hero Gordianus to the city of Tyre a hundred years later, where the two visitors from Nehwon are remembered as local legends.Fischer and Leiber contributed to the original design of the 1976 wargame ''Lankhmar'' from TSR." ], [ "Selected works", "===Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser series===# ''Two Sought Adventure'' (1958).", "Collection of six short stories.", "Later expanded and retitled as ''Swords Against Death''.# ''Swords and Deviltry'' (1970).", "Collection of 3 short stories.# ''Swords Against Death'' (1970).", "Collection of 10 short stories; an expanded edition of ''Two Sought Adventure''# ''Swords in the Mist'' (1968).", "Collection of 6 short stories.# ''Swords Against Wizardry'' (1968).", "Collection of 4 short stories.# ''The Swords of Lankhmar'' (1968).", "Expanded from \"Scylla's Daughter\" in ''Fantastic'', 1963.# ''Swords and Ice Magic'' (1977).", "Collection of 8 short stories.", "(Though see ''Rime Isle'' below.", ")# ''The Knight and Knave of Swords'' (1988).", "Collection of 4 short stories.", "Retitled ''Farewell to Lankhmar'' (2000, UK).# ''Ill Met In Lankhmar'' (Copyright 1970, published in book format 1996, The Science Fiction Collection Book Club.", ")===Novels and novellas===* ''Conjure Wife'' (originally appeared in ''Unknown Worlds'', April 1943) — This novel relates a college professor's discovery that his wife (and many other women) are regularly using magic against and for one another and their husbands.", "* ''Gather, Darkness!''", "(serialized in ''Astounding'', May, June, and July 1943) – a dystopian, satirical depiction of a future theocracy and the revolution that brings it down.", "* ''Destiny Times Three'' (1945, first in ''Astounding'') (reprinted 1957 as Galaxy Novel number 28)* ''The Sinful Ones'' (1953), an adulterated version of ''You're All Alone'' (1950 ''Fantastic Adventures'' abridged); Leiber rewrote the inserted passages and saw published a revised edition in 1980.", "* ''The Green Millennium'' (1953)* ''The Night of the Long Knives'' (''Amazing Science Fiction Stories'', January 1960)* ''The Big Time'' (expanded 1961 from a version serialized in ''Galaxy'', March and April 1958, which won a Hugo) — Change War series.", "Also available in ''Ship of Shadows'' (1979) – see Collections below.", "* ''The Silver Eggheads'' (1961; a shorter version was published in ''The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction'' in 1959)* ''The Wanderer'' (1964)* ''Tarzan and the Valley of Gold'' (1966) (novelisation of a Clair Huffaker screenplay)* ''A Specter Is Haunting Texas'' (1969)* ''You're All Alone'' (1972) (the first book edition includes two shorter works as well, a revised version was issued as ''The Sinful Ones'')* ''Our Lady of Darkness'' (1977) This novel, the title of which is drawn from Thomas de Quincey's ''Suspiria de Profundis'', was published the same year as the release of Dario Argento's ''Suspiria'', which referenced the same idea in de Quincey.", "It also makes fictional reference to fellow novelists Jack London, Clark Ashton Smith and H. P. Lovecraft and others.", "* ''Rime Isle'' (1977) (somewhere between a novella and a two-novelette collection, composed of \"The Frost Monstreme\" and \"Rime Isle\" offered as a unitary volume)* ''Ervool'' (Cheap Street, 1980—limited ed of 200 numbered copies).", "A standalone edition of a short story originally published in the 1940s fanzine ''The Acolyte''.", "* ''The Dealings of Daniel Kesserich'' (1997) — H. P. Lovecraftian novella written in 1936 and lost for decades* ''Dark Ladies'' (NY: Tor Books, 1999).", "Omnibus edition of ''Conjure Wife'' and ''Our Lady of Darkness''===Collections===* ''Night's Black Agents'' (Arkham House, 1947).", "Reprinted by Berkley, 1978 with the addition of two stories – \"The Girl With the Hungry Eyes\" and \"A Bit of the Dark World\".", "The definitive hardcover edition is the Gregg Press (1980) edition, which adds a foreword by Richard Powers to the complete contents of the Berkley edition.", "* ''The Mind Spider and Other Stories'' (1961).", "Collection of 6 short stories.", "* ''Shadows With Eyes'' (1962).", "Collection of 6 short stories.", "* ''A Pail of Air'' (1964).", "Collection of 11 short stories.", "* ''Ships to the Stars'' (1964).", "Collection of 6 short stories.", "* ''The Night of the Wolf'' (1966).", "Collection of 4 short stories.", "* ''The Secret Songs'' (1968).", "Collection of 11 short stories.", "* ''Night Monsters'' (1969).", "Collection of 4 short stories.", "UK (1974) edition drops 1 story and adds 4.", "* ''The Best of Fritz Leiber'' (1974).", "Collection of 22 short stories.", "(Introduction by Poul Anderson, \"The Wizard of Nehwon\")* ''The Book of Fritz Leiber'' (1974).", "Collection of 10 stories and 9 articles.", "* ''The Second Book of Fritz Leiber'' (1975).", "Collection of 4 stories, 1 play, and 6 articles.", "* ''The Worlds of Fritz Leiber'' (Ace Books, 1976).", "Collection of 22 short stories including \"Catch That Zeppelin!\".", "* ''Bazaar of the Bizarre'' (1978)* ''Heroes and Horrors'' (1978).", "Collection of 9 stories.", "* ''Ship of Shadows'' (1979).", "Collection of 5 award-winning short stories 3 stories 2 novellas & 1 novel''The BigTime''.", "* ''Changewar'' (1983).", "Collection of the Changewar short stories (7 stories).", "* ''The Ghost Light'' (1984).", "Collection of 9 stories with illustrations and an autobiographic essay with photographs.", "* ''The Leiber Chronicles'' (1990) Collection of 44 short stories.", "* ''Gummitch and Friends'' (1992).", "Leiber's cat stories, the first five of which feature Gummitch.", "* ''Ill Met in Lankhmar'' (White Wolf Publishing, 1995, ) combines ''Swords and Deviltry'' (1970) and ''Swords Against Death'' (1970).", "* ''Lean Times in Lankhmar'' (White Wolf Publishing, 1996, ) combines ''Swords in the Mist'' (1970) and ''Swords Against Wizardry'' (1970)* ''Return to Lankhmar'' (White Wolf Publishing, 1997, ) combines ''The Swords of Lankhmar'' (1968) and ''Swords and Ice Magic'' (1977)* ''Farewell to Lankhmar'' (White Wolf Publishing, 1999, )* ''The Black Gondolier'' (2000) Collection of 18 short stories.", "* ''Smoke Ghost and Other Apparitions'' (2002) Collection of 18 short stories.", "* ''Day Dark, Night Bright'' (Collection of 20 short stories, 2002)* ''Horrible Imaginings'' (2004) Collection of 15 short stories.", "* ''Strange Wonders'' (Subterranean Press, 2010).", "Edited by Benjamin Szumskyj.", "Collection of 48 unpublished and uncollected works (drafts, fragments, poems, essays, and a play).", "* ''Fritz Leiber: Selected Stories'' (Night Shade Books, 2010).", "Edited by Jonathan Strahan and Charles N. Brown.", "Collection of 17 stories, with an introduction by Neil Gaiman.===Plays===* ''Quicks Around the Zodiac: A Farce''.", "(Newcastle, VA: Cheap Street, 1983).", "(Reprinted in ''Strange Wonders'', 2010).===Essays===* ''The Mystery of the Japanese Clock''.", "A standalone essay on the workings of a digital Japanese clock.", "Montgolfier Press, 1982, with Introduction by his son Justin Leiber.", "(Reprinted in ''Strange Wonders'', 2010).===Poetry===* ''Demons of the Upper Air'' (Glendale, CA: Roy A. Squires, 1969).", "* '' Sonnets to Jonquil and All'' (Glendale, CA: Roy A. Squires, 1978).===Screen adaptations===''Conjure Wife'' has been made into feature films four times under other titles:* ''Weird Woman'' (1944) starring Lon Chaney Jr. One of six Inner Sanctum mystery films made by Universal Studios based upon the old Inner Sanctum radio series.", "* ''Conjure Wife'' was also adapted for the 1960 TV series ''Moment of Fear'' (episode title \"The Accomplice\")* ''Night of the Eagle'' (also known as ''Burn, Witch, Burn!'')", "(1962) (screenplay by Charles Beaumont, Richard Matheson and George Baxt, directed by Sidney Hayers, produced by Albert Fennell)* ''Witches' Brew'' (also known as ''Which Witch is Which?'')", "(1980) Directed by Richard Shore and starring Teri Garr and Richard Benjamin.", "\"The Girl with the Hungry Eyes\" was filmed under that title by Kastenbaum Films in 1995.", "(This film is not to be confused with the 1967 William Rotsler film ''The Girl with the Hungry Eyes'' which is entirely unrelated to Leiber's story).Two Leiber stories were filmed for TV for Rod Serling's ''Night Gallery''.", "These were \"The Girl with the Hungry Eyes\" (1970) (adapted by Robert M. Young and directed by John Badham) and \"The Dead Man\" (adapted and directed by Douglas Heyes)." ], [ "See also", "* International Fortean Organization" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''Fantastic'', November 1959* ''The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction'', July 1969* ''The Silver Eel'' (1978).", "edited by Robert P.", "Barker.", "* ''Fantasy Commentator'' double issue No 57/58 (2004).", "Edited by Benjamin J. Szumskyj for publisher A. Langley Searles.", "Contains a wealth of critical essays on Leiber's work, together with three poems by Leiber: \"Challenge\", \"Ghosts\" and \"The Grey Mouser\".", "* A bibliography of Leiber's work is ''Fritz Leiber: A Bibliography 1934–1979'' by Chris Morgan (Birmingham, UK: Morgenstern, 1979).", "It is fairly definitive as to the date of publication but Leiber's work badly needs an updated comprehensive bibliography.", "* Jeff Frane.", "''Fritz Leiber'' (Mercer Island, WA: Starmont House/Borgo Press, 1980) was the first full-length monograph on Leiber's life and literary work.", "* Tom Staicar.", "''Fritz Leiber'' (New York: Fredrick Ungar Publishing Co., 1983).", "* Bruce Byfield.", "* Benjamin J. Szumskyj (ed.).", "''Fritz Leiber: Critical Essays''.", "(2007)* John Howard.", "\"In Smoke and Soot I Will Worship: The Ghost Stories of Fritz Leiber\".", "''All Hallows'' 4 (1993); ''Fantasy Commentator'' 57/58 (2004); in Howard's ''Touchstones: Essays on the Fantastic''.", "Staffordshire UK: Alchemy Press, 2014.", "* John Howard.", "\"The Addition of Secondary Narratives\".", "''Fantasy Commentator'' 57/58 (2004); expanded as \"Storytelling wonder-questing, mortal me: The transformation of 'The Pale Brown Thing' into ''Our Lady of Darkness'' in Szumskyj (2007); in Howard's ''Touchstones: Essays on the Fantastic''.", "Staffordshire UK: Alchemy Press, 2014.", "* Includes an essay examining Leiber's literary relationship with H. P. Lovecraft (\"Passing the Torch: H. P. Lovecraft and Fritz Leiber\")." ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * * * * Lankhmar The Fritz Leiber Home Page" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Flanders" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Flanders''' (, ; Dutch: ''Vlaanderen'' ) is the Dutch-speaking northern portion of Belgium and one of the communities, regions and language areas of Belgium.", "However, there are several overlapping definitions, including ones related to culture, language, politics, and history, and sometimes involving neighbouring countries.", "The demonym associated with Flanders is Fleming, while the corresponding adjective is Flemish, which can also refer to the collective of Dutch dialects spoken in that area (or, less commonly, the Belgian variant of Standard Dutch).", "The official capital of Flanders is the City of Brussels, although the Brussels-Capital Region that includes it has an independent regional government.", "The powers of the government of Flanders consist, among others, of economic affairs in the Flemish Region and the community aspects of Flanders life in Brussels, such as Flemish culture and education.Geographically, Flanders is mainly flat, and has a small section of coast on the North Sea.", "It borders the French department of Nord to the south-west near the coast, the Dutch provinces of Zeeland, North Brabant and Limburg to the north and east, and the Walloon provinces of Hainaut, Walloon Brabant and Liège to the south.", "Despite accounting for only 45% of Belgium's territory, more than half the population lives there – 6,653,062 (or 57%) out of 11,431,406 Belgian inhabitants.", "Much of Flanders is agriculturally fertile and densely populated at .", "The Brussels Region is an officially bilingual enclave within the Flemish Region.", "Flanders also has exclaves of its own: Voeren in the east is between Wallonia and the Netherlands and Baarle-Hertog in the north consists of 22 exclaves surrounded by the Netherlands.", "Not including Brussels, there are five present-day Flemish provinces: Antwerp, East Flanders, Flemish Brabant, Limburg and West Flanders.", "The official language is Dutch.", "The area of today's Flanders has figured prominently in European history since the Middle Ages.", "The original County of Flanders stretched around AD 900 from the Strait of Dover to the Scheldt estuary and expanded from there.", "This county also still corresponds roughly with the modern-day Belgian provinces of West Flanders and East Flanders, along with neighbouring parts of France and the Netherlands.", "In this period, cities such as Ghent and Bruges of the historic County of Flanders, and later Antwerp of the Duchy of Brabant made it one of the richest and most urbanised parts of Europe, trading, and weaving the wool of neighbouring lands into cloth for both domestic use and export.", "As a consequence, a very sophisticated culture developed, with impressive achievements in the arts and architecture, rivaling those of northern Italy.Belgium was one of the centres of the 19th-century Industrial Revolution, but this occurred mainly in French-speaking Wallonia.", "In the second half of the 20th century, and due to massive national investments in port infrastructure, Flanders' economy modernised rapidly, and today Flanders and Brussels are much wealthier than Wallonia, being among the wealthiest regions in Europe and the world.", "In accordance with late 20th century Belgian state reforms, Flanders was made into two political entities: the Flemish Region () and the Flemish Community ().", "These entities were merged, although geographically the Flemish Community, which has a broader cultural mandate, covers Brussels, whereas the Flemish Region does not." ], [ "Terminology", "=== Modern Belgium ===The term \"Flanders\" has several main modern meanings:* The \"Flemish community\" or \"Flemish nation\", i.e.", "the social, cultural and linguistic, scientific and educational, economical and political community of the Flemings.", "For most purposes this is considered to include the 6.5 million Belgians (approximately 60%) who consider Dutch to be their mother tongue, including many people living in the Brussels-Capital Region.", "* In the context of the political subdivisions of Belgium there are the Flemish Region (competent in mainly economic matters) and the Flemish Community (competent in mainly cultural matters).", "The first does not comprise Brussels (which forms a Region by itself), whereas the latter does comprise the Dutch-speaking inhabitants of Brussels.", "* The political institutions that govern both subdivisions: the operative body or \"Flemish Government\", and the legislative organ or \"Flemish Parliament\".", "* Within Belgian discussions, the two westernmost provinces of the Flemish Region, West Flanders and East Flanders, forming the central portion of the historic County of Flanders are also still collectively referred to as Flanders.=== Historical ===The name originally applied to the ''ancien régime'' territory called the County of Flanders, that existed from the 8th century (Latin ''Flandria'') until its absorption by the French First Republic.", "Until the 1600s, this county also extended over parts of what are now France and the Netherlands.", "* In France, one of the historically Flemish regions is now in the Nord department.", "This is referred to as French Flanders, and can be divided into two smaller regions: Walloon Flanders and Maritime Flanders (Westhoek).", "The first region was predominantly French-speaking already in the 1600s, the latter became so in the 20th century.", "The city of Lille identifies itself as \"Flemish\", and this is reflected, for instance, in the name of its local railway station TGV ''Lille Flandres''.", "* The historically Flemish region which became part of the Dutch Republic, now part of the Dutch province of Zeeland, sometimes called Zeelandic Flanders.Especially in international discussions, the significance of the County of Flanders and its counts eroded over time, but the designation was used for a bigger territory.", "\"Flanders\" (and Latin \"Belgium\") were the first two common names used for the Burgundian Netherlands.", "With the breakaway of the northern Netherlands in the early modern period, the term Flanders continued to be associated with the whole southern part of the Low Countries—the Southern, Spanish or Austrian Netherlands, which were the successors of the Burgundian state, and predecessors of modern Belgium.=== Dutch-speaking part of Belgium ===The term \"Flemish\" came to be a term for the language Dutch, and during the 19th and 20th centuries, it became increasingly common to refer exclusively to the Dutch-speaking part of Belgium as \"Flanders\".", "Belgium divided itself into official French- and Dutch-speaking parts starting in the early '60s.", "Today Flanders extends over the northern part of Belgium, including not only the Dutch-speaking Belgian parts of the medieval Duchy of Brabant, which was united with Flanders since the Middle Ages, but also Belgian Limburg, which corresponds closely to the medieval County of Loon, and was never under Burgundian control.The ambiguity between this wider cultural area and that of the county or province still remains in discussions about the region.", "In most present-day contexts however, the term Flanders is taken to refer to either the political, social, cultural, and linguistic community (and the corresponding official institution, the Flemish Community), or the geographical area, one of the three institutional regions in Belgium, namely the Flemish Region.In the history of art and other fields, the adjectives Flemish and Netherlandish are commonly used to designate all the artistic production in this area before about 1580, after which it refers specifically to the southern Netherlands.", "For example, the term \"Flemish Primitives\", now outdated in English but used in French, Dutch and other languages, is a synonym for \"Early Netherlandish painting\", and it is not uncommon to see Mosan art categorized as Flemish art.", "In music the ''Franco-Flemish School'' is also known as the ''Dutch School''.Within this Dutch-speaking part of Belgium, French has never ceased to be spoken by some citizens and Jewish groups have been speaking Yiddish in Antwerp for centuries.", "Regardless of nationality or linguistic background, according to Belgian Law education in schools located in the Flemish Region must be mainly in the Dutch language.", "In Brussels, teaching is also done in French." ], [ "History", "=== Early history ===When Julius Caesar conquered the area he described it as the less economically developed and more warlike part of ''Gallia Belgica''.", "His informants told him that especially in the east, the tribes claimed ancestral connections and kinship with the \"Germanic\" peoples then east of the Rhine.", "Under the Roman empire the whole of ''Gallia Belgica'' became an administrative province.", "The future counties of Flanders and Brabant remained part of this province connected to what is now France, but in the east modern Limburg became part of the Rhine frontier province of ''Germania Inferior'' connected to what is now the Netherlands and Germany.", "''Gallia Belgica'' and ''Germania Inferior'' were the two most northerly continental provinces of the Roman empire.In the future county of Flanders, the main Belgic tribe in early Roman times was the Menapii, but also on the coast were the Marsacii and Morini.", "In the central part of modern Belgium were the Nervii, whose territory corresponded to medieval Brabant as well as French-speaking Hainaut.", "In the east was the large district of the Tungri which covered both French- and Dutch-speaking parts of eastern Belgium.", "The Tungri were understood to have links to Germanic tribes east of the Rhine.", "Another notable group were the Toxandrians who appear to have lived in the Kempen region, in the northern parts of both the Nervian and Tungrian districts, probably stretching into the modern Netherlands.", "The Roman administrative districts (''civitates'') of the Menapii, Nervii and Tungri therefore corresponded roughly with the medieval counties of Flanders, Brabant and Loon, and the modern Flemish provinces of East and West Flanders (Menapii), Brabant and Antwerp (the northern Nervii), and Belgian Limburg (part of the Tungri).", "Brabant appears to have been separated from the Tungri by a relatively unpopulated forest area, the Silva Carbonaria, forming a natural boundary between northeast and southwest Belgium.Linguistically, the tribes in this area were under Celtic influence in the south, and Germanic influence in the east, but there is disagreement about what languages were spoken locally (apart from Vulgar Latin), and there may even have been an intermediate \"Nordwestblock\" language related to both.", "By the first century AD, Germanic languages appear to have become prevalent in the area of the Tungri.As Roman influence waned, Frankish populations settled in the Tungiran area east of the Silva Carbonaria, and eventually pushed through it under Chlodio.", "They had kings in each Roman district (''civitas'').", "In the meantime, the Franks contributed to the Roman military.", "The first Merovingian king Childeric I was king of the Franks within the military of Gaul.", "He became leader of the administration of ''Belgica Secunda'', which included the ''civitas'' of the Menapii (the future county of Flanders).", "From there, his son Clovis I managed to conquer both the Roman populations of northern France and the Frankish populations beyond the forest areas.=== Historical Flanders ===Lucas d'Heere in the 2nd half of the 16th century.", "Preserved in the Ghent University Library.The County of Flanders was a feudal fief in West Francia.", "The first certain Count in the comital family, Baldwin I of Flanders, is first reported in a document of 862, when he eloped with a daughter of his king Charles the Bald.", "The region developed as a medieval economic power with a large degree of political autonomy.", "While its trading cities remained strong, it was weakened and divided when districts fell under direct French royal rule in the late 12th century.", "The remaining parts of Flanders came under the rule of the counts of neighbouring imperial Hainaut under Baldwin V of Hainaut in 1191.During the late Middle Ages, Flanders's trading towns (notably Ghent, Bruges and Ypres) made it one of the richest and most urbanized parts of Europe, weaving the wool of neighbouring lands into cloth for both domestic use and export.", "As a consequence, a sophisticated culture developed, with impressive art and architecture, rivaling those of northern Italy.", "Ghent, Bruges, Ypres and the Franc of Bruges formed the Four Members, a form of parliament that exercised considerable power in Flanders.Increasingly powerful from the 12th century, the territory's autonomous urban communes were instrumental in defeating a French attempt at annexation (1300–1302), finally defeating the French in the Battle of the Golden Spurs (11 July 1302), near Kortrijk.", "Two years later, the uprising was defeated and Flanders indirectly remained part of the French Crown.", "Flemish prosperity waned in the following century, due to widespread European population decline following the Black Death of 1348, the disruption of trade during the Anglo-French Hundred Years' War (1337–1453), and increased English cloth production.", "Flemish weavers had gone over to Worstead and North Walsham in Norfolk in the 12th century and established the woolen industry.The County of Flanders started to take control of the neighbouring County of Brabant during the life of Louis II, Count of Flanders (1330-1384), who fought his sister-in-law Joanna, Duchess of Brabant for control of it.The entire area, straddling the ancient boundary of France and the Holy Roman Empire, later passed to Philip the Bold in 1384, the Duke of Burgundy, with his capital in Brussels.", "The titles were eventually more clearly united under his grandson Philip the Good (1396 – 1467).", "This large Duchy passed in 1477 to the Habsburg dynasty, and in 1556 to the kings of Spain.", "Western and southern districts of Flanders were confirmed under French rule under successive treaties of 1659 (Artois), 1668 and 1678.The County of Loon, approximately the modern Flemish province of Limburg, remained independent of France, forming a part of the Prince-Bishopric of Liège until the French Revolution, but surrounded by the Burgundians, and under their influence.=== Low Countries ======= Beeldenstorm ====In 1500, Charles V was born in Ghent.", "He inherited the Seventeen Provinces (1506), Spain (1516) with its colonies and in 1519 was elected Holy Roman Emperor.", "Charles V issued the Pragmatic Sanction of 1549, which established the Low Countries as the Seventeen Provinces (or Spanish Netherlands in its broad sense) as an entity separate from the Holy Roman Empire and from France.", "In 1556 Charles V abdicated due to ill health (he suffered from crippling gout).", "Spain and the Seventeen Provinces went to his son, Philip II of Spain.Over the first half of the 16th century Antwerp grew to become the second-largest European city north of the Alps by 1560.Antwerp was the richest city in Europe at this time.", "According to Luc-Normand Tellier \"It is estimated that the port of Antwerp was earning the Spanish crown seven times more revenues than the Americas.", "\"The Sack of Antwerp in 1576, in which about 7,000 people diedMeanwhile, Protestantism had reached the Low Countries.", "Among the wealthy traders of Antwerp, the Lutheran beliefs of the German Hanseatic traders found appeal, perhaps partly for economic reasons.", "The spread of Protestantism in this city was aided by the presence of an Augustinian cloister (founded 1514) in the St. Andries quarter.", "Luther, an Augustinian himself, had taught some of the monks, and his works were in print by 1518.The first Lutheran martyrs came from Antwerp.", "The Reformation resulted in consecutive but overlapping waves of reform: a Lutheran, followed by a militant Anabaptist, then a Mennonite, and finally a Calvinistic movement.", "These movements existed independently of each other.Philip II, a devout Catholic and self-proclaimed protector of the Counter-Reformation, suppressed Calvinism in Flanders, Brabant and Holland (what is now approximately Belgian Limburg was part of the Prince-Bishopric of Liège and was Catholic ''de facto'').", "In 1566, the wave of iconoclasm known as the ''Beeldenstorm'' was a prelude to religious war between Catholics and Protestants, especially the Anabaptists.", "The ''Beeldenstorm'' started in what is now French Flanders, with open-air sermons () that spread through the Low Countries, first to Antwerp and Ghent, and from there further east and north.==== The Eighty Years' War and its consequences ====Subsequently, Philip II of Spain sent the Duke of Alba to the Provinces to repress the revolt.", "Alba recaptured the southern part of the Provinces, who signed the Union of Atrecht, which meant that they would accept the Spanish government on condition of more freedom.", "But the northern part of the provinces signed the Union of Utrecht and settled in 1581 the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands.", "Spanish troops quickly started fighting the rebels, and the Spanish armies conquered the important trading cities of Bruges and Ghent.", "Antwerp, which was then the most important port in the world, also had to be conquered.", "But before the revolt was defeated, a war between Spain and England broke out, forcing Spanish troops to halt their advance.", "On 17 August 1585, Antwerp fell.", "This ended the Eighty Years' War for the (from now on) Southern Netherlands.", "The United Provinces (the Northern Netherlands) fought on until 1648 – the Peace of Westphalia.Winter scene by Sebastian Vrancx, 1622During the war with England, the rebels from the north, strengthened by refugees from the south, started a campaign to reclaim areas lost to Philip II's Spanish troops.", "They conquered a considerable part of Brabant (the later North Brabant of the Netherlands), and the south bank of the Scheldt estuary (Zeelandic Flanders), before being stopped by Spanish troops.", "The front at the end of this war stabilized and became the border between present-day Belgium and the Netherlands.", "The Dutch (as they later became known) had managed to reclaim enough of Spanish-controlled Flanders to close off the river Scheldt, effectively cutting Antwerp off from its trade routes.The fall of Antwerp to the Spanish and the closing of the Scheldt caused considerable emigration.", "Many Calvinist merchants of Antwerp and other Flemish cities left Flanders and migrated north.", "Many of them settled in Amsterdam, which was a smaller port, important only in the Baltic trade.", "The Flemish exiles helped to rapidly transform Amsterdam into one of the world's most important ports.", "This is why the exodus is sometimes described as \"''creating a new Antwerp''\".Flanders and Brabant, went into a period of relative decline from the time of the Thirty Years War.", "In the Northern Netherlands, the mass emigration from Flanders and Brabant became an important driving force behind the Dutch Golden Age.==== Southern Netherlands (1581–1795) ====1609 map of the county of FlandersAlthough arts remained relatively impressive for another century with Peter Paul Rubens (1577–1640) and Anthony van Dyck, Flanders lost its former economic and intellectual power under Spanish, Austrian, and French rule.", "Heavy taxation and rigid imperial political control compounded the effects of industrial stagnation and Spanish-Dutch and Franco-Austrian conflict.", "The Southern Netherlands suffered severely under the War of the Spanish Succession.", "But under the reign of Empress Maria-Theresia, these lands again flourished economically.", "Influenced by the Enlightenment, the Austrian Emperor Joseph II was the first sovereign who had been in the Southern Netherlands since King Philip II of Spain left them in 1559.==== French Revolution and Napoleonic France (1795–1815) ====In 1794, the French Republican Army started using Antwerp as the northernmost naval port of France.", "The following year, France officially annexed Flanders as the ''départements'' of Lys, Escaut, Deux-Nèthes, Meuse-Inférieure and Dyle.", "Obligatory (French) army service for all men aged 16–25 years was a main reason for the uprising against the French in 1798, known as the ''Boerenkrijg'' (''Peasants' War''), with the heaviest fighting in the Campine area.==== United Kingdom of the Netherlands (1815–1830) ====After the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte at the 1815 Battle of Waterloo in Brabant, the Congress of Vienna (1815) gave sovereignty over the Austrian Netherlands – Belgium minus the East Cantons and Luxembourg – to the United Netherlands (Dutch: ''Verenigde Nederlanden'') under Prince William I of Orange Nassau, making him William I of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.", "William I started rapid industrialisation of the southern parts of the Kingdom.", "But the political system failed to forge a true union between the north and south.", "Most of the southern bourgeoisie was Roman Catholic and French-speaking, while the north was mainly Protestant and Dutch-speaking.In 1815, the Dutch Senate was reinstated (Dutch: ''Eerste Kamer der Staaten Generaal'').", "The nobility, mainly coming from the south, became more and more estranged from their northern colleagues.", "Resentment grew between the Roman Catholics from the south and the Protestants from the north, and also between the powerful liberal bourgeoisie from the south and their more moderate colleagues from the north.", "On 25 August 1830 (after the showing of the opera 'La Muette de Portici' of Daniel Auber in Brussels) the Belgian Revolution sparked.", "On 4 October 1830, the Provisional Government (Dutch: ''Voorlopig Bewind'') proclaimed its independence, which was later confirmed by the National Congress that issued a new Liberal Constitution and declared the new state a Constitutional Monarchy, under the House of Saxe-Coburg.", "Flanders now became part of the Kingdom of Belgium, which was recognized by the major European Powers on 20 January 1831.The cessation was recognized by the United Kingdom of the Netherlands on 19 April 1839.=== Kingdom of Belgium ===In 1830, the Belgian Revolution led to the splitting up of the two countries.", "Belgium was confirmed as an independent state by the Treaty of London of 1839, but deprived of the eastern half of Limburg (now Dutch Limburg), and the Eastern half of Luxembourg (now the Grand-Duchy of Luxembourg).", "Sovereignty over Zeelandic Flanders, south of the Westerscheldt river delta, was left with the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which was allowed to levy a toll on all traffic to Antwerp harbour until 1863.==== Rise of the Flemish Movement ====In 1873, Dutch became an official language in public secondary schools.", "In 1898, Dutch and French were declared equal languages in laws and Royal orders.", "In 1930, the first Flemish university was opened.The first official translation of the Belgian constitution in Dutch was not published until 1967.==== World War I and its consequences ====Koksijde, a memorial to soldiers killed in World War IFlanders (and Belgium as a whole) saw some of the greatest loss of life on the Western Front of the First World War, in particular from the three battles of Ypres.The war strengthened Flemish identity and consciousness.", "The occupying German authorities took several Flemish-friendly measures.", "The resulting suffering of the war is remembered by Flemish organizations during the yearly Yser pilgrimage in Diksmuide at the monument of the Yser Tower.==== Right-wing nationalism in the interbellum and World War II ====During the interbellum and World War II, several right-wing fascist and/or national-socialistic parties emerged in Belgium.", "Since these parties were promised more rights for the Flemings by the German government during World War II, many of them collaborated with the Nazi regime.", "After the war, collaborators (or people who were ''Zwart'', \"Black\" during the war) were prosecuted and punished, among them many Flemish nationalists whose main political goal had been the emancipation of Flanders.", "As a result, until today Flemish nationalism is often associated with right-wing.", "Flemish nationalism is however a direct consequence of the events of the years prior to the first World War, in which many were oppressed by the French speaking majority.", "This ultimately gave way to a rising feeling of cultural autonomy and even a sense of a nationalism.==== Flemish autonomy ====After World War II, the differences between Dutch-speaking and French-speaking Belgians became clear in a number of conflicts, such as the Royal Question, the question whether King Leopold III should return (which most Flemings supported but Walloons did not) and the use of Dutch in the Catholic University of Leuven.", "As a result, several state reforms took place in the second half of the 20th century, which transformed the unitary Belgium into a federal state with communities, regions and language areas.", "This resulted also in the establishment of a Flemish Parliament and Government.", "During the 1970s, all major political parties split into a Dutch and French-speaking party.Several Flemish parties still advocate for more Flemish autonomy, some even for Flemish independence (see Partition of Belgium), whereas the French-speakers would like to keep the current state as it is.", "Recent governments (such as Verhofstadt I Government) have transferred certain federal competences to the regional governments.On 13 December 2006, a spoof news broadcast by the Belgian Francophone public broadcasting station RTBF announced that Flanders had decided to declare independence from Belgium.The 2007 federal elections showed more support for Flemish autonomy, marking the start of the 2007–2011 Belgian political crisis.", "All the political parties that advocated a significant increase of Flemish autonomy gained votes as well as seats in the Belgian federal parliament.", "This was especially the case for Christian Democratic and Flemish and New Flemish Alliance (N-VA) (who had participated on a shared electoral list).", "The trend continued during the 2009 regional elections, where CD&V and N-VA were the clear winners in Flanders, and N-VA became even the largest party in Flanders and Belgium during the 2010 federal elections, followed by the longest-ever government formation after which the Di Rupo I Government was formed excluding N-VA.", "Eight parties agreed on a sixth state reform which aim to solve the disputes between Flemings and French-speakers.", "However, the 2012 provincial and municipal elections continued the trend of N-VA becoming the biggest party in Flanders.However, sociological studies show no parallel between the rise of nationalist parties and popular support for their agenda.", "Instead, a recent study revealed a majority in favour of returning regional competences to the federal level." ], [ "Government and politics", "Kris Peeters, former Minister-President of Flanders, promoting Flanders in ActionBoth the Flemish Community and the Flemish Region are constitutional institutions of the Kingdom of Belgium, exercising certain powers within their jurisdiction, granted following a series of state reforms.", "In practice, the Flemish Community and Region together form a single body, with its own parliament and government, as the Community legally absorbed the competences of the Region.", "The parliament is a directly elected legislative body composed of 124 representatives.", "The government consists of up to 11 members and is presided by a Minister-President, currently Geert Bourgeois (New Flemish Alliance) leading a coalition of his party (N-VA) with Christen-Democratisch en Vlaams (CD&V) and Open Vlaamse Liberalen en Democraten (Open VLD).The area of the Flemish Community is represented on the maps above, including the area of the Brussels-Capital Region (hatched on the relevant map).", "Roughly, the Flemish Community exercises competences originally oriented towards the individuals of the Community's language: culture (including audiovisual media), education, and the use of the language.", "Extensions to personal matters less directly associated with language comprise sports, health policy (curative and preventive medicine), and assistance to individuals (protection of youth, social welfare, aid to families, immigrant assistance services, etc.", ")The area of the Flemish Region is represented on the maps above.", "It has a population of more than 6 million (excluding the Dutch-speaking community in the Brussels Region, grey on the map for it is not a part of the Flemish Region).", "Roughly, the Flemish Region is responsible for territorial issues in a broad sense, including economy, employment, agriculture, water policy, housing, public works, energy, transport, the environment, town and country planning, nature conservation, credit, and foreign trade.", "It supervises the provinces, municipalities, and intercommunal utility companies.The number of Dutch-speaking Flemish people in the Capital Region is estimated to be between 11% and 15% (official figures do not exist as there is no language census and no official subnationality).", "According to a survey conducted by the University of Louvain (UCLouvain) in Louvain-la-Neuve and published in June 2006, 51% of respondents from Brussels claimed to be bilingual, even if they do not have Dutch as their first language.", "They are governed by the Brussels Region for economics affairs and by the Flemish Community for educational and cultural issues.The Flemish ParliamentAs mentioned above, Flemish institutions such as the Flemish Parliament and Government, represent the Flemish Community and the Flemish Region.", "The region and the community thus ''de facto'' share the same parliament and the same government.", "All these institutions are based in Brussels.", "Nevertheless, both types of subdivisions (the Community and the Region) still exist legally and the distinction between both is important for the people living in Brussels.", "Members of the Flemish Parliament who were elected in the Brussels Region cannot vote on affairs belonging to the competences of the Flemish Region.The official language for all Flemish institutions is Dutch.", "French enjoys a limited official recognition in a dozen municipalities along the borders with French-speaking Wallonia, and a large recognition in the bilingual Brussels Region.", "French is widely known in Flanders, with 59% claiming to know French according to a survey conducted by UCLouvain in Louvain-la-Neuve and published in June 2006.=== Politics ===Historically, the political parties reflected the pillarisation (''verzuiling'') in Flemish society.", "The traditional political parties of the three pillars are Christian-Democratic and Flemish (CD&V), the Open Flemish Liberals and Democrats (Open Vld) and the Socialist Party – Differently (sp.a).However, during the last half century, many new political parties were founded in Flanders.", "One of the first was the nationalist People's Union, of which the right nationalist Flemish Block (now Flemish Interest) split off, and which later dissolved into the now-defunct Spirit or Social Liberal Party, moderate nationalism rather left of the spectrum, on the one hand, and the New Flemish Alliance (N-VA), more conservative but independentist, on the other hand.", "Other parties are the leftist alternative/ecological Green party; the short-lived anarchistic libertarian spark ROSSEM and more recently the conservative-right liberal List Dedecker, founded by Jean-Marie Dedecker, and the socialist Workers' Party.Particularly the Flemish Block/Flemish Interest has seen electoral success roughly around the turn of the century, and the New Flemish Alliance during the last few elections, even becoming the largest party in the 2010 federal elections.=== Flemish independence ===Border crossing sign near Menen.For some inhabitants, Flanders is more than just a geographical area or the federal institutions (Flemish Community and Region).", "Supporters of the Flemish Movement even call it a nation and pursue Flemish independence, but most people (approximately 75%) living in Flanders say they are proud to be Belgian and opposed to the dissolution of Belgium.", "20% is even ''very proud'', while some 25% are not proud and 8% is ''very not proud''.", "Mostly students claim to be proud of their nationality, with 90% of them saying so.", "Of the people older than 55, 31% claim to be proud of being a Belgian.", "Particular opposition to secession comes from women, people employed in services, the highest social classes and people from big families.", "Strongest of all opposing the notion are housekeepers—both housewives and house husbands.In 2012, the Flemish government drafted a \"Charter for Flanders\" (''Handvest voor Vlaanderen'') of which the first article says ''\"Vlaanderen is een deelstaat van de federale Staat België en maakt deel uit van de Europese Unie.\"''", "(\"Flanders is a component state of the federal State of Belgium and is part of the European Union\")." ], [ "Geography", "The Sonian ForestFlanders shares its borders with Wallonia in the south, Brussels being an enclave within the Flemish Region.", "The rest of the border is shared with the Netherlands (Zeelandic Flanders in Zeeland, North Brabant and Limburg) in the north and east, and with France (French Flanders in Hauts-de-France) and the North Sea in the west.", "Voeren is an exclave of Flanders between Wallonia and the Netherlands, while Baarle-Hertog in Flanders forms a complicated series of enclaves and exclaves with Baarle-Nassau in the Netherlands.", "Germany, although bordering Wallonia and close to Voeren in Limburg, does not share a border with Flanders.", "The German-speaking Community of Belgium, also close to Voeren, does not border Flanders either.", "(The commune of Plombières, majority French speaking, lies between them.", ")Flanders is a highly urbanised area, lying completely within the Blue Banana.", "Antwerp, Ghent, Bruges and Leuven are the largest cities of the Flemish Region.", "Antwerp has a population of more than 500,000 citizens and is the largest city, Ghent has a population of 250,000 citizens, followed by Bruges with 120,000 citizens and Leuven counts almost 100,000 citizens.Brussels is a part of Flanders as far as community matters are concerned, but does not belong to the Flemish Region.Flanders has two main geographical regions: the coastal Yser basin plain in the north-west and a central plain.", "The first consists mainly of sand dunes and clayey alluvial soils in the polders.", "Polders are areas of land, close to or below sea level that have been reclaimed from the sea, from which they are protected by dikes or, a little further inland, by fields that have been drained with canals.", "With similar soils along the lowermost Scheldt basin starts the central plain, a smooth, slowly rising fertile area irrigated by many waterways that reaches an average height of about above sea level with wide valleys of its rivers upstream as well as the Campine region to the east having sandy soils at altitudes around thirty metres.", "Near its southern edges close to Wallonia one can find slightly rougher land, richer in calcium, with low hills reaching up to and small valleys, and at the eastern border with the Netherlands, in the Meuse basin, there are marl caves (''mergelgrotten'').", "Its exclave around Voeren between the Dutch border and Wallonia's Liège Province attains a maximum altitude of above sea level.=== Administrative divisions ===Provinces of FlandersThe present-day '''Flemish Region''' covers and is divided into five provinces, 22 arrondissements and 308 cities or municipalities.", "Province Capital city Administrative arrondissements Municipalities Population Area Density 1 (''Antwerpen'') Antwerp (''Antwerpen'') Antwerp, Mechelen, Turnhout 69 1,875,524 2 (''Limburg'') Hasselt Hasselt, Maaseik, Tongeren 44 880,397 3 (''Oost-Vlaanderen'') Ghent (''Gent'') Aalst, Dendermonde, Eeklo, Ghent, Oudenaarde, Sint-Niklaas 65 1,531,745 4 (''Vlaams-Brabant'') Leuven Halle-Vilvoorde, Leuven 60 1,162,084 5 (''West-Vlaanderen'') Bruges (''Brugge'') Bruges, Diksmuide, Ypres, Kortrijk, Ostend, Roeselare, Tielt, Veurne 64 1,203,312 The province of Flemish Brabant is the most recently created, being formed in 1995 after the splitting of the province of Brabant on a linguistic basis.Most municipalities are made up of several former municipalities, now called ''deelgemeenten''.", "The largest municipality (both in terms of population and area) is Antwerp, having more than half a million inhabitants.", "Its nine ''deelgemeenten'' have a special status and are called districts, which have an elected council and a college.", "While any municipality with more than 100,000 inhabitants can establish districts, only Antwerp did this so far.", "The smallest municipality (also both in terms of population and area) is Herstappe (Limburg).Brussels-Capital Region with the City of Brussels (one of 19 municipalities) in redThe '''Flemish Community''' covers both the Flemish Region and, together with the French Community, the Brussels-Capital Region.", "Brussels, an enclave within the province of Flemish Brabant, is not divided into any province nor is it part of any.", "It coincides with the Arrondissement of Brussels-Capital and includes 19 municipalities.The Flemish Government has its own local institutions in the Brussels-Capital Region, being the ''Vlaamse Gemeenschapscommissie'' (VGC), and its municipal antennae (''Gemeenschapscentra'', community centres for the Flemish community in Brussels).", "These institutions are independent from the educational, cultural and social institutions that depend directly on the Flemish Government.", "They exert, among others, all those cultural competences that outside Brussels fall under the provinces." ], [ "Climate", "The climate is maritime temperate, with significant precipitation in all seasons (Köppen climate classification: ''Cfb''; the average temperature is in January, and in July; the average precipitation is in January, and in July)." ], [ "Economy", "The Port of Antwerp is the second largest in Europe.A12 with a railway in the centre.Total gross regional product (GRP) of Flanders in 2021 was €296 billion (excluding Brussels).", "Per capita GDP at purchasing power parity was 20% above the EU average.", "Flemish productivity per capita is about 13% higher than that in Wallonia, and wages are about 7% higher than in Wallonia.Flanders was one of the first continental European areas to undergo the Industrial Revolution, in the 19th century.", "Initially, the modernization relied heavily on food processing and textile.", "However, by the 1840s the textile industry of Flanders was in severe crisis and there was famine in Flanders (1846–50).", "After World War II, Antwerp and Ghent experienced a fast expansion of the chemical and petroleum industries.", "Flanders also attracted a large majority of foreign investments in Belgium.", "The 1973 and 1979 oil crises sent the economy into a recession.", "The steel industry remained in relatively good shape.", "In the 1980s and 90s, the economic centre of Belgium continued to shift further to Flanders and is now concentrated in the populous Flemish Diamond area.", "Nowadays, the Flemish economy is mainly service-oriented.Belgium is a founding member of the European Coal and Steel Community in 1951, which evolved into the present-day European Union.", "In 1999, the euro, the single European currency, was introduced in Flanders.", "It replaced the Belgian franc in 2002.The Flemish economy is strongly export-oriented, in particular of high value-added goods.", "The main imports are food products, machinery, rough diamonds, petroleum and petroleum products, chemicals, clothing and accessories, and textiles.", "The main exports are automobiles, food and food products, iron and steel, finished diamonds, textiles, plastics, petroleum products, and non-ferrous metals.", "Since 1922, Belgium and Luxembourg have been a single trade market within a customs and currency union—the Belgium–Luxembourg Economic Union.", "Its main trading partners are Germany, the Netherlands, France, the United Kingdom, Italy, the United States, and Spain.Antwerp is the number one diamond market in the world, diamond exports account for roughly 1/10 of Belgian exports.", "The Antwerp-based BASF plant is the largest BASF-base outside Germany, and accounts on its own for about 2% of Belgian exports.", "Other industrial and service activities in Antwerp include car manufacturing, telecommunications, photographic products.Flanders is home to several science and technology institutes, such as IMEC, VITO, Flanders DC, and Flanders Make.=== Infrastructure ===Flanders has developed an extensive transportation infrastructure of ports, canals, railways and highways.", "The Port of Antwerp is the second-largest in Europe, after Rotterdam.", "Other ports are Bruges-Zeebrugge, Ghent and Ostend, of which Zeebrugge and Ostend are located at the .Whereas railways are managed by the federal National Railway Company of Belgium, other public transport (De Lijn) and roads are managed by the Flemish region.The main airport is Brussels Airport, the only other civilian airport with scheduled services in Flanders is Antwerp International Airport, but there are two other ones with cargo or charter flights: Ostend-Bruges International Airport and Kortrijk-Wevelgem International Airport, both in West Flanders." ], [ "Demographics", "The highest population density is found in the area circumscribed by the Brussels-Antwerp-Ghent-Leuven agglomerations that surround Mechelen and is known as the Flemish Diamond, in other important urban centres as Bruges, Roeselare and Kortrijk to the west, and notable centres Turnhout and Hasselt to the east.", "On 1 January 2015, the Flemish Region had a population of 6,444,127 and about 15% of the 1,175,173 people in the Brussels Region are also considered Flemish.=== Religion ===A church in Houthalen.", "A typical church, similar to those in many villages in FlandersThe Belgian constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the various governments in general respect this right in practice.", "Since independence, Catholicism, counterbalanced by strong freethought movements, has had an important role in Belgium's politics, since the 20th century in Flanders mainly via the Christian trade union ACV and the Christian Democratic and Flemish party (CD&V).", "According to the ''2001 Survey and Study of Religion'', about 47 percent of the Belgian population identify themselves as belonging to the Catholic Church, while Islam is the second-largest religion at 3.5 percent.", "A 2006 inquiry in Flanders, considered more religious than Wallonia, showed that 55% considered themselves religious, and 36% believed that God created the world.Jews have been present in Flanders for a long time, in particular in Antwerp.", "More recently, Muslims have immigrated to Flanders, now forming the largest minority religion with about 3.9% in the Flemish Region and 25% in Brussels.", "The largest Muslim group is Moroccan in origin, while the second largest is Turkish in origin.=== Education ===Arenberg Castle, part of the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, the oldest university in Belgium and the Low Countries.Education is compulsory from the ages of six to 18, but most Flemings continue to study until around 23.Among the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development countries in 1999, Flanders had the third-highest proportion of 18- to 21-year-olds enrolled in postsecondary education.", "Flanders also scores very high in international comparative studies on education.", "Its secondary school students consistently rank among the top three for mathematics and science.", "However, the success is not evenly spread: ethnic minority youth score consistently lower, and the difference is larger than in most comparable countries.Mirroring the historical political conflicts between the secular and Catholic segments of the population, the Flemish educational system is split into a secular branch controlled by the communities, the provinces, or the municipalities, and a subsidised religious—mostly Catholic—branch.", "For the subsidised schools, the main costs such as the teacher's wages and building maintenance completely borne by the Flemish government.", "Subsidised schools are also free to determine their own teaching and examination methods, but in exchange, they must be able to prove that certain minimal terms are achieved by keeping records of the given lessons and exams.", "It should however be noted that—at least for the Catholic schools—the religious authorities have very limited power over these schools, neither do the schools have a lot of power on their own.", "Instead, the Catholic schools are a member of the Catholic umbrella organisation .", "The VSKO determines most practicalities for schools, like the advised schedules per study field.", "However, there's freedom of education in Flanders, which doesn't only mean that every pupil can choose his/her preferred school, but also that every organisation can found a school, and even be subsidised when abiding the different rules.", "This resulted also in some smaller school systems follow 'methodical pedagogies' (e.g.", "Steiner, Montessori, or Freinet) or serve the Jewish and Protestant minorities.During the school year 2003–2004, 68.30% of the total population of children between the ages of six and 18 went to subsidized private schools (both religious schools or 'methodical pedagogies' schools).The big freedom given to schools results in a constant competition to be the \"best\" school.", "The schools get certain reputations amongst parents and employers.", "So it's important for schools to be the best school since the subsidies depend on the number of pupils.", "This competition has been pinpointed as one of the main reasons for the high overall quality of the Flemish education.", "However, the importance of a school's reputation also makes schools more eager to expel pupils that don't perform well.", "Resulting in the ethnic differences and the well-known waterfall system: pupils start high in the perceived hierarchy, and then drop towards more professional oriented directions or \"easier\" schools when they can't handle the pressure any longer.=== Healthcare ===Healthcare is a federal matter, but the Flemish Government is responsible for care, health education and preventive care." ], [ "Culture", "=== Language and literature ===Gezelle in Bruges, by sculptor Jules LagaeThe standard language in Flanders is Dutch; spelling and grammar are regulated by a single authority, the Dutch Language Union (''Nederlandse Taalunie''), comprising a committee of ministers of the Flemish and Dutch governments, their advisory council of appointed experts, a controlling commission of 22 parliamentarians, and a secretariate.", "The term Flemish can be applied to the Dutch spoken in Flanders; it shows many regional and local variations.The biggest difference between Belgian Dutch and Dutch used in the Netherlands is in the pronunciation of words.", "The Dutch spoken in the north of the Netherlands is typically described as being \"sharper\", while Belgian Dutch is \"softer\".", "In Belgian Dutch, there are also fewer vowels pronounced as diphthongs.", "When it comes to spelling, Belgian Dutch language purists historically avoided writing words using a French spelling, or searched for specific translations of words derived from French, while the Dutch often retain the French spelling.", "For example, the Dutch word \"punaise\" (English: ''Drawing pin'') is derived directly from the French language.", "Belgian Dutch language purists have lobbied to accept the word \"duimspijker\" (literally: ''thumb spike'') as official Dutch, though the Dutch Language Union never accepted it as standard Dutch.", "Other proposals by purists were sometimes accepted, and sometimes reverted again in later spelling revisions.", "As language purists were quite often professionally involved in language (e.g.", "as a teacher), these unofficial purist translations are found more often in Belgian Dutch texts.The earliest example of literature in non-standardized dialects in the current area of Flanders is Hendrik van Veldeke's ''Eneas Romance'', the first courtly romance in a Germanic language (12th century).", "With a writer of Hendrik Conscience's stature, Flemish literature rose ahead of French literature in Belgium's early history.", "Guido Gezelle not only explicitly referred to his writings as Flemish but used it in many of his poems, and strongly defended it:'''Original''' from ''kleengedichtjes'' (1860?", ")Gij zegt dat 't vlaamsch te niet zal gaan:'t en zal!dat 't waalsch gezwets zal boven slaan:'t en zal!Dat hopen, dat begeren wij:dat zeggen en dat zweren wij:zoo lange als wij ons weren, wij:'t en zal, 't en zal,'t en zal!", "; TranslationYou say Flemish will fade away:It shan't!that Walloon twaddle will have its way:It shan't!This we hope, for this we hanker:this we say and this we vow:as long as we fight back, we:It shan't, It shan't,It shan't!The distinction between Dutch and Flemish literature, often perceived politically, is also made on intrinsic grounds by some experts such as Kris Humbeeck, professor of literature at the University of Antwerp.", "Nevertheless, most Dutch-language literature read (and appreciated to varying degrees) in Flanders is the same as that in the Netherlands.Influential Flemish writers include Ernest Claes, Stijn Streuvels and Felix Timmermans.", "Their novels mostly describe rural life in Flanders in the 19th century and at beginning of the 20th.", "Widely read by the older generations, they are considered somewhat old-fashioned by present-day critics.", "Some famous Flemish writers of the early 20th century wrote in French, including Nobel Prize winners (1911) Maurice Maeterlinck and Emile Verhaeren.", "They were followed by a younger generation, including Paul van Ostaijen and Gaston Burssens, who ''activated'' the Flemish Movement.", "Still widely read and translated into other languages (including English) are the novels of authors such as Willem Elsschot, Louis Paul Boon and Hugo Claus.", "The recent crop of writers includes the novelists Tom Lanoye and Herman Brusselmans, and poets such as the married couple Herman de Coninck and Kristien Hemmerechts.==== Languages ====At the creation of the Belgian state, French was the only official language.", "Historically Flanders was a Dutch-speaking region.", "For a long period, French was used as a second language and, like elsewhere in Europe, commonly spoken among the aristocracy.", "There is still a French-speaking minority in Flanders, especially in the municipalities with language facilities, along the language border and the Brussels periphery (Vlaamse Rand), though many of them are French-speakers that migrated to Flanders in recent decades.In French Flanders, French is the only official language and now the native language of the majority of the population, but there is still a minority of Dutch-speakers living there.", "French is also the primary language in the officially bilingual Brussels Capital Region (see Francization of Brussels).Many Flemings are also able to speak French, children in Flanders generally get their first French lessons in the 5th primary year (normally around 10 years).", "But the current lack of French outside the educational context makes it hard to maintain a decent level of French.", "As such, the proficiency of French is declining.", "Flemish pupils are also obligated to follow English lessons as their third language.", "Normally from the second secondary year (around 14 years old), but the ubiquity of English in movies, music, IT and even advertisements makes it easier to learn and maintain the English language.=== Media ===The public radio and television broadcaster in Flanders is VRT, which operates the TV channels één, Canvas, Ketnet, OP12 and (together with the Netherlands) BVN.", "Flemish provinces each have up to two TV channels as well.", "Commercial television broadcasters include vtm and Vier (VT4).", "Popular TV series are for example ''Thuis'' and ''F.C.", "De Kampioenen''.The five most successful Flemish films were ''Loft'' (2008; 1,186,071 visitors), ''Koko Flanel'' (1990; 1,082,000 tickets sold), ''Hector'' (1987; 933,000 tickets sold), ''Daens'' (1993; 848,000 tickets sold) and ''De Zaak Alzheimer'' (2003; 750,000 tickets sold).", "The first and last ones were directed by Erik Van Looy, and an American remake is being made of both of them, respectively ''The Loft'' (2012) and ''The Memory of a Killer''.", "The other three ones were directed by Stijn Coninx.Newspapers are grouped under three main publishers: De Persgroep with , the most popular newspaper in Flanders, ''De Morgen'' and ''De Tijd''.", "Then Corelio with '''', the oldest extant Flemish newspaper, and .", "Lastly, Concentra publishes and ''Het Belang van Limburg''.Magazines include ''Knack'' and ''HUMO''.=== Sports ===WTA Player of the Year in 2005 and 2010Association football (soccer) is one of the most popular sports in both parts of Belgium, together with cycling, tennis, swimming and judo.In cycling, the Tour of Flanders is considered one of the five \"Monuments\".", "Other \"Flanders Classics\" races include ''Dwars door Vlaanderen'' and Gent–Wevelgem.", "Eddy Merckx is widely regarded as the greatest cyclist of all time, with five victories in the Tour de France and numerous other cycling records.", "His hour speed record (set in 1972) stood for 12 years.Jean-Marie Pfaff, a former Belgian goalkeeper, is considered one of the greatest in the history of football (soccer).Kim Clijsters (as well as the French-speaking Belgian Justine Henin) was Player of the Year twice in the Women's Tennis Association as she was ranked the number one female tennis player.Kim Gevaert and Tia Hellebaut are notable track and field stars from Flanders.The 1920 Summer Olympics were held in Antwerp.", "Jacques Rogge was president of the International Olympic Committee from 2001 to 2013.The Flemish government agency for sports is Bloso.=== Music ===Flanders is known for its music festivals, like the annual Rock Werchter, Tomorrowland and Pukkelpop.", "The Gentse Feesten is another very large yearly event.The best-selling Flemish group or artist is the (Flemish-Dutch) group 2 Unlimited, followed by (Italian-born) Rocco Granata, Technotronic, Helmut Lotti and Vaya Con Dios.The weekly charts of best-selling singles is the Ultratop 50.", "\"Kvraagetaan\" by the Fixkes holds the current record for longest time at No.", "1 on the chart." ], [ "See also", "* Burgundian Netherlands* Count of Flanders* Flemish Movement* Flemish Parliament* Flemish Primitives* Seventeen Provinces" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* De Vries, André.", "''Flanders: a cultural history'' (Oxford University Press, 2007).", "excerpt* Demets, Lisa, Jan Dumolyn, and Els De Paermentier.", "\"Political ideology and the rewriting of history in fifteenth-century Flanders.\"", "''BMGN-THE LOW COUNTRIES HISTORICAL REVIEW'' 134.1 (2019): 73–95.online* * Humes, Samuel.", "''Belgium: Long United, Long Divided'' (2014) online" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
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[ [ "Freud (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Sigmund Freud''' (1856–1939) was the inventor of psychoanalysis, psychosexual stages, and the personality theory of Ego, Superego, and Id.", "'''Freud''' may also refer to:* Freud (crater), a lunar crater* Freud, a chimpanzee in the Kasakela community" ], [ "Arts and entertainment", "* ''Freud: The Secret Passion'', a 1962 film by John Huston and starring Montgomery Clift* ''Freud'' (miniseries), a 1984 mini-series starring David Suchet* ''Freud'' (TV series), a 2020 Netflix series starring Swiss actress Ella Rumpf" ], [ "People with the surname", "The Freud family:* Amalia Nathansohn Freud (1835–1930), mother of Sigmund, born at Brody* Anna Freud (1895-1982), daughter of Sigmund Freud, famous for contributions to child psychology and developmental psychology* Ernst Ludwig Freud (1892-1970), architect, son of Sigmund Freud** Lucian Freud, Ernst's son, painter*** Esther Freud, Lucian's daughter, novelist***Bella Freud, Lucian's daughter, fashion designer** Clement Freud, Ernst's son, English politician, writer, chef and raconteur*** Matthew Freud, Clement's son, publicist*** Emma Freud, Clement's daughter, journalist*Walter Freud (1921-2004), Sigmund's grandson, chemical engineer, member of Royal Pioneer Corps and British Special Operations Executive**David Freud, Baron Freud (b.", "1950), Walter's son, journalist, businessman, Parliamentary Under Secretary of State for Work and PensionsOther people:* Selma Freud (1877–?", "), Austrian physicist" ], [ "See also", "*Freudian slip* ''Freudian'' (album), an album by Daniel Caesar" ] ]
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[ [ "Plurality voting" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Plurality voting''' refers to electoral systems in which a candidate who polls more than any other (that is, receives a plurality) is elected.", "In systems based on single-member districts, it elects just one member per district and may also be referred to as first-past-the-post ('''FPTP'''), '''single-member plurality''' ('''SMP/SMDP'''), '''single-choice voting''' (an imprecise term as non-plurality voting systems may also use a single choice), '''simple plurality''' or '''relative majority''' (as opposed to an ''absolute majorit''y, where more than half of votes is needed, this is called ''majority voting'').", "A system that elects multiple winners elected at once with the plurality rule and where each voter casts multiple X votes in a multi-seat district is referred to as plurality block voting.", "A semi-proportional system that elects multiple winners elected at once with the plurality rule and where each voter casts just one vote in a multi-seat district is known as single non-transferable voting.Plurality voting is distinguished from ''majority voting'', in which a winning candidate must receive an absolute majority of votes: more than half of all votes (more than all other candidates combined if each voter has one vote).", "Under single-winner plurality voting, the leading candidate, whether or not they have a majority of votes, is elected.", "Not every single-winner winner-takes-all system is plurality voting; for example, instant-runoff voting is a non-plurality winner-takes-all system, because not all votes are taken as initially cast.Also, some plurality voting methods are close to proportional.", "For example limited voting and single non-transferable vote use plurality rules but are considered semi-proportional systems.Plurality voting is still used to elect members of a legislative assembly or executive officers in only a handful of countries, mostly in the English speaking world, for historical reasons.", "It is used in most elections in the United States, the lower house (Lok Sabha) in India and elections to the British House of Commons and English local elections in the United Kingdom, and federal and provincial elections in Canada.", "An example for a \"winner-take-all\" plurality voting is system used at the state-level for election of most of the Electoral College in United States presidential elections.", "This system is called party block voting, also called the general ticket.Proponents of electoral reform generally argue against plurality voting systems in favour of either other single winner systems (such as ranked-choice voting methods) or proportional representation (such as the single transferable vote or open list PR)." ], [ "Voting", "In single-winner plurality voting, each voter is allowed to vote for only one candidate, and the winner of the election is the candidate who represents a plurality of voters or, in other words, received more votes than any other candidate.", "That makes plurality voting among the simplest of all electoral systems for voters and vote counting officials; however, the drawing of district boundary lines can be contentious in the plurality system.In an election for a legislative body with single-member seats, each voter in a geographically defined electoral district may vote for one candidate from a list of the candidates who are competing to represent that district.", "Under the plurality system, the winner of the election then becomes the representative of the whole electoral district and serves with representatives of other electoral districts.In an election for a single seat, such as for president in a presidential system, the same style of ballot is used, and the winner is whichever candidate receives the highest number of votes.In the two-round system, usually the top two candidates in the first ballot progress to the second round, also called the runoff.In a multiple-member plurality election with ''n'' seats available, the winners are the ''n'' candidates with the highest numbers of votes.", "The rules may allow the voter to vote for one candidate, up to ''n'' candidates, or some other number.=== Single-member vs multi-member plurality voting ===Single-member plurality voting systems, often known as first past the post, is a simple system to use.", "The candidate who gets more votes than any of the other candidate(s) is the winning candidate.", "Depending on the number of candidates and their popularity within the community, it often happens that the winning candidate gets fewer votes than all the other candidates combined.", "This is sometimes called the spoiler effect.Multi-member plurality elections are only slightly more complicated.", "The ''n'' candidates who get more votes than the others are elected.===Ballot types===An example of a plurality ballotGenerally, plurality ballots can be categorized into two forms.", "The simplest form is a blank ballot in which the name of a candidate(s) is written in by hand.", "A more structured ballot will list all the candidates and allow a mark to be made next to the name of a single candidate (or more than one, in some cases); however, a structured ballot can also include space for a write-in candidate.===Examples of plurality voting===Plurality voting is used for local and/or national elections in 43 of the 193 countries that are members of the United Nations.", "It is particularly prevalent in the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada and India.====General elections in the United Kingdom====The United Kingdom, like the United States and Canada, uses single-member districts as the base for national elections.", "Each electoral district (constituency) chooses one member of parliament, the candidate who gets the most votes, whether or not they get at least 50% of the votes cast (\"first past the post\").", "In 1992, for example, a Liberal Democrat in Scotland won a seat (Inverness, Nairn and Lochaber) with just 26% of the votes.", "The system of single-member districts with plurality winners tends to produce two large political parties.", "In countries with proportional representation there is not such a great incentive to vote for a large party, which contributes to multi-party systems.Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland use the first-past-the-post system for UK general elections but versions of proportional representation for elections to their own assemblies and parliaments.", "All of the UK used one form or another of proportional representation for European Parliament elections.The countries that inherited the British majoritarian system tend toward two large parties: one left and the other right, such as the U.S. Democrats and Republicans.", "Canada is an exception, with three major political parties consisting of the New Democratic Party, which is to the left; the Conservative Party, which is to the right; and the Liberal Party, which is slightly off-centre but to the left.", "A fourth party that no longer has major party status is the separatist Bloc Québécois party, which is territorial and runs only in Quebec.", "New Zealand once used the British system, which yielded two large parties as well.", "It also left many New Zealanders unhappy because other viewpoints were ignored, which made the New Zealand Parliament in 1993 adopt a new electoral law modelled on Germany's system of proportional representation (PR) with a partial selection by constituencies.", "New Zealand soon developed a more complex party system.After the 2015 UK general election, there were calls from UKIP for a switch to the use of proportional representation after it received 3,881,129 votes that produced only one MP.", "The Green Party was similarly underrepresented, which contrasted greatly with the SNP, a Scottish separatist party that received only 1,454,436 votes but won 56 seats because of more geographically concentrated support.====Example====This is a general example, using population percentages taken from one state for illustrative purposes.If each voter in each city naively selects one city on the ballot (Memphis voters select Memphis, Nashville voters select Nashville, and so on), Memphis will be selected, as it has the most votes 42%.", "The system does not require that the winner have a majority, only a plurality.", "Memphis wins because it has the most votes even though 58% of the voters in the example preferred Memphis least.", "That problem does not arise with the two-round system in which Nashville would have won.", "(In practice, with FPTP, many voters in Chattanooga and Knoxville are likely to vote tactically for Nashville: see below.)" ], [ "Disadvantages", "===Tactical voting===To a much greater extent than many other electoral methods, plurality electoral systems encourage tactical voting techniques like \"compromising\".", "Voters are under pressure to vote for one of the two candidates most likely to win, even if their true preference is neither of them; because a vote for any other candidate is unlikely to lead to the preferred candidate being elected.", "This will instead reduce support for one of the two major candidates whom the voter might prefer to the other.", "Electors who prefer not to waste their vote by voting for a candidate with a very low chance of winning their constituency vote for their lesser preferred candidate who has a higher chance of winning.", "The minority party will then simply take votes away from one of the major parties, which could change the outcome and gain nothing for the voters.", "Any other party will typically need to build up its votes and credibility over a series of elections before it is seen as electable.In the Tennessee example, if all the voters for Chattanooga and Knoxville had instead voted for Nashville, Nashville would have won (with 58% of the vote).", "That would have only been the third choice for those voters, but voting for their respective first choices (their own cities) actually results in their fourth choice (Memphis) being elected.The difficulty is sometimes summed up in an extreme form, as \"All votes for anyone other than the second place are votes for the winner\".", "That is because by voting for other candidates, voters have denied those votes to the second-place candidate, who could have won had they received them.", "It is often claimed by United States Democrats that Democrat Al Gore lost the 2000 Presidential Election to Republican George W. Bush because some voters on the left voted for Ralph Nader of the Green Party, who, exit polls indicated, would have preferred Gore at 45% to Bush at 27%, with the rest not voting in Nader's absence.That thinking is illustrated by elections in Puerto Rico and its three principal voter groups: the Independentistas (pro-independence), the Populares (pro-commonwealth), and the Estadistas (pro-statehood).", "Historically, there has been a tendency for Independentista voters to elect Popular candidates and policies.", "This results in more Popular victories even though the Estadistas have the most voters on the island.", "It is so widely recognised that the Puerto Ricans sometimes call the Independentistas who vote for the Populares \"melons\" in reference to the party colours, because the fruit is green on the outside but red on the inside.Such tactical voting can cause significant perturbation to the system:*Substantial power is given to the news media.", "Some voters will tend to believe the media's assertions as to who the leading contenders are likely to be in the election.", "Even voters who distrust the media know that other voters believe the media, and so those candidates who receive the most media attention will nonetheless be the most popular, and thus most likely to be one of the top two.", "*A new candidate, who is in principle supported by the majority of voters, may be considered unlikely to become one of the top two candidates, because of the lack of a track record.", "The candidate will thus receive fewer votes, which will then give them a reputation as a low poller in future elections, which perpetuates the problem.", "*The system may promote votes against than for a candidate.", "In the UK, entire campaigns have been organised with the aim of voting against the Conservative Party by voting either Labour or Liberal Democrat.", "For example, in a constituency held by the Conservatives, with the Liberal Democrats as the second-placed party and the Labour Party in third, Labour supporters might be urged to vote for the Liberal Democrat candidate, who has a smaller hurdle to overcome and more support in the constituency than their own party candidate, on the basis that Labour supporters would prefer an MP from a competing leftist or liberal party than a Conservative one.", "Similarly, in Labour/Liberal Democrat marginals in which the Conservatives are third, Conservative voters may be encouraged or tempted to vote Liberal Democrat to help defeat Labour.", "*If enough voters use this tactic, the first-past-the-post system becomes, effectively, runoff voting, a completely different system, in which the first round is held in the court of public opinion.", "A good example was the 1997 Winchester by-election.Proponents of other single-winner electoral systems argue that their proposals would reduce the need for tactical voting and reduce the spoiler effect.", "Other systems include the commonly used two-round system of runoffs and instant-runoff voting, along with less-tested and perhaps less-understood systems such as approval voting, score voting and Condorcet methods.===Fewer political parties===A graph showing the difference between the popular vote and the number of seats won by major political parties at the 2005 United Kingdom general electionDuverger's law is a theory that constituencies that use first-past-the-post systems will eventually become a two-party system after enough time.", "The two dominating parties regularly alternate in power and easily win constituencies due to the structure of plurality voting systems.", "This puts smaller parties who struggle to meet the threshold of votes at a disadvantage, and inhibits growth.Plurality voting tends to reduce the number of political parties to a greater extent than most other methods do, making it more likely that a single party will hold a majority of legislative seats.", "(In the United Kingdom, 22 out of 27 general elections since 1922 have produced a single-party majority government or, in the case of the National Governments, a parliament from which such a single-party government could have been drawn.", ")Plurality voting's tendency toward fewer parties and more-frequent majorities of one party can also produce a government that may not consider as wide a range of perspectives and concerns.", "It is entirely possible that a voter finds all major parties to have similar views on issues, and that a voter does not have a meaningful way of expressing a dissenting opinion through their vote.As fewer choices are offered to voters, voters may vote for a candidate although they disagree with them because they disagree even more with their opponents.", "That will make candidates less closely reflect the viewpoints of those who vote for them.Furthermore, one-party rule is more likely to lead to radical changes in government policy even though the changes are favoured only by a plurality or a bare majority of the voters, but a multi-party system usually requires more consensus to make dramatic changes in policy.===Wasted votes===A ballot with a potential wasted vote goes into the voting boxWasted votes are those cast for candidates who are virtually sure to lose in a safe seat, and votes cast for winning candidates in excess of the number required for victory.", "Plurality voting systems function on a \"winner-takes-all\" principle, which means that the party of the losing candidate in each riding receives no representation in government, regardless of the number of votes they received.", "For example, in the UK general election of 2005, 52% of votes were cast for losing candidates and 18% were excess votes, a total of 70% wasted votes.", "That is perhaps the most fundamental criticism of FPTP since a large majority of votes may play no part in determining the outcome.", "Alternative electoral systems, such as Proportional Representation, attempt to ensure that almost all of the votes are effective in influencing the result, which minimizes vote wastage.", "Such a system decreases disproportionality in election results and is credited for increasing voter turnout.=== Voter turnout ===Political apathy is prevalent in plurality voting systems such as FPTP.", "Studies suggest that plurality voting system fails to incentivize citizens to vote, which results in very low voter turnouts.", "Under this system, many people feel that voting is an empty ritual that has no influence on the composition of legislature.", "Voters are not assured that the number of seats that political parties are accorded will reflect the popular vote, which disincentivizes them from voting and sends the message that their votes are not valued, and participation in elections does not seem necessary.=== Strategic voting ===This is when a voter decides to vote in a way that does not represent their true preference or choice, motivated by an intent to influence election outcomes.", "Strategic behaviour by voters can and does influence the outcome of voting in different plurality voting systems.", "Strategic behaviour is when a voter casts their vote for a different party or alternative district/constituency/riding in order to induce, in their opinion, a better outcome.", "An example of this is when a person really likes party A but votes for party B because they do not like party C or D or because they believe that party A has little to no chance of winning.", "This can cause the outcome of very close votes to be swayed for the wrong reason.", "This might have had an impact on the 2000 United States election that was essentially decided by fewer than 600 votes, with the winner being President Bush.", "When voters behave in a strategic way and expect others to do the same, they end up voting for one of the two leading candidates, making the Condorcet alternative more likely to be elected.", "The prevalence of strategic voting in an election makes it difficult to evaluate the true political state of the population, as their true political ideologies are not reflected in their votes.===Gerrymandering===Because FPTP permits a high level of wasted votes, an election under FPTP is easily gerrymandered unless safeguards are in place.", "In gerrymandering, a party in power deliberately manipulates constituency boundaries to increase the number of seats that it wins unfairly.In brief, if a governing party G wishes to reduce the seats that will be won by opposition party O in the next election, it can create a number of constituencies in each of which O has an overwhelming majority of votes.", "O will win these seats, but many of its voters will waste their votes.", "Then, the rest of the constituencies are designed to have small majorities for G. Few G votes are wasted, and G will win many seats by small margins.", "As a result of the gerrymander, O's seats have cost it more votes than G's seats.==== Efficiency gap ====The ''efficiency gap'' measures gerrymandering and has been scrutinized in the Supreme Court of the United States.", "The efficiency gap is the difference between the two parties' wasted votes, divided by the total number of votes.===Manipulation charges===The presence of spoilers often gives rise to suspicions that manipulation of the slate has taken place.", "The spoiler may have received incentives to run.", "A spoiler may also drop out at the last moment, which induces charges that such an act was intended from the beginning.", "Voters who are uninformed do not have a comparable opportunity to manipulate their votes as voters who understand all opposing sides, understand the pros and cons of voting for each party.===Spoiler effect===The spoiler effect is the effect of vote splitting between candidates or ballot questions with similar ideologies.", "One spoiler candidate's presence in the election draws votes from a major candidate with similar politics, which causes a strong opponent of both or several to win.", "Smaller parties can disproportionately change the outcome of an FPTP election by swinging what is called the 50-50% balance of two party systems by creating a faction within one or both ends of the political spectrum.", "This shifts the winner of the election from an absolute majority outcome to a plurality outcome.", "Due to the spoiler effect, the party that holds the unfavourable ideology by the majority will win, as the majority of the population would be split between the two parties with the similar ideology.", "In comparison, electoral systems that use proportional representation have small groups win only their proportional share of representation.===Issues specific to particular countries=======Solomon Islands====In August 2008, Sir Peter Kenilorea commented on what he perceived as the flaws of a first-past-the-post electoral system in the Solomon Islands:" ], [ "International examples", "The United Kingdom continues to use the first-past-the-post electoral system for general elections, and for local government elections in England and Wales.", "Changes to the UK system have been proposed, and alternatives were examined by the Jenkins Commission in the late 1990s.", "After the formation of a new coalition government in 2010, it was announced as part of the coalition agreement that a referendum would be held on switching to the alternative vote system.", "However the alternative vote system was rejected 2-1 by British voters in a referendum held on 5 May 2011.Canada also uses FPTP for national and provincial elections.", "In May 2005 the Canadian province of British Columbia had a referendum on abolishing single-member district plurality in favour of multi-member districts with the Single Transferable Vote system after the Citizens' Assembly on Electoral Reform made a recommendation for the reform.", "The referendum obtained 57% of the vote, but failed to meet the 60% requirement for passing.", "A second referendum was held in May 2009, this time the province's voters defeated the change with 39% voting in favour.An October 2007 referendum in the Canadian province of Ontario on adopting a Mixed Member Proportional system, also requiring 60% approval, failed with only 36.9% voting in favour.", "British Columbia again called a referendum on the issue in 2018 which was defeated by 62% voting to keep current system.Northern Ireland, Scotland, Wales, the Republic of Ireland, Australia and New Zealand are notable examples of countries within the UK, or with previous links to it, that use non-FPTP electoral systems (Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales use FPTP in United Kingdom general elections, however).Nations which have undergone democratic reforms since 1990 but have not adopted the FPTP system include South Africa, almost all of the former Eastern bloc nations, Russia, and Afghanistan.===List of countries===Countries that use plurality voting to elect the lower or only house of their legislature include: (Some of these may be undemocratic systems where there is effectively only one candidate allowed anyway.", ")*Antigua and Barbuda*Azerbaijan*Bahamas*Bangladesh*Barbados*Belize*Bermuda*Bhutan*Botswana*Burma (Myanmar)*Canada*Comoros*Congo (Brazzaville)*Cook Islands*Cote d'Ivoire*Dominica*Eritrea*Ethiopia*Gabon*Gambia*Ghana*Grenada*India*Iran*Jamaica*Kenya*Kuwait*Laos*Liberia*Malawi*Malaysia*Maldives*Marshall Islands*Federated States of Micronesia*Nigeria*Niue*Oman*Palau*Saint Kitts and Nevis*Saint Lucia*Saint Vincent and the Grenadines*Samoa*Seychelles*Sierra Leone*Singapore*Solomon Islands*Swaziland*Tanzania*Tonga*Trinidad and Tobago*Tuvalu*Uganda*United Kingdom*United States*Yemen*Zambia" ], [ "See also", "*2006 Texas gubernatorial election – Example of an incumbent governor, Rick Perry, winning re-election despite gaining less than 40 per cent of the vote*Cube rule*Deviation from proportionality*Plurality-at-large voting*Anti-plurality voting*List of democracy and elections-related topics*Instant-runoff voting*Approval Voting*Score voting*Single non-transferable vote*Single transferable vote*Runoff voting" ], [ "References", " The fatal flaws of Plurality (first-past-the-post) electoral systems – Proportional Representation Society of Australia" ] ]
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[ [ "Fetish" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fetish''' may refer to:" ], [ "Anthropological uses", "* Fetishism, the attribution of religious or mystical qualities to inanimate objects, known as fetishes* Zuni fetishes, small carvings from various stones made by the Zuni Indians* Imiut fetish, in ancient Egypt a stuffed, headless animal skin tied by the tail to a pole* Fetish priest, in countries of West Africa, a person who serves as a mediator between the spirit and the living" ], [ "Sexual", "* Sexual fetishism, a sexual attraction to objects or body parts of lesser sexual importance (or none at all) such as feet, toes, or certain types of clothing** Racial fetishism* Fetish subculture, a social movement constructed around sexual fetishism* Fetish magazine, a type of erotic magazine* Fetish art** List of fetish artists* Fetish fashion* List of paraphilias" ], [ "Arts", "* ''Fetish'' (Joan Jett and the Blackhearts album), 1999* ''Fetish'' (Lolita Milyavskaya album), 2008* \"Fetish\" (song), a 2017 song by Selena Gomez* Fetish, a fictional superheroine in the ''Bomb Queen'' series* ''The Great Fetish'', a science fiction novel by L. Sprague de Camp" ], [ "Business", "* Commodity fetishism, a Marxist concept of valuation in capitalist markets* Venturi Fétish, a car produced by Venturi Automobilesiguation* ''Growth Fetish'', a 2003 book by Clive Hamilton advocating a zero-growth economy among \"developed\" nations" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "February 14" ], [ "Introduction", "It is observed in most countries as Valentine's Day." ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 748 – Abbasid Revolution: The Hashimi rebels under Abu Muslim Khorasani take Merv, capital of the Umayyad province Khorasan, marking the consolidation of the Abbasid revolt.", "* 842 – Charles the Bald and Louis the German swear the Oaths of Strasbourg in the French and German languages.", "*1014 – Pope Benedict VIII crowns Henry of Bavaria, King of Germany and of Italy, as Holy Roman Emperor.", "*1130 – The troubled 1130 papal election exposes a rift within the College of Cardinals.", "*1349 – Several hundred Jews are burned to death by mobs while the remaining Jews are forcibly removed from Strasbourg.", "*1530 – Spanish conquistadores, led by Nuño de Guzmán, overthrow and execute Tangaxuan II, the last independent monarch of the Tarascan state in present-day central Mexico.", "*1556 – Having been declared a heretic and laicized by Pope Paul IV on 4 December 1555, Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer is publicly defrocked at Christ Church Cathedral.", "* 1556 – Coronation of Akbar as ruler of the Mughal Empire.===1601–1900===*1613 – Wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Frederick V of the Palatinate at Whitehall Palace, London.", "*1655 – The Mapuches launch coordinated attacks against the Spanish in Chile beginning the Mapuche uprising of 1655.", "*1778 – The United States flag is formally recognized by a foreign naval vessel for the first time, when French Admiral Toussaint-Guillaume Picquet de la Motte renders a nine gun salute to , commanded by John Paul Jones.", "*1779 – American Revolutionary War: The Battle of Kettle Creek is fought in Georgia.", "* 1779 – James Cook is killed by Native Hawaiians near Kealakekua on the Island of Hawaii.", "*1797 – French Revolutionary Wars: Battle of Cape St. Vincent: John Jervis, (later 1st Earl of St Vincent) and Horatio Nelson (later 1st Viscount Nelson) lead the British Royal Navy to victory over a Spanish fleet in action near Gibraltar.", "*1804 – Karađorđe leads the First Serbian Uprising against the Ottoman Empire.", "*1831 – Ras Marye of Yejju marches into Tigray and defeats and kills Dejazmach Sabagadis in the Battle of Debre Abbay.", "*1835 – The original Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, in the Latter Day Saint movement, is formed in Kirtland, Ohio.", "*1849 – In New York City, James Knox Polk becomes the first serving President of the United States to have his photograph taken.", "*1852 – Great Ormond St Hospital for Sick Children, the first hospital in England to provide in-patient beds specifically for children, is founded in London.", "*1855 – Texas is linked by telegraph to the rest of the United States, with the completion of a connection between New Orleans and Marshall, Texas.", "*1859 – Oregon is admitted as the 33rd U.S.", "state.", "*1876 – Alexander Graham Bell applies for a patent for the telephone, as does Elisha Gray.", "*1879 – The War of the Pacific breaks out when the Chilean Army occupies the Bolivian port city of Antofagasta.", "*1899 – Voting machines are approved by the U.S. Congress for use in federal elections.", "*1900 – The British Army begins the Battle of the Tugela Heights in an effort to lift the Siege of Ladysmith.===1901–present===*1903 – The United States Department of Commerce and Labor is established (later split into the Department of Commerce and the Department of Labor).", "*1912 – Arizona is admitted as the 48th and the last contiguous U.S.", "state.", "* 1912 – The U.S. Navy commissions its first class of diesel-powered submarines.", "*1918 – Russia adopts the Gregorian calendar.", "*1919 – The Polish–Soviet War begins.", "*1920 – The League of Women Voters is founded in Chicago.", "*1924 – The Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company changes its name to International Business Machines Corporation (IBM).", "*1929 – Saint Valentine's Day Massacre: Seven people, six of them gangster rivals of Al Capone's gang, are murdered in Chicago.", "*1939 – World War II: German battleship Bismarck is launched.", "*1942 – World War II: Battle of Pasir Panjang contributes to the fall of Singapore.", "*1943 – World War II: Rostov-on-Don, Russia is liberated.", "* 1943 – World War II: Tunisia Campaign: General Hans-Jürgen von Arnim's Fifth Panzer Army launches a counter-attack against Allied positions in Tunisia.", "*1944 – World War II: In the action of 14 February 1944, a Royal Navy submarine sinks a German-controlled Italian Regia Marina submarine in the Strait of Malacca.", "*1945 – World War II: On the first day of the bombing of Dresden, the British Royal Air Force and the United States Army Air Forces begin fire-bombing Dresden.", "* 1945 – World War II: Navigational error leads to the mistaken bombing of Prague, Czechoslovakia by a United States Army Air Forces squadron of B-17s assisting in the Soviet Red Army's Vistula–Oder Offensive.", "* 1945 – World War II: Mostar is liberated by Yugoslav partisans * 1945 – President Franklin D. Roosevelt meets King Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia aboard the , officially beginning U.S.-Saudi diplomatic relations.", "*1946 – The Bank of England is nationalized.", "*1947 – The act abolishing all noble ranks and related styles comes into force in Hungary.", "*1949 – The Knesset (parliament of Israel) convenes for the first time.", "* 1949 – The Asbestos Strike begins in Canada.", "The strike marks the beginning of the Quiet Revolution in Quebec.", "*1954 – First Indochina war - small French garrison at Đắk Đoa is overrun by the Viet Minh after a week's siege.", "*1961 – Discovery of the chemical elements: Element 103, Lawrencium, is first synthesized at the University of California.", "*1966 – Australian currency is decimalized.", "*1979 – In Kabul, Setami Milli militants kidnap the American ambassador to Afghanistan, Adolph Dubs who is later killed during a gunfight between his kidnappers and police.", "*1983 – United American Bank of Knoxville, Tennessee collapses.", "Its president, Jake Butcher, is later convicted of fraud.", "*1989 – Union Carbide agrees to pay $470 million to the Indian government for damages it caused in the 1984 Bhopal disaster.", "* 1989 – Iranian leader Ruhollah Khomeini issues a fatwa encouraging Muslims to kill Salman Rushdie, author of ''The Satanic Verses''.", "*1990 – Ninety-two people are killed when Indian Airlines Flight 605 crashes in Bangalore, India.", "* 1990 – The ''Voyager 1'' spacecraft takes the photograph of planet Earth that later becomes famous as ''Pale Blue Dot''.", "*1998 – An oil tanker train collides with a freight train in Yaoundé, Cameroon, spilling fuel oil.", "One person scavenging the oil created a massive explosion which killed 120.", "*2000 – The spacecraft ''NEAR Shoemaker'' enters orbit around asteroid 433 Eros, the first spacecraft to orbit an asteroid.", "*2003 – Iraq disarmament crisis: UNMOVIC Executive Chairman Hans Blix reports to the United Nations Security Council that disarmament inspectors have found no weapons of mass destruction in Ba'athist Iraq.", "*2004 – In a suburb of Moscow, Russia, the roof of the Transvaal water park collapses, killing more than 28 people, and wounding 193 others.", "*2005 – In Beirut, 23 people, including former Prime Minister Rafic Hariri, are killed when the equivalent of around 1,000 kg of TNT is detonated while Hariri's motorcade drives through the city.", "* 2005 – Seven people are killed and 151 wounded in a series of bombings by suspected al-Qaeda-linked militants that hit Makati, Davao City, and General Santos, all in the Philippines.", "* 2005 – YouTube is launched by a group of college students, eventually becoming the largest video sharing website in the world and a main source for viral videos.", "*2008 – Northern Illinois University shooting: A gunman opens fire in a lecture hall of Northern Illinois University in DeKalb County, Illinois, resulting in six fatalities (including the gunman) and 21 injuries.", "*2011 – As a part of Arab Spring, the Bahraini uprising begins with a 'Day of Rage'.", "*2018 – Jacob Zuma resigns as President of South Africa.", "* 2018 – A shooting at Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School in Parkland, Florida is one of the deadliest school massacres with 17 fatalities and 17 injuries.", "*2019 – Pulwama attack takes place in Lethpora in Pulwama district, Jammu and Kashmir, India in which 40 Central Reserve Police Force personnel and a suicide bomber were killed and 35 were injured." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1404 – Leon Battista Alberti, Italian painter, poet, and philosopher (d. 1472)*1408 – John FitzAlan, 14th Earl of Arundel (d. 1435)*1452 – Pandolfo Petrucci, tyrant of Siena (d. 1512)*1468 – Johannes Werner, German priest and mathematician (d. 1522)*1483 – Babur, Moghul emperor (d. 1530)*1490 – Valentin Friedland, German scholar and educationist of the Reformation (d. 1556)*1513 – Domenico Ferrabosco, Italian composer (d. 1573)*1545 – Lucrezia de' Medici, Duchess of Ferrara (d. 1561)===1601–1900===*1602 – Francesco Cavalli, Italian composer (d. 1676)*1614 – John Wilkins, English bishop, academic and natural philosopher (d. 1672)*1625 – Countess Palatine Maria Euphrosyne of Zweibrücken, Swedish princess (d. 1687)*1628 – Valentine Greatrakes, Irish faith healer (d. 1683)*1640 – Countess Palatine Anna Magdalena of Birkenfeld-Bischweiler (d. 1693)*1670 – Rajaram Raj Bhonsle, third Chhatrapati of the Maratha Empire (d. 1700)*1679 – Georg Friedrich Kauffmann, German organist and composer (d. 1735)*1692 – Pierre-Claude Nivelle de La Chaussée, French author and playwright (d. 1754)*1701 – Enrique Flórez, Spanish historian and author (d. 1773)*1763 – Jean Victor Marie Moreau, French general (d. 1813)*1782 – Eleanora Atherton, English philanthropist (d. 1870)*1784 – Heinrich Baermann, German clarinetist (d. 1847)*1799 – Walenty Wańkowicz, Polish painter and illustrator (d. 1842)*1800 – Emory Washburn, American historian, lawyer, and politician, 22nd Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1877)*1808 – Michael Costa, Italian-English conductor and composer (d. 1884)*1812 – Fernando Wood, American merchant and politician, 73rd Mayor of New York City (d. 1881)*1813 – Lydia Hamilton Smith, African-American businesswoman (d. 1884)*1819 – Christopher Latham Sholes, American journalist and politician, invented the typewriter (d. 1890)*1824 – Winfield Scott Hancock, American general and politician (d. 1886)*1828 – Edmond François Valentin About, French journalist and author (d. 1885)*1835 – Piet Paaltjens, Dutch minister and poet (d. 1894)*1838 – Margaret E. Knight, American inventor (d. 1914)*1846 – Julian Scott, American soldier and drummer, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1901)*1847 – Anna Howard Shaw, American physician, minister, and activist (d. 1919)*1848 – Benjamin Baillaud, French astronomer and academic (d. 1934)*1855 – Frank Harris, Irish author and journalist (d. 1931)*1859 – George Washington Gale Ferris Jr., American engineer, inventor of the Ferris wheel (d. 1896)*1860 – Eugen Schiffer, German lawyer and politician, Vice-Chancellor of Germany (d. 1954)*1869 – Charles Thomson Rees Wilson, Scottish physicist and meteorologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1959)*1878 – Julius Nieuwland, Belgian priest, chemist and academic (d. 1936)*1882 – John Barrymore, American actor (d. 1942)*1884 – Nils Olaf Chrisander, Swedish actor and director (d. 1947)* 1884 – Kostas Varnalis, Greek poet and playwright (d. 1974)*1888 – Chandrashekhar Agashe, Indian industrialist (d. 1956)*1890 – Nina Hamnett, Welsh-English painter and author (d. 1956)* 1890 – Dick Richards, Welsh international footballer (d. 1934)*1891 – Katherine Stinson, American aviator (d. 1977)*1892 – Radola Gajda, Czech commander and politician (d. 1948)*1894 – Jack Benny, American actor and producer (d. 1974)*1895 – Wilhelm Burgdorf, German general (d. 1945)* 1895 – Max Horkheimer, German philosopher and sociologist (d. 1973)*1898 – Bill Tilman, English mountaineer and explorer (d. 1977)* 1898 – Fritz Zwicky, Swiss-American physicist and astronomer (d. 1974)*1900 – Jessica Dragonette, American singer (d. 1980)===1901–present===*1902 – Thelma Ritter, American actress and singer (d. 1969)*1903 – Stuart Erwin, American actor (d. 1967)*1907 – Johnny Longden, English-American jockey and trainer (d. 2003)*1911 – Willem Johan Kolff, Dutch physician and inventor (d. 2009)*1912 – Tibor Sekelj, Hungarian lawyer, explorer, and author (d. 1988)*1913 – Mel Allen, American sportscaster (d. 1996)* 1913 – Woody Hayes, American football player and coach (d. 1987)* 1913 – Jimmy Hoffa, American trade union leader (d. 1975)* 1913 – James Pike, American bishop (d. 1969)*1915 – Sally Gray, English actress and singer (d. 2006)*1916 – Marcel Bigeard, French general (d. 2010)* 1916 – Masaki Kobayashi, Japanese director and producer (d. 1996)* 1916 – Edward Platt, American actor (d. 1974)*1917 – Herbert A. Hauptman, American mathematician and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2011)*1921 – Hugh Downs, American journalist, game show host, and producer (d. 2020)* 1921 – Hazel McCallion, Canadian businesswoman and politician, 3rd Mayor of Mississauga (d. 2023)*1923 – Jay Hebert, American golfer (d. 1997)*1924 – Juan Ponce Enrile, Filipino politician* 1924 – Patricia Knatchbull, 2nd Countess Mountbatten of Burma (d. 2017)*1927 – Lois Maxwell, Canadian-Australian model and actress (d. 2007)*1928 – William Allain, American lawyer and politician, 58th Governor of Mississippi (d. 2013)* 1928 – Vicente T. Blaz, American general and politician (d. 2014)*1929 – Vic Morrow, American actor and director (d. 1982)*1931 – Brian Kelly, American actor and director (d. 2005)*1932 – Harriet Andersson, Swedish actress*1934 – Florence Henderson, American actress and singer (d. 2016)*1935 – David Wilson, Baron Wilson of Tillyorn, Scottish academic and diplomat, 27th Governor of Hong Kong*1936 – Anna German, Polish singer (d. 1982)*1937 – John MacGregor, Baron MacGregor of Pulham Market, English politician, Secretary of State for Transport* 1937 – Magic Sam, American singer and guitarist (d. 1969)*1939 – Razzy Bailey, American country music singer-songwriter and musician (d. 2021)* 1939 – Blowfly, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2016)* 1939 – Eugene Fama, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate*1941 – Donna Shalala, American academic and politician, 18th United States Secretary of Health and Human Services* 1941 – Paul Tsongas, American lawyer and politician (d. 1997)*1942 – Michael Bloomberg, American businessman and politician, 108th Mayor of New York City* 1942 – Andrew Robinson, American actor and director* 1942 – Ricardo Rodríguez, Mexican racing driver (d. 1962)*1943 – Maceo Parker, American saxophonist*1944 – Carl Bernstein, American journalist and author* 1944 – Alan Parker, English director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2020)* 1944 – Ronnie Peterson, Swedish racing driver (d. 1978)*1945 – Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein* 1945 – Rod Masterson, American lieutenant and actor (d. 2013)*1946 – Bernard Dowiyogo, Nauru politician, President of Nauru (d. 2003)* 1946 – Gregory Hines, American actor, singer, and dancer (d. 2003)*1947 – Tim Buckley, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1975)* 1947 – Judd Gregg, American lawyer and politician, 76th Governor of New Hampshire* 1947 – Phạm Tuân, Vietnamese aviator and cosmonaut*1948 – Kitten Natividad, Mexican-American actress and dancer (d. 2022)* 1948 – Pat O'Brien, American journalist and author* 1948 – Wally Tax, Dutch singer-songwriter (d. 2005)* 1948 – Teller, American magician and actor*1950 – Roger Fisher, American guitarist and songwriter *1951 – Terry Gross, American radio host and producer* 1951 – Kevin Keegan, English footballer and manager*1952 – Sushma Swaraj, Indian lawyer and politician, Indian Minister of External Affairs (d. 2019)*1954 – Jam Mohammad Yousaf, Pakistani politician, Chief Minister of Balochistan (d. 2013)*1955 – Carol Kalish, American publisher (d. 1991)*1956 – Howard Davis Jr., American boxer and trainer (d. 2015)* 1956 – Dave Dravecky, American baseball player* 1956 – Katharina Fritsch, German sculptor and academic*1957 – Soile Isokoski, Finnish soprano and actress* 1957 – Alan Smith, English bishop* 1957 – Ken Wahl, American actor*1958 – Grant Thomas, Australian footballer and coach*1959 – Renée Fleming, American soprano and actress*1960 – Philip Jones, English admiral* 1960 – Jim Kelly, American football player and businessman* 1960 – Meg Tilly, American actress and author*1962 – Sakina Jaffrey, American actress*1963 – Enrico Colantoni, Canadian actor, director, and producer*1964 – Gianni Bugno, Italian cyclist and sportscaster* 1964 – Zach Galligan, American actor*1966 – Petr Svoboda, Czech ice hockey player and agent*1967 – Stelios Haji-Ioannou, Greek-English businessman, founded easyJet* 1967 – Calle Johansson, Swedish ice hockey player and coach* 1967 – Manuela Maleeva, Bulgarian-Swiss tennis player* 1967 – Mark Rutte, Dutch businessman and politician, Prime Minister of the Netherlands*1968 – Jules Asner, American model and television host* 1968 – Chris Lewis, Guyanese-English cricketer* 1968 – Scott McClellan, American civil servant and author, 25th White House Press Secretary*1969 – Meg Hillier, English journalist and politician, Shadow Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change*1970 – Giuseppe Guerini, Italian cyclist* 1970 – Sean Hill, American ice hockey player* 1970 – Simon Pegg, English actor, director, and producer* 1970 – Takashi Saito, Japanese baseball player*1971 – Kris Aquino, Filipino talk show host, actress, and producer* 1971 – Gheorghe Mureșan, Romanian basketball player*1972 – Drew Bledsoe, American football player and coach* 1972 – Musōyama Masashi, Japanese sumo wrestler* 1972 – Najwa Nimri, Spanish actress and singer * 1972 – Jaan Tallinn, Estonian computer programmer, co-developed Skype* 1972 – Rob Thomas, American singer-songwriter *1973 – H. D. Ackerman, South African cricketer* 1973 – Annalisa Buffa, Italian mathematician* 1973 – Tyus Edney, American basketball player and coach* 1973 – Steve McNair, American football player (d. 2009)*1974 – Valentina Vezzali, Italian fencer and politician*1975 – Viktor Kozlov, Russian ice hockey player and coach* 1975 – Dámaso Marte, Dominican baseball player*1976 – Milan Hejduk, Czech-American ice hockey player* 1976 – Liv Kristine, Norwegian singer-songwriter* 1976 – Rie Rasmussen, Danish model, film director, writer, photographer, and actress*1977 – Anna Erschler, Russian mathematician* 1977 – Cadel Evans, Australian cyclist* 1977 – Jim Jefferies, Australian comedian and actor* 1977 – Darren Purse, English footballer* 1977 – Elmer Symons, South African motorcycle racer (d. 2007)*1978 – Danai Gurira, American-Zimbabwean actress*1978 – Richard Hamilton, American basketball player* 1978 – Darius Songaila, Lithuanian basketball player and coach*1980 – Josh Senter, American screenwriter and producer* 1980 – Michelle Ye, Hong Kong actress and producer*1981 – Matteo Brighi, Italian footballer* 1981 – Randy de Puniet, French motorcycle racer* 1981 – Brad Halsey, American baseball player (d. 2014)* 1981 – Kara Lawson, American basketball player and coach* 1981 – Jared Lorenzen, American football player (d. 2019)*1982 – Marián Gáborík, Slovak ice hockey player* 1982 – John Halls, English footballer and model* 1982 – Lenka Tvarošková, Slovak tennis player*1983 – Callix Crabbe, Virgin Islander baseball player* 1983 – Rocky Elsom, Australian rugby player* 1983 – Bacary Sagna, French footballer*1984 – Matt Barr, American actor*1985 – Karima Adebibe, English model and actress* 1985 – Tyler Clippard, American baseball player* 1985 – Heart Evangelista, Filipino singer and actress* 1985 – Philippe Senderos, Swiss footballer* 1985 – Miki Yeung, Hong Kong singer and actress *1986 – Michael Ammermüller, German racing driver* 1986 – Oliver Lee, English actor, director, and screenwriter* 1986 – Gao Lin, Chinese footballer* 1986 – Tiffany Thornton, American actress and singer*1987 – Edinson Cavani, Uruguayan footballer* 1987 – Tom Pyatt, Canadian ice hockey player* 1987 – David Wheater, English footballer* 1987 – Candice Wiggins, American basketball player*1988 – Katie Boland, Canadian actress, producer, and screenwriter* 1988 – Ángel Di María, Argentinian footballer* 1988 – Siim Liivik, Estonian ice hockey player*1989 – Néstor Calderón, Mexican footballer* 1989 – Adam Matuszczyk, Polish footballer* 1989 – Emma Miskew, Canadian curler* 1989 – Byron Mullens, American basketball player* 1989 – Derek Norris, American baseball player* 1989 – Brandon Sutter, Canadian ice hockey player* 1989 – Jurij Tepeš, Slovenian ski jumper* 1989 – Kristian Thomas, English gymnast*1990 – Chris Babb, American basketball player* 1990 – Brett Dier, Canadian actor* 1990 – Bogdan Kiselevich, Russian ice hockey player* 1990 – Sefa Yılmaz, German-Turkish footballer*1991 – Daniela Mona Lambin, Estonian footballer*1992 – Christian Eriksen, Danish footballer* 1992 – Freddie Highmore, English actor* 1992 – Petr Mrázek, Czech ice hockey player*1993 – Jadeveon Clowney, American football player* 1993 – Alberto Rosende, American actor and singer*1996 – Nikolaj Ehlers, Danish ice hockey player* 1996 – Lucas Hernandez, French footballer*1997 – Jaehyun, South Korean singer and actor* 1997 – Breel Embolo, Swiss footballer*1999 – Tyler Adams, American soccer player*2000 – Gabriel Moreno, Venezuelan baseball player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 869 – Cyril, Greek missionary bishop (b.", "827)* 945 – Lian Chongyu, Chinese general* 945 – Zhu Wenjin, Chinese emperor*1009 – Bruno of Querfurt, German missionary bishop*1010 – Fujiwara no Korechika, Japanese nobleman (b.", "974)*1140 – Leo I, Armenian prince* 1140 – Sobĕslav I, duke of Bohemia*1164 – Sviatoslav Olgovich, Kievan prince*1229 – Rǫgnvaldr Guðrøðarson, king of the Isles*1317 – Margaret of France, queen of England*1400 – Richard II, king of England (b.", "1367)*1440 – Dietrich of Oldenburg, German nobleman*1489 – Nicolaus von Tüngen, prince-bishop of Warmia*1528 – Edzard I, German nobleman (b.", "1462)*1549 – Il Sodoma, Italian painter (b.", "1477)*1571 – Odet de Coligny, French cardinal (b.", "1517)===1601–1900===*1676 – Abraham Bosse, French engraver and illustrator (b.", "1602)*1714 – Maria Luisa of Savoy, queen of Spain (b.", "1688)*1737 – Charles Talbot, 1st Baron Talbot, English lawyer and politician Lord Chancellor of Great Britain (b.", "1685)*1744 – John Hadley, English mathematician, invented the octant (b.", "1682)*1755 – Isidro de Espinosa, Franciscan missionary from Spanish Texas (b.", "1679)*1779 – James Cook, English captain, cartographer, and explorer (b.", "1728)*1780 – William Blackstone, English jurist and politician (b.", "1723)*1782 – Singu Min, Burmese king (b.", "1756)*1808 – John Dickinson, American lawyer and politician 5th Governor of Delaware (b.", "1732)*1831 – Vicente Guerrero, Mexican general and politician, 2nd President of Mexico (b.", "1782)* 1831 – Henry Maudslay, English engineer (b.", "1771)*1870 – St. John Richardson Liddell, American general (b.", "1815)*1881 – Fernando Wood, American merchant and politician, 73rd Mayor of New York City (b.", "1812)*1884 – Lydia Hamilton Smith, African-American businesswoman (b.", "1813)*1885 – Jules Vallès, French journalist and author (b.", "1832)*1891 – William Tecumseh Sherman, American general (b.", "1820)*1894 – Eugène Charles Catalan, Belgian-French mathematician and academic (b.", "1814)===1901–present===*1901 – Edward Stafford, Scottish-New Zealand educator and politician, 3rd Prime Minister of New Zealand (b.", "1819)*1910 – Giovanni Passannante, Italian anarchist (b.", "1849)*1922 – Heikki Ritavuori, Finnish lawyer and politician (b.", "1880; assassinated)*1929 – Thomas Burke, American sprinter, coach, and lawyer (b.", "1875)*1930 – Thomas Mackenzie, Scottish-New Zealand cartographer and politician, 18th Prime Minister of New Zealand (b.", "1853)*1933 – Carl Correns, German botanist and geneticist (b.", "1864)*1937 – Erkki Melartin, Finnish composer (b.", "1875)*1942 – Adnan Saidi, Malayan lieutenant (b.", "1915)*1943 – Dora Gerson, German actress and singer (b.", "1899)* 1943 – David Hilbert, Russian-German mathematician, physicist, and philosopher (b.", "1862)*1948 – Mordecai Brown, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1876)*1949 – Yusuf Salman Yusuf, Iraqi politician (b.", "1901)*1950 – Karl Guthe Jansky, American physicist and engineer (b.", "1905)*1952 – Maurice De Waele, Belgian cyclist (b.", "1896)*1958 – Abdur Rab Nishtar, Pakistani politician, 2nd Governor of Punjab (b.", "1899)*1959 – Baby Dodds, American drummer (b.", "1898)*1967 – Sig Ruman, German-American actor (b.", "1884)*1969 – Vito Genovese, Italian-American mob boss (b.", "1897)*1970 – Herbert Strudwick, English cricketer and coach (b.", "1880)*1974 – Stewie Dempster, New Zealand cricketer and coach (b.", "1903)*1975 – Julian Huxley, English biologist and eugenicist, co-founded the World Wide Fund for Nature (b.", "1887)* 1975 – P. G. Wodehouse, English novelist and playwright (b.", "1881)*1976 – Gertrud Dorka, German archaeologist, prehistorian and museum director (b.", "1893)*1979 – Adolph Dubs, American lieutenant and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Afghanistan (b.", "1920)*1983 – Lina Radke, German runner and coach (b.", "1903)*1986 – Edmund Rubbra, English composer and conductor (b.", "1901)*1987 – Dmitry Kabalevsky, Russian pianist and composer (b.", "1904)*1988 – Frederick Loewe, German-American composer (b.", "1901)*1989 – James Bond, American ornithologist and zoologist (b.", "1900)* 1989 – Vincent Crane, English pianist (b.", "1943)*1994 – Andrei Chikatilo, Soviet serial killer (b.", "1936)* 1994 – Christopher Lasch, American historian and critic (b.", "1932)*1995 – Michael V. Gazzo, American actor and playwright (b.", "1923)* 1995 – U Nu, Burmese politician, 1st Prime Minister of Burma (b.", "1907)*1996 – Bob Paisley, English footballer and manager (b.", "1919)*1998 – Peter Koch (wood scientist), American industrial engineer and wood scientist (b.", "1920)*1999 – John Ehrlichman, American lawyer and politician, 12th White House Counsel (b.", "1925)* 1999 – Buddy Knox, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1933)*2002 – Nándor Hidegkuti, Hungarian footballer and manager (b.", "1922)* 2002 – Mick Tucker, English drummer (b.", "1947)*2003 – Johnny Longden, English jockey and trainer (b.", "1907)*2004 – Marco Pantani, Italian cyclist (b.", "1970)*2005 – Rafic Hariri, Lebanese businessman and politician, 60th Prime Minister of Lebanon (b.", "1944; assassinated)*2006 – Lynden David Hall, English singer-songwriter and producer (b.", "1974)*2007 – Ryan Larkin, Canadian animator and director (b.", "1943)* 2007 – Gareth Morris, English flute player and educator (b.", "1920)*2009 – Bernard Ashley, English engineer and businessman, co-founded Laura Ashley plc (b.", "1926)* 2009 – Louie Bellson, American drummer and composer (b.", "1924)*2010 – Doug Fieger, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1952)* 2010 – Dick Francis, Welsh jockey and author (b.", "1920)* 2010 – Linnart Mäll, Estonian historian, orientalist, and translator (b.", "1938)*2011 – George Shearing, English-American pianist and composer (b.", "1919)*2012 – Mike Bernardo, South African boxer and martial artist (b.", "1969)* 2012 – Tonmi Lillman, Finnish drummer and producer (b.", "1973)* 2012 – Dory Previn, American singer-songwriter (b.", "1925)* 2012 – Péter Rusorán, Hungarian swimmer, water polo player, and coach (b.", "1940)*2013 – Glenn Boyer, American historian and author (b.", "1924)* 2013 – Ronald Dworkin, American philosopher and scholar (b.", "1931)*2014 – Tom Finney, English footballer (b.", "1922)* 2014 – Chris Pearson, Canadian lawyer and politician, 1st Premier of Yukon (b.", "1931)* 2014 – Mike Stepovich, American lawyer and politician, Governor of Alaska Territory (b.", "1919)*2015 – Louis Jourdan, French-American actor and singer (b.", "1921)* 2015 – Philip Levine, American poet and academic (b.", "1928)* 2015 – Franjo Mihalić, Croatian-Serbian runner and coach (b.", "1920)*2016 – Eric Lubbock, 4th Baron Avebury, English lieutenant, engineer, and politician (b.", "1928)* 2016 – Steven Stucky, American composer and academic (b.", "1949)*2018 – Ruud Lubbers, Dutch politician and diplomat, Prime Minister and United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (b.", "1939)* 2018 – Morgan Tsvangirai, 2nd Prime Minister of Zimbabwe (b.", "1952)*2021 – Carlos Menem, Argentine former president, lawyer, and statesman (b.", "1930)* 2021 – William Meninger, American Trappist monk and a principal developer of Centering Prayer (b.", "1932)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "* Christian feast day:** Cyril and Methodius, patron saints of Europe (Roman Catholic Church)** Manchan** Valentine (see also Valentine's Day)** February 14 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Statehood Day (Arizona, United States)* Statehood Day (Oregon, United States)* Presentation of Jesus at the Temple (Armenian Apostolic Church)* Parents' Worship Day (parts of India)==References==" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on February 14" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Free trade area" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''free trade area''' is the region encompassing a trade bloc whose member countries have signed a free trade agreement (FTA).", "Such agreements involve cooperation between at least two countries to reduce trade barriers, import quotas and tariffs, and to increase trade of goods and services with each other.", "If natural persons are also free to move between the countries, in addition to a free trade agreement, it would also be considered an open border.", "It can be considered the second stage of economic integration.Customs unions are a special type of free trade area.", "All such areas have internal arrangements which parties conclude in order to liberalize and facilitate trade among themselves.", "The crucial difference between customs unions and free trade areas is their approach to third parties.", "While a customs union requires all parties to establish and maintain identical external tariffs with regard to trade with non-parties, parties to a free trade area are not subject to this requirement.", "Instead, they may establish and maintain whatever tariff regime applying to imports from non-parties as deemed necessary.", "In a free trade area without harmonized external tariffs, to eliminate the risk of trade deflection, parties will adopt a system of preferential rules of origin.The term ''free trade area'' was originally meant by the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT 1994) to include only trade in goods.", "An agreement with a similar purpose, i.e., to enhance liberalization of trade in services, is named under Article V of the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) as an \"economic integration agreement\".", "However, in practice, the term is now widely used to refer to agreements covering not only goods but also services and even investment." ], [ "Legal aspects of free trade areas", "Free-trade zonesThe formation of free trade areas is considered an exception to the most favored nation (MFN) principle in the World Trade Organization (WTO) because the preferences that parties to a free trade area exclusively grant each other go beyond their accession commitments.", "Although Article XXIV of the GATT allows WTO members to establish free trade areas or to adopt interim agreements necessary for the establishment thereof, there are several conditions with respect to free trade areas, or interim agreements leading to the formation of free trade areas.Firstly, duties and other regulations maintained in each of the signatory parties to a free trade area, which are applicable at the time such free trade area is formed, to the trade with non-parties to such free trade area shall not be higher or more restrictive than the corresponding duties and other regulations existing in the same signatory parties prior to the formation of the free trade area.", "In other words, the establishment of a free trade area to grant preferential treatment among its member is legitimate under WTO law, but the parties to a free trade area are not permitted to treat non-parties less favorably than before the area was established.", "A second requirement stipulated by Article XXIV is that tariffs and other barriers to trade must be eliminated to substantially all the trade within the free trade area.Free trade agreements forming free trade areas generally lie outside the realm of the multilateral trading system.", "However, WTO members must notify to the Secretariat when they conclude new free trade agreements and in principle the texts of free trade agreements are subject to review under the Committee on Regional Trade Agreements.", "Although a dispute arising within free trade areas is not subject to litigation at the WTO's Dispute Settlement Body, \"there is no guarantee that WTO panels will abide by them and decline to exercise jurisdiction in a given case\"." ], [ "Economic aspects of free trade areas", "'''Trade diversion and trade creation'''In general, ''trade diversion'' means that a free trade area would divert trade away from more efficient suppliers outside the area towards less efficient ones within the areas.", "Whereas, ''trade creation'' implies that a free trade area creates trade which may not have otherwise existed.", "In all cases trade creation will raise a country's national welfare.Both trade creation and trade diversion are crucial effects found upon the establishment of a free trade area.", "Trade creation will cause consumption to shift from a high-cost producer to a low-cost one, and trade will thus expand.", "In contrast, trade diversion will lead to trade shifting from a lower-cost producer outside the area to a higher-cost one inside the area.", "Such a shift will not benefit consumers within the free trade area as they are deprived the opportunity to purchase cheaper imported goods.", "However, economists find that trade diversion does not always harm aggregate national welfare: it can even improve aggregate national welfare if the volume of diverted trade is small.", "'''Free trade areas as public goods'''Economists have made attempts to evaluate the extent to which free trade areas can be considered public goods.", "They firstly address one key element of free trade areas, which is the system of embedded tribunals which act as arbitrators in international trade disputes.", "This system as a force of clarification for existing statutes and international economic policies is affirmed within the trade treaties.The second way in which free trade areas are considered public goods is tied to the evolving trend of them becoming \"deeper\".", "The depth of a free trade area refers to the added types of structural policies that it covers.", "While older trade deals are deemed \"shallower\" as they cover fewer areas (such as tariffs and quotas), more recently concluded agreements address a number of other fields, from services to e-commerce and data localization.", "Since transactions among parties to a free trade area are relatively cheaper as compared to those with non-parties, free trade areas are conventionally found to be excludable.", "Now that deep trade deals will enhance regulatory harmonization and increase trade flows with non-parties, thus reduce the excludability of FTA benefits, new generation free trade areas are obtaining essential characteristics of public goods." ], [ "Qualifying for preferences under a free trade area", "Unlike a customs union, parties to a free trade area do not maintain common external tariffs, which means they apply different customs duties, as well as other policies with respect to non-members.", "This feature creates the possibility of non-parties may free riding preferences under a free trade area by penetrating the market with the lowest external tariffs.", "Such risk necessitates the introduction of rules to determine originating goods eligible for preferences under a free trade area, a need that does not arise upon the formation of a customs union.", "Basically, there is a requirement for a minimum extent of processing that results in \"substantial transformation\" to the goods so that they can be considered originating.", "By defining which goods are originating in the PTA, preferential rules of origin distinguish between originating and non-originating goods: only the former will be entitled to preferential tariffs scheduled by the free trade area, the latter must pay MFN import duties.It is noted that in qualifying for origin criteria, there is a differential treatment between inputs originating within and outside a free trade area.", "Normally inputs originating in one FTA party will be considered as originating in the other party if they are incorporated in the manufacturing process in that other party.", "Sometimes, production costs arising in one party is also considered as that arising in another party.", "In preferential rules of origin, such differential treatment is normally provided for in the cumulation or accumulation provision.", "Such clause further explains the trade creation and trade diversion effects of a free trade area mentioned above, because a party to a free trade area has the incentive to use inputs originating in another party so that their products may qualify for originating status." ], [ "Databases on free trade areas", "Since there are hundreds of free trade areas currently in force and being negotiated (about 800 according to ITC's Rules of Origin Facilitator, counting also non-reciprocal trade arrangements), it is important for businesses and policy-makers to keep track of their status.", "There are a number of depositories of free trade agreements available either at national, regional or international levels.", "Some significant ones include the database on Latin American free trade agreements constructed by the Latin American Integration Association (ALADI), the database maintained by the Asian Regional Integration Center (ARIC) providing information agreements of Asian countries, and the portal on the European Union's free trade negotiations and agreements.At the international level, there are two important free access databases developed by international organizations for policy-makers and businesses:'''WTO's Regional Trade Agreements Information System'''As WTO members are obliged to notify to the Secretariat their free trade agreements, this database is constructed based on the most official source of information on free trade agreements (referred to as regional trade agreements in the WTO language).", "The database allows users to seek information on trade agreements notified to the WTO by country or by topic (goods, services or goods and services).", "This database provides users with an updated list of all agreements in force, however, those not notified to the WTO may be missing.", "It also displays reports, tables and graphs containing statistics on these agreements, and particularly preferential tariff analysis.", "'''ITC's Market Access Map'''The Market Access Map was developed by the International Trade Centre (ITC) with the objectives to facilitate businesses, governments and researchers in market access issues.", "The database, visible via the online tool Market Access Map, includes information on tariff and non-tariff barriers in all active trade agreements, not limited to those officially notified to the WTO.", "It also documents data on non-preferential trade agreements (for instance, Generalized System of Preferences schemes).", "Up until 2019, Market Access Map has provided downloadable links to texts agreements and their rules of origin.", "The new version of Market Access Map forthcoming this year will provide direct web links to relevant agreement pages and connect itself to other ITC's tools, particularly the Rules of Origin Facilitator.", "It is expected to become a versatile tool which assists enterprises in understanding free trade agreements and qualifying for origin requirements under these agreements." ], [ "See also", "*Free trade*International trade*Rules of origin*Customs union*Open Balkan*Craiovia Group*CEFTA*List of bilateral free trade agreements*List of multilateral free trade agreements" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* WTO's RTA Information System* ITC's Market Access Map * ITC's Rules of Origin Facilitator* World Bank's Global Preferential Trade Database* Latin American Integration Association * Bilaterals * Asian Regional Integration Center* American States Foreign Trade Information System" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "French fries" ], [ "Introduction", "'''French fries''' (North American English), '''chips''' (British English and other national varieties), '''finger chips''' (Indian English), '''french-fried potatoes''', or simply '''fries''' are ''batonnet'' or ''allumette''-cut deep-fried potatoes of disputed origin from Belgium or France.", "They are prepared by cutting potatoes into even strips, drying them, and frying them, usually in a deep fryer.", "Pre-cut, blanched, and frozen russet potatoes are widely used, and sometimes baked in a regular or convection oven; air fryers are small convection ovens marketed for frying potatoes.French fries are served hot, either soft or crispy, and are generally eaten as part of lunch or dinner or by themselves as a snack, and they commonly appear on the menus of diners, fast food restaurants, pubs, and bars.", "They are often salted and may be served with ketchup, vinegar, mayonnaise, tomato sauce, or other local specialities.", "Fries can be topped more heavily, as in the dishes of poutine, loaded fries or chili cheese fries.", "French fries can be made from sweet potatoes instead of potatoes.", "A baked variant, oven fries, uses less or no oil." ], [ "Preparation", "''Pommes frites'' with a mayonnaise packetA hamburger with crispy friesFries as a snack in a Dutch restaurantThe standard method for cooking french fries is deep frying, which submerges them in hot fat, nowadays most commonly oil.", "Vacuum fryers produce potato chips with lower oil content, while maintaining their colour and texture.The potatoes are prepared by first cutting them (peeled or unpeeled) into even strips, which are then wiped off or soaked in cold water to remove the surface starch, and thoroughly dried.", "They may then be fried in one or two stages.", "Chefs generally agree that the ''two-bath'' technique produces better results.", "Potatoes fresh out of the ground can have too high a water content resulting in soggy fries, so preference is for those that have been stored for a while.In the two-stage or two-bath method, the first bath, sometimes called blanching, is in hot fat (around 160 °C/320 °F) to cook the fries through.", "This step can be done in advance.", "Then they are more briefly fried in very hot fat (190 °C/375 °F) to crisp the exterior.", "They are then placed in a colander or on a cloth to drain, then served.", "The exact times of the two baths depend on the size of the fries.", "For example, for 2–3 mm strips, the first bath takes about 3 minutes, and the second bath takes only seconds.Since the 1960s, most french fries in the US have been produced from frozen Russet potatoes which have been blanched or at least air-dried industrially.", "The usual fat for making french fries is vegetable oil.", "In the past, beef suet was recommended as superior, with vegetable shortening as an alternative.", "McDonald's used a mixture of 93% beef tallow and 7% cottonseed oil until 1990, when they changed to vegetable oil with beef flavouring.", "Horse fat was standard in northern France and Belgium until recently, and is recommended by some chefs.=== Chemical and physical changes ===French fries are fried in a two-step process: the first time is to cook the starch throughout the entire cut at low heat, and the second time is to create the golden crispy exterior of the fry at a higher temperature.", "This is necessary because if the potato cuts are only fried once, the temperature would either be too hot, causing only the exterior to be cooked and not the inside, or not hot enough where the entire fry is cooked, but its crispy exterior will not develop.", "Although the potato cuts may be baked or steamed as a preparation method, this section will only focus on french fries made using frying oil.", "During the initial frying process (approximately 150 °C), water on the surface of the cuts evaporates off the surface and the water inside the cuts gets absorbed by the starch granules, causing them to swell and produce the fluffy interior of the fry.The starch granules are able to retain the water and expand due to gelatinisation.", "The water and heat break the glycosidic linkages between amylopectin and amylose strands, allowing a new gel matrix to form via hydrogen bonds which aid in water retention.", "The moisture that gets trapped within the gel matrix is responsible for the fluffy interior of the fry.", "The gelatinised starch molecules move towards the surface of the fries \"forming a thick layer of gelatinised starch\" and this layer of pre-gelatinised starch becomes the crisp exterior after the potato cuts are fried for a second time.", "During the second frying process (approximately 180 °C), the remaining water on the surface of the cuts evaporates and the gelatinised starch molecules that collected towards the potato surface are cooked again, forming the crisp exterior.", "The golden-brown colour of the fry will develop when the amino acids and glucose on the exterior participate in a Maillard browning reaction." ], [ "Etymology", "In the United States and most of Canada, the term ''french fries'', sometimes capitalised as ''French fries'', or shortened to ''fries'', refers to all dishes of fried elongated pieces of potatoes.", "in shape and size may have names such as ''curly fries'', ''shoestring fries'', etc.In the United Kingdom, Australia, South Africa, Ireland and New Zealand, the term ''chips'' is generally used instead, though thinly cut fried potatoes are sometimes called ''french fries'' or ''skinny fries'', to distinguish them from ''chips'', which are cut thicker.", "In the US or Canada these more thickly-cut ''chips'' might be called ''steak fries'', depending on the shape.", "The word ''chips'' is more often used in North America to refer to ''potato chips'', known in the UK and Ireland as ''crisps''.Thomas Jefferson had \"potatoes served in the French manner\" at a White House dinner in 1802.The expression \"french fried potatoes\" first occurred in print in English in the 1856 work ''Cookery for Maids of All Work'' by Eliza Warren: \"French Fried Potatoes.", "– Cut new potatoes in thin slices, put them in boiling fat, and a little salt; fry both sides of a light golden brown colour; drain.\"", "This account referred to thin, shallow-fried slices of potato.", "It is not clear where or when the now familiar deep-fried batons or fingers of potato were first prepared.", "In the early 20th century, the term \"french fried\" was being used in the sense of \"deep-fried\" for foods like onion rings or chicken.One story about the name \"french fries\" claims that when the American Expeditionary Forces arrived in Belgium during World War I, they assumed that chips were a French dish because French was spoken in the Belgian Army.", "But the name existed long before that in English, and the popularity of the term did not increase for decades after 1917.At that time, the term \"french fries\" was growing in popularity, the term was already used in the United States as early as 1899, although it is not clear whether this referred to batons (chips) or slices of potato e.g.", "in an item in ''Good Housekeeping'' which specifically references \"Kitchen Economy in France\": \"The perfection of French fries is due chiefly to the fact that plenty of fat is used\"." ], [ "Origin", "Steak frites in Fontainebleau, FranceIn 1673, Chilean Francisco Núñez de Pineda mentioned eating \"papas fritas\" in 1629, but it is not known what exactly these were.", "Fries may have been invented in Spain, the first European country in which the potato appeared from the New World colonies.", "Professor Paul Ilegems, curator of the Frietmuseum in Bruges, Belgium, believes that Saint Teresa of Ávila of Spain cooked the first french fries, and refers also to the tradition of frying in Mediterranean cuisine as evidence.Belgian food historian Pierre Leclercq has traced the history of the french fry and asserts that \"it is clear that fries are of French origin\".", "They became an emblematic Parisian dish in the 19th century.", "Frédéric Krieger, a Bavarian musician, learned to cook fries at a roaster on rue Montmartre in Paris in 1842, and took the recipe to Belgium in 1844, where he would create his business Fritz and sell \"la pomme de terre frite à l'instar de Paris\", 'Paris-style fried potatoes'.", "The modern style of fries born in Paris around 1855 is different from the domestic fried potato that existed in the 18th century.The French and Belgians have an ongoing dispute about where fries were invented.A Belgian frites shopThe myth of Belgian fries dates from around 1985.From the Belgian standpoint, the popularity of the term \"french fries\" is explained as \"French gastronomic hegemony\" into which the cuisine of Belgium was assimilated, because of a lack of understanding coupled with a shared language and geographic proximity of the countries.", "The Belgian journalist claimed that a 1781 family manuscript recounts that potatoes were deep-fried prior to 1680 in the Meuse valley, as a substitute for frying fish when the rivers were frozen.", "Gérard never produced the manuscript that supports this claim, and \"the historical value of this story is open to question\".", "In any case, it is unrelated to the later history of the french fry, as the potato did not arrive in the region until around 1735.In any case, given 18th-century economic conditions: \"it is absolutely unthinkable that a peasant could have dedicated large quantities of fat for cooking potatoes.", "At most they were sautéed in a pan\"." ], [ "Global use", "\"''Pommes frites''\" or just \"''frites''\" (French), \"''frieten''\" (a word used in Flanders and the southern provinces of the Netherlands) or \"''patat''\" (used in the north and central parts of the Netherlands) became the national snack and a substantial part of several national dishes, such as Moules-frites or Steak-frites.", "Fries are very popular in Belgium, where they are known as ''frieten'' (in Flemish) or ''frites'' (in Belgian French), and the Netherlands, where among the working classes they are known as ''patat'' in the north and, in the south, ''friet(en)''.", "In Belgium, fries are sold in shops called ''friteries'' (French), ''frietkot''/''frituur'' (Belgian French), ''snackbar'' (Dutch in The Netherlands) or ''Fritüre''/''Frittüre'' (German).", "They are served with a large variety of Belgian sauces and eaten either on their own or with other snacks.", "Traditionally fries are served in a ''cornet de frites'' (French), ''patatzak''/''frietzak''/''fritzak'' (Dutch/Flemish), or ''Frittentüte'' (German), a white cardboard cone, then wrapped in paper, with a spoonful of sauce (often mayonnaise) on top.In France and other French-speaking countries, fried potatoes are formally ''pommes de terre frites'', but more commonly ''pommes frites'', ''patates frites'', or simply ''frites''.", "The words ''aiguillettes'' (\"needle-ettes\") or ''allumettes'' (\"matchsticks\") are used when the french fries are very small and thin.", "One enduring origin story holds that french fries were invented by street vendors on the Pont Neuf bridge in Paris in 1789, just before the outbreak of the French Revolution.", "However, a reference exists in France from 1775 to \"a few pieces of fried potato\" and to \"fried potatoes\".", "Eating potatoes for sustenance was promoted in France by Antoine-Augustin Parmentier, but he did not mention ''fried'' potatoes in particular.", "A note in a manuscript in U.S. president Thomas Jefferson's hand (circa 1801–1809) mentions ''\"Pommes de terre frites à cru, en petites tranches\"'' (\"Potatoes deep-fried while raw, in small slices\").", "The recipe almost certainly comes from his French chef, Honoré Julien.", "The thick-cut fries are called ''pommes Pont-Neuf'' or simply ''pommes frites'' (about 10 mm); thinner variants are ''pommes allumettes'' (matchstick potatoes; about 7 mm), and ''pommes paille'' (potato straws; 3–4 mm).", "(Roughly 0.4, 0.3 and 0.15 inch respectively.)", "''Pommes gaufrettes'' are waffle fries.", "A popular dish in France is steak frites, which is steak accompanied by thin french fries.Currywurst and fries, GermanyFrench fries migrated to the German-speaking countries during the 19th century.", "In Germany, they are usually known by the French words , or only or (derived from the French words, but pronounced as German words).", "Often served with ketchup or mayonnaise, they are popular as a side dish in restaurants, or as a street-food snack purchased at an (snack stand).", "Since the 1950s, ''currywurst'' has become a widely-popular dish that is commonly offered with fries.", "Currywurst is a sausage (often bratwurst or bockwurst) in a spiced ketchup-based sauce, dusted with curry powder.Fish and chipsThe standard deep-fried cut potatoes in the United Kingdom are called chips, and are cut into pieces between wide.", "They are occasionally made from unpeeled potatoes (skins showing).", "British ''chips'' are not the same thing as potato chips (an American term); those are called \"crisps\" in the UK and some other countries.", "In the UK, chips are part of the popular, and now international, fast food dish fish and chips.", "In the UK, the name chips are a separate item to french fries; with chips being more thickly cut than french fries, they can be cooked once or multiple times at different temperatures.", "From 1813 on, recipes for deep-fried cut potatoes occur in popular cookbooks.", "By the late 1850s, at least one cookbook refers to \"French Fried Potatoes\".The first commercially available chips in the UK were sold by Mrs 'Granny' Duce in one of the West Riding towns in 1854.A blue plaque in Oldham marks the origin of the fish-and-chip shop, and thus the start of the fast food industry in Britain.", "In Scotland, chips were first sold in Dundee: \"in the 1870s, that glory of British gastronomy – the chip – was first sold by Belgian immigrant Edward De Gernier in the city's Greenmarket\".", "In Ireland the first chip shop was \"opened by Giuseppe Cervi\", an Italian immigrant, \"who arrived there in the 1880s\".", "It was estimated in 2011 that in the UK, 80% of households bought frozen chips each year.", "Although chips were a popular dish in most Commonwealth countries, the \"thin style\" french fries have been popularised worldwide in large part by the large American fast food chains such as McDonald's and Burger King.In the United States, the J. R. Simplot Company is credited with successfully commercialising french fries in frozen form during the 1940s.", "Subsequently, in 1967, Ray Kroc of McDonald's contracted the Simplot company to supply them with frozen fries, replacing fresh-cut potatoes.", "In 2004, 29% of the United States' potato crop was used to make frozen fries; 90% consumed by the food services sector and 10% by retail.", "The United States supplies China with most of their french fries, as 70% of China's french fries are imported.", "Pre-made french fries have been available for home cooking since the 1960s, having been pre-fried (or sometimes baked), frozen and placed in a sealed plastic bag.", "Some fast-food chains dip the fries in a sugar solution or a starch batter, to alter the appearance or texture.", "French fries are one of the most popular dishes in the United States, commonly being served as a side dish to main dishes and in fast food restaurants.", "The average American eats around of french fries a year.Québécois dish is poutine, such as this one from La Banquise restaurant in Montreal.", "It is made with french fries, cheese curds and gravy.The town of Florenceville-Bristol, New Brunswick in Canada, headquarters of McCain Foods, calls itself \"the French fry capital of the world\" and also hosts a museum about potatoes called Potato World.", "McCain Foods is the world's largest manufacturer of frozen french fries and other potato specialities.French fries are the main ingredient in the Québécois dish known as ''poutine'', a dish consisting of fried potatoes covered with cheese curds and brown gravy.", "Poutine has a growing number of variations, but it is generally considered to have been developed in rural Québec sometime in the 1950s, although precisely where in the province it first appeared is a matter of contention.", "Canada is also responsible for providing 22% of China's french fries.In Spain, fried potatoes are called ''patatas fritas'' or ''papas fritas''.", "Another common form, involving larger irregular cuts, is ''patatas bravas''.", "The potatoes are cut into big chunks, partially boiled and then fried.", "They are usually seasoned with a spicy tomato sauce.", "Fries are a common side dish in Latin American cuisine or part of larger preparations such as the salchipapas in Peru or chorrillana in Chile.Whilst eating 'regular' crispy french fries is common in South Africa, a regional favourite, particularly in Cape Town, is a soft soggy version doused in white vinegar called \"slap-chips\" (pronounced \"''slup-chips''\" in English or \"''slaptjips''\" in Afrikaans).", "These chips are typically thicker and fried at a lower temperature for a longer period of time than regular french fries.", "Slap-chips are an important component of a Gatsby sandwich, also a common Cape Town delicacy.", "Slap-chips are also commonly served with deep fried fish which are also served with the same white vinegar.", "is a standard fast-food side dish in Japan.", "Inspired by Japanese cuisine, okonomiyaki fries are served with a topping of unagi sauce, mayonnaise, katsuobushi, nori seasoning (furikake) and stir-fried cabbage." ], [ "Variants", "A child holding tornado friesFrench fries come in multiple variations and toppings.", "Some examples include:* Air-fried fries – fries cooked in an air fryer* Carne asada fries – fries covered with carne asada, guacamole, sour cream and cheese.", "* Cheese fries – fries covered with cheese.", "* Chili cheese fries – fries covered with chili and cheese.", "* Crinkle-cut fries – also known as \"wavy fries\", these are cut in a corrugated, ridged fashion.", "* Curly fries – characterised by their helical shape, cut from whole potatoes using a specialised spiral slicer.", "* Curry chips – fries covered in curry sauce.", "* Dirty fries – fries covered in melted cheese with various toppings such as bacon, pulled pork, chili or gravy.", "* French fry sandwich – fried potato with bread, including the chip butty, horseshoe sandwich, french tacos, and the ''mitraillette''.", "* Kimchi fries – fries topped with caramelised baechu-kimchi and green onions* Loaded fries – fries topped with cheese and bacon.", "* Microwave fries – fries that are cooked in the microwave; some frozen fries have instructions for microwaving.", "* Oven fries – fries that are cooked in the oven as a final step in the preparation.", "* Potato wedges – thick-cut, elongated wedge-shaped fries with the skin left on.", "* Poutine – a dish consisting of fries topped with cheese curds and gravy and principally associated with the Canadian province of Québec.", "* Salt and pepper chips – a British Chinese fusion dish consisting of fries tossed with stir fried vegetables.", "* Shoestring fries – thin-cut fries.", "* Steak fries – thick-cut fries.", "* Sweet potato fries – fries made with sweet potatoes instead of traditional white potatoes.", "* Tornado fries – spiral-cut potatoes that are placed on a skewer and then deep fried.", "* Triple-cooked chips – fries that are simmered, cooled and drained using a low-temp-long-time (LTLT) cooking technique; they are then deep fried at just 130 °C, cooled and finally deep fried at 180 °C.", "* Waffle fries – lattice-shaped fries obtained by quarter-turning the potato before each next slide over a grater and deep-frying just once.File:Air-fried French Fries.jpg|Air-fried friesFile:Chili fries.jpg|Chili friesFile:The Hat, chili cheese fries.jpg|Chili cheese friesFile:Pommes VI (20006982466).jpg|Crinkle-cut friesFile:Fast food 01 ebru.jpg|Curly friesFile:Curry chips.jpg|Curry chipsFile:Dirty fries at Stone's.jpg|Dirty friesFile:Shoestring fries, garlic, homemade blue cheese dressing, with some spicy sauce.jpg|Shoestring fries with blue cheese dressingFile:Sweet Potato Fries.jpg|Sweet potato fries File:ChickFilA-Fries.jpg|Waffle fries" ], [ "Accompaniments", "Fries tend to be served with a variety of accompaniments, such as salt and vinegar (malt, balsamic or white), pepper, Cajun seasoning, grated cheese, melted cheese, mushy peas, heated curry sauce, curry ketchup, hot sauce, relish, mustard, mayonnaise, bearnaise sauce, tartar sauce, chili, tzatziki, feta cheese, garlic sauce, fry sauce, butter, sour cream, ranch dressing, barbecue sauce, gravy, honey, aioli, brown sauce, ketchup, lemon juice, piccalilli, pickled cucumber, pickled gherkins, pickled onions or pickled eggs.", "In Australia, a popular flavouring added to chips is chicken salt." ], [ "Nutrition", "Oven-baked friesFrench fries primarily contain carbohydrates (mostly in the form of starch) and protein from the potato, and fat absorbed during the deep-frying process.", "Salt, which contains sodium, is almost always applied as a surface seasoning.", "For example, a large serving of french fries at McDonald's in the United States is 154 grams and includes 350 mg of sodium.", "The 510 calories come from 66 g of carbohydrates, 24 g of fat and 7 g of protein.A number of experts have criticised french fries for being very unhealthy.", "According to Jonathan Bonnet in a ''Time'' magazine article, \"fries are nutritionally unrecognizable from a spud\" because they \"involve frying, salting, and removing one of the healthiest parts of the potato: the skin, where many of the nutrients and fiber are found.\"", "Kristin Kirkpatrick calls french fries \"an extremely starchy vegetable dipped in a fryer that then loads on the unhealthy fat, and what you have left is a food that has no nutritional redeeming value in it at all.\"", "David Katz states that \"French fries are often the super-fatty side dish to a burger—and both are often used as vehicles for things like sugar-laced ketchup and fatty mayo.\"", "Eric Morrissette, spokesperson for Health Canada, states that people should limit their intake of french fries, but eating them occasionally is not likely to be a health concern.Fries frying in oilFrying french fries in beef tallow, lard, or other animal fats adds saturated fat to them.", "Replacing animal fats with tropical vegetable oils, such as palm oil, simply substitutes one saturated fat for another.", "For many years partially hydrogenated vegetable oils were used as a means of avoiding cholesterol and reducing saturated fatty acid content, but in time the trans fat content of these oils was perceived as contributing to cardiovascular disease.", "Starting in 2008, many restaurant chains and manufacturers of pre-cooked frozen french fries for home reheating phased out trans-fat–containing vegetable oils.French fries contain some of the highest levels of acrylamides of any foodstuff, and experts have raised concerns about the effects of acrylamides on human health.", "According to the American Cancer Society, it is not clear whether acrylamide consumption affects people's risk of getting cancer.", "A meta-analysis indicated that dietary acrylamide is not related to the risk of most common cancers, but could not exclude a modest association for kidney, endometrial or ovarian cancers.", "A lower-fat method for producing a french-fry–like product is to coat \"frenched\" or wedge potatoes in oil and spices/flavouring before baking them.", "The temperature will be lower compared to deep frying, which reduces acrylamide formation.In April 2023, researchers from China suggested a possible link between the consumption of fried food and mental health problems.", "According to the study, those who frequently consume fried food, especially potatoes, have an increased risk of depression and anxiety, by 7% and 12% respectively, compared to those who do not.", "The connection was particularly prominent among younger males.", "However, the causal relationship is not conclusive.", "The results are still preliminary, and the researchers are uncertain whether consuming fried foods causes mental health problems or individuals with symptoms of anxiety and depression tend to opt for fried foods." ], [ "Legal issues", "In June 2004, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), with the advisement of a federal district judge from Beaumont, Texas, classified batter-coated french fries as a vegetable under the Perishable Agricultural Commodities Act.", "This was primarily for trade reasons; french fries do not meet the standard to be listed as a processed food.", "This classification, referred to as the \"French fry rule\", was upheld in the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit case ''Fleming Companies, Inc. v. USDA''." ], [ "Environmental impact", "A 2022 study estimated the environmental impact of 57,000 food products in the UK and Ireland, finding that French fries have a lower impact on the environment than many other foods." ], [ "See also", "* Avocado fries* Freedom fries* French fry vending machine* German fries* Potato wedges* List of deep fried foods* Mitraillette* Pommes dauphine* Pommes duchesse* Pommes soufflées" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* *" ], [ "External links", "**" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Field hockey" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Field hockey''' (or simply '''hockey''') is a team sport structured in standard hockey format, in which each team plays with 11 players in total, made up of 10 field players and a goalkeeper.", "Teams must move a hockey ball around a pitch by hitting it with a hockey stick towards the rival team's shooting circle and then into the goal.", "The match is won by the team that scores the most goals.", "Matches are played on grass, watered turf, artificial turf, or indoor boarded surface.The stick is made of wood, carbon fibre, fibreglass and carbon, or a combination of carbon fibre and fibreglass in different quantities.", "The stick has two sides; one rounded and one flat; only the flat face of the stick is allowed to progress the ball.", "During play, goalkeepers are the only players allowed to touch the ball with any part of their body.", "A player's hand is considered part of the stick if holding the stick.", "If the ball is \"played\" with the rounded part of the stick (i.e., deliberately stopped or hit), it will result in a penalty (accidental touches are not an offence if they do not materially affect play).", "Goalkeepers often have a different design of stick; they also cannot play the ball with the round side of their stick.The modern game was developed at public schools in 19th-century England and it is now played globally.", "The governing body is the International Hockey Federation (FIH), called the in French.", "Men and women are represented internationally in competitions including the Olympic Games, World Cup, FIH Pro League, Junior World Cup and in past also World League, Champions Trophy.", "Many countries run extensive junior, senior, and masters club competitions.", "The FIH is also responsible for organizing the Hockey Rules Board and developing the sport's rules.The sport is known simply as \"hockey\" in countries where it is the more common form of hockey.", "The term \"field hockey\" is used primarily in Canada and the United States, where \"hockey\" more often refers to ice hockey.", "In Sweden, the term ''landhockey'' is used.", "A popular variant is indoor field hockey, which differs in a number of respects while embodying the primary principles of hockey." ], [ "History", "ancient Greek players of ''kerētízein'', an ancestral form of hockey or ground billiards; in the National Archaeological Museum, AthensAccording to the International Hockey Federation (FIH), \"the roots of hockey are buried deep in antiquity\".", "There are historical records which suggest early forms of hockey were played in Egypt and Persia , and in Ethiopia .", "Later evidence suggest that the ancient Greeks, Romans and Aztecs all played hockey-like games.", "In Ancient Egypt, there is a depiction of two figures playing with sticks and ball in the Beni Hasan tomb of Khety, an administrator of Dynasty XI.In Ancient Greece, there is a similar image dated , which may have been called () because it was played with a horn (, in Ancient Greek) and a ball.", "Researchers disagree over how to interpret this image.", "It could have been a team or one-on-one activity (the depiction shows two active players, and other figures who may be team-mates awaiting a face-off, or non-players waiting for their turn at play).", "Billiards historians Stein and Rubino believe it was among the games ancestral to lawn-and-field games like hockey and ground billiards, and near-identical depictions appear in later European illuminated manuscripts and other works of the 14th through 17th centuries, showing contemporary courtly and clerical life.In East Asia, a similar game was entertained, using a carved wooden stick and ball, prior to 300 BC.", "In Inner Mongolia, China, the Daur people have for about 1,000 years been playing ''beikou'', a game with some similarities to field hockey.", "A similar field hockey or ground billiards variant, called ''suigan'', was played in China during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644, post-dating the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty).", "A game similar to field hockey was played in the 17th century in Punjab state in India under name ''khido khundi'' (''khido'' refers to the woolen ball, and ''khundi'' to the stick).In South America, most specifically in Chile, the local natives of the 16th century used to play a game called Chueca, which also shares common elements with hockey.In Northern Europe, the games of hurling (Ireland) and '''' (Iceland), both team ball games involving sticks to drive a ball to the opponents' goal, date at least as far back as the Early Middle Ages.", "By the 12th century, a team ball game called '''' or '''', akin to a chaotic and sometimes long-distance version of hockey or rugby football (depending on whether sticks were used in a particular local variant), was regularly played in France and southern Britain between villages or parishes.", "Throughout the Middle Ages to the Early Modern era, such games often involved the local clergy or secular aristocracy, and in some periods were limited to them by various anti-gaming edicts, or even banned altogether.", "Stein and Rubino, among others, ultimately trace aspects of these games both to rituals in antiquity involving orbs and sceptres (on the aristocratic and clerical side), and to ancient military training exercises (on the popular side); polo (essentially hockey on horseback) was devised by the Ancient Persians for cavalry training, based on the local proto-hockey foot game of the region.The word ''hockey'' itself has no clear origin.", "One belief is that it was recorded in 1363 when Edward III of England issued the proclamation: \"Moreover we ordain that you prohibit under penalty of imprisonment all and sundry from such stone, wood and iron throwing; handball, football, or hockey; coursing and cock-fighting, or other such idle games\".", "The belief is based on modern translations of the proclamation, which was originally in Latin and explicitly forbade the games \"Pilam Manualem, Pedivam, & Bacularem: & ad Canibucam & Gallorum Pugnam\".", "It may be recalled at this point that ''baculum'' is the Latin for 'stick', so the reference would appear to be to a game played with sticks.", "The English historian and biographer John Strype did not use the word \"hockey\" when he translated the proclamation in 1720, and the word 'hockey' remains of unknown origin.The modern game developed at public schools in 19th century England.", "It is now played globally, particularly in parts of Western Europe, South Asia, Southern Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, and parts of the United States, primarily New England and the mid-Atlantic states.", "The term \"field hockey\" is used primarily in Canada and the United States where \"hockey\" more often refers to ice hockey.", "In Sweden, the term ''landhockey'' is used, and to some degree in Norway, where the game is governed by Norges Bandyforbund.The first known club was formed in 1849 at Blackheath in south-east London, but the modern rules grew out of a version played by Middlesex cricket clubs as a winter activity.", "Teddington Hockey Club formed the modern game by introducing the striking circle and changing the ball to a sphere from a rubber cube.", "The Hockey Association was founded in 1876.It lasted just six years, before being revived by nine founding members.", "The first international competition took place in 1895 (Ireland 3, Wales 0), and the International Rules Board was founded in 1900.A game of hockey being played between Germany and Scotland at the 1908 London Olympics Field hockey was played at the Summer Olympics in 1908 and 1920.It was dropped in 1924, leading to the foundation of the Fédération Internationale de Hockey sur Gazon (FIH) as an international governing body by seven continental European nations; and hockey was reinstated as an Olympic game in 1928.Men's hockey united under the FIH in 1970.The two oldest trophies are the Irish Senior Cup, which dates back to 1894, and the Irish Junior Cup, a second XI-only competition instituted in 1895.In India, the Beighton Cup and the Aga Khan tournament commenced within ten years.", "Entering the Olympics in 1928, India won all five games without conceding a goal, and won from 1932 until 1956 and then in 1964 and 1980.Pakistan won Olympics gold in men's hockey in 1960, 1968 and 1984.In fact, all but two of Pakistan's 10 Olympics medals so far have been in field hockey, including three gold, three silver and two bronze medals.Indian player Dhyan Chand won Olympic gold medals for his team in 1928, 1932 and 1936.Photo shows him scoring a goal against Germany in the 1936 Olympics hockey final.In the early 1970s, artificial turf began to be used.", "Synthetic pitches changed most aspects of field hockey, gaining speed.", "New tactics and techniques such as the Indian dribble developed, followed by new rules to take account.", "The switch to synthetic surfaces ended Indian and Pakistani domination because artificial turf was too expensive in developing countries.", "Since the 1970s, Australia, the Netherlands, and Germany have dominated at the Olympics and World Cup stages.Women's field hockey was first played at British universities and schools.", "The first club, the Molesey Ladies, was founded in 1887.The first national association was the Irish Ladies Hockey Union in 1894, and though rebuffed by the Hockey Association, women's field hockey grew rapidly around the world.", "This led to the International Federation of Women's Hockey Association (IFWHA) in 1927, though this did not include many continental European countries where women played as sections of men's associations and were affiliated to the FIH.", "The IFWHA held conferences every three years, and tournaments associated with these were the primary IFWHA competitions.", "These tournaments were non-competitive until 1975.By the early 1970s, there were 22 associations with women's sections in the FIH and 36 associations in the IFWHA.", "Discussions started about a common rule book.", "The FIH introduced competitive tournaments in 1974, forcing the acceptance of the principle of competitive field hockey by the IFWHA in 1973.It took until 1982 for the two bodies to merge, but this allowed the introduction of women's field hockey to the Olympic games from 1980 where, as in the men's game, the Netherlands, Germany, and Australia have been consistently strong.", "Argentina has emerged as a team to be reckoned with since 2000, winning the world championship in 2002 and 2010 and medals at the last three Olympics.In the United States, field hockey is played predominantly by girls and women.", "There are few field hockey clubs, most play taking place between high school or college sides.", "The sport was largely introduced in the U.S. by Constance Applebee, starting with a tour of Seven Sisters colleges in 1901 and continuing through Applebee's 24-year tenure as athletic director of Bryn Mawr College.", "The strength of college field hockey reflects the impact of Title IX, which mandated that colleges should fund men's and women's games programmes comparably.", "Hockey has been predominantly played on the East Coast, specifically the Mid-Atlantic in states such as New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia.", "In recent years, it has become increasingly played on the West Coast and in the Midwest.In other countries, participation is fairly evenly balanced between men and women.", "For example, in the 2008–09 season, England Hockey reported 2,488 registered men's teams, 1,969 women's teams, 1,042 boys' teams, 966 girls' teams and 274 mixed teams.", "In 2006, the Irish Hockey Association reported that the gender split among its players was approximately 65% female and 35% male.", "In its 2008 census, Hockey Australia reported 40,534 male club players and 41,542 female." ], [ "Field of play", "Diagram of a hockey fieldMost hockey field dimensions were originally fixed using whole numbers of imperial measures.", "Metric measurements are now the official dimensions as laid down by the International Hockey Federation (FIH) in the ''Rules of Hockey''.The pitch is a rectangular field.", "At each end is a goal high and wide, as well as lines across the field from each end-line (generally referred to as the 23-metre lines or the 25-yard lines) and in the center of the field.", "A spot in diameter, called the penalty spot or stroke mark, is placed with its centre from the centre of each goal.", "The shooting circle is from the base line.Field hockey goals are made of two upright posts, joined at the top by a horizontal crossbar, with a net positioned to catch the ball when it passes through the goalposts.", "The goalposts and crossbar must be white and rectangular in shape, and should be wide and deep.Field hockey goals also include sideboards and a backboard, which stand from the ground.", "The backboard runs the full width of the goal, while the sideboards are deep.===Playing surface===Historically the game developed on natural grass turf.", "In the early 1970s, synthetic grass fields began to be used for hockey, with the first Olympic Games on this surface being held at Montreal in 1976.Synthetic pitches are now mandatory for all international tournaments and for most national competitions.", "While hockey is still played on traditional grass fields at some local levels and lesser national divisions, it has been replaced by synthetic surfaces almost everywhere in the western world.", "There are three main types of artificial hockey surface:* Unfilled or water based – artificial fibres that are densely packed for stabilisation, requires irrigation or watering to avoid pitch wear* Dressed or sand dressed – artificial fibres can be less densely packed and sand supports the fibres for part of the pile depth* Filled or sand filled – artificial fibres can be longer and less densely packed and sand supports the fibres for 100% of the pile depthSince the 1970s, sand-based pitches have been favoured as they dramatically speed up the game.", "However, in recent years there has been a massive increase in the number of \"water-based\" artificial turfs.", "Water-based synthetic turfs enable the ball to be transferred more quickly than on sand-based surfaces.", "It is this characteristic that has made them the surface of choice for international and national league competitions.", "Water-based surfaces are also less abrasive than sand-based surfaces and reduce the level of injury to players when they come into contact with the surface.", "The FIH are now proposing that new surfaces being laid should be of a hybrid variety which require less watering.", "This is due to the negative ecological effects of the high water requirements of water-based synthetic fields.", "It has also been stated that the decision to make artificial surfaces mandatory greatly favoured more affluent countries who could afford these new pitches." ], [ "Rules and play", "===Overview===The game is played between two teams of eleven, 10 field players and one goal keeper, are permitted to be on the pitch at any one time.", "The remaining players may be substituted in any combination.", "There is an unlimited number of times a team can sub in and out.", "Substitutions are permitted at any point in the game, apart from between the award and end of a penalty corner; two exceptions to this rule is for injury or suspension of the defending goalkeeper, which is not allowed when playing with a field keep, or a player can exit the field, but you must wait until after the penalty corner is complete.", "Play is not stopped for a substitution (except of a goalkeeper), the players leave and rejoin the match simultaneously at the half-way line.Players are permitted to play the ball with the flat of the 'face side' and with the edges of the head and handle of the field hockey stick with the exception that, for reasons of safety, the ball may not be struck 'hard' with a forehand edge stroke, because of the difficulty of controlling the height and direction of the ball from that stroke.The flat side is always on the \"natural\" side for a right-handed person swinging the stick at the ball from right to left.", "Left-handed sticks are rare, as International Hockey Federation rules forbid their use in a game.", "To make a strike at the ball with a left-to-right swing the player must present the flat of the 'face' of the stick to the ball by 'reversing' the stick head, i.e.", "by turning the handle through approximately 180° (while a reverse edge hit would turn the stick head through approximately 90° from the position of an upright forehand stroke with the 'face' of the stick head).Edge hitting of the ball underwent a two-year \"experimental period\", twice the usual length of an \"experimental trial\" and is still a matter of some controversy within the game.", "Ric Charlesworth, the former Australian coach, has been a strong critic of the unrestricted use of the reverse edge hit.", "The 'hard' forehand edge hit was banned after similar concerns were expressed about the ability of players to direct the ball accurately, but the reverse edge hit does appear to be more predictable and controllable than its counterpart.", "This type of hit is now more commonly referred to as the \"forehand sweep\" where the ball is hit with the flat side or \"natural\" side of the stick and not the rounded edge.Other rules include; no foot-to-ball contact, no use of hands, no obstructing other players, no high back swing, no hacking, and no third party.", "If a player is dribbling the ball and either loses control and kicks the ball or another player interferes that player is not permitted to gain control and continue dribbling.", "The rules do not allow the person who kicked the ball to gain advantage from the kick, so the ball will automatically be passed on to the opposing team.", "Conversely, if no advantage is gained from kicking the ball, play should continue.", "Players may not obstruct another's chance of hitting the ball in any way.", "No shoving/using your body/stick to prevent advancement in the other team.", "Penalty for this is the opposing team receives the ball and if the problem continues, the player can be carded.", "While a player is taking a free hit or starting a corner the back swing of their hit cannot be too high for this is considered dangerous.", "Finally there may not be three players touching the ball at one time.", "Two players from opposing teams can battle for the ball, however if another player interferes it is considered third party and the ball automatically goes to the team who only had one player involved in the third party.===The game===A match ordinarily consists of two periods of 35 minutes and a halftime interval of 5 minutes.", "Other periods and interval may be agreed byboth teams except as specified in Regulations for particular competitions.", "Since 2014, some international games have four 15-minute quarters with 2 minutes break between each quarter and 5 minutes break between quarter two and three.", "At the 2018 Commonwealth Games, held on the Gold Coast in Brisbane, the hockey games for both men and women had four 15-minute quarters.In December 2018, the FIH announced rule changes that would make 15-minute quarters universal from January 2019.England Hockey confirmed that while no changes would be made to the domestic game mid-season, the new rules would be implemented at the start of the 2019–20 season.", "However, in July 2019 England Hockey announced that 17.5-minute quarters would only be implemented in elite domestic club games.The game begins with a pass back from the centre-forward usually to the centre-half back from the halfway line.", "The opposing team cannot try to tackle this play until the ball has been pushed back.", "The team consists of eleven players, usually aligned as follows: goalkeeper, right fullback, left fullback, three half-backs and five forwards who are right wing, right inner, centre forward, left inner and left wing.", "These positions can change and adapt throughout the course of the game depending on the attacking and defensive style of the opposition.===Positions===A Virginia Cavaliers field player passing the ballWhen hockey positions are discussed, notions of fluidity are very common.", "Each team can be fielded with a maximum of 11 players and will typically arrange themselves into forwards, midfielders, and defensive players (fullbacks) with players frequently moving between these lines with the flow of play.", "Each team may also play with:* a goalkeeper who wears a different colour shirt and full protective equipment comprising at least headgear, leg guards and kickers; this player is referred to in the rules as a goalkeeper; or* Only field players; no player has goalkeeping privileges or wears a different colour shirt; no player may wear protective headgear except a face mask when defending a penalty corner or stroke.====Formations====As hockey has a very dynamic style of play, it is difficult to simplify positions to the static formations which are common in association football.", "Although positions will typically be categorised as either fullback, halfback, midfield/inner or striker, it is important for players to have an understanding of every position on the field.", "For example, it is not uncommon to see a halfback overlap and end up in either attacking position, with the midfield and strikers being responsible for re-adjusting to fill the space they left.", "Movement between lines like this is particularly common across all positions.This fluid Australian culture of hockey has been responsible for developing an international trend towards players occupying spaces on the field, not having assigned positions.", "Although they may have particular spaces on the field which they are more comfortable and effective as players, they are responsible for occupying the space nearest them.", "This fluid approach to hockey and player movement has made it easy for teams to transition between formations such as: ''\"3 at the back\"'', ''\"5 midfields\"'', ''\"2 at the front\"'', and more.====Goalkeepers====Goalkeeper Filip Neusser in full gearWhen the ball is inside the circle, they are defending and they have their stick in their hand, goalkeepers wearing full protective equipment are permitted to use their stick, feet, kickers or leg guards to propel the ball and to use their stick, feet, kickers, leg guards or any other part of their body to stop the ball or deflect it in any direction including over the back line.", "Similarly, field players are permitted to use their stick.", "They are not allowed to use their feet and legs to propel the ball, stop the ball or deflect it in any direction including over the back line.", "However, neither goalkeepers, or players with goalkeeping privileges are permitted to conduct themselves in a manner which is dangerous to other players by taking advantage of the protective equipment they wear.Neither goalkeepers or players with goalkeeping privileges may lie on the ball, however, they are permitted to use arms, hands and any other part of their body to push the ball away.", "Lying on the ball deliberately will result in a penalty stroke, whereas if an umpire deems a goalkeeper has lain on the ball accidentally (e.g.", "it gets stuck in their protective equipment), a penalty corner is awarded.", "''* The action above is permitted only as part of a goal saving action or to move the ball away from the possibility of a goal scoring action by opponents.", "It does not permit a goalkeeper or player with goalkeeping privileges to propel the ball forcefully with arms, hands or body so that it travels a long distance''When the ball is outside the circle they are defending, goalkeepers or players with goalkeeping privileges are only permitted to play the ball with their stick.", "Further, a goalkeeper, or player with goalkeeping privileges who is wearing a helmet, must not take part in the match outside the 23m area they are defending, except when taking a penalty stroke.", "A goalkeeper must wear protective headgear at all times, except when taking a penalty stroke.===General play===For the purposes of the rules, all players on the team in possession of the ball are attackers, and those on the team without the ball are defenders, yet throughout the game being played you are always \"defending\" your goal and \"attacking\" the opposite goal.Sideline hit in a match Standard Athletic Club vs. British School of Paris (1996)The match is officiated by two field umpires.", "Traditionally each umpire generally controls half of the field, divided roughly diagonally.", "These umpires are often assisted by a technical bench including a timekeeper and record keeper.Prior to the start of the game, a coin is tossed and the winning captain can choose a starting end or whether to start with the ball.", "Since 2017 the game consists of four periods of 15 minutes with a 2-minute break after every period, and a 15-minute intermission at half time before changing ends.", "At the start of each period, as well as after goals are scored, play is started with a pass from the centre of the field.", "All players must start in their defensive half (apart from the player making the pass), but the ball may be played in any direction along the floor.", "Each team starts with the ball in one half, and the team that conceded the goal has possession for the restart.", "Teams trade sides at halftime.Field players may only play the ball with the face of the stick.", "If the back side of the stick is used, it is a penalty and the other team will get the ball back.", "Tackling is permitted as long as the tackler does not make contact with the attacker or the other person's stick before playing the ball (contact after the tackle may also be penalised if the tackle was made from a position where contact was inevitable).", "Further, the player with the ball may not deliberately use his body to push a defender out of the way.Field players may not play the ball with their feet, but if the ball accidentally hits the feet, and the player gains no benefit from the contact, then the contact is not penalised.", "Although there has been a change in the wording of this rule from 1 January 2007, the current FIH umpires' briefing instructs umpires not to change the way they interpret this rule.Obstruction typically occurs in three circumstances – when a defender comes between the player with possession and the ball in order to prevent them tackling; when a defender's stick comes between the attacker's stick and the ball or makes contact with the attacker's stick or body; and also when blocking the opposition's attempt to tackle a teammate with the ball (called ''third party obstruction'').When the ball passes completely over the sidelines (on the sideline is still in), it is returned to play with a sideline hit, taken by a member of the team whose players were not the last to touch the ball before crossing the sideline.", "The ball must be placed on the sideline, with the hit taken from as near the place the ball went out of play as possible.", "If it crosses the back line after last touched by an attacker, a hit is awarded.", "A 15 m hit is also awarded for offences committed by the attacking side within 15 m of the end of the pitch they are attacking.===Set plays===Set plays are often utilised for specific situations such as a penalty corner or free hit.", "For instance, many teams have penalty corner variations that they can use to beat the defensive team.", "The coach may have plays that sends the ball between two defenders and lets the player attack the opposing team's goal.", "There are no set plays unless your team has them.====Free hits====Free hits are awarded when offences are committed outside the scoring circles (the term 'free hit' is standard usage but the ball need not be hit).", "The ball may be hit, pushed or lifted in any direction by the team offended against.", "The ball can be lifted from a free hit but not by hitting, you must flick or scoop to lift from a free hit.", "(In previous versions of the rules, hits in the area outside the circle in open play have been permitted but lifting one direction from a free hit was prohibited).", "Opponents must move from the ball when a free hit is awarded.", "A free hit must be taken from within playing distance of the place of the offence for which it was awarded and the ball must be stationary when the free hit is taken.As mentioned above, a 15 m hit is awarded if an attacking player commits a foul forward of that line, or if the ball passes over the back line off an attacker.", "These free hits are taken in-line with where the foul was committed (taking a line parallel with the sideline between where the offence was committed, or the ball went out of play).", "When an attacking free hit is awarded within 5 m of the circle everyone including the person taking the penalty must be five meters from the circle and everyone apart from the person taking the free hit must be five meters away from the ball.", "When taking an attacking free hit, the ball may not be hit straight into the circle if you are within your attacking 23 meter area (25-yard area).", "It has to travel 5 meters before going in.====2009 experimental changes====In February 2009 the FIH introduced, as a \"Mandatory Experiment\" for international competition, an updated version of the free-hit rule.", "The changes allows a player taking a free hit to pass the ball to themselves.", "Importantly, this is not a \"play on\" situation, but to the untrained eye it may appear to be.", "The player must play the ball any distance in two separate motions, before continuing as if it were a play-on situation.", "They may raise an aerial or overhead immediately as the second action, or any other stroke permitted by the rules of field hockey.", "At high-school level, this is called a self pass and was adopted in Pennsylvania in 2010 as a legal technique for putting the ball in play.Also, all players (from both teams) must be at least 5 m from any free hit awarded to the attack within the 23 m area.", "The ball may not travel directly into the circle from a free hit to the attack within the 23 m area without first being touched by another player or being dribbled at least 5 m by a player making a \"self-pass\".", "These experimental rules apply to all free-hit situations, including sideline and corner hits.", "National associations may also choose to introduce these rules for their domestic competitions.====Long corner====A free hit from the 23-metre line – called a long corner – is awarded to the attacking team if the ball goes over the back-line after last being touched by a defender, provided they do not play it over the back-line deliberately, in which case a penalty corner is awarded.", "This free hit is played by the attacking team from a spot on the 23-metre line, in line with where the ball went out of play.", "All the parameters of an attacking free hit within the attacking quarter of the playing surface apply.====Penalty corner====The short or penalty corner is awarded: A group of five defenders, including the goalkeeper, prepare on the back line for a short corner.# for an offence by a defender in the circle which does not prevent the probable scoring of a goal;# for an intentional offence in the circle by a defender against an opponent who does not have possession of the ball or an opportunity to play the ball;# for an intentional offence by a defender outside the circle but within the 23-metre area they are defending;# for intentionally playing the ball over the back line by a defender;# when the ball becomes lodged in a player's clothing or equipment while in the circle they are defending.Short corners begin with five defenders (usually including the keeper) positioned behind the back line and the ball placed at least 10 yards from the nearest goal post.", "All other players in the defending team must be beyond the centre line, that is not in their 'own' half of the pitch, until the ball is in play.", "Attacking players begin the play standing outside the scoring circle, except for one attacker who starts the corner by playing the ball from a mark 10 m either side of the goal (the circle has a 14.63 m radius).", "This player puts the ball into play by pushing or hitting the ball to the other attackers outside the circle; the ball must pass outside the circle and then put back into the circle before the attackers may make a shot at the goal from which a goal can be scored.", "FIH rules do not forbid a shot at goal before the ball leaves the circle after being 'inserted', nor is a shot at the goal from outside the circle prohibited, but a goal cannot be scored at all if the ball has not gone out of the circle and cannot be scored from a shot from outside the circle if it is not again played by an attacking player before it enters the goal.For safety reasons, the first shot of a penalty corner must not exceed 460 mm high (the height of the \"backboard\" of the goal) at the point it crosses the goal line if it is hit.", "However, if the ball is deemed to be below backboard height, the ball can be subsequently deflected above this height by another player (defender or attacker), providing that this deflection does not lead to danger.", "The \"Slap\" stroke (a sweeping motion towards the ball, where the stick is kept on or close to the ground when striking the ball) is classed as a hit, and so the first shot at goal must be below backboard height for this type of shot also.If the first shot at goal in a short corner situation is a push, flick or scoop, in particular the ''drag flick'' (which has become popular at international and national league standards), the shot is permitted to rise above the height of the backboard, as long as the shot is not deemed dangerous to any opponent.", "This form of shooting was developed because it is not height restricted in the same way as the first hit shot at the goal and players with good technique are able to drag-flick with as much power as many others can hit a ball.====Penalty stroke====A penalty stroke is awarded when a defender commits a foul in the circle (accidental or otherwise) that prevents a probable goal or commits a deliberate foul in the circle or if defenders repeatedly run from the back line too early at a penalty corner.", "The penalty stroke is taken by a single attacker in the circle, against the goalkeeper, from a spot 6.4 m from goal.", "The ball is played only once at goal by the attacker using a push, flick or scoop stroke.", "If the shot is saved, play is restarted with a 15 m hit to the defenders.", "When a goal is scored, play is restarted in the normal way.===Dangerous play and raised balls===According to the Rules of Hockey 2015 issued by the FIH there are only two criteria for a dangerously played ball.", "The first is legitimate evasive action by an opponent (what constitutes legitimate evasive action is an umpiring judgment).", "The second is specific to the rule concerning a shot at goal at a penalty corner but is generally, if somewhat inconsistently, applied throughout the game and in all parts of the pitch: it is that a ball lifted above knee height and at an opponent who is within 5m of the ball is certainly dangerous.The velocity of the ball is not mentioned in the rules concerning a dangerously played ball.", "A ball that hits a player above the knee may on some occasions not be penalised, this is at the umpire's discretion.", "A jab tackle, for example, might accidentally lift the ball above knee height into an opponent from close range but at such low velocity as not to be, in the opinion of the umpire, dangerous play.", "In the same way a high-velocity hit at very close range into an opponent, but below knee height, could be considered to be dangerous or reckless play in the view of the umpire, especially when safer alternatives are open to the striker of the ball.A ball that has been lifted high so that it will fall among close opponents may be deemed to be potentially dangerous and play may be stopped for that reason.", "A lifted ball that is falling to a player in clear space may be made potentially dangerous by the actions of an opponent closing to within 5m of the receiver before the ball has been controlled to ground – a rule which is often only loosely applied; the distance allowed is often only what might be described as playing distance, 2–3 m, and opponents tend to be permitted to close on the ball as soon as the receiver plays it: these unofficial variations are often based on the umpire's perception of the skill of the players i.e.", "on the level of the game, in order to maintain game flow, which umpires are in general in both Rules and Briefing instructed to do, by not penalising when it is unnecessary to do so; this is also a matter at the umpire's discretion.The term \"falling ball\" is important in what may be termed encroaching offences.", "It is generally only considered an offence to encroach on an opponent receiving a lifted ball that has been lifted to above head height (although the height is not specified in rule) and is falling.", "So, for example, a lifted shot at the goal which is still rising as it crosses the goal line (or would have been rising as it crossed the goal line) can be legitimately followed up by any of the attacking team looking for a rebound.In general even potentially dangerous play is not penalised if an opponent is not disadvantaged by it or, obviously, not injured by it so that he cannot continue.", "A personal penalty, that is a caution or a suspension, rather than a team penalty, such as a free ball or a penalty corner, may be (many would say should be or even must be, but again this is at the umpire's discretion) issued to the guilty party after an advantage allowed by the umpire has been played out in any situation where an offence has occurred, including dangerous play (but once advantage has been allowed the umpire cannot then call play back and award a team penalty).It is not an offence to lift the ball over an opponent's stick (or body on the ground), provided that it is done with consideration for the safety of the opponent and not dangerously.", "For example, a skilful attacker may lift the ball over a defenders stick or prone body and run past them, however if the attacker lifts the ball into or at the defender's body, this would almost certainly be regarded as dangerous.It is not against the rules to bounce the ball on the stick and even to run with it while doing so, as long as that does not lead to a potentially dangerous conflict with an opponent who is attempting to make a tackle.", "For example, two players trying to play at the ball in the air at the same time, would probably be considered a dangerous situation and it is likely that the player who first put the ball up or who was so 'carrying' it would be penalised.Dangerous play rules also apply to the usage of the stick when approaching the ball, making a stroke at it (replacing what was at one time referred to as the \"sticks\" rule, which once forbade the raising of any part of the stick above the shoulder during any play.", "This last restriction has been removed but the stick should still not be used in a way that endangers an opponent) or attempting to tackle, (fouls relating to tripping, impeding and obstruction).", "The use of the stick to strike an opponent will usually be much more severely dealt with by the umpires than offences such as barging, impeding and obstruction with the body, although these are also dealt with firmly, especially when these fouls are intentional.", "===Warnings and suspensions===File:Grüne Karte Hockey.JPG|Green card (warning with 2 min suspension)File:Gelbe Karte Hockey.JPG|Yellow card (suspension of 5 / 10 mins depending on intensity of foul)File:Rote Karte Hockey.JPG|Red card (permanent suspension)Hockey uses a three-tier penalty card system of warnings and suspensions:Penn State player receives a green card.", "*When shown a '''green card''', the player may have to leave the field for two minutes, depending on national regulations, though at international standards the player has to leave the field for two minutes, but any further infractions will result in a yellow or red card.", "*A '''yellow card''' is an official suspension similar to the penalty box in ice hockey.", "The duration is decided by the umpire issuing the card and the player must go to a pre-defined area of the pitch as chosen by the umpires, or by the local/state/national association of that country; in this case generally it will be in the rule book where that player must go to, at the beginning of the match.", "Most umpires will opt for a minimum of five minutes' duration without substitution; the maximum time is at the discretion of the umpire, depending on the seriousness of the offence; for example the second yellow to the same player or the first for danger might be given ten minutes.", "(In some modes, including indoor, shorter periods of suspension are applied, dependent on local rules.)", "However it is possible to send a player off for the remainder of the match if the penalty time is longer than the time remaining in the match.", "Three yellows risks a red card, and a substitute will serve out whatever time imposed by the officials.", "Depending on national rules, if a coach is sent off a player may have to leave the field too for the time the coach is sent off.", "*A '''red card''', just like in association football, is a permanent exclusion from the rest of the game, without substitution, and usually results in the player being banned for a certain period of time or number of matches (this is governed by local playing conditions, rather than the rules of field hockey).", "The player must also leave the pitch and surrounding area.If a coach is sent off, depending on local rules, a player may have to leave the field for the remaining length of the match.In addition to their colours, field hockey penalty cards are often shaped differently, so they can be recognised easily.", "Green cards are normally triangular, yellow cards rectangular and red cards circular.Unlike football, a player may receive more than one green or yellow card.", "However, they cannot receive the same card for the same offence (for example two yellows for dangerous play), and the second must always be a more serious card.", "In the case of a second yellow card for a different breach of the rules (for example a yellow for deliberate foot, and a second later in the game for dangerous play) the temporary suspension would be expected to be of considerably longer duration than the first.", "However, local playing conditions may mandate that cards are awarded only progressively, and not allow any second awards.Umpires, if the free hit would have been in the attacking 23 m area, may upgrade the free hit to a penalty corner for dissent or other misconduct after the free hit has been awarded.===Scoring===The teams' object is to play the ball into their attacking circle and, from there, hit, push or flick the ball into the goal, scoring a goal.", "The team with more goals after 60 minutes wins the game.", "The playing time may be shortened, particularly when younger players are involved, or for some tournament play.", "If the game is played in a countdown clock, like ice hockey, a goal can only count if the ball completely crosses the goal line and into the goal ''before'' time expires, not when the ball leaves the stick in the act of shooting.If the score is tied at the end of the game, either a draw is declared or the game goes into extra time, or there is a penalty shoot-out, depending on the format of the competition.", "In many competitions (such as regular club competition, or in pool games in FIH international tournaments such as the Olympics or the World Cup), a tied result stands and the overall competition standings are adjusted accordingly.", "Since March 2013, when tie breaking is required, the official FIH Tournament Regulations mandate to no longer have extra time and go directly into a penalty shoot-out when a classification match ends in a tie.", "However, many associations follow the previous procedure consisting of two periods of 7.5 minutes of \"golden goal\" extra time during which the game ends as soon as one team scores.There are many variations to overtime play that depend on the league or tournament rules.", "In American college play, a seven-a-side overtime period consists of a 10-minute golden goal period with seven players for each team.", "If the scores remain equal, the game enters a one-on-one competition where each team chooses five players to dribble from the line down to the circle against the opposing goalkeeper.", "The player has eight seconds to score against the goalkeeper while keeping the ball in bounds.", "The game ends after a goal is scored, the ball goes out of bounds, a foul is committed (ending in either a penalty stroke or flick or the end of the one-on-one) or time expires.", "If the tie still persists, more rounds are played until one team has scored.===Rule change procedure===The FIH implemented a two-year rules cycle with the 2007–08 edition of the rules, with the intention that the rules be reviewed on a biennial basis.", "The 2009 rulebook was officially released in early March 2009 (effective 1 May 2009), however the FIH published the major changes in February.", "The current rule book is effective from 1 January 2022." ], [ "Local rules", "An American high school field hockey player wearing goggles and a mouthguardThere are sometimes minor variations in rules from competition to competition; for instance, the duration of matches is often varied for junior competitions or for carnivals.", "Different national associations also have slightly differing rules on player equipment.The new Euro Hockey League and the Olympics has made major alterations to the rules to aid television viewers, such as splitting the game into four-quarters, and to try to improve player behavior, such as a two-minute suspension for green cards—the latter was also used in the 2010 World Cup and 2016 Olympics.", "In the United States, the NCAA has its own rules for inter-collegiate competitions; high school associations similarly play to different rules, usually using the rules published by the National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS).", "This article assumes FIH rules unless otherwise stated.", "USA Field Hockey produces an annual summary of the differences.In the United States, the games at the junior high level consist of four 12-minute periods, while the high-school level consists of four 15-minute periods.", "Many private American schools play 12-minute quarters, and some have adopted FIH rules rather than NFHS rules.Players are required to wear mouth guards and shin guards in order to play the game.", "Also, there is a newer rule requiring certain types of sticks be used.", "In recent years, the NFHS rules have moved closer to FIH, but in 2011 a new rule requiring protective eyewear was introduced for the 2011 Fall season.", "Further clarification of NFHS's rule requiring protective eyewear states, \"effective 1 January 2019, all eye protection shall be permanently labeled with the current ASTM 2713 standard for field hockey\".", "Metal 'cage style' goggles favored by US high school lacrosse and permitted in high school field hockey is prohibited under FIH rules." ], [ "Equipment", "===Field hockey stick===Naming parts of stickEach player carries a hockey stick that normally measures between ; shorter or longer sticks are available.", "The length of the stick is based on the player's individual height: the top of the stick usually comes to the player's hip, and taller players typically have longer sticks.", "Goalkeepers can use either a specialised stick, or an ordinary field hockey stick.", "The specific goal-keeping sticks have another curve at the end of the stick, to give it more surface area to block the ball.Sticks were traditionally made of wood, but are now often made also with fibreglass, kevlar or carbon fibre composites.", "Metal is forbidden from use in field hockey sticks, due to the risk of injury from sharp edges if the stick were to break.", "The stick has a rounded handle, has a J-shaped hook at the bottom, and is flattened on the left side (when looking down the handle with the hook facing upwards).", "All sticks must be right-handed; left-handed ones are prohibited.There was traditionally a slight curve (called the bow, or rake) from the top to bottom of the face side of the stick and another on the 'heel' edge to the top of the handle (usually made according to the angle at which the handle part was inserted into the splice of the head part of the stick), which assisted in the positioning of the stick head in relation to the ball and made striking the ball easier and more accurate.The hook at the bottom of the stick was only recently the tight curve (Indian style) that we have nowadays.", "The older 'English' sticks had a longer bend, making it very hard to use the stick on the reverse.", "For this reason players now use the tight curved sticks.The handle makes up about the top third of the stick.", "It is wrapped in a grip similar to that used on tennis racket.", "The grip may be made of a variety of materials, including chamois leather, which improves grip in the wet and gives the stick a softer touch and different weighting it wrapped over a preexisting grip.It was recently discovered that increasing the depth of the face bow made it easier to get high speeds from the dragflick and made the stroke easier to execute.", "At first, after this feature was introduced, the Hockey Rules Board placed a limit of 50 mm on the maximum depth of bow over the length of the stick but experience quickly demonstrated this to be excessive.", "New rules now limit this curve to under 25 mm so as to limit the power with which the ball can be flicked.===Field hockey ball===A field hockey ball with a 5 franc coinStandard field hockey balls are hard spherical balls, made of solid plastic (sometimes over a cork core), and are usually white, although they can be any colour as long as they contrast with the playing surface.", "The balls have a diameter of and a mass of .", "The ball is often covered with indentations to reduce aquaplaning that can cause an inconsistent ball speed on wet surfaces.An assembly of field hockey balls and a roller hockey puck===Goalkeeping equipment===A goalkeeper makes a glove save.", "Equipment worn here is typical gear for a field hockey goalkeeper.The 2007 rulebook saw major changes regarding goalkeepers.", "A fully equipped goalkeeper must wear a helmet, leg guards and kickers, and like all players, they must carry a stick.", "Goalkeepers may use either a field player's stick or a specialised goalkeeping stick provided always the stick is of legal dimensions.", "Usually field hockey goalkeepers also wear extensive additional protective equipment including chest guards, padded shorts, heavily padded hand protectors, groin protectors, neck protectors and arm guards.", "A goalie may not cross the 23 m line, the sole exception to this being if the goalkeeper is to take a penalty stroke at the other end of the field, when the clock is stopped.", "The goalkeeper can also remove their helmet for this action.", "While goalkeepers are allowed to use their feet and hands to clear the ball, like field players they may only use the one side of their stick.", "Slide tackling is permitted as long as it is with the intention of clearing the ball, not aimed at a player.It is now also even possible for teams to have a full eleven outfield players and no goalkeeper at all.", "No player may wear a helmet or other goalkeeping equipment, neither will any player be able to play the ball with any other part of the body than with their stick.", "This may be used to offer a tactical advantage, for example, if a team is trailing with only a short time to play, or to allow for play to commence if no goalkeeper or kit is available." ], [ "Tactics", "The basic tactic in field hockey, as in association football and many other team games, is to outnumber the opponent in a particular area of the field at a moment in time.", "When in possession of the ball this temporary numerical superiority can be used to pass the ball around opponents so that they cannot effect a tackle because they cannot get within playing reach of the ball and to further use this numerical advantage to gain time and create clear space for making scoring shots on the opponent's goal.", "When not in possession of the ball numerical superiority is used to isolate and channel an opponent in possession and 'mark out' any passing options so that an interception or a tackle may be made to gain possession.", "Highly skillful players can sometimes get the better of more than one opponent and retain the ball and successfully pass or shoot but this tends to use more energy than quick early passing.Every player has a role depending on their relationship to the ball if the team communicates throughout the play of the game.", "There will be players on the ball (offensively – ball carriers; defensively – pressure, support players, and movement players.The main methods by which the ball is moved around the field by players are a) passing b) pushing the ball and running with it controlled to the front or right of the body and c) \"dribbling\"; where the player controls the ball with the stick and moves in various directions with it to elude opponents.", "To make a pass the ball may be propelled with a pushing stroke, where the player uses their wrists to push the stick head through the ball while the stick head is in contact with it; the \"flick\" or \"scoop\", similar to the push but with an additional arm and leg and rotational actions to lift the ball off the ground; and the \"hit\", where a swing at ball is taken and contact with it is often made very forcefully, causing the ball to be propelled at velocities in excess of .", "In order to produce a powerful hit, usually for travel over long distances or shooting at the goal, the stick is raised higher and swung with maximum power at the ball, a stroke sometimes known as a \"drive\".Tackles are made by placing the stick into the path of the ball or playing the stick head or shaft directly at the ball.", "To increase the effectiveness of the tackle, players will often place the entire stick close to the ground horizontally, thus representing a wider barrier.", "To avoid the tackle, the ball carrier will either pass the ball to a teammate using any of the push, flick, or hit strokes, or attempt to maneuver or \"drag\" the ball around the tackle, trying to deceive the tackler.In recent years, the penalty corner has gained importance as a goal scoring opportunity.", "Particularly with the technical development of the drag flick.", "Tactics at penalty corners to set up time for a shot with a drag flick or a hit shot at the goal involve various complex plays, including multiple passes before deflections towards the goal is made but the most common method of shooting is the direct flick or hit at the goal.At the highest level, field hockey is a fast moving, highly skilled game, with players using fast moves with the stick, quick accurate passing, and hard hits, in attempts to keep possession and move the ball towards the goal.", "Tackling with physical contact and otherwise physically obstructing players is not permitted.", "Some of the tactics used resemble football (soccer), but with greater ball speed.With the 2009 changes to the rules regarding free hits in the attacking 23 m area, the common tactic of hitting the ball hard into the circle was forbidden.", "Although at higher levels this was considered tactically risky and low-percentage at creating scoring opportunities, it was used with some effect to 'win' penalty corners by forcing the ball onto a defender's foot or to deflect high (and dangerously) off a defender's stick.", "The FIH felt it was a dangerous practice that could easily lead to raised deflections and injuries in the circle, which is often crowded at a free-hit situation, and outlawed it." ], [ "International competition", "2016 Champions Trophy matchThe biggest two field hockey tournaments are the Olympic Games tournament, and the Hockey World Cup, which is also held every four years.", "Apart from this, there is the men's and women's Pro League held each year for the nine top-ranked teams.Of the men's teams, Pakistan has won the Hockey World cup four times, more times than any other side.", "India has won the Hockey at the Summer Olympics eight times, including in six successive Olympiads.", "Of the female teams, the Netherlands has won the Hockey World cup the most times, with six titles.", "At the Olympics, Australia and the Netherlands have both won three Olympic tournaments.India and Pakistan dominated men's hockey until the early 1980s, winning eight Olympic golds and three of the first five world cups, respectively, but have become less prominent with the ascendancy of Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, New Zealand, Australia, and Spain since the late 1980s, as grass playing surfaces were replaced with artificial turf.", "Other notable men's nations include Argentina, England (who combine with other British \"Home Nations\" to form the Great Britain side at Olympic events) and South Korea.The Netherlands, Australia and Argentina are the most successful national teams among women.", "The Netherlands was the predominant women's team before field hockey was added to Olympic events.", "In the early 1990s, Australia emerged as the strongest women's country, though retirement of a number of players has weakened the team somewhat.", "Argentina improved its play in the 2000s, heading IFH rankings in 2003, 2010 and 2013.Other prominent women's teams are Germany, Great Britain, China, South Korea and India.", "Four nations have won Olympic gold medals in both men's and women's hockey: Germany, Netherlands, Australia and Great Britain.", "the Australian men's team and the Dutch women's teams lead the FIH world rankings.For a couple of years, Belgium has emerged as a leading nation, with a World Champions title (2018), a European Champions title (2019), a silver medal (2016) followed with a title (2021) at the Olympics, and a lead in the FIH men's team world ranking.This is a list of the major international field hockey tournaments, in chronological order.", "Tournaments included are:*Olympic Games (women's and men's versions) – held every four years.", "*Women's FIH Hockey World Cup and Men's FIH Hockey World Cup – held every four years, in between the Olympics.", "*Women's FIH Pro League and Men's FIH Pro League – held annually since 2019, but not in 2020 because of COVID-19.Defunct tournaments:*Champions Trophy (women's and men's versions) – both replaced by the Pro Leagues.", "*Champions Challenge (women's and men's versions) – both replaced by the World Hockey Leagues.", "*Champions Challenge II (women's and men's versions) – both replaced by the World Hockey Leagues.", "*Women's FIH Hockey World League and Men's FIH Hockey World League – both replaced by the Pro Leagues.Other international tournaments include:*African Games – held occasionally since 1987.", "*Asian Games – held every four years since 1958.", "*Commonwealth Games – held every four years since 1998 between members of the Commonwealth of Nations.", "*Pan American Games – held every four years since 1967.", "*Sultan Azlan Shah Hockey Tournament – held annually in Malaysia, an invitational tournament.", "Not held since 2020.", "*Sultan Ibrahim Ismail Hockey Tournament – held annually for athletes aged under-21 in Malaysia, an invitational tournament.", "Not held in 2020." ], [ "Variants", "===Indoor field hockey===A popular variant of field hockey is indoor hockey, which is 6-a-side (5-a-side during 2014–2015) using a field which is reduced to approximately .", "Although many of the rules remain the same, including obstruction and feet, there are several key variations: players may not raise the ball unless shooting at goal, players may not hit the ball, instead using pushes to transfer it, and the sidelines are replaced with solid barriers, from which the ball will rebound and remain in play.", "In addition, the regulation guidelines for the indoor field hockey stick require a slightly thinner, lighter stick than an outdoor one.===Hockey5s===As the name suggests, Hockey5s is a hockey variant which features five players on each team (including a goalkeeper).", "The field of play is 55 m long and 41.70 m wide—this is approximately half the size of a regular pitch.", "Few additional markings are needed as there is no penalty circle nor penalty corners; shots can be taken from anywhere on the pitch.", "Penalty strokes are replaced by a \"challenge\" which is like the one-on-one method used in a penalty shoot-out.", "The duration of the match is three 12-minute periods with an interval of two minutes between periods; golden goal periods are multiple 5-minute periods.", "The rules are simpler and it is intended that the game is faster, creating more shots on goal with less play in midfield, and more attractive to spectators.An Asian qualification tournament for two places at the 2014 Youth Olympic Games was the first time an FIH event used the Hockey5s format.", "Hockey5s was also used for the Youth Olympic hockey tournament, the Pacific Games in 2015 and at the African Youth Games is 2018.In 2022, the FIH staged its first senior international Hockey5s event, with a men's and women's event being held in Lausanne.", "The FIH Men's Hockey5s World Cup and FIH Women's Hockey5s World Cup are set to debut in 2024." ], [ "References", "'''NOTE:''' Many of the sources here are suspect and may be unreliable.", "indicates a reference has been reviewed and is approved.", "All ticks will be removed when the article reconstruction is complete." ], [ "Sources", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * History of Field Hockey Rules.", "''sitedesq.sportstg.com''." ] ]
wikipedia