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[ [ "Deuterium" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Deuterium''' (or '''hydrogen-2''', symbol '''''' or '''D''', also known as '''heavy hydrogen''') is one of two stable isotopes of hydrogen (the other being protium, or hydrogen-1).", "The nucleus of a deuterium atom, called a '''deuteron''', contains one proton and one neutron, whereas the far more common protium has no neutrons in the nucleus.", "Deuterium has a natural abundance in Earth's oceans of about one atom of deuterium among every 6,420 atoms of hydrogen (see heavy water).", "Thus deuterium accounts for approximately 0.0156% by number (0.0312% by mass) of all the naturally occurring hydrogen in the oceans (i.e., tonnes of deuterium – mainly in form of HOD and only rarely in form of D2O – in tonnes of water), while protium accounts for 99.98%.", "The abundance of deuterium changes slightly from one kind of natural water to another (see Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water)The name ''deuterium'' is derived from the Greek , meaning \"second\".", "Deuterium was discovered by American chemist Harold Urey in 1931.Urey and others produced samples of heavy water in which the deuterium content had been highly concentrated.", "The discovery of deuterium won Urey a Nobel Prize in 1934.Deuterium is destroyed in the interiors of stars faster than it is produced.", "Other natural processes are thought to produce only an insignificant amount of deuterium.", "Nearly all deuterium found in nature was produced in the Big Bang 13.8 billion years ago, as the basic or primordial ratio of hydrogen-1 to deuterium (about 26 atoms of deuterium per million hydrogen atoms) has its origin from that time.", "This is the ratio found in the gas giant planets, such as Jupiter.", "The analysis of deuterium–protium ratios in comets found results very similar to the mean ratio in Earth's oceans (156 atoms of deuterium per million hydrogen atoms).", "This reinforces theories that much of Earth's ocean water is of cometary origin.", "The deuterium–protium ratio of the comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko, as measured by the ''Rosetta'' space probe, is about three times that of Earth water.", "This figure is the highest yet measured in a comet.", "Deuterium–protium ratios thus continue to be an active topic of research in both astronomy and climatology." ], [ "Differences from common hydrogen (protium)", "===Chemical symbol===Deuterium discharge tubeDeuterium is frequently represented by the chemical symbol D. Since it is an isotope of hydrogen with mass number 2, it is also represented by .", "IUPAC allows both D and , although is preferred.", "A distinct chemical symbol is used for convenience because of the isotope's common use in various scientific processes.", "Also, its large mass difference with protium (1H) (deuterium has a mass of , compared to the mean hydrogen atomic weight of , and protium's mass of ) confers non-negligible chemical dissimilarities with protium-containing compounds, whereas the isotope weight ratios within other chemical elements are largely insignificant in this regard.===Spectroscopy===In quantum mechanics, the energy levels of electrons in atoms depend on the reduced mass of the system of electron and nucleus.", "For the hydrogen atom, the role of reduced mass is most simply seen in the Bohr model of the atom, where the reduced mass appears in a simple calculation of the Rydberg constant and Rydberg equation, but the reduced mass also appears in the Schrödinger equation, and the Dirac equation for calculating atomic energy levels.The reduced mass of the system in these equations is close to the mass of a single electron, but differs from it by a small amount about equal to the ratio of mass of the electron to the atomic nucleus.", "For hydrogen, this amount is about , or 1.000545, and for deuterium it is even smaller: , or 1.0002725.The energies of electronic spectra lines for deuterium and light hydrogen (hydrogen-1) therefore differ by the ratio of these two numbers, which is 1.000272.The wavelengths of all deuterium spectroscopic lines are shorter than the corresponding lines of light hydrogen, by 0.0272%.", "In astronomical observation, this corresponds to a blue Doppler shift of 0.000272 times the speed of light, or 81.6 km/s.The differences are much more pronounced in vibrational spectroscopy such as infrared spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy, and in rotational spectra such as microwave spectroscopy because the reduced mass of the deuterium is markedly higher than that of protium.", "In nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, deuterium has a very different NMR frequency (e.g.", "61 MHz when protium is at 400 MHz) and is much less sensitive.", "Deuterated solvents are usually used in protium NMR to prevent the solvent from overlapping with the signal, although deuterium NMR on its own right is also possible.===Big Bang nucleosynthesis===Deuterium is thought to have played an important role in setting the number and ratios of the elements that were formed in the Big Bang.", "Combining thermodynamics and the changes brought about by cosmic expansion, one can calculate the fraction of protons and neutrons based on the temperature at the point that the universe cooled enough to allow formation of nuclei.", "This calculation indicates seven protons for every neutron at the beginning of nucleogenesis, a ratio that would remain stable even after nucleogenesis was over.", "This fraction was in favor of protons initially, primarily because the lower mass of the proton favored their production.", "As the Universe expanded, it cooled.", "Free neutrons and protons are less stable than helium nuclei, and the protons and neutrons had a strong energetic reason to form helium-4.However, forming helium-4 requires the intermediate step of forming deuterium.Through much of the few minutes after the Big Bang during which nucleosynthesis could have occurred, the temperature was high enough that the mean energy per particle was greater than the binding energy of weakly bound deuterium; therefore any deuterium that was formed was immediately destroyed.", "This situation is known as the '''deuterium bottleneck'''.", "The bottleneck delayed formation of any helium-4 until the Universe became cool enough to form deuterium (at about a temperature equivalent to 100 keV).", "At this point, there was a sudden burst of element formation (first deuterium, which immediately fused to helium).", "However, very shortly thereafter, at twenty minutes after the Big Bang, the Universe became too cool for any further nuclear fusion and nucleosynthesis to occur.", "At this point, the elemental abundances were nearly fixed, with the only change as some of the radioactive products of Big Bang nucleosynthesis (such as tritium) decay.", "The deuterium bottleneck in the formation of helium, together with the lack of stable ways for helium to combine with hydrogen or with itself (there are no stable nuclei with mass numbers of five or eight) meant that an insignificant amount of carbon, or any elements heavier than carbon, formed in the Big Bang.", "These elements thus required formation in stars.", "At the same time, the failure of much nucleogenesis during the Big Bang ensured that there would be plenty of hydrogen in the later universe available to form long-lived stars, such as the Sun.===Abundance===Simplified chart of particle contentDeuterium occurs in trace amounts naturally as deuterium gas, written 2 or D2, but most of the naturally occurring deuterium atoms in the Universe are bonded with a typical atom to form a gas called hydrogen deuteride (HD or ).", "Similarly, natural water contains trace amounts of deuterated molecules, almost all as semiheavy water HDO with only one deuterium atom.The existence of deuterium on Earth, elsewhere in the Solar System (as confirmed by planetary probes), and in the spectra of stars, is also an important datum in cosmology.", "Gamma radiation from ordinary nuclear fusion dissociates deuterium into protons and neutrons, and there are no known natural processes other than the Big Bang nucleosynthesis that might have produced deuterium at anything close to its observed natural abundance.", "Deuterium is produced by the rare cluster decay, and occasional absorption of naturally occurring neutrons by light hydrogen, but these are trivial sources.", "There is thought to be little deuterium in the interior of the Sun and other stars, as at these temperatures the nuclear fusion reactions that consume deuterium happen much faster than the proton-proton reaction that creates deuterium.", "However, deuterium persists in the outer solar atmosphere at roughly the same concentration as in Jupiter, and this has probably been unchanged since the origin of the Solar System.", "The natural abundance of deuterium seems to be a very similar fraction of hydrogen, wherever hydrogen is found, unless there are obvious processes at work that concentrate it.The existence of deuterium at a low but constant primordial fraction in all hydrogen is another one of the arguments in favor of the Big Bang theory over the Steady State theory of the Universe.", "The observed ratios of hydrogen to helium to deuterium in the universe are difficult to explain except with a Big Bang model.", "It is estimated that the abundances of deuterium have not evolved significantly since their production about 13.8 billion years ago.", "Measurements of Milky Way galactic deuterium from ultraviolet spectral analysis show a ratio of as much as 23 atoms of deuterium per million hydrogen atoms in undisturbed gas clouds, which is only 15% below the WMAP estimated primordial ratio of about 27 atoms per million from the Big Bang.", "This has been interpreted to mean that less deuterium has been destroyed in star formation in the Milky Way galaxy than expected, or perhaps deuterium has been replenished by a large in-fall of primordial hydrogen from outside the galaxy.", "In space a few hundred light years from the Sun, deuterium abundance is only 15 atoms per million, but this value is presumably influenced by differential adsorption of deuterium onto carbon dust grains in interstellar space.The abundance of deuterium in the atmosphere of Jupiter has been directly measured by the ''Galileo'' space probe as 26 atoms per million hydrogen atoms.", "ISO-SWS observations find 22 atoms per million hydrogen atoms in Jupiter.", "and this abundance is thought to represent close to the primordial Solar System ratio.", "This is about 17% of the terrestrial deuterium-to-hydrogen ratio of 156 deuterium atoms per million hydrogen atoms.Cometary bodies such as Comet Hale-Bopp and Halley's Comet have been measured to contain relatively more deuterium (about 200 atoms D per million hydrogens), ratios which are enriched with respect to the presumed protosolar nebula ratio, probably due to heating, and which are similar to the ratios found in Earth seawater.", "The recent measurement of deuterium amounts of 161 atoms D per million hydrogen in Comet 103P/Hartley (a former Kuiper belt object), a ratio almost exactly that in Earth's oceans, emphasizes the theory that Earth's surface water may be largely comet-derived.", "Most recently the deuterium–protium (D–H) ratio of 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko as measured by ''Rosetta'' is about three times that of Earth water, a figure that is high.", "This has caused renewed interest in suggestions that Earth's water may be partly of asteroidal origin.Deuterium has also been observed to be concentrated over the mean solar abundance in other terrestrial planets, in particular Mars and Venus.===Production===Deuterium is produced for industrial, scientific and military purposes, by starting with ordinary water—a small fraction of which is naturally-occurring heavy water—and then separating out the heavy water by the Girdler sulfide process, distillation, or other methods.In theory, deuterium for heavy water could be created in a nuclear reactor, but separation from ordinary water is the cheapest bulk production process.The world's leading supplier of deuterium was Atomic Energy of Canada Limited until 1997, when the last heavy water plant was shut down.", "Canada uses heavy water as a neutron moderator for the operation of the CANDU reactor design.Another major producer of heavy water is India.", "All but one of India's atomic energy plants are pressurised heavy water plants, which use natural (i.e., not enriched) uranium.", "India has eight heavy water plants, of which seven are in operation.", "Six plants, of which five are in operation, are based on D–H exchange in ammonia gas.", "The other two plants extract deuterium from natural water in a process that uses hydrogen sulphide gas at high pressure.While India is self-sufficient in heavy water for its own use, India also exports reactor-grade heavy water." ], [ "Properties", "=== Data for molecular deuterium ===Formula: or * Density: 0.180 kg/m3 at STP (0 °C, 101325 Pa).", "* Atomic weight: 2.0141017926 Da.", "* Mean abundance in ocean water (from VSMOW) 155.76 ± 0.1 atoms of deuterium per million atoms of all isotopes of hydrogen (a ratio of 1 atom of deuterium per approximately 6420 atoms of all isotopes hydrogen), that is, about 0.015% of the atoms of deuterium in a sample of ocean water with all isotopes hydrogen by numberData at approximately 18 K for (triple point):* Density:** Liquid: 162.4 kg/m3** Gas: 0.452 kg/m3* Viscosity: 12.6 μPa·s at 300 K (gas phase)* Specific heat capacity at constant pressure ''cp'':** Solid: 2950 J/(kg·K)** Gas: 5200 J/(kg·K)=== Physical properties ===Compared to hydrogen in its natural composition on Earth, pure deuterium (D2) has a higher melting point (18.72 K vs. 13.99 K), a higher boiling point (23.64 K vs. 20.27 K), a higher critical temperature (38.3 K vs. 32.94 K) and a higher critical pressure (1.6496 MPa vs. 1.2858 MPa).The physical properties of deuterium compounds can exhibit significant kinetic isotope effects and other physical and chemical property differences from the protium analogs.", "DO, for example, is more viscous than .", "Chemically, there are differences in bond energy and length for compounds of heavy hydrogen isotopes compared to protium, which are larger than the isotopic differences in any other element.", "Bonds involving deuterium and tritium are somewhat stronger than the corresponding bonds in protium, and these differences are enough to cause significant changes in biological reactions.", "Pharmaceutical firms are interested in the fact that deuterium is harder to remove from carbon than protium.Deuterium can replace protium in water molecules to form heavy water (D2O), which is about 10.6% denser than normal water (so that ice made from it sinks in ordinary water).", "Heavy water is slightly toxic in eukaryotic animals, with 25% substitution of the body water causing cell division problems and sterility, and 50% substitution causing death by cytotoxic syndrome (bone marrow failure and gastrointestinal lining failure).", "Prokaryotic organisms, however, can survive and grow in pure heavy water, though they develop slowly.", "Despite this toxicity, consumption of heavy water under normal circumstances does not pose a health threat to humans.", "It is estimated that a person might drink of heavy water without serious consequences.", "Small doses of heavy water (a few grams in humans, containing an amount of deuterium comparable to that normally present in the body) are routinely used as harmless metabolic tracers in humans and animals.===Quantum properties===The deuteron has spin +1 (\"triplet state\") and is thus a boson.", "The NMR frequency of deuterium is significantly different from common light hydrogen.", "Infrared spectroscopy also easily differentiates many deuterated compounds, due to the large difference in IR absorption frequency seen in the vibration of a chemical bond containing deuterium, versus light hydrogen.", "The two stable isotopes of hydrogen can also be distinguished by using mass spectrometry.The triplet deuteron nucleon is barely bound at EB = , and none of the higher energy states are bound.", "The singlet deuteron is a virtual state, with a negative binding energy of .", "There is no such stable particle, but this virtual particle transiently exists during neutron-proton inelastic scattering, accounting for the unusually large neutron scattering cross-section of the proton.===Nuclear properties (the deuteron)=======Deuteron mass and radius====The nucleus of deuterium is called a '''deuteron'''.", "It has a mass of (just over ).The charge radius of the deuteron is .Like the proton radius, measurements using muonic deuterium produce a smaller result: .====Spin and energy====Deuterium is one of only five stable nuclides with an odd number of protons and an odd number of neutrons.", "(, , , , ; also, the long-lived radioactive nuclides , , , occur naturally.)", "Most odd-odd nuclei are unstable with respect to beta decay, because the decay products are even-even, and are therefore more strongly bound, due to nuclear pairing effects.", "Deuterium, however, benefits from having its proton and neutron coupled to a spin-1 state, which gives a stronger nuclear attraction; the corresponding spin-1 state does not exist in the two-neutron or two-proton system, due to the Pauli exclusion principle which would require one or the other identical particle with the same spin to have some other different quantum number, such as orbital angular momentum.", "But orbital angular momentum of either particle gives a lower binding energy for the system, primarily due to increasing distance of the particles in the steep gradient of the nuclear force.", "In both cases, this causes the diproton and dineutron nucleus to be unstable.The proton and neutron making up deuterium can be dissociated through neutral current interactions with neutrinos.", "The cross section for this interaction is comparatively large, and deuterium was successfully used as a neutrino target in the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory experiment.Diatomic deuterium (D2) has ortho and para nuclear spin isomers like diatomic hydrogen, but with differences in the number and population of spin states and rotational levels, which occur because the deuteron is a boson with nuclear spin equal to one.====Isospin singlet state of the deuteron====Due to the similarity in mass and nuclear properties between the proton and neutron, they are sometimes considered as two symmetric types of the same object, a nucleon.", "While only the proton has an electric charge, this is often negligible due to the weakness of the electromagnetic interaction relative to the strong nuclear interaction.", "The symmetry relating the proton and neutron is known as isospin and denoted ''I'' (or sometimes ''T'').Isospin is an SU(2) symmetry, like ordinary spin, so is completely analogous to it.", "The proton and neutron, each of which have isospin-, form an isospin doublet (analogous to a spin doublet), with a \"down\" state (↓) being a neutron and an \"up\" state (↑) being a proton.", "A pair of nucleons can either be in an antisymmetric state of isospin called singlet, or in a symmetric state called triplet.", "In terms of the \"down\" state and \"up\" state, the singlet is:, which can also be written :This is a nucleus with one proton and one neutron, i.e.", "a deuterium nucleus.", "The triplet is:and thus consists of three types of nuclei, which are supposed to be symmetric: a deuterium nucleus (actually a highly excited state of it), a nucleus with two protons, and a nucleus with two neutrons.", "These states are not stable.====Approximated wavefunction of the deuteron====The deuteron wavefunction must be antisymmetric if the isospin representation is used (since a proton and a neutron are not identical particles, the wavefunctionneed not be antisymmetric in general).", "Apart from their isospin, the two nucleons also have spin and spatial distributions of their wavefunction.", "The latter is symmetric if the deuteron is symmetric under parity (i.e.", "have an \"even\" or \"positive\" parity), and antisymmetric if the deuteron is antisymmetric under parity (i.e.", "have an \"odd\" or \"negative\" parity).", "The parity is fully determined by the total orbital angular momentum of the two nucleons: if it is even then the parity is even (positive), and if it is odd then the parity is odd (negative).The deuteron, being an isospin singlet, is antisymmetric under nucleons exchange due to isospin, and therefore must be symmetric under the double exchange of their spin and location.", "Therefore, it can be in either of the following two different states:*Symmetric spin and symmetric under parity.", "In this case, the exchange of the two nucleons will multiply the deuterium wavefunction by (−1) from isospin exchange, (+1) from spin exchange and (+1) from parity (location exchange), for a total of (−1) as needed for antisymmetry.", "*Antisymmetric spin and antisymmetric under parity.", "In this case, the exchange of the two nucleons will multiply the deuterium wavefunction by (−1) from isospin exchange, (−1) from spin exchange and (−1) from parity (location exchange), again for a total of (−1) as needed for antisymmetry.In the first case the deuteron is a spin triplet, so that its total spin ''s'' is 1.It also has an even parity and therefore even orbital angular momentum ''l'' ; The lower its orbital angular momentum, the lower its energy.", "Therefore, the lowest possible energy state has , .In the second case the deuteron is a spin singlet, so that its total spin ''s'' is 0.It also has an odd parity and therefore odd orbital angular momentum ''l''.", "Therefore, the lowest possible energy state has , .Since gives a stronger nuclear attraction, the deuterium ground state is in the , state.The same considerations lead to the possible states of an isospin triplet having , or , .", "Thus the state of lowest energy has , , higher than that of the isospin singlet.The analysis just given is in fact only approximate, both because isospin is not an exact symmetry, and more importantly because the strong nuclear interaction between the two nucleons is related to angular momentum in spin–orbit interaction that mixes different ''s'' and ''l'' states.", "That is, ''s'' and ''l'' are not constant in time (they do not commute with the Hamiltonian), and over time a state such as , may become a state of , .", "Parity is still constant in time so these do not mix with odd ''l'' states (such as , ).", "Therefore, the quantum state of the deuterium is a superposition (a linear combination) of the , state and the , state, even though the first component is much bigger.", "Since the total angular momentum ''j'' is also a good quantum number (it is a constant in time), both components must have the same ''j'', and therefore .", "This is the total spin of the deuterium nucleus.To summarize, the deuterium nucleus is antisymmetric in terms of isospin, and has spin 1 and even (+1) parity.", "The relative angular momentum of its nucleons ''l'' is not well defined, and the deuteron is a superposition of mostly with some .====Magnetic and electric multipoles====In order to find theoretically the deuterium magnetic dipole moment ''μ'', one uses the formula for a nuclear magnetic moment:with:''g''(''l'') and ''g''(''s'') are ''g''-factors of the nucleons.Since the proton and neutron have different values for ''g''(''l'') and ''g''(''s''), one must separate their contributions.", "Each gets half of the deuterium orbital angular momentum and spin .", "One arrives at:where subscripts p and n stand for the proton and neutron, and .By using the same identities as here and using the value , we arrive at the following result, in units of the nuclear magneton ''μ''N:For the , state (), we obtain:For the , state (), we obtain:The measured value of the deuterium magnetic dipole moment, is , which is 97.5% of the value obtained by simply adding moments of the proton and neutron.", "This suggests that the state of the deuterium is indeed to a good approximation , state, which occurs with both nucleons spinning in the same direction, but their magnetic moments subtracting because of the neutron's negative moment.But the slightly lower experimental number than that which results from simple addition of proton and (negative) neutron moments shows that deuterium is actually a linear combination of mostly , state with a slight admixture of , state.The electric dipole is zero as usual.The measured electric quadrupole of the deuterium is .", "While the order of magnitude is reasonable, since the deuterium radius is of order of 1 femtometer (see below) and its electric charge is e, the above model does not suffice for its computation.", "More specifically, the electric quadrupole does not get a contribution from the ''l'' =0 state (which is the dominant one) and does get a contribution from a term mixing the ''l'' =0 and the ''l'' =2 states, because the electric quadrupole operator does not commute with angular momentum.The latter contribution is dominant in the absence of a pure contribution, but cannot be calculated without knowing the exact spatial form of the nucleons wavefunction inside the deuterium.Higher magnetic and electric multipole moments cannot be calculated by the above model, for similar reasons." ], [ "Applications", "Deuterium has a number of commercial and scientific uses.", "These include:===Nuclear reactors===Ionized deuterium in a fusor reactor giving off its characteristic pinkish-red glowDeuterium is used in heavy water moderated fission reactors, usually as liquid D2O, to slow neutrons without the high neutron absorption of ordinary hydrogen.", "This is a common commercial use for larger amounts of deuterium.In research reactors, liquid D2 is used in cold sources to moderate neutrons to very low energies and wavelengths appropriate for scattering experiments.Experimentally, deuterium is the most common nuclide used in nuclear fusion reactor designs, especially in combination with tritium, because of the large reaction rate (or nuclear cross section) and high energy yield of the D–T reaction.", "There is an even higher-yield D– fusion reaction, though the breakeven point of D– is higher than that of most other fusion reactions; together with the scarcity of , this makes it implausible as a practical power source until at least D–T and D–D fusion reactions have been performed on a commercial scale.", "Commercial nuclear fusion is not yet an accomplished technology.===NMR spectroscopy===Emission spectrum of an ultraviolet deuterium arc lampDeuterium is most commonly used in hydrogen nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (proton NMR) in the following way.", "NMR ordinarily requires compounds of interest to be analyzed as dissolved in solution.", "Because of deuterium's nuclear spin properties which differ from the light hydrogen usually present in organic molecules, NMR spectra of hydrogen/protium are highly differentiable from that of deuterium, and in practice deuterium is not \"seen\" by an NMR instrument tuned for light-hydrogen.", "Deuterated solvents (including heavy water, but also compounds like deuterated chloroform, CDCl3) are therefore routinely used in NMR spectroscopy, in order to allow only the light-hydrogen spectra of the compound of interest to be measured, without solvent-signal interference.Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy can also be used to obtain information about the deuteron's environment in isotopically labelled samples (Deuterium NMR).", "For example, the configuration of hydrocarbon chains in lipid bilayers can be quantified using solid state deuterium NMR with deuterium-labelled lipid molecules.Deuterium NMR spectra are especially informative in the solid state because of its relatively small quadrupole moment in comparison with those of bigger quadrupolar nuclei such as chlorine-35, for example.===Mass-spectrometry===Deuterated (i.e.", "where all or some hydrogen atoms are replaced with deuterium) compounds are often used as internal standards in mass spectrometry.", "Like other isotopically labeled species, such standards improve accuracy, while often at a much lower cost than other isotopically labeled standards.", "Deuterated molecules are usually prepared via hydrogen isotope exchange reactions.===Tracing===In chemistry, biochemistry and environmental sciences, deuterium is used as a non-radioactive, stable isotopic tracer, for example, in the doubly labeled water test.", "In chemical reactions and metabolic pathways, deuterium behaves somewhat similarly to ordinary hydrogen (with a few chemical differences, as noted).", "It can be distinguished from ordinary hydrogen most easily by its mass, using mass spectrometry or infrared spectrometry.", "Deuterium can be detected by femtosecond infrared spectroscopy, since the mass difference drastically affects the frequency of molecular vibrations; deuterium-carbon bond vibrations are found in spectral regions free of other signals.Measurements of small variations in the natural abundances of deuterium, along with those of the stable heavy oxygen isotopes 17O and 18O, are of importance in hydrology, to trace the geographic origin of Earth's waters.", "The heavy isotopes of hydrogen and oxygen in rainwater (so-called meteoric water) are enriched as a function of the environmental temperature of the region in which the precipitation falls (and thus enrichment is related to mean latitude).", "The relative enrichment of the heavy isotopes in rainwater (as referenced to mean ocean water), when plotted against temperature falls predictably along a line called the global meteoric water line (GMWL).", "This plot allows samples of precipitation-originated water to be identified along with general information about the climate in which it originated.", "Evaporative and other processes in bodies of water, and also ground water processes, also differentially alter the ratios of heavy hydrogen and oxygen isotopes in fresh and salt waters, in characteristic and often regionally distinctive ways.", "The ratio of concentration of 2H to 1H is usually indicated with a delta as δ2H and the geographic patterns of these values are plotted in maps termed as isoscapes.", "Stable isotopes are incorporated into plants and animals and an analysis of the ratios in a migrant bird or insect can help suggest a rough guide to their origins.===Contrast properties===Neutron scattering techniques particularly profit from availability of deuterated samples: The H and D cross sections are very distinct and different in sign, which allows contrast variation in such experiments.", "Further, a nuisance problem of ordinary hydrogen is its large incoherent neutron cross section, which is nil for D. The substitution of deuterium atoms for hydrogen atoms thus reduces scattering noise.Hydrogen is an important and major component in all materials of organic chemistry and life science, but it barely interacts with X-rays.", "As hydrogen (and deuterium) interact strongly with neutrons, neutron scattering techniques, together with a modern deuteration facility, fills a niche in many studies of macromolecules in biology and many other areas.===Nuclear weapons===This is discussed below.", "It is notable that although most stars, including the Sun, generate energy over most of their lives by fusing hydrogen into heavier elements, such fusion of light hydrogen (protium) has never been successful in the conditions attainable on Earth.", "Thus, all artificial fusion, including the hydrogen fusion that occurs in so-called hydrogen bombs, requires heavy hydrogen (either tritium or deuterium, or both) in order for the process to work.===Drugs===A deuterated drug is a small molecule medicinal product in which one or more of the hydrogen atoms contained in the drug molecule have been replaced by deuterium.", "Because of the kinetic isotope effect, deuterium-containing drugs may have significantly lower rates of metabolism, and hence a longer half-life.", "In 2017, deutetrabenazine became the first deuterated drug to receive FDA approval.===Reinforced essential nutrients===Deuterium can be used to reinforce specific oxidation-vulnerable C-H bonds within essential or conditionally essential nutrients, such as certain amino acids, or polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), making them more resistant to oxidative damage.", "Deuterated polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as linoleic acid, slow down the chain reaction of lipid peroxidation that damage living cells.", "Deuterated ethyl ester of linoleic acid (RT001), developed by Retrotope, is in a compassionate use trial in infantile neuroaxonal dystrophy and has successfully completed a Phase I/II trial in Friedreich's ataxia.=== Thermostabilization ===Live vaccines, such as the oral poliovirus vaccine, can be stabilized by deuterium, either alone or in combination with other stabilizers such as MgCl2.=== Slowing circadian oscillations ===Deuterium has been shown to lengthen the period of oscillation of the circadian clock when dosed in rats, hamsters, and Gonyaulax dinoflagellates.", "In rats, chronic intake of 25% D2O disrupts circadian rhythmicity by lengthening the circadian period of suprachiasmatic nucleus-dependent rhythms in the brain's hypothalamus.", "Experiments in hamsters also support the theory that deuterium acts directly on the suprachiasmatic nucleus to lengthen the free-running circadian period." ], [ "History", "===Suspicion of lighter element isotopes===The existence of nonradioactive isotopes of lighter elements had been suspected in studies of neon as early as 1913, and proven by mass spectrometry of light elements in 1920.At that time the neutron had not yet been discovered, and the prevailing theory was that isotopes of an element differ by the existence of additional ''protons'' in the nucleus accompanied by an equal number of ''nuclear electrons''.", "In this theory, the deuterium nucleus with mass two and charge one would contain two protons and one nuclear electron.", "However, it was expected that the element hydrogen with a measured average atomic mass very close to , the known mass of the proton, always has a nucleus composed of a single proton (a known particle), and could not contain a second proton.", "Thus, hydrogen was thought to have no heavy isotopes.===Deuterium detected===Harold Urey, deuterium's discovererIt was first detected spectroscopically in late 1931 by Harold Urey, a chemist at Columbia University.", "Urey's collaborator, Ferdinand Brickwedde, distilled five liters of cryogenically produced liquid hydrogen to of liquid, using the low-temperature physics laboratory that had recently been established at the National Bureau of Standards in Washington, D.C. (now the National Institute of Standards and Technology).", "The technique had previously been used to isolate heavy isotopes of neon.", "The cryogenic boiloff technique concentrated the fraction of the mass-2 isotope of hydrogen to a degree that made its spectroscopic identification unambiguous.===Naming of the isotope and Nobel Prize===Urey created the names ''protium'', ''deuterium'', and ''tritium'' in an article published in 1934.The name is based in part on advice from Gilbert Lewis who had proposed the name \"deutium\".", "The name is derived from the Greek ('second'), and the nucleus to be called \"deuteron\" or \"deuton\".", "Isotopes and new elements were traditionally given the name that their discoverer decided.", "Some British scientists, such as Ernest Rutherford, wanted the isotope to be called \"diplogen\", from the Greek ('double'), and the nucleus to be called \"diplon\".The amount inferred for normal abundance of this heavy isotope of hydrogen was so small (only about 1 atom in 6400 hydrogen atoms in ocean water (156 deuteriums per million hydrogens)) that it had not noticeably affected previous measurements of (average) hydrogen atomic mass.", "This explained why it hadn't been experimentally suspected before.", "Urey was able to concentrate water to show partial enrichment of deuterium.", "Lewis, Urey's graduate advisor at Berkeley, had prepared and characterized the first samples of pure heavy water in 1933.The discovery of deuterium, coming before the discovery of the neutron in 1932, was an experimental shock to theory, but when the neutron was reported, making deuterium's existence more explicable, Urey was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry only three years after the isotope's isolation.", "Lewis was deeply disappointed by the Nobel Committee's decision in 1934 and several high-ranking administrators at Berkeley believed this disappointment played a central role in his suicide a decade later.===\"Heavy water\" experiments in World War II===Shortly before the war, Hans von Halban and Lew Kowarski moved their research on neutron moderation from France to Britain, smuggling the entire global supply of heavy water (which had been made in Norway) across in twenty-six steel drums.During World War II, Nazi Germany was known to be conducting experiments using heavy water as moderator for a nuclear reactor design.", "Such experiments were a source of concern because they might allow them to produce plutonium for an atomic bomb.", "Ultimately it led to the Allied operation called the \"Norwegian heavy water sabotage\", the purpose of which was to destroy the Vemork deuterium production/enrichment facility in Norway.", "At the time this was considered important to the potential progress of the war.After World War II ended, the Allies discovered that Germany was not putting as much serious effort into the program as had been previously thought.", "The Germans had completed only a small, partly built experimental reactor (which had been hidden away) and had been unable to sustain a chain reaction.", "By the end of the war, the Germans did not even have a fifth of the amount of heavy water needed to run the reactor, partially due to the Norwegian heavy water sabotage operation.", "However, even if the Germans had succeeded in getting a reactor operational (as the U.S. did with Chicago Pile-1 in late 1942), they would still have been at least several years away from the development of an atomic bomb.", "The engineering process, even with maximal effort and funding, required about two and a half years (from first critical reactor to bomb) in both the U.S. and U.S.S.R., for example.===In thermonuclear weapons===The \"Sausage\" device casing of the Ivy Mike H bomb, attached to instrumentation and cryogenic equipment.", "The 20-ft-tall bomb held a cryogenic Dewar flask with room for 160 kg of liquid deuterium.The 62-ton Ivy Mike device built by the United States and exploded on 1 November 1952, was the first fully successful \"hydrogen bomb\" (thermonuclear bomb).", "In this context, it was the first bomb in which most of the energy released came from nuclear reaction stages that followed the primary nuclear fission stage of the atomic bomb.", "The Ivy Mike bomb was a factory-like building, rather than a deliverable weapon.", "At its center, a very large cylindrical, insulated vacuum flask or cryostat, held cryogenic liquid deuterium in a volume of about 1000 liters (160 kilograms in mass, if this volume had been completely filled).", "Then, a conventional atomic bomb (the \"primary\") at one end of the bomb was used to create the conditions of extreme temperature and pressure that were needed to set off the thermonuclear reaction.Within a few years, so-called \"dry\" hydrogen bombs were developed that did not need cryogenic hydrogen.", "Released information suggests that all thermonuclear weapons built since then contain chemical compounds of deuterium and lithium in their secondary stages.", "The material that contains the deuterium is mostly lithium deuteride, with the lithium consisting of the isotope lithium-6.When the lithium-6 is bombarded with fast neutrons from the atomic bomb, tritium (hydrogen-3) is produced, and then the deuterium and the tritium quickly engage in thermonuclear fusion, releasing abundant energy, helium-4, and even more free neutrons.", "\"Pure\" fusion weapons such as the Tsar Bomba are believed to be obsolete.", "In most modern (\"boosted\") thermonuclear weapons, fusion directly provides only a small fraction of the total energy.", "Fission of a natural uranium U-238 tamper by fast neutrons produced from D-T fusion accounts for a much larger (i.e.", "boosted) energy release than the fusion reaction itself.===Modern research===In August 2018, scientists announced the transformation of gaseous deuterium into a liquid metallic form.", "This may help researchers better understand giant gas planets, such as Jupiter, Saturn and related exoplanets, since such planets are thought to contain a large quantity of liquid metallic hydrogen, which may be responsible for their observed powerful magnetic fields.==Antideuterium==An '''antideuteron''' is the antimatter counterpart of the nucleus of deuterium, consisting of an antiproton and an antineutron.", "The antideuteron was first produced in 1965 at the Proton Synchrotron at CERN and the Alternating Gradient Synchrotron at Brookhaven National Laboratory.", "A complete atom, with a positron orbiting the nucleus, would be called ''antideuterium'', but antideuterium has not yet been created.", "The proposed symbol for antideuterium is , that is, D with an overbar." ], [ "See also", "*Heavy water*Isotopes of hydrogen*Nuclear fusion*Tokamak*Tritium" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * *" ] ]
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[ [ "Digital signal processing" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Digital signal processing''' ('''DSP''') is the use of digital processing, such as by computers or more specialized digital signal processors, to perform a wide variety of signal processing operations.", "The digital signals processed in this manner are a sequence of numbers that represent samples of a continuous variable in a domain such as time, space, or frequency.", "In digital electronics, a digital signal is represented as a pulse train, which is typically generated by the switching of a transistor.Digital signal processing and analog signal processing are subfields of signal processing.", "DSP applications include audio and speech processing, sonar, radar and other sensor array processing, spectral density estimation, statistical signal processing, digital image processing, data compression, video coding, audio coding, image compression, signal processing for telecommunications, control systems, biomedical engineering, and seismology, among others.DSP can involve linear or nonlinear operations.", "Nonlinear signal processing is closely related to nonlinear system identification and can be implemented in the time, frequency, and spatio-temporal domains.The application of digital computation to signal processing allows for many advantages over analog processing in many applications, such as error detection and correction in transmission as well as data compression.", "Digital signal processing is also fundamental to digital technology, such as digital telecommunication and wireless communications.", "DSP is applicable to both streaming data and static (stored) data." ], [ "Signal sampling", "To digitally analyze and manipulate an analog signal, it must be digitized with an analog-to-digital converter (ADC).", "Sampling is usually carried out in two stages, discretization and quantization.", "Discretization means that the signal is divided into equal intervals of time, and each interval is represented by a single measurement of amplitude.", "Quantization means each amplitude measurement is approximated by a value from a finite set.", "Rounding real numbers to integers is an example.The Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem states that a signal can be exactly reconstructed from its samples if the sampling frequency is greater than twice the highest frequency component in the signal.", "In practice, the sampling frequency is often significantly higher than this.", "It is common to use an anti-aliasing filter to limit the signal bandwidth to comply with the sampling theorem, however careful selection of this filter is required because the reconstructed signal will be the filtered signal plus residual aliasing from imperfect stop band rejection instead of the original (unfiltered) signal.Theoretical DSP analyses and derivations are typically performed on discrete-time signal models with no amplitude inaccuracies (quantization error), created by the abstract process of sampling.", "Numerical methods require a quantized signal, such as those produced by an ADC.", "The processed result might be a frequency spectrum or a set of statistics.", "But often it is another quantized signal that is converted back to analog form by a digital-to-analog converter (DAC)." ], [ "Domains", "DSP engineers usually study digital signals in one of the following domains: time domain (one-dimensional signals), spatial domain (multidimensional signals), frequency domain, and wavelet domains.", "They choose the domain in which to process a signal by making an informed assumption (or by trying different possibilities) as to which domain best represents the essential characteristics of the signal and the processing to be applied to it.", "A sequence of samples from a measuring device produces a temporal or spatial domain representation, whereas a discrete Fourier transform produces the frequency domain representation.=== Time and space domains ===Time domain refers to the analysis of signals with respect to time.", "Similarly, space domain refers to the analysis of signals with respect to position, e.g., pixel location for the case of image processing.The most common processing approach in the time or space domain is enhancement of the input signal through a method called filtering.", "Digital filtering generally consists of some linear transformation of a number of surrounding samples around the current sample of the input or output signal.", "The surrounding samples may be identified with respect to time or space.", "The output of a linear digital filter to any given input may be calculated by convolving the input signal with an impulse response.=== Frequency domain ===Signals are converted from time or space domain to the frequency domain usually through use of the Fourier transform.", "The Fourier transform converts the time or space information to a magnitude and phase component of each frequency.", "With some applications, how the phase varies with frequency can be a significant consideration.", "Where phase is unimportant, often the Fourier transform is converted to the power spectrum, which is the magnitude of each frequency component squared.The most common purpose for analysis of signals in the frequency domain is analysis of signal properties.", "The engineer can study the spectrum to determine which frequencies are present in the input signal and which are missing.", "Frequency domain analysis is also called ''spectrum-'' or ''spectral analysis''.Filtering, particularly in non-realtime work can also be achieved in the frequency domain, applying the filter and then converting back to the time domain.", "This can be an efficient implementation and can give essentially any filter response including excellent approximations to brickwall filters.There are some commonly used frequency domain transformations.", "For example, the cepstrum converts a signal to the frequency domain through Fourier transform, takes the logarithm, then applies another Fourier transform.", "This emphasizes the harmonic structure of the original spectrum.===Z-plane analysis===Digital filters come in both infinite impulse response (IIR) and finite impulse response (FIR) types.", "Whereas FIR filters are always stable, IIR filters have feedback loops that may become unstable and oscillate.", "The Z-transform provides a tool for analyzing stability issues of digital IIR filters.", "It is analogous to the Laplace transform, which is used to design and analyze analog IIR filters.===Autoregression analysis===A signal is represented as linear combination of its previous samples.", "Coefficients of the combination are called autoregression coefficients.", "This method has higher frequency resolution and can process shorter signals compared to the Fourier transform.", "Prony's method can be used to estimate phases, amplitudes, initial phases and decays of the components of signal.", "Components are assumed to be complex decaying exponents.===Time-frequency analysis===A time-frequency representation of signal can capture both temporal evolution and frequency structure of analyzed signal.", "Temporal and frequency resolution are limited by the principle of uncertainty and the tradeoff is adjusted by the width of analysis window.", "Linear techniques such as Short-time Fourier transform, wavelet transform, filter bank, non-linear (e.g., Wigner–Ville transform) and autoregressive methods (e.g.", "segmented Prony method) are used for representation of signal on the time-frequency plane.", "Non-linear and segmented Prony methods can provide higher resolution, but may produce undesirable artifacts.", "Time-frequency analysis is usually used for analysis of non-stationary signals.", "For example, methods of fundamental frequency estimation, such as RAPT and PEFAC are based on windowed spectral analysis.===Wavelet===An example of the 2D discrete wavelet transform that is used in JPEG2000.The original image is high-pass filtered, yielding the three large images, each describing local changes in brightness (details) in the original image.", "It is then low-pass filtered and downscaled, yielding an approximation image; this image is high-pass filtered to produce the three smaller detail images, and low-pass filtered to produce the final approximation image in the upper-left.In numerical analysis and functional analysis, a discrete wavelet transform is any wavelet transform for which the wavelets are discretely sampled.", "As with other wavelet transforms, a key advantage it has over Fourier transforms is temporal resolution: it captures both frequency ''and'' location information.", "The accuracy of the joint time-frequency resolution is limited by the uncertainty principle of time-frequency.===Empirical mode decomposition===Empirical mode decomposition is based on decomposition signal into intrinsic mode functions (IMFs).", "IMFs are quasiharmonical oscillations that are extracted from the signal." ], [ "Implementation", "DSP algorithms may be run on general-purpose computers and digital signal processors.", "DSP algorithms are also implemented on purpose-built hardware such as application-specific integrated circuit (ASICs).", "Additional technologies for digital signal processing include more powerful general purpose microprocessors, graphics processing units, field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), digital signal controllers (mostly for industrial applications such as motor control), and stream processors.For systems that do not have a real-time computing requirement and the signal data (either input or output) exists in data files, processing may be done economically with a general-purpose computer.", "This is essentially no different from any other data processing, except DSP mathematical techniques (such as the DCT and FFT) are used, and the sampled data is usually assumed to be uniformly sampled in time or space.", "An example of such an application is processing digital photographs with software such as Photoshop.When the application requirement is real-time, DSP is often implemented using specialized or dedicated processors or microprocessors, sometimes using multiple processors or multiple processing cores.", "These may process data using fixed-point arithmetic or floating point.", "For more demanding applications FPGAs may be used.", "For the most demanding applications or high-volume products, ASICs might be designed specifically for the application.Parallel implementations of DSP algorithms, utilising multi-core CPU and many-core GPU architectures, are developed to improve the performances in terms of latency of these algorithms.''''''", "is done by the computer's CPU rather than by DSP or outboard processing, which is done by additional third-party DSP chips located on extension cards or external hardware boxes or racks.", "Many digital audio workstations such as Logic Pro, Cubase, Digital Performer and Pro Tools LE use native processing.", "Others, such as Pro Tools HD, Universal Audio's UAD-1 and TC Electronic's Powercore use DSP processing." ], [ "Applications", "General application areas for DSP include*Audio signal processing*Audio data compression e.g.", "MP3*Video data compression*Computer graphics*Digital image processing*Photo manipulation*Speech processing*Speech recognition*Data transmission*Radar*Sonar*Financial signal processing*Economic forecasting*Seismology*Biomedicine*Weather forecastingSpecific examples include speech coding and transmission in digital mobile phones, room correction of sound in hi-fi and sound reinforcement applications, analysis and control of industrial processes, medical imaging such as CAT scans and MRI, audio crossovers and equalization, digital synthesizers, and audio effects units." ], [ "Techniques", "* Bilinear transform* Discrete Fourier transform* Discrete-time Fourier transform* Filter design* Goertzel algorithm* Least-squares spectral analysis* LTI system theory* Minimum phase* s-plane* Transfer function* Z-transform" ], [ "Related fields", "* Analog signal processing* Automatic control* Computer engineering* Computer science* Data compression* Dataflow programming* Discrete cosine transform* Electrical engineering* Fourier analysis* Information theory* Machine learning* Real-time computing* Stream processing* Telecommunication* Time series* Wavelet" ], [ "Further reading", "**Jonathan M. Blackledge, Martin Turner: ''Digital Signal Processing: Mathematical and Computational Methods, Software Development and Applications'', Horwood Publishing, *James D. Broesch: ''Digital Signal Processing Demystified'', Newnes, **Paul M. Embree, Damon Danieli: ''C++ Algorithms for Digital Signal Processing'', Prentice Hall, *Hari Krishna Garg: ''Digital Signal Processing Algorithms'', CRC Press, *P. Gaydecki: ''Foundations Of Digital Signal Processing: Theory, Algorithms And Hardware Design'', Institution of Electrical Engineers, *Ashfaq Khan: ''Digital Signal Processing Fundamentals'', Charles River Media, *Sen M. Kuo, Woon-Seng Gan: ''Digital Signal Processors: Architectures, Implementations, and Applications'', Prentice Hall, *Paul A. Lynn, Wolfgang Fuerst: ''Introductory Digital Signal Processing with Computer Applications'', John Wiley & Sons, *Richard G. Lyons: ''Understanding Digital Signal Processing'', Prentice Hall, *Vijay Madisetti, Douglas B. Williams: ''The Digital Signal Processing Handbook'', CRC Press, *James H. McClellan, Ronald W. Schafer, Mark A. Yoder: ''Signal Processing First'', Prentice Hall, *Bernard Mulgrew, Peter Grant, John Thompson: ''Digital Signal Processing – Concepts and Applications'', Palgrave Macmillan, *Boaz Porat: ''A Course in Digital Signal Processing'', Wiley, *John G. Proakis, Dimitris Manolakis: ''Digital Signal Processing: Principles, Algorithms and Applications'', 4th ed, Pearson, April 2006, *John G. Proakis: ''A Self-Study Guide for Digital Signal Processing'', Prentice Hall, *Charles A. Schuler: ''Digital Signal Processing: A Hands-On Approach'', McGraw-Hill, *Doug Smith: ''Digital Signal Processing Technology: Essentials of the Communications Revolution'', American Radio Relay League, ******Hayes, Monson H. Statistical digital signal processing and modeling.", "John Wiley & Sons, 2009.", "(with MATLAB scripts)" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Discordianism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Discordianism''' is a belief system based around Eris, the Greek goddess of strife and discord, and variously defined as a religion, philosophy, paradigm, or parody religion.", "It was founded after the 1963 publication of its holy book, the ''Principia Discordia,'' written by Greg Hill with Kerry Wendell Thornley, the two working under the pseudonyms Malaclypse the Younger and Omar Khayyam Ravenhurst.The religion has been likened to Zen based on similarities with absurdist interpretations of the Rinzai school, as well as Taoist philosophy.", "Discordianism is centered on the idea that both order and disorder are illusions imposed on the universe by the human nervous system, and that neither of these illusions of apparent order and disorder is any more accurate or objectively true than the other.There is some discourse as to whether Discordianism should be regarded as a parody religion, and if so, to what degree.", "It is difficult to estimate the number of Discordians because they are not required to hold Discordianism as their only belief system, and because there is an encouragement to form schisms and cabals." ], [ "Founding and structure", "The foundational document of Discordianism is the ''Principia Discordia'', fourth edition (1970), written by Malaclypse the Younger, an alias of Gregory Hill.", "The ''Principia Discordia'' often hints that Discordianism was founded as a dialectic antithesis to more popular religions based on order, although the rhetoric throughout the book describes chaos as a much more underlying impulse of the universe.", "This has been done with the intention of merely \"balancing out\" the tight order of society.=== Episkopos ===Episkoposes are the overseers of sects of Discordianism, who have presumably created their own sect of Discordianism.", "They speak to Eris through the use of their pineal gland.", "It is said in the ''Principia Discordia'' that Eris says different things to each listener.", "She may even say radically different things to each Episkopos, but all of what she says is equally her word (even if it contradicts another iteration of her word).Most episkoposes have an assumed name and/or title of sometimes \"bizarre\" nature and self-proclaimed \"mystic import\", such as Malaclypse the Younger, Omnibenevolent Polyfather of Virginity in Gold; Lord Omar Khayyam Ravenhurst, Bull Goose of Limbo; Professor Mu-Chao; Jay Bee the Elder; and Kassil the Erratic.", "Some Discordians choose their entire title by themselves, some turn to random generators, others assimilate things from other people, and a few never really offer any explanation.=== Popes ===According to the ''Principia Discordia'', \"every single man, woman, and child on this Earth\" is a pope.", "Included in the ''Principia Discordia'' is an official Pope card that may be reproduced and distributed freely to anyone and everyone.", "Papacy is not granted through possession of this card; it merely informs people that they are \"a genuine and authorized Pope\" of Discordia.This understanding of the notion of Pope has far reaching consequences in Discordianism.", "For example, the introduction to ''Principia Discordia'' says, \"Only a Pope may canonize a Saint.", "...", "So you can ordain yourself—and anyone or anything else—a Saint.", "\"In most of his public presentations and lectures, Robert Anton Wilson's first gesture when taking the stage would be to declare everyone within the audience to be ordained Discordian Popes.===Saints===There are also five classes of saints within Discordianism, who are those who best act as exemplars and are closer to perfection.", "Only the first of these classes \"Saint Second Class\" contains real human beings (deceased and alive), with higher classes reserved for fictional beings who, by virtue of being fictional, are better able to reach the Discordian view of perfection.A well-known example of a second-class saint is Emperor Norton, a citizen in 19th century San Francisco, who despite suffering delusions was beloved by much of the city.", "He is honoured as a saint within Discordianism for living his life according to truth as he saw it and a disregard for reality as others would perceive it." ], [ "Mythology", "===Eris and Aneris===In discordian mythology, '''Aneris''' is described as the sister of Eris a.k.a.", "Discordia.", "Whereas Eris/Discordia is the goddess of disorder and being, Aneris/Harmonia is the goddess of order and non-being.", "\"DOGMA III – HISTORY 32, 'COSMOGONY' \" in ''Principia Discordia'', states::In the beginning there was VOID, who had two daughters; one (the smaller) was that of BEING, named ERIS, and one (the larger) was of NON-BEING, named ANERIS.The sterile Aneris becomes jealous of Eris (who was born pregnant), and starts making existent things non-existent.", "This explains why life begins, and later ends in death.", ":''And to this day, things appear and disappear in this very manner.", "''The names of Eris and Aneris (who are later given a brother, ''Spirituality''), are used to show some fundamental Discordian principles in \"Psycho-Metaphysics\"::The Aneristic Principle is that of APPARENT ORDER; the Eristic Principle is that of APPARENT DISORDER.", "Both order and disorder are man made concepts and are artificial divisions of PURE CHAOS, which is a level deeper than is the level of distinction making.====Hand of Eris====The Discordian five-fingered hand symbol.Eris.The \"five-fingered hand of Eris\" (shown at right) is one of several symbols used in Discordianism.", "It was adapted as an astronomical/astrological symbol for the dwarf planet Eris.", "Initially, the planetary symbol, designed by Discordian Denis Moskowitz, was rotated 90 degrees and had a cross-bar added so that it resembled two lunate epsilons (Є) back-to-back (20px), with epsilon being the Greek initial of 'Eris'.", "The cross-bar was later dropped, but the vertical orientation retained.", "(The Discordian symbol has no set orientation, but is most commonly horizontal.)", "The symbol has seen use in public-outreach publications by NASA, though planetary symbols play only a minor role in modern astronomy.The symbol has been widely adopted in astrology, and was accepted by Unicode in 2016 as (⯰).====The \"original snub\"====Apple of DiscordThe \"original snub\" is the Discordian name for the events leading up to the judgement of Paris, although more focus is put on the actions of Eris.", "Zeus believes that Eris is a troublemaker, so he does not invite her to Peleus and Thetis's wedding.", "Having been snubbed, Eris creates a golden apple with the word ''kallisti'' (, “for the prettiest”) inscribed in it.", "This, the Apple of Discord, is a notable symbol in Discordianism for its inclusion in the Sacred Chao, and is traditionally described as being made of gold (although whether that gold was metallic or Acapulco is noted as uncertain).Some recent interpretations of the original snub place Eris as being not at all mischievous with her delivery of the apple, but instead suggest that Eris was simply bringing the apple as a wedding gift for Thetis.", "This interpretation would see Eris as innocent and her causing of chaos as a by-product of the other wedding guests’ reactions upon seeing her at the wedding." ], [ "Philosophy", "===Three core principles===The ''Principia Discordia'' holds three core principles: the Aneristic and Eristic principles representing order and disorder, and the notion that both are mere illusions.", "The following excerpt summarizes these principles:=== Operation Mindfuck ===Operation Mindfuck is an important practice in the Discordian religion, in which \"all national calamities, assassinations, or conspiracies\" are publicly attributed to the Bavarian Illuminati, an 18th century secret society, in an attempt to \"sow the culture with paranoia,\" as well as to highlight the absurdity of conspiracy theories.", "The concept was developed by Kerry Thornley and Robert Anton Wilson in 1968 and given its name by Wilson and Robert Shea in ''The Illuminatus!", "Trilogy''." ], [ "Writings", "Discordian works include a number of books, not all of which actually exist.", "Among those that have been published are ''Principia Discordia'', first published in 1965 (which includes portions of ''The Honest Book of Truth''); and ''The Illuminatus!", "Trilogy'', which had its first volume published in 1975.The ''Principia Discordia'' is a Discordian religious text written by Greg Hill (Malaclypse the Younger) with Kerry Wendell Thornley (Lord Omar Khayyam Ravenhurst).", "The phrase ''Principia Discordia'', reminiscent of Newton's ''Principia Mathematica'', is presumably intended to mean ''Discordant Principles'', or ''Principles of Discordance''.", "''Summa Universalia'' was another work by Malaclypse the Younger, purported to be a summary of the universe.", "It was excerpted in the first edition of ''Principia'' but never published.", "It was mentioned in an introduction to one of the ''Principia'' editions, and the work was quoted from in the first edition.", "''Zenarchy'' was first self-published by Thornley, under the pen name Ho Chi Zen, as a series of one-page (or ''broadsheet'') newsletters in the 1960s.", "A selection of the material was later reedited and expanded by Thornley and republished in paperback by IllumiNet Press in 1991.The book describes Thornley's concept of Zenarchy \"a way of Zen applied to social life.", "A non-combative, non-participatory, no-politics approach to anarchy intended to get the serious student thinking.", "\"One of the most influential of all Discordian works, ''The Illuminatus!", "Trilogy'', is a series of three novels written by Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson purportedly between 1969 and 1971.In a 1980 interview given to the science fiction magazine ''Starship'', Wilson suggested the novel was an attempt to build a myth around Discordianism.", "''Zen Without Zen Masters'' is a book by Camden Benares (The Count of Five), published in 1977, of koans, stories and exercises of a Discordian nature.", "It includes tales of several early Discordians including Hill (as Mal) and Thornley (as Omar and Ho Chi Zen).", "\"Enlightenment of a Seeker\" from this book is also present in ''Principia Discordia'' as \"A Zen Story\".===''Principia Discordia'' editions===The first edition was printed allegedly using Jim Garrison's Xerox printer in 1963.The second edition was published under the title ''Principia Discordia or How The West Was Lost'' in a limited edition of five copies (and released into the public domain) in 1965.The \"official symbol of POEE,\" the \"Five-Fingered Hand of Eris.\"", "(POEE stands for Paratheo-anametamystikhood of Eris Esoteric.", ")The Sacred ChaoFile:NARACoverSheet DiscordianSociety.gif|NARA cover sheet for the alleged first editionIn 1978, a copy of a work from Kerry Thornley titled ''THE PRINCIPIA DISCORDIA or HOW THE WEST WAS LOST'' was placed in the HSCA JFK collections as document 010857.Adam Gorightly, author of ''The Prankster and the Conspiracy'' about Kerry Thornley and the early Discordians, said the copy in the JFK collection was not a copy of the first edition but a later and altered version containing some of the original material.", "In an interview with researcher Brenton Clutterbuck, Gorightly said he had been given Greg Hill's copy of the first edition.", "This appeared in its entirety in ''Historia Discordia'', a book on Discordian history released in spring of 2014.Several other editions have been published by Steve Jackson Games and others.=== Related works =======''Historia Discordia''====''Historia Discordia'' (2014) was compiled by Adam Gorightly with foreword by Robert Anton Wilson.", "It is a compilation of early Discordian photos, tracts, art collages, and more including works by Discordianism founders Greg Hill (Malaclypse the Younger) and Kerry Thornley (Omar Khayyam Ravenhurst).", "Among other things, it contains the long-missing ''The Honest Book of Truth'' and the first edition of ''Principia Discordia''.", "It features a blurb by famed comic book writer Alan Moore.====''Chasing Eris''====''Chasing Eris'' (2018) by Brenton Clutterbuck is a snapshot of the state of international Discordianism sixty years after its foundation, documenting \"a cross-section of international Discordianism\" and exploring its influences on counterculture, nerd culture, the copyleft movement, pop music and other art forms as well as connections to the assassination of John F. Kennedy, Charles Manson and the German secret service.", "The book includes several interviews and reports from the author's travels in North and South America, Australia, and Europe to meet Discordian individuals as well as whole groups.", "It also includes an interpretation of the ''Principia Discordia'' chapter \"The Parable of The Bitter Tea\" by its original author.", "It is reviewed on Goodreads and has gained the attention of websites such as RAWillumination." ], [ "See also", "* Chaos magic* Discordian calendar* Direct and indirect realism* Poe's law* Religious satire* SNAFU Principle* Symbol of Chaos* Trivialism" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Erischan.org – A Discordian imageboard.", "* Flying Squirrels on Fire Cabal – A Discordian sect.", "* PrincipiaDiscordia.com – contains the ''Principia Discordia'' in HTML.", "Also has Discordian message boards and other resources.", "* The Semi-Official Quasi-Clandestine Bavarian Illuminati/Discordian Archives An archive of early Discordian documents, photos and paraphernalia.", "* Discordian Saints – 1999 archive from Andrew C.", "Bulhak.", "* Discordian Tarot with 'Reading' – the free deck consists of 73 cards, incl.", "23 Trumps (also as PDF, 0.7 MB)" ] ]
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[ [ "Disjunction introduction" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Disjunction introduction''' or '''addition''' (also called '''or introduction''') is a rule of inference of propositional logic and almost every other deduction system.", "The rule makes it possible to introduce disjunctions to logical proofs.", "It is the inference that if ''P'' is true, then ''P or Q'' must be true.An example in English::Socrates is a man.", ":Therefore, Socrates is a man or pigs are flying in formation over the English Channel.The rule can be expressed as::where the rule is that whenever instances of \"\" appear on lines of a proof, \"\" can be placed on a subsequent line.", "More generally it's also a simple valid argument form, this means that if the premise is true, then the conclusion is also true as any rule of inference should be, and an immediate inference, as it has a single proposition in its premises.", "Disjunction introduction is not a rule in some paraconsistent logics because in combination with other rules of logic, it leads to explosion (i.e.", "everything becomes provable) and paraconsistent logic tries to avoid explosion and to be able to reason with contradictions.", "One of the solutions is to introduce disjunction with over rules.", "See ." ], [ "Formal notation", "The ''disjunction introduction'' rule may be written in sequent notation:: where is a metalogical symbol meaning that is a syntactic consequence of in some logical system;and expressed as a truth-functional tautology or theorem of propositional logic::where and are propositions expressed in some formal system." ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Disjunction elimination" ], [ "Introduction", "In propositional logic, '''disjunction elimination''' (sometimes named '''proof by cases''', '''case analysis''', or '''or elimination''') is the valid argument form and rule of inference that allows one to eliminate a disjunctive statement from a logical proof.", "It is the inference that if a statement implies a statement and a statement also implies , then if either or is true, then has to be true.", "The reasoning is simple: since at least one of the statements P and R is true, and since either of them would be sufficient to entail Q, Q is certainly true.An example in English::If I'm inside, I have my wallet on me.", ":If I'm outside, I have my wallet on me.", ":It is true that either I'm inside or I'm outside.", ":Therefore, I have my wallet on me.It is the rule can be stated as::where the rule is that whenever instances of \"\", and \"\" and \"\" appear on lines of a proof, \"\" can be placed on a subsequent line." ], [ "Formal notation", "The ''disjunction elimination'' rule may be written in sequent notation:: where is a metalogical symbol meaning that is a syntactic consequence of , and and in some logical system;and expressed as a truth-functional tautology or theorem of propositional logic::where , , and are propositions expressed in some formal system." ], [ "See also", "* Disjunction* Argument in the alternative* Disjunct normal form" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Dead Sea" ], [ "Introduction", "Short video about the Dead Sea from the thumbThe '''Dead Sea''' (, ''Āl-Baḥrū l-Maytū''; , ''Yam hamMelaḥ''), also known by other names, is a landlocked salt lake bordered by Jordan to the east and the Israeli-occupied West Bank and Israel to the west.", "It lies in the Jordan Rift Valley, and its main tributary is the Jordan River.As of 2019, the lake's surface is below sea level, making its shores the lowest land-based elevation on Earth.", "It is deep, the deepest hypersaline lake in the world.", "With a salinity of 342 g/kg, or 34.2% (in 2011), it is one of the world's saltiest bodies of water – 9.6 times as salty as the ocean – and has a density of 1.24 kg/litre, which makes swimming similar to floating.", "This salinity makes for a harsh environment in which plants and animals cannot flourish, hence its name.", "The Dead Sea's main, northern basin is long and wide at its widest point.The Dead Sea has attracted visitors from around the Mediterranean Basin for thousands of years.", "It was one of the world's first health resorts, and it has been the supplier of a wide variety of products, from asphalt for Egyptian mummification to potash for fertilisers.", "Today, tourists visit the sea on its Israeli, Jordanian and West Bank coastlines.The Dead Sea is receding at a swift rate; its surface area today is , having been in 1930.Multiple canal and pipeline proposals, such as the scrapped Red Sea–Dead Sea Water Conveyance project, have been made to reduce its recession." ], [ "Names", "The English name \"Dead Sea\" is a calque of the Arabic name or (), itself a calque of earlier Greek (, ) and Latin names () in reference to the scarcity of aquatic life caused by the lake's extreme salinity.", "The name also occasionally appears in Hebrew literature as (), 'Sea of Death'.The usual biblical and modern Hebrew name for the lake is the (, ).", "Other Hebrew names for the lake also mentioned in the Bible are the (, ) and the (, ).", "In Arabic, it is also known as the (, , , or ) from the nephew of Abraham whose wife was said to have turned into a pillar of salt during the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah.", "Less often, it has been known in Arabic as the Sea of Zo'ar from a formerly important city along its shores.Historical English names include the , from the biblical account of its destruction and from Greek and Latin.", "Because of the large volume of ancient trade in the lake's naturally occurring free-floating bitumen, its usual names in ancient Greek and Roman geography were some form of ( or , or ; ) or Sea (, )." ], [ "Geography", "Satellite photograph showing the location of the Dead Sea east of the Mediterranean SeaThe Dead Sea is an endorheic lake located in the Jordan Rift Valley, a geographic feature formed by the Dead Sea Transform (DST).", "This left lateral-moving transform fault lies along the tectonic plate boundary between the African Plate and the Arabian Plate.", "It runs between the East Anatolian Fault zone in Turkey and the northern end of the Red Sea Rift offshore of the southern tip of Sinai.", "It is here that the Upper Jordan River/Sea of Galilee/Lower Jordan River water system comes to an end.The Jordan River is the only major water source flowing into the Dead Sea, although there are small perennial springs under and around the Dead Sea, forming pools and quicksand pits along the edges.", "There are no outlet streams.The Mujib River, biblical Arnon, is one of the larger water sources of the Dead Sea other than the Jordan.", "The Wadi Mujib valley, 420 m below the sea level in the southern part of the Jordan valley, is a biosphere reserve, with an area of .", "Other more substantial sources are Wadi Darajeh (Arabic)/Nahal Dragot (Hebrew), and that ends at Ein Gedi.", "Wadi Hasa (biblical Zered) is another wadi flowing into the Dead Sea.Rainfall is scarcely per year in the northern part of the Dead Sea and barely in the southern part.", "The Dead Sea zone's aridity is due to the rainshadow effect of the Judaean Mountains.", "The highlands east of the Dead Sea receive more rainfall than the Dead Sea itself.To the west of the Dead Sea, the Judaean mountains rise less steeply and are much lower than the mountains to the east.", "Along the southwestern side of the lake is a tall halite mineral formation called Mount Sodom.The salt lake bordered by Jordan to the east and Palestine's Israeli-occupied West Bank and Israel to the west.", "It lies in the Jordan Rift Valley, and its main tributary is the Jordan River." ], [ "Geology", "The Jordanian shore of the Dead Sea, showing salt deposits left behind by falling water levels.===Formation theories===There are two contending hypotheses about the origin of the low elevation of the Dead Sea.", "The older hypothesis is that the Dead Sea lies in a true rift zone, an extension of the Red Sea Rift, or even of the Great Rift Valley of eastern Africa.", "A more recent hypothesis is that the Dead Sea basin is a consequence of a \"step-over\" discontinuity along the Dead Sea Transform, creating an extension of the crust with consequent subsidence.===Sedom Lagoon===During the late Pliocene-early Pleistocene, around 3.7 million years ago, what is now the valley of the Jordan River, Dead Sea, and the northern Wadi Arabah was repeatedly inundated by waters from the Mediterranean Sea.", "The waters formed in a narrow, crooked bay that is called by geologists the Sedom Lagoon, which was connected to the sea through what is now the Jezreel Valley.", "The floods of the valley came and went depending on long-scale changes in the tectonic and climatic conditions.The Sedom Lagoon extended at its maximum from the Sea of Galilee in the north to somewhere around south of the current southern end of the Dead Sea, and the subsequent lakes never surpassed this expanse.", "The Hula Depression was never part of any of these water bodies due to its higher elevation and the high threshold of the Korazim block separating it from the Sea of Galilee basin.===Salt deposits===The Sedom Lagoon deposited evaporites mainly consisting of rock salt, which eventually reached a thickness of on the old basin floor in the area of today's Mount Sedom.===Lake formation===NASA photo showing depth of the Dead Sea basinApproximately two million years ago, the land between the Jordan Rift Valley and the Mediterranean Sea rose to such an extent that the ocean could no longer flood the area.", "Thus, the long lagoon became a landlocked lake.The first prehistoric lake to follow the Sedom Lagoon is named '''Lake Amora''' (which possibly appeared in the early Pleistocene; its sediments developed into the Amora (Samra) Formation, dated to over 200–80 kyr BP), followed by '''Lake Lisan''' (c. 70–14 kyr) and finally by the Dead Sea.===Lake salinity===The water levels and salinity of the successive lakes (Amora, Lisan, Dead Sea) have either risen or fallen as an effect of the tectonic dropping of the valley bottom, and due to climate variation.", "As the climate became more arid, Lake Lisan finally shrank and became saltier, leaving the Dead Sea as its last remainder.From 70,000 to 12,000 years ago, Lake Lisan's level was to higher than its current level, possibly due to lower evaporation than in the present.", "Its level fluctuated dramatically, rising to its highest level around 26,000 years ago, indicating a very wet climate in the Near East.", "Around 10,000 years ago, the lake's level dropped dramatically, probably even lower than today.", "During the last several thousand years, the lake has fluctuated approximately , with some significant drops and rises.", "Current theories as to the cause of this dramatic drop in levels rule out volcanic activity; therefore, it may have been a seismic event.===Salt mounts formation===In prehistoric times, great amounts of sediment collected on the floor of Lake Amora.", "The sediment was heavier than the salt deposits and squeezed the salt deposits upwards into what are now the Lisan Peninsula and Mount Sodom (on the southwest side of the lake).", "Geologists explain the effect in terms of a bucket of mud into which a large flat stone is placed, forcing the mud to creep up the sides of the bucket.", "When the floor of the Dead Sea dropped further due to tectonic forces, the salt mounts of Lisan and Mount Sodom stayed in place as high cliffs (see salt dome)." ], [ "Climate", "The Dead Sea has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh), with year-round sunny skies and dry air.", "It has less than mean annual rainfall and a summer average temperature between .", "Winter average temperatures range between .", "The region has weaker ultraviolet radiation, particularly the UVB (erythrogenic rays).", "Given the higher atmospheric pressure, the air has a slightly higher oxygen content (3.3% in summer to 4.8% in winter) as compared to oxygen concentration at sea level.", "Barometric pressures at the Dead Sea were measured between 1061 and 1065 hPa and clinically compared with health effects at higher altitude.", "(This barometric measure is about 5% higher than sea level standard atmospheric pressure of 1013.25 hPa, which is the global ocean mean or ATM.)", "The Dead Sea affects temperatures nearby because of the moderating effect a large body of water has on climate.", "During the winter, sea temperatures tend to be higher than land temperatures, and vice versa during the summer months.", "This is the result of the water's mass and specific heat capacity.", "On average, there are 192 days above annually." ], [ "Chemistry", "Halite deposits (and teepee structure) along the western Dead Sea coastWith 34.2% salinity (in 2011), it is one of the world's saltiest bodies of water, though Lake Vanda in Antarctica (35%), Lake Assal in Djibouti (34.8%), Lagoon Garabogazköl in the Caspian Sea (up to 35%) and some hypersaline ponds and lakes of the McMurdo Dry Valleys in Antarctica (such as Don Juan Pond (44%)) have reported higher salinities.In the 19th century and the early 20th century, the surface layers of the Dead Sea were less salty than today, which resulted in an average density in the range of 1.15-1.17 g/cm3 instead of the present value of around 1.25 g/cm3.A sample tested by Bernays in the 19th century had a salinity of 19%.", "By the year 1926, the salinity had increased (although it was also suspected that the salinity varies seasonally and depends on the distance from the mouth of the Jordan).Until the winter of 1978–79, when a major mixing event took place, the Dead Sea was composed of two stratified layers of water that differed in temperature, density, age, and salinity.", "The topmost or so of the Dead Sea had an average salinity of about 30%, and a temperature that swung between and .", "Underneath a zone of transition, the lowest level of the Dead Sea had waters of a consistent temperature, salinity of over 34%, and complete saturation of sodium chloride (NaCl).", "Since the water near the bottom is saturated with NaCl, that salt precipitates out of solution onto the sea floor.Beginning in the 1960s, water inflow to the Dead Sea from the Jordan River was reduced as a result of large-scale irrigation and generally low rainfall.", "By 1975, the upper water layer was saltier than the lower layer.", "Nevertheless, the upper layer remained suspended above the lower layer because its waters were warmer and thus less dense.", "When the upper layer cooled so its density was greater than the lower layer, the waters mixed (1978–79).", "For the first time in centuries, the lake was a homogeneous body of water.", "Since then, stratification has begun to redevelop.Pebbles cemented with leftThe mineral content of the Dead Sea is very different from that of ocean water.", "The exact composition of the Dead Sea water varies mainly with season, depth and temperature.", "In the early 1980s, the concentration of ionic species (in g/kg) of Dead Sea surface water was Cl− (181.4), Br− (4.2), SO42− (0.4), HCO3− (0.2), Ca2+ (14.1), Na+ (32.5), K+ (6.2) and Mg2+ (35.2).", "The total salinity was 276 g/kg.", "These results show that the composition of the salt, as anhydrous chlorides on a weight percentage basis, was calcium chloride (CaCl2) 14.4%, potassium chloride (KCl) 4.4%, magnesium chloride (MgCl2) 50.8% and sodium chloride (NaCl) 30.4%.", "In comparison, the salt in the water of most oceans and seas is approximately 85% sodium chloride.", "The concentration of sulfate ions (SO42−) is very low, and the concentration of bromide ions (Br−) is the highest of all waters on Earth.Beach pebbles made of halite; western coastThe salt concentration of the Dead Sea fluctuates around 31.5%.", "This is unusually high and results in a nominal density of 1.24 kg/L.", "Anyone can easily float in the Dead Sea because of natural buoyancy.", "In this respect the Dead Sea is similar to the Great Salt Lake in Utah in the United States.An unusual feature of the Dead Sea is its discharge of asphalt.", "From deep seeps, the Dead Sea constantly spits up small pebbles and blocks of the black substance.", "Asphalt-coated figurines and bitumen-coated Neolithic skulls from archaeological sites have been found.", "Egyptian mummification processes used asphalt imported from the Dead Sea region." ], [ "Putative therapies", "The Dead Sea area has become a location for health research and potential treatment for several reasons.", "The mineral content of the water, the low content of pollens and other allergens in the atmosphere, the reduced ultraviolet component of solar radiation, and the higher atmospheric pressure at this great depth each may have specific health effects.", "For example, persons experiencing reduced respiratory function from diseases such as cystic fibrosis seem to benefit from the increased atmospheric pressure.The region's climate and low elevation have made it a popular center for assessment of putative therapies:*Climatotherapy: Treatment which exploits local climatic features such as temperature, humidity, sunshine, barometric pressure and special atmospheric constituents*Heliotherapy: Treatment that exploits the biological effects of the sun's radiation*Thalassotherapy: Treatment that exploits bathing in Dead Sea waterClimatotherapy at the Dead Sea may be a therapy for psoriasis by sunbathing for long periods in the area due to its position below sea level and subsequent result that UV rays are partially blocked by the increased thickness of the atmosphere over the Dead Sea.Rhinosinusitis patients receiving Dead Sea saline nasal irrigation exhibited improved symptom relief compared to standard hypertonic saline spray in one study.Dead Sea mud pack therapy has been suggested to temporarily relieve pain in patients with osteoarthritis of the knees.", "According to researchers of the Ben Gurion University of the Negev, treatment with mineral-rich mud compresses can be used to augment conventional medical therapy." ], [ "Life forms", "Dead Sea in the morning, seen from Masada===In the water===The sea is called \"dead\" because its high salinity prevents macroscopic aquatic organisms, such as fish and aquatic plants, from living in it, though minuscule quantities of bacteria and microbial fungi are present.In times of flood, the salt content of the Dead Sea can drop from its usual 35% to 30% or lower.", "The Dead Sea temporarily comes to life in the wake of rainy winters.", "In 1980, after one such rainy winter, the normally dark blue Dead Sea turned red.", "Researchers from Hebrew University of Jerusalem found the Dead Sea to be teeming with an alga called ''Dunaliella''.", "''Dunaliella'' in turn nourished carotenoid-containing (red-pigmented) halobacteria, whose presence caused the color change.", "Since 1980, the Dead Sea basin has been dry and the algae and the bacteria have not returned in measurable numbers.In 2011 a group of scientists from Be'er Sheva, Israel and Germany discovered fissures in the floor of the Dead Sea by scuba diving and observing the surface.", "These fissures allow fresh and brackish water to enter the Dead Sea.", "They sampled biofilms surrounding the fissures and discovered numerous species of bacteria and archaea.===Fauna and flora around the lake===Many animal species live in the mountains surrounding the Dead Sea.", "Hikers can see ibex, hares, hyraxes, jackals, foxes, and even leopards.", "Hundreds of bird species inhabit the zone as well.", "Both Jordan and Israel have established nature reserves around the Dead Sea.====History====The delta of the Jordan River was formerly a jungle of papyrus and palm trees.", "The Jewish historian Flavius Josephus described Jericho as \"the most fertile spot in Judea\".", "In Roman and Byzantine times, sugarcane, henna, and sycamore fig all made the lower Jordan valley wealthy.", "One of the most valuable products produced by Jericho was the sap of the balsam tree, which could be made into perfume.", "By the 19th century, Jericho's fertility had disappeared." ], [ "Human settlement", "There are several small communities near the Dead Sea.", "These include Ein Gedi, Neve Zohar and the Israeli settlements in the Megilot Regional Council: Kalya, Mitzpe Shalem and Avnat.", "There is a nature preserve at Ein Gedi, and several Dead Sea hotels are located on the southwest end at Ein Bokek near Neve Zohar.", "Highway 90 runs north–south on the Israeli side for a total distance of from Metula on the Lebanese border in the north to its southern terminus at the Egyptian border near the Red Sea port of Eilat.Potash City is a small community on the Jordanian side of the Dead Sea, and others including Suweima.", "Highway 65 runs north–south on the Jordanian side from near Jordan's northern tip down past the Dead Sea to the port of Aqaba." ], [ "Human history", "===Biblical period===Mount Sodom, Israel, showing the so-called \"Lot's Wife\" pillar (made of halite like the rest of the mountain)Dwelling in caves near the Dead Sea is recorded in the Hebrew Bible as having taken place before the Israelites came to Canaan, and extensively at the time of King David.Just northwest of the Dead Sea is Jericho.", "Somewhere, perhaps on the southeastern shore, would be the cities mentioned in the Book of Genesis which were said to have been destroyed in the time of Abraham: Sodom and Gomorrah (Genesis 18) and the three other \"Cities of the Plain\", Admah, Zeboim and Zoar (Deuteronomy 29:23).", "Zoar escaped destruction when Abraham's nephew Lot escaped to Zoar from Sodom (Genesis 19:21–22).", "Before the destruction, the Dead Sea was a valley full of natural tar pits, which was called the '''vale of Siddim'''.", "King David was said to have hidden from Saul at Ein Gedi nearby.In Ezekiel 47:8–9 there is a specific prophecy that the sea will \"be healed and made fresh\", becoming a normal lake capable of supporting marine life.", "A similar prophecy is stated in Zechariah 14:8, which says that \"living waters will go out from Jerusalem, half of them to the eastern sea likely the Dead Sea and half to the western sea the Mediterranean.", "\"===Greek and Roman period===Greek and Jewish writers report that the Nabateans had monopolistic control over the Dead Sea.Archaeological evidence shows multiple anchorages existing on both sides of the sea, including in Ein Gedi, Khirbet Mazin (where the ruins of a Hasmonean-era dry dock are located), Numeira and near Masada.King Herod the Great built or rebuilt several fortresses and palaces on the western bank of the Dead Sea.", "The most famous was Masada, where in 70 CE a small group of Jewish zealots fled after the fall of the destruction of the Second Temple.", "The zealots survived until 73 CE, when a siege by the X Legion ended in the deaths by suicide of its 960 inhabitants.", "Another historically important fortress was Machaerus (מכוור), on the eastern bank, where, according to Josephus, John the Baptist was imprisoned by Herod Antipas and died.Also in Roman times, some Essenes settled on the Dead Sea's western shore; Pliny the Elder identifies their location with the words, \"on the west side of the Dead Sea, away from the coast ... above the town of Engeda\" (''Natural History'', Bk 5.73); and it is therefore a hugely popular but contested hypothesis today, that same Essenes are identical with the settlers at Qumran and that \"the Dead Sea Scrolls\" discovered during the 20th century in the nearby caves had been their own library.A cargo boat on the Dead Sea as seen on the Madaba Map, from the 6th century ADJosephus identified the Dead Sea in geographic proximity to the ancient Biblical city of Sodom.", "However, he referred to the lake by its Greek name, Asphaltites.Various sects of Jews settled in caves overlooking the Dead Sea.", "The best known of these are the Essenes of Qumran, who left an extensive library known as the Dead Sea Scrolls.", "The town of Ein Gedi, mentioned many times in the Mishna, produced persimmon for the temple's fragrance and for export, using a secret recipe.", "\"Sodomite salt\" was an essential mineral for the temple's holy incense, but was said to be dangerous for home use and could cause blindness.", "The Roman camps surrounding Masada were built by Jewish slaves receiving water from the towns around the lake.", "These towns had drinking water from the Ein Feshcha springs and other sweetwater springs in the vicinity.===Byzantine period===Intimately connected with the Judean wilderness to its northwest and west, the Dead Sea was a place of escape and refuge.", "The remoteness of the region attracted Greek Orthodox monks since the Byzantine era.", "Their monasteries, such as Saint George in Wadi Kelt and Mar Saba in the Judaean Desert, are places of pilgrimage.===Modern times===The southern basin of the Dead Sea as of 1817–18, with the Lisan Peninsula and its ford (now named Lynch Strait).", "North is to the right.In the 19th century the River Jordan and the Dead Sea were explored by boat primarily by Christopher Costigan in 1835, Thomas Howard Molyneux in 1847, William Francis Lynch in 1848, and John MacGregor in 1869.The full text of W. F. Lynch's 1949 book ''Narrative of the United States' Expedition to the River Jordan and the Dead Sea'' is available online.", "Charles Leonard Irby and James Mangles travelled along the shores of the Dead Sea already in 1817–18, but didn't navigate on its waters.World's lowest (dry) point, Jordan, 1971Explorers and scientists arrived in the area to analyze the minerals and research the unique climate.After the find of the \"Moabite Stone\" in 1868 on the plateau east of the Dead Sea, Moses Wilhelm Shapira and his partner Salim al-Khouri forged and sold a whole range of presumed \"Moabite\" antiquities, and in 1883 Shapira presented what is now known as the \"Shapira Strips\", a supposedly ancient scroll written on leather strips which he claimed had been found near the Dead Sea.", "The strips were declared to be forgeries and Shapira took his own life in disgrace.The 1922 census of Palestine lists 100 people (68 Muslims and 32 Christians) with \"Dead Sea & Jordan\" as their main locality.", "The 1931 census shows a sharp increase with 535 people (264 Muslims, 230 Jews, 21 Christians, 17 Druze, and three with no religion) listing \"Dead Sea\" as their main village/town.", "The 1938 nor 1945 village statistics does not give a number for the general Dead Sea area.In the late 1940s and early 1950s, hundreds of religious documents dated between 150 BCE and 70 CE were found in caves near the ancient settlement of Qumran, about inland from the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea (presently in the West Bank).", "They became known and famous as the Dead Sea Scrolls.The world's lowest roads, Highway 90, run along the Israeli and West Bank shores of the Dead Sea, along with Highway 65 on the Jordanian side, at below sea level." ], [ "Tourism and leisure", "Ein Bokek, a resort on the Israeli shore===British Mandate period===A golf course named for Sodom and Gomorrah was built by the British at Kalia on the northern shore.===Israel===The first major Israeli hotels were built in nearby Arad, and since the 1960s at the Ein Bokek resort complex.Israel has 15 hotels along the Dead Sea shore, generating total revenues of $291 million in 2012.Most Israeli hotels and resorts on the Dead Sea are on a stretch of the southern shore.===Jordan===Kempinski Hotel, one of the many hotels on the Jordanian shoreOn the Jordanian side, nine international franchises have opened seaside resort hotels near the King Hussein Bin Talal Convention Center, along with resort apartments, on the eastern shore of the Dead Sea.", "The 9 hotels have boosted the Jordanian side's capacity to 2,800 rooms.On November 22, 2015, the Dead Sea panorama road was included along with 40 archaeological locations in Jordan, to become live on Google Street View.===Palestine (West Bank)===The portion of Dead Sea coast which Palestinians could possibly eventually manage is about long.", "The World Bank estimates that such Dead Sea tourism industry could generate $290 million of revenues per year and 2,900 jobs.", "However, Palestinians have been unable to obtain construction permits for tourism-related investments on the Dead Sea.", "According to the World Bank, officials in the Palestinian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities state that the only way to apply for such permits is through the Joint Committees established under the Oslo Agreement, but the relevant committee has not met with any degree of regularity since 2000." ], [ "Chemical industry", "The dwindling water level of the Dead Sea===British Mandate period===In the early part of the 20th century, the Dead Sea began to attract interest from chemists who deduced the sea was a natural deposit of potash (potassium chloride) and bromine.", "A concession was granted by the British Mandatory government to the newly formed Palestine Potash Company in 1929.Its founder, Siberian Jewish engineer and pioneer of Lake Baikal exploitation, Moses Novomeysky, had worked for the charter for over ten years having first visited the area in 1911.The first plant, on the north shore of the Dead Sea at Kalya, commenced production in 1931 and produced potash by solar evaporation of the brine.", "Employing Arabs and Jews, it was an island of peace in turbulent times.", "In 1934 built a second plant on the southwest shore, in the Mount Sodom area, south of the 'Lashon' region of the Dead Sea.", "Palestine Potash Company supplied half of Britain's potash during World War II.", "Both plants were destroyed by the Jordanians in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War.===Israel===The Dead Sea Works was founded in 1952 as a state-owned enterprise based on the remnants of the Palestine Potash Company.", "In 1995, the company was privatized and it is now owned by Israel Chemicals.", "From the Dead Sea brine, Israel produces (2001) 1.77 million tons potash, 206,000 tons elemental bromine, 44,900 tons caustic soda, 25,000 tons magnesium metal, and sodium chloride.", "Israeli companies generate around US$3 billion annually from the sale of Dead Sea minerals (primarily potash and bromine), and from other products that are derived from Dead Sea Minerals.===Jordan===On the Jordanian side of the Dead Sea, Arab Potash (APC), formed in 1956, produces 2.0 million tons of potash annually, as well as sodium chloride and bromine.", "The plant is located at Safi, South Aghwar Department, in the Karak Governorate.Jordanian Dead Sea mineral industries generate about $1.2 billion in sales (equivalent to 4 percent of Jordan's GDP).===West Bank===The Palestinian Dead Sea Coast is about long.", "The Palestinian economy is unable to benefit from Dead Sea chemicals due to restricted access, permit issues and the uncertainties of the investment climate.", "The World Bank estimates that a Palestinian Dead Sea chemicals industry could generate $918M incremental value added per year, \"almost equivalent to the contribution of the entire manufacturing sector of Palestinian territories today\".===Extraction===Both companies, Dead Sea Works Ltd. and Arab Potash, use extensive salt evaporation pans that have essentially diked the entire southern end of the Dead Sea for the purpose of producing carnallite, potassium magnesium chloride, which is then processed further to produce potassium chloride.", "The ponds are separated by a central dike that runs roughly north–south along the international border.", "The power plant on the Israeli side allows production of magnesium metal (by a subsidiary, Dead Sea Magnesium Ltd.).Due to the popularity of the sea's therapeutic and healing properties, several companies have also shown interest in the manufacturing and supplying of Dead Sea salts as raw materials for body and skin care products." ], [ "Recession and environmental concerns", "Gully in unconsolidated Dead Sea sediments exposed by recession of water levels.", "It was excavated by floods from the Judean Mountains in less than a year.===Receding shoreline===Since 1930, when its surface was and its level was below sea level, the Dead Sea has been monitored continuously.", "The Dead Sea has been rapidly shrinking since the 1960s because of diversion of incoming water from the Jordan River to the north as part of the National Water Carrier scheme, completed in 1964.The southern end is fed by a canal maintained by the Dead Sea Works, a company that converts the sea's raw materials.", "From a water surface of below sea level in 1970 it fell to below sea level in 2006, reaching a drop rate of per year.", "As the water level decreases, the characteristics of the Sea and surrounding region may substantially change.The Dead Sea level drop has been followed by a groundwater level drop, causing brines that used to occupy underground layers near the shoreline to be flushed out by freshwater.", "This is believed to be the cause of the recent appearance of large sinkholes along the western shore—incoming freshwater dissolves salt layers, rapidly creating subsurface cavities that subsequently collapse to form these sinkholes.", "Ein Gedi, on the western coast, has been subject to a large number of sinkholes appearing in the area, attributed to the decline in the water level of the Dead Sea., the surface of the Sea has shrunk by about 33 percent since the 1960s, which is partly attributed to the much-reduced flow of the Jordan River since the construction of the National Water Carrier project, and the amount of water from the rains reaching the Dead Sea has diminished even further since flash floods started pouring into the sinkholes.", "The EcoPeace Middle East, a joint Israeli-Palestinian-Jordanian environmental group, has estimated that the annual flow into the Dead Sea from the Jordan is less than of water, compared with former flows of between and .", "Year Water level (m) Surface (km2) '''1930''' −390 1050 '''1980''' −400 680 '''1992''' −407 675 '''1997''' −411 670 '''2004''' −417 662 '''2010''' −423 655 '''2016''' −430.5 605Sources: Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research, ''Haaretz'', Jordan Valley Authority.Views in 1972, 1989, and 2011 compared===Link to the Red Sea===The proposed Red Sea–Dead Sea Water Conveyance.In May 2009 at the World Economic Forum, Jordan introduced plans for a \"Jordan National Red Sea Development Project\" (JRSP).", "This is a plan to convey seawater from the Red Sea near Aqaba to the Dead Sea.", "Water would be desalinated along the route to provide fresh water to Jordan, with the brine discharge sent to the Dead Sea for replenishment.", "Israel has expressed its support and will likely benefit from some of the water delivery to its Negev region.At a regional conference in July 2009, officials expressed concern about the declining water levels.", "Some suggested industrial activities around the Dead Sea might need to be reduced.", "Others advised environmental measures to restore conditions such as increasing the volume of flow from the Jordan River to replenish the Dead Sea.", "Currently, only sewage and effluent from fish ponds run in the river's channel.", "Experts also stressed the need for strict conservation efforts.", "They said agriculture should not be expanded, sustainable support capabilities should be incorporated into the area and pollution sources should be reduced.In October 2009, the Jordanians accelerated plans to extract around of water per year from the Red Sea, desalinate it for use as fresh water and send the waste water to the Dead Sea by tunnel, despite concerns about inadequate time to assess the potential environmental impact.", "According to Jordan's minister for water, General Maysoun Zu'bi, this project could be considered as the first phase of the Red Sea–Dead Sea Water Conveyance.In December 2013, Israel, Jordan and the Palestinian Authority signed an agreement for laying a water pipeline to link the Red Sea with the Dead Sea.", "The pipeline would be long and is estimated to take up to five years to complete.", "In January 2015 it was reported that the level of water was dropping by a year.On 27 November 2016, the Jordanian government shortlisted five consortia to implement the project.", "Jordan's ministry of Water and Irrigation said that the $100 million first phase of the project would begin construction in the first quarter of 2018, and would be completed by 2021.The project was officially abandoned in June 2021, having never broken ground." ], [ "See also", "*Aral Sea*List of drying lakes*List of places on land with elevations below sea level*Mediterranean–Dead Sea Canal*Benjamin Elazari Volcani*PEF rock with the Dead Sea level reference line used between 1900 and 1913" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*The World Bank, 2013, \"The Red Sea - Dead Sea Water Conveyance Study Program\", and source of basic data on the Dead Sea.", "*Yehouda Enzel, et al., eds (2006) ''New Frontiers in Dead Sea Paleoenvironmental Research'', Geological Society of America, *Niemi, Tina M., Ben-Avraham, Z., and Gat, J., eds., 1997, The Dead Sea: The Lake and Its Setting: N.Y., Oxford University Press, 286 p.* World Bank, Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Department, Area C and the Future of the Palestinian Economy, October 2, 2013" ], [ "External links", "* * (Israeli and West Bank part and Jordanian part)* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dragon" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''dragon''' is a magical legendary creature that appears in the folklore of multiple cultures worldwide.", "Beliefs about dragons vary considerably through regions, but dragons in Western cultures since the High Middle Ages have often been depicted as winged, horned, and capable of breathing fire.", "Dragons in eastern cultures are usually depicted as wingless, four-legged, serpentine creatures with above-average intelligence.", "Commonalities between dragons' traits are often a hybridization of feline, reptilian, mammalian, and avian features.", "Scholars believe large extinct or migrating crocodiles bear the closest resemblance, especially when encountered in forested or swampy areas, and are most likely the template of modern Asian dragon imagery." ], [ "Etymology", "An early appearance of the Old English word ''dracan'' in ''Beowulf''The word ''dragon'' entered the English language in the early 13th century from Old French ''dragon'', which, in turn, comes from the (genitive ) meaning \"huge serpent, dragon\", from Ancient Greek , (genitive , ) \"serpent\".", "The Greek and Latin term referred to any great serpent, not necessarily mythological.", "The Greek word is most likely derived from the Greek verb () meaning \"I see\", the aorist form of which is ().", "This is thought to have referred to something with a \"deadly glance\", or unusually bright or \"sharp\" eyes, or because a snake's eyes appear to be always open; each eye actually sees through a big transparent scale in its eyelids, which are permanently shut.", "The Greek word probably derives from an Indo-European base meaning \"to see\"; the Sanskrit root () also means \"to see\"." ], [ "Historic tales and records", "Several bones purported to belong to the Wawel Dragon hang outside Wawel Cathedral, but actually belong to a Pleistocene mammal.Draconic creatures appear in virtually all cultures around the globe and the earliest attested reports of draconic creatures resemble giant snakes.", "Draconic creatures are first described in the mythologies of the ancient Near East and appear in ancient Mesopotamian art and literature.", "Stories about storm-gods slaying giant serpents occur throughout nearly all Near Eastern and Indo-European mythologies.", "Famous prototypical draconic creatures include the ''mušḫuššu'' of ancient Mesopotamia; Apep in Egyptian mythology; Vṛtra in the ''Rigveda''; the Leviathan in the Hebrew Bible; Grand'Goule in the Poitou region in France; Python, Ladon, Wyvern and the Lernaean Hydra in Greek mythology; Kulshedra in Albanian Mythology; Unhcegila in Lakota mythology; Jörmungandr, Níðhöggr, and Fafnir in Norse mythology; the dragon from ''Beowulf''; and aži and az in ancient Persian mythology, closely related to another mythological figure, called Aži Dahaka or Zahhak.Nonetheless, scholars dispute where the idea of a dragon originates from and a wide variety of hypotheses have been proposed.In his book ''An Instinct for Dragons'' (2000), David E. Jones (anthropologist) suggests a hypothesis that humans, like monkeys, have inherited instinctive reactions to snakes, large cats, and birds of prey.", "He cites a study which found that approximately 39 people in a hundred are afraid of snakes and notes that fear of snakes is especially prominent in children, even in areas where snakes are rare.", "The earliest attested dragons all resemble snakes or have snakelike attributes.", "Jones therefore concludes that dragons appear in nearly all cultures because humans have an innate fear of snakes and other animals that were major predators of humans' primate ancestors.", "Dragons are usually said to reside in \"dark caves, deep pools, wild mountain reaches, sea bottoms, haunted forests\", all places which would have been fraught with danger for early human ancestors.In her book ''The First Fossil Hunters: Dinosaurs, Mammoths, and Myth in Greek and Roman Times'' (2000), Adrienne Mayor argues that some stories of dragons may have been inspired by ancient discoveries of fossils belonging to dinosaurs and other prehistoric animals.", "She argues that the dragon lore of northern India may have been inspired by \"observations of oversized, extraordinary bones in the fossilbeds of the Siwalik Hills below the Himalayas\" and that ancient Greek artistic depictions of the Monster of Troy may have been influenced by fossils of ''Samotherium'', an extinct species of giraffe whose fossils are common in the Mediterranean region.", "In China, a region where fossils of large prehistoric animals are common, these remains are frequently identified as \"dragon bones\" and are commonly used in traditional Chinese medicine.", "Mayor, however, is careful to point out that not all stories of dragons and giants are inspired by fossils and notes that Scandinavia has many stories of dragons and sea monsters, but has long \"been considered barren of large fossils.\"", "In one of her later books, she states that, \"Many dragon images around the world were based on folk knowledge or exaggerations of living reptiles, such as Komodo dragons, Gila monsters, iguanas, alligators, or, in California, alligator lizards, though this still fails to account for the Scandinavian legends, as no such animals (historical or otherwise) have ever been found in this region.", "\"Robert Blust in ''The Origin of Dragons'' (2000) argues that, like many other creations of traditional cultures, dragons are largely explicable as products of a convergence of rational pre-scientific speculation about the world of real events.", "In this case, the event is the natural mechanism governing rainfall and drought, with particular attention paid to the phenomenon of the rainbow." ], [ "African stories/records", "===Egypt===Set spearing the serpent Apep as he attacks the sun boat of RaIn Egyptian mythology, Apep or Apophis is a giant serpentine creature who resides in the Duat, the Egyptian Underworld.", "The Bremner-Rhind papyrus, written around 310 BC, preserves an account of a much older Egyptian tradition that the setting of the sun is caused by Ra descending to the Duat to battle Apep.", "In some accounts, Apep is as long as the height of eight men with a head made of flint.", "Thunderstorms and earthquakes were thought to be caused by Apep's roar and solar eclipses were thought to be the result of Apep attacking Ra during the daytime.", "In some myths, Apep is slain by the god Set.", "Nehebkau is another giant serpent who guards the Duat and aided Ra in his battle against Apep.", "Nehebkau was so massive in some stories that the entire earth was believed to rest atop his coils.", "Denwen is a giant serpent mentioned in the Pyramid Texts whose body was made of fire and who ignited a conflagration that nearly destroyed all the gods of the Egyptian pantheon.", "He was ultimately defeated by the Pharaoh, a victory which affirmed the Pharaoh's divine right to rule.The ouroboros was a well-known Egyptian symbol of a serpent swallowing its own tail.", "The precursor to the ouroboros was the \"Many-Faced\", a serpent with five heads, who, according to the Amduat, the oldest surviving Book of the Afterlife, was said to coil around the corpse of the sun god Ra protectively.", "The earliest surviving depiction of a \"true\" ouroboros comes from the gilded shrines in the tomb of Tutankhamun.", "In the early centuries AD, the ouroboros was adopted as a symbol by Gnostic Christians and chapter 136 of the ''Pistis Sophia'', an early Gnostic text, describes \"a great dragon whose tail is in its mouth\".", "In medieval alchemy, the ouroboros became a typical western dragon with wings, legs, and a tail.", "A famous image of the dragon gnawing on its tail from the eleventh-century Codex Marcianus was copied in numerous works on alchemy." ], [ "Asian stories/records", "===West Asia=======Mesopotamia====The ''mušḫuššu'' is a serpentine, draconic monster from ancient Mesopotamian mythology with the body and neck of a snake, the forelegs of a lion, and the hind-legs of a bird.", "Here it is shown as it appears in the Ishtar Gate from the city of Babylon.Ancient people across the Near East believed in creatures similar to what modern people call \"dragons\".", "These ancient people were unaware of the existence of dinosaurs or similar creatures in the distant past.", "References to dragons of both benevolent and malevolent characters occur throughout ancient Mesopotamian literature.", "In Sumerian poetry, great kings are often compared to the ''ušumgal'', a gigantic, serpentine monster.", "A draconic creature with the foreparts of a lion and the hind-legs, tail, and wings of a bird appears in Mesopotamian artwork from the Akkadian Period ( 2334 – 2154 BC) until the Neo-Babylonian Period (626 BC–539 BC).", "The dragon is usually shown with its mouth open.", "It may have been known as the ''(ūmu) nā’iru'', which means \"roaring weather beast\", and may have been associated with the god Ishkur (Hadad).", "A slightly different lion-dragon with two horns and the tail of a scorpion appears in art from the Neo-Assyrian Period (911 BC–609 BC).", "A relief probably commissioned by Sennacherib shows the gods Ashur, Sin, and Adad standing on its back.Another draconic creature with horns, the body and neck of a snake, the forelegs of a lion, and the hind-legs of a bird appears in Mesopotamian art from the Akkadian Period until the Hellenistic Period (323 BC–31 BC).", "This creature, known in Akkadian as the ''mušḫuššu'', meaning \"furious serpent\", was used as a symbol for particular deities and also as a general protective emblem.", "It seems to have originally been the attendant of the Underworld god Ninazu, but later became the attendant to the Hurrian storm-god Tishpak, as well as, later, Ninazu's son Ningishzida, the Babylonian national god Marduk, the scribal god Nabu, and the Assyrian national god Ashur.Scholars disagree regarding the appearance of Tiamat, the Babylonian goddess personifying primeval chaos, slain by Marduk in the Babylonian creation epic ''Enûma Eliš''.", "She was traditionally regarded by scholars as having had the form of a giant serpent, but several scholars have pointed out that this shape \"cannot be imputed to Tiamat with certainty\" and she seems to have at least sometimes been regarded as anthropomorphic.", "Nonetheless, in some texts, she seems to be described with horns, a tail, and a hide that no weapon can penetrate, all features which suggest she was conceived as some form of dragoness.=====Levant=====''The Destruction of Leviathan'' (1865) by Gustave DoréIn the Ugaritic Baal Cycle, the sea-dragon Lōtanu is described as \"the twisting serpent / the powerful one with seven heads.\"", "In ''KTU'' 1.5 I 2–3, Lōtanu is slain by the storm-god Baal, but, in ''KTU'' 1.3 III 41–42, he is instead slain by the virgin warrior goddess Anat.", "In the Book of Psalms, Psalm 74, Psalm 74:13–14, the sea-dragon Leviathan, is slain by Yahweh, god of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, as part of the creation of the world.", "In Isaiah 27:1, Yahweh's destruction of Leviathan is foretold as part of his impending overhaul of the universal order:Job 41:1–34 contains a detailed description of the Leviathan, who is described as being so powerful that only Yahweh can overcome it.", "Job 41:19–21 states that the Leviathan exhales fire and smoke, making its identification as a mythical dragon clearly apparent.", "In some parts of the Old Testament, the Leviathan is historicized as a symbol for the nations that stand against Yahweh.", "Rahab, a synonym for \"Leviathan\", is used in several Biblical passages in reference to Egypt.", "Isaiah 30:7 declares: \"For Egypt's help is worthless and empty, therefore I have called her 'the silenced Rahab'.\"", "Similarly, Psalm 87:3 reads: \"I reckon Rahab and Babylon as those that know me...\" In Ezekiel 29:3–5 and Ezekiel 32:2–8, the pharaoh of Egypt is described as a \"dragon\" (''tannîn'').", "In the story of Bel and the Dragon from the Book of Daniel, the prophet Daniel sees a dragon being worshipped by the Babylonians.", "Daniel makes \"cakes of pitch, fat, and hair\"; the dragon eats them and bursts open.====Ancient and Post-classical========Iran/Persia====Azhi Dahaka (Avestan Great Snake) is a dragon or demonic figure in the texts and mythology of Zoroastrian Persia, where he is one of the subordinates of Angra Mainyu.", "Alternate names include Azi Dahak, Dahaka, and Dahak.", "Aži (nominative ažiš) is the Avestan word for \"serpent\" or \"dragon.", "The Avestan term Aži Dahāka and the Middle Persian azdahāg are the sources of the Middle Persian Manichaean demon of greed \"Az\", Old Armenian mythological figure Aždahak, Modern Persian 'aždehâ/aždahâ', Tajik Persian 'azhdahâ', Urdu 'azhdahā' (اژدها), as well as the Kurdish ejdîha (ئەژدیها).The name also migrated to Eastern Europe, assumed the form \"azhdaja\" and the meaning \"dragon\", \"dragoness\" or \"water snake\" in the Balkanic and Slavic languages.Despite the negative aspect of Aži Dahāka in mythology, dragons have been used on some banners of war throughout the history of Iranian peoples.The Azhdarchid group of pterosaurs are named from a Persian word for \"dragon\" that ultimately comes from Aži Dahāka.", ";In Zoroastrian literatureAži Dahāka is the most significant and long-lasting of the ažis of the Avesta, the earliest religious texts of Zoroastrianism.", "He is described as a monster with three mouths, six eyes, and three heads, and as being cunning, strong, and demonic.", "In other respects, Aži Dahāka has human qualities, and is never a mere animal.", "In a post-Avestan Zoroastrian text, the Dēnkard, Aži Dahāka is possessed of all possible sins and evil counsels, the opposite of the good king Jam (or Jamshid).", "The name Dahāg (Dahāka) is punningly interpreted as meaning \"having ten (dah) sins\".In Persian Sufi literature, Rumi writes in his ''Masnavi'' that the dragon symbolizes the sensual soul (''nafs''), greed and lust, that need to be mortified in a spiritual battle.Rustam kills the dragon, folio from Shahnameh of Shah Ismail II, attrib.", "Sadegi (Beg), Iran, Tabriz, c. 1576 AD, view 1 – Aga Khan Museum – Toronto, CanadaIn Ferdowsi's ''Shahnameh,'' the Iranian hero Rostam must slay an 80-meter-long dragon (which renders itself invisible to human sight) with the aid of his legendary horse, Rakhsh.", "As Rostam is sleeping, the dragon approaches; Rakhsh attempts to wake Rostam, but fails to alert him to the danger until Rostam sees the dragon.", "Rakhsh bites the dragon, while Rostam decapitates it.", "This is the third trial of Rostam's Seven Labors.Rostam is also credited with the slaughter of other dragons in the ''Shahnameh'' and in other Iranian oral traditions, notably in the myth of ''Babr-e-Bayan''.", "In this tale, Rostam is still an adolescent and kills a dragon in the \"Orient\" (either India or China, depending on the source) by forcing it to swallow either ox hides filled with quicklime and stones or poisoned blades.", "The dragon swallows these foreign objects and its stomach bursts, after which Rostam flays the dragon and fashions a coat from its hide called the ''babr-e bayān''.", "In some variants of the story, Rostam then remains unconscious for two days and nights, but is guarded by his steed Rakhsh.", "On reviving, he washes himself in a spring.", "In the Mandean tradition of the story, Rostam hides in a box, is swallowed by the dragon, and kills it from inside its belly.", "The king of China then gives Rostam his daughter in marriage as a reward.===East Asia=======China====Nine Dragons Scroll by Chen Rong, 1244 AD.Zhulong from a seventeenth-century edition of the ''Shanhaijing''Dragon art on a vase, Yuan dynastyThe word \"dragon\" has come to be applied to the legendary creature in Chinese mythology, ''loong'' (traditional 龍, simplified 龙, Japanese simplified 竜, Pinyin ''lóng''), which is associated with good fortune, and many East Asian deities and demigods have dragons as their personal mounts or companions.", "Dragons were also identified with the Emperor of China, who, during later Chinese imperial history, was the only one permitted to have dragons on his house, clothing, or personal articles.Archaeologist Zhōu Chong-Fa believes that the Chinese word for dragon is an onomatopoeia of the sound of thunder or ''lùhng'' in Cantonese.The Chinese dragon () is the highest-ranking creature in the Chinese animal hierarchy.", "Its origins are vague, but its \"ancestors can be found on Neolithic pottery as well as Bronze Age ritual vessels.\"", "A number of popular stories deal with the rearing of dragons.", "The ''Zuo zhuan'', which was probably written during the Warring States period, describes a man named Dongfu, a descendant of Yangshu'an, who loved dragons and, because he could understand a dragon's will, he was able to tame them and raise them well.", "He served Emperor Shun, who gave him the family name Huanlong, meaning \"dragon-raiser\".", "In another story, Kong Jia, the fourteenth emperor of the Xia dynasty, was given a male and a female dragon as a reward for his obedience to the god of heaven, but could not train them, so he hired a dragon-trainer named Liulei, who had learned how to train dragons from Huanlong.", "One day, the female dragon died unexpectedly, so Liulei secretly chopped her up, cooked her meat, and served it to the king, who loved it so much that he demanded Liulei to serve him the same meal again.", "Since Liulei had no means of procuring more dragon meat, he fled the palace.One of the most famous dragon stories is about the Lord Ye Gao, who loved dragons obsessively, even though he had never seen one.", "He decorated his whole house with dragon motifs and, seeing this display of admiration, a real dragon came and visited Ye Gao, but the lord was so terrified at the sight of the creature that he ran away.", "In Chinese legend, the culture hero Fu Hsi is said to have been crossing the Lo River, when he saw the ''lung ma'', a Chinese horse-dragon with seven dots on its face, six on its back, eight on its left flank, and nine on its right flank.", "He was so moved by this apparition that, when he arrived home, he drew a picture of it, including the dots.", "He later used these dots as letters and invented Chinese writing, which he used to write his book ''I Ching''.", "In another Chinese legend, the physician Ma Shih Huang is said to have healed a sick dragon.", "Another legend reports that a man once came to the healer Lo Chên-jen, telling him that he was a dragon and that he needed to be healed.", "After Lo Chên-jen healed the man, a dragon appeared to him and carried him to heaven.In the ''Shanhaijing'', a classic mythography probably compiled mostly during the Han dynasty, various deities and demigods are associated with dragons.", "One of the most famous Chinese dragons is Ying Long (\"responding dragon\"), who helped the Huangdi, the Yellow Emperor, defeat the tyrant Chiyou.", "The dragon Zhulong (\"torch dragon\") is a god \"who composed the universe with his body.\"", "In the ''Shanhaijing'', many mythic heroes are said to have been conceived after their mothers copulated with divine dragons, including Huangdi, Shennong, Emperor Yao, and Emperor Shun.", "The god Zhurong and the emperor Qi are both described as being carried by two dragons, as are Huangdi, Zhuanxu, Yuqiang, and Roshou in various other texts.", "According to the ''Huainanzi'', an evil black dragon once caused a destructive deluge, which was ended by the mother goddess Nüwa by slaying the dragon.Hongwu Emperor with dragon emblem on his chest.", "c. 1377A large number of ethnic myths about dragons are told throughout China.", "The ''Houhanshu'', compiled in the fifth century BC by Fan Ye, reports a story belonging to the Ailaoyi people, which holds that a woman named Shayi who lived in the region around Mount Lao became pregnant with ten sons after being touched by a tree trunk floating in the water while fishing.", "She gave birth to the sons and the tree trunk turned into a dragon, who asked to see his sons.", "The woman showed them to him, but all of them ran away except for the youngest, who the dragon licked on the back and named Jiu Long, meaning \"sitting back\".", "The sons later elected him king and the descendants of the ten sons became the Ailaoyi people, who tattooed dragons on their backs in honor of their ancestor.", "The Miao people of southwest China have a story that a divine dragon created the first humans by breathing on monkeys that came to play in his cave.", "The Han people have many stories about Short-Tailed Old Li, a black dragon who was born to a poor family in Shandong.", "When his mother saw him for the first time, she fainted and, when his father came home from the field and saw him, he hit him with a spade and cut off part of his tail.", "Li burst through the ceiling and flew away to the Black Dragon River in northeast China, where he became the god of that river.", "On the anniversary of his mother's death on the Chinese lunar calendar, Old Li returns home, causing it to rain.", "He is still worshipped as a rain god.Diagram representing the Four Dragon Kings of the Four Seas in relation to the central Dragon King of the EarthIn China, a dragon is thought to have power over rain.", "Dragons and their associations with rain are the source of the Chinese customs of dragon dancing and dragon boat racing.", "Dragons are closely associated with rain and drought is thought to be caused by a dragon's laziness.", "Prayers invoking dragons to bring rain are common in Chinese texts.", "The ''Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals'', attributed to the Han dynasty scholar Dong Zhongshu, prescribes making clay figurines of dragons during a time of drought and having young men and boys pace and dance among the figurines in order to encourage the dragons to bring rain.", "Texts from the Qing dynasty advise hurling the bone of a tiger or dirty objects into the pool where the dragon lives; since dragons cannot stand tigers or dirt, the dragon of the pool will cause heavy rain to drive the object out.", "Rainmaking rituals invoking dragons are still very common in many Chinese villages, where each village has its own god said to bring rain and many of these gods are dragons.", "The Chinese dragon kings are thought of as the inspiration for the Hindu myth of the naga.", "According to these stories, every body of water is ruled by a dragon king, each with a different power, rank, and ability, so people began establishing temples across the countryside dedicated to these figures.Head of a dragon from a Chinese dragon dance performed in Helsinki in the year 2000.Many traditional Chinese customs revolve around dragons.", "During various holidays, including the Spring Festival and Lantern Festival, villagers will construct an approximately sixteen-foot-long dragon from grass, cloth, bamboo strips, and paper, which they will parade through the city as part of a dragon dance.", "The original purpose of this ritual was to bring good weather and a strong harvest, but now it is done mostly only for entertainment.", "During the Duanwu festival, several villages, or even a whole province, will hold a dragon boat race, in which people race across a body of water in boats carved to look like dragons, while a large audience watches on the banks.", "The custom is traditionally said to have originated after the poet Qu Yuan committed suicide by drowning himself in the Miluo River and people raced out in boats hoping to save him.", "But most historians agree that the custom actually originated much earlier as a ritual to avert ill fortune.", "Starting during the Han dynasty and continuing until the Qing dynasty, the Chinese emperor gradually became closely identified with dragons, and emperors themselves claimed to be the incarnations of a divine dragon.", "Eventually, dragons were only allowed to appear on clothing, houses, and articles of everyday use belonging to the emperor and any commoner who possessed everyday items bearing the image of the dragon was ordered to be executed.", "After the last Chinese emperor was overthrown in 1911, this situation changed and now many ordinary Chinese people identify themselves as descendants of dragons.The impression of dragons in a large number of Asian countries has been influenced by Chinese culture, such as Korea, Vietnam, Japan, and so on.", "Chinese tradition has always used the dragon totem as the national emblem, and the \"Yellow Dragon flag\" of the Qing dynasty has influenced the impression that China is a dragon in many European countries.File:Changshadragon.jpg|Silk painting depicting a man riding a dragon, dated to 5th–3rd centuries BCFile:Si shen yun qi Painting form Liu Fa tomb.jpg|Azure Dragon of the East, lacquer painting found in Prince of Lianggong of Han Tomb, Western Han DynastyFile:Attributed to Li Zhaodao Dragon-boat Race.", "Palace Museum, Beijing.jpg|Tang dynasty painting of a dragon boat race attributed to Li ZhaodaoFile:Flag of China (1889–1912).svg|Flag of the Qing dynasty from 1889 to 1912, showing a Chinese dragonFile:Dragon on Longshan Temple.JPG|Dragon sculpture on top of Lungshan Temple, Taipei, TaiwanFile:Dança do dragão.jpg|Members of the Chinese Youth Society of Melbourne performing for Chinese New Year, at Crown Casino, demonstrate a basic \"corkscrew\" routine====Korea====The Blue Dragon mural depiction at the Goguryeo tombs.The Korean dragon is in many ways similar in appearance to other East Asian dragons such as the Chinese and Japanese dragons.", "It differs from the Chinese dragon in that it developed a longer beard.", "Very occasionally, a dragon may be depicted as carrying an orb known as the Yeouiju (여의주), the Korean name for the mythical Cintamani, in its claws or its mouth.", "It was said that whoever could wield the Yeouiju was blessed with the abilities of omnipotence and creation at will, and that only four-toed dragons (who had thumbs with which to hold the orbs) were both wise and powerful enough to wield these orbs, as opposed to the lesser, three-toed dragons.", "As with China, the number nine is significant and auspicious in Korea, and dragons were said to have 81 (9×9) scales on their backs, representing yang essence.", "Dragons in Korean mythology are primarily benevolent beings related to water and agriculture, often considered bringers of rain and clouds.", "Hence, many Korean dragons are said to have resided in rivers, lakes, oceans, or even deep mountain ponds.", "And human journeys to undersea realms, and especially the undersea palace of the Dragon King (용왕), are common in Korean folklore.In Korean myths, some kings who founded kingdoms were described as descendants of dragons because the dragon was a symbol of the monarch.", "Lady Aryeong, who was the first queen of Silla, is said to have been born from a cockatrice, while the grandmother of Taejo of Goryeo, founder of Goryeo, was reportedly the daughter of the dragon king of the West Sea.", "And King Munmu of Silla who, on his deathbed, wished to become a dragon of the East Sea in order to protect the kingdom.", "Dragon patterns were used exclusively by the royal family.", "The royal robe was also called the dragon robe (용포).", "In the Joseon dynasty, the royal insignia, featuring embroidered dragons, were attached to the robe's shoulders, the chest, and back.", "The King wore five-taloned dragon insignia while the Crown Prince wore four-taloned dragon insignia.Korean folk mythology states that most dragons were originally Imugis (이무기), or lesser dragons, which were said to resemble gigantic serpents.", "There are a few different versions of Korean folklore that describe both what imugis are and how they aspire to become full-fledged dragons.", "Koreans thought that an Imugi could become a true dragon, ''yong'' or ''mireu'', if it caught a Yeouiju which had fallen from heaven.", "Another explanation states they are hornless creatures resembling dragons who have been cursed and thus were unable to become dragons.", "By other accounts, an Imugi is a ''proto-dragon'' which must survive one thousand years in order to become a fully-fledged dragon.", "In either case, they are said to be large, benevolent, python-like creatures that live in water or caves, and their sighting is associated with good luck.====Japan====Painting of a Japanese dragon by Hokusai ( 1730 – 1849)Japanese dragon myths amalgamate native legends with imported stories about dragons from China.", "Like some other dragons, most Japanese dragons are water deities associated with rainfall and bodies of water, and are typically depicted as large, wingless, serpentine creatures with clawed feet.", "Gould writes (1896:248), the Japanese dragon is \"invariably figured as possessing three claws\".", "A story about the ''samurai'' Minamoto no Mitsunaka tells that, while he was hunting in his own territory of Settsu, he dreamt under a tree and had a dream in which a beautiful woman appeared to him and begged him to save her land from a giant serpent which was defiling it.", "Mitsunaka agreed to help and the maiden gave him a magnificent horse.", "When he woke up, the seahorse was standing before him.", "He rode it to the Sumiyoshi temple, where he prayed for eight days.", "Then he confronted the serpent and slew it with an arrow.It was believed that dragons could be appeased or exorcised with metal.", "Nitta Yoshisada is said to have hurled a famous sword into the sea at Sagami to appease the dragon-god of the sea and Ki no Tsurayuki threw a metal mirror into the sea at Sumiyoshi for the same purpose.", "Japanese Buddhism has also adapted dragons by subjecting them to Buddhist law; the Japanese Buddhist deities Benten and Kwannon are often shown sitting or standing on the back of a dragon.", "Several Japanese ''sennin'' (\"immortals\") have taken dragons as their mounts.", "Bômô is said to have hurled his staff into a puddle of water, causing a dragon to come forth and let him ride it to heaven.", "The ''rakan'' Handaka is said to have been able to conjure a dragon out of a bowl, which he is often shown playing with on ''kagamibuta''.", "The ''shachihoko'' is a creature with the head of a dragon, a bushy tail, fishlike scales, and sometimes with fire emerging from its armpits.", "The ''fun'' has the head of a dragon, feathered wings, and the tail and claws of a bird.", "A white dragon was believed to reside in a pool in Yamashiro Province and, every fifty years, it would turn into a bird called the Ogonchô, which had a call like the \"howling of a wild dog\".", "This event was believed to herald terrible famine.", "In the Japanese village of Okumura, near Edo, during times of drought, the villagers would make a dragon effigy out of straw, magnolia leaves, and bamboo and parade it through the village to attract rainfall.===South Asia=======India====Head of the dragon-god Pakhangba depicted on a musical instrument from Manipur, IndiaIn the ''Rigveda'', the oldest of the four Vedas, Indra, the Vedic god of storms, battles Vṛtra, a giant serpent who represents drought.", "Indra kills Vṛtra using his ''vajra'' (thunderbolt) and clears the path for rain, which is described in the form of cattle: \"You won the cows, hero, you won the Soma,/You freed the seven streams to flow\" (''Rigveda'' 1.32.12).", "In another Rigvedic legend, the three-headed serpent Viśvarūpa, the son of Tvaṣṭṛ, guards a wealth of cows and horses.", "Indra delivers Viśvarūpa to a god named Trita Āptya, who fights and kills him and sets his cattle free.", "Indra cuts off Viśvarūpa's heads and drives the cattle home for Trita.", "This same story is alluded to in the Younger Avesta, in which the hero Thraētaona, the son of Āthbya, slays the three-headed dragon Aži Dahāka and takes his two beautiful wives as spoils.", "Thraētaona's name (meaning \"third grandson of the waters\") indicates that Aži Dahāka, like Vṛtra, was seen as a blocker of waters and cause of drought.====Bhutan====The Druk (), also known as 'Thunder Dragon', is one of the national symbols of Bhutan.", "In the Dzongkha language, Bhutan is known as ''Druk Yul'' \"Land of Druk\", and Bhutanese leaders are called Druk Gyalpo, \"Thunder Dragon Kings\".", "The druk was adopted as an emblem by the Drukpa Lineage, which originated in Tibet and later spread to Bhutan.===Southeast Asia=======Vietnam====Stylised map of Đại Nam (Minh Mạng period)Dragon on a porcelain plate during the reign of Lord Trịnh Doanh, Revival Lê dynastyThe Vietnamese dragon ( 龍) was a mythical creature that was often used as a deity symbol and was associated with royalty.", "Similar to other cultures, dragons in Vietnamese culture represent yang and godly beings associated with creation and life.", "In the creation myth of the Vietnamese people, they are descended from the dragon lord Lạc Long Quân and the fairy Âu Cơ, who bore 100 eggs.", "When they separated, Lạc Long Quân brought 50 children to the sea while Âu Cơ brought the rest up the mountains.", "To this day, Vietnamese people often describe themselves as \"Children of the dragon, grandchildren of the fairy\" (''Con rồng cháu tiên'').File:Rồng trên cổ vật Dragon on antiquities5 (6915076816).jpg|Dragons on antiques from the Lý– Trần dynastiesFile:Rồng trên cổ vật Dragon on antiquities13 (7061149771).jpg|Dragons on antiques from the Lê–Nguyễn dynastiesFile:Rồng thời Nguyễn, Tử cấm thành, Huế.jpg|Nguyễn dynasty dragon, Imperial City of Huế" ], [ "European stories/records", "===Proto-Indo-European===The tale of a hero slaying a giant serpent occurs in almost all Indo-European mythology.", "In most stories, the hero is some kind of thunder-god.", "In nearly every iteration of the story, the serpent is either multi-headed or \"multiple\" in some other way.", "Furthermore, in nearly every story, the serpent is always somehow associated with water.", "Bruce Lincoln has proposed that a Proto-Indo-European dragon-slaying myth can be reconstructed as follows: First, the sky gods give cattle to a man named ''*Tritos'' (\"the third\"), who is so named because he is the third man on earth, but a three-headed serpent named *'''' steals them.", "''*Tritos'' pursues the serpent and is accompanied by ''*Hanér'', whose name means \"man\".", "Together, the two heroes slay the serpent and rescue the cattle.===Ancient Greek===Greek red-figure vase painting depicting Heracles slaying the Lernaean Hydra, 375–340 BCZeus aiming his thunderbolt at a winged and snake-footed Typhon.", "Chalcidian black-figured hydria (c. 540–530 BC), Staatliche Antikensammlungen (Inv.", "596).The ancient Greek word usually translated as \"dragon\" (δράκων ''drákōn'', genitive δράκοντοϛ ''drákontos'') could also mean \"snake\", but it usually refers to a kind of giant serpent that either possesses supernatural characteristics or is otherwise controlled by some supernatural power.", "The first mention of a \"dragon\" in ancient Greek literature occurs in the ''Iliad'', in which Agamemnon is described as having a blue dragon motif on his sword belt and an emblem of a three-headed dragon on his breast plate.", "In lines 820–880 of the ''Theogony'', a Greek poem written in the seventh century BC by the Boeotian poet Hesiod, the Greek god Zeus battles the monster Typhon, who has one hundred serpent heads that breathe fire and make many frightening animal noises.", "Zeus scorches all of Typhon's heads with his lightning bolts and then hurls Typhon into Tartarus.", "In other Greek sources, Typhon is often depicted as a winged, fire-breathing serpent-like dragon.", "In the ''Homeric Hymn to Apollo'', the god Apollo uses his poisoned arrows to slay the serpent Python, who has been causing death and pestilence in the area around Delphi.", "Apollo then sets up his shrine there.The Roman poet Virgil in his poem ''Culex'', lines 163–201 Appendix Vergiliana: Culex, describing a shepherd having a fight with a big constricting snake, calls it \"serpens\" and also \"draco\", showing that in his time the two words were probably interchangeable.Colchian dragon disgorges the hero JasonHesiod also mentions that the hero Heracles slew the Lernaean Hydra, a multiple-headed serpent which dwelt in the swamps of Lerna.", "The name \"Hydra\" means \"water snake\" in Greek.", "According to the ''Bibliotheka'' of Pseudo-Apollodorus, the slaying of the Hydra was the second of the Twelve Labors of Heracles.", "Accounts disagree on which weapon Heracles used to slay the Hydra, but, by the end of the sixth century BC, it was agreed that the clubbed or severed heads needed to be cauterized to prevent them from growing back.", "Heracles was aided in this task by his nephew Iolaus.", "During the battle, a giant crab crawled out of the marsh and pinched Heracles's foot, but he crushed it under his heel.", "Hera placed the crab in the sky as the constellation Cancer.", "One of the Hydra's heads was immortal, so Heracles buried it under a heavy rock after cutting it off.", "For his Eleventh Labor, Heracles must procure a golden apple from the tree in the Garden of the Hesperides, which is guarded by an enormous serpent that never sleeps, which Pseudo-Apollodorus calls \"Ladon\".", "In earlier depictions, Ladon is often shown with many heads.", "In Pseudo-Apollodorus's account, Ladon is immortal, but Sophocles and Euripides both describe Heracles as killing him, although neither of them specifies how.", "Some suggest that the golden apple was not claimed through battle with Ladon at all but through Heracles charming the Hesperides.", "The mythographer Herodorus is the first to state that Heracles slew him using his famous club.", "Apollonius of Rhodes, in his epic poem, the ''Argonautica'', describes Ladon as having been shot full of poisoned arrows dipped in the blood of the Hydra.In Pindar's ''Fourth Pythian Ode'', Aeëtes of Colchis tells the hero Jason that the Golden Fleece he is seeking is in a copse guarded by a dragon, \"which surpassed in breadth and length a fifty-oared ship\".", "Jason slays the dragon and makes off with the Golden Fleece together with his co-conspirator, Aeëtes's daughter, Medea.", "The earliest artistic representation of this story is an Attic red-figure ''kylix'' dated to 480–470 BC, showing a bedraggled Jason being disgorged from the dragon's open mouth as the Golden Fleece hangs in a tree behind him and Athena, the goddess of wisdom, stands watching.", "A fragment from Pherecydes of Athens states that Jason killed the dragon, but fragments from the ''Naupactica'' and from Herodorus state that he merely stole the Fleece and escaped.", "In Euripides's ''Medea'', Medea boasts that she killed the Colchian dragon herself.", "In the final scene of the play, Medea also flies away on a chariot pulled by two dragons.", "In the most famous retelling of the story from Apollonius of Rhodes's ''Argonautica'', Medea drugs the dragon to sleep, allowing Jason to steal the Fleece.", "Greek vase paintings show her feeding the dragon the sleeping drug in a liquid form from a ''phialē'', or shallow cup.Paestan red-figure kylix-krater ( 350–340 BC) showing Cadmus fighting the dragon of AresIn the founding myth of Thebes, Cadmus, a Phoenician prince, was instructed by Apollo to follow a heifer and found a city wherever it laid down.", "Cadmus and his men followed the heifer and, when it laid down, Cadmus ordered his men to find a spring so he could sacrifice the heifer to Athena.", "His men found a spring, but it was guarded by a dragon, which had been placed there by the god Ares, and the dragon killed them.", "Cadmus killed the dragon in revenge, either by smashing its head with a rock or using his sword.", "Following the advice of Athena, Cadmus tore out the dragon's teeth and planted them in the earth.", "An army of giant warriors (known as ''spartoi'', which means \"sown men\") grew from the teeth like plants.", "Cadmus hurled stones into their midst, causing them to kill each other until only five were left.", "To make restitution for having killed Ares's dragon, Cadmus was forced to serve Ares as a slave for eight years.", "At the end of this period, Cadmus married Harmonia, the daughter of Ares and Aphrodite.", "Cadmus and Harmonia moved to Illyria, where they ruled as king and queen, before eventually being transformed into dragons themselves.In the fifth century BC, the Greek historian Herodotus reported in Book IV of his ''Histories'' that western Libya was inhabited by monstrous serpents and, in Book III, he states that Arabia was home to many small, winged serpents, which came in a variety of colors and enjoyed the trees that produced frankincense.", "Herodotus remarks that the serpent's wings were like those of bats and that, unlike vipers, which are found in every land, winged serpents are only found in Arabia.", "The second-century BC Greek astronomer Hipparchus ( 190 BC –  120 BC) listed the constellation Draco (\"the dragon\") as one of forty-six constellations.", "Hipparchus described the constellation as containing fifteen stars, but the later astronomer Ptolemy ( 100 –  170 AD) increased this number to thirty-one in his ''Almagest''.Caulonia, Italy, depicting a ''cetus'' or sea-dragonIn the New Testament, Revelation 12:3, written by John of Patmos, describes a vision of a Great Red Dragon with seven heads, ten horns, seven crowns, and a massive tail, an image which is clearly inspired by the vision of the four beasts from the sea in the Book of Daniel and the Leviathan described in various Old Testament passages.", "The Great Red Dragon knocks \"a third of the sun ... a third of the moon, and a third of the stars\" out the sky and pursues the Woman of the Apocalypse.", "Revelation 12:7–9 declares: \"And war broke out in Heaven.", "Michael and his angels fought against Dragon.", "Dragon and his angels fought back, but they were defeated, and there was no longer any place for them in Heaven.", "Dragon the Great was thrown down, that ancient serpent who is called Devil and Satan, the one deceiving the whole inhabited World – he was thrown down to earth and his angels were thrown down with him.\"", "Then a voice booms down from Heaven heralding the defeat of \"the Accuser\" (''ho Kantegor'').In , Flavius Philostratus discussed dragons (δράκων, drákōn) in India in ''The Life of Apollonius of Tyana'' (II,17 and III,6–8).", "The Loeb Classical Library translation (by F.C.", "Conybeare) mentions (III,7) that, \"In most respects the tusks resemble the largest swine's, but they are slighter in build and twisted, and have a point as unabraded as sharks' teeth.\"", "According to a collection of books by Claudius Aelianus called ''On Animals'', Ethiopia was inhabited by a species of dragon that hunted elephants and could grow to a length of 180 feet (55 m) with a lifespan rivaling that of the most enduring of animals.", "In the 4th century, Basil of Caesarea, on chapter IX of his Address to Young Men on Greek Literature, mentions mythological dragons as guarding treasures and riches.===Post-classical Germanic===Drawing of the Ramsund carving from 1030, illustrating the ''Völsunga saga'' on a rock in Sweden.", "At (5), Sigurd plunges his sword into Fafnir's underside.In the Old Norse poem ''Grímnismál'' in the ''Poetic Edda'', the dragon Níðhöggr is described as gnawing on the roots of Yggdrasil, the world tree.", "In Norse mythology, Jörmungandr is a giant serpent that encircles the entire realm of Miðgarð in the sea around it.", "According to the ''Gylfaginning'' from the ''Prose Edda'', written by the thirteenth-century Icelandic mythographer Snorri Sturluson, Thor, the Norse god of thunder, once went out on a boat with the giant Hymnir to the outer sea and fished for Jörmungandr using an ox-head as bait.", "Thor caught the serpent and, after pulling its head out of the water, smashed it with his hammer, Mjölnir.", "Snorri states that the blow was not fatal: \"and men say that he struck its head off on the sea bed.", "But I think the truth to tell you is that the Miðgarð Serpent still lives and lies in the surrounding sea.", "\"Towards the end of the Old English epic poem ''Beowulf'', a slave steals a cup from the hoard of a sleeping dragon, causing the dragon to wake up and go on a rampage of destruction across the countryside.", "The eponymous hero of the poem insists on confronting the dragon alone, even though he is of advanced age, but Wiglaf, the youngest of the twelve warriors Beowulf has brought with him, insists on accompanying his king into the battle.", "Beowulf's sword shatters during the fight and he is mortally wounded, but Wiglaf comes to his rescue and helps him slay the dragon.", "Beowulf dies and tells Wiglaf that the dragon's treasure must be buried rather than shared with the cowardly warriors who did not come to the aid of their king.In the Old Norse ''Völsunga saga'', the hero Sigurd catches the dragon Fafnir by digging a pit between the cave where he lives and the spring where he drinks his water and kills him by stabbing him in the underside.", "At the advice of Odin, Sigurd drains Fafnir's blood and drinks it, which gives him the ability to understand the language of the birds, who he hears talking about how his mentor Regin is plotting to betray him so that he can keep all of Fafnir's treasure for himself.", "The motif of a hero trying to sneak past a sleeping dragon and steal some of its treasure is common throughout many Old Norse sagas.", "The fourteenth-century ''Flóres saga konungs ok sona hans'' describes a hero who is actively concerned not to wake a sleeping dragon while sneaking past it.", "In the ''Yngvars saga víðförla'', the protagonist attempts to steal treasure from several sleeping dragons, but accidentally wakes them up.===Post-classical Western===Red and White Dragons from Geoffrey of Monmouth's ''History of the Kings of Britain''The modern, western image of a dragon developed in western Europe during the Middle Ages through the combination of the snakelike dragons of classical Graeco-Roman literature, references to Near Eastern dragons preserved in the Bible, and western European folk traditions.", "The period between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries represents the height of European interest in dragons as living creatures.", "The twelfth-century Welsh monk, Geoffrey of Monmouth, recounts a famous legend in his ''Historia Regum Britanniae'' in which the child prophet Merlin witnesses the Romano-Celtic warlord Vortigern attempt to build a tower on Mount Snowdon to keep safe from the Anglo-Saxons, but the tower keeps being swallowed into the ground.", "Merlin informs Vortigern that, underneath the foundation he has built, is a pool with two dragons sleeping in it.", "Vortigern orders for the pool to be drained, exposing a red dragon and a white dragon, who immediately begin fighting.", "Merlin delivers a prophecy that the white dragon will triumph over the red, symbolizing England's conquest of Wales, but declares that the red dragon will eventually return and defeat the white one.", "This story remained popular throughout the fifteenth century.", "''MS Harley 3244'', a medieval manuscript dated to around 1260 AD, contains the oldest recognizable image of a fully modern, western dragonThe oldest recognizable image of a fully modern, western dragon appears in a hand-painted illustration from the medieval manuscript ''MS Harley 3244'', which was produced in around 1260 AD.", "The dragon in the illustration has two sets of wings and its tail is longer than most modern depictions of dragons, but it clearly displays many of the same distinctive features.", "Dragons are generally depicted as living in rivers or having an underground lair or cave.", "They are envisioned as greedy and gluttonous, with voracious appetites.", "They are often identified with Satan, due to the references to Satan as a \"dragon\" in the Book of Revelation.", "The thirteenth-century ''Golden Legend'', written in Latin, records the story of Saint Margaret of Antioch, a virgin martyr who, after being tortured for her faith in the Diocletianic Persecution and thrown back into her cell, is said to have been confronted by a monstrous dragon, but she made the sign of the cross and the dragon vanished.", "In some versions of the story, she is actually swallowed by the dragon alive and, after making the sign of the cross in the dragon's stomach, emerges unharmed.Manuscript illustration from Verona of Saint George slaying the dragon, dating to 1270The legend of Saint George and the Dragon may be referenced as early as the sixth century AD, but the earliest artistic representations of it come from the eleventh century and the first full account of it comes from an eleventh-century Georgian text.", "The most famous version of the story from the ''Golden Legend'' holds that a dragon kept pillaging the sheep of the town of Silene in Libya.", "After it ate a young shepherd, the people were forced to placate it by leaving two sheep as sacrificial offerings every morning beside the lake where the dragon lived.", "Eventually, the dragon ate all of the sheep and the people were forced to start offering it their own children.", "One day, the king's own daughter came up in the lottery and, despite the king's pleas for her life, she was dressed as a bride and chained to a rock beside the lake to be eaten.", "Then, Saint George arrived and saw the princess.", "When the dragon arrived to eat her, he stabbed it with his lance and subdued it by making the sign of the cross and tying the princess's girdle around its neck.", "Saint George and the princess led the now-docile dragon into the town and George promised to kill it if the townspeople would convert to Christianity.", "All the townspeople converted and Saint George killed the dragon with his sword.", "In some versions, Saint George marries the princess, but, in others, he continues wandering.Dragon in a granite Relief (14th century).", "San Anton Museum (A Coruña, Galicia (Spain)).", "Dragons are well known in myths and legends of Spain, in no small part because St. George (Catalan Sant Jordi) is the patron saint of Catalonia.", "Like most mythical reptiles, the Catalan dragon (Catalan drac) is an enormous serpent-like creature with four legs and a pair of wings, or rarely, a two-legged creature with a pair of wings, called a wyvern.", "As in many other parts of the world, the dragon's face may be like that of some other animal, such as a lion or a bull.", "As is common elsewhere, Catalan dragons are fire-breathers, and the dragon-fire is all-consuming.", "Catalan dragons also can emit a fetid odor, which can rot away anything it touches.Gargoyles are carved stone figures sometimes resembling dragons that originally served as waterspouts on buildings.", "Precursors to the medieval gargoyle can be found on ancient Greek and Egyptian temples, but, over the course of the Middle Ages, many fantastic stories were invented to explain them.", "One medieval French legend holds that, in ancient times, a fearsome dragon known as ''La Gargouille'' had been causing floods and sinking ships on the river Seine, so the people of the town of Rouen would offer the dragon a human sacrifice once each year to appease its hunger.", "Then, around 600 AD, a priest named Romanus promised that, if the people would build a church, he would rid them of the dragon.", "Romanus slew the dragon and its severed head was mounted on the walls of the city as the first gargoyle.Dragons are prominent in medieval heraldry.", "Uther Pendragon was famously said to have had two gold dragons crowned with red standing back-to-back on his royal coat of arms.", "Originally, heraldic dragons could have any number of legs, but, by the late Middle Ages, due to the widespread proliferation of bestiaries, heraldry began to distinguish between a \"dragon\" (which could only have exactly four legs) and a \"wyvern\" (which could only have exactly two).", "In myths, wyverns are associated with viciousness, envy, and pestilence, but, in heraldry, they are used as symbols for overthrowing the tyranny of Satan and his demonic forces.", "Late medieval heraldry also distinguished a draconic creature known as a \"cockatrice\".", "A cockatrice is supposedly born when a serpent hatches an egg that has been laid on a dunghill by a rooster and it is so venomous that its breath and its gaze are both lethal to any living creature, except for a weasel, which is the cockatrice's mortal enemy.", "A basilisk is a serpent with the head of a dragon at the end of its tail that is born when a toad hatches an egg that has been laid in a midden by a nine-year-old cockatrice.", "Like the cockatrice, its glare is said to be deadly.===Post-classical Eastern===Zmey Gorynych, a three-headed dragon from Russian folklore.Illustration of the Wawel Dragon from Sebastian Münster's ''Cosmographie Universalis'' (1544).In Albanian mythology and folklore, ''stihi'', ''ljubi'', ''bolla, bollar, errshaja, and kulshedra'' are mythological figures described as serpentine dragons.", "It is believed that ''bolla'', a water and chthonic demonic serpent, undergoes metamorphosis passing through four distinct phases if it lives many years without being seen by a human.", "The ''bollar'' and ''errshaja'' are the intermediate stages, while the ''kulshedra'' is the ultimate phase, described as a huge multi-headed fire-spitting female serpent which causes drought, storms, flooding, earthquakes, and other natural disasters against mankind.", "She is usually fought and defeated by a drangue, a semi-human winged divine hero and protector of humans.", "Heavy thunderstorms are thought to be the result of their battles.In Slavic mythology, the words ''\"zmey\"'', ''\"zmiy\",'' or ''\"zmaj\"'' are used to describe dragons.", "These words are masculine forms of the Slavic word for \"snake\", which are normally feminine (like Russian ''zmeya'').", "In Romania, there is a similar figure, derived from the Slavic dragon and named ''zmeu''.", "Exclusively in Polish and Belarusian folklore, as well as in the other Slavic folklores, a dragon is also called (variously) ''смок'', ''цмок'', or ''smok''.", "In South Slavic folklores, the same thing is also called ''lamya'' (ламя, ламjа, lamja).", "Although quite similar to other European dragons, Slavic dragons have their peculiarities.In Russian and Ukrainian folklore, Zmey Gorynych is a dragon with three heads, each one bearing twin goatlike horns.", "He is said to have breathed fire and smelled of sulfur.", "It was believed that eclipses were caused by Gorynych temporarily swallowing the sun.", "According to one legend, Gorynych's uncle was the evil sorcerer Nemal Chelovek, who abducted the daughter of the tsar and imprisoned her in his castle in the Ural Mountains.", "Many knights tried to free her, but all of them were killed by Gorynych's fire.", "Then a palace guard in Moscow named Ivan Tsarevich overheard two crows talking about the princess.", "He went to the tsar, who gave him a magic sword, and snuck into the castle.", "When Chelovek attacked Ivan in the form of a giant, the sword flew from Ivan's hand unbidden and killed him.", "Then the sword cut off all three of Gorynych's heads at once.", "Ivan brought the princess back to the tsar, who declared Ivan a nobleman and allowed him to marry the princess.A popular Polish folk tale is the legend of the Wawel Dragon, which is first recorded in the ''Chronica Polonorum'' of Wincenty Kadłubek, written between 1190 and 1208.According to Kadłubek, the dragon appeared during the reign of King Krakus and demanded to be fed a fixed number of cattle every week.", "If the villagers failed to provide enough cattle, the dragon would eat the same number of villagers as the number of cattle they had failed to provide.", "Krakus ordered his sons to slay the dragon.", "Since they could not slay it by hand, they tricked the dragon into eating calfskins filled with burning sulfur.", "Once the dragon was dead, the younger brother attacked and murdered his older brother and returned home to claim all the glory for himself, telling his father that his brother had died fighting the dragon.", "The younger brother became king after his father died, but his secret was eventually revealed and he was banished.", "In the fifteenth century, Jan Długosz rewrote the story so that King Krakus himself was the one who slew the dragon.", "Another version of the story told by Marcin Bielski instead has the clever shoemaker Skuba come up with the idea for slaying the dragon.", "Bielski's version is now the most popular." ], [ "Modern depictions", "fan illustration by David Demaret of the dragon Smaug from J. R. R. Tolkien's 1937 high fantasy novel ''The Hobbit''Dragons and dragon motifs are featured in many works of modern literature, particularly within the fantasy genre.", "As early as the eighteenth century, critical thinkers such as Denis Diderot were already asserting that too much literature had been published on dragons: \"There are already in books all too many fabulous stories of dragons\".", "In Lewis Carroll's classic children's novel ''Through the Looking-Glass'' (1872), one of the inset poems describes the Jabberwock, a kind of dragon.", "Carroll's illustrator John Tenniel, a famous political cartoonist, humorously showed the Jabberwock with the waistcoat, buck teeth, and myopic eyes of a Victorian university lecturer, such as Carroll himself.", "In works of comedic children's fantasy, dragons often fulfill the role of a magic fairy tale helper.", "In such works, rather than being frightening as they are traditionally portrayed, dragons are instead represented as harmless, benevolent, and inferior to humans.", "They are sometimes shown living in contact with humans, or in isolated communities of only dragons.", "Though popular in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, \"such comic and idyllic stories\" began to grow increasingly rare after the 1960s, due to demand for more serious children's literature.One of the most iconic modern dragons is Smaug from J. R. R. Tolkien's classic novel, ''The Hobbit''.", "Dragons also appear in the best-selling ''Harry Potter'' series of children's novels by J. K. Rowling.", "Other prominent works depicting dragons include Anne McCaffrey's ''Dragonriders of Pern'', Ursula K. Le Guin's ''Earthsea Cycle'', George R. R. Martin's series ''A Song of Ice and Fire'', and Christopher Paolini's ''The Inheritance Cycle''.", "Sandra Martina Schwab writes, \"With a few exceptions, including McCaffrey's Pern novels and the 2002 film ''Reign of Fire'', dragons seem to fit more into the medievalized setting of fantasy literature than into the more technological world of science fiction.", "Indeed, they have been called the emblem of fantasy.", "The hero's fight against the dragon emphasizes and celebrates his masculinity, whereas revisionist fantasies of dragons and dragon-slaying often undermine traditional gender roles.", "In children's literature the friendly dragon becomes a powerful ally in battling the child's fears.\"", "The popular role-playing game system ''Dungeons & Dragons'' (D&D) makes heavy use of dragons.File:Jabberwocky.jpg|John Tenniel's illustration of the Jabberwock for Lewis Carroll's ''Through the Looking-Glass'', showing the dragon as a myopic professorFile:Gringotts Dragon (42428011465).jpg|Fire-breathing statue of the Ukrainian Ironbelly from ''Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2'' at Universal Studios FloridaFile:DnD Dragon.png|Representation of a dragon as it appears in the role-playing game ''Dungeons & Dragons''" ], [ "See also", "*Balaur*Basilisk*Bat (heraldry)*Behemoth*Cockatrice *Dragonology*Feilong (mythology)*Guivre*Horned Serpent*Ichneumon (medieval zoology)*Lambton Worm*Lernaean Hydra*Mokele-mbembe*Peluda*Partridge Creek monster*Scylla*Sea serpent*Snallygaster*Wyvern *''The Last Dragon'', fictional 2004 documentary*List of dragons in literature*List of dragons in mythology and folklore*List of dragons in popular culture" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* * Bates, Roy.", "''Chinese Dragons''.", "Oxford University Press, 2002..* * * * * * * * * * * * .", "* * * * * Garrett, Valery M. ''Chinese Dragon Robes''.", "Oxford University Press, 1999..* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Visser, Marinus Willem de; ''The Dragon in China and Japan'' , Amsterdam, J. Müller 1913.", "* * * * *" ], [ "External links", "***" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Depeche Mode" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Depeche Mode''' are an English electronic music band formed in Basildon, Essex in 1980.Originally formed by the lineup of Dave Gahan, Martin Gore, Andy Fletcher and Vince Clarke, the band currently consists of Gahan and Gore.With Clarke as their primary songwriter, Depeche Mode released their debut album ''Speak & Spell'' in 1981 amid the British new wave scene.", "Clarke left the band at the end of 1981, going on to form the groups Yazoo and later Erasure.", "The remaining trio recorded their second album, ''A Broken Frame'' (1982), with Martin Gore as chief songwriter.", "The band then recruited Alan Wilder, establishing a lineup that continued until 1995, beginning with the albums ''Construction Time Again'' (1983) and ''Some Great Reward'' (1984).", "The albums ''Black Celebration'' (1986) and ''Music for the Masses'' (1987) cemented them as a dominant force within the electronic and alternative music scenes, and their June 1988 concert at the Pasadena Rose Bowl drew a crowd in excess of 60,000 people.In early 1990, they released their seventh album, ''Violator'', an international mainstream success.", "The following album ''Songs of Faith and Devotion'' (1993) was also a success, though the band's internal struggles during recording and touring resulted in Wilder's departure in 1995.The band returned to the trio lineup of Gahan, Gore, and Fletcher, with the album ''Ultra'' being released in 1997.The band continued touring and recorded five more albums - ''Exciter'' (2001), ''Playing the Angel'' (2005), ''Sounds of the Universe'' (2009), ''Delta Machine'' (2013) and ''Spirit'' (2017) - as a trio until Fletcher's death in 2022, since which time Gahan and Gore have continued as a duo.", "Their latest album, ''Memento Mori'', was released in 2023.Depeche Mode have had 54 songs in the UK Singles Chart, 17 Top 10 albums in the UK chart, and have sold more than 100 million records worldwide.", "''Q'' included the band in its list of the \"50 Bands That Changed the World!\"", "Depeche Mode also rank No.", "98 on VH1's \"100 Greatest Artists of All Time\".", "In 2016, ''Billboard'' named Depeche Mode the 10th Greatest of All Time Top Dance Club Artists.", "They were nominated for induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2017 and 2018, eventually being inducted in 2020." ], [ "History", "===Formation (1977–1980)===Martin Gore in 1986Depeche Mode's origins date to 1977, when schoolmates Vince Clarke and Andy Fletcher formed a band called \"No Romance in China\" with Clarke on vocals and guitar and Fletcher on bass.", "Fletcher would later recall, \"Why am I in the band?", "It was accidental right from the beginning.", "I was actually forced to be in the band.", "I played the guitar and I had a bass; it was a question of them roping me in.\"", "In 1979, Clarke played guitar in an Ultravox-influenced band, The Plan, with friends Robert Marlow and Paul Langwith.", "In 1978–1979, Martin Gore played guitar in an acoustic duo, Norman and the Worms, with school friend Phil Burdett on vocals.", "In 1980, Clarke and Fletcher formed a band called Composition of Sound, with Clarke on vocals/guitar and Fletcher on bass; the pair were soon joined by Martin Gore as a third instrumentalist.", "Dave Gahan joined the ensemble later in 1980 after Clarke heard him perform at a local Scout hut jam session, singing a rendition of David Bowie's \"Heroes\".With the advent of affordable synthesizers and the increasing popularity of electronic music, the group began pursuing a synth-pop direction.", "The first live concert of Composition of Sound as a four-piece was on 14 June 1980 at Nicholas School, Basildon, England, UK.", "There is a plaque commemorating the gig at the James Hornsby School in Basildon, where Gore and Fletcher were pupils.", "Gahan's and Gore's favourite artists included Siouxsie and the Banshees, Sparks, Cabaret Voltaire, Talking Heads and Iggy Pop.", "Gahan's onstage persona was influenced by Dave Vanian, frontman of The Damned.", "Gahan has also later credited David Bowie, James Brown, Elvis Presley and Prince as influences on his performance style.Composition of Sound would become embarrassed about their band name and started thinking of changing it.", "There were several potential variants, including the name \"Musical Moments\" that was suggested by Vince Clarke as both a band name and the name of their first album.", "Starting at their concert on 24 September 1980 at Bridge House, the band changed their name to Depeche Mode, chosen by Dave Gahan.", "When explaining the choice for the new name, which was taken from a mistranslation of the name of French fashion magazine ''Dépêche Mode'', Gore said, \"It means 'hurried fashion' or 'fashion dispatch'.", "I like the sound of that.\"", "However, the more accurate translation of the magazine's name (and therefore the band's name) is \"Fashion News\" or \"Fashion Update\".===''Speak & Spell'' and Clarke's departure (1980–1981)===Depeche Mode in 1981The band made their recording debut in late 1980 for the ''Some Bizzare Album'' (released in 1981) with the song \"Photographic\", later re-recorded for their debut album ''Speak & Spell''.The band made a demo tape but, instead of mailing the tape to record labels, they would go in and personally deliver it.", "They would demand the labels play it; according to Dave Gahan, \"most of them would tell us to fuck off.", "They'd say 'leave the tape with us' and we'd say 'it's our only one'.", "Then we'd say goodbye and go somewhere else.", "\"According to Gahan, prior to securing their record contract, they were receiving offers from all the major labels.", "Phonogram offered them \"money you could never have imagined and all sorts of crazy things like clothes allowances\".While playing a live gig at the Bridge House in Canning Town, the band was approached by Daniel Miller, an electronic producer and founder of Mute Records, who was interested in their recording a single for his burgeoning label.", "The result of this verbal contract was their first single, \"Dreaming of Me\", recorded in December 1980 and released in February 1981.It reached number 57 in the UK charts.", "Encouraged by this, the band recorded their second single, \"New Life\", which climbed to number 11 in the UK charts and got them an appearance on ''Top of the Pops''.", "The band went to London by train, carrying their synthesisers all the way to the BBC studios.The band's next single was \"Just Can't Get Enough\".", "The synth-pop single became the band's first UK top ten hit.", "The video is the only one to feature Vince Clarke.", "Depeche Mode's debut album, ''Speak & Spell'', was released in October 1981 and peaked at number ten on the UK album charts.", "Critical reviews were mixed; ''Melody Maker'' described it as a \"great album … one they had to make to conquer fresh audiences and please the fans who just can't get enough\", while ''Rolling Stone'' was more critical, calling the album \"PG-rated fluff\".Clarke began to voice his discomfort at the direction the band was taking, saying \"there was never enough time to do anything.", "Not with all the interviews and photo sessions\".", "Clarke also said he was sick of touring, which Gahan said years later was \"bullshit to be quite honest\".", "Gahan went on to say he \"suddenly lost interest in it and he started getting letters from fans asking what kind of socks he wore.\"", "In November 1981, Clarke publicly announced that he was leaving Depeche Mode.Soon afterwards, Clarke joined up with blues singer Alison Moyet to form Yazoo (or Yaz in the United States).", "Initial talk of Clarke's continuing to write material for Depeche Mode ultimately amounted to nothing.", "According to third-party sources, Clarke offered the remaining members of Depeche Mode the track \"Only You\", but they declined.", "Clarke, however, denied in an interview that such an offer ever took place saying, \"I don't know where that came from.", "That's not true.\"", "The song went on to become a UK Top 3 hit for Yazoo.", "Gore, who had written \"Tora!", "Tora!", "Tora!\"", "and the instrumental \"Big Muff\" for ''Speak & Spell'', became the band's main composer and lyricist.===''A Broken Frame'' and Wilder joining (1981–1982)===Depeche Mode in 1982In late 1981, the band placed an anonymous ad in ''Melody Maker'' looking for another musician: \"Name band, synthesise, must be under twenty-one.\"", "Alan Wilder, a classically trained keyboardist from West London, responded and, after two auditions and despite being 22 years old, was hired in early 1982, initially on a trial basis as a touring member.", "Wilder would later be called the \"Musical Director\" of the band, responsible for the band's sound until his departure in 1995.As producer Flood would say, \"Alan is sort of the craftsman, Martin's the idea man and Dave is the attitude.", "\"In January 1982, the band released \"See You\", their first single without Clarke, which managed to beat all three Clarke-penned singles in the UK charts, reaching number six.", "The following tour saw the band playing their first shows in North America.", "Two more singles, \"The Meaning of Love\" and \"Leave in Silence\", were released ahead of the band's second studio album, on which they began work in July 1982.Daniel Miller informed Wilder that he wasn't needed for the recording of the album, as the core trio wanted to prove they could succeed without Vince Clarke.", "''A Broken Frame'' was released that September, and the following month the band began their 1982 tour.===''Construction Time Again'' (1983)===Depeche Mode in 1983A non-album single, \"Get the Balance Right!", "\", was released in January 1983, the first Depeche Mode track to be recorded with Wilder, now an official member of the band.", "For their third album, ''Construction Time Again'', Depeche Mode worked with producer Gareth Jones, at John Foxx's Garden Studios and at Hansa Studios in West Berlin (where much of David Bowie's seminal Berlin Trilogy featuring Brian Eno had been produced).", "The album saw a dramatic shift in the group's sound, due in part to Wilder's introduction of the Synclavier and E-mu Emulator samplers.", "By sampling the noises of everyday objects, the band created an eclectic, industrial-influenced sound, with similarities to groups such as the Art of Noise and Einstürzende Neubauten (the latter becoming Mute labelmates in 1983).", "\"Everything Counts\" rose to number six in the UK, also reaching the top 30 in Ireland, South Africa, Switzerland, Sweden and West Germany.", "Wilder contributed two songs to the album, \"The Landscape Is Changing\" and \"Two Minute Warning\".", "In September 1983, to promote ''Construction Time Again'', the band launched a European concert tour.===''Some Great Reward'' (1984)===Depeche Mode in 1984In their early years, Depeche Mode had really attained success only in Europe and Australia.", "This changed in March 1984, when they released the single \"People Are People\".", "The song became a hit, reaching No.", "2 in Ireland and Poland, No.", "4 in the UK and Switzerland, and No.", "1 in West Germany – the first time a DM single topped a country's singles chart – where it was used as the theme to West German TV's coverage of the 1984 Olympics.", "Beyond this European success, the song also reached No.", "13 on the US charts in mid-1985, the first appearance of a DM single on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100, and was a Top 20 hit in Canada.", "\"People Are People\" became an anthem for the LGBT community, regularly played at gay establishments and gay pride festivals in the late 1980s.", "Sire, the band's North American record label, released a compilation of the same name which included tracks from ''A Broken Frame'' and ''Construction Time Again'' as well as several B-sides.On the American tour, the band was, according to Gore, \"shocked by the way the fans were turning up in droves at the concerts\".", "He said that although the concerts were selling well, Depeche Mode struggled to sell records.In September 1984, ''Some Great Reward'' was released.", "''Melody Maker'' claimed that the album made one \"sit up and take notice of what is happening here, right under your nose.\"", "In contrast to the political and environmental subjects addressed on the previous album, the songs on ''Some Great Reward'' were mostly concerned with more personal themes such as sexual politics (\"Master and Servant\"), adulterous relationships (\"Lie to Me\"), and arbitrary divine justice (\"Blasphemous Rumours\").", "Also included was the first Martin Gore ballad, \"Somebody\"—such songs would become a feature of all following albums.", "\"Somebody\" was released as a double A-side with \"Blasphemous Rumours\", and was the first single with Gore on lead vocal.", "''Some Great Reward'' became the first Depeche Mode album to enter the US album charts, and made the Top 10 in several European countries.", "''The World We Live In and Live in Hamburg'' was the band's first video release, almost an entire concert from their 1984 Some Great Reward Tour.===''Black Celebration'' (1985–1986)===Depeche Mode in 1985In July 1985, the band played their first-ever concerts behind the Iron Curtain, in Budapest and Warsaw.", "In October 1985, Mute released a compilation, ''The Singles 81→85'' (''Catching Up with Depeche Mode'' in the US), which included the two new non-album hit singles \"Shake the Disease\" and \"It's Called a Heart\", with the US version also including their B-sides (\"Fly on the Windscreen\", the B-side of \"It's Called a Heart\", would also be included on the next studio album ''Black Celebration'').In the United States, the band's music appealed primarily to an alternative audience who were disenchanted with the predominance of \"soft rock and 'disco hell'\" on the radio.", "This view of the band was in sharp contrast to how the band was perceived in Europe, despite the increasingly dark and serious tone in their songs.", "In Germany, France, and other European countries, Depeche Mode were considered teen idols and regularly featured in European teen magazines, becoming one of the most famous synth-pop bands in the mid-'80s.Depeche Mode's musical style shifted slightly again in 1986 with the release of their fifteenth single, \"Stripped\", and its accompanying album ''Black Celebration''.", "Retaining their often imaginative sampling and beginning to move away from the \"industrial pop\" sound that had characterised their previous two LPs, the band introduced an ominous, highly atmospheric and textured sound.", "Gore's lyrics also took on a darker tone and became more pessimistic.The music video for \"A Question of Time\" was the first to be directed by Anton Corbijn, beginning a working relationship that continues to the present.", "Corbijn has directed 22 of the band's videos.", "He has also filmed some of their live performances and designed stage sets, as well as most covers for albums and singles starting from ''Violator''.===''Music for the Masses'' (1987–1989)===For 1987's ''Music for the Masses'', the band's sound and working methods continued to develop.", "It was the first time they worked with a producer not related to Mute Records.", "Dave Bascombe was called to assist with the recording sessions; although, according to Alan Wilder, Bascombe's role ended up being more that of engineer.", "In making the album, the band largely eschewed sampling in favour of synthesizer experimentation.", "While chart performance of the singles \"Strangelove\", \"Never Let Me Down Again\" and \"Behind the Wheel\" proved to be disappointing in the UK, they performed well in countries such as Canada, Brazil, West Germany, South Africa, Sweden and Switzerland, often reaching the top 10.", "''Record Mirror'' described ''Music for the Masses'' as \"the most accomplished and sexy Mode album to date\".", "The album also reached No.", "35 on the US ''Billboard'' 200 chart.The Music for the Masses Tour began 22 October 1987.On 7 March 1988, with no previous announcement that they would be the headlining act, Depeche Mode played in the Werner-Seelenbinder-Halle, East Berlin, becoming one of the few Western groups to perform in the Communist East Germany.", "They also performed concerts in Budapest and Prague in 1988, both Communist also at the time.The world tour ended on 18 June 1988 with a concert at the Pasadena Rose Bowl.", "Paid attendance of 60,453 was the highest in eight years for the venue.", "Its massive success marked a breakthrough for the band in the United States..", "The event was documented in ''101'', a concert film by D. A. Pennebaker and its accompanying soundtrack album.", "The film is notable for its portrayal of fan interaction.", "Alan Wilder came up with the title, noting that it was the 101st and final performance of the tour.", "On 7 September 1988, Depeche Mode performed \"Strangelove\" at the 1988 MTV Video Music Awards at the Universal Amphitheatre in Los Angeles.===''Violator'' (1989–1990)===In mid-1989, the band began recording in Milan with producer Flood and engineer François Kevorkian.", "The initial result of this session was the single \"Personal Jesus\".", "Prior to its release, a marketing campaign was launched with advertisements placed in the personals columns of UK regional newspapers with the words \"Your own personal Jesus.\"", "Later, the ads included a phone number one could dial to hear the song.", "The resulting furore helped propel the single to number 13 on the UK charts, becoming one of their biggest sellers to date.", "In the United States, it was their first gold single and their first Top 40 hit since \"People Are People\", eventually becoming the biggest-selling 12-inch single in Warner Records' history up to that point.Released in January 1990, \"Enjoy the Silence\" reached number six in the UK (the first Top 10 hit in that country since \"Master And Servant\").", "A few months later it reached number eight in the US and earned the band a second gold record, and it won Best British Single at the 1991 Brit Awards.", "To promote their new album, ''Violator'', the band held an in-store autograph signing at Wherehouse Entertainment in Los Angeles.", "The event attracted approximately 20,000 fans and turned into a near riot.", "Some attendees were injured while being pressed against the store's glass by the crowd.", "As an apology to those injured, the band released a limited edition cassette tape to fans in Los Angeles, distributed through radio station KROQ (the sponsor of the Wherehouse event).", "''Violator'' was the first Depeche Mode album to enter the Top 10 of the ''Billboard'' 200, reaching Number 7 and staying 74 weeks in the chart.", "It was certified triple platinum in America.", "Two more singles from the album—\"Policy of Truth\" and \"World in My Eyes\"—were hits in the UK, with the former also charting in the US.The World Violation Tour saw the band play several stadium shows in the US.", "42,000 tickets were sold within four hours for a show at Giants Stadium, and 48,000 tickets were sold within half-an-hour of going on sale for a show at Dodger Stadium.", "An estimated 1.2 million fans saw this tour worldwide.===''Songs of Faith and Devotion'' and Wilder's departure (1991–1995)===Alan Wilder in 2010In 1991, Depeche Mode contribution \"Death's Door\" was released on the soundtrack album for the film ''Until the End of the World''.", "Film director Wim Wenders had challenged musical artists to write music the way they imagined they would in the year 2000, the setting of the movie.The members of Depeche Mode regrouped in Madrid in January 1992.Gahan had become interested in the new grunge scene sweeping the US and was influenced by the likes of Jane's Addiction, Soundgarden, Alice in Chains and Nirvana.In 1993, ''Songs of Faith and Devotion'', again with Flood producing, saw them experimenting with arrangements based as much on heavily distorted electric guitars and live drums (played by Alan Wilder, whose debut as a studio drummer had come on the ''Violator'' track \"Clean\") as on synthesizers.", "Live strings, uilleann pipes and female gospel vocals were other new additions to the band's sound.", "The album debuted at number one in both the UK and the US, only the sixth British act to achieve such a distinction to date.", "The first single from the album was the grunge-influenced \"I Feel You\".", "The gospel influences are most noticeable on the album's third single, \"Condemnation\".", "Interviews given by the band during this period tended to be conducted separately, unlike earlier albums, where the band was interviewed as a group.The Devotional Tour followed, documented by a concert film of the same name.", "The film was directed by Anton Corbijn, and in 1995 earned the band their first Grammy nomination.", "The band's second live album, ''Songs of Faith and Devotion Live'', was released in December 1993.The tour continued into 1994 with the Exotic Tour, which began in February 1994 in South Africa, and ended in April in Mexico.", "The final leg of the tour, consisting of more North American dates, followed shortly thereafter and ran until July.", "As a whole, the Devotional Tour is to date the longest and most geographically diverse Depeche Mode tour, spanning fourteen months and 159 individual performances.", "''Q'' magazine described the 1993 Devotional Tour as \"The Most Debauched Rock 'n' Roll Tour Ever\".", "According to ''The Independent'', the \"smack-blasted\" Gahan \"required cortisone shots just to perform, borderline alcoholic Gore suffered two stress-induced seizures, and Andrew Fletcher's deepening depression resulted, in the summer of 1994, in a full nervous breakdown.\"", "After the band played at the McNichols Sports Arena in Denver, Colorado, local police arrested Gore and fined him $50 for disturbing the peace when he held a loud party in his hotel room.", "Fletcher declined to participate in the second half of the Exotic Tour due to mental instability; he was replaced on stage by Daryl Bamonte, who had worked with the band as a personal assistant since the beginning of their career in 1980.In June 1995, Alan Wilder announced that he was leaving Depeche Mode, explaining:He continued to work on his personal project Recoil, releasing a fourth album (''Unsound Methods'') in 1997.===''Ultra'' (1996–1998)===Despite Gahan's increasingly severe personal problems, Gore tried repeatedly during 1995 and 1996 to get the band recording again.", "However, Gahan would rarely turn up to scheduled sessions, and when he did, it would take weeks to get any vocals recorded; one six-week session at Electric Lady in New York produced just one usable vocal (for \"Sister of Night\"), and even that was pieced together from multiple takes.", "Gore was forced to contemplate breaking the band up and considered releasing the songs he had written as a solo album.", "In mid-1996, after his near-fatal overdose in which his heart stopped beating for two minutes, Gahan entered a court-ordered drug rehabilitation program to battle his addiction to cocaine and heroin.", "With Gahan out of rehab in 1996, Depeche Mode held recording sessions with producer Tim Simenon.Preceded by two singles, \"Barrel of a Gun\" and \"It's No Good\", the album ''Ultra'' was released in April 1997.The album debuted at No.", "1 in the UK as well as Germany, and No.", "5 in the US.", "The band did not tour in support of the album, with Fletcher quoted as saying: \"We're not fit enough.", "Dave's only eight months into his sobriety, and our bodies are telling us to spend time with our families.\"", "As part of the promotion for the release of the album, they did perform two short concerts in London and Los Angeles, promoted as \"Ultra Parties\".", "''Ultra'' spawned two further singles, \"Home\" and \"Useless\".A second singles compilation, ''The Singles 86>98'', was released in 1998, preceded by the new single \"Only When I Lose Myself\".", "In April 1998, Depeche Mode held a press conference at the Hyatt Hotel in Cologne to announce the Singles Tour.", "The tour was the first to feature two backing musicians in place of Wilder—Austrian drummer Christian Eigner and British keyboardist Peter Gordeno.===''Exciter'' (1999–2004)===In 2001, Depeche Mode released ''Exciter'', produced by Mark Bell (of techno group LFO).", "Bell introduced a minimalist, digital sound to much of the album, influenced by IDM and glitch.", "\"Dream On\", \"I Feel Loved\", \"Freelove\" and \"Goodnight Lovers\" were released as singles in 2001 and 2002.Critical response to the album was mixed, with reasonably positive reviews from some magazines (''NME'', ''Rolling Stone'' and ''LA Weekly''), while others (including ''Q'' magazine, ''PopMatters'' and ''Pitchfork'') derided it as sounding underproduced, dull and lacking in luster.In March 2001, Depeche Mode held a press conference at the Valentino Hotel in Hamburg to announce the Exciter Tour.", "The tour featured 84 performances for over 1.5 million fans in 24 countries.", "The concerts held in Paris at the Palais Omnisports de Paris-Bercy were filmed and later released in May 2002 as a live DVD entitled ''One Night in Paris''.In October 2002 the band won the first-ever ''Q'' magazine \"Innovation Award\".In 2003, Gahan released his first solo album, ''Paper Monsters'', and toured to promote the record.", "Also released in 2003 was Gore's second solo album ''Counterfeit²''.", "Fletcher founded his own record label, Toast Hawaii, specialising in promoting electronic music.A new remix compilation album, ''Remixes 81–04'', was released in 2004, featuring new and unreleased promo mixes of the band's singles from 1981 to 2004.A new version of \"Enjoy the Silence\", remixed by Mike Shinoda of Linkin Park, \"Enjoy the Silence 04\", was released as a single and reached No.", "7 on the UK charts.===''Playing the Angel'' (2005–2007)===Touring the Angel concert in Bremen, June 2006|300x300pxIn October 2005, the band released their 11th studio album ''Playing the Angel''.", "Produced by Ben Hillier, the album peaked at No.", "1 in 18 countries and featured the hit single \"Precious\".", "This is the first Depeche Mode album to feature lyrics written by Gahan and, consequently, the first album since 1984's ''Some Great Reward'' featuring songs not written by Gore.", "\"Suffer Well\" was the first ever post-Clarke Depeche Mode single not to be written by Gore (lyrics by Gahan, music by Philpott/Eigner).", "The final single from the album was \"John the Revelator\", an up-tempo electronic track with a running religious theme, accompanied by \"Lilian\", a lush track that was a hit in many clubs all over the world.To promote ''Playing the Angel'', the band launched Touring the Angel, a concert tour of Europe and North America that began in November 2005 and ran for nine months.", "During the last two legs of the tour Depeche Mode headlined a number of festivals including the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival and the O2 Wireless Festival.", "In total, the band played to more than 2.8 million people across 31 countries and the tour was one of the highest grossing and critically acclaimed tours of 2005/2006.Speaking about the tour, Gahan praised it as \"probably the most enjoyable, rewarding live shows we've ever done.", "The new material was just waiting to be played live.", "It took on a life of its own.", "With the energy of the crowds, it just came to life.\"", "Two shows at Milan's Fila Forum were filmed and edited into a concert film, released on DVD as ''Touring the Angel: Live in Milan''.A \"best-of\" compilation was released in November 2006, entitled ''The Best of Depeche Mode Volume 1'' featuring a new single \"Martyr\", an outtake from the ''Playing the Angel'' sessions.", "Later that month Depeche Mode received the MTV Europe Music Award in the Best Group category.In December 2006, iTunes released ''The Complete Depeche Mode'' as its fourth ever digital box-set.In August 2007, during promotion for Gahan's second solo album, ''Hourglass'', it was announced that Depeche Mode were heading back in studio in early 2008 to work on a new album.===''Sounds of the Universe'' (2008–2011)===Depeche Mode in 2009In May 2008, the band returned to the studio with producer Ben Hillier to work on some songs that Martin Gore had demoed at his home studio in Santa Barbara, California.", "Later that year it was announced that Depeche Mode were splitting from their long-term US label, Warner Music, and signing with EMI Music worldwide.", "The album was created in four sessions, two in New York and two in Santa Barbara.", "A total of 22 songs were recorded, with the standard album being 13 songs in length while many of the others were released in subsequent deluxe editions.In 2009, Depeche Mode allowed their likeness to be used in Valve's ''Left 4 Dead 2''.Tour of the Universe concert at London's O2 Arena, December 2009On 15 January 2009, the official Depeche Mode website announced that the band's twelfth studio album would be called ''Sounds of the Universe''.", "The album was released on 14 April 2009, also made available through an iTunes Pass, where the buyer received individual tracks in the weeks leading up to the official release date.", "Fletcher said the idea for their iTunes Pass was a combination of the band's and iTunes': \"I think the digital and record companies are starting to get their act together.", "They were very lazy in the first 10 years when downloads came in.", "Now they're collaborating more and coming up with interesting ideas for fans to buy products.\"", "The album went to number one in 21 countries.", "Critical response was generally positive and it was nominated for a Grammy in the Best Alternative Album category.", "\"Wrong\" was the first single from the album, released digitally in February 2009.Subsequent singles were \"Peace\" and the double A-side \"Fragile Tension / Hole to Feed\".", "In addition, \"Perfect\" was released as a promotional-only (non-commercial) single in the United States.On 23 April 2009, Depeche Mode performed for the television program ''Jimmy Kimmel Live!''", "at the famed corner of Hollywood Boulevard and Vine Street, drawing more than 12,000 fans, which was the largest audience the program had seen since its 2003 premiere, with a performance by Coldplay.In May 2009, the band embarked on a concert tour in support of the album, called Tour of the Universe; it had been announced at a press conference in October 2008 at the Olympiastadion in Berlin.", "There was a warm up show in Luxembourg and it officially started on 10 May 2009 in Tel Aviv.", "The first leg of the tour was disrupted when Dave Gahan was struck down with gastroenteritis.", "During treatment, doctors found and removed a low-grade tumour from the singer's bladder.", "Gahan's illness caused 16 concerts to be cancelled, but several of the shows were rescheduled for 2010.The band headlined the Lollapalooza festival during the North American leg of the tour.", "The tour also took the band back to South America for the first time since 1994's Exotic Tour.", "During the final European leg, the band played a show at London's Royal Albert Hall in aid of the Teenage Cancer Trust, where former member Alan Wilder joined Martin Gore on stage for a performance of \"Somebody\".", "In total the band played to more than 2.7 million people across 32 countries and the tour was one of the most profitable in America in 2009.The concerts held at Palau Sant Jordi, Barcelona, Spain were filmed and later released on DVD and Blu-ray release entitled ''Tour of the Universe: Barcelona 20/21.11.09''.", "In March 2010, Depeche Mode won the award for \"Best International Group – Rock / Pop\" at the ECHO Awards in Germany.On 6 June 2011, as the final commitment to their contract with EMI, the band released a remix compilation album, entitled ''Remixes 2: 81–11'' that features remixes by former members Vince Clarke and Alan Wilder.", "Other remixers involved with the project were Nick Rhodes of Duran Duran, Röyksopp, Karlsson & Winnberg of Miike Snow, Eric Prydz, Clark and more.", "A new remix of \"Personal Jesus\" by Stargate, entitled \"Personal Jesus 2011\", was released as a single on 30 May 2011, in support of the compilation.Depeche Mode contributed their cover of the U2 song \"So Cruel\" to the tribute album ''AHK-toong BAY-bi Covered'' honouring the 20th anniversary of ''Achtung Baby'', a 1991 album by U2.The compilation CD was released with the December 2011 issue of ''Q''.===''Delta Machine'' (2012–2014)===Depeche Mode in 2013, performing at ''Wetten, dass..?", "''In October 2012 during a press conference in Paris, Dave Gahan, Martin Gore and Andy Fletcher announced plans for a new album and a 2013 worldwide tour starting from Tel Aviv and continuing in Europe and North America.", "Martin Gore revealed that Flood mixed the album, marking the producer's first studio collaboration with the band since 1993's ''Songs of Faith and Devotion''.In December 2012, the band officially announced signing a worldwide deal with Columbia Records and releasing a new album in March 2013.On 24 January 2013, it was confirmed that the album was titled ''Delta Machine''.", "\"Heaven\", the debut single from ''Delta Machine'' was released commercially on Friday 1 February 2013 (although not in the UK).", "The release date in the UK was pushed back to 18 March 2013 (17 March 2013 on iTunes).", "The physical release still bore the Mute Records logo, even though the band have now severed ties with their long-standing label.", "Fletcher mentioned in an interview this was due to their \"devotion\" to the label and with the band's insistence.", "''Delta Machine'' spawned two further singles, \"Soothe My Soul\" on 6 May and \"Should Be Higher\" on 11 October.", "Though neither performed well in the UK charts they did perform moderately in other European charts.In March, the band announced North American dates to their Delta Machine Tour, starting 22 August from Detroit and ending 8 October in Phoenix.", "In June, other European dates were confirmed for early 2014.The final gig of the tour took place in Moscow, Russia on 7 March 2014, at Olimpiski venue.That month, Depeche Mode won the award for \"Best International Group – Rock / Pop\" at the ECHO Awards in Germany.", "Also, they were nominated at the category \"Album des Jahres (national oder international)\" for ''Delta Machine'' but lost against Helene Fischer's ''Farbenspiel''.On 8 October 2014, the band announced ''Live in Berlin'', the new video and audio release filmed and recorded at the O2 World in Berlin, Germany in November 2013 during the Delta Machine Tour.", "It was released on 17 November 2014 worldwide.===''Spirit'' (2015–2021)===In a 2015 Rolling Stone interview celebrating the 25th anniversary of ''Violator'', Gore stated that Johnny Cash's cover of \"Personal Jesus\" is his favorite cover version of a Depeche Mode song.On 25 January 2016, Gore announced a projected return to the recording studio in April, with both Gore and Gahan having already written and demoed new songs.", "In September, the official Depeche Mode Facebook page hinted at a new release, later confirmed by the band to be a music video compilation, ''Video Singles Collection'', scheduled for release in November by Sony.", "In October 2016, the band announced that their fourteenth album titled ''Spirit.''", "It was produced by James Ford, and was released on 17 March 2017.", "\"Where's the Revolution\", the lead single from ''Spirit'', was released 3 February 2017, along with its lyric video.", "The official video was published a week later, on 9 February.", "The Global Spirit Tour officially kicked off on 5 May 2017 with a performance in Stockholm, Sweden, at the Friends Arena.", "The first leg of the tour covered European countries only, ending with a final stadium show in Cluj-Napoca, Romania, at the Cluj Arena.", "The second leg of the tour covered North America and returned to Europe.", "The North America leg of the tour kicked off in Salt Lake City, Utah, on 23 August, at the USANA Amphitheatre.", "Depeche Mode broke a record when the band became the first to play four nights at the Hollywood Bowl.", "The band remained in North America until 15 November when they left for Dublin to resume the European leg.", "The band ended the tour in Europe with two sold-out shows on 23 and 25 July 2018 in Berlin, Germany, at the Waldbühne.In September 2019, the band announced that ''Spirits in the Forest'', a documentary that was partially filmed during these shows by long-time collaborator Anton Corbijn, would be released in theatres for one night only, 21 November 2019.It was released on CD, DVD and Blu-ray under the title '''''LiVE SPiRiTS''''' on 26 June 2020.On 7 November 2020, the band were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.=== Fletcher's death and ''Memento Mori'' (2022–present)===On 26 May 2022, Andy Fletcher died, aged 60, after suffering an aortic dissection while at home.", "His bandmates Gahan and Gore stated, \"we are shocked and filled with overwhelming sadness with the untimely passing of our dear friend, family member and bandmate Andy 'Fletch' Fletcher.\"", "Former Depeche Mode member Alan Wilder stated that learning of Fletcher's death was \"a real bolt from the blue.", "\"Prior to Fletcher's death, Gahan said: \"There's a ton of stuff that we've done with Depeche Mode that I'm really proud of.", "I think that's come with time and age.", "Martin put out a record last year which I really liked.", "I actually bought a copy because it wouldn't feel right otherwise.", "I know he's been pottering away in his studio as well, so I guess at some point next year we'll get together.", "Hopefully at least to just have a chat about what we both feel like we could move forward with.", "\"Gore (left) and Gahan (centre) announcing their upcoming album, at a press conference in BerlinOn 15 August 2022, the social media accounts for Depeche Mode posted a photo of Gahan and Gore in a recording studio, with them tweeting, \"finding stability in what we know and love, and focusing on what gives life meaning and purpose\", which magazines like ''NME'' suggested was a hint at work on a new studio album.On 4 October 2022, Depeche Mode announced their fifteenth studio album ''Memento Mori'' and a tour to support the album which started on 23 March 2023.The first single, \"Ghosts Again\", released on 9 February 2023, was co-written by Richard Butler of the Psychedelic Furs.", "It received relative success in the UK, charting at No.", "20.", "\"Ghosts Again\" had widespread success in the US, charting in the top 10 of 3 ''Billboard'' charts.", "Reaching number 2 on the Adult Alternative Songs chart, Gahan said it \"captures this perfect balance of melancholy and joy\", while Gore said it has \"such an upbeat feel to it\" and how rare it is for the band to record a song that \"I just don't get sick of listening to.", "\"The band stated that work on the album began during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020.Gahan and Gore said they would send each other ideas for songs, for example Gahan said, \"I played guitar and sort of sang on my iPhone\", while Gore \"sent it back with his angelic voice.\"", "They also stated that they would be working with James Ford once again as producer along with Marta Salogni mixing for the album." ], [ "Musical style and influences", "Gore recalled, \"My dream was to combine the emotion of Neil Young or John Lennon transmitted by Kraftwerk's synthesizers.", "Soul music played by electronic instruments.\"", "Gore also cited synth-pop group Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark (OMD), who provided support on the Music for the Masses Tour; Clarke stated that Depeche Mode would never have happened without OMD.", "Fletcher mentioned influences including the late 1970s punk rock scene, the post-punk bands Siouxsie and the Banshees and the Cure, and electronic group the Human League.", "Band members have also cited David Bowie, the Clash, Roxy Music and Brian Eno, Elvis Presley, the Velvet Underground, Fad Gadget, Suicide, and the blues.Depeche Mode were considered a teen pop group during their early period in the UK, and interviewed in teen pop magazines such as ''Smash Hits''.", "Following the departure of Clarke, their music began to take on a darker tone, establishing a darker sound in the band's music, as Gore assumed lead songwriting duties.", "Gore's lyrics include themes such as sex, religion, and politics.", "Gore has stated he feels lyrical themes which tackle issues related to solitude and loneliness are a better representation of reality, whereas he finds \"happy songs\" fake and unrealistic.", "At the same time, he asserts that the group's music contains \"an element of hope\".Depeche Mode's music has been variously described as synth-pop, electronic rock, new wave, darkwave, dance-rock, post-punk, alternative rock, and pop rock.", "The band have also experimented with other genres throughout their career, including avant-garde, electronica, pop, soul, techno, industrial rock and heavy metal." ], [ "Legacy", "Depeche Mode in 2013Depeche Mode have released a total of 15 studio albums, 10 compilation albums, six live albums, eight box sets, 13 video albums, 71 music videos, and 54 singles.", "They have sold over 100 million records and played live to more than 30 million fans worldwide.", "The band has had 50 songs in the UK Singles Chart, and one US and two UK number-one albums.", "In addition, all of their studio albums have reached the UK Top 10 and their albums have spent over 210 weeks on the UK Charts.", "Along with the Red Hot Chili Peppers and U2, Depeche Mode are one of three acts that have charted at least once on the ''Billboard'' Alternative Airplay chart in every decade since its debut in 1988.In 2006, music critic Sasha Frere-Jones stated that \"the last serious English influence was Depeche Mode, who seem more and more significant as time passes.\"", "Depeche Mode's releases have been nominated for five Grammy Awards: ''Devotional'' for Best Long Form Music Video; \"I Feel Loved\" and \"Suffer Well\", both for Best Dance Recording; ''Sounds of the Universe'' for Best Alternative Album; and \"Wrong\" for Best Short Form Music Video.", "In addition, Depeche Mode have been honoured with a Brit Award for \"Enjoy the Silence\" in the Best British Single category, the first-ever ''Q'' Innovation Award, and an Ivor Novello Award for Martin Gore in the category of International Achievement.Depeche Mode were called \"the most popular electronic band the world has ever known\" by ''Q'', \"one of the greatest British pop groups of all time\" by ''The Sunday Telegraph'', and \"the quintessential eighties techno-pop band\" by ''Rolling Stone'' and AllMusic.", "They were ranked No.", "2 on Electronic Music Realm's list of The 100 Greatest Artists of Electronic Music, and ''Q'' included them on their list of \"50 bands that changed the world\".Other musicians have stated their admiration for Depeche Mode.", "In an interview in 2009, Simple Minds lead singer Jim Kerr argued that Depeche Mode and U2 were the only contemporaries of his band which could be said to have \"stayed constantly relevant\".", "Muse's Matt Bellamy said, \"They had their own thing, their own style, own sound.", "I respect them very much.\"", "During Depeche Mode's induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, Coldplay's Chris Martin remarked, \"sonically, they were and are about throwing away all the rulebooks.\"", "Arcade Fire's Win Butler added, \"I feel like their music still sounds like it could come out 20 years from now.", "Depeche were able to take that spirit and spread it, which is really kind of a sacred responsibility.", "\"===Influence===Several major artists have cited the band as an influence, including: Arcade Fire, The Killers, Nine Inch Nails, Chvrches, The Smashing Pumpkins, Coldplay, Muse, Metric, No Doubt, A Perfect Circle, Marilyn Manson, Linkin Park, The Crystal Method, Fear Factory, La Roux, Gotye, Rammstein, a-ha, Tegan and Sara (on ''Sainthood'') and Paul van Dyk.", "Depeche Mode contemporaries Pet Shop Boys, Tears for Fears and Gary Numan have also cited the band as an influence.", "Colombian singer Shakira described \"Enjoy the Silence\" as the song that first sparked her passion for pop music.The dark themes and moods of Depeche Mode's lyrics and music have been enjoyed by several heavy metal artists, and the band influenced acts such as Marilyn Manson and Deftones.", "Trent Reznor of Nine Inch Nails also cited Depeche Mode, in particular their 1986 album ''Black Celebration'', as a major influence on his beginnings.", "They have also been named as an influence on Detroit techno and indie rock." ], [ "Philanthropy", "Early in their career, Depeche Mode was dismissive of benefit concerts such as Live Aid.", "Gore himself stated, \"If these bands really care so much, they should just donate the money and let that be it.", "Why can't they do it without all the surrounding hype?", "\".Since 2010, the band has applied their celebrity and cultural longevity to help promote and raise funds for several notable charity endeavours.", "They lent their support to high-profile charities such as MusiCares, Cancer Research UK and the Teenage Cancer Trust.", "The band has also supported the Small Steps Project, a humanitarian organization based in the UK, aiming to assist economically disadvantaged children into education.", "They have partnered with Swiss watchmaker Hublot to support Charity: Water, aimed at the provision of clean drinking water in developing countries.", "Such collaboration led to the release of two different limited edition watches, the Hublot Big Bang Depeche Mode in 2017 and The Singles Limited Edition series based from the Big Bang model in 2018.The proceeds helped raise $1.7 million for Charity: Water.", "In 2014, the partnership hosted a gala and fundraiser at the TsUM building in Moscow, raising $1.4 million for the charity." ], [ "Band members", "===Current members===* Dave Gahan– lead vocals (1980–present)* Martin Gore– keyboards, guitars, backing and lead vocals (1980–present)====Touring musicians====* Christian Eigner– drums, keyboards (1997–present)* Peter Gordeno– keyboards, bass guitar, piano, backing vocals (1998–present)===Former members===* Andy Fletcher– keyboards, bass guitar, occasional backing vocals (1980–2022; his death) * Vince Clarke– keyboards, lead and backing vocals, guitars (1980–1981)* Alan Wilder– keyboards, piano, drums, backing vocals (1982–1995; touring member in 1982; guest in 2010)====Former touring musicians====* Hildia Campbell– backing vocals (1993–1994)* Samantha Smith– backing vocals (1993–1994)* Daryl Bamonte– keyboards, samplers (1994)* Dave Clayton– keyboards, programming (1996–1997)* Janet Cooke– backing vocals (1998)* Jordan Bailey– backing vocals (1998, 2001)* Georgia Lewis– backing vocals (2001)===Timeline====== Touring members timeline ===" ], [ "Discography", "* ''Speak & Spell'' (1981)* ''A Broken Frame'' (1982)* ''Construction Time Again'' (1983)* ''Some Great Reward'' (1984)* ''Black Celebration'' (1986)* ''Music for the Masses'' (1987)* ''Violator'' (1990)* ''Songs of Faith and Devotion'' (1993)* ''Ultra'' (1997)* ''Exciter'' (2001)* ''Playing the Angel'' (2005)* ''Sounds of the Universe'' (2009)* ''Delta Machine'' (2013)* ''Spirit'' (2017)* ''Memento Mori'' (2023)" ], [ "Awards and nominations" ], [ "Tours", "* 1980 Tour (1980)* 1981 Tour (1981)* Speak & Spell Tour (1981)* See You Tour (1982)* Broken Frame Tour (1982–1983)* Construction Time Again Tour (1983–1984)* Some Great Reward Tour (1984–1985)* Black Celebration Tour (1986)* Music for the Masses Tour (1987–1988)* World Violation Tour (1990)* Devotional Tour (1993)* Exotic Tour/Summer Tour '94 (1994)* The Singles Tour 86>98 (1998)* Exciter Tour (2001)* Touring the Angel (2005–2006)* Tour of the Universe (2009–2010)* The Delta Machine Tour (2013–2014)* Global Spirit Tour (2017–2018)* Memento Mori World Tour (2023–2024)" ], [ "See also", "* List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Dance Club Songs chart* List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. alternative rock chart" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* * * ===Further reading===* * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Differential cryptanalysis" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Differential cryptanalysis''' is a general form of cryptanalysis applicable primarily to block ciphers, but also to stream ciphers and cryptographic hash functions.", "In the broadest sense, it is the study of how differences in information input can affect the resultant difference at the output.", "In the case of a block cipher, it refers to a set of techniques for tracing differences through the network of transformation, discovering where the cipher exhibits non-random behavior, and exploiting such properties to recover the secret key (cryptography key)." ], [ "History", "The discovery of differential cryptanalysis is generally attributed to Eli Biham and Adi Shamir in the late 1980s, who published a number of attacks against various block ciphers and hash functions, including a theoretical weakness in the Data Encryption Standard (DES).", "It was noted by Biham and Shamir that DES was surprisingly resistant to differential cryptanalysis, but small modifications to the algorithm would make it much more susceptible.In 1994, a member of the original IBM DES team, Don Coppersmith, published a paper stating that differential cryptanalysis was known to IBM as early as 1974, and that defending against differential cryptanalysis had been a design goal.", "According to author Steven Levy, IBM had discovered differential cryptanalysis on its own, and the NSA was apparently well aware of the technique.", "IBM kept some secrets, as Coppersmith explains: \"After discussions with NSA, it was decided that disclosure of the design considerations would reveal the technique of differential cryptanalysis, a powerful technique that could be used against many ciphers.", "This in turn would weaken the competitive advantage the United States enjoyed over other countries in the field of cryptography.\"", "Within IBM, differential cryptanalysis was known as the \"T-attack\" or \"Tickle attack\".While DES was designed with resistance to differential cryptanalysis in mind, other contemporary ciphers proved to be vulnerable.", "An early target for the attack was the FEAL block cipher.", "The original proposed version with four rounds (FEAL-4) can be broken using only eight chosen plaintexts, and even a 31-round version of FEAL is susceptible to the attack.", "In contrast, the scheme can successfully cryptanalyze DES with an effort on the order of 247 chosen plaintexts." ], [ "Attack mechanics", "Differential cryptanalysis is usually a chosen plaintext attack, meaning that the attacker must be able to obtain ciphertexts for some set of plaintexts of their choosing.", "There are, however, extensions that would allow a known plaintext or even a ciphertext-only attack.", "The basic method uses pairs of plaintexts related by a constant ''difference''.", "Difference can be defined in several ways, but the eXclusive OR (XOR) operation is usual.", "The attacker then computes the differences of the corresponding ciphertexts, hoping to detect statistical patterns in their distribution.", "The resulting pair of differences is called a '''differential'''.", "Their statistical properties depend upon the nature of the S-boxes used for encryption, so the attacker analyses differentials where(and ⊕ denotes exclusive or) for each such S-box ''S''.", "In the basic attack, one particular ciphertext difference is expected to be especially frequent.", "In this way, the cipher can be distinguished from random.", "More sophisticated variations allow the key to be recovered faster than an exhaustive search.In the most basic form of key recovery through differential cryptanalysis, an attacker requests the ciphertexts for a large number of plaintext pairs, then assumes that the differential holds for at least ''r'' − 1 rounds, where ''r'' is the total number of rounds.", "The attacker then deduces which round keys (for the final round) are possible, assuming the difference between the blocks before the final round is fixed.", "When round keys are short, this can be achieved by simply exhaustively decrypting the ciphertext pairs one round with each possible round key.", "When one round key has been deemed a potential round key considerably more often than any other key, it is assumed to be the correct round key.For any particular cipher, the input difference must be carefully selected for the attack to be successful.", "An analysis of the algorithm's internals is undertaken; the standard method is to trace a path of highly probable differences through the various stages of encryption, termed a ''differential characteristic''.Since differential cryptanalysis became public knowledge, it has become a basic concern of cipher designers.", "New designs are expected to be accompanied by evidence that the algorithm is resistant to this attack and many including the Advanced Encryption Standard, have been proven secure against the attack." ], [ "Attack in detail", "The attack relies primarily on the fact that a given input/output difference pattern only occurs for certain values of inputs.", "Usually the attack is applied in essence to the non-linear components as if they were a solid component (usually they are in fact look-up tables or ''S-boxes'').", "Observing the desired output difference (between two chosen or known plaintext inputs) ''suggests'' possible key values.For example, if a differential of 1 => 1 (implying a difference in the least significant bit (LSB) of the input leads to an output difference in the LSB) occurs with probability of 4/256 (possible with the non-linear function in the AES cipher for instance) then for only 4 values (or 2 pairs) of inputs is that differential possible.", "Suppose we have a non-linear function where the key is XOR'ed before evaluation and the values that allow the differential are {2,3} and {4,5}.", "If the attacker sends in the values of {6, 7} and observes the correct output difference it means the key is either 6 ⊕ K = 2, or 6 ⊕ K = 4, meaning the key K is either 2 or 4.In essence, to protect a cipher from the attack, for an n-bit non-linear function one would ideally seek as close to 2−(''n'' − 1) as possible to achieve ''differential uniformity''.", "When this happens, the differential attack requires as much work to determine the key as simply brute forcing the key.The AES non-linear function has a maximum differential probability of 4/256 (most entries however are either 0 or 2).", "Meaning that in theory one could determine the key with half as much work as brute force, however, the high branch of AES prevents any high probability trails from existing over multiple rounds.", "In fact, the AES cipher would be just as immune to differential and linear attacks with a much ''weaker'' non-linear function.", "The incredibly high branch (active S-box count) of 25 over 4R means that over 8 rounds, no attack involves fewer than 50 non-linear transforms, meaning that the probability of success does not exceed Prattack ≤ Prbest attack on S-box50.For example, with the current S-box AES emits no fixed differential with a probability higher than (4/256)50 or 2−300 which is far lower than the required threshold of 2−128 for a 128-bit block cipher.", "This would have allowed room for a more efficient S-box, even if it is 16-uniform the probability of attack would have still been 2−200.There exist no bijections for even sized inputs/outputs with 2-uniformity.", "They exist in odd fields (such as GF(27)) using either cubing or inversion (there are other exponents that can be used as well).", "For instance, S(x) = x3 in any odd binary field is immune to differential and linear cryptanalysis.", "This is in part why the MISTY designs use 7- and 9-bit functions in the 16-bit non-linear function.", "What these functions gain in immunity to differential and linear attacks, they lose to algebraic attacks.", "That is, they are possible to describe and solve via a SAT solver.", "This is in part why AES (for instance) has an affine mapping after the inversion." ], [ "Specialized types", "* Higher-order differential cryptanalysis* Truncated differential cryptanalysis* Impossible differential cryptanalysis* Boomerang attack" ], [ "See also", "* Cryptography* Integral cryptanalysis* Linear cryptanalysis*Differential equations of addition" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* A tutorial on differential (and linear) cryptanalysis* Helger Lipmaa's links on differential cryptanalysis*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Document type definition" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''document type definition''' ('''DTD''') is a specification file that contains set of ''markup declarations'' that define a ''document type'' for an SGML-family markup language (GML, SGML, XML, HTML).", "The DTD specification file can be used to validate documents.", "A DTD defines the valid building blocks of an XML document.", "It defines the document structure with a list of validated elements and attributes.", "A DTD can be declared inline inside an XML document, or as an external reference.A namespace-aware version of DTDs is being developed as Part 9 of ISO DSDL.", "DTDs persist in applications that need special publishing characters, such as the XML and HTML Character Entity References, which derive from larger sets defined as part of the ISO SGML standard effort.", "XML uses a subset of SGML DTD., newer XML namespace-aware schema languages (such as W3C XML Schema and ISO RELAX NG) have largely superseded DTDs as a better way to validate XML structure." ], [ "Associating DTDs with documents", "A DTD is associated with an XML or SGML document by means of a document type declaration (DOCTYPE).", "The DOCTYPE appears in the syntactic fragment ''doctypedecl'' near the start of an XML document.", "The declaration establishes that the document is an instance of the type defined by the referenced DTD.DOCTYPEs make two sorts of declarations:* an optional ''external subset''* an optional ''internal subset''.The declarations in the internal subset form part of the DOCTYPE in the document itself.", "The declarations in the external subset are located in a separate text file.", "The external subset may be referenced via a ''public identifier'' and/or a ''system identifier''.", "Programs for reading documents may not be required to read the external subset.Any valid SGML or XML document that references an ''external subset'' in its DTD, or whose body contains references to ''parsed external entities'' declared in its DTD (including those declared within its ''internal subset''), may only be partially parsed but cannot be fully validated by ''validating'' SGML or XML parsers in their ''standalone'' mode (this means that these validating parsers do not attempt to retrieve these external entities, and their replacement text is not accessible).However, such documents are still fully parsable in the ''non''-standalone mode of validating parsers, which signals an error if it can not locate these external entities with their specified ''public identifier'' (FPI) or ''system identifier'' (a URI), or are inaccessible.", "(Notations declared in the DTD are also referencing external entities, but these unparsed entities are not needed for the validation of documents in the ''standalone'' mode of these parsers: the validation of all external entities referenced by notations is left to the application using the SGML or XML parser).", "Non-validating parsers ''may'' eventually attempt to locate these external entities in the ''non''-standalone mode (by partially interpreting the DTD only to resolve their declared parsable entities), but do not validate the content model of these documents.=== Examples ===The following example of a DOCTYPE contains both public and system identifiers:All HTML 4.01 documents conform to one of three SGML DTDs.", "The public identifiers of these DTDs are constant and are as follows:* -//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN* -//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN* -//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Frameset//ENThe system identifiers of these DTDs, if present in the DOCTYPE, are URI references.", "A system identifier usually points to a specific set of declarations in a resolvable location.", "SGML allows mapping public identifiers to system identifiers in catalogs that are optionally available to the URI resolvers used by document parsing software.This DOCTYPE can only appear ''after'' the optional XML declaration, and before the document body, if the document syntax conforms to XML.", "This includes XHTML documents: ...An additional internal subset can also be provided after the external subset: ...Alternatively, only the internal subset may be provided: ...Finally, the document type definition may include no subset at all; in that case, it just specifies that the document has a single top-level element (this is an implicit requirement for all valid XML and HTML documents, but not for document fragments or for all SGML documents, whose top-level elements may be different from the implied root element), and it indicates the type name of the root element: ..." ], [ "Markup declarations", "DTDs describe the structure of a class of documents via element and attribute-list declarations.", "Element declarations name the allowable set of elements within the document, and specify whether and how declared elements and runs of character data may be contained within each element.", "Attribute-list declarations name the allowable set of attributes for each declared element, including the type of each attribute value, if not an explicit set of valid values.DTD markup declarations declare which element types, attribute lists, entities, and notations are allowed in the structure of the corresponding class of XML documents.=== Element type declarations ===An element type declaration defines an element and its possible content.", "A valid XML document contains only elements that are defined in the DTD.Various keywords and characters specify an element's content:* EMPTY for specifying that the defined element allows no content, i.e., it cannot have any children elements, not even text elements (if there are whitespaces, they are ignored);* ANY for specifying that the defined element allows any content, without restriction, i.e., that it may have any number (including none) and type of children elements (including text elements);* or an expression, specifying the only elements allowed as direct children in the content of the defined element; this content can be either:** a '''mixed content''', which means that the content may include at least one text element and zero or more named elements, but their order and number of occurrences cannot be restricted; this can be:*** ( #PCDATA ): historically meaning ''parsed character data'', this means that only one text element is allowed in the content (no quantifier is allowed);*** ( #PCDATA | ''element name'' | ... )*: a limited choice (in an exclusive list between parentheses and separated by \"|\" pipe characters and terminated by the required \"*\" quantifier) of two or more child elements (including only text elements or the specified named elements) may be used in any order and number of occurrences in the content.", "** an '''element content''', which means that there must be no text elements in the children elements of the content (all whitespaces encoded between child elements are then ignored, just like comments).", "Such element content is specified as ''content particle'' in a variant of Backus–Naur form without terminal symbols and element names as non-terminal symbols.", "Element content consists of:*** a '''content particle''' can be either the name of an element declared in the DTD, or a ''sequence list'' or ''choice list''.", "It may be followed by an optional ''quantifier''.", "**** a '''sequence list''' means an ordered list (specified between parentheses and separated by a \",\" comma character) of one or more ''content particles'': all the ''content particles'' must appear successively as direct children in the content of the defined element, at the specified position and relative order;**** a '''choice list''' means a mutually exclusive list (specified between parentheses and separated by a \"|\" pipe character) of two or more ''content particles'': only one of these ''content particles'' may appear in the content of the defined element at the same position.", "*** A '''quantifier''' is a single character that immediately follows the specified item it applies to, to restrict the number of successive occurrences of these items at the specified position in the content of the element; it may be either:**** + for specifying that there must be one or more occurrences of the item — the effective content of each occurrence may be different;**** * for specifying that any number (zero or more) of occurrences is allowed — the item is optional and the effective content of each occurrence may be different;**** ?", "for specifying that there must not be more than one occurrence — the item is optional;**** If there is no quantifier, the specified item must occur exactly one time at the specified position in the content of the element.For example:Element type declarations are ignored by ''non-validating'' SGML and XML parsers (in which cases, any elements are accepted in any order, and in any number of occurrences in the parsed document), but these declarations are still checked for form and validity.=== Attribute list declarations ===An attribute list specifies for a given element type the list of all possible attribute associated with that type.", "For each possible attribute, it contains:* the declared name of the attribute,* its data type (or an enumeration of its possible values),* and its default value.For example:Here are some attribute types supported by both SGML and XML:; CDATA: this type means ''characters data'' and indicates that the effective value of the attribute can be any textual value, unless the attribute is specified as fixed (the comments in the DTD may further document values that are effectively accepted, but the DTD syntax does not allow such precise specification);; ID: the effective value of the attribute must be a valid identifier, and it is used to define and anchor to the current element the target of references using this defined identifier (including as document fragment identifiers that may be specified at end of an URI after a \"#\" sign); it is an error if distinct elements in the same document are defining the same identifier; the uniqueness constraint also implies that the identifier itself carries no other semantics and that identifiers must be treated as opaque in applications; XML also predefines the standard pseudo-attribute \"xml:id\" with this type, without needing any declaration in the DTD, so the uniqueness constraint also applies to these defined identifiers when they are specified anywhere in a XML document.", "; IDREF or IDREFS: the effective value of the attribute can only be a valid identifier (or a space-separated list of such identifiers) and must be referencing the unique element defined in the document with an attribute declared with the type ID in the DTD (or the unique element defined in an XML document with a pseudo-attribute \"xml:id\") and whose effective value is the same identifier;; NMTOKEN or NMTOKENS: the effective value of the attribute can only be a valid name token (or a spaced-separated list of such name tokens), but it is not restricted to a unique identifier within the document; this name may carry supplementary and application-dependent semantics and may require additional naming constraints, but this is out of scope of the DTD;; ENTITY or ENTITIES: the effective value of the attribute can only be the name of an unparsed external entity (or a space-separated list of such names), which must also be declared in the document type declaration; this type is not supported in HTML parsers, but is valid in SGML and XML 1.0 or 1.1 (including XHTML and SVG);; (''value1''|...): the effective value of the attribute can only be one of the enumerated list (specified between parentheses and separated by a \"|\" pipe character) of textual values, where each value in the enumeration is possibly specified between 'single' or \"double\" quotation marks if it's not a simple name token;; NOTATION (''notation1''|...): the effective value of the attribute can only be any one of the enumerated list (specified between parentheses and separated by a \"|\" pipe character) of notation names, where each notation name in the enumeration must also be declared in the document type declaration; this type is not supported in HTML parsers, but is valid in SGML and XML 1.0 or 1.1 (including XHTML and SVG).A default value can define whether an attribute must occur (#REQUIRED) or not (#IMPLIED), or whether it has a fixed value (#FIXED), or which value should be used as a default value (\"…\") in case the given attribute is left out in an XML tag.Attribute list declarations are ignored by ''non-validating'' SGML and XML parsers (in which cases any attribute is accepted within all elements of the parsed document), but these declarations are still checked for well-formedness and validity.=== Entity declarations ===An entity is similar to a macro.", "The entity declaration assigns it a value that is retained throughout the document.", "A common use is to have a name more recognizable than a numeric character reference for an unfamiliar character.", "Entities help to improve legibility of an XML text.", "In general, there are two types: internal and external.", "* '''Internal (parsed) entities''' are associating a name with any arbitrary textual content defined in their declaration (which may be in the ''internal subset'' or in the ''external subset'' of the DTD declared in the document).", "When a named entity reference is then encountered in the rest of the document (including in the rest of the DTD), and if this entity name has effectively been defined as a parsed entity, the reference itself is replaced immediately by the textual content defined in the parsed entity, and the parsing continues within this replacement text.", "** '''Predefined named character entities''' are similar to internal entities: 5 of them however are treated specially in all SGML, HTML and XML parsers.", "These entities are a bit different from normal parsed entities, because when a named character entity reference is encountered in the document, the reference is also replaced immediately by the character content defined in the entity, but the parsing continues '''after''' the replacement text, which is immediately inserted literally in the currently parsed token (if such character is permitted in the textual value of that token).", "This allows some characters that are needed for the core syntax of HTML or XML themselves to be escaped from their special syntactic role (notably \"&\" which is reserved for beginning entity references, \"\" which delimit the markup tags, and \"double\" or 'single' quotation marks, which delimit the values of attributes and entity definitions).", "Predefined character entities also include numeric character references that are handled the same way and can also be used to escape the characters they represent, or to bypass limitations in the character repertoire supported by the document encoding.", "** In basic profiles for SGML or in HTML documents, the declaration of internal entities is not possible (because external DTD subsets are not retrieved, and internal DTD subsets are not supported in these basic profiles).", "** Instead, HTML standards predefine a large set of several hundred named character entities, which can still be handled as standard parsed entities defined in the DTD used by the parser.", "* '''External entities''' refer to external storage objects.", "They are just declared by a unique name in the document, and defined with a public identifier (an FPI) and/or a system identifier (interpreted as an URI) specifying where the source of their content.", "They exist in fact in two variants:** '''parsed external entities''' (most often defined with a SYSTEM identifier indicating the URI of their content) that are ''not'' associated in their definition to a named annotation, in which case validating XML or SGML parsers retrieve their contents and parse them as if they were declared as internal entities (the external entity containing their effective replacement text);** '''unparsed external entities''' that are defined and associated with an annotation name, in which case they are treated as opaque references and signaled as such to the application using the SGML or XML parser: their interpretation, retrieval and parsing is left to the application, according to the types of annotations it supports (see the next section about annotations and for examples of unparsed external entities).", "** External entities are not supported in basic profiles for SGML or in HTML documents, but are valid in full implementations of SGML and in XML 1.0 or 1.1 (including XHTML and SVG, even if they are not strictly needed in those document types).An example of internal entity declarations (here in an internal DTD subset of an SGML document) is: >&question;&signature;Internal entities may be defined in any order, as long as they are not referenced and parsed in the DTD or in the body of the document, in their order of parsing: it is valid to include a reference to a still undefined entity within the content of a parsed entity, but it is invalid to include anywhere else any named entity reference before this entity has been fully defined, including all other internal entities referenced in its defined content (this also prevents circular or recursive definitions of internal entities).", "This document is parsed as if it was: >Why couldn’t I publish my books directly in standard SGML?", "— William Shakespeare.Reference to the \"author\" internal entity is not substituted in the replacement text of the \"signature\" internal entity.", "Instead, it is replaced only when the \"signature\" entity reference is parsed within the content of the \"sgml\" element, but only by validating parsers (non-validating parsers do not substitute entity references occurring within contents of element or within attribute values, in the body of the document.This is possible because the replacement text specified in the internal entity definitions permits a distinction between '''parameter''' entity references (that are introduced by the \"%\" character and whose replacement applies to the parsed DTD contents) and '''general''' entity references (that are introduced by the \"&\" character and whose replacement is delayed until they are effectively parsed and validated).", "The \"%\" character for introducing parameter entity references in the DTD loses its special role outside the DTD and it becomes a literal character.However, the references to predefined character entities are substituted wherever they occur, without needing a validating parser (they are only introduced by the \"&\" character).=== Notation declarations ===Notations are used in SGML or XML.", "They provide a complete reference to unparsed external entities whose interpretation is left to the application (which interprets them directly or retrieves the external entity themselves), by assigning them a simple name, which is usable in the body of the document.", "For example, notations may be used to reference non-XML data in an XML 1.1 document.", "For example, to annotate SVG images to associate them with a specific renderer:This declares the TEXT of external images with this type, and associates it with a notation name \"type-image-svg\".", "However, notation names usually follow a naming convention that is specific to the application generating or using the notation: notations are interpreted as additional meta-data whose effective content is an external entity and either a PUBLIC FPI, registered in the catalogs used by XML or SGML parsers, or a SYSTEM URI, whose interpretation is application dependent (here a MIME type, interpreted as a relative URI, but it could be an absolute URI to a specific renderer, or a URN indicating an OS-specific object identifier such as a UUID).The declared notation name must be unique within all the document type declaration, i.e.", "in the external subset as well as the internal subset, at least for conformance with XML.Notations can be associated to unparsed external entities included in the body of the SGML or XML document.", "The PUBLIC or SYSTEM parameter of these external entities specifies the FPI and/or the URI where the unparsed data of the external entity is located, and the additional NDATA parameter of these defined entities specifies the additional notation (i.e., effectively the MIME type here).", "For example: > Within the body of the SGML document, these referenced external entities (whose name is specified between \"&\" and \";\") are ''not'' replaced like usual named entities (defined with a CDATA value), but are left as distinct unparsed tokens that may be used either as the value of an element attribute (like above) or within the element contents, provided that either the DTD allows such external entities in the declared content type of elements or in the declared type of attributes (here the ENTITY type for the data attribute), or the SGML parser is not validating the content.Notations may also be associated directly to elements as additional meta-data, without associating them to another external entity, by giving their names as possible values of some additional attributes (also declared in the DTD within the declaration of the element).", "For example: > &example1SVG; The example above shows a notation named \"type-image-svg\" that references the standard public FPI and the system identifier (the standard URI) of an SVG 1.1 document, instead of specifying just a system identifier as in the first example (which was a relative URI interpreted locally as a MIME type).", "This annotation is referenced directly within the unparsed \"type\" attribute of the \"img\" element, but its content is not retrieved.", "It also declares another notation for a vendor-specific application, to annotate the \"sgml\" root element in the document.", "In both cases, the declared notation named is used directly in a declared \"type\" attribute, whose content is specified in the DTD with the \"NOTATION\" attribute type (this \"type\" attribute is declared for the \"sgml\" element, as well as for the \"img\" element).However, the \"title\" attribute of the \"img\" element specifies the internal entity \"example1SVGTitle\" whose declaration that does not define an annotation, so it is parsed by validating parsers and the entity replacement text is \"Title of example1.svg\".The content of the \"img\" element references another external entity \"example1SVG\" whose declaration also does not define an notation, so it is also parsed by validating parsers and the entity replacement text is located by its defined SYSTEM identifier \"example1.svg\" (also interpreted as a relative URI).", "The effective content for the \"img\" element be the content of this second external resource.", "The difference with the GIF image, is that the SVG image is parsed within the SGML document, according to the declarations in the DTD, where the GIF image is just referenced as an opaque external object (which is not parsable with SGML) via its \"data\" attribute (whose value type is an opaque ENTITY).Only one notation name may be specified in the value of ENTITY attributes (there is no support in SGML, XML 1.0 or XML 1.1 for multiple notation names in the same declared external ENTITY, so separate attributes are needed).", "However multiple external entities may be referenced (in a space-separated list of names) in attributes declared with type ENTITIES, and where each named external entity is also declared with its own notation).Notations are also completely opaque for XML and SGML parsers, so they are not differentiated by the type of the external entity that they may reference (for these parsers they just have a unique name associated to a public identifier (an FPI) and/or a system identifier (a URI)).Some applications (but not XML or SGML parsers themselves) also allow referencing notations indirectly by naming them in the \"URN:''name''\" value of a standard CDATA attribute, everywhere a URI can be specified.", "However this behaviour is application-specific, and requires that the application maintains a catalog of known URNs to resolve them into the notations that have been parsed in a standard SGML or XML parser.", "This use allows notations to be defined only in a DTD stored as an external entity and referenced only as the external subset of documents, and allows these documents to remain compatible with validating XML or SGML parsers that have no direct support for notations.Notations are not used in HTML, or in basic profiles for XHTML and SVG, because:* All external entities used by these standard document types are referenced by simple attributes, declared with the CDATA type in their standard DTD (such as the \"href\" attribute of an anchor \"a\" element, or the \"src\" attribute of an image \"img\" element, whose values are interpreted as a URI, without needing any catalog of public identifiers, i.e., known FPI)* All external entities for additional meta-data are referenced by either:** Additional attributes (such as ''type'', which indicates the MIME type of the external entity, or the ''charset'' attribute, which indicates its encoding)** Additional elements (such as ''link'' or ''meta'' in HTML and XHTML) within their own attributes** Standard pseudo-attributes in XML and XHTML (such as ''xml:lang'', or ''xmlns'' and ''xmlns:*'' for namespace declarations).Even in validating SGML or XML 1.0 or XML 1.1 parsers, the external entities referenced by an FPI and/or URI in declared notations are not retrieved automatically by the parsers themselves.", "Instead, these parsers just provide to the application the parsed FPI and/or URI associated to the notations found in the parsed SGML or XML document, and with a facility for a dictionary containing all notation names declared in the DTD; these validating parsers also check the uniqueness of notation name declarations, and report a validation error if some notation names are used anywhere in the DTD or in the document body but not declared:* If the application can not use any notation (or if their FPI and/or URI are unknown or not supported in their local catalog), these notations may be either ignored silently by the application or the application could signal an error.", "* Otherwise, the applications decide themselves how to interpret them, then if the external entities must be retrieved and then parsed separately.", "* Applications may then signal an error, if such interpretation, retrieval or separate parsing fails.", "* Unrecognized notations that may cause an application to signal an error should not block interpretation of the validated document using them." ], [ "XML DTDs and schema validation", "The XML DTD syntax is one of several XML schema languages.", "However, many of the schema languages do not fully replace the XML DTD.", "Notably, the XML DTD allows defining entities and notations that have no direct equivalents in DTD-less XML (because internal entities and parsable external entities are not part of XML schema languages, and because other unparsed external entities and notations have no simple equivalent mappings in most XML schema languages).Most XML schema languages are only replacements for element declarations and attribute list declarations, in such a way that it becomes possible to parse XML documents with ''non-validating'' XML parsers (if the only purpose of the external DTD subset was to define the schema).", "In addition, documents for these XML schema languages must be parsed separately, so validating the schema of XML documents in pure standalone mode is not really possible with these languages: the document type declaration remains necessary for at least identifying (with a XML Catalog) the schema used in the parsed XML document and that is validated in another language.A common misconception holds that a ''non-validating'' XML parser does not have to read document type declarations, when in fact, the document type declarations must still be scanned for correct syntax as well as validity of declarations, and the parser must still parse all entity declarations in the ''internal subset'', and substitute the replacement texts of internal entities occurring anywhere in the document type declaration or in the document body.A ''non-validating'' parser may, however, elect not to read parsable ''external entities'' (including the ''external subset''), and does not have to honor the content model restrictions defined in element declarations and in attribute list declarations.If the XML document depends on parsable external entities (including the specified ''external subset'', or parsable external entities declared in the ''internal subset''), it should assert standalone=\"no\" in its XML declaration.", "The validating DTD may be identified by using XML Catalogs to retrieve its specified ''external subset''.In the example below, the XML document is declared with standalone=\"no\" because it has an external subset in its document type declaration:If the XML document type declaration includes any SYSTEM identifier for the external subset, it can not be safely processed as standalone: the URI should be retrieved, otherwise there may be unknown named character entities whose definition may be needed to correctly parse the effective XML syntax in the internal subset or in the document body (the XML syntax parsing is normally performed ''after'' the substitution of all named entities, excluding the five entities that are predefined in XML and that are implicitly substituted ''after'' parsing the XML document into lexical tokens).", "If it just includes any PUBLIC identifier, it ''may'' be processed as standalone, if the XML processor knows this PUBLIC identifier in its local catalog from where it can retrieve an associated DTD entity." ], [ "XML DTD schema example", "An example of a very simple external XML DTD to describe the schema of a list of persons might consist of:Taking this line by line:# people_list is a valid element name, and an instance of such an element contains any number of person elements.", "The * denotes there can be 0 or more person elements within the people_list element.# person is a valid element name, and an instance of such an element contains one element named name, followed by one named birthdate (optional), then gender (also optional) and socialsecuritynumber (also optional).", "The ?", "indicates that an element is optional.", "The reference to the name element name has no ?, so a person element ''must'' contain a name element.# name is a valid element name, and an instance of such an element contains \"parsed character data\" (#PCDATA).# birthdate is a valid element name, and an instance of such an element contains parsed character data.# gender is a valid element name, and an instance of such an element contains parsed character data.# socialsecuritynumber is a valid element name, and an instance of such an element contains parsed character data.An example of an XML file that uses and conforms to this DTD follows.", "The DTD is referenced here as an external subset, via the SYSTEM specifier and a URI.", "It assumes that we can identify the DTD with the relative URI reference \"example.dtd\"; the \"people_list\" after \"!DOCTYPE\" tells us that the root tags, or the first element defined in the DTD, is called \"people_list\": Fred Bloggs 2008-11-27 Male One can render this in an XML-enabled browser (such as Internet Explorer or Mozilla Firefox) by pasting and saving the DTD component above to a text file named ''example.dtd'' and the XML file to a differently-named text file, and opening the XML file with the browser.", "The files should both be saved in the same directory.", "However, many browsers do not check that an XML document confirms to the rules in the DTD; they are only required to check that the DTD is syntactically correct.", "For security reasons, they may also choose not to read the external DTD.The same DTD can also be embedded directly in the XML document itself as an internal subset, by encasing it within square brackets in the document type declaration, in which case the document no longer depends on external entities and can be processed in standalone mode: > Fred Bloggs 2008-11-27 Male" ], [ "Alternatives", "Alternatives to DTDs (for specifying schemas) are available:* XML Schema, also referred to as XML Schema Definition (XSD), has achieved Recommendation status within the W3C, and is popular for \"data oriented\" (that is, transactional non-publishing) XML use because of its stronger typing and easier round-tripping to Java declarations.", "Most of the publishing world has found that the added complexity of XSD would not bring them any particular benefits, so DTDs are still far more popular there.", "An XML Schema Definition is itself an XML document while a DTD is not.", "* RELAX NG, which is also a part of DSDL, is an ISO international standard.", "It is more expressive than XSD, while providing a simpler syntax, but commercial software support has been slow in coming." ], [ "Security", "An XML DTD can be used to create a denial of service (DoS) attack by defining nested entities that expand exponentially, or by sending the XML parser to an external resource that never returns.For this reason, .NET Framework provides a property that allows prohibiting or skipping DTD parsing, and recent versions of Microsoft Office applications (Microsoft Office 2010 and higher) refuse to open XML files that contain DTD declarations." ], [ "See also", "* JATS (Journal Article Tag Suite)* Semantic Web* XML Schema (W3C)* XML Schema Language Comparison – Comparison to other XML Schema languages." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Definition of the XML document type declaration from Extensible Markup Language (XML) 1.0 (Fourth Edition) on W3.org" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Devil" ], [ "Introduction", "Statue of the devil in the Žmuidzinavičius Museum or Devil's Museum in Kaunas, LithuaniaSatan (the dragon; on the left) gives to the beast of the sea (on the right) power represented by a sceptre in a detail of panel III.40 of the medieval French Apocalypse Tapestry, produced between 1377 and 1382.A fresco detail from the Rila Monastery, in which demons are depicted as having grotesque faces and bodiesA '''devil''' is the personification of evil as it is conceived in various cultures and religious traditions.", "It is seen as the objectification of a hostile and destructive force.", "Jeffrey Burton Russell states that the different conceptions of the devil can be summed up as 1) a principle of evil independent from God, 2) an aspect of God, 3) a created being turning evil (a ''fallen angel''), and 4) a symbol of human evil.Each tradition, culture, and religion with a devil in its mythos offers a different lens on manifestations of evil.", "The history of these perspectives intertwines with theology, mythology, psychiatry, art, and literature developing independently within each of the traditions.", "It occurs historically in many contexts and cultures, and is given many different names—Satan, Lucifer, Beelzebub, Mephistopheles, Iblis—and attributes: it is portrayed as blue, black, or red; it is portrayed as having horns on its head, and without horns, and so on.", "While depictions of the devil are usually taken seriously, there are times when it is treated less seriously; when, for example, devil figures are used in advertising and on candy wrappers." ], [ "Etymology", "The Modern English word ''devil'' derives from the Middle English ''devel'', from the Old English ''dēofol'', that in turn represents an early Germanic borrowing of the Latin ''diabolus''.", "This in turn was borrowed from the Greek ''diábolos'', \"slanderer\", from ''diabállein'', \"to slander\" from διά ''diá'', \"across, through\" and βάλλειν ''bállein'', \"to hurl\", probably akin to the Sanskrit ''gurate'', \"he lifts up\"." ], [ "Definitions", "In his book ''The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity'', Jeffrey Burton Russell discusses various meanings and difficulties that are encountered when using the term ''devil''.", "He does not claim to define the word in a general sense, but he describes the limited use that he intends for the word in his book—limited in order to \"minimize this difficulty\" and \"for the sake of clarity\".", "In this book Russell uses the word ''devil'' as \"the personification of evil found in a variety of cultures\", as opposed to the word ''Satan'', which he reserves specifically for the figure in the Abrahamic religions.In the Introduction to his book ''Satan: A Biography'', Henry Ansgar Kelly discusses various considerations and meanings that he has encountered in using terms such as ''devil'' and ''Satan'', etc.", "While not offering a general definition, he describes that in his book \"whenever ''diabolos'' is used as the proper name of Satan\", he signals it by using \"small caps\".The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' has a variety of definitions for the meaning of \"devil\", supported by a range of citations: \"Devil\" may refer to Satan, the supreme spirit of evil, or one of Satan's emissaries or demons that populate Hell, or to one of the spirits that possess a demonic person; \"devil\" may refer to one of the \"malignant deities\" feared and worshiped by \"heathen people\", a demon, a malignant being of superhuman powers; figuratively \"devil\" may be applied to a wicked person, or playfully to a rogue or rascal, or in empathy often accompanied by the word \"poor\" to a person—\"poor devil\"." ], [ "Baháʼí Faith", "In the Baháʼí Faith, a malevolent, superhuman entity such as a ''devil'' or ''satan'' is not believed to exist.", "These terms do, however, appear in the Baháʼí writings, where they are used as metaphors for the lower nature of man.", "Human beings are seen to have free will, and are thus able to turn towards God and develop spiritual qualities or turn away from God and become immersed in their self-centered desires.", "Individuals who follow the temptations of the self and do not develop spiritual virtues are often described in the Baháʼí writings with the word ''satanic''.", "The Baháʼí writings also state that the devil is a metaphor for the \"insistent self\" or \"lower self\" which is a self-serving inclination within each individual.", "Those who follow their lower nature are also described as followers of \"the Evil One\"." ], [ "Christianity", "''The Fallen Angel'' (1847) by Alexandre Cabanel (Musée Fabre, Montpellier)In Christianity, evil is incarnate in the devil or Satan, a fallen angel who is the primary opponent of God.", "Some Christians also considered the Roman and Greek deities as devils.Christianity describes Satan as a fallen angel who terrorizes the world through evil, is the antithesis of truth, and shall be condemned, together with the fallen angels who follow him, to eternal fire at the Last Judgment.In mainstream Christianity, the devil is usually referred to as Satan.", "This is because Christian beliefs in Satan are inspired directly by the dominant view of Second Temple Judaism (recorded in the Enochian books), as expressed/practiced by Jesus, and with some minor variations.", "Some modern Christians consider the devil to be an angel who, along with one-third of the angelic host (the demons), rebelled against God and has consequently been condemned to the Lake of Fire.", "He is described as hating all humanity (or more accurately creation), opposing God, spreading lies and wreaking havoc on their souls.Horns of a goat and a ram, goat's fur and ears, nose and canines of a pig; a typical depiction of the devil in Christian art.", "The goat, ram and pig are consistently associated with the devil.", "Detail of a 16th-century painting by Jacob de Backer in the National Museum in Warsaw.Satan is traditionally identified as the serpent who convinced Eve to eat the forbidden fruit; thus, Satan has often been depicted as a serpent.", "In the Bible, the devil is identified with \"the dragon\" and \"the old serpent\" seen in the Book of Revelation, as has \"the prince of this world\" in the Gospel of John; and \"the spirit that now worketh in the children of disobedience\" in the Epistle to the Ephesians; and \"the god of this world\" in 2 Corinthians 4:4.He is also identified as the dragon in the Book of Revelation and the tempter of the Gospels.Beelzebub is originally the name of a Philistine god (more specifically a certain type of Baal, from ''Ba‘al Zebûb'', lit.", "\"Lord of Flies\") but is also used in the New Testament as a synonym for the devil.", "A corrupted version, \"Belzeboub\", appears in ''The Divine Comedy'' (''Inferno'' XXXIV).In other, non-mainstream, Christian beliefs (e.g.", "the beliefs of the Christadelphians) the word \"satan\" in the Bible is not regarded as referring to a supernatural, personal being but to any 'adversary' and figuratively refers to human sin and temptation.=== Apocrypha/Deuterocanon ===In the Book of Wisdom, the devil is represented as the one who brought death into the world.", "The Second Book of Enoch contains references to a Watcher called Satanael, describing him as the prince of the ''Grigori'' who was cast out of heaven and an evil spirit who knew the difference between what was \"righteous\" and \"sinful\".In the Book of Jubilees, Satan rules over a host of angels.", "Mastema, who induced God to test Abraham through the sacrifice of Isaac, is identical with Satan in both name and nature.", "The Book of Enoch contains references to Sathariel, thought also to be Sataniel and Satan'el.", "The similar spellings mirror that of his angelic brethren Michael, Raphael, Uriel, and Gabriel, previous to his expulsion from Heaven." ], [ "Gnostic religions", "A lion-faced deity found on a Gnostic gem in Bernard de Montfaucon's ''L'antiquité expliquée et représentée en figures'' may be a depiction of the Demiurge.Gnostic and Gnostic-influenced religions postulate the idea that the material world is inherently evil.", "The ''One true God'' is remote, beyond the material universe, therefore this universe must be governed by an inferior imposter deity.", "This deity was identified with the deity of the Old Testament by some sects, such as the Sethians and the Marcions.", "Tertullian accuses Marcion of Sinope, that he John Arendzen (1909) in the ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' (1913) mentions that Eusebius accused Apelles, the 2nd-century AD Gnostic, of considering the Inspirer of Old Testament prophecies to be not a god, but an evil angel.", "These writings commonly refer to the Creator of the material world as \"a demiurgus\" to distinguish him from the ''One true God''.", "Some texts, such as the Apocryphon of John and On the Origin of the World, not only demonized the Creator God but also called him by the name of the devil in some Jewish writings, ''Samael''.=== Catharism ===In the 12th century in Europe the Cathars, who were rooted in Gnosticism, dealt with the problem of evil, and developed ideas of dualism and demonology.", "The Cathars were seen as a serious potential challenge to the Catholic church of the time.", "The Cathars split into two camps.", "The first is ''absolute'' dualism, which held that evil was completely separate from the good God, and that God and the devil each had power.", "The second camp is ''mitigated'' dualism, which considers Lucifer to be a son of God, and a brother to Christ.", "To explain this they used the parable of the prodigal son, with Christ as the good son, and Lucifer as the son that strayed into evilness.", "The Catholic Church responded to dualism in AD 1215 in the Fourth Lateran Council, saying that God created everything from nothing, and the devil was good when he was created, but he made himself bad by his own free will.", "In the ''Gospel of the Secret Supper'', Lucifer, just as in prior Gnostic systems, appears as a demiurge, who created the material world." ], [ "Islam", "Iblis (top right on the picture) refuses to prostrate before the newly created Adam from a Persian miniature.In Islam, the principle of evil is expressed by two terms referring to the same entity: ''Shaitan'' (meaning ''astray'', ''distant'' or ''devil'') and ''Iblis''.", "Iblis is the proper name of the devil representing the characteristics of evil.", "Iblis is mentioned in the Quranic narrative about the creation of humanity.", "When God created Adam, he ordered the angels to prostrate themselves before him.", "All did, but Iblis refused and claimed to be superior to Adam out of pride.", "Therefore, pride but also envy became a sign of \"unbelief\" in Islam.", "Thereafter Iblis was condemned to Hell, but God granted him a request to lead humanity astray, knowing the righteous would resist Iblis' attempts to misguide them.", "In Islam, both good and evil are ultimately created by God.", "But since God's will is good, the evil in the world must be part of God's plan.", "Actually, God allowed the devil to seduce humanity.", "Evil and suffering are regarded as a test or a chance to proof confidence in God.", "Some philosophers and mystics emphasized Iblis himself as a role model of confidence in God, because God ordered the angels to prostrate themselves, Iblis was forced to choose between God's command and God's will (not to praise someone else than God).", "He successfully passed the test, yet his disobedience caused his punishment and therefore suffering.", "However, he stays patient and is rewarded in the end.Muslims hold that the pre-Islamic jinn, tutelary deities, became subject under Islam to the judgment of God, and that those who did not submit to the law of God are devils.Although Iblis is often compared to the devil in Christian theology, Islam rejects the idea that Satan is an opponent of God and the implied struggle between God and the devil.", "Iblis might either be regarded as ''the most monotheistic'' or ''the greatest sinner'', but remains only a creature of God.", "Iblis did not become an unbeliever due to his disobedience, but because of attributing injustice to God; that is, by asserting that the command to prostrate himself before Adam was inappropriate.", "There is no sign of angelic revolt in the Quran and no mention of Iblis trying to take God's throne and Iblis's sin could be forgiven at anytime by God.", "According to the Quran, Iblis's disobedience was due to his disdain for humanity, a narrative already occurring in early New Testament apocrypha.", "As in Christianity, Iblis was once a pious creature of God but later cast out of Heaven due to his pride.", "However, to maintain God's absolute sovereignty, Islam matches the line taken by Irenaeus instead of the later Christian consensus that the devil did not rebel against God but against humanity.", "Further, although Iblis is generally regarded as a real bodily entity, he plays a less significant role as the personification of evil than in Christianity.", "Iblis is merely a tempter, notable for inciting humans into sin by ''whispering'' into humans minds (waswās), akin to the Jewish idea of the devil as ''yetzer hara''.On the other hand, ''Shaitan'' refers unilaterally to forces of evil, including the devil Iblis, then he causes mischief.", "Shaitan is also linked to humans psychological nature, appearing in dreams, causing anger or interrupting the mental preparation for prayer.", "Furthermore, the term ''Shaitan'' also refers to beings, who follow the evil suggestions of Iblis.", "Furthermore, the principle of ''shaitan'' is in many ways a symbol of spiritual impurity, representing humans' own deficits, in contrast to a \"true Muslim\", who is free from anger, lust and other devilish desires.In Muslim culture, devils are believed to be hermaphrodite creatures created from hell-fire, with one male and one female thigh.", "By that, they procreate without another mate.", "It is generally believed that devils can harm the souls of humans through their whisperings.", "While whisperings tempt humans to sin, the devils might enter the hearth (''qalb'') of an individual.", "If the devils take over the soul of a person, this would render them aggressive or insane.", "In extreme cases, the alterings of the soul are believed to have effect on the body, matching its spiritual qualities.=== In Sufism and mysticism ===In contrast to Occidental philosophy, the Sufi idea of seeing \"Many as One\", and considering the creation in its essence as the Absolute, leads to the idea of the dissolution of any dualism between the ego substance and the \"external\" substantial objects.", "The rebellion against God, mentioned in the Quran, takes place on the level of the psyche, that must be trained and disciplined for its union with the spirit that is pure.", "Since psyche drives the body, ''flesh'' is not the obstacle to humans but rather an unawareness that allows the impulsive forces to cause rebellion against God on the level of the psyche.", "Yet it is not a dualism between body, psyche and spirit, since the spirit embraces both psyche and corporeal aspects of humanity.", "Since the world is held to be the mirror in which God's attributes are reflected, participation in worldly affairs is not necessarily seen as opposed to God.", "The devil activates the selfish desires of the psyche, leading the human astray from the Divine.", "Thus it is the ''I'' that is regarded as evil, and both Iblis and ''Pharao'' are present as symbols for uttering \"I\" in ones own behavior.", "Therefore it is recommended to use the term ''I'' as little as possible.", "It is only God who has the right to say \"I\", since it is only God who is self-subsistent.", "Uttering \"I\" is therefore a way to compare oneself to God, regarded as ''shirk''.=== In Salafism ===Salafi strands of Islam commonly emphasize a dualistic worldview contrasting believers and unbelievers, and featuring the devil as the enemy of the faithful who tries to lead them astray from God's path.", "Even though the devil will eventually be defeated by God, he remains a serious and dangerous opponent of humans.", "While in classical hadiths, the demons (''Shayateen'') and the jinn are responsible for impurity and capable of endangering human souls, in Salafi thought, it is the devil himself, who lies in wait for believers, always striving to lure them away from God.", "The devil is regarded as an omnipresent entity, permanently inciting humans into sin, but can be ''pushed away'' by remembering the name God.", "The devil is regarded as an external entity, threatening the everyday life of the believer, even in social aspects of life.", "Thus for example, it is the devil who is responsible for Western emancipation." ], [ "Judaism", "Yahweh, the god in pre-exilic Judaism, created both good and evil, as stated in Isaiah 45:7: \"I form the light, and create darkness: I make peace, and create evil: I the Lord do all these things.\"", "The devil does not exist in Jewish scriptures.", "However, the influence of Zoroastrianism during the Achaemenid Empire introduced evil as a separate principle into the Jewish belief system, which gradually externalized the opposition until the Hebrew term ''satan'' developed into a specific type of supernatural entity, changing the monistic view of Judaism into a dualistic one.", "Later, Rabbinic Judaism rejected the Enochian books (written during the Second Temple period under Persian influence), which depicted the devil as an independent force of evil besides God.", "After the apocalyptic period, references to Satan in the Tanakh are thought to be allegorical." ], [ "Mandaeism", "In Mandaean mythology, Ruha fell apart from the World of Light and became the queen of the World of Darkness, also referred to as Sheol.", "She is considered evil and a liar, sorcerer and seductress.She gives birth to Ur, also referred to as Leviathan.", "He is portrayed as a large, ferocious dragon or snake and is considered the king of the World of Darkness.", "Together they rule the underworld and create the seven planets and twelve zodiac constellations.", "Also found in the underworld is Krun, the greatest of the five Mandaean Lords of the underworld.", "He dwells in the lowest depths of creation and his epithet is the 'mountain of flesh'.", "Prominent infernal beings found in the World of Darkness include ''lilith'', ''nalai'' (vampire), ''niuli'' (hobgoblin), ''latabi'' (devil), ''gadalta'' (ghost), ''satani'' (Satan) and various other demons and evil spirits." ], [ "Manichaeism", "In Manichaeism, God and the devil are two unrelated principles.", "God created ''good'' and inhabits the realm of light, while the devil (also called the ''prince of darkness'') created evil and inhabits the kingdom of darkness.", "The contemporary world came into existence, when the kingdom of darkness assaulted the kingdom of light and mingled with the spiritual world.", "At the end, the devil and his followers will be sealed forever and the kingdom of light and the kingdom of darkness will continue to co-exist eternally, never to commingle again.Hegemonius (4th century CE) accuses that the Persian prophet Mani, founder of the Manichaean sect in the 3rd century CE, identified Jehovah as \"the devil god which created the world\" and said that \"he who spoke with Moses, the Jews, and the priests … is the Prince of Darkness, … not the god of truth.\"" ], [ "Tengrism", "Among the Tengristic myths of central Asia, ''Erlik'' refers to a devil-like figure as the ruler of Tamag (Hell), who was also the first human.", "According to one narrative, Erlik and God swam together over the primordial waters.", "When God was about to create the Earth, he sent Erlik to dive into the waters and collect some mud.", "Erlik hid some inside his mouth to later create his own world.", "But when God commanded the Earth to expand, Erlik got troubled by the mud in his mouth.", "God aided Erlik to spit it out.", "The mud carried by Erlik gave place to the unpleasant areas of the world.", "Because of his sin, he was assigned to evil.", "In another variant, the creator-god is identified with Ulgen.", "Again, Erlik appears to be the first human.", "He desired to create a human just as Ulgen did, thereupon Ulgen reacted by punishing Erlik, casting him into the Underworld where he becomes its ruler.According to Tengrism, there is no death, meaning that, when life comes to an end, it is merely a transition into the invisible world.", "As the ruler of Hell, Erlik enslaves the souls, who are damned to Hell.", "Further, he lurks on the souls of those humans living on Earth by causing death, disease and illnesses.", "At the time of birth, Erlik sends a Kormos to seize the soul of the newborn, following him for the rest of his life in an attempt to seize his soul by hampering, misguiding, and injuring him.", "When Erlik succeeds in destroying a human's body, the Kormos sent by Erlik will try take him down into the Underworld.", "However a good soul will be brought to Paradise by a ''Yayutshi'' sent by Ulgen.", "Some shamans also made sacrifices to Erlik, for gaining a higher rank in the Underworld, if they should be damned to Hell." ], [ "Yazidism", "According to Yazidism there is no entity that represents evil in opposition to God; such dualism is rejected by Yazidis, and evil is regarded as nonexistent.", "Yazidis adhere to strict monism and are prohibited from uttering the word \"devil\" and from speaking of anything related to Hell." ], [ "Zoroastrianism", "Ahriman Div being slain during a scene from the Shahnameh Zoroastrianism probably introduced the first idea of the devil; a principle of evil independently existing apart from God.", "In Zoroastrianism, good and evil derive from two ultimately opposed forces.", "The force of good is called Ahura Mazda and the \"destructive spirit\" in the Avestan language is called Angra Mainyu.", "The Middle Persian equivalent is Ahriman.", "They are in eternal struggle and neither is all-powerful, especially Angra Mainyu is limited to space and time: in the end of time, he will be finally defeated.", "While Ahura Mazda creates what is good, Angra Mainyu is responsible for every evil and suffering in the world, such as toads and scorpions.Iranian Zoroastrians also considered the Daeva as devil creature, because of this in the Shahnameh, it is mentioned as both Ahriman Div () as a devil." ], [ "Devil in moral philosophy", "=== Spinoza ===A non-published manuscript of Spinoza's ''Ethics'' contained a chapter (Chapter XXI) on the devil, where Spinoza examined whether the devil may exist or not.", "He defines the devil as an entity which is contrary to God.", "However, if the devil is the opposite of God, the devil would consist of Nothingness, which does not exist.In a paper called ''On Devils'', he writes that we can a priori find out that such a thing cannot exist.", "Because the duration of a thing results in its degree of perfection, and the more essence a thing possess the more lasting it is, and since the devil has no perfection at all, it is impossible for the devil to be an existing thing.", "Evil or immoral behaviour in humans, such as anger, hate, envy, and all things for which the devil is blamed for could be explained without the proposal of a devil.", "Thus, the devil does not have any explanatory power and should be dismissed (Occam's razor).", "Regarding evil through free choice, Spinoza asks how it can be that Adam would have chosen sin over his own well-being.", "Theology traditionally responds to this by asserting it is the devil who tempts humans into sin, but who would have tempted the devil?", "According to Spinoza, a rational being, such as the devil must have been, could not choose his own damnation.", "The devil must have known his sin would lead to doom, thus the devil was not knowing, or the devil did not know his sin will lead to doom, thus the devil would not have been a rational being.", "Spinoza deducts a strict determinism in which moral agency as a free choice, cannot exist.=== Kant ===In ''Religion Within the Limits of Reason Alone'', Immanuel Kant uses the devil as the personification of maximum moral reprehensibility.", "Deviating from the common Christian idea, Kant does not locate the morally reprehensible in sensual urges.", "Since evil has to be intelligible, only when the sensual is consciously placed above the moral obligation can something be regarded as morally evil.", "Thus, to be evil, the devil must be able to comprehend morality but consciously reject it, and, as a ''spiritual being'' (Geistwesen), having no relation to any form of sensual pleasure.", "It is necessarily required for the devil to be a spiritual being because if the devil were also a sensual being, it would be possible that the devil does evil to satisfy lower sensual desires, and does not act from the mind alone.", "The devil acts against morals, not to satisfy sensual lust, but solely for the sake of evil.", "As such, the devil is unselfish, for he does not benefit from his evil deeds.", "However, Kant denies that a human being could ever be completely devilish.", "Kant admits that there are devilish vices (ingratitude, envy, and malicious joy), i.e., vices that do not bring any personal advantage, but a person can never be completely a devil.", "In his ''Lecture on Moral Philosophy'' (1774/75) Kant gives an example of a tulip seller who was in possession of a rare tulip, but when he learned that another seller had the same tulip, he bought it from him and then destroyed it instead of keeping it for himself.", "If he had acted according to his sensual urges, the seller would have kept the tulip for himself to make a profit, but not have destroyed it.", "Nevertheless, the destruction of the tulip cannot be completely absolved from sensual impulses, since a sensual joy or relief still accompanies the destruction of the tulip and therefore cannot be thought of solely as a violation of morality.Kant further argues that a (spiritual) devil would be a contradiction.", "If the devil would be defined by doing evil, the devil had no free choice in the first place.", "But if the devil had no free-choice, the devil could not have been held accountable for his actions, since he had no free will but was only following his nature." ], [ "Contemporary belief", "Opinion polls show that belief in the devil in Western countries is more common in the United States ... + Belief in the devil in 1982 Country U.S. U.K. France Percentage ~60 21 17where it is more common among the religious, regular church goers, political conservatives, and the older and less well educated,... but has declined in recent decades.+ Belief in the devil in the U.S. Year surveyed 2001 2004 200 2016 2023 Percentage believing68 70 70 61 58" ], [ "Titles", "Honorifics or styles of address used to indicate devil-figures.", "* Ash-Shaytan \"Satan\", the attributive Arabic term referring to the devil* Angra Mainyu, Ahriman: \"malign spirit\", \"unholy spirit\"* Dark lord* ''Der Leibhaftige Teufel'' (German): \"the devil in the flesh, corporeal\"* ''Diabolus, Diabolos'' (Greek: Διάβολος)* The Evil One* The Father of Lies (John 8:44), in contrast to Jesus (\"I am the truth\").", "* Iblis, name of the devil in Islam* The Lord of the Underworld / Lord of Hell / Lord of this world* Lucifer / the Morning Star (Greek and Roman): the bringer of light, illuminator; the planet Venus, often portrayed as Satan's name in Christianity* Kölski (Iceland)* Mephistopheles* Old Scratch, the Stranger, Old Nick: a colloquialism for the devil, as indicated by the name of the character in the short story \"The Devil and Tom Walker\"* Prince of darkness, the devil in Manichaeism* Ruprecht (German form of Robert), a common name for the Devil in Germany (see Knecht Ruprecht (Knight Robert))* Satan / the Adversary, Accuser, Prosecutor; in Christianity, the devil* (The ancient/old/crooked/coiling) Serpent* Voland (fictional character in ''The Master and Margarita'')== See also ==* Deal with the Devil* Devil in popular culture* Hades, Underworld* Krampus, in the Tyrolean area also ''Tuifl''* Non-physical entity* Theistic Satanism" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * Entry from the New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia* Can you sell your soul to the Devil?", "A Jewish view on the Devil" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Diesel engine" ], [ "Introduction", "Diesel engine built by Langen & Wolf under licence, 18981952 Shell Oil film showing the development of the diesel engine from 1877The '''diesel engine''', named after Rudolf Diesel, is an internal combustion engine in which ignition of the fuel is caused by the elevated temperature of the air in the cylinder due to mechanical compression; thus, the diesel engine is called a compression-ignition engine (CI engine).", "This contrasts with engines using spark plug-ignition of the air-fuel mixture, such as a petrol engine (gasoline engine) or a gas engine (using a gaseous fuel like natural gas or liquefied petroleum gas)." ], [ "Introduction", "Diesel engines work by compressing only air, or air plus residual combustion gases from the exhaust (known as exhaust gas recirculation, \"EGR\").", "Air is inducted into the chamber during the intake stroke, and compressed during the compression stroke.", "This increases the air temperature inside the cylinder so that atomised diesel fuel injected into the combustion chamber ignites.", "With the fuel being injected into the air just before combustion, the dispersion of the fuel is uneven; this is called a heterogeneous air-fuel mixture.", "The torque a diesel engine produces is controlled by manipulating the air-fuel ratio (λ); instead of throttling the intake air, the diesel engine relies on altering the amount of fuel that is injected, and the air-fuel ratio is usually high.The diesel engine has the highest thermal efficiency (engine efficiency) of any practical internal or external combustion engine due to its very high expansion ratio and inherent lean burn which enables heat dissipation by the excess air.", "A small efficiency loss is also avoided compared with non-direct-injection gasoline engines since unburned fuel is not present during valve overlap and therefore no fuel goes directly from the intake/injection to the exhaust.", "Low-speed diesel engines (as used in ships and other applications where overall engine weight is relatively unimportant) can reach effective efficiencies of up to 55%.", "The combined cycle gas turbine (Brayton and Rankine cycle) is a combustion engine that is more efficient than a diesel engine, but it is, due to its mass and dimensions, unsuited for vehicles, watercraft, or aircraft.", "The world's largest diesel engines put in service are 14-cylinder, two-stroke marine diesel engines; they produce a peak power of almost 100 MW each.Diesel engines may be designed with either two-stroke or four-stroke combustion cycles.", "They were originally used as a more efficient replacement for stationary steam engines.", "Since the 1910s, they have been used in submarines and ships.", "Use in locomotives, buses, trucks, heavy equipment, agricultural equipment and electricity generation plants followed later.", "In the 1930s, they slowly began to be used in a few automobiles.", "Since the 1970s energy crisis, demand for higher fuel efficiency has resulted in most major automakers, at some point, offering diesel-powered models, even in very small cars.", "According to Konrad Reif (2012), the EU average for diesel cars at the time accounted for half of newly registered cars.", "However, air pollution emissions are harder to control in diesel engines than in gasoline engines, so the use of diesel auto engines in the U.S. is now largely relegated to larger on-road and off-road vehicles.Though aviation has traditionally avoided diesel engines, aircraft diesel engines have become increasingly available in the 21st century.", "Since the late 1990s, for various reasons – including the diesel's normal advantages over gasoline engines, but also for recent issues peculiar to aviation – development and production of diesel engines for aircraft has surged, with over 5,000 such engines delivered worldwide between 2002 and 2018, particularly for light airplanes and unmanned aerial vehicles." ], [ "History", "===Diesel's idea===Rudolf Diesel's 1893 patent on a rational heat motorDiesel's second prototype.", "It is a modification of the first experimental engine.", "On 17 February 1894, this engine ran under its own power for the first time.Effective efficiency 16.6% Fuel consumption 519 g·kW−1·h−1First fully functional diesel engine, designed by Imanuel Lauster, built from scratch, and finished by October 1896.Rated power 13.1 kWEffective efficiency 26.2% Fuel consumption 324 g·kW−1·h−1.In 1878, Rudolf Diesel, who was a student at the \"Polytechnikum\" in Munich, attended the lectures of Carl von Linde.", "Linde explained that steam engines are capable of converting just 6–10% of the heat energy into work, but that the Carnot cycle allows conversion of much more of the heat energy into work by means of isothermal change in condition.", "According to Diesel, this ignited the idea of creating a highly efficient engine that could work on the Carnot cycle.", "Diesel was also introduced to a fire piston, a traditional fire starter using rapid adiabatic compression principles which Linde had acquired from Southeast Asia.", "After several years of working on his ideas, Diesel published them in 1893 in the essay ''Theory and Construction of a Rational Heat Motor''.Diesel was heavily criticised for his essay, but only a few found the mistake that he made; his ''rational heat motor'' was supposed to utilise a constant temperature cycle (with isothermal compression) that would require a much higher level of compression than that needed for compression ignition.", "Diesel's idea was to compress the air so tightly that the temperature of the air would exceed that of combustion.", "However, such an engine could never perform any usable work.", "In his 1892 US patent (granted in 1895) #542846, Diesel describes the compression required for his cycle::pure atmospheric air is compressed, according to curve 1 2, to such a degree that, before ignition or combustion takes place, the highest pressure of the diagram and the highest temperature are obtained-that is to say, the temperature at which the subsequent combustion has to take place, not the burning or igniting point.", "To make this more clear, let it be assumed that the subsequent combustion shall take place at a temperature of 700°.", "Then in that case the initial pressure must be sixty-four atmospheres, or for 800° centigrade the pressure must be ninety atmospheres, and so on.", "Into the air thus compressed is then gradually introduced from the exterior finely divided fuel, which ignites on introduction, since the air is at a temperature far above the igniting-point of the fuel.", "The characteristic features of the cycle according to my present invention are therefore, increase of pressure and temperature up to the maximum, not by combustion, but prior to combustion by mechanical compression of air, and there upon the subsequent performance of work without increase of pressure and temperature by gradual combustion during a prescribed part of the stroke determined by the cut-oil.By June 1893, Diesel had realised his original cycle would not work and he adopted the constant pressure cycle.", "Diesel describes the cycle in his 1895 patent application.", "Notice that there is no longer a mention of compression temperatures exceeding the temperature of combustion.", "Now it is simply stated that the compression must be sufficient to trigger ignition.", ":1.In an internal-combustion engine, the combination of a cylinder and piston constructed and arranged to compress air to a degree producing a temperature above the igniting-point of the fuel, a supply for compressed air or gas; a fuel-supply; a distributing-valve for fuel, a passage from the air supply to the cylinder in communication with the fuel-distributing valve, an inlet to the cylinder in communication with the air-supply and with the fuel-valve, and a cut-oil, substantially as described.In 1892, Diesel received patents in Germany, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States for \"Method of and Apparatus for Converting Heat into Work\".", "In 1894 and 1895, he filed patents and addenda in various countries for his engine; the first patents were issued in Spain (No.", "16,654), France (No.", "243,531) and Belgium (No.", "113,139) in December 1894, and in Germany (No.", "86,633) in 1895 and the United States (No.", "608,845) in 1898.Diesel was attacked and criticised over a time period of several years.", "Critics claimed that Diesel never invented a new motor and that the invention of the diesel engine is fraud.", "Otto Köhler and were two of the most prominent critics of Diesel's time.", "Köhler had published an essay in 1887, in which he describes an engine similar to the engine Diesel describes in his 1893 essay.", "Köhler figured that such an engine could not perform any work.", "Emil Capitaine had built a petroleum engine with glow-tube ignition in the early 1890s; he claimed against his own better judgement that his glow-tube ignition engine worked the same way Diesel's engine did.", "His claims were unfounded and he lost a patent lawsuit against Diesel.", "Other engines, such as the Akroyd engine and the Brayton engine, also use an operating cycle that is different from the diesel engine cycle.", "Friedrich Sass says that the diesel engine is Diesel's \"very own work\" and that any \"Diesel myth\" is \"falsification of history\".===The first diesel engine===Diesel sought out firms and factories that would build his engine.", "With the help of Moritz Schröter and , he succeeded in convincing both Krupp in Essen and the Maschinenfabrik Augsburg.", "Contracts were signed in April 1893, and in early summer 1893, Diesel's first prototype engine was built in Augsburg.", "On 10 August 1893, the first ignition took place, the fuel used was petrol.", "In winter 1893/1894, Diesel redesigned the existing engine, and by 18 January 1894, his mechanics had converted it into the second prototype.", "During January that year, an air-blast injection system was added to the engine's cylinder head and tested.", "Friedrich Sass argues that, it can be presumed that Diesel copied the concept of air-blast injection from George B. Brayton, albeit that Diesel substantially improved the system.", "On 17 February 1894, the redesigned engine ran for 88 revolutions – one minute; with this news, Maschinenfabrik Augsburg's stock rose by 30%, indicative of the tremendous anticipated demands for a more efficient engine.", "On 26 June 1895, the engine achieved an effective efficiency of 16.6% and had a fuel consumption of 519 g·kW−1·h−1.However, despite proving the concept, the engine caused problems, and Diesel could not achieve any substantial progress.", "Therefore, Krupp considered rescinding the contract they had made with Diesel.", "Diesel was forced to improve the design of his engine and rushed to construct a third prototype engine.", "Between 8 November and 20 December 1895, the second prototype had successfully covered over 111 hours on the test bench.", "In the January 1896 report, this was considered a success.In February 1896, Diesel considered supercharging the third prototype.", "Imanuel Lauster, who was ordered to draw the third prototype \"Motor 250/400\", had finished the drawings by 30 April 1896.During summer that year the engine was built, it was completed on 6 October 1896.Tests were conducted until early 1897.First public tests began on 1 February 1897.Moritz Schröter's test on 17 February 1897 was the main test of Diesel's engine.", "The engine was rated 13.1 kW with a specific fuel consumption of 324 g·kW−1·h−1, resulting in an effective efficiency of 26.2%.", "By 1898, Diesel had become a millionaire.===Timeline=======1890s====* 1893: Rudolf Diesel's essay titled ''Theory and Construction of a Rational Heat Motor'' appears.", "* 1893: February 21, Diesel and the Maschinenfabrik Augsburg sign a contract that allows Diesel to build a prototype engine.", "* 1893: February 23, Diesel obtains a patent (RP 67207) titled \"''Arbeitsverfahren und Ausführungsart für Verbrennungsmaschinen''\" (Working Methods and Techniques for Internal Combustion Engines).", "* 1893: April 10, Diesel and Krupp sign a contract that allows Diesel to build a prototype engine.", "* 1893: April 24, both Krupp and the Maschinenfabrik Augsburg decide to collaborate and build just a single prototype in Augsburg.", "* 1893: July, the first prototype is completed.", "* 1893: August 10, Diesel injects fuel (petrol) for the first time, resulting in combustion, destroying the indicator.", "* 1893: November 30, Diesel applies for a patent (RP 82168) for a modified combustion process.", "He obtains it on 12 July 1895.", "* 1894: January 18, after the first prototype had been modified to become the second prototype, testing with the second prototype begins.", "* 1894: February 17, The second prototype runs for the first time.", "* 1895: March 30, Diesel applies for a patent (RP 86633) for a starting process with compressed air.", "* 1895: June 26, the second prototype passes brake testing for the first time.", "* 1895: Diesel applies for a second patent US Patent # 608845* 1895: November 8 – December 20, a series of tests with the second prototype is conducted.", "In total, 111 operating hours are recorded.", "* 1896: April 30, Imanuel Lauster completes the third and final prototype's drawings.", "* 1896: October 6, the third and final prototype engine is completed.", "* 1897: February 1, Diesel's prototype engine is running and finally ready for efficiency testing and production.", "* 1897: October 9, Adolphus Busch licenses rights to the diesel engine for the US and Canada.", "* 1897: 29 October, Rudolf Diesel obtains a patent (DRP 95680) on supercharging the diesel engine.", "* 1898: February 1, the Diesel Motoren-Fabrik Actien-Gesellschaft is registered.", "* 1898: March, the first commercial diesel engine, rated 2×30 PS (2×22 kW), is installed in the Kempten plant of the Vereinigte Zündholzfabriken A.G.* 1898: September 17, the Allgemeine Gesellschaft für Dieselmotoren A.-G. is founded.", "* 1899: The first two-stroke diesel engine, invented by Hugo Güldner, is built.====1900s====An MAN DM trunk piston diesel engine built in 1906.The MAN DM series is considered to be one of the first commercially successful diesel engines.", "* 1901: Imanuel Lauster designs the first trunk piston diesel engine (DM 70).", "* 1901: By 1901, MAN had produced 77 diesel engine cylinders for commercial use.", "* 1903: Two first diesel-powered ships are launched, both for river and canal operations: The ''Vandal'' naphtha tanker and the ''Sarmat''.", "* 1904: The French launch the first diesel submarine, the Aigrette.", "* 1905: January 14: Diesel applies for a patent on unit injection (L20510I/46a).", "* 1905: The first diesel engine turbochargers and intercoolers are manufactured by Büchi.", "* 1906: The Diesel Motoren-Fabrik Actien-Gesellschaft is dissolved.", "* 1908: Diesel's patents expire.", "* 1908: The first lorry (truck) with a diesel engine appears.", "* 1909: March 14, Prosper L'Orange applies for a patent on precombustion chamber injection.", "He later builds the first diesel engine with this system.====1910s====* 1910: MAN starts making two-stroke diesel engines.", "* 1910: November 26, James McKechnie applies for a patent on unit injection.", "Unlike Diesel, he successfully built working unit injectors.", "* 1911: November 27, the Allgemeine Gesellschaft für Dieselmotoren A.-G. is dissolved.", "* 1911: The Germania shipyard in Kiel builds diesel engines for German submarines.", "These engines are installed in 1914.", "* 1912: MAN builds the first double-acting piston two-stroke diesel engine.", "* 1912: The first locomotive with a diesel engine is used on the Swiss Winterthur–Romanshorn railway.", "* 1912: MS ''Selandia'' is the first ocean-going ship with diesel engines.", "* 1913: NELSECO diesels are installed on commercial ships and US Navy submarines.", "* 1913: September 29, Rudolf Diesel dies mysteriously while crossing the English Channel on .", "* 1914: MAN builds two-stroke engines for Dutch submarines.", "* 1919: Prosper L'Orange obtains a patent on a precombustion chamber insert incorporating a needle injection nozzle.", "First diesel engine from Cummins.====1920s====Fairbanks Morse model 32* 1923: At the Königsberg DLG exhibition, the first agricultural tractor with a diesel engine, the prototype Benz-Sendling S6, is presented.", "* 1923: December 15, the first lorry with a direct-injected diesel engine is tested by MAN.", "The same year, Benz builds a lorry with a pre-combustion chamber injected diesel engine.", "* 1923: The first two-stroke diesel engine with counterflow scavenging appears.", "* 1924: Fairbanks-Morse introduces the two-stroke Y-VA (later renamed to Model 32).", "* 1925: Sendling starts mass-producing a diesel-powered agricultural tractor.", "* 1927: Bosch introduces the first inline injection pump for motor vehicle diesel engines.", "* 1929: The first passenger car with a diesel engine appears.", "Its engine is an Otto engine modified to use the diesel principle and Bosch's injection pump.", "Several other diesel car prototypes follow.====1930s====* 1933: Junkers Motorenwerke in Germany start production of the most successful mass-produced aviation diesel engine of all time, the Jumo 205.By the outbreak of World War II, over 900 examples are produced.", "Its rated take-off power is 645 kW.", "* 1933: General Motors uses its new roots-blown, unit-injected two-stroke Winton 201A diesel engine to power its automotive assembly exhibit at the Chicago World's Fair (''A Century of Progress'').", "The engine is offered in several versions ranging from .", "* 1934: The Budd Company builds the first diesel–electric passenger train in the US, the ''Pioneer Zephyr 9900'', using a Winton engine.", "* 1935: The Citroën Rosalie is fitted with an early swirl chamber injected diesel engine for testing purposes.", "Daimler-Benz starts manufacturing the Mercedes-Benz OM 138, the first mass-produced diesel engine for passenger cars, and one of the few marketable passenger car diesel engines of its time.", "It is rated .", "* 1936: March 4, the airship LZ 129 Hindenburg, the biggest aircraft ever made, takes off for the first time.", "It is powered by four V16 Daimler-Benz LOF 6 diesel engines, rated each.", "* 1936: Manufacture of the first mass-produced passenger car with a diesel engine (Mercedes-Benz 260 D) begins.", "* 1937: Konstantin Fyodorovich Chelpan develops the V-2 diesel engine, later used in the Soviet T-34 tanks, widely regarded as the best tank chassis of World War II.", "* 1938: General Motors forms the GM Diesel Division, later to become Detroit Diesel, and introduces the Series 71 inline high-speed medium-horsepower two-stroke engine, suitable for road vehicles and marine use.====1940s====* 1946: Clessie Cummins obtains a patent on a ''fuel feeding and injection apparatus for oil-burning engines'' that incorporates separate components for generating injection pressure and injection timing.", "* 1946: Klöckner-Humboldt-Deutz (KHD) introduces an air-cooled mass-production diesel engine to the market.====1950s====Piston of an MAN M-System centre sphere combustion chamber type diesel engine (4 VD 14,5/12-1 SRW)* 1950s: KHD becomes the air-cooled diesel engine global market leader.", "* 1951: J. Siegfried Meurer obtains a patent on the ''M-System'', a design that incorporates a central sphere combustion chamber in the piston (DBP 865683).", "* 1953: First mass-produced swirl chamber injected passenger car diesel engine (Borgward/Fiat).", "* 1954: Daimler-Benz introduces the Mercedes-Benz OM 312 A, a 4.6 litre straight-6 series-production industrial diesel engine with a turbocharger, rated .", "It proves to be unreliable.", "* 1954: Volvo produces a small batch series of 200 units of a turbocharged version of the TD 96 engine.", "This 9.6 litre engine is rated .", "* 1955: Turbocharging for MAN two-stroke marine diesel engines becomes standard.", "* 1959: The Peugeot 403 becomes the first mass-produced passenger sedan/saloon manufactured outside West Germany to be offered with a diesel engine option.====1960s====Mercedes-Benz OM 352, one of the first direct injected Mercedes-Benz diesel engines.", "It was introduced in 1963, but mass production only started in summer 1964.", "* 1964: Summer, Daimler-Benz switches from precombustion chamber injection to helix-controlled direct injection.", "* 1962–65: A diesel compression braking system, eventually to be manufactured by the Jacobs Manufacturing Company and nicknamed the \"Jake Brake\", is invented and patented by Clessie Cummins.====1970s====* 1972: KHD introduces the AD-System, ''Allstoff-Direkteinspritzung'', (anyfuel direct-injection), for its diesel engines.", "AD-diesels can operate on virtually any kind of liquid fuel, but they are fitted with an auxiliary spark plug that fires if the ignition quality of the fuel is too low.", "* 1976: Development of the common rail injection begins at the ETH Zürich.", "* 1976: The Volkswagen Golf becomes the first compact passenger sedan/saloon to be offered with a diesel engine option.", "* 1978: Daimler-Benz produces the first passenger car diesel engine with a turbocharger (Mercedes-Benz OM617 engine).", "* 1979: First prototype of a low-speed two-stroke crosshead engine with common rail injection.====1980s====BMW E28 524td, the first mass-produced passenger car with an electronically controlled injection pump* 1981/82: Uniflow scavenging for two-stroke marine diesel engines becomes standard.", "* 1985: December, road testing of a common rail injection system for lorries using a modified 6VD 12,5/12 GRF-E engine in an IFA W50 takes place.", "* 1986: The BMW E28 524td is the world's first passenger car equipped with an electronically controlled injection pump (developed by Bosch).", "* 1987: Daimler-Benz introduces the electronically controlled injection pump for lorry diesel engines.", "* 1988: The Fiat Croma becomes the first mass-produced passenger car in the world to have a direct injected diesel engine.", "* 1989: The Audi 100 is the first passenger car in the world with a turbocharged, direct injected, and electronically controlled diesel engine.====1990s====* 1992: 1 July, the Euro 1 emission standard comes into effect.", "* 1993: First passenger car diesel engine with four valves per cylinder, the Mercedes-Benz OM 604.", "* 1994: Unit injector system by Bosch for lorry diesel engines.", "* 1996: First diesel engine with direct injection and four valves per cylinder, used in the Opel Vectra.", "* 1996: First radial piston distributor injection pump by Bosch.", "* 1997: First mass-produced common rail diesel engine for a passenger car, the Fiat 1.9 JTD.", "* 1998: BMW wins the 24 Hours Nürburgring race with a modified BMW E36.The car, called 320d, is powered by a 2-litre, straight-four diesel engine with direct injection and a helix-controlled distributor injection pump (Bosch VP 44), producing .", "The fuel consumption is 23 L/100 km, only half the fuel consumption of a similar Otto-powered car.", "* 1998: Volkswagen introduces the VW EA188 Pumpe-Düse engine (1.9 TDI), with Bosch-developed electronically controlled unit injectors.", "* 1999: Daimler-Chrysler presents the first common rail three-cylinder diesel engine used in a passenger car (the Smart City Coupé).====2000s====Audi R10 TDI, 2006 24 Hours of Le Mans winner.", "* 2000: Peugeot introduces the diesel particulate filter for passenger cars.", "* 2002: Piezoelectric injector technology by Siemens.", "* 2003: Piezoelectric injector technology by Bosch, and Delphi.", "* 2004: BMW introduces dual-stage turbocharging with the BMW M57 engine.", "* 2006: The world's most powerful diesel engine, the Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C, is produced.", "It is rated 80,080 kW.", "* 2006: Audi R10 TDI, equipped with a 5.5-litre V12-TDI engine, rated , wins the 2006 24 Hours of Le Mans.", "* 2006: Daimler-Chrysler launches the first series-production passenger car engine with selective catalytic reduction exhaust gas treatment, the Mercedes-Benz OM 642.It is fully complying with the Tier2Bin8 emission standard.", "* 2008: Volkswagen introduces the LNT catalyst for passenger car diesel engines with the VW 2.0 TDI engine.", "* 2008: Volkswagen starts series production of the biggest passenger car diesel engine, the Audi 6-litre V12 TDI.", "* 2008: Subaru introduces the first horizontally opposed diesel engine to be fitted to a passenger car.", "It is a 2-litre common rail engine, rated 110 kW.====2010s====* 2010: Mitsubishi developed and started mass production of its 4N13 1.8 L DOHC I4, the world's first passenger car diesel engine that features a variable valve timing system.", "* 2012: BMW introduces dual-stage turbocharging with three turbochargers for the BMW N57 engine.", "* 2015: Common rail systems working with pressures of 2,500 bar launched.", "* 2015: In the Volkswagen emissions scandal, the US EPA issued a notice of violation of the Clean Air Act to Volkswagen Group after it was found that Volkswagen had intentionally programmed turbocharged direct injection (TDI) diesel engines to activate certain emissions controls only during laboratory emissions testing." ], [ "Operating principle", "=== Overview ===The characteristics of a diesel engine are* Use of compression ignition, instead of an ignition apparatus such as a spark plug.", "* Internal mixture formation.", "In diesel engines, the mixture of air and fuel is only formed inside the combustion chamber.", "* Quality torque control.", "The amount of torque a diesel engine produces is not controlled by throttling the intake air (unlike a traditional spark-ignition petrol engine, where the airflow is reduced in order to regulate the torque output), instead, the volume of air entering the engine is maximised at all times, and the torque output is regulated solely by controlling the amount of injected fuel.", "* High air-fuel ratio.", "Diesel engines run at global air-fuel ratios significantly leaner than the stoichiometric ratio.", "* Diffusion flame: At combustion, oxygen first has to diffuse into the flame, rather than having oxygen and fuel already mixed before combustion, which would result in a premixed flame.", "* Heterogeneous air-fuel mixture: In diesel engines, there is no even dispersion of fuel and air inside the cylinder.", "That is because the combustion process begins at the end of the injection phase, before a homogeneous mixture of air and fuel can be formed.", "* Preference for the fuel to have a high ignition performance (Cetane number), rather than a high knocking resistance (octane rating) that is preferred for petrol engines.=== Thermodynamic cycle ===Diesel engine model, left sideDiesel engine model, right sideThe diesel internal combustion engine differs from the gasoline powered Otto cycle by using highly compressed hot air to ignite the fuel rather than using a spark plug (''compression ignition'' rather than ''spark ignition'').In the diesel engine, only air is initially introduced into the combustion chamber.", "The air is then compressed with a compression ratio typically between 15:1 and 23:1.This high compression causes the temperature of the air to rise.", "At about the top of the compression stroke, fuel is injected directly into the compressed air in the combustion chamber.", "This may be into a (typically toroidal) void in the top of the piston or a ''pre-chamber'' depending upon the design of the engine.", "The fuel injector ensures that the fuel is broken down into small droplets, and that the fuel is distributed evenly.", "The heat of the compressed air vaporises fuel from the surface of the droplets.", "The vapour is then ignited by the heat from the compressed air in the combustion chamber, the droplets continue to vaporise from their surfaces and burn, getting smaller, until all the fuel in the droplets has been burnt.", "Combustion occurs at a substantially constant pressure during the initial part of the power stroke.", "The start of vaporisation causes a delay before ignition and the characteristic diesel knocking sound as the vapour reaches ignition temperature and causes an abrupt increase in pressure above the piston (not shown on the P-V indicator diagram).", "When combustion is complete the combustion gases expand as the piston descends further; the high pressure in the cylinder drives the piston downward, supplying power to the crankshaft.As well as the high level of compression allowing combustion to take place without a separate ignition system, a high compression ratio greatly increases the engine's efficiency.", "Increasing the compression ratio in a spark-ignition engine where fuel and air are mixed before entry to the cylinder is limited by the need to prevent pre-ignition, which would cause engine damage.", "Since only air is compressed in a diesel engine, and fuel is not introduced into the cylinder until shortly before top dead centre (TDC), premature detonation is not a problem and compression ratios are much higher.pV diagram for the ideal diesel cycle (which follows the numbers 1–4 in clockwise direction).", "The horizontal axis is the cylinder volume.", "In the diesel cycle the combustion occurs at almost constant pressure.", "On this diagram the work that is generated for each cycle corresponds to the area within the loop.The pressure–volume diagram (pV) diagram is a simplified and idealised representation of the events involved in a diesel engine cycle, arranged to illustrate the similarity with a Carnot cycle.", "Starting at 1, the piston is at bottom dead centre and both valves are closed at the start of the compression stroke; the cylinder contains air at atmospheric pressure.", "Between 1 and 2 the air is compressed adiabatically – that is without heat transfer to or from the environment – by the rising piston.", "(This is only approximately true since there will be some heat exchange with the cylinder walls.)", "During this compression, the volume is reduced, the pressure and temperature both rise.", "At or slightly before 2 (TDC) fuel is injected and burns in the compressed hot air.", "Chemical energy is released and this constitutes an injection of thermal energy (heat) into the compressed gas.", "Combustion and heating occur between 2 and 3.In this interval the pressure remains constant since the piston descends, and the volume increases; the temperature rises as a consequence of the energy of combustion.", "At 3 fuel injection and combustion are complete, and the cylinder contains gas at a higher temperature than at 2.Between 3 and 4 this hot gas expands, again approximately adiabatically.", "Work is done on the system to which the engine is connected.", "During this expansion phase the volume of the gas rises, and its temperature and pressure both fall.", "At 4 the exhaust valve opens, and the pressure falls abruptly to atmospheric (approximately).", "This is unresisted expansion and no useful work is done by it.", "Ideally the adiabatic expansion should continue, extending the line 3–4 to the right until the pressure falls to that of the surrounding air, but the loss of efficiency caused by this unresisted expansion is justified by the practical difficulties involved in recovering it (the engine would have to be much larger).", "After the opening of the exhaust valve, the exhaust stroke follows, but this (and the following induction stroke) are not shown on the diagram.", "If shown, they would be represented by a low-pressure loop at the bottom of the diagram.", "At 1 it is assumed that the exhaust and induction strokes have been completed, and the cylinder is again filled with air.", "The piston-cylinder system absorbs energy between 1 and 2 – this is the work needed to compress the air in the cylinder, and is provided by mechanical kinetic energy stored in the flywheel of the engine.", "Work output is done by the piston-cylinder combination between 2 and 4.The difference between these two increments of work is the indicated work output per cycle, and is represented by the area enclosed by the pV loop.", "The adiabatic expansion is in a higher pressure range than that of the compression because the gas in the cylinder is hotter during expansion than during compression.", "It is for this reason that the loop has a finite area, and the net output of work during a cycle is positive.=== Efficiency ===The fuel efficiency of diesel engines is better than most other types of combustion engines, due to their high compression ratio, high air–fuel equivalence ratio (λ), and the lack of intake air restrictions (i.e.", "throttle valves).", "Theoretically, the highest possible efficiency for a diesel engine is 75%.", "However, in practice the efficiency is much lower, with efficiencies of up to 43% for passenger car engines, up to 45% for large truck and bus engines, and up to 55% for large two-stroke marine engines.", "The average efficiency over a motor vehicle driving cycle is lower than the diesel engine's peak efficiency (for example, a 37% average efficiency for an engine with a peak efficiency of 44%).", "That is because the fuel efficiency of a diesel engine drops at lower loads, however, it does not drop quite as fast as the Otto (spark ignition) engine's.=== Emissions ===Diesel engines are combustion engines and, therefore, emit combustion products in their exhaust gas.", "Due to incomplete combustion, diesel engine exhaust gases include carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, particulate matter, and nitrogen oxides pollutants.", "About 90 per cent of the pollutants can be removed from the exhaust gas using exhaust gas treatment technology.", "Road vehicle diesel engines have no sulfur dioxide emissions, because motor vehicle diesel fuel has been sulfur-free since 2003.Helmut Tschöke argues that particulate matter emitted from motor vehicles has negative impacts on human health.The particulate matter in diesel exhaust emissions is sometimes classified as a carcinogen or \"probable carcinogen\" and is known to increase the risk of heart and respiratory diseases.=== Electrical system ===In principle, a diesel engine does not require any sort of electrical system.", "However, most modern diesel engines are equipped with an electrical fuel pump, and an electronic engine control unit.However, there is no high-voltage electrical ignition system present in a diesel engine.", "This eliminates a source of radio frequency emissions (which can interfere with navigation and communication equipment), which is why only diesel-powered vehicles are allowed in some parts of the American National Radio Quiet Zone.===Torque control===To control the torque output at any given time (i.e.", "when the driver of a car adjusts the accelerator pedal), a governor adjusts the amount of fuel injected into the engine.", "Mechanical governors have been used in the past, however electronic governors are more common on modern engines.", "Mechanical governors are usually driven by the engine's accessory belt or a gear-drive system and use a combination of springs and weights to control fuel delivery relative to both load and speed.", "Electronically governed engines use an electronic control unit (ECU) or electronic control module (ECM) to control the fuel delivery.", "The ECM/ECU uses various sensors (such as engine speed signal, intake manifold pressure and fuel temperature) to determine the amount of fuel injected into the engine.Due to the amount of air being constant (for a given RPM) while the amount of fuel varies, very high (\"lean\") air-fuel ratios are used in situations where minimal torque output is required.", "This differs from a petrol engine, where a throttle is used to also reduce the amount of intake air as part of regulating the engine's torque output.", "Controlling the timing of the start of injection of fuel into the cylinder is similar to controlling the ignition timing in a petrol engine.", "It is therefore a key factor in controlling the power output, fuel consumption and exhaust emissions." ], [ "Classification", "There are several different ways of categorising diesel engines, as outlined in the following sections.=== RPM operating range ===Günter Mau categorises diesel engines by their rotational speeds into three groups:* High-speed engines (> 1,000 rpm),* Medium-speed engines (300–1,000 rpm), and* Slow-speed engines (< 300 rpm).", "; High-speed diesel enginesHigh-speed engines are used to power trucks (lorries), buses, tractors, cars, yachts, compressors, pumps and small electrical generators.", "As of 2018, most high-speed engines have direct injection.", "Many modern engines, particularly in on-highway applications, have common rail direct injection.", "On bigger ships, high-speed diesel engines are often used for powering electric generators.", "The highest power output of high-speed diesel engines is approximately 5 MW.", "; Medium-speed diesel enginesStationary 12 cylinder turbo-diesel engine coupled to a generator set for auxiliary powerMedium-speed engines are used in large electrical generators, railway diesel locomotives, ship propulsion and mechanical drive applications such as large compressors or pumps.", "Medium speed diesel engines operate on either diesel fuel or heavy fuel oil by direct injection in the same manner as low-speed engines.", "Usually, they are four-stroke engines with trunk pistons; a notable exception being the EMD 567, 645, and 710 engines, which are all two-stroke.The power output of medium-speed diesel engines can be as high as 21,870 kW, with the effective efficiency being around 47-48% (1982).", "Most larger medium-speed engines are started with compressed air direct on pistons, using an air distributor, as opposed to a pneumatic starting motor acting on the flywheel, which tends to be used for smaller engines.Medium-speed engines intended for marine applications are usually used to power (ro-ro) ferries, passenger ships or small freight ships.", "Using medium-speed engines reduces the cost of smaller ships and increases their transport capacity.", "In addition to that, a single ship can use two smaller engines instead of one big engine, which increases the ship's safety.", "; Low-speed diesel enginesinline five-cylinder marine diesel engine on board a 29,000 tonne chemical carrierLow-speed diesel engines are usually very large in size and mostly used to power ships.", "There are two different types of low-speed engines that are commonly used: Two-stroke engines with a crosshead, and four-stroke engines with a regular trunk-piston.", "Two-stroke engines have a limited rotational frequency and their charge exchange is more difficult, which means that they are usually bigger than four-stroke engines and used to directly power a ship's propeller.Four-stroke engines on ships are usually used to power an electric generator.", "An electric motor powers the propeller.", "Both types are usually very undersquare, meaning the bore is smaller than the stroke.", "Low-speed diesel engines (as used in ships and other applications where overall engine weight is relatively unimportant) often have an effective efficiency of up to 55%.", "Like medium-speed engines, low-speed engines are started with compressed air, and they use heavy oil as their primary fuel.=== Combustion cycle ===Schematic of a two-stroke diesel engine with a roots blowerDetroit Diesel timingFour-stroke engines use the combustion cycle described earlier.", "Most smaller diesels, for vehicular use, for instance, typically use the four-stroke cycle.", "This is due to several factors, such as the two-stroke design's narrow powerband which is not particularly suitable for automotive use and the necessity for complicated and expensive built-in lubrication systems and scavenging measures.", "The cost effectiveness (and proportion of added weight) of these technologies has less of an impact on larger, more expensive engines, while engines intended for shipping or stationary use can be run at a single speed for long periods.Two-stroke engines use a combustion cycle which is completed in two strokes instead of four strokes.", "Filling the cylinder with air and compressing it takes place in one stroke, and the power and exhaust strokes are combined.", "The compression in a two-stroke diesel engine is similar to the compression that takes place in a four-stroke diesel engine: As the piston passes through bottom centre and starts upward, compression commences, culminating in fuel injection and ignition.", "Instead of a full set of valves, two-stroke diesel engines have simple intake ports, and exhaust ports (or exhaust valves).", "When the piston approaches bottom dead centre, both the intake and the exhaust ports are \"open\", which means that there is atmospheric pressure inside the cylinder.", "Therefore, some sort of pump is required to blow the air into the cylinder and the combustion gasses into the exhaust.", "This process is called ''scavenging''.", "The pressure required is approximately 10-30 kPa.Due to the lack of discrete exhaust and intake strokes, all two-stroke diesel engines use a scavenge blower or some form of compressor to charge the cylinders with air and assist in scavenging.", "Roots-type superchargers were used for ship engines until the mid-1950s, however since 1955 they have been widely replaced by turbochargers.", "Usually, a two-stroke ship diesel engine has a single-stage turbocharger with a turbine that has an axial inflow and a radial outflow.==== Scavenging in two-stroke engines====In general, there are three types of scavenging possible:* Uniflow scavenging* Crossflow scavenging* Reverse flow scavengingCrossflow scavenging is incomplete and limits the stroke, yet some manufacturers used it.", "Reverse flow scavenging is a very simple way of scavenging, and it was popular amongst manufacturers until the early 1980s.", "Uniflow scavenging is more complicated to make but allows the highest fuel efficiency; since the early 1980s, manufacturers such as MAN and Sulzer have switched to this system.", "It is standard for modern marine two-stroke diesel engines.=== Fuel used ===So-called dual-fuel diesel engines or gas diesel engines burn two different types of fuel ''simultaneously'', for instance, a gaseous fuel and diesel engine fuel.", "The diesel engine fuel auto-ignites due to compression ignition, and then ignites the gaseous fuel.", "Such engines do not require any type of spark ignition and operate similar to regular diesel engines." ], [ "Fuel injection", "The fuel is injected at high pressure into either the combustion chamber, \"swirl chamber\" or \"pre-chamber,\" unlike petrol engines where the fuel is often added in the inlet manifold or carburetor.", "Engines where the fuel is injected into the main combustion chamber are called direct injection (DI) engines, while those which use a swirl chamber or pre-chamber are called indirect injection (IDI) engines.=== Direct injection ===Different types of piston bowlsMost direct injection diesel engines have a combustion cup in the top of the piston where the fuel is sprayed.", "Many different methods of injection can be used.", "Usually, an engine with helix-controlled mechanic direct injection has either an inline or a distributor injection pump.", "For each engine cylinder, the corresponding plunger in the fuel pump measures out the correct amount of fuel and determines the timing of each injection.", "These engines use injectors that are very precise spring-loaded valves that open and close at a specific fuel pressure.", "Separate high-pressure fuel lines connect the fuel pump with each cylinder.", "Fuel volume for each single combustion is controlled by a slanted groove in the plunger which rotates only a few degrees releasing the pressure and is controlled by a mechanical governor, consisting of weights rotating at engine speed constrained by springs and a lever.", "The injectors are held open by the fuel pressure.", "On high-speed engines the plunger pumps are together in one unit.", "The length of fuel lines from the pump to each injector is normally the same for each cylinder in order to obtain the same pressure delay.", "Direct injected diesel engines usually use orifice-type fuel injectors.Electronic control of the fuel injection transformed the direct injection engine by allowing much greater control over the combustion.", "; Common railCommon rail (CR) direct injection systems do not have the fuel metering, pressure-raising and delivery functions in a single unit, as in the case of a Bosch distributor-type pump, for example.", "A high-pressure pump supplies the CR.", "The requirements of each cylinder injector are supplied from this common high pressure reservoir of fuel.", "An Electronic Diesel Control (EDC) controls both rail pressure and injections depending on engine operating conditions.", "The injectors of older CR systems have solenoid-driven plungers for lifting the injection needle, whilst newer CR injectors use plungers driven by piezoelectric actuators that have fewer moving mass and therefore allow even more injections in a very short period of time.", "Early common rail system were controlled by mechanical means.The injection pressure of modern CR systems ranges from 140 MPa to 270 MPa.=== Indirect injection ===Ricardo Comet indirect injection chamberAn indirect diesel injection system (IDI) engine delivers fuel into a small chamber called a swirl chamber, precombustion chamber, pre chamber or ante-chamber, which is connected to the cylinder by a narrow air passage.", "Generally the goal of the pre chamber is to create increased turbulence for better air / fuel mixing.", "This system also allows for a smoother, quieter running engine, and because fuel mixing is assisted by turbulence, injector pressures can be lower.", "Most IDI systems use a single orifice injector.", "The pre-chamber has the disadvantage of lowering efficiency due to increased heat loss to the engine's cooling system, restricting the combustion burn, thus reducing the efficiency by 5–10%.", "IDI engines are also more difficult to start and usually require the use of glow plugs.", "IDI engines may be cheaper to build but generally require a higher compression ratio than the DI counterpart.", "IDI also makes it easier to produce smooth, quieter running engines with a simple mechanical injection system since exact injection timing is not as critical.", "Most modern automotive engines are DI which have the benefits of greater efficiency and easier starting; however, IDI engines can still be found in the many ATV and small diesel applications.", "Indirect injected diesel engines use pintle-type fuel injectors.=== Air-blast injection ===Typical early 20th century air-blast injected diesel engine, rated at 59 kW.Early diesel engines injected fuel with the assistance of compressed air, which atomised the fuel and forced it into the engine through a nozzle (a similar principle to an aerosol spray).", "The nozzle opening was closed by a pin valve actuated by the camshaft.", "Although the engine was also required to drive an air compressor used for air-blast injection, the efficiency was nonetheless better than other combustion engines of the time.", "However the system was heavy and it was slow to react to changing torque demands, making it unsuitable for road vehicles.=== Unit injectors ===A ''unit injector'' system, also known as \"Pumpe-Düse\" (''pump-nozzle'' in German) combines the injector and fuel pump into a single component, which is positioned above each cylinder.", "This eliminates the high-pressure fuel lines and achieves a more consistent injection.", "Under full load, the injection pressure can reach up to 220 MPa.", "Unit injectors are operated by a cam and the quantity of fuel injected is controlled either mechanically (by a rack or lever) or electronically.Due to increased performance requirements, unit injectors have been largely replaced by common rail injection systems." ], [ "Diesel engine particularities", "===Mass===The average diesel engine has a poorer power-to-mass ratio than an equivalent petrol engine.", "The lower engine speeds (RPM) of typical diesel engines results in a lower power output.", "Also, the mass of a diesel engine is typically higher, since the higher operating pressure inside the combustion chamber increases the internal forces, which requires stronger (and therefore heavier) parts to withstand these forces.=== Noise (\"diesel clatter\") ===Engine noise of a 1950s MWM AKD 112 Z two-cylinder diesel engine at idleThe distinctive noise of a diesel engine, particularly at idling speeds, is sometimes called \"diesel clatter\".", "This noise is largely caused by the sudden ignition of the diesel fuel when injected into the combustion chamber, which causes a pressure wave that sounds like knocking.Engine designers can reduce diesel clatter through: indirect injection; pilot or pre-injection; injection timing; injection rate; compression ratio; turbo boost; and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR).", "Common rail diesel injection systems permit multiple injection events as an aid to noise reduction.", "Through measures such as these, diesel clatter noise is greatly reduced in modern engines.", "Diesel fuels with a higher cetane rating are more likely to ignite and hence reduce diesel clatter.===Cold weather starting===In warmer climates, diesel engines do not require any starting aid (aside from the starter motor).", "However, many diesel engines include some form of preheating for the combustion chamber, to assist starting in cold conditions.", "Engines with a displacement of less than 1 litre per cylinder usually have glowplugs, whilst larger heavy-duty engines have flame-start systems.", "The minimum starting temperature that allows starting without pre-heating is 40 °C (104 °F) for precombustion chamber engines, 20 °C (68 °F) for swirl chamber engines, and 0 °C (32 °F) for direct injected engines.In the past, a wider variety of cold-start methods were used.", "Some engines, such as Detroit Diesel engines used a system to introduce small amounts of ether into the inlet manifold to start combustion.", "Instead of glowplugs, some diesel engines are equipped with starting aid systems that change valve timing.", "The simplest way this can be done is with a decompression lever.", "Activating the decompression lever locks the outlet valves in a slight down position, resulting in the engine not having any compression and thus allowing for turning the crankshaft over with significantly less resistance.", "When the crankshaft reaches a higher speed, flipping the decompression lever back into its normal position will abruptly re-activate the outlet valves, resulting in compression − the flywheel's mass moment of inertia then starts the engine.", "Other diesel engines, such as the precombustion chamber engine XII Jv 170/240 made by Ganz & Co., have a valve timing changing system that is operated by adjusting the inlet valve camshaft, moving it into a slight \"late\" position.", "This will make the inlet valves open with a delay, forcing the inlet air to heat up when entering the combustion chamber.=== Supercharging & turbocharging ===1980s BMW M21 passenger car turbo-diesel engineForced induction, especially turbocharging is commonly used on diesel engines because it greatly increases efficiency and torque output.", "Diesel engines are well suited for forced induction setups due to their operating principle which is characterised by wide ignition limits and the absence of fuel during the compression stroke.", "Therefore, knocking, pre-ignition or detonation cannot occur, and a lean mixture caused by excess supercharging air inside the combustion chamber does not negatively affect combustion." ], [ "Major manufacturers", "* MTU * MAN * Wartsila* Rolls Royce* Siemens * Kolomna KDZ TMH BMZ and UDMZ* General Electric GE Transportation* Volvo Penta* Sulzer (manufacturer)* Doosan Doosan infracore , Doosan Marine* YaMZ VAZ , KMZ - RD Nevsky , STM GAZ VMZ VMZ* Mitsubishi , Mitsui Mazda IHI Kawasaki Honda Suzuki Subaru Isuzu Nissan plus others* Caterpillar and Cummins* AO Zvezda and Zvezda Energetika * Bergen Engines MaK Deutz AG MWM BMW VW , MAPNA BHEL DESA Steyr Motors GmbH Iran Khodro Diesel Isotta Fraschini , EMD Fairbanks Morse , Shanxi Henan Diesel SDM" ], [ "Fuel and fluid characteristics", "Diesel engines can combust a huge variety of fuels, including several fuel oils that have advantages over fuels such as petrol.", "These advantages include:* Low fuel costs, as fuel oils are relatively cheap* Good lubrication properties* High energy density* Low risk of catching fire, as they do not form a flammable vapour* Biodiesel is an easily synthesised, non-petroleum-based fuel (through transesterification) which can run directly in many diesel engines, while gasoline engines either need adaptation to run synthetic fuels or else use them as an additive to gasoline (e.g., ethanol added to gasohol).In diesel engines, a mechanical injector system atomizes the fuel directly into the combustion chamber (as opposed to a Venturi jet in a carburetor, or a fuel injector in a manifold injection system atomizing fuel into the intake manifold or intake runners as in a petrol engine).", "Because only air is inducted into the cylinder in a diesel engine, the compression ratio can be much higher as there is no risk of pre-ignition provided the injection process is accurately timed.", "This means that cylinder temperatures are much higher in a diesel engine than a petrol engine, allowing less volatile fuels to be used.The MAN 630's M-System diesel engine is a petrol engine (designed to run on NATO F 46/F 50 petrol), but it also runs on jet fuel, (NATO F 40/F 44), kerosene, (NATO F 58), and diesel engine fuel (NATO F 54/F 75)Therefore, diesel engines can operate on a huge variety of different fuels.", "In general, fuel for diesel engines should have a proper viscosity, so that the injection pump can pump the fuel to the injection nozzles without causing damage to itself or corrosion of the fuel line.", "At injection, the fuel should form a good fuel spray, and it should not have a coking effect upon the injection nozzles.", "To ensure proper engine starting and smooth operation, the fuel should be willing to ignite and hence not cause a high ignition delay, (this means that the fuel should have a high cetane number).", "Diesel fuel should also have a high lower heating value.Inline mechanical injector pumps generally tolerate poor-quality or bio-fuels better than distributor-type pumps.", "Also, indirect injection engines generally run more satisfactorily on fuels with a high ignition delay (for instance, petrol) than direct injection engines.", "This is partly because an indirect injection engine has a much greater 'swirl' effect, improving vaporisation and combustion of fuel, and because (in the case of vegetable oil-type fuels) lipid depositions can condense on the cylinder walls of a direct-injection engine if combustion temperatures are too low (such as starting the engine from cold).", "Direct-injected engines with an MAN centre sphere combustion chamber rely on fuel condensing on the combustion chamber walls.", "The fuel starts vaporising only after ignition sets in, and it burns relatively smoothly.", "Therefore, such engines also tolerate fuels with poor ignition delay characteristics, and, in general, they can operate on petrol rated 86 RON.===Fuel types===In his 1893 work ''Theory and Construction of a Rational Heat Motor'', Rudolf Diesel considers using coal dust as fuel for the diesel engine.", "However, Diesel just ''considered'' using coal dust (as well as liquid fuels and gas); his actual engine was designed to operate on petroleum, which was soon replaced with regular petrol and kerosene for further testing purposes, as petroleum proved to be too viscous.", "In addition to kerosene and petrol, Diesel's engine could also operate on ligroin.Before diesel engine fuel was standardised, fuels such as petrol, kerosene, gas oil, vegetable oil and mineral oil, as well as mixtures of these fuels, were used.", "Typical fuels specifically intended to be used for diesel engines were petroleum distillates and coal-tar distillates such as the following; these fuels have specific lower heating values of:* Diesel oil: 10,200 kcal·kg−1 (42.7 MJ·kg−1) up to 10,250 kcal·kg−1 (42.9 MJ·kg−1)* Heating oil: 10,000 kcal·kg−1 (41.8 MJ·kg−1) up to 10,200 kcal·kg−1 (42.7 MJ·kg−1)* Coal-tar creosote: 9,150 kcal·kg−1 (38.3 MJ·kg−1) up to 9,250 kcal·kg−1 (38.7 MJ·kg−1)* Kerosene: up to 10,400 kcal·kg−1 (43.5 MJ·kg−1)''Source:''The first diesel fuel standards were the DIN 51601, VTL 9140-001, and NATO F 54, which appeared after World War II.", "The modern European EN 590 diesel fuel standard was established in May 1993; the modern version of the NATO F 54 standard is mostly identical with it.", "The DIN 51628 biodiesel standard was rendered obsolete by the 2009 version of the EN 590; FAME biodiesel conforms to the EN 14214 standard.", "Watercraft diesel engines usually operate on diesel engine fuel that conforms to the ISO 8217 standard (Bunker C).", "Also, some diesel engines can operate on gasses (such as LNG).===Modern diesel fuel properties===+Modern diesel fuel propertiesEN 590 (as of 2009)EN 14214 (as of 2010)Ignition performance ≥ 51 CN ≥ 51 CNDensity at 15 °C 820...845 kg·m−3 860...900 kg·m−3Sulfur content ≤10 mg·kg−1 ≤10 mg·kg−1Water content ≤200 mg·kg−1 ≤500 mg·kg−1Lubricity 460 µm 460 µmViscosity at 40 °C 2.0...4.5 mm2·s−1 3.5...5.0 mm2·s−1FAME content ≤7.0% ≥96.5%Molar H/C ratio – 1.69Lower heating value – 37.1 MJ·kg−1===Gelling===DIN 51601 diesel fuel was prone to ''waxing'' or ''gelling'' in cold weather; both are terms for the solidification of diesel oil into a partially crystalline state.", "The crystals build up in the fuel system (especially in fuel filters), eventually starving the engine of fuel and causing it to stop running.", "Low-output electric heaters in fuel tanks and around fuel lines were used to solve this problem.", "Also, most engines have a ''spill return'' system, by which any excess fuel from the injector pump and injectors is returned to the fuel tank.", "Once the engine has warmed, returning warm fuel prevents waxing in the tank.", "Before direct injection diesel engines, some manufacturers, such as BMW, recommended mixing up to 30% petrol in with the diesel by fuelling diesel cars with petrol to prevent the fuel from gelling when the temperatures dropped below −15 °C." ], [ "Safety", "===Fuel flammability===Diesel fuel is less flammable than petrol, because its flash point is 55 °C, leading to a lower risk of fire caused by fuel in a vehicle equipped with a diesel engine.Diesel fuel can create an explosive air/vapour mix under the right conditions.", "However, compared with petrol, it is less prone due to its lower vapour pressure, which is an indication of evaporation rate.", "The Material Safety Data Sheet for ultra-low sulfur diesel fuel indicates a vapour explosion hazard for diesel fuel indoors, outdoors, or in sewers.===Cancer===Diesel exhaust has been classified as an IARC Group 1 carcinogen.", "It causes lung cancer and is associated with an increased risk for bladder cancer.===Engine runaway (uncontrollable overspeeding)===See diesel engine runaway." ], [ "Applications", "The characteristics of diesel have different advantages for different applications.===Passenger cars===Diesel engines have long been popular in bigger cars and have been used in smaller cars such as superminis in Europe since the 1980s.", "They were popular in larger cars earlier, as the weight and cost penalties were less noticeable.", "Smooth operation as well as high low-end torque are deemed important for passenger cars and small commercial vehicles.", "The introduction of electronically controlled fuel injection significantly improved the smooth torque generation, and starting in the early 1990s, car manufacturers began offering their high-end luxury vehicles with diesel engines.", "Passenger car diesel engines usually have between three and twelve cylinders, and a displacement ranging from 0.8 to 6.0 litres.", "Modern powerplants are usually turbocharged and have direct injection.Diesel engines do not suffer from intake-air throttling, resulting in very low fuel consumption especially at low partial load (for instance: driving at city speeds).", "One fifth of all passenger cars worldwide have diesel engines, with many of them being in Europe, where approximately 47% of all passenger cars are diesel-powered.", "Daimler-Benz in conjunction with Robert Bosch GmbH produced diesel-powered passenger cars starting in 1936.The popularity of diesel-powered passenger cars in markets such as India, South Korea and Japan is increasing (as of 2018).===Commercial vehicles and lorries===In 1893, Rudolf Diesel suggested that the diesel engine could possibly power \"wagons\" (lorries).", "The first lorries with diesel engines were brought to market in 1924.Modern diesel engines for lorries have to be both extremely reliable and very fuel efficient.", "Common-rail direct injection, turbocharging and four valves per cylinder are standard.", "Displacements range from 4.5 to 15.5 litres, with power-to-mass ratios of 2.5–3.5 kg·kW−1 for heavy duty and 2.0–3.0 kg·kW−1 for medium duty engines.", "V6 and V8 engines used to be common, due to the relatively low engine mass the V configuration provides.", "Recently, the V configuration has been abandoned in favour of straight engines.", "These engines are usually straight-6 for heavy and medium duties and straight-4 for medium duty.", "Their undersquare design causes lower overall piston speeds which results in increased lifespan of up to .", "Compared with 1970s diesel engines, the expected lifespan of modern lorry diesel engines has more than doubled.===Railroad rolling stock===Diesel engines for locomotives are built for continuous operation between refuelings and may need to be designed to use poor quality fuel in some circumstances.", "Some locomotives use two-stroke diesel engines.", "Diesel engines have replaced steam engines on all non-electrified railroads in the world.", "The first diesel locomotives appeared in 1913, and diesel multiple units soon after.", "Nearly all modern diesel locomotives are more correctly known as diesel–electric locomotives because they use an electric transmission: the diesel engine drives an electric generator which powers electric traction motors.", "While electric locomotives have replaced the diesel locomotive for passenger services in many areas diesel traction is widely used for cargo-hauling freight trains and on tracks where electrification is not economically viable.In the 1940s, road vehicle diesel engines with power outputs of were considered reasonable for DMUs.", "Commonly, regular truck powerplants were used.", "The height of these engines had to be less than to allow underfloor installation.", "Usually, the engine was mated with a pneumatically operated mechanical gearbox, due to the low size, mass, and production costs of this design.", "Some DMUs used hydraulic torque converters instead.", "Diesel–electric transmission was not suitable for such small engines.", "In the 1930s, the Deutsche Reichsbahn standardised its first DMU engine.", "It was a , 12-cylinder boxer unit, producing .", "Several German manufacturers produced engines according to this standard.===Watercraft===One of the eight-cylinder 3200 I.H.P.", "Harland and Wolff – Burmeister & Wain diesel engines installed in the motorship ''Glenapp''.", "This was the highest powered diesel engine yet (1920) installed in a ship.", "Note man standing lower right for size comparison.Hand-cranking a boat diesel motor in Inle Lake (Myanmar)The requirements for marine diesel engines vary, depending on the application.", "For military use and medium-size boats, medium-speed four-stroke diesel engines are most suitable.", "These engines usually have up to 24 cylinders and come with power outputs in the one-digit Megawatt region.", "Small boats may use lorry diesel engines.", "Large ships use extremely efficient, low-speed two-stroke diesel engines.", "They can reach efficiencies of up to 55%.", "Unlike most regular diesel engines, two-stroke watercraft engines use highly viscous fuel oil.", "Submarines are usually diesel–electric.The first diesel engines for ships were made by A.", "B. Diesels Motorer Stockholm in 1903.These engines were three-cylinder units of 120 PS (88 kW) and four-cylinder units of 180 PS (132 kW) and used for Russian ships.", "In World War I, especially submarine diesel engine development advanced quickly.", "By the end of the War, double acting piston two-stroke engines with up to 12,200 PS (9 MW) had been made for marine use.===Aviation=======Early====Diesel engines had been used in aircraft before World War II, for instance, in the rigid airship ''LZ 129 Hindenburg,'' which was powered by four Daimler-Benz DB 602 diesel engines, or in several Junkers aircraft, which had Jumo 205 engines installed.In 1929, in the United States, the Packard Motor Company developed America's first aircraft diesel engine, the Packard DR-980—an air-cooled, 9-cylinder radial engine.", "They installed it in various aircraft of the era—some of which were used in record-breaking distance or endurance flights, and in the first successful demonstration of ground-to-air radiophone communications (voice radio having been previously unintelligible in aircraft equipped with spark-ignition engines, due to electromagnetic interference).", "Additional advantages cited, at the time, included a lower risk of post-crash fire, and superior performance at high altitudes.On March 6, 1930, the engine received an Approved Type Certificate—first ever for an aircraft diesel engine—from the U.S. Department of Commerce.", "However, noxious exhaust fumes, cold-start and vibration problems, engine structural failures, the death of its developer, and the industrial economic contraction of the Great Depression, combined to kill the program.====Modern====From then, until the late 1970s, there had not been many applications of the diesel engine in aircraft.", "In 1978, Piper Cherokee co-designer Karl H. Bergey argued that \"the likelihood of a general aviation diesel in the near future is remote.", "\"However, with the 1970s energy crisis and environmental movement, and resulting pressures for greater fuel economy, reduced carbon and lead in the atmosphere, and other issues, there was a resurgence of interest in diesel engines for aircraft.", "High-compression piston aircraft engines that run on aviation gasoline (\"avgas\") generally require the addition of toxic Tetraethyl lead to avgas, to avoid engine pre-ignition and detonation; but diesel engines do not require leaded fuel.", "Also, biodiesel can, theoretically, provide a net reduction in atmospheric carbon compared to avgas.", "For these reasons, the general aviation community has begun to fear the possible banning or discontinuance of leaded avgas.Additionally, avgas is a specialty fuel in very low (and declining) demand, compared to other fuels, and its makers are susceptible to costly aviation-crash lawsuits, reducing refiners' interest in producing it.", "Outside the United States, avgas has already become increasingly difficult to find at airports (and generally), than less-expensive, diesel-compatible fuels like Jet-A and other jet fuels.By the late 1990s / early 2000s, diesel engines were beginning to appear in light aircraft.", "Most notably, Frank Thielert and his Austrian engine enterprise, began developing diesel engines to replace the - gasoline/piston engines in common light aircraft use.", "First successful application of the Theilerts to production aircraft was in the Diamond DA42 Twin Star light twin, which exhibited exceptional fuel efficiency surpassing anything in its class, and its single-seat predecessor, the Diamond DA40 Diamond Star.In subsequent years, several other companies have developed aircraft diesel engines, or have begun to—most notably Continental Aerospace Technologies which, by 2018, was reporting it had sold over 5,000 such engines worldwide.The United States' Federal Aviation Administration has reported that \"by 2007, various jet-fueled piston aircraft had logged well over 600,000 hours of service\".", "In early 2019, AOPA reported that a diesel engine model for general aviation aircraft is \"approaching the finish line.\"", "By late 2022, Continental was reporting that its \"Jet-A\" fueled engines had exceeded \"2,000... in operation today,\" with over \"9 million hours,\" and were being \"specified by major OEMs\" for Cessna, Piper, Diamond, Mooney, Tecnam, Glasair and Robin aircraft.In recent years (2016), diesel engines have also found use in unmanned aircraft (UAV), due to their reliability, durability, and low fuel consumption.===Non-road diesel engines===Air-cooled diesel engine of a 1959 Porsche 218Non-road diesel engines are commonly used for construction equipment and agricultural machinery.", "Fuel efficiency, reliability and ease of maintenance are very important for such engines, whilst high power output and quiet operation are negligible.", "Therefore, mechanically controlled fuel injection and air-cooling are still very common.", "The common power outputs of non-road diesel engines vary a lot, with the smallest units starting at 3 kW, and the most powerful engines being heavy duty lorry engines.===Stationary diesel engines===Three English Electric 7SRL diesel-alternator sets being installed at the Saateni Power Station; Zanzibar, 1955Stationary diesel engines are commonly used for electricity generation, but also for powering refrigerator compressors, or other types of compressors or pumps.", "Usually, these engines either run continuously with partial load, or intermittently with full load.", "Stationary diesel engines powering electric generators that put out an alternating current, usually operate with alternating load, but fixed rotational frequency.", "This is due to the mains' fixed frequency of either 50 Hz (Europe), or 60 Hz (United States).", "The engine's crankshaft rotational frequency is chosen so that the mains' frequency is a multiple of it.", "For practical reasons, this results in crankshaft rotational frequencies of either 25 Hz (1500 per minute) or 30 Hz (1800 per minute)." ], [ "Low heat rejection engines", "A special class of prototype internal combustion piston engines has been developed over several decades with the goal of improving efficiency by reducing heat loss.", "These engines are variously called adiabatic engines; due to better approximation of adiabatic expansion; low heat rejection engines, or high temperature engines.", "They are generally piston engines with combustion chamber parts lined with ceramic thermal barrier coatings.", "Some make use of pistons and other parts made of titanium which has a low thermal conductivity and density.", "Some designs are able to eliminate the use of a cooling system and associated parasitic losses altogether.", "Developing lubricants able to withstand the higher temperatures involved has been a major barrier to commercialization." ], [ "Future developments", "In mid-2010s literature, main development goals for future diesel engines are described as improvements of exhaust emissions, reduction of fuel consumption, and increase of lifespan (2014).", "It is said that the diesel engine, especially the diesel engine for commercial vehicles, will remain the most important vehicle powerplant until the mid-2030s.", "Editors assume that the complexity of the diesel engine will increase further (2014).", "Some editors expect a future convergency of diesel and Otto engines' operating principles due to Otto engine development steps made towards homogeneous charge compression ignition (2017)." ], [ "See also", "* Aircraft diesel engine* Diesel locomotive* Diesel automobile racing* Diesel–electric transmission* Diesel cycle* Diesel exhaust* DieselHouse* Diesel generator* Dieselisation* History of the internal combustion engine* Indirect injection* Partially premixed combustion* Reactivity controlled compression ignition" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * ===Patents===* Method of and Apparatus for Converting Heat into Work.", "# 542846 filed 1892 * Internal Combustion Engine #608845 filed 1895" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dark Star" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dark Star''' or '''Darkstar''' may refer to:" ], [ "Astronomy", "* Dark star (Newtonian mechanics), a star that has a gravitational pull strong enough to trap light under Newtonian gravity* Dark star (dark matter), a star heated by annihilation of dark matter particles within it* Dark-energy star, an object composed of dark energy that outwardly resembles a black hole" ], [ "Media and entertainment", "=== Film ===* ''The Dark Star'' (1919 film), a lost 1919 silent film* ''The Dark Star'' (1955 film), a 1955 West German drama film* ''Dark Star'' (film), a 1974 science fiction comedy film directed by John Carpenter* ''Dark Star'', a 1978 film distributed by David Grant* ''Dark Star: H. R. Giger's World'', a 2014 Swiss documentary* \"Darkstar\", a fictional military aircraft in the 2022 film ''Top Gun: Maverick''=== Television ===* Darkstar (''Ben 10''), or Michael Morningstar, a character in the ''Ben 10'' franchise=== Literature ======= Comics ====* Darkstar (Marvel Comics), a Marvel Comics superhero* Darkstars, a DC Comics superhero team* Darkstar Comics, a fictional comic book company in the TV series ''Spaced''* ''Dark Star'', an issue of the comics series ''The Transformers''==== Other ====* ''Dark Star'', a 1929 novel by Lorna Moon* ''Dark Star'', a 1985 biography about John Gilbert written by his daughter Leatrice Joy-Gilbert* ''Dark Star'', a novelization of the 1974 film, by Alan Dean Foster* ''Dark Star: The Roy Orbison Story'', a 1990 book by Ellis Amburn* ''Dark Star'', a 1991 Night Soldiers novel by Alan Furst* Darkstar (''Ben 10''), a character in the ''Ben 10'' franchise* ''Darkstar'', a 2011 novella by Christopher R. Howard=== Music ======= Performers ====* Dark Star (band), an English psychedelic rock band, 1998–2001* Darkstar (band), an English electronic duo, formed 2007* Dark Star Orchestra, a Grateful Dead tribute band* Darkstar, a progressive metal band co-founded by Dan Rock of Psychotic Waltz==== Albums ====* ''Dark Star'' (soundtrack), by John Carpenter, 1980* ''Dark Star'', by Deine Lakaien, 1991* ''Dark Star'', by The Supernaturals, 1993* ''Dark Star: The Music of the Grateful Dead'', by the David Murray Octet, 1996* ''Dark Star'' (album), by the Grateful Dead and featuring their song \"Dark Star\", 2012* ''Dark Star'', by Jaymes Young, 2013==== Songs ====* \"Dark Star\" (song), by the Grateful Dead* \"Dark Star\", by Beck from ''The Information''* \"Dark Star\", by Cinema Bizarre from ''ToyZ''* \"Dark Star\", by Crosby, Stills & Nash from ''CSN''* \"Dark Star\", by Delerium from ''Faces, Forms & Illusions''* \"Dark Star\", by Hypnogaja from ''Truth Decay''* \"Dark Star\", by I Am Kloot from ''Natural History''* \"Dark Star\", by Mike Oldfield from ''Tubular Bells II''* \"Dark Star\", by Poliça from ''Give You the Ghost''* \"Dark Star\", by Tarja Turunen from ''What Lies Beneath''* \"Dark Star\", by Jaymes Young from his album of the same name=== Video games ===* ''DarkStar One'', a 2006 video game* ''Darkstar: The Interactive Movie'', a 2010 video game* Dark Star (No More Heroes), a character in the video game ''No More Heroes''* Dark Star, a malevolent artifact in the video game ''Mario & Luigi: Bowser's Inside Story''* ''Dark Star'' (1984 video game), a 3D space shoot 'em up for the ZX Spectrum written by Simon Brattel for Design Design Software* Darkstar, special weapon in a Sci-Fi MMOFPS ''PlanetSide 2''" ], [ "Technology", "* Lockheed Martin RQ-3 DarkStar, an unmanned aerial vehicle* Project Darkstar, a framework for creating massively multiplayer online games* Tesla Roadster (2008), codenamed DarkStar, an electric sports car" ], [ "Other uses", "* Dark Star Brewery, West Sussex, England* Dark Star (cave), a cave system in Uzbekistan* Dark Star (horse), an American Thoroughbred racehorse" ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * * Black Star (disambiguation)* Black Sun (disambiguation)* Dark Sun (disambiguation)* Dark (disambiguation)* Star (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Drawing" ], [ "Introduction", "Leonardo da Vinci's ''Vitruvian Man'' () Accademia, Venice'''Drawing''' is a visual art that uses an instrument to mark paper or another two-dimensional surface.", "The instrument might be pencils, crayons, pens with inks, brushes with paints, or combinations of these, and in more modern times, computer styluses with graphics tablets.A drawing instrument releases a small amount of material onto a surface, leaving a visible mark.", "The most common support for drawing is paper, although other materials, such as cardboard, vellum, wood, plastic, leather, canvas, and board, have been used.", "Temporary drawings may be made on a blackboard or whiteboard.", "Drawing has been a popular and fundamental means of public expression throughout human history.", "It is one of the simplest and most efficient means of communicating ideas.", "The wide availability of drawing instruments makes drawing one of the most common artistic activities.In addition to its more artistic forms, drawing is frequently used in commercial illustration, animation, architecture, engineering, and technical drawing.", "A quick, freehand drawing, usually not intended as a finished work, is sometimes called a sketch.", "An artist who practices or works in technical drawing may be called a drafter, draftsman, or draughtsman." ], [ "Overview", "''Madame Palmyre with Her Dog'', 1897.Henri de Toulouse-LautrecDrawing is one of the oldest forms of human expression within the visual arts.", "It is generally concerned with the marking of lines and areas of tone onto paper/other material, where the accurate representation of the visual world is expressed upon a plane surface.", "Traditional drawings were monochrome, or at least had little colour, while modern colored-pencil drawings may approach or cross a boundary between drawing and painting.", "In Western terminology, drawing is distinct from painting, even though similar media often are employed in both tasks.", "Dry media, normally associated with drawing, such as chalk, may be used in pastel paintings.", "Drawing may be done with a liquid medium, applied with brushes or pens.", "Similar supports likewise can serve both: painting generally involves the application of liquid paint onto prepared canvas or panels, but sometimes an underdrawing is drawn first on that same support.Drawing is often exploratory, with considerable emphasis on observation, problem-solving and composition.", "Drawing is also regularly used in preparation for a painting, further obfuscating their distinction.", "Drawings created for these purposes are called studies.There are several categories of drawing, including figure drawing, cartooning, doodling, and freehand.", "There are also many drawing methods, such as line drawing, stippling, shading, the surrealist method of entopic graphomania (in which dots are made at the sites of impurities in a blank sheet of paper, and lines are then made between the dots), and tracing (drawing on a translucent paper, such as ''tracing paper'', around the outline of preexisting shapes that show through the paper).A quick, unrefined drawing may be called a ''sketch''.In fields outside art, technical drawings or plans of buildings, machinery, circuitry and other things are often called \"drawings\" even when they have been transferred to another medium by printing." ], [ "History", "=== In communication ===Drawing is one of the oldest forms of human expression, with evidence for its existence preceding that of written communication.", "It is believed that drawing was used as a specialised form of communication before the invention of the written language, demonstrated by the production of cave and rock paintings around 30,000 years ago (Art of the Upper Paleolithic).These drawings, known as pictograms, depicted objects and abstract concepts.", "The sketches and paintings produced by Neolithic times were eventually stylised and simplified in to symbol systems (proto-writing) and eventually into early writing systems.=== In manuscripts ===Before the widespread availability of paper in Europe, monks in European monasteries used drawings, either as underdrawings for illuminated manuscripts on vellum or parchment, or as the final image.", "Drawing has also been used extensively in the field of science, as a method of discovery, understanding and explanation.=== In science ===Galileo Galilei, ''Phases of the Moon'', 1609 or 1610, brown ink and wash on paper.", "208 × 142 mm.", "National Central Library (Florence), Gal.", "48, fol.", "28rDrawing diagrams of observations is an important part of scientific study.In 1609, astronomer Galileo Galilei explained the changing phases of Venus and also the sunspots through his observational telescopic drawings.", "In 1924, geophysicist Alfred Wegener used illustrations to visually demonstrate the origin of the continents.=== As artistic expression ===Drawing is used to express one's creativity, and therefore has been prominent in the world of art.", "Throughout much of history, drawing was regarded as the foundation for artistic practice.", "Initially, artists used and reused wooden tablets for the production of their drawings.", "Following the widespread availability of paper in the 14th century, the use of drawing in the arts increased.", "At this point, drawing was commonly used as a tool for thought and investigation, acting as a study medium whilst artists were preparing for their final pieces of work.", "The Renaissance brought about a great sophistication in drawing techniques, enabling artists to represent things more realistically than before, and revealing an interest in geometry and philosophy.The invention of the first widely available form of photography led to a shift in the hierarchy of the arts.", "Photography offered an alternative to drawing as a method for accurately representing visual phenomena, and traditional drawing practice was given less emphasis as an essential skill for artists, particularly so in Western society." ], [ "Notable artists and draftsmen", "Drawing became significant as an art form around the late 15th century, with artists and master engravers such as Albrecht Dürer and Martin Schongauer (–1491), the first Northern engraver known by name.", "Schongauer came from Alsace, and was born into a family of goldsmiths.", "Albrecht Dürer, a master of the next generation, was also the son of a goldsmith.Old Master Drawings often reflect the history of the country in which they were produced, and the fundamental characteristics of a nation at that time.", "In 17th-century Holland, a Protestant country, there were almost no religious artworks, and, with no King or court, most art was bought privately.", "Drawings of landscapes or genre scenes were often viewed not as sketches but as highly finished works of art.", "Italian drawings, however, show the influence of Catholicism and the Church, which played a major role in artistic patronage.", "The same is often true of French drawings, although in the 17th century the disciplines of French Classicism meant drawings were less Baroque than the more free Italian counterparts, which conveyed a greater sense of movement.In the 20th century Modernism encouraged \"imaginative originality\" and some artists' approach to drawing became less literal, more abstract.", "World-renowned artists such as Pablo Picasso, Andy Warhol and Jean-Michel Basquiat helped challenge the status quo, with drawing being very much at the centre of their practice, and often re-interpreting traditional technique.Basquiat's drawings were produced in many different mediums, most commonly ink, pencil, felt-tip or marker, and oil-stick, and he drew on any surface that came to hand, such as doors, clothing, refrigerators, walls and baseball helmets.The centuries have produced a canon of notable artists and draftsmen, each with their own distinct language of drawing, including:* 14th, 15th and 16th: Leonardo da Vinci • Albrecht Dürer • Hans Holbein the Younger • Michelangelo • Pisanello • Raphael* 17th: Claude • Jacques de Gheyn II • Guercino • Nicolas Poussin • Rembrandt • Peter Paul Rubens • Pieter Saenredam* 18th: François Boucher • Jean-Honoré Fragonard • Giovanni Battista Tiepolo • Antoine Watteau* 19th: Aubrey Beardsley • Paul Cézanne • Jacques-Louis David • Honoré Daumier • Edgar Degas • Théodore Géricault • Francisco Goya • Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres • Pierre-Paul Prud'hon • Odilon Redon • John Ruskin • Georges Seurat • Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec • Vincent van Gogh* 20th: Max Beckmann • Jean Dubuffet • M. C. Escher • Arshile Gorky • George Grosz • Paul Klee • Oskar Kokoschka • Käthe Kollwitz • Alfred Kubin • André Masson • Alphonse Mucha • Jules Pascin • Pablo Picasso • Egon Schiele • Jean-Michel Basquiat • Andy Warhol" ], [ "Materials", "The ''medium'' is the means by which ink, pigment or color are delivered onto the drawing surface.", "Most drawing media are either dry (e.g.", "graphite, charcoal, pastels, Conté, silverpoint), or use a fluid solvent or carrier (marker, pen and ink).", "Watercolor pencils can be used dry like ordinary pencils, then moistened with a wet brush to get various painterly effects.", "Very rarely, artists have drawn with (usually decoded) invisible ink.", "Metalpoint drawing usually employs either of two metals: silver or lead.", "More rarely used are gold, platinum, copper, brass, bronze, and tinpoint.Paper comes in a variety of different sizes and qualities, ranging from newspaper grade up to high quality and relatively expensive paper sold as individual sheets.", "Papers vary in texture, hue, acidity, and strength when wet.", "Smooth paper is good for rendering fine detail, but a more \"toothy\" paper holds the drawing material better.", "Thus a coarser material is useful for producing deeper contrast.Newsprint and typing paper may be useful for practice and rough sketches.", "Tracing paper is used to experiment over a half-finished drawing, and to transfer a design from one sheet to another.", "Cartridge paper is the basic type of drawing paper sold in pads.", "Bristol board and even heavier acid-free boards, frequently with smooth finishes, are used for drawing fine detail and do not distort when wet media (ink, washes) are applied.", "Vellum is extremely smooth and suitable for very fine detail.", "Coldpressed watercolor paper may be favored for ink drawing due to its texture.Acid-free, archival quality paper keeps its color and texture far longer than wood pulp based paper such as newsprint, which turns yellow and becomes brittle much sooner.The basic tools are a drawing board or table, pencil sharpener and eraser, and for ink drawing, blotting paper.", "Other tools used are circle compass, ruler, and set square.", "Fixative is used to prevent pencil and crayon marks from smudging.", "Drafting tape is used to secure paper to drawing surface, and also to mask an area to keep it free of accidental marks, such as sprayed or spattered materials and washes.", "An easel or slanted table is used to keep the drawing surface in a suitable position, which is generally more horizontal than the position used in painting." ], [ "Technique", "Antoine Watteau, ''trois crayons'' techniqueAlmost all draftsmen use their hands and fingers to apply the media, with the exception of some handicapped individuals who draw with their mouth or feet.Prior to working on an image, the artist typically explores how various media work.", "They may try different drawing implements on practice sheets to determine value and texture, and how to apply the implement to produce various effects.Raphael, study for what became the ''Alba Madonna'', with other sketchesThe artist's choice of drawing strokes affects the appearance of the image.", "Pen and ink drawings often use hatching – groups of parallel lines.", "Cross-hatching uses hatching in two or more different directions to create a darker tone.", "Broken hatching, or lines with intermittent breaks, form lighter tones – and controlling the density of the breaks achieves a gradation of tone.", "Stippling uses dots to produce tone, texture and shade.", "Different textures can be achieved depending on the method used to build tone.Drawings in dry media often use similar techniques, though pencils and drawing sticks can achieve continuous variations in tone.", "Typically a drawing is filled in based on which hand the artist favors.", "A right-handed artist draws from left to right to avoid smearing the image.", "Erasers can remove unwanted lines, lighten tones, and clean up stray marks.", "In a sketch or outline drawing, lines drawn often follow the contour of the subject, creating depth by looking like shadows cast from a light in the artist's position.Sometimes the artist leaves a section of the image untouched while filling in the remainder.", "The shape of the area to preserve can be painted with masking fluid or cut out of a frisket and applied to the drawing surface, protecting the surface from stray marks until the mask is removed.Another method to preserve a section of the image is to apply a spray-on ''fixative'' to the surface.", "This holds loose material more firmly to the sheet and prevents it from smearing.", "However the fixative spray typically uses chemicals that can harm the respiratory system, so it should be employed in a well-ventilated area such as outdoors.Another technique is subtractive drawing in which the drawing surface is covered with graphite or charcoal and then erased to make the image." ], [ "Tone", "A pencil portrait by Henry Macbeth-Raeburn, with hatching and shading (1909)Shading is the technique of varying the tonal values on the paper to represent the shade of the material as well as the placement of the shadows.", "Careful attention to reflected light, shadows and highlights can result in a very realistic rendition of the image.Blending uses an implement to soften or spread the original drawing strokes.", "Blending is most easily done with a medium that does not immediately fix itself, such as graphite, chalk, or charcoal, although freshly applied ink can be smudged, wet or dry, for some effects.", "For shading and blending, the artist can use a blending stump, tissue, a kneaded eraser, a fingertip, or any combination of them.", "A piece of chamois is useful for creating smooth textures, and for removing material to lighten the tone.", "Continuous tone can be achieved with graphite on a smooth surface without blending, but the technique is laborious, involving small circular or oval strokes with a somewhat blunt point.Shading techniques that also introduce texture to the drawing include hatching and stippling.", "A number of other methods produce texture.", "In addition to the choice of paper, drawing material and technique affect texture.", "Texture can be made to appear more realistic when it is drawn next to a contrasting texture; a coarse texture is more obvious when placed next to a smoothly blended area.", "A similar effect can be achieved by drawing different tones close together.", "A light edge next to a dark background stands out to the eye, and almost appears to float above the surface." ], [ "Form and proportion", "Proportions of the human bodyMeasuring the dimensions of a subject while blocking in the drawing is an important step in producing a realistic rendition of the subject.", "Tools such as a compass can be used to measure the angles of different sides.", "These angles can be reproduced on the drawing surface and then rechecked to make sure they are accurate.", "Another form of measurement is to compare the relative sizes of different parts of the subject with each other.", "A finger placed at a point along the drawing implement can be used to compare that dimension with other parts of the image.", "A ruler can be used both as a straightedge and a device to compute proportions.Variation of proportion with ageWhen attempting to draw a complicated shape such as a human figure, it is helpful at first to represent the form with a set of primitive volumes.", "Almost any form can be represented by some combination of the cube, sphere, cylinder, and cone.", "Once these basic volumes have been assembled into a likeness, then the drawing can be refined into a more accurate and polished form.", "The lines of the primitive volumes are removed and replaced by the final likeness.", "Drawing the underlying construction is a fundamental skill for representational art, and is taught in many books and schools.", "Its correct application resolves most uncertainties about smaller details, and makes the final image look consistent.A more refined art of figure drawing relies upon the artist possessing a deep understanding of anatomy and the human proportions.", "A trained artist is familiar with the skeleton structure, joint location, muscle placement, tendon movement, and how the different parts work together during movement.", "This allows the artist to render more natural poses that do not appear artificially stiff.", "The artist is also familiar with how the proportions vary depending on the age of the subject, particularly when drawing a portrait." ], [ "Perspective", "Two-point perspective drawingLinear perspective is a method of portraying objects on a flat surface so that the dimensions shrink with distance.", "Each set of parallel, straight edges of any object, whether a building or a table, follows lines that eventually converge at a vanishing point.", "Typically this convergence point is somewhere along the horizon, as buildings are built level with the flat surface.", "When multiple structures are aligned with each other, such as buildings along a street, the horizontal tops and bottoms of the structures typically converge at a vanishing point.When both the fronts and sides of a building are drawn, then the parallel lines forming a side converge at a second point along the horizon (which may be off the drawing paper.)", "This is a two-point perspective.", "Converging the vertical lines to a third point above or below the horizon then produces a three-point perspective.drawing a figure from worm's-eye perspectiveDepth can also be portrayed by several techniques in addition to the perspective approach above.", "Objects of similar '''size''' should appear ever smaller the further they are from the viewer.", "Thus the back wheel of a cart appears slightly smaller than the front wheel.", "Depth can be portrayed through the use of '''texture'''.", "As the texture of an object gets further away it becomes more compressed and busy, taking on an entirely different character than if it was close.", "Depth can also be portrayed by reducing the contrast in more distant objects, and by making their colors less saturated.", "This reproduces the effect of '''atmospheric''' haze, and cause the eye to focus primarily on objects drawn in the foreground." ], [ "Artistry", "Study drawing with white highlights by William-Adolphe BouguereauThe composition of the image is an important element in producing an interesting work of artistic merit.", "The artist plans element placement in the art to communicate ideas and feelings with the viewer.", "The composition can determine the focus of the art, and result in a harmonious whole that is aesthetically appealing and stimulating.The illumination of the subject is also a key element in creating an artistic piece, and the interplay of light and shadow is a valuable method in the artist's toolbox.", "The placement of the light sources can make a considerable difference in the type of message that is being presented.", "Multiple light sources can wash out any wrinkles in a person's face, for instance, and give a more youthful appearance.", "In contrast, a single light source, such as harsh daylight, can serve to highlight any texture or interesting features.When drawing an object or figure, the skilled artist pays attention to both the area within the silhouette and what lies outside.", "The exterior is termed the negative space, and can be as important in the representation as the figure.", "Objects placed in the background of the figure should appear properly placed wherever they can be viewed.A study is a draft drawing that is made in preparation for a planned final image.", "Studies can be used to determine the appearances of specific parts of the completed image, or for experimenting with the best approach for accomplishing the end goal.", "However a well-crafted study can be a piece of art in its own right, and many hours of careful work can go into completing a study." ], [ "Process", "A young woman drawing the Barberini Faun in MunichIndividuals display differences in their ability to produce visually accurate drawings.", "A visually accurate drawing is described as being \"recognized as a particular object at a particular time and in a particular space, rendered with little addition of visual detail that can not be seen in the object represented or with little deletion of visual detail\".", "Investigative studies have aimed to explain the reasons why some individuals draw better than others.One study posited four key abilities in the drawing process: motor skills required for mark-making, the drawer's own perception of their drawing, perception of objects being drawn, and the ability to make good representational decisions.", "Following this hypothesis, several studies have sought to conclude which of these processes are most significant in affecting the accuracy of drawings.Drawing process in the ''Academic Study of a Male Torso'' by Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres (1801, National Museum, Warsaw);Motor controlMotor control is an important physical component in the 'Production Phase' of the drawing process.", "It has been suggested that motor control plays a role in drawing ability, though its effects are not significant.", ";PerceptionIt has been suggested that an individual's ability to perceive an object they are drawing is the most important stage in the drawing process.", "This suggestion is supported by the discovery of a robust relationship between perception and drawing ability.This evidence acted as the basis of Betty Edwards' how-to-draw book, ''Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain''.", "Edwards aimed to teach her readers how to draw, based on the development of the reader's perceptual abilities.Furthermore, the influential artist and art critic John Ruskin emphasised the importance of perception in the drawing process in his book ''The Elements of Drawing''.", "He stated that \"For I am nearly convinced, that once we see keenly enough, there is very little difficult in drawing what we see\".", ";Visual memoryThis has also been shown to influence one's ability to create visually accurate drawings.Short-term memory plays an important part in drawing as one's gaze shifts between the object they are drawing and the drawing itself.", ";Decision-makingSome studies comparing artists to non-artists have found that artists spend more time thinking strategically while drawing.", "In particular, artists spend more time on 'metacognitive' activities such as considering different hypothetical plans for how they might progress with a drawing." ], [ "See also", "* Academy figure* Architectural drawing* Composition* Contour drawing* Diagram* Digital illustration* Engineering drawing* Figure drawing* Geometric drawing* Graphic design* Illustration* Landscape painting* Negro (lead pencil)* Painting* Plumbago drawing* Sketch (drawing)* Subtractive drawing* Technical drawing* Visual arts* Image" ], [ "References", "'''Notes''''''Further reading'''* Edwards, Betty.", "''The New Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain'', HarperCollins Publishers Ltd; 3Rev Ed edition, 2001, * Brommer, Gerald F. ''Exploring Drawing''.", "Worcester, Massachusetts: Davis Publications.", "1988.", "* Bodley Gallery, New York, ''Modern master drawings'', 1971, .", "* * Hillberry, J.D.", "''Drawing Realistic Textures in Pencil'', North Light Books, 1999, .", "* Landa, Robin.", "Take a line for a walk: A Creativity Journal.", "Boston: Wadsworth, 2011.", "* Lohan, Frank.", "''Pen & Ink Techniques'', Contemporary Books, 1978, .", "* Ruskin, J.", "(1857).", "The Elements of Drawing.", "Mineola, NY: Dover Publications Inc. * Spears, Heather.", "''The Creative Eye.''", "London: Arcturus.", "2007..* World Book, Inc. ''The World Book Encyclopedia Volume 5'', 1988, .", "* ''Drawing/Thinking: Confronting an Electronic Age'', edited by Marc Treib, 2008," ], [ "External links", "* Timeline of Drawing Development in Children* On Drawing, an essay about the craft of drawing, by artist Norman Nason.", "Archived from the original on April 25, 2012.", "* * ''Leonardo da Vinci: anatomical drawings from the Royal Library, Windsor Castle'', exhibition catalog fully online as PDF from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (a great drawing resource).", "* ''Leonardo da Vinci, Master Draftsman'', exhibition catalog fully online as PDF from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (a great drawing resource).", "* '' Drawing in the Middle Ages'' A summary of how drawing was used as part of the artistic process in the Middle Ages.", "* drawing tutorials* Ganesh drawing is a popular drawing technique used in India that usually involves drawing a full-body illustration of Ganesh drawing is often practiced in the presence of Ganesh statues and devotees." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dedham, Massachusetts" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dedham''' ( ) is a town in and the county seat of Norfolk County, Massachusetts.", "Located on Boston's southwest border, the population was 25,364 at the 2020 census.First settled by English colonists in 1635 and incorporated in 1636, Dedham established the first public school in America in 1643.Dedham is home to the Fairbanks House, the oldest surviving timber-frame house in the United States.", "On January 1, 1643, by unanimous vote, Dedham authorized the first taxpayer-funded public school, \"the seed of American education.\"", "The first man-made canal in North America, Mother Brook, was created in Dedham in 1639.The town took an active part in the American Revolution and was home to the Dedham Liberty Pole in the late 18th century.", "When a split occurred at the First Church and Parish in Dedham, the resulting lawsuit became known as The Dedham Case, an important landmark in the separation of church and state.", "In 1921, the historic Sacco and Vanzetti trial was held in the Norfolk County Courthouse.", "Dedham is sometimes called the \"mother of towns\" because 14 present-day communities were included within its original broad borders.Dedham is governed by a representative town meeting, a select board which appoints the town manager, and various other boards and committees.", "The town is served by the MBTA commuter rail and bus service.", "The Dedham Public Schools operates seven schools, and a number of private schools also operate within the town." ], [ "History", "===17th century===Settled in 1635 by people from Roxbury and Watertown, Dedham was incorporated in 1636.It became the county seat of Norfolk County when the county was formed from parts of Suffolk County on March 26, 1793.When the Town was originally incorporated, the residents wanted to name it \"Contentment.\"", "The Massachusetts General Court overruled them and named the town after Dedham, Essex in England, where some of the original inhabitants were born.", "The boundaries of the town at the time stretched to the Rhode Island border.At the first public meeting on August 15, 1636, eighteen men signed the town covenant.", "They swore that they would \"in the fear and reverence of our Almighty God, mutually and severally promise amongst ourselves and each to profess and practice one truth according to that most perfect rule, the foundation whereof is ever lasting love.", "\"They also agreed that \"we shall by all means labor to keep off from us all such as are contrary minded, and receive only such unto us as may be probably of one heart with us, and such as that we either know or may well and truly be informed to walk in a peaceable conversation with all meekness of spirit, this for the edification of each other in the knowledge and faith of the Lord Jesus…\" The covenant also stipulated that if differences were to arise between townsmen, they would seek arbitration for resolution and each would pay his fair share for the common good.Dedham is home to the Fairbanks House, the oldest surviving timber-frame house in the United States, scientifically dated to 1637.On January 1, 1643, by unanimous vote, Dedham authorized the first taxpayer-funded public school, \"the seed of American education.\"", "Its first schoolmaster, Rev.", "Ralph Wheelock, a Clare College graduate, was paid 20 pounds annually to instruct the youth of the community.", "Descendants of these students would become presidents of Dartmouth College, Yale University and Harvard University.The first man-made canal in North America, Mother Brook, was created in Dedham in 1639.It linked the Charles River to the Neponset River.", "Although both are slow-moving rivers, they are at different elevations.", "The difference in elevation made the canal's current swift enough to power several local mills.===18th century===Just 15 months after asking for their own church, 40 men living on the north side of the Charles River suddenly asked the General Court to separate them from Dedham.", "Their petition cited the inadequate services provided, namely schools and churches.", "They also said that, if they were simply to be made a precinct instead of a separate town, that they would suffer political reprisals.", "Dedham agreed that the services were inadequate and did not oppose the separation, but did try to reduce the amount of land the separatists were seeking.", "Dedham also asked for a delay of one year.", "The General Court agreed with the petitioners, however, and created the new town of Needham with the original boundaries requested.", "Those who remained in Dedham still held rights to the unallotted lands in Needham, however, and any decrease in taxes would be offset by a decrease in expenditures.", "There may have also been some satisfaction in separating themselves from those on the other side of the 1704 power struggle.In November 1798, David Brown led a group in Dedham protesting the federal government; they set up a liberty pole, as people had before the American Revolution.", "It carried the words, \"No Stamp Act, No Sedition Act, No Alien Bills, No Land Tax, downfall to the Tyrants of America; peace and retirement to the President; Long Live the Vice President\", referring to then-President John Adams and Vice President Thomas Jefferson.", "Brown was arrested in Andover but because he could not afford the $4,000 bail, he was taken to Salem for trial.", "Brown was tried in June 1799.Although he wanted to plead guilty, Justice Samuel Chase urged him to name those who had helped him or subscribed to his writings in exchange for freedom.", "Brown refused, was fined $480, and sentenced to eighteen months in prison.", "It was the most severe sentence up to then imposed under the Alien and Sedition Acts.===19th century===In 1818, though citizens were still taxed for the support of ministers and other \"public teachers of religion\", Dedham set a precedent toward the separation of church and state.", "Residents of the town selected a minister different than that chosen by the church members; the selection by residents was confirmed by the Supreme Judicial Court.", "This decision increased support for the disestablishment of the Congregational churches.The local Endicott Estate burned to the ground in 1904 after the local volunteer fire department, responding to three separate fires burning simultaneously, reached the Endicott fire last.", "By the time they arrived, only ashes remained.", "It is said that the estate's owner, Henry Bradford Endicott (also founder of the Endicott Johnson Corporation) took the burning of the homestead as a divine command to rebuild (which he did).", "The rebuilt Endicott Estate is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.", "The estate and surrounding grounds are open to the public, upholding Henry's stepdaughter Katherine's wish to use the house and property for \"educational, civic, social and recreational purposes.", "\"===20th century===In 1921, the historic Sacco and Vanzetti trial was held in the Norfolk County Courthouse.", "Dedham Pottery is a cherished class of antiques, characterized by a distinctive crackle glaze, blue-and-white color scheme, and a frequent motif of rabbits and other animals.", "Dedham is sometimes called the \"mother of towns\" because 14 present-day communities were included within its original broad borders.===21st century===In March 2023, Dedham dedicated a 84,000 square-foot public safety complex on the site of the former Town Hall at 26 Bryant Street." ], [ "Geography", "Dedham is located at (42.244609, −71.165531).", "On the northwest it is bordered by Needham, on the southwest by Westwood, and on the southeast by Canton.On the northeast corner of High Street and Court Street the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey placed a small medallion into a granite block showing an elevation of .", "According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of , of which is land and (1.79%) is water.Dedham is made up of a number of neighborhoods:* In the geographical center of town is Oakdale.", "It is roughly defined by East Street to the west, Cedar Street to the south and east, and Whiting Ave to the north.", "**The houses in the area around Woodleigh Road, which was declared to be one of the best streets in Greater Boston, have many homes designed by Henry Bailey Alden, who also designed the Endicott Estate.", "**The subdivision consisting of Morse Avenue, Fulton Street, and Edison Avenue, is named Whiting Park.", "* Riverdale is an island surrounded by the Charles River and Long Ditch.", "* Greenlodge runs along the axis of Greenlodge Street.", "In its early days, it became known as the Peanut Butter Valley as it was said that after paying for their expensive new homes that residents could only afford to eat peanut butter sandwiches.", "* The Manor comprises the neighborhood south of Sprague Street.", "* East Dedham falls between Mother Brook and the Boston line.", "* Precinct One, or Upper Dedham, is in the northwest corner of the town, between High Street and Common Street and the Westwood and Needham lines.", "**Job's Island, named for Job Richard, is now a peninsula at 91 Common Street.", "* Ashcroft is the neighborhood between Cedar Street and Sprague Street.", "It includes Paul Park and the Capen School.", "**The undeveloped strip of land between Beech Street and Turner Street is known as Ogden's Woods.", "* Fairbanks is the neighborhood between East Street and Wigwam Pond.===Climate===Dedham has a warm-summer humid continental climate (''Dfb'' under the Köppen climate classification system), with high humidity and precipitation year-round." ], [ "Demographics", "As of the census of 2000, there were 23,464 people, 8,654 households, and 6,144 families residing in the town.", "The population density was .", "There were 8,908 housing units at an average density of .", "The racial makeup of the town was 94.51% White, 1.54% Black or African American, 0.16% Native American, 1.87% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 0.80% from other races, and 1.08% from two or more races.", "2.42% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.There were 8,654 households, of which 30.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them.", "56.3% were married couples living together, 11.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.0% were non-families.", "23.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.61 and the average family size was 3.14.Dedham's population was spread out, with 22.2% under the age of 18, 5.8% from 18 to 24, 31.1% from 25 to 44, 24.2% from 45 to 64, and 16.6% who were 65 years of age or older.", "The median age was 40 years.", "For every 100 females, there were 93.4 males.", "For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.0 males.The median income for a household in the town was $61,699, and the median income for a family was $72,330.Males had a median income of $46,216 versus $35,682 for females.", "The per capita income for the town was $28,199.About 3.2% of families and 4.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.9% of those under age 18 and 6.5% of those age 65 or over.=== Religion ===+Religious affiliation in Dedham, Massachusetts, 1980–2010Religion1980199020002010Catholic50.14%54.67%58.58%52.97%Mainline Protestant13.34%7.3%6.18%4.93%Evangelical Protestant.85%1.88%1.45%1.69%Orthodox Christiann/an/a1.16%.53%Other1.27%6.88%7.13%4.56%Unaffiliated34.39%29.28%25.52%35.33%" ], [ "Seal and flag", "Town flagThe town's seal was originally designed by a member of the Dedham Historical Society.", "In the center is a crest containing the Old Avery Oak.", "When the tree was finally felled, the gavel used by the Moderator at Town Meeting was carved out of it.", "Above the tree are the scales of justice, representing Dedham as the county seat and home to Norfolk County's courts.", "On the left of the tree are agricultural instruments, and on the right is a factory, showing Dedham's history first as a town of farmers and then as one with a number of mills and factories, particularly along Mother Brook.", "Below the tree is a banner with the word \"Contentment\", the name of the original plantation.The town flag is red with the seal prominent and in the center.", "In the lower left corner is part of the Avery Oak, and in the lower right is part of the Fairbanks House.", "It hangs in the select board's chambers at town hall and in the Great Hall of the Massachusetts State House." ], [ "Government", "A charter adopted in 1998 lays out the basic structure of the Town government, although it has been amended occasionally over the years.", "A seven-member Charter Advisory Committee, appointed in 2012, recommended six substantial changes and numerous minor changes be made to the document.", "The Selectmen consolidated them into six articles for Town Meeting's consideration, and five were presented to the Meeting in 2013.Voters approved four of them in 2014.A version of the sixth and final proposal was adopted at the Spring 2014 Annual Town Meeting.===Town Meeting===According to Dedham's Charter, the \"administration of all the fiscal, prudential, and municipal affairs of the town, with the government thereof, shall be vested in a legislative branch, to consist of a representative town meeting.\"", "Town Meeting is to consist of no less than 270 members, but not more than necessary to achieve an equal number coming from each precinct.", "There are currently seven districts, but could be as few as six or as many as nine, with lines drawn by the Select Board and the Registrars of Voters every ten years.Votes are by voice unless members call for a standing or roll call vote, either of which can be called for by the Moderator.", "All Town officers are required to attend Town Meeting and multiple member bodies must send at least one representative who have all the privileges of a Member except the right to vote.", "If 5% of Town voters petition the Select Board within 14 days of Town Meeting, any action taken may be submitted to voters.", "The final result is to be determined by majority vote, but Town Meeting can not be overruled unless 20% of registered voters participate.Town Meeting sets its own rules and keeps a journal of proceedings.", "The Town Meeting may establish various ad-hoc and standing committees on which any Town Meeting Member or voter may serve.Before each Spring Annual Town Meeting, the Public Service Recognition Award is given to recognize citizens who have performed outstanding acts of service to the community.====Town Meeting members====Currently Town Meeting consists of 273 members, or representatives, with each of the seven districts, or precincts, electing 39.Thirteen are elected from each precinct each year and serve a three-year term.", "Each precinct elects from its own members a chairman, vice chairman, and secretary.To be eligible, candidates must have 10 registered voters from their precinct sign nomination papers.", "Town Meeting Representatives can not serve on any other elected board or on the Finance and Warrant Committee.", "Members who move from the district or are removed by redistricting may serve until the next Town Election; however, any member who moves out of the Town immediately ceases to be a Member.In case of a vacancy, the remaining term is to be filled at the next town election.", "If no election is to take place within 120 days of the vacancy, then the district chairman is to call together the members of the district, and they are to elect a member who will serve until the next town election.====Warrant====The Warrant at Town Meeting includes the articles to be voted on.", "Any elected or appointed board, committee, town officer, or any ten voters may place an article on the warrant.", "Each article to be voted on is directed by the Select Board to an appropriate board or committee to hear and provide the original motion at Town Meeting.", "All articles expending funds are directed to the Finance Committee; articles dealing with planning and zoning to the Planning Board; articles relating to by-laws to the By-Law Committee.", "The Finance Committee recommendation has the force of the original motion on all articles except those related to zoning.", "The Planning Board makes the original motion for those.====Mini Town Meeting====The chairmen of the several districts elect from amongst themselves a chairman.", "This Chairman of the chairmen hosts what is officially known as the District Chairmen's Warrant Review Meeting, but is much more commonly referred to as Mini Town Meeting.", "The \"Mini\", first held in 1978, is generally a week or two before the actual Town Meeting.", "The purpose of the Mini is to air out several of the contentious issues before bringing them to the floor of Town Meeting.===Select Board===The executive branch of the Town Government is \"headed\" by a Select Board.", "The Board has five members who are elected for three-year terms and are the chief policy making body for the town.", "They appoint a Town Manager who runs the day-to-day affairs of the Town.", "They also appoint constables, registrars of voters and other election officers, the board of appeals, conservation commission, historic district commission, and members of several other multiple member boards.", "James A. MacDonald serves as chair, with Dennis J. Teehan, Jr. serving as Vice Chair.", "Dimitria Sullivan, Erin Boles Welch, and Josh Donati also serve as members.Select board members set policy for all departments below it, but are not involved in the day-to-day affairs of the Town.", "They issue licenses and can investigate the affairs and the conduct of any town agency.===Town Clerk===The Elected Town Clerk serves a three-year term and works full-time for the Town.", "The Clerk is \"the keeper of vital statistics of the town and the custodian of the town seal and all public records, administers the oaths of office to all town officers... and is the clerk of the town meeting.\"", "In the role as clerk of town meeting, he notifies the public and members of the Town Meeting and keeps a verbatim record of proceedings.", "The current Town Clerk is Paul Munchbach.===Town Moderator===Town Meetings are presided over by the Town Moderator, but he has no vote unless all the Members present and voting are equally divided.", "At the first Town Meeting following the annual town election, he is to appoint, subject to Town Meeting's confirmation, a Deputy Moderator from the elected Members.", "The Deputy serves in case of the Moderator's absence or disability.", "The current Town Moderator is Dan Driscoll.===Other boards and committees===The seven members of the School Committee are elected for three-year terms and appoint a Superintendent of Schools.", "They also set policy for the School Department.", "The School Committee is currently chaired by Victor Hebert, with Mayanne MacDonald Briggs serving as Vice Chairperson.", "The other members of the committee are Cailen McCormick, Chris Polito, Leah Flynn Gallant, and Stephen Acosta.The three elected members of the Board of Assessors serve three-year terms and annually make a fair cash valuation of all property within the town.", "The current chair is Richard J. Schoenfeld.", "Michael T. Polito serves as Vice Chair and George Panagopoulos serves as Secretary.The three elected members of the Board of Health are responsible for the formulation and enforcement of rules and regulations affecting the environment and the public health.", "Currently the board is chaired by Leanne Jasset, B.S.P.", "RPH.", "Bernadette Chirokas and Noreen Guilfoyle also serve on the board.Dedham Public LibraryThe Board of Library Trustees has five members, each of whom serves three-year terms, and has care of the Town's public library at the Endicott Branch and Main Branch.", "The Board develops policies to dictate how the library functions and operates.", "The Board is responsible for the library's buildings, including library hours and building use outside of regular operating hours.", "The Board also reviews the Director's budget request, makes recommendations, and officially adopts the operating budget.", "The current chair is Tom Turner, with Brian Keaney serving as Vice Chair.", "Crystal Power serves as Clerk.", "Annette Raphel and Rita Chapdelaine also serve as members.The five elected members of the Planning Board make studies and prepare plans concerning the resources, possibilities, and needs of the town.", "It also prepares the Master Plan.", "Currently the board is chaired by Michael A. Podolski, Esq., with Jessica Porter serving as Vice-Chair.", "James E. Brien IV serves as Clerk.", "John Bethoney and James F. McGrail, Esq.", "are also members.", "Andrew Pepoli serves as an unelected Associate.There are five elected members of the Parks & Recreation Commission.", "Section 3-10 of the Town Charter states that the goal of the commission is to promote physical education, play, recreation, sport and other programs for people of all ages.", "The commission is currently chaired by Lisa Farnham, with Jon Briggs serving as Vice Chair.", "Lisa Moran, Chuck Dello Iacono, and Ryan O'Toole are also members.There are five elected Commissioners of Trust Funds who manage and control all funds left, given, bequeathed, or devised to the town, and distribute the income in accordance with the terms of the respective trusts.", "The commission's Chair is Emily Reynolds, with Nicole P Munchbach serving as Vice Chair and Salvatore A Spada as Clerk.", "Bob Desmond and Dan Jon Oneil Jr. are also members.There are five members of the Housing Authority Board.", "Four are elected by the Town and one is appointed by the Commonwealth Commissioner of Community Affairs.", "As members of the Board, they have all of the powers and duties which are given to housing authorities under the constitution and laws of the Commonwealth.", "The current chair is Donna M. Brown Rego and Margaret Matthews serves as the Assistant Chair & State Appointee.", "Skye Kessler serves as Treasurer, John B. Kane as Assistant Treasurer, and John Wagner as a member." ], [ "Politics", "===Presidential elections===+ Presidential election results Year Republican Democratic Libertarian Green-Rainbow Constitution Reform Natural Law Workers World New Alliance Socialist Workers Citizens American Labor American Independent Socialist Labor People's Independent Write-in votes2020''4,771'' (30.07%) ''Trump and Pence'''''10,760''' ('''67.81%''') ''Biden and Harris''''191'' (1.20%) ''Jorgensen and Cohen''''60'' (0.38%) ''Hawkins and Walker''''85'' (0.54%)2016''4,778'' (33.12%) ''Trump and Pence'''''8,621''' ('''59.76%''') ''Clinton and Kaine''''570'' (3.95%) ''Johnson and Weld''''149'' (1.03%) ''Stein and Baraka''''1'' (0.01%) ''McMullin and Johnson''''308'' (2.13%)2012''5,734'' (41.83%) ''Romney and Ryan'''''7,757''' ('''56.58%''') ''Obama and Biden''''122'' (0.89%) ''Johnson and Gray''''54'' (0.39%) ''Stein and Honkala''''42'' (0.31%)2008''5,361'' (42.00%) ''McCain and Palin'''''7,108''' ('''55.69%''') ''Obama and Biden''''62'' (0.49%) ''Barr and Root''''25'' (0.20%) ''McKinney and Clemente''''20'' (0.16%) ''Baldwin and Castle''''116'' (0.91%) ''Nader and Gonzalez''''71'' (0.56%)2004''4,866'' (39.31%) ''Bush and Cheney'''''7,410''' ('''59.87%''') ''Kerry and Edwards''''66'' (0.53%) ''Badnarik and Campagna''''35'' (0.28%) ''Cobb and LaMarche''2000''4,110'' (34.38%) ''Bush and Cheney'''''7,028''' ('''58.79%''') ''Gore and Lieberman''''72'' (0.60%) ''Browne and Olivier''''645'' (5.40%) ''Nader and LaDuke''''67'' (0.56%) ''Buchanan and Higgins''''8'' (0.07%) ''Hagelin and Tompkins''''25'' (0.21%)1996''3,672'' (32.36%) ''Dole and Kemp'''''6,620''' ('''58.33%''') ''Clinton and Gore''''111'' (0.98%) ''Browne and Jorgensen''''914'' (8.05%) ''Perot and Choate''''21'' (0.19%) ''Hagelin and Tompkins''''11'' (0.10%) ''Moorehead and LaRiva''1992''4,409'' (33.77%) ''Bush and Quayle'''''5,675''' ('''43.47%''') ''Clinton and Gore''''39'' (0.30%) ''Marrou and Lord''''11'' (0.08%) ''Phillips and Knight Phillips''''7'' (0.05%) ''Hagelin and Tompkins''''4'' (0.03%) ''Fulani and Munoz''''2,907'' (22.27%) ''Perot and Stockdale''''4'' (0.03%)1988'''6,440''' ('''49.53%''') ''Bush and Quayle''''6,341'' (48.77%) ''Dukakis and Bentsen''''146'' (1.12%) ''Paul and Marrou''''66'' (0.51%) ''Fulani and Dattner''''10'' (0.08%)1984'''7,040''' ('''54.71%''') ''Reagan and Bush''''5,782'' (''44.94%'') ''Mondale and Ferraro''''36'' (0.28%) ''Serrette and Ross''''9'' (0.07%)1980'''6,367''' ('''46.74%''') ''Reagan and Bush''''5,071'' (''37.23%'') ''Carter and Mondale''''123'' (0.90%) ''Clark and Koch''''24'' (0.18%) ''DeBerry and Zimmerman''''4'' (0.03%) ''Commoner and Harris''''2,013'' (14.78%) ''Anderson and Lucey''''20'' (0.15%)1976''6,137'' (''45.55%'') ''Ford and Dole'''''6,853''' ('''50.86%''') ''Carter and Mondale''''1'' (0.01%) ''MacBride and Bergland''''42'' (0.31%) ''Camejo and Reid''''37'' (0.27%) ''Anderson and Shackelford''''43'' (0.32%) ''LaRouche and Evans''''355'' (2.63%) ''McCarthy and Stouffer''''5'' (0.04%)1972''6,041'' (''44.35%'') ''Nixon and Agnew'''''7,209''' ('''52.92%''') ''McGovern and Shriver''''61'' (0.45%) ''Jenness and Pulley''''51'' (0.37%) ''Schmitz and Anderson''''2'' (0.01%) ''Fisher and Gunderson''''1'' (0.01%) ''Spock and Hobson''===U.S.", "Senate elections===+ U.S. Senate election results Year Republican Democratic Twelve Visions Libertarian Constitution Timesizing Not Downsizing Conservative Natural Law LaRouche Was Right Socialist Workers U.S. Labor Party Prohibition Independent Write-in votes2020''4,902'' (31.64%) ''Kevin J. O'Connor'''''10,504''' ('''67.81%''') ''Edward J. Markey''''55'' (0.36%) ''Shiva Ayyadurai''''30'' (0.19%)2018''4,665'' (38.19%) ''Geoff Diehl'''''7,157''' ('''58.60%''') ''Elizabeth A. Warren''''378'' (3.09%) ''Shiva Ayyadurai''''14'' (0.11%)2014''3,624'' (38.80%) ''Brian J. Herr'''''5,706''' ('''61.09%''') ''Edward J. Markey''''10'' (0.10%)2013''2,846'' (49.26%) ''Gabriel E. Gomez'''''2,885''' ('''49.93%''') ''Edward J. Markey''''26'' (0.45%) ''Richard A. Heos''''21'' (0.36%)2012'''6,951''' ('''50.82'''%) ''Scott P. Brown''''6,715'' (49.09%) ''Elizabeth A. Warren''''12'' (0.09%)2010'''5,979''' ('''55.47'''%) ''Scott P. Brown''''4,647'' (43.11%) ''Martha Coakley''''147'' (1.36%) ''Joseph L. Kennedy''''6'' (0.06%)2008''4,326'' (34.93%) ''Jeffrey K. Beatty'''''7,707''' ('''62.22'''%) ''John F. Kerry''''342'' (2.76%) ''Robert J. Underwood''''11'' (0.09%)2006''3,048'' (31.59%) ''Kenneth G. Chase'''''6,587''' ('''68.27'''%) ''Edward M. Kennedy''''14'' (0.15%)2002'''7,522''' ('''79.88'''%) ''John F. Kerry''''1,791'' (19.02%) ''Michael E. Cloud''''67'' (0.71%) ''Randall Forsberg''''37'' (0.39%)2000''1,295'' (11.24%) ''Jack E. Robinson, III'''''8,277''' ('''71.89'''%) ''Edward M. Kennedy''''1,457'' (12.65%) ''Carla A. Howell''''409'' (3.55%) ''Philip F. Lawler''''35'' (0.30%) ''Philip Hyde, III''''39'' (0.34%) ''Dale E. Friedgen''''5'' (0.04%)1996''5,173'' (45.26%) ''William F. Weld'''''5,757''' ('''50.37'''%) ''John F. Kerry''''472'' (4.13%) ''Susan C. Gallagher''''28'' (0.24%) ''Robert C. Stowe''1994''4,498'' (43.06%) ''W.", "Mitt Romney'''''5,858''' ('''56.08'''%) ''Edward M. Kennedy''''65'' (''0.62%'') ''Lauraleigh Dozier''''25'' (''0.24%'') ''William A. Ferguson Jr.''1990''4,905'' (42.21%) ''Jim Rappaport'''''6,715''' ('''57.79'''%) ''John F. Kerry'' 1988''5,221'' (40.52%) ''Joseph D Malone'''''7,553''' ('''58.62'''%) ''Edward M. Kennedy''''64'' (0.50%) ''Mary Fridley''''22'' (0.17%) ''Freda Lee Nason''1984'''6,621''' ('''51.79%''') ''Raymond Shamie''''6,159'' (48.18%) ''John F. Kerry''''4'' (0.03%)1982''4,692'' (41.48%) ''Ray Shamie'''''6,545''' ('''57.86%''') ''Edward M. Kennedy''''72'' (0.64%) ''Howard S. Katz''''2'' (0.02%)1978''4,494'' (40.82%) ''Edward Brooke'''''6,504''' ('''59.07%''') ''Paul E. Tsongas''''11'' (0.10%)1976''4,728'' (36.59%) ''Michael S. Robertson'''''7,932''' ('''61.39%''') ''Edward M. Kennedy''''134'' (1.04%) ''Carol Henderson Evans''''126'' (0.98%) ''H.", "Graham Lowry''1972'''7,748''' ('''58.25%''') ''Edward Brooke''''5,417'' (''40.73%'') ''John J. Droney''''135'' (1.01%) ''Donald Gurewitz''''1'' (0.01%)1970''4,311'' (38.50%) ''Josiah A. Spaulding'''''6,807''' ('''60.80%''') ''Edward M. Kennedy''''25'' (0.22%) ''Lawrence Gilfedder''''47'' (0.42%) ''Mark R. Shaw''''6'' (0.05%)===U.S.", "House elections===+ U.S. House election results Year District Republican Democratic Conservative Socialist Workers Unenrolled Write-in votes20208'''11,626''' ('''82.21%''') ''Stephen F. Lynch''''2,420'' (17.11%) ''Jonathan D. Lott''''96'' (0.68%)20188'''9,721''' ('''98.61%''') ''Stephen F. Lynch''''137'' (1.39%)20168''3,379'' (24.46%) ''William Burke'''''10,414''' ('''75.37%''') ''Stephen F. Lynch''''24'' (0.17%)20148'''7,371''' ('''98.44%''') ''Stephen F. Lynch''''117'' (1.56%)20128''2,949'' (23.01%) ''Joe Selvaggi'''''9,844''' ('''76.81%''') ''Stephen F. Lynch''''23'' (0.18%)20109''2,474'' (24.95%) ''Vernon M. Harrison'''''6,616''' ('''66.73%''') ''Stephen F. Lynch''''810'' (8.17%) ''Philip Dunklebarger''''14'' (0.14%)20089'''9,609''' ('''98.74%''') ''Stephen F. Lynch''''123'' (1.26%)20069''2,474'' (26.41%) ''Jack E. Robinson, III'''''7,407''' ('''79.08%''') ''Stephen F. Lynch''''20'' (0.21%)20049'''8,957''' ('''100.00%''') ''Stephen F. Lynch''20029'''7,434''' ('''98.88%''') ''Stephen F. Lynch''''84'' (1.12%)20019''1,132'' (32.84%) ''Jo Ann Sprague'''''2,266''' ('''65.74%''') ''Stephen F. Lynch''''33'' (0.99%) ''Susan Gallagher C. Long''''16'' (0.48%) ''Brock R. Satter''20009''2,775'' (24.18%) ''Janet E. Jeghelian'''''8,454''' ('''73.65%''') ''John Joseph Moakley''''242'' (2.11%) ''David A. Rosa''''7'' (0.06%)19989'''7,029''' ('''98.96%''') ''John Moakley''''74'' (1.04%)19969''3,952'' (35.55%) ''Paul V. Gryska'''''7,165''' ('''64.45%''') ''John Moakley''19949''3,147'' (31.40%) ''Michael M. Murphy'''''6,874''' ('''68.60%''') ''John Moakley''19929''2,647'' (21.76%) ''Martin D. Conboy'''''8,437''' ('''69.34%''') ''John Moakley''''663'' (5.45%) ''Lawrence C. Mackin''''420'' (3.45%) ''Robert W. Horan''19909'''7,799''' ('''68.67%''') ''John Moakley''''3,556'' (31.31%) ''Robert W. Horan''''2'' (0.02%)19889'''10,200''' ('''99.99%''') ''John Moakley''''1'' (0.02%)19869'''7,001''' ('''83.10%''') ''John Moakley''''1,423'' (16.89%) ''Robert W. Horan''''1'' (0.01%)19849'''10,166''' ('''99.86%''') ''John Moakley''''14'' (0.14%)===Governor elections===+ Governor election results Year Republican Democratic United Independent Unenrolled Unenrolled Green-Rainbow Write-in votes2018'''8,264''' ('''68.76%''') ''Baker and Polito''''3,711'' (30.88%) ''Gonzalez and Palfrey''''43'' (0.36%)2014'''5,107''' ('''52.09%''') ''Baker and Polito''''4,299'' (43.84%) ''Coakley and Kerrigan''''270'' (2.75%) ''Falchuk and Jennings''''66'' (0.67%) ''Lively and Saunders''''53'' (0.54%) ''McCormick and Post''''10'' (0.10%)2010'''4,674''' ('''45.18%''') ''Baker and Tisei''''4,513'' (43.62%) ''Patrick and Murray''''1,032'' (9.98%) ''Cahill and Losocco''''113'' (1.09%) ''Stein and Purcell''''13'' (0.10%)2006''4,111'' (41.39%) ''Healey and Hillman'''''4,874'' (''49.07%''') ''Patrick and Murray''''736'' (7.41%) ''Mihos and Sullivan''''197'' (1.98%) ''Ross and Robinson''''14'' (0.14%)" ], [ "Television and film", "Dedham District CourtDedham has been featured on both television and film screens.", "* William Desmond Taylor's 1919 silent film ''Anne of Green Gables'' was filmed in Dedham.", "It was the favorite role of star Mary Miles Minter, but no copies of the film are known to have survived.", "The film also starred Paul Kelly.", "* The 1973 film ''The Friends of Eddie Coyle'' was partially filmed in Dedham and starred Robert Mitchum, Peter Boyle, and Alex Rocco.", "* In the 1980s, the Endicott Estate was featured in an episode of ''Spenser: For Hire''.", "* The 1982 film ''Pieces'' was filmed mainly in Madrid, but also included the same Dedham Square robbed in 'Eddie Coyle'.", "* The Endicott Estate was also featured in the 2000 film ''The Perfect Storm''.", "* The award-winning 2000 film ''State and Main'' was filmed in Dedham, and Alec Baldwin's character slept in the Endicott Estate.", "* In a 2004 episode of ''The Practice'', viewers learned that Alan Shore grew up in the town, and numerous references to the Sacco and Vanzetti trial were also made.", "Images of Dedham Square, the Dedham Historical Society building and the courthouses were shot on location.", "In addition, \"extremely rare\" interior and exterior photos of the courthouses from the turn of the 20th century were shown.", "* The 2010 thriller ''Shutter Island'' was partially filmed in Dedham.", "* The 2014 film ''The Judge'' was filmed partly in Dedham Square.", "*Kathryn Bigelow's 2017 film, Detroit, utilized the Dedham District Court as a filming location.", "*The film I Care a Lot was filmed at the Norfolk County Courthouse and Norfolk County Registry of Deeds." ], [ "Infrastructure", "===Transportation===Commuter rail service from Boston's South Station is provided by the MBTA with stops at and on its Franklin/Foxboro Line.", "Also, MBTA bus routes 34 Dedham Square to Forest Hills serves Washington Street, Dedham Square, and the Dedham Mall, route 34E Walpole Center to Forest Hills serves Washington Street and Dedham Square, and route 35 Dedham Mall to Forest Hills serves Washington Street and the Dedham Mall.===Police and Fire===Public Safety complexIn March 2023, Dedham opened a 84,000 square-foot public safety complex on the site of the former Town Hall at 26 Bryant Street.", "The complex combines the equipment and personnel of the town's fire, police, and dispatch departments.", "This building replaced the previous police station at 600 High Street (built 1962) and fire station at 436 Washington Street (built 1952)." ], [ "Education", "=== Public education ===The Dedham Public Schools operates seven schools and is known for the first implementation of a tax supported, free public school system, now used nationally.", "* Dedham High School* Dedham Middle School* Avery Elementary School* Oakdale Elementary School* Greenlodge Elementary School* Riverdale Elementary School* Dr. Thomas J. Curren Early Childhood Education Center=== Private education ===In addition, there are several private schools in the town, including:* Noble and Greenough School, a private, co-educational day and boarding school for students in grades 7–12* Dedham Country Day School, a private, co-educational, day school for students in pre-kindergarten to eighth grade* Ursuline Academy, an independent college preparatory day school for young women in grades 7–12.", "* The Rashi School, a Reform Jewish elementary and middle school.", "* Little Sprouts Early Education and Childcare, a preschool and kindergarten.", "* Regina Caeli Academy, based at St. Mary's Church.=== Former schools ===* Ames School, a former public elementary school named after distinguished Dedham resident Fisher Ames.", "* Charles J. Capen School, operated from 1931 to 1981.", "* St. Mary of the Assumption School, a former Catholic elementary school that operated as a part of St. Mary of the Assumption Parish until 1975.", "* The Quincy School, a former public elementary school that operated until 1982.", "* The Dexter School, a former public elementary school now operating as a private preschool and kindergarten, Little Sprouts Early Education and Childcare, Dedham location.=== Higher education ===* Queen of Apostles Seminary, a former Catholic minor seminary run by the Society of African Missions, closed in the late 1960s* Northeastern University Dedham Campus, a satellite campus located in the Queen of Apostles Seminary's former building" ], [ "Places of worship", "Place of worshipDenomination Size FoundedFirst Church and Parish in DedhamUnitarian Universalist 1638 (Split in 1818)Allin Congregational ChurchUnited Church of Christ 1638 (Split in 1818)St. Paul's Episcopal ChurchThe Episcopal Church 1758Fellowship Bible ChurchNondenominational 1843St.", "Mary of the Assumption ChurchRoman Catholic 2,329 families 1866Church of the Good ShepherdThe Episcopal Church 1877St.", "Luke's Lutheran ChurchEvangelical Lutheran Church in America 1893St.", "John of Damascus ChurchEastern Orthodox Church 1907St.", "Susanna ChurchRoman Catholic 1960Calvary Baptist ChurchIndependent Baptist Dedham TempleSeventh-day Adventist Former places of worshipPlace of worshipDenominationFoundedClosedFirst Church of Christ, ScientistChurch of Christ, Scientist19392000sSt.", "Raphael'sRoman Catholic18781887The Link ChurchAssemblies of GodMoved to Canton" ], [ "Points of interest", "thumb* Organizations** Dedham Historical Society and Museum** Dedham Public Library* Businesses** Dedham Health and Athletic Complex** Legacy Place, outdoor shopping center.", "** Moseley's on the Charles, the oldest continuous-running ballroom in the country*Historic DistrictsThree districts have been recognized for their historic and architectural significance:** Dedham Village Historic District**Connecticut Corner District**Federal Hill District*Buildings**19 Court Street, a building with several uses over several centuries**369 Washington Street, the Knights of Columbus building**601-603 High Street, a commercial building in Dedham Square** East Dedham Firehouse, possibly the oldest wood framed firehouse in use in the United States.", "Originally built in 1855, it was designed with stables in the basement for the horses that carried the apparatus.", "** Ames Schoolhouse, schoolhouse built in 1897, now the Dedham town hall and senior center** Endicott Estate** Fairbanks House** MIT Endicott House** Norfolk County Correctional Center, situated in the median of Route 128.", "** Old Norfolk County Jail* Cemeteries** Baby Cemetery** Brookdale Cemetery** Fairview Cemetery** Old Village Cemetery** Boston United Hand in Hand Cemetery is located on Lower East Street straddling the West Roxbury line.", "Dating back to 1875, the original plot was full by 1896 but subsequently expanded a number of times.", "There are graves as recent as 1980 in the West Roxbury portion; the Dedham portion is still active.", "Chestnut Hill's Congregation Mishka Tefila currently owns the property." ], [ "Notable people", "===Sports===* Buck Danner, infielder for the Philadelphia Athletics* Pete Hamilton, NASCAR driver* Bill Hunnefield, infielder for Chicago White Sox (1926–1930), Cleveland Indians (1931), Boston Braves (1931) and New York Giants (1931)* John Frederick Kiley, outfielder for the Washington Nationals (1884) and Boston Beaneaters (1891)* Lefty Mills, early American one-armed baseball player* Sarah Parsons, member of the 2006 Winter Olympics women's hockey team* Freddy Roach, professional boxer* Warren Cummings Smith, alpine skier in the 2014 Winter Olympics men's giant slalom and slalom===Arts and literature===* Louisa May Alcott, author of ''Little Women'', lived and worked for seven weeks during 1851 as a domestic helper in Dedham* Tim Costello (1945–2009), labor and anti-globalization advocate and author* Jacques d'Amboise, ballet dancer and choreographer* George Derby, humorist* Alvan Fisher, artist* Reuben Guild, librarian and author* Lilian Westcott Hale, artist* Connie Hines, television actress* Peter H. Reynolds, children's author and illustrator* Anita Shreve, author* Richard Trethewey, plumber on ''This Old House''===Government=======State====* Deborah R. Cochran, Representative to the Great and General Court* Waldo Colburn (1824–1885), Massachusetts State Representative, Massachusetts State Supreme Court Justice* Samuel Haven (1771–1847), Chief justice of the Court of Common Pleas* Maryanne Lewis, Representative to the Great and General Court* Horace Mann, education reformer and abolitionist* Theron Metcalf, Associate Justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court* Charles M. McGowan, businessman and Representative to the Great and General Court* Paul McMurtry, Representative to the Great and General Court* Betty Jo Nelsen, member of the Wisconsin State Assembly* Mason Sears (1899–1973), Representative to the Great and General Court and chairman of the Massachusetts Republican Party* William Z. Stuart (1811–1876), Justice of the Indiana Supreme Court====Federal====* Fisher Ames, U.S. Representative* Louis Brandeis, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States* LeBaron Bradford Colt, U.S.", "Senator* William S. Damrell, Know Nothing U.S. Representative who served two terms and died in Dedham and whose Dedham estate formed part of Fairview Cemetery* Samuel Dexter, U.S. Representative, Secretary of War, Secretary of the Treasury, administered oath of office to Chief Justice John Marshall* Frederick D. Ely, U.S. Representative* David Hackett, head of President's Committee on Juvenile Delinquency and Youth Crime, inspiration for Phineas in ''A Separate Peace''* John William McCormack, Speaker of U.S. House of Representatives* John Lothrop Motley, historian, Minister to Great Britain, Minister to Austrian Empire* Frederick J. Stimson, Ambassador to Argentina (1914–1921), Assistant Attorney General of Massachusetts* George F. Williams, U.S. Representative, Ambassador to Greece and Montenegro, known as \"sage of Dedham\"===Military===* John Andrew Barnes, III, war hero, Medal of Honor recipient* Ebenezer Battelle, Revolutionary War veteran* Leon A. Edney, former Supreme Allied Commander, NATO Atlantic Forces, United States Atlantic Command, Commodore Admiral, US Navy* William B. Gould, formerly enslaved Union Navy sailor* James William Augustus Nicholson, Rear Admiral, U.S. Navy* Thomas Sherwin, General in the Civil War* Stephen Minot Weld Jr., Civil War hero===Religious===* Eliphalet Adams (1677–1753), clergyman and missionary to the Native Americans* John Allin, patriarch of New England and signatory to the Dedham Covenant* Charles A. Finn, oldest Catholic priest in the United StatesNathaniel Ames House===Miscellaneous===* Weaver W. Adams, chess master* Nathaniel Ames, almanac-maker and physician* Faxon Atherton, businessman and namesake of Atherton, California* Jason Fairbanks, murderer* Jonathan Fairbanks, builder of the Fairbanks House* Temple Grandin, professor of animal science, inventor and autism advocate* Samuel Foster Haven, archaeologist and anthropologist* Eli Sagan (1927–2015), clothing manufacturer, lecturer and author in cultural anthropology and political activist who served on the national finance committee for George McGovern's 1972 presidential campaign, a role that earned him a spot on Richard Nixon's Enemies List in 1973* Tommy Vietor, National Security Council spokesperson, podcast host of ''Pod Save America''" ], [ "See also", "*Dedham Fire Department" ], [ "References" ], [ "Works cited", "*******" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Cremin, Lawrence A., \"American Education: The Colonial Experience 1607–1783\", First Edition, New York, Harper & Row, Publishers, 1970.", "* Hanson, Robert Brand, \"Dedham, Massachusetts, 1635–1890\", published by Dedham Historical Society, 1976" ], [ "External links", "* Dedham's official website* Boston.com's Dedham news page" ] ]
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[ [ "Death Factory" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Death factory''' is a colloquial name for extermination camps.", "'''Death Factory''' may also refer to:* ''Death Factory'' (2002 film)* ''Death Factory'' (2014 film), aka ''The Butchers''" ], [ "See also", "*''Death on a Factory Farm'', 2009 television documentary film" ] ]
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[ [ "Book of Deuteronomy" ], [ "Introduction", "Papyrus Fouad 266, dating to , contains part of a Greek translation (Septuagint) of Deuteronomy.", "'''Deuteronomy''' (; ) is the fifth book of the Torah (in Judaism), where it is called () and the fifth book of the Christian Old Testament.Chapters 1–30 of the book consist of three sermons or speeches delivered to the Israelites by Moses on the Plains of Moab, shortly before they enter the Promised Land.", "The first sermon recounts the forty years of wilderness wanderings which had led to that moment and ended with an exhortation to observe the law.", "The second sermon reminds the Israelites of the need to follow Yahweh and the laws (or teachings) he has given them, on which their possession of the land depends.", "The third sermon offers the comfort that, even should the nation of Israel prove unfaithful and so lose the land, with repentance all can be restored.", "The final four chapters (31–34) contain the Song of Moses, the Blessing of Moses, and the narratives recounting the passing of the mantle of leadership from Moses to Joshua and, finally, the death of Moses on Mount Nebo.One of its most significant verses is Deuteronomy 6:4, the Shema Yisrael, which has been described as the definitive statement of Jewish identity for theistic Jews: \"Hear, O Israel: the our God, the is one.\"", "Verses 6:4–5 were also quoted by Jesus in Mark 12:28–34 as the Great Commandment." ], [ "Structure", "Patrick D. Miller in his commentary on Deuteronomy suggests that different views of the structure of the book will lead to different views on what it is about.", "The structure is often described as a series of three speeches or sermons (chapters 1:1–4:43, 4:44–29:1, 29:2–30:20) followed by a number of short appendices or some kind of epilogue (31:1–34:12), consist of commission of Joshua, the song of Moses and the death of Moses.Other scholars have compared the structure of Deuteronomy with Hittite treaties or other ancient Near Eastern treaty texts.", "But it is clear that Deuteronomy is not in itself simply the text of a treaty, as Deuteronomy is more than simply applying the secular model of treaty to Israel's relationship with God.The Ten Commandments (Decalogue) in chapter 5 serve as a blueprint for the rest of the book, as chapters 12-26 are the exposition of the Decalogue, thus the expanded Decalogue.CommandmentsChapters1–312–13414:28–16:17516:18–18:22619:1–21:9722:13–308–1023–26" ], [ "Summary", "Moses receiving the Law (top) and reading the Law to the Israelites (bottom)''(The following \"literary\" outline of Deuteronomy is from John Van Seters; it can be contrasted with Alexander Rofé's \"covenantal\" analysis in his ''Deuteronomy: Issues and Interpretation''.", ")''*Chapters 1–4: The journey through the wilderness from Horeb (Sinai) to Kadesh and then to Moab is recalled.", "*Chapters 4–11: After a second introduction at 4:44–49 the events at Mount Horeb are recalled, with the giving of the Ten Commandments.", "Heads of families are urged to instruct those under their care in the law, warnings are made against serving gods other than Yahweh, the land promised to Israel is praised, and the people are urged to obedience.", "*Chapters 12–26, the Deuteronomic Code: Laws governing Israel's worship (chapters 12–16a), the appointment and regulation of community and religious leaders (16b–18), social regulation (19–25), and confession of identity and loyalty (26).", "*Chapters 27–28: Blessings and curses for those who keep and break the law.", "*Chapters 29–30: Concluding discourse on the covenant in the land of Moab, including all the laws in the Deuteronomic Code (chapters 12–26) after those given at Horeb; Israel is again exhorted to obedience.", "*Chapters 31–34: Joshua is installed as Moses's successor, Moses delivers the law to the Levites (a priestly caste), and ascends Mount Nebo or Pisgah, where he dies and is buried by God.", "The narrative of these events is interrupted by two poems, the Song of Moses and the Blessing of Moses.The final verses, Deuteronomy 34:10–12, \"never again did there arise in Israel a prophet like Moses,\" make a claim for the authoritative Deuteronomistic view of theology and its insistence that the worship of Yahweh as the sole deity of Israel was the only permissible religion, having been sealed by the greatest of prophets.===Deuteronomic Code===Deuteronomy 12–26, the Deuteronomic Code, is the oldest part of the book and the core around which the rest developed.", "It is a series of mitzvot (''commands'') to the Israelites regarding how they should conduct themselves in the Promised Land." ], [ "Composition", "Moses viewing the Promised Land, Deuteronomy 34:1–5 (James Tissot)===Composition history===Mosaic authorship of the Torah, the belief that the five books of the Torah – including the Book of Deuteronomy – were dictated by God to Moses on Mount Sinai, is an ancient Judeo-Christian tradition that was codified by Maimonides (1135–1204 AD) as the 8th of the 13 Jewish principles of faith.", "Virtually all modern secular scholars, and most Christian and Jewish scholars, reject the Mosaic authorship of the Book of Deuteronomy and date the book much later, between the 7th and 5th centuries BC.", "Its authors were probably the Levite caste, collectively referred to as the Deuteronomist, whose economic needs and social status the book reflects.", "The historical background to the book's composition is currently viewed in the following general terms:* In the late 8th century BC both Judah and Israel were vassals of Assyria.", "Israel rebelled and was destroyed circa 722 BC.", "Refugees fleeing from Israel to Judah brought with them a number of traditions that were new to Judah.", "One of these was that the god Yahweh, already known and worshiped in Judah, was not merely the most important of the gods, but the only god who should be served.", "This outlook influenced the Judahite landowning ruling class, which became extremely powerful in court circles after placing the eight-year-old Josiah on the throne following the murder of his father, Amon of Judah.", "* By the eighteenth year of Josiah's reign, Assyrian power was in rapid decline, and a pro-independence movement was gathering strength in the Kingdom of Judah.", "One manifestation of this movement was a state theology of loyalty to Yahweh as the sole god of the Kingdom of Judah.", "According to 2 Kings 22:1–23:30, at this time Hilkiah (the High Priest and father of the prophet Jeremiah) discovered the \"book of the law\" – which many scholars believe to be the Deuteronomic Code (the set of laws at chapters 12–26 which form the original core of the Book of Deuteronomy) – in the temple.", "Josiah subsequently launched a full-scale reform of worship based on this \"book of the law\", which takes the form of a covenant between Judah and Yahweh to replace the decades-old vassal treaty between King Esarhaddon of Assyria and King Manasseh of Judah.", "* The next stage took place during the Babylonian captivity.", "The destruction of the Kingdom of Judah by Babylon in 586 BC and the end of kingship was the occasion of much reflection and theological speculation among the Deuteronomistic elite, now in exile in the city of Babylon.", "The disaster was supposedly Yahweh's punishment of their failure to follow the law, and so they created a history of Israel (the books of Joshua through Kings) to illustrate this.", "* At the end of the Exile, when the Persians agreed that the Jews could return and rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem, chapters 1–4 and 29–30 were added and Deuteronomy was made the introductory book to this history, so that a story about a people about to enter the Promised Land became a story about a people about to return to the land.", "The legal sections of chapters 19–25 were expanded to meet new situations that had arisen, and chapters 31–34 were added as a new conclusion.Chapters 12–26, containing the Deuteronomic Code, are the earliest section.", "Since the idea was first put forward by W. M. L. de Wette in 1805, most scholars have accepted that this portion of the book was composed in Jerusalem in the 7th century BC in the context of religious reforms advanced by King Hezekiah (reigned c. 716–687 BC), although some have argued for other dates, such as during the reign of his successor Manasseh (687–643 BC) or even much later, such as during the exilic or postexilic periods (597–332 BC).", "The second prologue (Ch.", "5–11) was the next section to be composed, and then the first prologue (Ch.", "1–4); the chapters following 26 are similarly layered.===Israel–Judah division===The prophet Isaiah, active in Jerusalem about a century before Josiah, makes no mention of the Exodus, covenants with God, or disobedience to God's laws.", "In contrast, Isaiah's contemporary Hosea, active in the northern kingdom of Israel, makes frequent references to the Exodus, the wilderness wanderings, a covenant, the danger of foreign gods and the need to worship Yahweh alone.", "This discrepancy has led scholars to conclude that these traditions behind Deuteronomy have a northern origin.", "Whether the Deuteronomic Code was written in Josiah's time (late 7th century BC) or earlier is subject to debate, but many of the individual laws are older than the collection itself.", "The two poems at chapters 32–33 – the Song of Moses and the Blessing of Moses were probably originally independent.===Position in the Hebrew Bible===Deuteronomy occupies a puzzling position in the Bible, linking the story of the Israelites' wanderings in the wilderness to the story of their history in Canaan without quite belonging totally to either.", "The wilderness story could end quite easily with Numbers, and the story of Joshua's conquests could exist without it, at least at the level of the plot.", "But in both cases there would be a thematic (theological) element missing.", "Scholars have given various answers to the problem.The Deuteronomistic history theory is currently the most popular.", "Deuteronomy was originally just the law code and covenant, written to cement the religious reforms of Josiah, and later expanded to stand as the introduction to the full history.", "But there is an older theory, which sees Deuteronomy as belonging to Numbers, and Joshua as a sort of supplement to it.", "This idea still has supporters, but the mainstream understanding is that Deuteronomy, after becoming the introduction to the history, was later detached from it and included with Genesis–Exodus–Leviticus–Numbers because it already had Moses as its central character.", "According to this hypothesis, the death of Moses was originally the ending of Numbers, and was simply moved from there to the end of Deuteronomy." ], [ "Themes", "===Overview===Deuteronomy stresses the uniqueness of God, the need for drastic centralisation of worship, and a concern for the position of the poor and disadvantaged.", "Its many themes can be organised around the three poles of Israel, Yahweh, and the covenant which binds them together.===Israel===The themes of Deuteronomy in relation to Israel are election, faithfulness, obedience, and Yahweh's promise of blessings, all expressed through the covenant: \"obedience is not primarily a duty imposed by one party on another, but an expression of covenantal relationship.\"", "Yahweh has elected Israel as his special property (Deuteronomy 7:6 and elsewhere), and Moses stresses to the Israelites the need for obedience to God and covenant, and the consequences of unfaithfulness and disobedience.", "Yet the first several chapters of Deuteronomy are a long retelling of Israel's past disobedience – but also God's gracious care, leading to a long call to Israel to choose life over death and blessing over curse (chapters 7–11).===Yahweh===Deuteronomy's concept of God changed over time.", "The earliest 7th century layer is monolatrous; not denying the reality of other gods but enforcing only the worship of Yahweh in Jerusalem.", "In the later, Exilic layers from the mid-6th century, especially chapter 4, this becomes monotheism, the idea that only one god exists.", "God is simultaneously present in the Temple and in heaven – an important and innovative concept called \"name theology.", "\"After the review of Israel's history in chapters 1 to 4, there is a restatement of the Ten Commandments in chapter 5.This arrangement of material highlights God's sovereign relationship with Israel prior to the giving of establishment of the Law.===Covenant===The core of Deuteronomy is the covenant that binds Yahweh and Israel by oaths of fidelity and obedience.", "God will give Israel blessings of the land, fertility, and prosperity so long as Israel is faithful to God's teaching; disobedience will lead to curses and punishment.", "But, according to the Deuteronomists, Israel's prime sin is lack of faith, apostasy: contrary to the first and fundamental commandment (\"Thou shalt have no other gods before me\") the people have entered into relations with other gods.Dillard and Longman in their ''Introduction to the Old Testament'' stress the living nature of the covenant between Yahweh and Israel as a nation: The people of Israel are addressed by Moses as a unity, and their allegiance to the covenant is not one of obeisance, but comes out of a pre-existing relationship between God and Israel, established with Abraham and attested to by the Exodus event, so that the laws of Deuteronomy set the nation of Israel apart, signaling the unique status of the Jewish nation.", "The land is God's gift to Israel, and many of the laws, festivals and instructions in Deuteronomy are given in the light of Israel's occupation of the land.", "Dillard and Longman note that \"In 131 of the 167 times the verb \"give\" occurs in the book, the subject of the action is Yahweh.\"", "Deuteronomy makes the Torah the ultimate authority for Israel, one to which even the king is subject." ], [ "Judaism's weekly Torah portions in the Book of Deuteronomy", "*''Devarim'', on Deuteronomy 1–3: Chiefs, scouts, Edom, Ammonites, Sihon, Og, land for two and a half tribes*''Va'etchanan'', on Deuteronomy 3–7: Cities of refuge, Ten Commandments, Shema, exhortation, conquest instructions*''Eikev'', on Deuteronomy 7–11: Obedience, taking the land, golden calf, Aaron's death, Levites' duties*''Re'eh'', on Deuteronomy 11–16: Centralized worship, diet, tithes, sabbatical year, pilgrim festivals*''Shofetim'', on Deuteronomy 16–21: Basic societal structure for the Israelites*''Ki Teitzei'', on Deuteronomy 21–25: Miscellaneous laws on civil and domestic life*''Ki Tavo'', on Deuteronomy 26–29: First fruits, tithes, blessings and curses, exhortation*''Nitzavim'', on Deuteronomy 29–30: covenant, violation, choose blessing and curse*''Vayelech'', on Deuteronomy 31: Encouragement, reading and writing the law*''Haazinu'', on Deuteronomy 32: Punishment, punishment restrained, parting words*''V'Zot HaBerachah'', on Deuteronomy 33–34: Farewell blessing and death of Moses" ], [ "Influence on Judaism and Christianity", "===Judaism===The Book of Deuteronomy, Debarim.", "Hebrew with translation into Judeo-Arabic, transcribed in Hebrew letters.", "From Livorno, 1894 CE.", "Moroccan Jewish Museum, Casablanca.Deuteronomy 6:4–5: \"Hear, O Israel (''shema Yisra'el''), the is our God, the is one!\"", "has become the basic credo of Judaism, the Shema Yisrael, and its twice-daily recitation is a mitzvah (religious commandment).", "It continues, \"Thou shalt love the thy God with all thy heart and all thy soul and all thy might\"; it has therefore also become identified with the central Jewish concept of the love of God, and the rewards that come as a result.===Christianity===In the Gospel of Matthew, Jesus cited Deuteronomy 6:5 as a Great Commandment.", "The earliest Christian authors interpreted Deuteronomy's prophecy of the restoration of Israel as having been fulfilled (or superseded) in Jesus Christ and the establishment of the Christian Church (Luke 1–2, Acts 2–5), and Jesus was interpreted to be the \"one (i.e., prophet) like me\" predicted by Moses in Deuteronomy 18:15 (Acts 3:22–23).", "While the exact position of Paul the Apostle and Judaism is still debated, a common view is that in place of mitzvah set out in Deuteronomy, Paul the Apostle, drawing on Deuteronomy 30:11–14, claimed that the keeping of the Mosaic covenant was superseded by faith in Jesus and the gospel (the New Covenant)." ], [ "See also", "* 613 commandments* Documentary hypothesis* Hebrew Bible* Kashrut* Mosaic authorship* Papyrus Rylands 458 – the oldest Greek manuscript of Deuteronomy" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General and cited references", "===Translations===* Deuteronomy in NIV* Deuteronomy in Tanakh (Hebrew Bible)===Commentaries===* * * * Plaut, W. Gunther (1981).", "''The Torah: A Modern Commentary''.", "* ===General===* * * * * * * * Clements, Ronald (1968).", "''God's Chosen People: A Theological Interpretation of the Book of Deuteronomy''.", "In series, ''Religious Book Club'', 182.London: S.C.M.", "Press.", "* * Gottwald, Norman, review of Stephen L. Cook, ''The Social Roots of Biblical Yahwism'', Society of Biblical Literature, 2004* * Gili Kugler, Kugler, Moses died and the people moved on - a hidden narrative in Deuteronomy* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Deuteronomy at Bible Gateway* * * Jewish translations:** Deuteronomy at Mechon-Mamre (modified Jewish Publication Society translation)** Deuteronomy (The Living Torah) Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan's translation and commentary at Ort.org** Devarim – Deuteronomy (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org** דְּבָרִים ''Devarim'' – Deuteronomy (Hebrew – English at Mechon-Mamre.org)* Christian translations:** ''Online Bible'' at GospelHall.org (King James Version)** ''oremus Bible Browser'' (New Revised Standard Version)** ''oremus Bible Browser'' (''Anglicized'' New Revised Standard Version)** ''Deuteronomy'' at Wikisource (Authorized King James Version)** Various versions" ] ]
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[ [ "Down" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Down''' most often refers to:* Down, the relative direction opposed to up* Down (gridiron football), in North American/gridiron football, a period when one play takes place* Down feather, a soft bird feather used in bedding and clothing* Downland, a type of hill'''Down''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Places", "* County Down, Northern Ireland, UK** County Down (Parliament of Ireland constituency), abolished 1800** Down (Northern Ireland Parliament constituencies)** Down (Northern Ireland Parliament constituency), 1921–1929** Down (UK Parliament constituency), 1801–1885 and 1922–1950** Down (civil parish)** Down county football team, Gaelic football* Down, County Westmeath, Ireland* Downe, Greater London, England, formerly called \"Down\"" ], [ "People", "* Down (surname)* John Langdon Down (1828–1896), British physician best known for his description of Down syndrome* Down AKA Kilo (born 1985), American rapper" ], [ "Film and television", "* ''Down'' (film), a 2001 English remake of the film * \"Down\" (''Breaking Bad''), an episode of the second season of ''Breaking Bad''* \"Down\" (''Into the Dark''), an episode of the first season of ''Into the Dark''" ], [ "Literature", "* ''Down'' (comics), a comic book published by Top Cow Productions* ''Down'' (novel), a 1997 Bernice Summerfield novel by Lawrence Miles" ], [ "Music", "* Down (band), an American heavy metal supergroup* ''Down'' (The Jesus Lizard album), 1994* ''Down'' (Sentenced album), 1996===Songs===* \"Down\" (311 song), 1996* \"Down\" (Blink-182 song), 2003* \"Down\" (Fifth Harmony song), 2017* \"Down\" (Jay Sean song), 2009* \"Down\" (Jessi song), 2018* \"Down\" (The Kooks song), 2014* \"Down\" (Marian Hill song), 2016* \"Down\" (Motograter song), 2003* \"Down\" (R.K.M & Ken-Y song), 2006* \"Down\" (Stone Temple Pilots song), 1999* \"Down\", by Breaking Benjamin from ''Ember''* \"Down\", by Brymo from ''Merchants, Dealers & Slaves''* \"Down\", by Chris Brown from ''Exclusive''* \"Down\", by Dave Gahan from ''Hourglass''* \"Down\", by Davido from * \"Down\", by Earshot from ''Two''* \"Down\", by Five for Fighting from ''Bookmarks''* \"Down\", by Gravity Kills from ''Gravity Kills''* \"Down\", by Juelz Santana from ''From Me to U''* \"Down\", by Kutless from ''Kutless''* \"Down\", by Lindisfarne from ''Nicely Out of Tune''* \"Down\", by Mat Kearney from ''Young Love''* \"Down\", by Miles Davis from ''Birdland 1951''* \"Down\", by Modern Day Zero* \"Down\", by Pearl Jam from ''Lost Dogs''* \"Down\", by Pitchshifter from ''PSI''* \"Down\", by the Prom Kings from ''The Prom Kings''* \"Down\", by Seether from ''Holding Onto Strings Better Left to Fray''* \"Down\", by Widespread Panic from ''Don't Tell the Band''* \"Down\", by Yelawolf from ''Shady XV''" ], [ "Other uses", "* Down (game theory), a standard position in mathematical game theory* Rail directions, where ''down'' and ''up'' have locally significant meanings* DOWN (app), social networking and online dating app" ], [ "See also", "* \"Down Down\", a 1975 song by Status Quo* Down GAA, responsible for the administration of Gaelic games in County Down, Northern Ireland* Down quark, an elementary constituent of matter* Down payment, a term used in the context of the purchase of items* Down syndrome, a genetic disorder* DN (disambiguation)* Downe (disambiguation)* Downhill (disambiguation)* Downs (disambiguation)* Downstairs (disambiguation)* Downtown (disambiguation)* Down Down Down (disambiguation)" ] ]
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[ [ "David" ], [ "Introduction", "'''David''' (; , \"beloved one\") was, according to the Hebrew Bible, the third king of the United Kingdom of Israel.", "Historians of the Ancient Near East agree that David probably lived , but little more is known about him as a historical figure.According to Jewish works such as the ''Seder Olam Rabbah'', ''Seder Olam Zutta'', and ''Sefer ha-Qabbalah'' (all written over a thousand years later), David ascended the throne as the king of Judah in 885 BCE.", "The Tel Dan stele, an Aramaic-inscribed stone erected by a king of Aram-Damascus in the late 9th/early 8th centuries BCE to commemorate a victory over two enemy kings, contains the phrase (), which is translated as \"House of David\" by most scholars.", "The Mesha stele, erected by King Mesha of Moab in the 9th century BCE, may also refer to the \"House of David\", although this is disputed.", "Apart from this, all that is known of David comes from biblical literature, the historicity of which has been extensively challenged, and there is little detail about David that is concrete and undisputed.In the biblical narrative of the Books of Samuel, David is described as a young shepherd and harpist who gains fame and becomes a hero by killing Goliath.", "He becomes a favorite of Saul, the first king of Israel, but is forced to go into hiding when Saul suspects that David is trying to take his throne.", "After Saul and his son Jonathan are killed in battle, David is anointed king by the tribe of Judah and eventually all the tribes of Israel.", "He conquers Jerusalem, makes it the capital of a united Israel, and brings the Ark of the Covenant to the city.", "He commits adultery with Bathsheba and arranges the death of her husband, Uriah the Hittite.", "David's son Absalom later tries to overthrow him, but David returns to Jerusalem after Absalom's death to continue his reign.", "David desires to build a temple to Yahweh, but he is denied because of the bloodshed in his reign.", "He dies at age 70 and chooses Solomon, his son with Bathsheba, as his successor instead of his eldest son Adonijah.", "David is honored as an ideal king and the forefather of the future Hebrew Messiah in Jewish prophetic literature and many psalms are attributed to him.David is also richly represented in post-biblical Jewish written and oral tradition and referenced in the New Testament.", "Early Christians interpreted the life of Jesus of Nazareth in light of references to the Hebrew Messiah and to David; Jesus is described as being directly descended from David in the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke.", "In the Quran and hadith, David is described as an Israelite king as well as a prophet of Allah.", "The biblical David has inspired many interpretations in art and literature over the centuries." ], [ "Biblical account", "===Family===David raises the head of Goliath as illustrated by Josephine Pollard (1899)The First Book of Samuel and the First Book of Chronicles both identify David as the son of Jesse, the Bethlehemite, the youngest of eight sons.", "He also had at least two sisters: Zeruiah, whose sons all went on to serve in David's army, and Abigail, whose son Amasa served in Absalom's army, Absalom being one of David's younger sons.", "While the Bible does not name his mother, the Talmud identifies her as Nitzevet, a daughter of a man named Adael, and the Book of Ruth claims him as the great-grandson of Ruth, the Moabite, by Boaz.David is described as cementing his relations with various political and national groups through marriage.", "According to 1 Samuel 17:25, King Saul said that he would make whoever killed Goliath a very wealthy man, give his daughter to him and declare his father's family exempt from taxes in Israel.", "Saul offered David his oldest daughter, Merab, a marriage David respectfully declined.", "Saul then gave Merab in marriage to Adriel the Meholathite.", "Having been told that his younger daughter Michal was in love with David, Saul gave her in marriage to David upon David's payment in Philistine foreskins (ancient Jewish historian Josephus lists the dowry as 100 Philistine heads).", "Saul became jealous of David and tried to have him killed.", "David escaped.", "Then Saul sent Michal to Galim to marry Palti, son of Laish.", "David then took wives in Hebron, according to 2 Samuel 3; they were Ahinoam the Yizre'elite; Abigail, the widow of Nabal the Carmelite; Maacah, the daughter of Talmay, king of Geshur; Haggith; Abital; and Eglah.", "Later, David wanted Michal back and Abner, Ish-bosheth's army commander, delivered her to him, causing Palti great grief.The Book of Chronicles lists his sons with his various wives and concubines.", "In Hebron, David had six sons: Amnon, by Ahinoam; Daniel, by Abigail; Absalom, by Maachah; Adonijah, by Haggith; Shephatiah, by Abital; and Ithream, by Eglah.", "By Bathsheba, his sons were Shammua, Shobab, Nathan, and Solomon.", "David's sons born in Jerusalem of his other wives included Ibhar, Elishua, Eliphelet, Nogah, Nepheg, Japhia, Elishama and Eliada.", "Jerimoth, who is not mentioned in any of the genealogies, is mentioned as another of his sons in 2 Chronicles 11:18.His daughter Tamar, by Maachah, is raped by her half-brother Amnon.", "David fails to bring Amnon to justice for his violation of Tamar, because he is his firstborn and he loves him, and so Absalom (her full brother) kills Amnon to avenge Tamar.", "Despite the great sins they had committed, David showed grief at his sons' deaths, weeping twice for Amnon 2 Samuel 13:31–26 and seven times for Absalom.===Narrative===Samuel anoints David, Dura-Europos synagogue, now in Syria, 3rd century CEGod is angered when Saul, Israel's king, unlawfully offers a sacrifice and later disobeys a divine command both to kill all of the Amalekites and to destroy their confiscated property.", "Consequently, God sends the prophet Samuel to anoint a shepherd, David, the youngest son of Jesse of Bethlehem, to be king instead.After God sends an evil spirit to torment Saul, his servants recommend that he send for a man skilled in playing the lyre.", "A servant proposes David, whom the servant describes as \"skillful in playing, a man of valor, a warrior, prudent in speech, and a man of good presence; and the Lord is with him.\"", "David enters Saul's service as one of the royal armour-bearers and plays the lyre to soothe the king.War comes between Israel and the Philistines, and the giant Goliath challenges the Israelites to send out a champion to face him in single combat.", "David, sent by his father to bring provisions to his brothers serving in Saul's army, declares that he can defeat Goliath.", "Refusing the king's offer of the royal armour, he kills Goliath with his sling.", "Saul inquires the name of the young hero's father.Saul sets David over his army.", "All Israel loves David, but his popularity causes Saul to fear him (\"What else can he wish but the kingdom?\").", "Saul plots his death, but Saul's son Jonathan, one of those who loves David, warns him of his father's schemes and David flees.", "He goes first to Nob, where he is fed by the priest Ahimelech and given Goliath's sword, and then to Gath, the Philistine city of Goliath, intending to seek refuge with King Achish there.", "Achish's servants or officials question his loyalty, and David sees that he is in danger there.", "He goes next to the cave of Adullam, where his family joins him.", "From there he goes to seek refuge with the king of Moab, but the prophet Gad advises him to leave and he goes to the Forest of Hereth, and then to Keilah, where he is involved in a further battle with the Philistines.", "Saul plans to besiege Keilah so that he can capture David, so David leaves the city in order to protect its inhabitants.", "From there he takes refuge in the mountainous Wilderness of Ziph.Saul threatening David, by José LeonardoJonathan meets with David again and confirms his loyalty to David as the future king.", "After the people of Ziph notify Saul that David is taking refuge in their territory, Saul seeks confirmation and plans to capture David in the Wilderness of Maon, but his attention is diverted by a renewed Philistine invasion and David is able to secure some respite at Ein Gedi.", "Returning from battle with the Philistines, Saul heads to Ein Gedi in pursuit of David and enters the cave where, as it happens, David and his supporters are hiding, \"to attend to his needs\".", "David realises he has an opportunity to kill Saul, but this is not his intention: he secretly cuts off a corner of Saul's robe, and when Saul has left the cave he comes out to pay homage to Saul as the king and to demonstrate, using the piece of robe, that he holds no malice towards Saul.", "The two are thus reconciled and Saul recognises David as his successor.A similar passage occurs in 1 Samuel 26, when David is able to infiltrate Saul's camp on the hill of Hachilah and remove his spear and a jug of water from his side while he and his guards lie asleep.", "In this account, David is advised by Abishai that this is his opportunity to kill Saul, but David declines, saying he will not \"stretch out his hand against the Lord's anointed\".", "In the morning, David once again demonstrates to Saul that, despite ample opportunity, he did not deign to harm him.", "Saul, despite having already reconciled with David, confesses that he has been wrong to pursue David, and blesses him.In 1 Samuel 27:1–4, David begins to doubt Saul's sincerity, and reasons that the king will eventually make another attempt on his life.", "David appeals to king Achish of Gath to grant him and his family sanctuary.", "Achish agrees, and upon hearing that David has fled to Philistia, Saul ceases to pursue him, though no such pursuit seemed to be in progress at the time.", "Achish permits David to reside in Ziklag, close to the border between Philistia and Judah.", "To further ingratiate himself to Achish and the Philistines, David and his men raid the Geshurites, the Girzites and the Amalekites, but lead the royal court to believe they are attacking the Israelites, the Jerahmeelites and the Kenites.", "While Achish comes to believe that David had become a loyal vassal, the princes or lords of Gath remain unconvinced, and at their request, Achish instructs David to remain behind to guard the camp when the Philistines march against Saul.", "David returns to Ziklag and saves his wives and the citizens from an Amalekite raid.", "Jonathan and Saul are killed in battle with the Philistines, and after hearing of their deaths, David travels to Hebron, where he is anointed king over Judah.", "In the north, Saul's son Ish-Bosheth is anointed king of Israel, and war ensues until Ish-Bosheth is murdered.With the death of Saul's son, the elders of Israel come to Hebron and David is anointed king over all of Israel.", "He conquers Jerusalem, previously a Jebusite stronghold, and makes it his capital.", "He brings the Ark of the Covenant to the city, intending to build a temple for God, but the prophet Nathan forbids it, prophesying that the temple would be built by one of David's sons.", "Nathan also prophesies that God has made a covenant with the house of David stating, \"your throne shall be established forever\".", "David wins additional victories over the Philistines, Moabites, Edomites, Amalekites, Ammonites and king Hadadezer of Aram-Zobah, after which they become tributaries.", "His fame increases as a result, earning the praise of figures like King Toi of Hamath, Hadadezer's rival.", "''The Prophet Nathan rebukes King David'', oil on canvas by Eugène Siberdt, 1866–1931 (Mayfair Gallery, London)During a siege of the Ammonite capital of Rabbah, David remains in Jerusalem.", "He spies a woman, Bathsheba, bathing and summons her; she becomes pregnant.", "The text in the Bible does not explicitly state whether Bathsheba consented to sex.", "David calls her husband, Uriah the Hittite, back from the battle to rest, hoping that he will go home to his wife and the child will be presumed to be his.", "Uriah does not visit his wife, however, so David conspires to have him killed in the heat of battle.", "David then marries the widowed Bathsheba.", "In response, Nathan, after trapping the king in his guilt with a parable that actually described his sin in analogy, prophesies the punishment that will fall upon him, stating \"the sword shall never depart from your house.\"", "When David acknowledges that he has sinned, Nathan advises him that his sin is forgiven and he will not die, but the child will.In fulfillment of Nathan's words, the child born of the union between David and Bathsheba dies, and another of David's sons, Absalom, fueled by vengeance and lust for power, rebels.", "Thanks to Hushai, a friend of David who was ordered to infiltrate Absalom's court to successfully sabotage his plans, Absalom's forces are routed at the battle of the Wood of Ephraim, and he is caught by his long hair in the branches of a tree where, contrary to David's order, he is killed by Joab, the commander of David's army.", "David laments the death of his favourite son: \"O my son Absalom, my son, my son Absalom!", "Would I had died instead of you, O Absalom, my son, my son!\"", "until Joab persuades him to recover from \"the extravagance of his grief\" and to fulfill his duty to his people.", "David returns to Gilgal and is escorted across the River Jordan and back to Jerusalem by the tribes of Judah and Benjamin.When David is old and bedridden, Adonijah, his eldest surviving son and natural heir, declares himself king.", "Bathsheba and Nathan go to David and obtain his agreement to crown Bathsheba's son Solomon as king, according to David's earlier promise, and the revolt of Adonijah is put down.", "David dies at the age of 70 after reigning for 40 years, and on his deathbed counsels Solomon to walk in the ways of God and to take revenge on his enemies.===Psalms===David Composing the Psalms, Paris Psalter, 10th centuryThe Book of Samuel calls David a skillful harp (lyre) player and \"the sweet psalmist of Israel.\"", "Yet, while almost half of the Psalms are headed \"A Psalm of David\" (also translated as \"to David\" or \"for David\") and tradition identifies several with specific events in David's life (e.g., Psalms 3, 7, 18, 34, 51, 52, 54, 56, 57, 59, 60, 63 and 142), the headings are late additions and no psalm can be attributed to David with certainty.Psalm 34 is attributed to David on the occasion of his escape from Abimelech (or King Achish) by pretending to be insane.", "According to the parallel narrative in 1 Samuel 21, instead of killing the man who had exacted so many casualties from him, Abimelech allows David to leave, exclaiming, \"Am I so short of madmen that you have to bring this fellow here to carry on like this in front of me?", "Must this man come into my house?\"" ], [ "Interpretation in Abrahamic tradition", "===Rabbinic Judaism===David is an important figure in Rabbinic Judaism, with many legends about him.", "According to one tradition, David was raised as the son of his father Jesse and spent his early years herding his father's sheep in the wilderness while his brothers were in school.David's adultery with Bathsheba is interpreted as an opportunity to demonstrate the power of repentance, and the Talmud says it was not adultery at all, citing a Jewish practice of divorce on the eve of battle.", "Furthermore, according to Talmudic sources, Uriah's death was not murder, because Uriah had committed a capital offense by refusing to obey a direct command from the King.", "However, in tractate Sanhedrin, David expressed remorse over his transgressions and sought forgiveness.", "God ultimately forgave David and Bathsheba but would not remove their sins from Scripture.In Jewish legend, David's sin with Bathsheba is the punishment for David's excessive self-consciousness.", "He had besought God to lead him into temptation so that he might give proof of his constancy like Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, who successfully passed the test and whose names later were united with God's, while David failed through the temptation of a woman.According to midrashim, Adam gave up 70 years of his life for the life of David.", "Also, according to the Talmud Yerushalmi, David was born and died on the Jewish holiday of Shavuot (Feast of Weeks).", "His piety was said to be so great that his prayers could bring down things from Heaven.===Christianity===The Messiah concept is fundamental in Christianity.", "Originally an earthly king ruling by divine appointment (\"the anointed one\", as the title Messiah had it), in the last two centuries BCE the \"son of David\" became the apocalyptic and heavenly one who would deliver Israel and usher in a new kingdom.", "This was the background to the concept of Messiahship in early Christianity, which interpreted the career of Jesus \"by means of the titles and functions assigned to David in the mysticism of the Zion cult, in which he served as priest-king and in which he was the mediator between God and man\".The early Church believed that \"the life of David foreshadowed the life of Christ; Bethlehem is the birthplace of both; the shepherd life of David points out Christ, the Good Shepherd; the five stones chosen to slay Goliath are typical of the five wounds; the betrayal by his trusted counsellor, Ahitophel, and the passage over the Cedron remind us of Christ's Sacred Passion.", "Many of the Davidic Psalms, as we learn from the New Testament, are clearly typical of the future Messiah.\"", "In the Middle Ages, \"Charlemagne thought of himself, and was viewed by his court scholars, as a 'new David'.", "This was not in itself a new idea, but one whose content and significance were greatly enlarged by him\".Western Rite churches (Lutheran, Roman Catholic) celebrate David's feast day on 29 December or 6 October, Eastern-rite on 19 December.", "The Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches celebrate the feast day of the \"Holy Righteous Prophet and King David\" on the Sunday of the Holy Forefathers (two Sundays before the Great Feast of the Nativity of the Lord) and on the Sunday of the Holy Fathers (Sunday before the Nativity), when he is commemorated together with other ancestors of Jesus.", "He is also commemorated on the Sunday after the Nativity, together with Joseph and James, the Brother of the Lord and on 26 December (Synaxis of the Mother of God).====Middle Ages====attributed to King David by mediaeval heralds.", "(Identical to the arms of Ireland)In European Christian culture of the Middle Ages, David was made a member of the Nine Worthies, a group of heroes encapsulating all the ideal qualities of chivalry.", "His life was thus proposed as a valuable subject for study by those aspiring to chivalric status.", "This aspect of David in the Nine Worthies was popularised first through literature, and thereafter adopted as a frequent subject for painters and sculptors.David was considered a model ruler and a symbol of divinely ordained monarchy throughout medieval Western Europe and Eastern Christendom.", "He was perceived as the biblical predecessor to Christian Roman and Byzantine emperors and the name \"New David\" was used as an honorific reference to these rulers.", "The Georgian Bagratids and the Solomonic dynasty of Ethiopia claimed direct biological descent from him.", "Likewise, kings of the Frankish Carolingian dynasty frequently connected themselves to David; Charlemagne himself occasionally used \"David\" his pseudonym.===Islam===David (Arabic: داوود ''Dā'ūd'' or ''Dāwūd'') is an important figure in Islam as one of the major prophets God sent to guide the Israelites.", "He is mentioned several times in the Quran with the Arabic name داود, ''Dāwūd'' or ''Dā'ūd'', often with his son Solomon.", "In the Quran, David killed Goliath (Q2:251), a giant soldier in the Philistine army.", "When David killed Goliath, God granted him kingship and wisdom and enforced it (Q38:20).", "David was made God's \"vicegerent on earth\" (Q38:26) and God further gave David sound judgment (Q21:78; Q37:21–24, Q26) as well as the Psalms, regarded as books of divine wisdom (Q4:163; Q17:55).", "The birds and mountains united with David in uttering praise to God (Q21:79; Q34:10; Q38:18), while God made iron soft for David (Q34:10), God also instructed David in the art of fashioning chain mail out of iron (Q21:80); this knowledge gave David a major advantage over his bronze and cast iron-armed opponents, not to mention the cultural and economic impact.", "Together with Solomon, David gave judgment in a case of damage to the fields (Q21:78) and David judged the matter between two disputants in his prayer chamber (Q38:21–23).", "Since there is no mention in the Quran of the wrong David did to Uriah nor any reference to Bathsheba, Muslims reject this narrative.Muslim tradition and the ''hadith'' stress David's zeal in daily prayer as well as in fasting.", "Quran commentators, historians and compilers of the numerous ''Stories of the Prophets'' elaborate upon David's concise quranic narratives and specifically mention David's gift in singing his Psalms, his beautiful recitation, and his vocal talents.", "His voice is described as having a captivating power, weaving its influence not only over man but over all beasts and nature, who would unite with him to praise God." ], [ "Historicity", "===Literary analysis===Statue of David (1609–1612) by Nicolas CordierBiblical literature and archaeological finds are the only sources that attest to David's life.", "Some scholars have concluded that this was likely compiled from contemporary records of the 11th and 10th centuries BCE, but that there is no clear historical basis for determining the exact date of compilation.", "Other scholars believe that the Books of Samuel were substantially composed during the time of King Josiah at the end of the 7th century BCE, extended during the Babylonian exile (6th century BCE), and substantially complete by about 550 BCE.", "Old Testament scholar Graeme Auld contends that further editing was done even after then—the silver quarter-shekel Saul's servant offers to Samuel in 1 Samuel 9 \"almost certainly fixes the date of the story in the Persian or Hellenistic period\" because a quarter-shekel was known to exist in Hasmonean times.", "The authors and editors of Samuel drew on many earlier sources, including, for their history of David, the \"history of David's rise\" and the \"succession narrative\".", "The Book of Chronicles, which tells the story from a different point of view, was probably composed in the period 350–300 BCE, and uses Samuel and Kings as its source.Biblical evidence indicates that David's Judah was something less than a full-fledged monarchy: it often calls him ''negid'', meaning \"prince\" or \"chief\", rather than ''melek'', meaning \"king\"; the biblical David sets up none of the complex bureaucracy that a kingdom needs (even his army is made up of volunteers), and his followers are largely related to him and from his small home-area around Hebron.Beyond this, the full range of possible interpretations is available.", "A number of scholars consider the David story to be a heroic tale similar to King Arthur's legend or Homer's epics, while others find such comparisons questionable.", "One theme that has been paralleled with other Near Eastern literature is the homoerotic nature of the relationship between David and Jonathan.", "The instance in the Book of Jashar, excerpted in Samuel 2 (1:26), where David \"proclaims that Jonathan's love was sweeter to him than the love of a woman\", has been compared to Achilles' comparison of Patroclus to a girl and Gilgamesh's love for Enkidu \"as a woman\".", "Others hold that the David story is a political apology—an answer to contemporary charges against him, of his involvement in murders and regicide.", "The authors and editors of Samuel and Chronicles aimed not to record history but to promote David's reign as inevitable and desirable, and for this reason there is little about David that is concrete and undisputed.Some other studies of David have been written: Baruch Halpern has pictured him as a brutal tyrant, a murderer and a lifelong vassal of Achish, the Philistine king of Gath; Steven McKenzie argues that David came from a wealthy family, and was an \"ambitious and ruthless\" tyrant who murdered his opponents, including his own sons.", "Joel S. Baden has called him \"an ambitious, ruthless, flesh-and-blood man who achieved power by any means necessary, including murder, theft, bribery, sex, deceit, and treason\".", "William G. Dever described him as \"a serial killer\".Jacob L. Wright has written that the most popular legends about David, including his killing of Goliath, his affair with Bathsheba, and his ruling of a United Kingdom of Israel rather than just Judah, are the creation of those who lived generations after him, in particular those living in the late Persian or Hellenistic periods.Isaac Kalimi wrote about the 10th century BCE: \"Almost all that one can say about King Solomon and his time is unavoidably based on the biblical texts.", "Nevertheless, here also one cannot always offer conclusive proof that a certain biblical passage reflects the actual historical situation in the tenth century BCE, beyond arguing that it is plausible to this or that degree.", "\"===Archaeological findings===The Tel Dan SteleThe Tel Dan Stele, discovered in 1993, is an inscribed stone erected by Hazael, a king of Damascus in the late 9th/early 8th centuries BCE.", "It commemorates the king's victory over two enemy kings, and contains the phrase , , which most scholars translate as \"House of David\".", "Other scholars have challenged this reading, but it is likely that this is a reference to a dynasty of the Kingdom of Judah which traced its ancestry to a founder named David.Two epigraphers, André Lemaire and Émile Puech, hypothesised in 1994 that the Mesha Stele from Moab, dating from the 9th century, also contain the words \"House of David\" at the end of Line 31, although this was considered as less certain than the mention in the Tel Dan inscription.", "In May 2019, Israel Finkelstein, Nadav Na'aman, and Thomas Römer concluded from the new images that the ruler's name contained three consonants and started with a ''bet'', which excludes the reading \"House of David\" and, in conjunction with the monarch's city of residence \"Horonaim\" in Moab, makes it likely that the one mentioned is King Balak, a name also known from the Hebrew Bible.", "Later that year, Michael Langlois used high-resolution photographs of both the inscription itself, and the 19th-century original squeeze of the then still intact stele to reaffirm Lemaire's view that line 31 contains the phrase \"House of David\".", "Replying to Langlois, Na'aman argued that the \"House of David\" reading is unacceptable because the resulting sentence structure is extremely rare in West Semitic royal inscriptions.The Triumphal Relief of Shoshenq I near the Bubastite Portal at Karnak, depicting the god Amun-Re receiving a list of cities and villages conquered by the king in his Near Eastern military campaigns.Besides the two steles, Bible scholar and Egyptologist Kenneth Kitchen suggests that David's name also appears in a relief of Pharaoh Shoshenq, who is usually identified with Shishak in the Bible.", "The relief claims that Shoshenq raided places in Palestine in 925 BCE, and Kitchen interprets one place as \"Heights of David\", which was in Southern Judah and the Negev where the Bible says David took refuge from Saul.", "The relief is damaged and interpretation is uncertain.===Archaeological analysis===Of the evidence in question, John Haralson Hayes and James Maxwell Miller wrote in 2006: \"If one is not convinced in advance by the biblical profile, then there is nothing in the archaeological evidence itself to suggest that much of consequence was going on in Palestine during the tenth century BCE, and certainly nothing to suggest that Jerusalem was a great political and cultural center.\"", "This echoed the 1995 conclusion of Amélie Kuhrt, who noted that \"there are no royal inscriptions from the time of the united monarchy (indeed very little written material altogether), and not a single contemporary reference to either David or Solomon,\" while noting, \"against this must be set the evidence for substantial development and growth at several sites, which is plausibly related to the tenth century.", "\"In 2007, Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman stated that the archaeological evidence shows that Judah was sparsely inhabited and Jerusalem no more than a small village.", "The evidence suggested that David ruled only as a chieftain over an area which cannot be described as a state or as a kingdom, but more as a chiefdom, much smaller and always overshadowed by the older and more powerful kingdom of Israel to the north.", "They posited that Israel and Judah were not monotheistic at the time and that later 7th-century redactors sought to portray a past golden age of a united, monotheistic monarchy in order to serve contemporary needs.", "They noted a lack of archeological evidence for David's military campaigns and a relative underdevelopment of Jerusalem, the capital of Judah, compared to a more developed and urbanized Samaria, capital of Israel during the 9th century BCE.In 2014, Amihai Mazar wrote that the United Monarchy of the 10th century BCE can be described as a \"state in development\".", "He compared David to Labaya, a Caananite warlord living during the time of Pharaoh Akhenaten.", "While Mazar believes that David reigned over Israel during the 11th century BCE, he argues that much of the Biblical text is of \"literary-legendary nature\".", "According to William G. Dever, the reigns of Saul, David and Solomon are reasonably well attested, but \"most archeologists today would argue that the United Monarchy was not much more than a kind of hill-country chiefdom\".Lester L. Grabbe wrote in 2017: \"The main question is what kind of settlement Jerusalem was in Iron IIA: was it a minor settlement, perhaps a large village or possibly a citadel but not a city, or was it the capital of a flourishing—or at least an emerging—state?", "Assessments differ considerably\".", "Isaac Kalimi wrote in 2018, \"No contemporaneous extra-biblical source offers any account of the political situation in Israel and Judah during the tenth century BCE, and as we have seen, the archaeological remains themselves cannot provide any unambiguous evidence of events.", "\"The view of Davidic Jerusalem as a village has been challenged by Eilat Mazar's excavation of the Large Stone Structure and the Stepped Stone Structure in 2005.Mazar proposed that these two structures may have been architecturally linked as one unit and that they date to the time of King David.", "Mazar supports this dating with a number of artifacts, including pottery, two Phoenician-style ivory inlays, a black-and-red jug, and a radiocarbon-dated bone, estimated to be from the 10th century.", "Dever, Amihai Mazar, Avraham Faust, and Nadav Na'aman have argued in favour of the 10th-century BCE dating and responded to challenges to it.", "In 2010, Eilat Mazar announced the discovery of part of the ancient city walls around the City of David, which she believes date to the 10th century BCE.", "According to Mazar, this would prove that an organized state did exist in the 10th century.", "In 2006, Kenneth Kitchen came to a similar conclusion, arguing that \"the physical archaeology of tenth-century Canaan is consistent with the former existence of a unified state on its terrain.", "\"Scholars such as Israel Finkelstein, Lily Singer-Avitz, Ze'ev Herzog and David Ussishkin do not accept these conclusions.", "Finkelstein does not accept the dating of these structures to the 10th century BCE, based in part on the fact that later structures on the site penetrated deep into underlying layers, that the entire area had been excavated in the early 20th century and then backfilled, that pottery from later periods was found below earlier strata, and that consequently the finds collected by E. Mazar cannot necessarily be considered as retrieved ''in situ''.", "Aren Maeir said in 2010 that he has seen no evidence that these structures are from the 10th century BCE and that proof of the existence of a strong, centralized kingdom at that time remains \"tenuous.", "\"Excavations at Khirbet Qeiyafa by archaeologists Yosef Garfinkel and Saar Ganor found an urbanized settlement radiocarbon dated to the 10th century, which supports the existence of an urbanised kingdom.", "The Israel Antiquities Authority stated: \"The excavations at Khirbat Qeiyafa clearly reveal an urban society that existed in Judah already in the late eleventh century BCE.", "It can no longer be argued that the Kingdom of Judah developed only in the late eighth century BCE or at some other later date.\"", "But other scholars have criticized the techniques and interpretations to reach some conclusions related to Khirbet Qeiyafa, such as Israel Finkelstein and Alexander Fantalkin of Tel Aviv University, who have instead proposed that the city is to be identified as part of a northern Israelite polity.In 2018, Avraham Faust and Yair Sapir stated that a Canaanite site at Tel Eton, about 30 miles from Jerusalem, was taken over by a Judahite community by peaceful assimilation and transformed from a village into a central town at some point in the late 11th or early 10th century BCE.", "This transformation used some ashlar blocks in construction, which they argued supports the United Monarchy theory." ], [ "Art and literature", "===Literature===David mourning the death of Absalom, by Gustave DoréLiterary works about David include:*'''1517''' ''The Davidiad'' is a Neo-Latin epic poem by the Croatian national poet, Roman Catholic priest, and Renaissance humanist Marko Marulić (whose name is sometimes Latinized as \"Marcus Marulus\").", "In addition to the small portions that attempt to recall the epics of Homer, ''The Davidiad'' is heavily modeled upon Virgil's ''Aeneid''.", "This is so much the case that Marulić's contemporaries called him the \"Christian Virgil from Split.\"", "The philologist Miroslav Marcovich also detects, \"the influence of Ovid, Lucan, and Statius\" in the work.", "*'''1681–82''' Dryden's long poem ''Absalom and Achitophel'' is an allegory that uses the story of the rebellion of Absalom against King David as the basis for his satire of the contemporary political situation, including events such as the Monmouth Rebellion (1685), the Popish Plot (1678) and the Exclusion Crisis.", "*'''1893''' Sir Arthur Conan Doyle may have used the story of David and Bathsheba as a foundation for the Sherlock Holmes story ''The Adventure of the Crooked Man''.", "Holmes mentions \"the small affair of Uriah and Bathsheba\" at the end of the story.", "*'''1928''' Elmer Davis's novel ''Giant Killer'' retells and embellishes the biblical story of David, casting David as primarily a poet who managed always to find others to do the \"dirty work\" of heroism and kingship.", "In the novel, Elhanan in fact killed Goliath but David claimed the credit; and Joab, David's cousin and general, took it upon himself to make many of the difficult decisions of war and statecraft when David vacillated or wrote poetry instead.", "*'''1936''' William Faulkner's ''Absalom, Absalom!''", "refers to the story of Absalom, David's son; his rebellion against his father and his death at the hands of David's general, Joab.", "In addition it parallels Absalom's vengeance for the rape of his sister Tamar by his half-brother, Amnon.", "*'''1946''' Gladys Schmitt's novel ''David the King'' was a richly embellished biography of David's entire life.", "The book took a risk, especially for its time, in portraying David's relationship with Jonathan as overtly homoerotic, but was ultimately panned by critics as a bland rendition of the title character.", "*'''1966''' Juan Bosch, a Dominican political leader and writer, wrote ''David: Biography of a King'', as a realistic portrayal of David's life and political career.", "*'''1970''' Dan Jacobson's ''The Rape of Tamar'' is an imagined account, by one of David's courtiers Yonadab, of the rape of Tamar by Amnon.", "*'''1972''' Stefan Heym wrote ''The King David Report'' in which the historian Ethan compiles upon King Solomon's orders \"a true and authoritative report on the life of David, Son of Jesse\"—the East German writer's wry depiction of a court historian writing an \"authorized\" history, many incidents clearly intended as satirical references to the writer's own time.", "*'''1974''' In Thomas Burnett Swann's biblical fantasy novel ''How are the Mighty Fallen'', David and Jonathan are explicitly stated to be lovers.", "Moreover, Jonathan is a member of a winged semi-human race (possibly nephilim), one of several such races coexisting with humanity but often persecuted by it.", "*'''1980''' Malachi Martin's factional novel ''King of Kings: A Novel of the Life of David'' relates the life of David, Adonai's champion in his battle with the Philistine deity Dagon.", "*'''1984''' Joseph Heller wrote a novel based on David called ''God Knows'', published by Simon & Schuster.", "Told from the perspective of an aging David, the humanity—rather than the heroism—of various biblical characters is emphasized.", "The portrayal of David as a man of flaws such as greed, lust, selfishness, and his alienation from God, the falling apart of his family is a distinctly 20th-century interpretation of the events told in the Bible.", "*'''1993''' Madeleine L'Engle's novel ''Certain Women'' explores family, the Christian faith, and the nature of God through the story of King David's family and an analogous modern family's saga.", "*'''1995''' Allan Massie wrote ''King David'', a novel about David's career that portrays the king's relationship to Jonathan as sexual.", "*'''2015''' Geraldine Brooks wrote a novel about David, ''The Secret Chord'', told from the point of view of the prophet Nathan.", "*'''2020''' Michael Arditti wrote ''The Anointed'', a novel about David told by three of his wives, Michal, Abigail and Bathsheba.===Paintings===*'''1599''' Caravaggio ''David and Goliath''*'''''' Caravaggio David with the Head of Goliath*'''1616''' Peter Paul Rubens ''David Slaying Goliath''*'''''c.''", "1619''' Caravaggio, ''David and Goliath''===Sculptures===*'''1440?'''", "Donatello, ''David''*'''1473–1475''' Verrocchio, ''David''*'''1501–1504''' Michelangelo, ''David''*'''1623–1624''' Gian Lorenzo Bernini, ''David''===Film===David has been depicted several times in films; these are some of the best-known:*'''1951''' In ''David and Bathsheba,'' directed by Henry King, Gregory Peck played David.", "*'''1959''' In ''Solomon and Sheba,'' directed by King Vidor, Finlay Currie played an aged King David.", "*'''1961''' In ''A Story of David,'' directed by Bob McNaught, Jeff Chandler played David.", "*'''1985''' In ''King David'', directed by Bruce Beresford, Richard Gere played King David.", "*'''1996''' In ''Dave and the Giant Pickle''===Television===*'''1976''' ''The Story of David'', a made-for-TV film with Timothy Bottoms and Keith Michell as King David at different ages.", "*'''1997''' ''David'', a TV-film with Nathaniel Parker as King David and Leonard Nimoy as the Prophet Samuel.", "*'''1997''' Max von Sydow portrayed an older King David in the TV-film ''Solomon'', a sequel to ''David.", "''*'''2009''' Christopher Egan played David on ''Kings'', a re-imagining loosely based on the biblical story.", "*King David is the focus of the second episode of History Channel's ''Battles BC'' documentary, which detailed all of his military exploits in the bible.", "*'''2012''' ''Rei Davi'', a Brazilian miniseries with Leonardo Brício as David.", "*'''2013''' Langley Kirkwood portrayed King David in the miniseries ''The Bible''.", "*'''2016''' ''Of Kings and Prophets'' in which David is played by Olly Rix===Music===Israeli stamp*The traditional birthday song Las Mañanitas mentions King David as the original singer in its lyrics.", "*'''1622''' Thomas Tomkins's choral anthem \"When David Heard\", about David's response to the death of his son Absalom, is published in the anthology ''Songs of 1622''.", "*'''1738''' George Frideric Handel's oratorio ''Saul'' features David as one of its main characters.", "*'''1921''' Arthur Honegger's oratorio ''Le Roi David'' with a libretto by René Morax, instantly became a staple of the choral repertoire.", "*'''1954''' Darius Milhaud's opera ''David'' premieres in Jerusalem in celebration of the 3,000th anniversary of the establishment of that city by David.", "*'''1964''' Bob Dylan alludes to David in the last line of his song \"When The Ship Comes In\" (\"And like Goliath, they'll be conquered\").", "*'''1965''' Leonard Bernstein described the second movement of his ''Chichester Psalms'', which features a setting of Psalm 23, sung by a boy soloist accompanied by a harp, as a \"musical evocation of King David, the shepherd-psalmist\".", "*'''1983''' Bob Dylan refers to David in his song \"Jokerman\" (\"Michelangelo indeed could've carved out your features\").", "*'''1984''' Leonard Cohen's song \"Hallelujah\" has references to David (\"there was a secret chord that David played and it pleased the Lord\", \"The baffled king composing Hallelujah\") and Bathsheba (\"you saw her bathing on the roof\") in its opening verses.", "*'''1990''' The song \"One of the Broken\" by Paddy McAloon, performed by Prefab Sprout on the album ''Jordan: The Comeback'', has a reference to David (\"I remember King David, with his harp and his beautiful, beautiful songs, I answered his prayers, and showed him a place where his music belongs\").", "*'''1991''' \"Mad About You\", a song on Sting's album ''The Soul Cages'', explores David's obsession with Bathsheba from David's perspective.", "*'''2000''' The song \"Gimme a Stone\" appears on the Little Feat album ''Chinese Work Songs'' chronicles the duel with Goliath and contains a lament to Absalom as a bridge.===Musical theater===*'''1997''' ''King David'', sometimes described as a modern oratorio, with a book and lyrics by Tim Rice and music by Alan Menken.===Radio===*'''1962''' ''Twilight of a Hero'', an Australian radio play that sold to the BBC===Playing cards===For a considerable period, starting in the 15th century and continuing until the 19th, French playing card manufacturers assigned to each of the court cards names taken from history or mythology.", "In this context, the King of spades was often known as \"David\"." ], [ "Image gallery" ], [ "See also", "*David and Jonathan*David's Mighty Warriors*David's Tomb*City of David*Tower of David*Kings of Israel and Judah *Large Stone Structure*Midrash Shmuel (aggadah)*Sons of David" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Sources===** * * * ************ * * **" ], [ "Further reading", "**********************************" ], [ "External links", "* Complete Bible Genealogy—David's family tree* David engravings from the De Verda collection* King David at the Christian Iconography web site* ''The History of David'', by William Caxton*\" David\" by Kent Harold Richards at Bible Odyssey" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Diablo II" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Diablo II''''' is an action role-playing hack-and-slash video game developed by Blizzard North and published by Blizzard Entertainment in 2000 for Microsoft Windows, Classic Mac OS, and macOS.", "The game, with its dark fantasy and horror themes, was conceptualized and designed by David Brevik and Erich Schaefer, who, with Max Schaefer, acted as project leads on the game.", "The producers were Matthew Householder and Bill Roper.", "The game was developed over a three-year period, with a crunch time of a year and a half.Set shortly after the events of ''Diablo'', the player controls a new hero, attempting to stop the destruction unleashed by Diablo's return.", "The game's five acts feature a variety of locations and settings to explore and battle in, as well as an increased cast of characters to play as and interact with.Building on the success of its predecessor, ''Diablo'' (1997), and improving the gameplay, both in terms of updated character progression and a better-developed story, ''Diablo II'' was one of the most popular games of 2000 and has been cited as one of the greatest games of all time.", "Major factors that contributed to the game's success include its continuation of popular fantasy themes from the previous game and its access to Blizzard's free online play service, Battle.net.", "An expansion to the game, ''Diablo II: Lord of Destruction'', was released in 2001.", "''Diablo III'', the sequel of ''Diablo II'', was released on May 15, 2012.", "''Diablo II: Resurrected'', a remastered version of ''Diablo II'' which also includes the ''Lord of Destruction'' expansion, was released on September 23, 2021." ], [ "Gameplay", "''Diablo II''s storyline progresses through four chapters or \"acts\".", "Each act follows a predetermined path, but the wilderness and dungeons between key areas are randomly generated.", "The player progresses through the story by completing a series of quests within each act, while there are also optional side dungeons for extra monsters and experience.", "In contrast to the first ''Diablo'', whose levels consisted of descending deeper and deeper into a Gothic-themed dungeon and Hell, ''Diablo II''s environments are much more varied.", "Act I is similar to the original ''Diablo''; the Rogue Encampment is a simple palisade fort, with plains and boreal forests making up the wilderness area, and the Monastery resembles the typical medieval fortress.", "Act II mimics Ancient Egypt's desert and tombs; Lut Gholein resembles a Middle Eastern city and palace during the Crusades.", "Act III is supposedly based on the Central American jungles; Kurast is inspired by the lost Mayan civilization.", "Act IV takes place in Hell and is the shortest, with just three quests compared to the other Acts that have six.The ''Lord of Destruction'' expansion adds the fifth chapter Act V which continues the story where Act IV left off.", "Act V's style is mainly mountainous as the player ascends Mount Arreat, with alpine plateaus and icy tunnels and caverns.", "Occasional portals can take the player to dungeons in Hell (seen in Act IV) for extra monsters and experience.", "After reaching the summit of Arreat, the player gains access to the Worldstone Keep.In addition to the acts, there are three sequential difficulty levels: Normal, Nightmare, and Hell; completing the game (four Acts in the original or five Acts in the expansion) on a difficulty setting will open up the next level.", "On higher difficulties, monsters are more varied, stronger, and may be resistant or immune to an element or physical damage; experience is penalized on dying, and the player's resistances are handicapped.", "However, better items are rewarded to players as they go through higher difficulties.", "A character retains all abilities and items between difficulties and may return to a lower difficulty at any time, albeit it is not possible to replay the quests that are already completed.Players can create a hardcore character.", "In normal mode, the player can resurrect their character if killed and resume playing, while a hardcore character has only one life.", "If killed, the character is permanently dead and unplayable.", "In addition, all items and equipment on that character will be lost unless another friendly character has the \"loot\" icon checked.", "Standard and hardcore characters play on separate online channels; as such a hardcore player can never appear in the same game session as a standard player.===Item system===''Diablo II'' uses a system of randomly generated equipment similar to the original ''Diablo'', but more complicated.", "Weapons and armor are divided into several quality levels: normal, magical, set, rare, and unique.", "Normal quality items are base items with a fixed set of basic properties, such as attribute requirements, maximum durability, armor rating (on armor), block chance (on shields), damage, and attack speed (on weapons).", "Magical quality items have blue names and one or two randomly selected bonuses, such as bonuses attributes, skills, or damage, indicated by a prefix or suffix.", "Rare quality items have randomly generated yellow names and 2 to 6 random properties.", "Unique items have fixed names in gold text, and instead of randomized properties, they have a set of 3 to 8 preselected properties.", "Green-named set items have fixed names and preselected properties like unique items, and belong to specifically named sets of 2 to 6 items.", "Additional properties known as set bonuses are activated by equipping multiple or all items from the same set.", "These are themed on individuals, like Civerb's cudgel, shield, and amulet, each of which provides individual bonuses which are enhanced if two or more of the items are used to equip a character.", "It is unusual to encounter more than one item from a set in a single playthrough of the game, so collectors need to play the game many times to accumulate all items from a set or purchase them online from other players who possess them but do not need them.", "Additionally, items can possess sockets, which can be used to upgrade items by adding gems for various bonuses.", "''Diablo II'' includes an item crafting system.", "An item called the Horadric Cube is used to combine two or more items to create a new item.", "For example, three identical lower-quality gems can be combined to create a single higher-quality gem, and three small rejuvenation potions can be combined to create a single, more powerful rejuvenation potion.===Character classes===The five character classes in ''Diablo II'' as seen during the opening selection animation.", "From left to right: the Amazon, Necromancer, Barbarian, Sorceress, and Paladin.", "''Diablo II'' allows the player to choose between five different character classes: Amazon, Necromancer, Barbarian, Sorceress, and Paladin.", "Each character has different strengths, weaknesses, and sets of skills to choose from, as well as varying beginning attributes.", "The maximum level that any character can obtain is level 99.", "* '''The Amazon''' hails from the islands of the Twin Seas, near the border of the Great Ocean.", "The Amazon is akin to the Rogue of ''Diablo'': both primarily use bows and both make equal use of strength and magic but the Amazon can also use javelins and spears.", "As such, her clan is a rival to the Sisters of the Sightless Eye (also known as Rogues).", "Many of her defensive skills are passive in nature, especially Dodge, Avoid, and Evade.", "The Amazon is voiced by Jessica Straus.", "* '''The Necromancer''' is a versatile death-themed spell caster.", "Necromancers are the priests of the Cult of Rathma from the Eastern jungles.", "His Summoning skills allow him to raise skeletons, create golems and resurrect dead monsters to fight alongside him.", "The Necromancer possesses powerful poison spells, which rapidly drain life from afflicted monsters.", "He also has \"Bone\" skills, which directly damage enemies while bypassing most resistances.", "His Curses also afflict the enemy with debilitating status ailments, sowing confusion and chaos in their ranks.", "The Necromancer is voiced by Michael McConnohie.", "* '''The Barbarian''' is a powerful melee fighter who resides on the steppes of Mount Arreat.", "The Barbarian is akin to the Warrior of ''Diablo'': both are experts with all weapons for frontline combat and both are able to absorb major punishment.", "As such, the Barbarian is the only class capable of dual wielding weapons.", "His Combat Masteries allow him to specialize in different types of weapons and also passively increase his resistance, speed, and defense.", "His Warcries dramatically increase the combat effectiveness of him and his party, as well as afflicting status ailments on enemies.", "He has a variety of Combat Skills at his command, most of which focus on delivering great force upon a single foe, while some also allow him to leap over chasms and rivers.", "The Barbarian is voiced by David Thomas.", "* '''The Sorceress''' hails from a rebellious coven of female witches who have wrested the secrets of magic from the male-dominated mage clans of the East.", "She can cast lightning, fire and ice spells.", "Most of the lightning and fire spells are carried over from the original ''Diablo'', the ice spells can freeze enemies solid and bypass resistances while doing less damage than lightning or fire.", "Nearly all of these skills are offensive in nature by besieging the enemy with elemental calamity.", "The Sorceress's ''Teleport'' spell allows her to instantly travel to a new destination, allowing her to quickly traverse dungeons as well as making her very difficult to hit.", "The strength of the Sorceress is her damaging spells and casting speed; her weakness is her relatively low hit points and defense.", "The Sorceress is voiced by Liana Young.", "* '''The Paladin''' is a crusader from the Church of Zakarum, fighting for the glory of the Light.", "He was part of the forces that defeated King Leoric's army in the first ''Diablo'', although his Order is eventually corrupted by Mephisto, the Lord of Hatred.", "To reflect his holy nature, the Paladin's combat skills range from fanatical attacks to heavenly thunderbolts.", "His loadout is split into Combat Skills, Defensive Auras and Offensive Auras.", "His auras have a range of abilities such as increasing damage, resisting magic attacks or boosting defense.", "Most auras either affect all party members and allies or all enemies within the area of effect.", "The Paladin also has specialized skills for eliminating the undead and is highly proficient in the use of a shield, being the only class that can use it as a weapon.", "The Paladin is voiced by Larry B. Scott.Two additional character classes, the Druid and Assassin, were added in the expansion ''Diablo II: Lord of Destruction''.", "*'''The Druid''' is a shapeshifter with the ability to transform into a werewolf or werebear form.", "He can summon wild animals such as ravens or wolves as allies and attack with nature-based vines or elemental magic like wind or fire.", "The Druid offers a wide versatility of skills and can be built in several different playstyles.", "The Druid is voiced by Michael Bell.", "*'''The Assassin''' is a martial arts-based class from the Viz-Jaq'taar clan who fights with claw blades and supplements her attacks with the use of shadow magic skills and fire or lightning elemental traps, which remain stationary and affect groups of enemies.", "The Assassin is voiced by Carrie Gordon.The player can enlist the help of one hireling (computer-controlled mercenaries) from a mercenary captain in the town; Rogue Scouts (archers with Amazon abilities), Desert Mercenaries or Town Guards (melee fighters with Paladin auras), Iron Wolves (elemental spellcasters with occasional melee capability), and Barbarians (melee fighters with many hitpoints), from Acts I, II, III, and V, respectively.", "In the original release of the game, hirelings would not follow the player through different Acts, nor be revived if killed.", "The expansion allows players to retain their mercenary throughout the entire game as well as equipping them with armor and weapons, plus hirelings gain experience and attributes like the player although their level cannot surpass that of their master character.", "Typically, players choose a hireling that provides something missing from their character class; for instance, the melee-focused Paladin may choose an Iron Wolf for ranged magical support.In ''Heroes of the Storm'' (2015), playable characters Cassia and Xul represent the Amazon and the Necromancer classes, respectively.===Multiplayer===''Diablo II'' can be played multiplayer on a local area network (LAN) or the Blizzard's Battle.net online service.", "Unlike the original ''Diablo'', ''Diablo II'' was made specifically with online gaming in mind.", "Several spells (such as auras or war cries) multiply their effectiveness if they are cast within a party, and although dungeons still exist, they were largely replaced by open spaces.Battle.net is divided into \"Open\" and \"Closed\" realms.", "Single-player characters may be played on open realms; only Battle.net characters that are stored on Blizzard's servers may be played on closed realms as a measure against cheating, where they must be played at least once every 90 days to avoid expiration.", "Open games are subject to many abuses as the characters are stored on the players' own hard drives.", "Many cheats that were used on closed realms do not exist or work any longer.", "Hacks, bots, and programs which allow the player to run multiple instances of the game at the same time are not allowed by Blizzard.", "They are rarely used anymore.", "Blizzard cracked down on spambots which advertise sites selling Diablo II's virtual items for real-world currency.As the game can be played cooperatively (Players vs.", "Environment, PvE), groups of players with specific sets of complementary skills can finish some of the game's climactic battles in a matter of seconds, providing strong incentives for party-oriented character builds.", "Up to eight players can be in one game; they can either unite as a single party, play as individuals, or form multiple opposing parties.", "Experience gained, monsters' hit points and damage, and the number of items dropped are all increased as more players join a game, though not in a strictly proportional manner.", "Players are allowed to duel each other with all damage being reduced in player vs player (PvP).", "The bounty for a successful kill in PvP is a portion of the gold and the \"ear\" of the defeated player (with the previous owner's name and level at the time of the kill).The Ladder System is reset at various intervals by Blizzard to allow for all players to start fresh with new characters on an equal footing.", "Ladder seasons have lasted from as short as six months to over a year.", "When a ladder season ends, all ladder characters are transferred to the non-ladder population.", "Certain rare items are available only within ladder games, although they can be traded for and exchanged on non-ladder after the season has ended.The game has been patched extensively; the precise number of patches is impossible to determine as Battle.net has the capability of making minor server-side patches to address urgent bugs.", ", the game is in version 1.14d.", "Through the patch history, several exploits and bugs such as item duplication have been addressed, as well as major revamps to the game's balance (such as the ability to redo skills and attributes).", "Not all patches have affected ''Diablo II'' directly, as several were designed to address aspects of the expansion to the game and had minimal effects on ''Diablo II''." ], [ "Plot", "''Diablo II'' takes place after the end of the previous game, ''Diablo'', in the world of Sanctuary.", "In ''Diablo'', an unnamed warrior defeated Diablo and attempted to contain the Lord of Terror's essence within his own body.", "Since then, the hero has become corrupted by the demon's spirit, causing demons to enter the world around him and wreak havoc.A band of adventurers who pass through the Rogue Encampment hear these stories of destruction and attempt to find out the cause of the evil, starting with this corrupted \"Dark Wanderer.\"", "As the story develops, the truth behind this corruption is revealed: the soulstones were originally intended to imprison the Prime Evils after they were banished to the mortal realm by the Lesser Evils.", "With the corruption of Diablo's soulstone, the demon is able to control the Dark Wanderer and is attempting to free his two brothers, Mephisto and Baal.", "Baal, united with the mage Tal-Rasha, is imprisoned in a tomb near Lut Gholein.", "Mephisto is imprisoned in the eastern temple city of Kurast.As the story progresses, cut scenes show the Dark Wanderer's journey as a drifter named Marius follows him.", "Marius, now in an asylum, narrates the events to a hooded visitor, whom he initially believes to be the Archangel Tyrael.", "The player realizes that the Dark Wanderer's mission is to reunite with the other prime evils, Baal and Mephisto.", "The story is divided up into four acts::'''Act I''' – The adventurers rescue Deckard Cain, who is imprisoned in Tristram, and then begin following the Dark Wanderer.", "The Dark Wanderer has one of the lesser evils, Andariel, corrupt the Sisters of the Sightless Eye (Rogues) and take over their Monastery.", "The adventurers overcome Andariel and then follow the Wanderer east.", ":'''Act II''' – While the adventurers search the eastern desert for Tal-Rasha's tomb, the Dark Wanderer gets there first.", "Marius is tricked into removing Baal's soulstone from Tal-Rasha and Tyrael charges Marius with taking the soulstone to Hell to destroy it.", ":'''Act III''' – The Dark Wanderer and Baal look for Mephisto in the Temple of Kurast.", "Still imprisoned in the dungeon below the temple, Mephisto was able to corrupt the High Council of Zakarum and take over the region.", "While the adventurers fight their way to the temple, Mephisto is rejoined by his brothers; the three open a portal to Hell, the Dark Wanderer sheds his human form, becomes the demon Diablo, and goes through the portal.", "The adventurers arrive later, defeat Mephisto, who was left guarding the entrance, and take his soulstone.", ":'''Act IV''' – The adventurers slay Diablo in Hell and destroy the soulstones of Mephisto and Diablo on the Hellforge, preventing their return.In the epilogue, Marius indicates he was too weak to enter Hell, and that he fears the stone's effects on him.", "He gives the soulstone to his visitor.", "The visitor reveals himself to actually be Baal, the last surviving Prime Evil now in possession of his own soulstone.", "He then kills Marius and sets the asylum on fire.The story continues with Act V, in the expansion ''Diablo II: Lord of Destruction'' where Baal attempts to corrupt the mythical Worldstone on Mount Arreat.", "Upon returning to the Pandemonium Fortress after defeating Diablo, Tyrael opens a portal to send the adventurers to Arreat." ], [ "Development", "''Diablo II'' was announced by Blizzard in 1997, with a planned launch in the first quarter of 1998.According to designer and project lead Erich Schaefer, \"Diablo II never had an official, complete design document... for the most part we just started making up new stuff.\"", "The game was slated to have two years of development work, but it took Blizzard North over three years to finish.", "''Diablo II'', despite having less than one percent of the original code from ''Diablo'' and having much of its content and internal coding done from scratch, was seen by the testers as \"more of the same.\"", "The game was meant to be released simultaneously both in North America and internationally.", "This allowed the marketing and PR department for Blizzard North to focus their efforts in building up excitement in players worldwide for the first week of sales, contributing to the game's success.", "The cover art designed by Gerald Brom originally had a hole in the forehead of the character but the hole was hidden after Columbine High School massacre happened.", "Over 70 people worked on the game.A second expansion beyond ''Lord of Destruction'' had been in the design stages of development at Blizzard, according to David Brevik, but never reached the production stage.", "In addition to adding new classes, areas, monsters, and items, the expansion would have brought in more elements of a massively multiplayer online (MMO) game featuring elements like guild halls, what Brevik considered an \"ARPG+MMO\".", "Brevik said the expansion was shelved when most of the Blizzard North staff left the company around June 2003.===Music===The score was composed by Matt Uelmen and integrates creepy ambience with melodic pieces.", "The style of the score is ambient industrial and experimental.", "It was recorded in Redwood City, Oakland, and San Mateo, California, from April 1997 to March 2000.Some tracks were created by reusing the tracks from the original game, while others by rearranging tracks that were out-takes.", "Other scores are combinations of parts that were created more than a year after the first game's release.", "A single track usually integrates recorded samples from sound libraries, live recorded instrument interpretation samples specially meant for the game (guitar, flute, oriental percussion), and electronic instruments also, making the tracks difficult for later live interpretations.While the player visits the town, the game recreates the peaceful atmosphere from the first ''Diablo'' game, so for that the theme from Act I called \"Rogue\" comes back with the same chords of the original piece, reproducing only a part of the original ''Diablo'' town theme.", "For Act II Mustafa Waiz, a percussionist, and Scott Petersen, the game's sound designer, worked on the drum samples.", "Waiz played on the dumbek, djembe, and finger cymbals which gave Matt Uelmen a base upon which to build tracks around.The town theme from Act II, \"Toru\", makes strong statement of departure from the world of Act I while also maintaining a thematic connection to what had come before.", "It is the first time in the series to be used some radically different elements than the guitars and choral sounds that dominate both the original Diablo and the opening quarter of ''Diablo II''.", "The foundation of the \"Toru\" piece is found in exciting dynamics of a Chinese wind gong.", "The instrument radically changes color from a steady mysterious drone to a harsh, fearsome noise, which gives exotic feeling and at the same time the pacing of the second town.", "In all sequences of Act II with deserts and valleys, Arabic percussion sounds dominate.The composer was impressed by two of the Spectrasonics music libraries, ''Symphony of Voices'' and ''Heart of Asia''.", "He used samples from ''Heart of Asia'' in the ''Harem'' piece from Act II.", "The \"Crypt\" track uses a sample from ''Symphony of Voices''; the choral phrase ''Miserere''.", "Voice samples from ''Heart of Asia'', ''Heart of Africa'', and ''Symphony of Voices'' by Spectrasonics.The \"Harem\" track samples from ''Heart of Asia'' the Sanskrit Female 1 samples." ], [ "Release", "The game was released in ''Collector's Edition'' format, containing bonus collector's material, a copy of the ''Diablo'' ''Dungeons & Dragons'' pen-and-paper campaign setting, and promotional movies for other Blizzard games.", "In 2000, the ''Diablo II: Exclusive Gift Set'' similarly contained exclusive collector's material and promotional videos, as well as a copy of the official strategy guide.", "The 2000 released ''Diablo Gift Pack'' contained copies of ''Diablo'' and ''Diablo II'', but no expansions.", "The 2001 ''Diablo: Battle Chest'' version contained copies of ''Diablo II'', ''Diablo II: Lord of Destruction'', the official strategy guide, and the original ''Diablo''.", "Recently however , the ''Battle Chest'' edition no longer contains the original ''Diablo''.=== Support and legacy ===Blizzard continues to provide limited support for ''Diablo II'', including occasional patches.", "Although the original CD retail release worked on Windows 95/98/Me/NT4SP5, the current version downloadable from Battle.net requires at least Windows 2000/XP.Around 2008, the announcement of ''Diablo III'' renewed the interest in its predecessor and brought more attention to the many mods available for the game.In 2015, an unofficial port for the ARM architecture-based Pandora handheld became available by static recompilation and reverse engineering of the original x86 version.On March 11, 2016, Blizzard released the 1.14a Patch, which added support for Windows 7 and newer, a macOS installer and support for OS X 10.10 and 10.11.Diablo II is not supported on macOS 10.15, due to Apple completely dropping compatibility with 32-bit binaries in this version.=== ''Diablo II: Resurrected'' ===A remaster of the original and expansion, entitled ''Diablo II: Resurrected'', was released in 2021 for Windows, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Xbox One, Xbox Series X and Series S, and Nintendo Switch.", "The remaster includes updated graphics and re-rendering of the game's cutscenes, and supports cross-progression between the different platforms.", "The remastered version supports online features for players within the same console family, but not local co-op.", "Cross-platform play was not available upon release, although there is a possibility of it being included in a future update.", "The game also features quality-of-life improvements that Blizzard can implement by taking advantage of modern computers and consoles, including support for controllers on all systems, easier means of item identification, and shared stashes of items between all of a player's characters.", "But the designers also forego elements such as quest markers that are common in modern games, preserving as much of the original experience as possible, and making the re-master almost completely unchanged from the original ''Diablo II''." ], [ "Reception", "===Critical reviews===''Diablo II'' has a positive reception.", "The PC version of the game achieves an overall score of 88/100 on Metacritic and 89% at GameRankings.", "GameSpy awarded the game an 86 out of 100, ''IGN'' awarded the game an 8.3 out of 10, and ''GameSpot'' awarded the game an 8.5 out of 10.Greg Vederman reviewed the PC version of the game for ''Next Generation'', rating it five stars out of five, and stated that \"''Diablo II'' is a must-have PC title.", "That's all there is to it.", "\"===Awards===''Diablo II'' earned GameSpot's 2000 runner-up Reader's Choice Award for role-playing game of the year.", "''Diablo II'' was awarded with \"PC Role-Playing Game of the Year\", \"PC Game of the Year\", and \"Game of the Year\" from the Academy of Interactive Arts and Sciences during the 4th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards.", "In August 2016, ''Diablo II'' placed 21st on Time's The 50 Best Video Games of All Time list.", "It was placed at No.", "8 on ''Game Informer'''s \"Top 100 RPGs Of All Time\" list.===Sales===On its debut day, ''Diablo II'' sold 184,000 units.", "The game's global sales reached 1 million copies after two weeks, and 2 million after one and a half months.", "It was awarded a spot in the Guinness Book of World Records 2000 edition for being the fastest selling computer game ever, with more than 1 million units sold in the first two weeks of availability.", "Its sales during 2000 alone reached 2.75 million globally; 33% of these copies were sold outside the United States, with South Korea making up the largest international market.", "''Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos'', ''World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade'', ''World of Warcraft: Wrath of the Lich King'', ''World of Warcraft: Cataclysm'' and ''Diablo III'' have since surpassed ''Diablo II''s record to become fastest-selling computer games ever at their times of release, according to Blizzard.In the United States, PC Data tracked 308,923 sales for ''Diablo II'' during the June 25–July 1 period, including sales of its Collector's Edition.", "This drew revenues of $17.2 million.", "Domestic sales reached 790,285 units ($41.05 million) by the end of October 2000, according to PC Data.", "Another $4.47 million were earned in the region by that date via sales of the ''Collector's Edition''.", "''Diablo II'' finished 2000 with 970,131 sales in the United States, for a gross of $48.2 million.", "''Diablo II''s success continued in 2001: from February to the first week of November, it totaled sales of 306,422 units in the United States.", "It was ultimately the country's eighth best-selling computer title of 2001, with sales of 517,037 units and revenues of $19.3 million.", "Its lifetime domestic sales climbed to 1.7 million units, for $67.1 million in revenue, by August 2006.At this time, this led ''Edge'' to declare it the United States' second-largest computer game hit released since January 2000.It received a \"Gold\" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 200,000 copies in the United Kingdom.", "''Diablo II'' became a major hit in the German market and debuted at #1 on Media Control's computer game sales chart for June 2000.Speaking with Havas Interactive's public relations director, ''PC Player''s Udo Hoffman noted that the representative \"had to make an effort on the phone to avoid singing and jubilating\" over the game's commercial performance.", "The Verband der Unterhaltungssoftware Deutschland (VUD) presented ''Diablo II'' with a \"Gold\" award after three weeks of availability, indicating sales of at least 100,000 units across Germany, Austria and Switzerland.", "It maintained first place for July and rose to \"Platinum\" status (200,000 sales) by the end of the month.", "The game proceeded to place in Media Control's top 10 through October, peaking at #2 in August, and in the top 30 through December.", "By the end of 2000, roughly 350,000 units had been sold in the German market.", "''Diablo II'' continued to chart in January 2001, with a placement of 24th, and its ''Limited Edition'' debuted in second place for February.", "That April, the VUD presented the game with a \"Double-Platinum\" certification, for 400,000 sales.", "This made it one of the region's best-selling computer games ever at that time.As of June 29, 2001, ''Diablo II'' has sold 4 million copies worldwide.", "Copies of ''Diablo: Battle Chest'' continue to be sold in retail stores, appearing on the NPD Group's top 10 PC games sales list as recently as 2010.Even more remarkably, the ''Diablo: Battle Chest'' was the 19th best-selling PC game of 2008 – a full eight years after the game's initial release – and 11 million users still played ''Diablo II'' and ''StarCraft'' over Battle.net in 2010." ], [ "See also", "* List of PC titles* List of PC exclusive titles" ], [ "Further reading", "=== Printed analyses ===* Discusses the development of Diablo (I) and the origins of the Blizzard Entertainment game development studio.", "* Discusses the development of Diablo II specifically.", "* Examines various game design patterns (especially randomization and level progression) used in Diablo II and compares with other action-RPGs to understand why Diablo II was particularly engaging, relative to its competitors." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Design" ], [ "Introduction", "Cutlery designed by architect and designer Zaha Hadid (2007).", "The slightly oblique end part of the fork and the spoons, as well as the knife handle, are examples of designing for both aesthetic form and practical function.Early concept design sketches by the architect Erling Viksjø, exploring the relationships between existing and proposed new buildingsA '''design''' is a concept of or proposal for an object, a process, or a system.", "Design refers to something that is or has been intentionally created by a thinking agent, though it is sometimes used to refer to the nature of something - its design.", "The verb ''to design'' expresses the process of developing a design.", "In some cases, the direct construction of an object without an explicit prior plan may also be considered to be a design (such as in some artwork and craftwork).", "A design is expected to have a purpose within a certain context, usually has to satisfy certain goals and constraints, and to take into account aesthetic, functional, economic, environmental or socio-political considerations.", "Typical examples of designs include architectural and engineering drawings, circuit diagrams, sewing patterns and less tangible artefacts such as business process models." ], [ "Designing", "Designing is the process of developing a design.People who produce designs are called ''designers''.", "The term 'designer' generally refers to someone who works professionally in one of the various design areas.", "Within the professions, the word 'designer' is generally qualified by the area of practice (for example, a fashion designer, a product designer, a web designer, or an interior designer), but it can also designate others such as architects and engineers (see below: Types of designing).", "A designer's sequence of activities to produce a design is called a design process, using design thinking and possibly design methods.", "The process of creating a design can be brief (a quick sketch) or lengthy and complicated, involving considerable research, negotiation, reflection, modeling, interactive adjustment, and re-design.Designing is also a widespread activity outside of the professions, done by more people than just those formally recognised as designers.", "In his influential book ''The Sciences of the Artificial'' the interdisciplinary scientist Herbert A. Simon proposed that \"Everyone designs who devises courses of action aimed at changing existing situations into preferred ones\".", "And according to the design researcher Nigel Cross \"Everyone can – and does – design\", and \"Design ability is something that everyone has, to some extent, because it is embedded in our brains as a natural cognitive function\"." ], [ "History of design", "Study of the history of design is complicated by varying interpretations of what constitutes 'designing'.", "Many design historians, such as John Heskett, start with the Industrial Revolution and the development of mass production.", "Others subscribe to conceptions of design that include pre-industrial objects and artefacts, beginning their narratives of design in prehistorical times.", "Originally situated within art history, the historical development of the discipline of design history coalesced in the 1970s, as interested academics worked to recognize design as a separate and legitimate target for historical research.", "Early influential design historians include German-British art historian Nikolaus Pevsner and Swiss historian and architecture critic Sigfried Giedion." ], [ "Design education", "Institutions for design education date back to the nineteenth century.", "The Norwegian National Academy of Craft and Art Industry was founded in 1818, followed by the United Kingdom's Government School of Design (1837), Konstfack in Sweden (1844), and Rhode Island School of Design in the United States (1877).", "Polish \"Towarzystwo Polska Sztuka Stosowana\" (1901) and Warsztaty Krakowskie (1913).", "The German art and design school Bauhaus, founded in 1919, greatly influenced modern design education.Design education covers the teaching of theory, knowledge and values in the design of products, services and environments, and focusses on the development of both particular and general skills for designing.", "It is primarily orientated to preparing students for professional design practice, and based around project work and studio or atelier teaching methods.There are also broader forms of higher education in design studies and design thinking, and design also features as a part of general education, for example within Design and Technology.", "The development of design in general education in the 1970s led to a need to identify fundamental aspects of 'designerly' ways of knowing, thinking and acting, and hence to the establishment of design as a distinct discipline of study." ], [ "Design process", "Substantial disagreement exists concerning how designers in many fields, whether amateur or professional, alone or in teams, produce designs.", "Design researchers Dorst and Dijkhuis acknowledge that \"there are many ways of describing design processes\", and compare and contrast two dominant but different views of the design process: as a rational problem solving process and as a process of reflection-in-action.", "They suggested that these two paradigms \"represent two fundamentally different ways of looking at the world positivism and constructionism\".", "The paradigms may reflect differing views of how designing ''should be'' done and how it ''actually is'' done, and they both have a variety of names.", "The problem-solving view has been called \"the rational model\", \"technical rationality\" and \"the reason-centric perspective\".", "The alternative view has been called \"reflection-in-action\", \"co-evolution\", and \"the action-centric perspective\".===Rational model===The rational model was independently developed by Herbert A. Simon, an American scientist, and two German engineering design theorists, Gerhard Pahl and Wolfgang Beitz.", "It posits that:# Designers attempt to optimize a design candidate for known constraints and objectives.# The design process is plan-driven.# The design process is understood in terms of a discrete sequence of stages.The rational model is based on a rationalist philosophy and underlies the waterfall model, systems development life cycle, and much of the engineering design literature.", "According to the rationalist philosophy, design is informed by research and knowledge in a predictable and controlled manner.Typical stages consistent with the rational model include the following:* Pre-production design**Design brief – initial statement of intended outcome.", "**Analysis – analysis of design goals.", "**Research – investigating similar designs in the field or related topics.", "**Specification – specifying requirements of a design for a product (product design specification) or service.", "**Problem solving – conceptualizing and documenting designs.", "**Presentation – presenting designs.", "* Design during production.", "**Development – continuation and improvement of a design.", "** Product testing – ''in situ'' testing of a design.", "* Post-production design feedback for future designs.", "**Implementation – introducing the design into the environment.", "**Evaluation and conclusion – summary of process and results, including constructive criticism and suggestions for future improvements.", "* Redesign – any or all stages in the design process repeated (with corrections made) at any time before, during, or after production.Each stage has many associated best practices.====Criticism of the rational model====The rational model has been widely criticized on two primary grounds:# Designers do not work this way – extensive empirical evidence has demonstrated that designers do not act as the rational model suggests.# Unrealistic assumptions – goals are often unknown when a design project begins, and the requirements and constraints continue to change.===Action-centric model===The action-centric perspective is a label given to a collection of interrelated concepts, which are antithetical to the rational model.", "It posits that:# Designers use creativity and emotion to generate design candidates.# The design process is improvised.# No universal sequence of stages is apparent – analysis, design and implementation are contemporary and inextricably linked.The action-centric perspective is based on an empiricist philosophy and broadly consistent with the agile approach and methodical development.", "Substantial empirical evidence supports the veracity of this perspective in describing the actions of real designers.", "Like the rational model, the action-centric model sees design as informed by research and knowledge.At least two views of design activity are consistent with the action-centric perspective.", "Both involve these three basic activities:* In the reflection-in-action paradigm, designers alternate between \"framing\", \"making moves\", and \"evaluating moves\".", "\"Framing\" refers to conceptualizing the problem, i.e., defining goals and objectives.", "A \"move\" is a tentative design decision.", "The evaluation process may lead to further moves in the design.", "* In the sensemaking–coevolution–implementation framework, designers alternate between its three titular activities.", "Sensemaking includes both framing and evaluating moves.", "Implementation is the process of constructing the design object.", "Coevolution is \"the process where the design agent simultaneously refines its mental picture of the design object based on its mental picture of the context, and vice versa\".The concept of the design cycle is understood as a circular time structure, which may start with the thinking of an idea, then expressing it by the use of visual or verbal means of communication (design tools), the sharing and perceiving of the expressed idea, and finally starting a new cycle with the critical rethinking of the perceived idea.", "Anderson points out that this concept emphasizes the importance of the means of expression, which at the same time are means of perception of any design ideas." ], [ "Philosophies", "Philosophy of design is the study of definitions of design, and the assumptions, foundations, and implications of design.", "There are also many informal 'philosophies' for guiding design such as personal values or preferred approaches.===Approaches to design===Some of these values and approaches include:* Critical design uses designed artifacts as an embodied critique or commentary on existing values, morals, and practices in a culture.", "Critical design can make aspects of the future physically present to provoke a reaction.", "* Ecological design is a design approach that prioritizes the consideration of the environmental impacts of a product or service, over its whole lifecycle.", "Ecodesign research focuses primarily on barriers to implementation, ecodesign tools and methods, and the intersection of ecodesign with other research disciplines.", "* Participatory design (originally co-operative design, now often co-design) is the practice of collective creativity to design, attempting to actively involve all stakeholders (e.g.", "employees, partners, customers, citizens, end-users) in the design process to help ensure the result meets their needs and is usable.", "Recent research suggests that designers create more innovative concepts and ideas when working within a co-design environment with others than they do when creating ideas on their own.", "* Scientific design refers to industrialised design based on scientific knowledge.", "Science can be used to study the effects and need for a potential or existing product in general and to design products that are based on scientific knowledge.", "For instance, a scientific design of face masks for COVID-19 mitigation may be based on investigations of filtration performance, mitigation performance, thermal comfort, biodegradability and flow resistance.", "* Service design designing or organizing the experience around a product and the service associated with a product's use.", "The purpose of service design methodologies is to establish the most effective practices for designing services, according to both the needs of users and the competencies and capabilities of service providers.", "* Sociotechnical system design, a philosophy and tools for participative designing of work arrangements and supporting processes – for organizational purpose, quality, safety, economics, and customer requirements in core work processes, the quality of peoples experience at work, and the needs of society.", "* Transgenerational design, the practice of making products and environments compatible with those physical and sensory impairments associated with human aging and which limit major activities of daily living.", "* User-centered design, which focuses on the needs, wants, and limitations of the end-user of the designed artifact.", "One aspect of user-centered design is ergonomics." ], [ "Relationship with the arts", "Brionvega radiogram designed by Achille and Pier Giacomo CastiglioniThe boundaries between art and design are blurry, largely due to a range of applications both for the term 'art' and the term 'design'.", "Applied arts can include industrial design, graphic design, fashion design, and the decorative arts which traditionally includes craft objects.", "In graphic arts (2D image making that ranges from photography to illustration), the distinction is often made between fine art and commercial art, based on the context within which the work is produced and how it is traded." ], [ "Types of designing" ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Margolin, Victor.", "World History of Design.", "New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015.", "(2 vols) .", "*Raizman, David Seth (12 November 2003).", "''The History of Modern Design''.", "Pearson.", "." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Denormalization" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Denormalization''' is a strategy used on a previously-normalized database to increase performance.", "In computing, denormalization is the process of trying to improve the read performance of a database, at the expense of losing some write performance, by adding redundant copies of data or by grouping data.", "It is often motivated by performance or scalability in relational database software needing to carry out very large numbers of read operations.", "Denormalization differs from the unnormalized form in that denormalization benefits can only be fully realized on a data model that is otherwise normalized." ], [ "Implementation", "A normalized design will often \"store\" different but related pieces of information in separate logical tables (called relations).", "If these relations are stored physically as separate disk files, completing a database query that draws information from several relations (a ''join operation'') can be slow.", "If many relations are joined, it may be prohibitively slow.", "There are two strategies for dealing with this." ], [ "DBMS support", "One method is to keep the logical design normalized, but allow the database management system (DBMS) to store additional redundant information on disk to optimize query response.", "In this case it is the DBMS software's responsibility to ensure that any redundant copies are kept consistent.", "This method is often implemented in SQL as indexed views (Microsoft SQL Server) or materialized views (Oracle, PostgreSQL).", "A view may, among other factors, represent information in a format convenient for querying, and the index ensures that queries against the view are optimized physically." ], [ "DBA implementation", "Another approach is to denormalize the logical data design.", "With care this can achieve a similar improvement in query response, but at a cost—it is now the database designer's responsibility to ensure that the denormalized database does not become inconsistent.", "This is done by creating rules in the database called ''constraints'', that specify how the redundant copies of information must be kept synchronized, which may easily make the de-normalization procedure pointless.", "It is the increase in logical complexity of the database design and the added complexity of the additional constraints that make this approach hazardous.", "Moreover, constraints introduce a trade-off, speeding up reads (SELECT in SQL) while slowing down writes (INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE).", "This means a denormalized database under heavy write load may offer ''worse'' performance than its functionally equivalent normalized counterpart." ], [ "Denormalization versus not normalized data", "A denormalized data model is not the same as a data model that has not been normalized, and denormalization should only take place after a satisfactory level of normalization has taken place and that any required constraints and/or rules have been created to deal with the inherent anomalies in the design.", "For example, all the relations are in third normal form and any relations with join and multi-valued dependencies are handled appropriately.Examples of denormalization techniques include:* \"Storing\" the count of the \"many\" elements in a one-to-many relationship as an attribute of the \"one\" relation* Adding attributes to a relation from another relation with which it will be joined* Star schemas, which are also known as fact-dimension models and have been extended to snowflake schemas* Prebuilt summarization or OLAP cubesWith the continued dramatic increase in all three of storage, processing power and bandwidth, on all levels, denormalization in databases has moved from being an unusual or extension technique, to the commonplace, or even the norm.", "For example, one specific downside of denormalization was, simply, that it \"uses more storage\" (that is to say, literally more columns in a database).", "With the exception of truly enormous systems, this particular aspect has been made irrelevant and using more storage is a non-issue." ], [ "See also", "* Cache (computing)* Normalization* Scalability" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Differential topology" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematics, '''differential topology''' is the field dealing with the topological properties and smooth properties of smooth manifolds.", "In this sense differential topology is distinct from the closely related field of differential geometry, which concerns the ''geometric'' properties of smooth manifolds, including notions of size, distance, and rigid shape.", "By comparison differential topology is concerned with coarser properties, such as the number of holes in a manifold, its homotopy type, or the structure of its diffeomorphism group.", "Because many of these coarser properties may be captured algebraically, differential topology has strong links to algebraic topology.The Morse theory of the height function on a torus can describe its homotopy type.The central goal of the field of differential topology is the classification of all smooth manifolds up to diffeomorphism.", "Since dimension is an invariant of smooth manifolds up to diffeomorphism type, this classification is often studied by classifying the (connected) manifolds in each dimension separately:* In dimension 1, the only smooth manifolds up to diffeomorphism are the circle, the real number line, and allowing a boundary, the half-closed interval and fully closed interval .", "* In dimension 2, every closed surface is classified up to diffeomorphism by its genus, the number of holes (or equivalently its Euler characteristic), and whether or not it is orientable.", "This is the famous classification of closed surfaces.", "Already in dimension two the classification of non-compact surfaces becomes difficult, due to the existence of exotic spaces such as Jacob's ladder.", "* In dimension 3, William Thurston's geometrization conjecture, proven by Grigori Perelman, gives a partial classification of compact three-manifolds.", "Included in this theorem is the Poincaré conjecture, which states that any closed, simply connected three-manifold is homeomorphic (and in fact diffeomorphic) to the 3-sphere.A cobordism (''W''; ''M'', ''N''), which generalises the notion of a diffeomorphism.Beginning in dimension 4, the classification becomes much more difficult for two reasons.", "Firstly, every finitely presented group appears as the fundamental group of some 4-manifold, and since the fundamental group is a diffeomorphism invariant, this makes the classification of 4-manifolds at least as difficult as the classification of finitely presented groups.", "By the word problem for groups, which is equivalent to the halting problem, it is impossible to classify such groups, so a full topological classification is impossible.", "Secondly, beginning in dimension four it is possible to have smooth manifolds that are homeomorphic, but with distinct, non-diffeomorphic smooth structures.", "This is true even for the Euclidean space , which admits many exotic structures.", "This means that the study of differential topology in dimensions 4 and higher must use tools genuinely outside the realm of the regular continuous topology of topological manifolds.", "One of the central open problems in differential topology is the four-dimensional smooth Poincaré conjecture, which asks if every smooth 4-manifold that is homeomorphic to the 4-sphere, is also diffeomorphic to it.", "That is, does the 4-sphere admit only one smooth structure?", "This conjecture is true in dimensions 1, 2, and 3, by the above classification results, but is known to be false in dimension 7 due to the Milnor spheres.Important tools in studying the differential topology of smooth manifolds include the construction of smooth topological invariants of such manifolds, such as de Rham cohomology or the intersection form, as well as smoothable topological constructions, such as smooth surgery theory or the construction of cobordisms.", "Morse theory is an important tool which studies smooth manifolds by considering the critical points of differentiable functions on the manifold, demonstrating how the smooth structure of the manifold enters into the set of tools available.", "Oftentimes more geometric or analytical techniques may be used, by equipping a smooth manifold with a Riemannian metric or by studying a differential equation on it.", "Care must be taken to ensure that the resulting information is insensitive to this choice of extra structure, and so genuinely reflects only the topological properties of the underlying smooth manifold.", "For example, the Hodge theorem provides a geometric and analytical interpretation of the de Rham cohomology, and gauge theory was used by Simon Donaldson to prove facts about the intersection form of simply connected 4-manifolds.", "In some cases techniques from contemporary physics may appear, such as topological quantum field theory, which can be used to compute topological invariants of smooth spaces.Famous theorems in differential topology include the Whitney embedding theorem, the hairy ball theorem, the Hopf theorem, the Poincaré–Hopf theorem, Donaldson's theorem, and the Poincaré conjecture." ], [ "Description", "Differential topology considers the properties and structures that require only a smooth structure on a manifold to be defined.", "Smooth manifolds are 'softer' than manifolds with extra geometric structures, which can act as obstructions to certain types of equivalences and deformations that exist in differential topology.", "For instance, volume and Riemannian curvature are invariants that can distinguish different geometric structures on the same smooth manifold—that is, one can smoothly \"flatten out\" certain manifolds, but it might require distorting the space and affecting the curvature or volume.On the other hand, smooth manifolds are more rigid than the topological manifolds.", "John Milnor discovered that some spheres have more than one smooth structure—see Exotic sphere and Donaldson's theorem.", "Michel Kervaire exhibited topological manifolds with no smooth structure at all.", "Some constructions of smooth manifold theory, such as the existence of tangent bundles, can be done in the topological setting with much more work, and others cannot.One of the main topics in differential topology is the study of special kinds of smooth mappings between manifolds, namely immersions and submersions, and the intersections of submanifolds via transversality.", "More generally one is interested in properties and invariants of smooth manifolds that are carried over by diffeomorphisms, another special kind of smooth mapping.", "Morse theory is another branch of differential topology, in which topological information about a manifold is deduced from changes in the rank of the Jacobian of a function.For a list of differential topology topics, see the following reference: List of differential geometry topics." ], [ "Differential topology versus differential geometry", "Differential topology and differential geometry are first characterized by their ''similarity''.", "They both study primarily the properties of differentiable manifolds, sometimes with a variety of structures imposed on them.Animation of a coffee cup transforming into a donut shapeOne major difference lies in the nature of the problems that each subject tries to address.", "In one view, differential topology distinguishes itself from differential geometry by studying primarily those problems that are ''inherently global''.", "Consider the example of a coffee cup and a donut.", "From the point of view of differential topology, the donut and the coffee cup are ''the same'' (in a sense).", "This is an inherently global view, though, because there is no way for the differential topologist to tell whether the two objects are the same (in this sense) by looking at just a tiny (''local'') piece of either of them.", "They must have access to each entire (''global'') object.From the point of view of differential geometry, the coffee cup and the donut are ''different'' because it is impossible to rotate the coffee cup in such a way that its configuration matches that of the donut.", "This is also a global way of thinking about the problem.", "But an important distinction is that the geometer does not need the entire object to decide this.", "By looking, for instance, at just a tiny piece of the handle, they can decide that the coffee cup is different from the donut because the handle is thinner (or more curved) than any piece of the donut.To put it succinctly, differential topology studies structures on manifolds that, in a sense, have no interesting local structure.", "Differential geometry studies structures on manifolds that do have an interesting local (or sometimes even infinitesimal) structure.More mathematically, for example, the problem of constructing a diffeomorphism between two manifolds of the same dimension is inherently global since ''locally'' two such manifolds are always diffeomorphic.", "Likewise, the problem of computing a quantity on a manifold that is invariant under differentiable mappings is inherently global, since any local invariant will be ''trivial'' in the sense that it is already exhibited in the topology of .", "Moreover, differential topology does not restrict itself necessarily to the study of diffeomorphism.", "For example, symplectic topology—a subbranch of differential topology—studies global properties of symplectic manifolds.", "Differential geometry concerns itself with problems—which may be local ''or'' global—that always have some non-trivial local properties.", "Thus differential geometry may study differentiable manifolds equipped with a ''connection'', a ''metric'' (which may be Riemannian, pseudo-Riemannian, or Finsler), a special sort of ''distribution'' (such as a CR structure), and so on.This distinction between differential geometry and differential topology is blurred, however, in questions specifically pertaining to local diffeomorphism invariants such as the tangent space at a point.", "Differential topology also deals with questions like these, which specifically pertain to the properties of differentiable mappings on (for example the tangent bundle, jet bundles, the Whitney extension theorem, and so forth).The distinction is concise in abstract terms: *Differential topology is the study of the (infinitesimal, local, and global) properties of structures on manifolds that have ''only trivial'' local moduli.", "*Differential geometry is such a study of structures on manifolds that have one or more ''non-trivial'' local moduli." ], [ "See also", "* List of differential geometry topics* Glossary of differential geometry and topology* Important publications in differential geometry* Important publications in differential topology* Basic introduction to the mathematics of curved spacetime" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "****" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Diffeomorphism" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematics, a '''diffeomorphism''' is an isomorphism of smooth manifolds.", "It is an invertible function that maps one differentiable manifold to another such that both the function and its inverse are continuously differentiable.image of a rectangular grid on a square under a diffeomorphism from the square onto itself." ], [ "Definition", "Given two manifolds and , a differentiable map is called a '''diffeomorphism''' if it is a bijection and its inverse is differentiable as well.", "If these functions are times continuously differentiable, is called a -diffeomorphism'''.Two manifolds and are '''diffeomorphic''' (usually denoted ) if there is a diffeomorphism from to .", "They are -'''diffeomorphic''' if there is an times continuously differentiable bijective map between them whose inverse is also times continuously differentiable." ], [ "Diffeomorphisms of subsets of manifolds", "Given a subset of a manifold and a subset of a manifold , a function is said to be smooth if for all in there is a neighborhood of and a smooth function such that the restrictions agree: (note that is an extension of ).", "The function is said to be a diffeomorphism if it is bijective, smooth and its inverse is smooth." ], [ "Local description", "; Hadamard-Caccioppoli TheoremIf , are connected open subsets of such that is simply connected, a differentiable map is a '''diffeomorphism''' if it is proper and if the differential is bijective (and hence a linear isomorphism) at each point in .", "; First remarkIt is essential for to be simply connected for the function to be globally invertible (under the sole condition that its derivative be a bijective map at each point).", "For example, consider the \"realification\" of the complex square function : Then is surjective and it satisfies : Thus, though is bijective at each point, is not invertible because it fails to be injective (e.g.", ").", "; Second remarkSince the differential at a point (for a differentiable function) : is a linear map, it has a well-defined inverse if and only if is a bijection.", "The matrix representation of is the matrix of first-order partial derivatives whose entry in the -th row and -th column is .", "This so-called Jacobian matrix is often used for explicit computations.", "; Third remarkDiffeomorphisms are necessarily between manifolds of the same dimension.", "Imagine going from dimension to dimension .", "If then could never be surjective, and if then could never be injective.", "In both cases, therefore, fails to be a bijection.", "; Fourth remarkIf is a bijection at then is said to be a local diffeomorphism (since, by continuity, will also be bijective for all sufficiently close to ).", "; Fifth remarkGiven a smooth map from dimension to dimension , if (or, locally, ) is surjective, is said to be a submersion (or, locally, a \"local submersion\"); and if (or, locally, ) is injective, is said to be an immersion (or, locally, a \"local immersion\").", "; Sixth remarkA differentiable bijection is ''not'' necessarily a diffeomorphism.", ", for example, is not a diffeomorphism from to itself because its derivative vanishes at 0 (and hence its inverse is not differentiable at 0).", "This is an example of a homeomorphism that is not a diffeomorphism.", "; Seventh remarkWhen is a map between ''differentiable'' manifolds, a diffeomorphic is a stronger condition than a homeomorphic .", "For a diffeomorphism, and its inverse need to be differentiable; for a homeomorphism, and its inverse need only be continuous.", "Every diffeomorphism is a homeomorphism, but not every homeomorphism is a diffeomorphism.", "is called a '''diffeomorphism''' if, in coordinate charts, it satisfies the definition above.", "More precisely: Pick any cover of by compatible coordinate charts and do the same for .", "Let and be charts on, respectively, and , with and as, respectively, the images of and .", "The map is then a diffeomorphism as in the definition above, whenever ." ], [ "Examples", "Since any manifold can be locally parametrised, we can consider some explicit maps from into .", "* Let :: : We can calculate the Jacobian matrix::: : The Jacobian matrix has zero determinant if and only if .", "We see that could only be a diffeomorphism away from the -axis and the -axis.", "However, is not bijective since , and thus it cannot be a diffeomorphism.", "* Let :: : where the and are arbitrary real numbers, and the omitted terms are of degree at least two in ''x'' and ''y''.", "We can calculate the Jacobian matrix at '''0'''::: : We see that ''g'' is a local diffeomorphism at '''0''' if, and only if, :: : i.e.", "the linear terms in the components of ''g'' are linearly independent as polynomials.", "* Let :: : We can calculate the Jacobian matrix::: : The Jacobian matrix has zero determinant everywhere!", "In fact we see that the image of ''h'' is the unit circle.===Surface deformations===In mechanics, a stress-induced transformation is called a deformation and may be described by a diffeomorphism.A diffeomorphism between two surfaces and has a Jacobian matrix that is an invertible matrix.", "In fact, it is required that for in , there is a neighborhood of in which the Jacobian stays non-singular.", "Suppose that in a chart of the surface, The total differential of ''u'' is:, and similarly for ''v''.Then the image is a linear transformation, fixing the origin, and expressible as the action of a complex number of a particular type.", "When (''dx'', ''dy'') is also interpreted as that type of complex number, the action is of complex multiplication in the appropriate complex number plane.", "As such, there is a type of angle (Euclidean, hyperbolic, or slope) that is preserved in such a multiplication.", "Due to ''Df'' being invertible, the type of complex number is uniform over the surface.", "Consequently, a surface deformation or diffeomorphism of surfaces has the '''conformal property''' of preserving (the appropriate type of) angles." ], [ "Diffeomorphism group", "Let be a differentiable manifold that is second-countable and Hausdorff.", "The '''diffeomorphism group''' of is the group of all diffeomorphisms of to itself, denoted by or, when is understood, .", "This is a \"large\" group, in the sense that—provided is not zero-dimensional—it is not locally compact.===Topology===The diffeomorphism group has two natural topologies: ''weak'' and ''strong'' .", "When the manifold is compact, these two topologies agree.", "The weak topology is always metrizable.", "When the manifold is not compact, the strong topology captures the behavior of functions \"at infinity\" and is not metrizable.", "It is, however, still Baire.Fixing a Riemannian metric on , the weak topology is the topology induced by the family of metrics: as varies over compact subsets of .", "Indeed, since is -compact, there is a sequence of compact subsets whose union is .", "Then:: The diffeomorphism group equipped with its weak topology is locally homeomorphic to the space of vector fields .", "Over a compact subset of , this follows by fixing a Riemannian metric on and using the exponential map for that metric.", "If is finite and the manifold is compact, the space of vector fields is a Banach space.", "Moreover, the transition maps from one chart of this atlas to another are smooth, making the diffeomorphism group into a Banach manifold with smooth right translations; left translations and inversion are only continuous.", "If , the space of vector fields is a Fréchet space.", "Moreover, the transition maps are smooth, making the diffeomorphism group into a Fréchet manifold and even into a regular Fréchet Lie group.", "If the manifold is -compact and not compact the full diffeomorphism group is not locally contractible for any of the two topologies.", "One has to restrict the group by controlling the deviation from the identity near infinity to obtain a diffeomorphism group which is a manifold; see .===Lie algebra===The Lie algebra of the diffeomorphism group of consists of all vector fields on equipped with the Lie bracket of vector fields.", "Somewhat formally, this is seen by making a small change to the coordinate at each point in space:: so the infinitesimal generators are the vector fields: ===Examples===* When is a Lie group, there is a natural inclusion of in its own diffeomorphism group via left-translation.", "Let denote the diffeomorphism group of , then there is a splitting , where is the subgroup of that fixes the identity element of the group.", "* The diffeomorphism group of Euclidean space consists of two components, consisting of the orientation-preserving and orientation-reversing diffeomorphisms.", "In fact, the general linear group is a deformation retract of the subgroup of diffeomorphisms fixing the origin under the map .", "In particular, the general linear group is also a deformation retract of the full diffeomorphism group.", "* For a finite set of points, the diffeomorphism group is simply the symmetric group.", "Similarly, if is any manifold there is a group extension .", "Here is the subgroup of that preserves all the components of , and is the permutation group of the set (the components of ).", "Moreover, the image of the map is the bijections of that preserve diffeomorphism classes.===Transitivity===For a connected manifold , the diffeomorphism group acts transitively on .", "More generally, the diffeomorphism group acts transitively on the configuration space .", "If is at least two-dimensional, the diffeomorphism group acts transitively on the configuration space and the action on is multiply transitive .===Extensions of diffeomorphisms===In 1926, Tibor Radó asked whether the harmonic extension of any homeomorphism or diffeomorphism of the unit circle to the unit disc yields a diffeomorphism on the open disc.", "An elegant proof was provided shortly afterwards by Hellmuth Kneser.", "In 1945, Gustave Choquet, apparently unaware of this result, produced a completely different proof.The (orientation-preserving) diffeomorphism group of the circle is pathwise connected.", "This can be seen by noting that any such diffeomorphism can be lifted to a diffeomorphism of the reals satisfying ; this space is convex and hence path-connected.", "A smooth, eventually constant path to the identity gives a second more elementary way of extending a diffeomorphism from the circle to the open unit disc (a special case of the Alexander trick).", "Moreover, the diffeomorphism group of the circle has the homotopy-type of the orthogonal group .The corresponding extension problem for diffeomorphisms of higher-dimensional spheres was much studied in the 1950s and 1960s, with notable contributions from René Thom, John Milnor and Stephen Smale.", "An obstruction to such extensions is given by the finite abelian group , the \"group of twisted spheres\", defined as the quotient of the abelian component group of the diffeomorphism group by the subgroup of classes extending to diffeomorphisms of the ball .===Connectedness===For manifolds, the diffeomorphism group is usually not connected.", "Its component group is called the mapping class group.", "In dimension 2 (i.e.", "surfaces), the mapping class group is a finitely presented group generated by Dehn twists; this has been proved by Max Dehn, W. B. R. Lickorish, and Allen Hatcher).", "Max Dehn and Jakob Nielsen showed that it can be identified with the outer automorphism group of the fundamental group of the surface.William Thurston refined this analysis by classifying elements of the mapping class group into three types: those equivalent to a periodic diffeomorphism; those equivalent to a diffeomorphism leaving a simple closed curve invariant; and those equivalent to pseudo-Anosov diffeomorphisms.", "In the case of the torus , the mapping class group is simply the modular group and the classification becomes classical in terms of elliptic, parabolic and hyperbolic matrices.", "Thurston accomplished his classification by observing that the mapping class group acted naturally on a compactification of Teichmüller space; as this enlarged space was homeomorphic to a closed ball, the Brouwer fixed-point theorem became applicable.", "Smale conjectured that if is an oriented smooth closed manifold, the identity component of the group of orientation-preserving diffeomorphisms is simple.", "This had first been proved for a product of circles by Michel Herman; it was proved in full generality by Thurston.===Homotopy types===* The diffeomorphism group of has the homotopy-type of the subgroup .", "This was proven by Steve Smale.", "* The diffeomorphism group of the torus has the homotopy-type of its linear automorphisms: .", "* The diffeomorphism groups of orientable surfaces of genus have the homotopy-type of their mapping class groups (i.e.", "the components are contractible).", "* The homotopy-type of the diffeomorphism groups of 3-manifolds are fairly well understood via the work of Ivanov, Hatcher, Gabai and Rubinstein, although there are a few outstanding open cases (primarily 3-manifolds with finite fundamental groups).", "* The homotopy-type of diffeomorphism groups of -manifolds for are poorly understood.", "For example, it is an open problem whether or not has more than two components.", "Via Milnor, Kahn and Antonelli, however, it is known that provided , does not have the homotopy-type of a finite CW-complex." ], [ "Homeomorphism and diffeomorphism", "Since every diffeomorphism is a homeomorphism, given a pair of manifolds which are diffeomorphic to each other they are in particular homeomorphic to each other.", "The converse is not true in general.", "While it is easy to find homeomorphisms that are not diffeomorphisms, it is more difficult to find a pair of homeomorphic manifolds that are not diffeomorphic.", "In dimensions 1, 2 and 3, any pair of homeomorphic smooth manifolds are diffeomorphic.", "In dimension 4 or greater, examples of homeomorphic but not diffeomorphic pairs exist.", "The first such example was constructed by John Milnor in dimension 7.He constructed a smooth 7-dimensional manifold (called now Milnor's sphere) that is homeomorphic to the standard 7-sphere but not diffeomorphic to it.", "There are, in fact, 28 oriented diffeomorphism classes of manifolds homeomorphic to the 7-sphere (each of them is the total space of a fiber bundle over the 4-sphere with the 3-sphere as the fiber).More unusual phenomena occur for 4-manifolds.", "In the early 1980s, a combination of results due to Simon Donaldson and Michael Freedman led to the discovery of exotic : there are uncountably many pairwise non-diffeomorphic open subsets of each of which is homeomorphic to , and also there are uncountably many pairwise non-diffeomorphic differentiable manifolds homeomorphic to that do not embed smoothly in ." ], [ "See also", "* Anosov diffeomorphism such as Arnold's cat map* Diffeo anomaly also known as a gravitational anomaly, a type anomaly in quantum mechanics* Diffeology, smooth parameterizations on a set, which makes a diffeological space* Diffeomorphometry, metric study of shape and form in computational anatomy* Étale morphism* Large diffeomorphism* Local diffeomorphism* Superdiffeomorphism" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dune Messiah" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Dune Messiah''''' is a science fiction novel by American writer Frank Herbert, the second in his ''Dune'' series of six novels.", "A sequel to ''Dune'' (1965), it was originally serialized in ''Galaxy'' magazine in 1969, and then published by Putnam the same year.", "''Dune Messiah'' and its own sequel ''Children of Dune'' (1976) were collectively adapted by the Sci-Fi Channel in 2003 into a miniseries entitled ''Frank Herbert's Children of Dune''." ], [ "Plot", "Twelve years have passed since the beginning of Paul \"Muad'Dib\" Atreides' rule as Emperor.", "By accepting the role of messiah to the Fremen, Paul has unleashed a jihad which conquered most of the known universe.", "Paul is the most powerful emperor ever known, but is powerless to stop the lethal excesses of the religious juggernaut he has created.", "Although 61 billion people have perished, Paul's prescient visions indicate that this is far from the worst possible outcome for humanity.", "Motivated by this knowledge, Paul hopes to set humanity on a course that will not inevitably lead to stagnation and destruction, while at the same time acting as ruler of the empire and focal point of the Fremen religion.The Bene Gesserit, Spacing Guild, and Tleilaxu conspire to dethrone Paul, and the Guild Navigator Edric is able to use his own prescience to shield the plot from Paul's prescient visions.", "The Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother Mohiam has enlisted Paul's wife, the Princess Irulan, daughter of the deposed Padishah Emperor Shaddam IV.", "Paul has refused to father a child with Irulan, but he and his Fremen concubine Chani have also failed to produce an heir, causing tension within his monarchy.", "Desperate both to secure her place in the Atreides dynasty and to preserve the Atreides bloodline for the Bene Gesserit breeding program, Irulan has secretly been giving contraceptives to Chani.", "Paul is aware of this fact, but has foreseen that the birth of his heir will bring Chani's death, and does not want to lose her.Edric gives Paul a gift he cannot resist: a Tleilaxu-grown ghola of the deceased Duncan Idaho, Paul's childhood teacher and friend, now called \"Hayt\".", "The conspirators hope the presence of Hayt will undermine Paul's ability to rule by forcing Paul to question himself and the empire he has created.", "Furthermore, Paul's acceptance of the gift weakens his support among the Fremen, who see the Tleilaxu and their tools as unclean.", "Chani, taking matters into her own hands, switches to a traditional Fremen fertility diet, preventing Irulan from being able to tamper with her food, and soon becomes pregnant.", "However, Chani's extended use of Irulan's contraceptive has weakened her, and endangers the pregnancy.Otheym, one of Paul's former Fedaykin death commandos, reveals evidence of a Fremen conspiracy against Paul.", "Otheym gives Paul his dwarf Tleilaxu servant Bijaz, who, like a recording machine, can remember faces, names, and details.", "Paul accepts reluctantly, seeing the strands of a Tleilaxu plot.", "As Paul's soldiers attack the conspirators, others set off an atomic weapon called a stone burner, purchased from the Tleilaxu, that destroys the area and blinds Paul.", "By tradition, all blind Fremen exile themselves in the desert, but Paul shocks the Fremen and entrenches his godhood by proving he can still see, even without eyes.", "His oracular powers have become so developed that he can foresee in his mind everything that happens, so by moving through his life in lockstep with his visions, he can see even the slightest details of the world around him.Bijaz, actually an agent of the Tleilaxu, uses a specific humming intonation to implant a command that will compel Hayt to attempt to kill Paul under certain circumstances.", "Chani dies in childbirth, and Paul's reaction to her death triggers Hayt, who attempts to kill Paul.", "Hayt's ghola body reacts against its own programming and Duncan's full consciousness is recovered, simultaneously making him independent of Tleilaxu control.Chani gives birth to twins, who come into the world fully conscious with Kwisatz Haderach-like access to ancestral memories.", "The son is a total surprise for Paul, who had only foreseen the birth of their daughter.", "Scytale offers to revive Chani as a ghola, but Paul refuses to submit, considering the possibility that the Tleilaxu might program Chani in some diabolical way.", "The Face Dancer then threatens the infants with a knife to force Paul to accept, and also demands all of his CHOAM holdings in return.", "By successfully escaping the oracular trap and setting the universe on a new path, Paul has been rendered completely blind, yet he is able to kill Scytale with an accurately aimed dagger due to a psychic vision from his son's perspective.", "Later that evening Bijaz approaches Paul and repeats Scytale's offer, but is killed by Duncan on Paul's order.", "Now prophetically and physically blind, Paul chooses to embrace the Fremen tradition of a blind man walking alone into the desert, winning the fealty of the Fremen for his children, who will inherit his empire.Paul leaves his sister Alia, now romantically involved with Duncan, as regent for the twins, whom he has named Leto and Ghanima.", "Alia orders the execution of Edric, Mohiam, and others involved in the plot against her brother, going against his wish that none of them should be hurt.", "Alia spares the Princess Irulan, who in grief for Paul has renounced her loyalty to the Bene Gesserit and vowed to dedicate her life as a teacher to Paul's children.", "Duncan notes the irony that Paul and Chani's deaths have enabled them to triumph against their enemies: the Spacing Guild and the Bene Tleilax have been discredited, Irulan's defection from the Bene Gesserit removes the sisterhood's last lever against the Atreides, and Paul has escaped deification by walking into the desert as a man, while guaranteeing Fremen support for the Atreides line." ], [ "Publication history", "Parts of ''Dune Messiah'' (and its sequel ''Children of Dune'') were written prior to the completion of ''Dune'' itself.", "The novel appeared initially as a five part serial in ''Galaxy Science Fiction'' magazine published from June (cover dated July) to October (cover dated November) 1969 with illustrations by Jack Gaughan.", "A Putnam hardback edition also appeared in October 1969.The American and British editions contain different prologues which summarized the events of ''Dune''.", "''Dune Messiah'' and ''Children of Dune'' were published in a single volume by the Science Fiction Book Club in 2002, and in 1979 by Gollancz with ''Dune'' and ''Children of Dune'' as ''The Great Dune Trilogy''." ], [ "Analysis", "Herbert likened the initial trilogy of novels (''Dune'', ''Dune Messiah'', and ''Children of Dune'') to a fugue, and while ''Dune'' was a heroic melody, ''Dune Messiah'' was its inversion.", "Paul rises to power in ''Dune'' by seizing control of the single critical resource in the universe, melange.", "His enemies are dead or overthrown, and he is set to take the reins of power and bring a hard but enlightened peace to the universe.", "Herbert chose in the books that followed to undermine Paul's triumph with a string of failures and philosophical paradoxes." ], [ "Critical reception", "''Galaxy Science Fiction'' called ''Dune Messiah'' \"Brilliant ...", "It was all that ''Dune'' was, and maybe a little more.\"", "Spider Robinson enjoyed the book \"even as he was driving a truck through the holes in its logic, because it had the same majestic rolling grandeur of the previous book.\"", "''Challenging Destiny'' called the novel \"The perfect companion piece to ''Dune'' ...", "Fascinating.\"" ], [ "Adaptations", "David Lynch had planned to adapt sequels to ''Dune'' during the film's production in 1983–1984, with a script tentatively-titled ''Dune II''.", "Based on ''Dune Messiah'', the film had some differences from the novel's story, much like the first film had.", "After the critical and commercial failure of ''Dune'', the sequel did not proceed.", "The partial script developed by Lynch with notes by Frank Herbert was discovered in summer 2023 at Herbert's Archives at California State University.", "''Dune Messiah'' and its sequel ''Children of Dune'' (1976) were collectively adapted by the Sci-Fi Channel in 2003 into a miniseries entitled ''Frank Herbert's Children of Dune''.", "The first installment of the three part, six-hour miniseries covers the bulk of the plot of ''Dune Messiah''.", "The second and third installments adapt ''Children of Dune''.Director Denis Villeneuve confirmed at the 2021 Venice Film Festival prior to the debut of his theatrical adaptation of ''Dune'' that a film based on ''Dune Messiah'' was planned, and it would serve as the third film in a trilogy.", "After ''Dune: Part Two'' (covering the second half of the first novel) was officially greenlit in October 2021, Villeneuve reiterated his hope to continue the series with a third film focusing on ''Dune Messiah''.", "Screenwriter Jon Spaihts confirmed in March 2022 that Villeneuve still plans on a third film, and TV series spin-offs to continue the ''Dune'' saga.", "Villeneuve began writing a script for a ''Dune Messiah'' film in 2023." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * ''Dune Messiah''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Duke Nukem 3D" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Duke Nukem 3D''''' is a first-person shooter video game developed by 3D Realms.", "It is a sequel to the platform games ''Duke Nukem'' and ''Duke Nukem II'', published by 3D Realms.", "''Duke Nukem 3D'' features the adventures of the titular Duke Nukem, voiced by Jon St. John, who fights against an alien invasion on Earth.", "Along with ''Wolfenstein 3D'', ''Doom'', ''Doom II'', and ''Marathon'', ''Duke Nukem 3D'' is considered to be one of the many titles responsible for popularizing first-person shooters, and was released to major acclaim.", "Reviewers praised the interactivity of the environments, gameplay, level design, and unique risqué humor, a mix of pop-culture satire and lampooning of over-the-top Hollywood action heroes.", "However, it also incited controversy due to its violence, erotic elements, and portrayal of women.The shareware version of the game was originally released on January 29, 1996 as version 1.0 (later, the shareware version got re-released as version 1.1 on February 20, 1996 and re-released once again as version 1.3D on April 24, 1996), while the full version of the game was released on April 19, 1996, as version 1.3D.", "The ''Plutonium PAK'', an expansion pack which updated the game to version 1.4 and added a fourth eleven-level episode, was released on October 21, 1996.The ''Atomic Edition'', a standalone version of the game that included the content from the ''Plutonium PAK'' and updated the game to version 1.5, was later released on December 11, 1996; it is only available digitally for PC on ZOOM-Platform.com and on console for the Xbox 360.An official fifth episode was released on October 11, 2016, with ''20th Anniversary World Tour'' published by Gearbox Software.", "A direct sequel titled ''Duke Nukem Forever'' was released in 2011, after fifteen years in development hell." ], [ "Gameplay", "''Duke Nukem 3D'' gameplay at the beginning of the first level (\"Hollywood Holocaust\")As a first-person shooter whose gameplay is similar to ''Doom'', the gameplay of ''Duke Nukem 3D'' involves moving through levels presented from the protagonist's point of view, shooting enemies on the way.", "The environments in ''Duke Nukem 3D'' are highly destructible and interactive; most props can be destroyed by the player.Levels were designed in a fairly non-linear manner such that players can advantageously use air ducts, back doors, and sewers to avoid enemies or find hidden caches.", "These locations are also filled with objects the player can interact with.", "Some confer gameplay benefits to the player; light switches make it easier to see, while water fountains and broken fire hydrants provide some health points.", "Others are simply there as a diversion.", "Tipping strippers provokes a quote from Duke, and a provocative reveal from the dancer.Duke's arsenal consists of the \"Mighty Foot\" (a basic kick attack), a pistol, a shotgun, a triple-barrelled chain gun, a rocket-propelled grenade launcher, pipe bombs, freeze and shrink rays, laser land mines, and the rapid-fire \"Devastator\" rocket launcher.", "There is also an extra weapon known as the \"Expander\", the opposite of the shrink-ray weapon, which is only available in the ''Atomic Edition'' version of the game.Various items can be picked up during gameplay.", "The portable medkit allows players to heal Duke at will.", "Steroids speed up Duke's movement, as well as instantly reversing the effects of the shrink-ray weapon and increasing the strength of Duke's Mighty Foot for a short period.", "Night vision goggles allow players to see enemies in the dark.", "The \"HoloDuke\" device projects a hologram of Duke, which can be used to distract enemies.", "Protective boots allow Duke to cross dangerously hot or toxic terrain.", "In sections where progress requires more aquatic legwork, an aqua-lung allows Duke to take longer trips underwater.", "Duke's jet pack allows the player to move vertically and gain access to otherwise inaccessible areas.The game features a wide variety of enemies; some of which are aliens and other mutated humans.", "The LAPD have been turned into \"Pig Cops\", a play on the derogatory term \"pig\" for police officers, with '''LARD''' emblazoned on their uniforms.", "As is usual for a first-person shooter, Duke Nukem encounters a large number of lesser foes, as well as bosses, usually at the end of episodes.", "Like Duke, these enemies have access to a wide range of weapons and equipment, and some weaker enemies have jet packs." ], [ "Plot", "=== Setting ===''Duke Nukem 3D'' is set on Earth \"sometime in the early 21st century\".", "The levels of ''Duke Nukem 3D'' take players outdoors and indoors through rendered street scenes, military bases, deserts, a flooded city, space stations, Moon bases, and a Japanese restaurant.The game contains several humorous references to pop culture.", "Some of Duke's lines are drawn from movies such as ''Aliens'', ''Dirty Harry'', ''Evil Dead II'', ''Full Metal Jacket'', ''Jaws'', ''Pulp Fiction'', and ''They Live''; the captured women saying \"Kill me\" is a reference to ''Aliens''.", "Players will encounter corpses of famous characters such as Luke Skywalker, Indiana Jones, Snake Plissken, the protagonist of ''Doom'', and a smashed T-800.In the first episode, players navigate a tunnel in the wall of a prison cell hidden behind a poster, just like in ''The Shawshank Redemption''.", "During the second episode, players can see a Monolith (from ''2001: A Space Odyssey'') on the Moon.=== Story ===There is little narrative in the game, only a brief text prelude located under \"Help\" in the Main Menu, and a few cutscenes after the completion of an episode.", "The game picks up right after the events of ''Duke Nukem II'', with Duke returning to Earth in his space cruiser.", "As Duke descends on Los Angeles in hopes of taking a vacation, his ship is shot down by unknown hostiles.", "While sending a distress signal, Duke learns that aliens are attacking Los Angeles and have mutated the LAPD.", "With his vacation plans now ruined, Duke hits the \"eject\" button, and vows to do whatever it takes to stop the alien invasion.In \"Episode One: ''L.A.", "Meltdown''\", Duke fights his way through a dystopian Los Angeles.", "At a strip club, he is captured by pig-cops, but escapes the alien-controlled penitentiary and tracks down the alien cruiser responsible for the invasion in the San Andreas Fault.", "Duke confronts and kills an Alien Battlelord in the final level.", "Duke discovers that the aliens were capturing women, and detonates the ship.", "Levels in this episode include a movie theater, a red-light district, a prison, and a nuclear-waste disposal facility.In \"Episode Two: ''Lunar Apocalypse''\", Duke journeys to space, where he finds many of the captured women held in various incubators throughout space stations that had been conquered by the aliens.", "Duke reaches the alien mother ship on the Moon and kills an alien Overlord.", "As Duke inspects the ship's computer, it is revealed that the plot to capture women was merely a ruse to distract him.", "The aliens have already begun their attack on Earth.In \"Episode Three: ''Shrapnel City''\", Duke battles the massive alien presence through Los Angeles once again, and kills the leader of the alien menace: the Cycloid Emperor.", "The game ends as Duke promises that after some \"R&R\", he will be \"...ready for more action!", "\", as an anonymous woman calls him back to bed.", "Levels in this episode include a sushi bar, a movie set, a subway, and a hotel.The story continues in the ''Atomic Edition''.", "In \"Episode Four: ''The Birth''\", it is revealed that the aliens used a captured woman to give birth to the Alien Queen, a creature which can quickly spawn deadly alien protector drones.", "Duke is dispatched back to Los Angeles to fight hordes of aliens, including the protector drones.", "Eventually, Duke finds the lair of the Alien Queen, and kills her, thus thwarting the alien plot.", "Levels in this episode include a fast-food restaurant (\"Duke Burger\"), a supermarket, a Disneyland parody called \"Babe Land\", a police station, the oil tanker ''Exxon Valdez'', and Area 51.With the release of ''20th Anniversary World Tour'', the story progresses further.", "In \"Episode Five: ''Alien World Order''\", Duke finds out that the aliens initiated a world-scale invasion, so he sets out to repel their attack on various countries.", "Duke proceeds to clear out aliens from Amsterdam, Moscow, London, San Francisco, Paris, the Giza pyramid complex, and Rome, with the final showdown with the returning alien threat taking place in Los Angeles, taking the game full circle.", "There, he defeats the Cycloid Incinerator, the current alien leader, stopping their threat for good." ], [ "Development", "''Duke Nukem 3D'' was developed on a budget of roughly $300,000.The development team consisted of 8 people for most of the development cycle, increasing to 12 or 13 people near the end.", "At one point, the game was being programmed to allow the player to switch between first-person view, third-person view, and fixed camera angles.", "Scott Miller of 3D Realms recalled that \"with ''Duke 3D'', unlike every shooter that came before, we wanted to have sort of real life locations like a cinema theatre, you know, strip club, bookstores...\"''LameDuke'' is a beta version of ''Duke Nukem 3D'', which was released by 3D Realms as a \"bonus\" one year after the release of the official version.", "It has been released as is, with no support.", "''LameDuke'' features four episodes: ''Mr.", "Caliber'', ''Mission Cockroach'', ''Suck Hole'', and ''Hard Landing''.", "Certain weapons were altered from the original versions and/or removed.Lee Jackson's theme song \"Grabbag\" has elicited many covers and remixes over the years by both fans and professional musicians, including an officially sanctioned studio version by thrash metal band Megadeth.", "Another version of the song was recorded by Chris Kline in August 2005.3D Realms featured it on the front page of their website and contracted with Kline to use it to promote their Xbox Live release of ''Duke Nukem 3D''.The original official website was created by Jeffrey D. Erb and Mark Farish of Intersphere Communications Ltd." ], [ "Release", "=== PC versions ===* '''''Shareware Version''''': The shareware version, released on January 29, 1996, contained only the first episode.", "This version uses 3D Realms's shareware distribution model, which means that it can be distributed for free.", "* '''''Full Version''''': 3D Realms started shipping the full registered version to customers on May 5, 1996.The company streamed the process of packing and shipping the first copies using a webcam.", "The full version contains the original three episodes, and includes the full versions of ''Duke Nukem'' and ''Duke Nukem II'' as bonus content.", "* '''''Plutonium PAK/Atomic Edition''''': The ''Atomic Edition'' of ''Duke Nukem 3D'' was released in November 1996 as a standalone game.", "It contained the original three episodes, as well as a new eleven-level fourth episode, bringing the level total to 41 as opposed to 30 in the original ''Duke Nukem 3D''.", "The ''Plutonium PAK'' was released as an upgrade package to convert the original release of ''Duke Nukem 3D'' (v1.3d) to the ''Atomic Edition'' (v1.4, later updated to v1.5 with the standalone ''Atomic Edition'' release and via a free download patch for the ''Plutonium PAK'' version on 3D Realms' website).", "It introduced two new enemies, the Protector Drone and the Pig Cop Tank, a new final boss, the Alien Queen, and a new weapon, the Expander.", "Changes to the script made the game easier to mod, and players could set up a multiplayer session against CPU bots.", "This is the only official add-on for the game developed by 3D Realms.", "Unlike the original release of ''Duke Nukem 3D'', however, the ''Atomic Edition'' does not include ''Duke Nukem'' and ''Duke Nukem II''.", "* '''''Macintosh Version''''': The Macintosh release was ported by Lion Entertainment Inc. and released on June 6, 1997, in Minneapolis, being shipped by MacSoft.", "* '''''East Meets West''''': Released in 1998, includes ''Duke Nukem 3D: Atomic Edition'' and the full version of ''Shadow Warrior''.", "* '''''Duke: The Apocalypse''''' contains ''Duke!ZONE II'', ''Duke Xtreme'', and a T-shirt.", "* '''''Duke: The Apocalypse 2''''' contains ''Duke!ZONE'', ''Duke It Out In D.C.'', a strategy guide, and a T-shirt.", "* '''''Kill-A-Ton Collection''''': The ''Kill-A-Ton Collection'' was released in 1998 and includes: ''Duke Nukem I'' (''Duke Nukum''), ''Duke Nukem II'', ''Duke Nukem 3D'' (both v1.3d and v1.5), ''Duke It Out In D.C.'', ''Duke!ZONE II'', ''Duke Xtreme'', and various editing utilities.", "* '''''GOG Version''''': The Atomic Edition was released on GOG.com along with Duke Nukem 1, 2 and Manhattan Project in 2009.The entire catalog was removed from the website on December 31, 2015, due to a licensing agreement with Gearbox Software.", "*''Duke Nukem 3D: Megaton Edition''.", "Note the higher-resolution HUD and OpenGL graphics.", "'''''Megaton Edition''''': Developed by General Arcade and published by Devolver Digital, it was released through Steam on March 20, 2013.The ''Megaton Edition'' includes ''Duke Nukem 3D: Atomic Edition'', ''Duke It Out In D.C.'', ''Duke Caribbean: Life's a Beach'', and ''Duke: Nuclear Winter'' all running on OpenGL, as well as the original MS-DOS version of ''Duke Nukem 3D: Atomic Edition''.", "It supports SteamPlay for Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux, and is based on the code of the ''JFDuke3D'' source port by Jonathon Fowler.", "Online multiplayer was added to the game in January 2014.However, about a year later, the Megaton Edition was removed from all digital distribution as Devolver Digital's agreement with Gearbox Software has ended now that the latter company currently owns the intellectual property.", "In 2016, Gearbox informed TechRaptor that they have plans to \"bring the game back this year,\" and that game became the 20th Anniversary World Tour.", "* '''''Kill-a-Ton 2015 Collection''''': Released in May 2015 on Steam, includes everything that Kill-a-Ton Collection contained (with exception of ''Duke Nukem 3D'' v1.3D and ''Duke Xtreme''), plus two other expansions, ''Duke Caribbean: Life's a Beach'', and ''Duke: Nuclear Winter'', as well as ''Duke Nukem: Manhattan Project'' and the ''Balls of Steel'' game.", "Like with the GOG.com release and Megaton Edition, it was removed from Steam at the end of 2015.", "* '''''20th Anniversary World Tour''''': Developed by Nerve Software and Gearbox Software and published by Gearbox Publishing.", "It was announced by Gearbox Software on September 2, 2016, at PAX East, and it's a re-release for the Xbox One, PlayStation 4, and PC via Steam.", "World Tour includes an all-new 5th episode by the original episode designers, new music by composer Lee Jackson, re-recorded voice lines by Jon St. John, new enemies and new lighting effects.", "However, it does not contain the expansions from ''Kill-A-Ton Collection'' and ''Megaton Edition''.", "World Tour was released on October 11, 2016.=== Expansion packs ===* '''''Nuke It''''': This is an expansion pack developed by Micro Star in 1996, consisting of 300 custom made levels.", "Although it was made with the Build Editor, Micro Star was charged by FormGen and 3D Realms of copyright infringement for unauthorized sales of the pack.", "Ultimately Micro Star lost their case.", "* '''''Duke It Out In D.C.''''': This is an authorized add-on developed by Sunstorm Interactive and published by WizardWorks; it was released in March 1997.President Bill Clinton is captured by alien forces, and Duke must save him.", "This expansion pack featured 10 new levels that were based on real-world locations, such as: the White House, the FBI headquarters, the Smithsonian museum, the Washington Monument, and other areas in Washington, D.C.", "The add-on was also included as part of an official compilation called ''Duke Nukem: Kill-A-Ton Collection'' through business deals with 3D Realms.", "Charlie Wiederhold created levels for this add-on.", "* '''''Duke Caribbean: Life's a Beach''''': This is an authorized add-on developed by Sunstorm Interactive and published by WizardWorks; it was released in January 1998.Duke is relaxing on a tropical island when he discovers that the aliens are having their own \"vacation\".", "This add-on includes a sunny Caribbean theme with 12 new levels that take place on beaches and vacation hotels.", "Charlie Wiederhold created several levels for this add-on.", "Wiederhold was later hired by 3D Realms to work on the sequel ''Duke Nukem Forever''.", "* '''''Duke: Nuclear Winter''''': This is an authorized add-on developed by Simply Silly Software and published by WizardWorks; it was released in January 1998.Santa Claus is being mind-controlled by aliens into causing trouble on Earth.", "Several of the levels take place in Alaska and the North Pole.", "* '''''Duke!ZONE''''': An authorized add-on released in 1996, published by WizardWorks, which includes 500 fan-made levels and various editing utilities.", "* '''''Duke!ZONE II''''': An authorized follow-up add-on to ''Duke!ZONE'', published by WizardWorks and released in 1997.", "''Duke!ZONE II'' contains three new episodes, each containing seven levels, created by Simply Silly Software and the same 500 fan-made levels from the original ''Duke!ZONE''.", "* '''''Duke Xtreme''''': An authorized add-on released in 1997 and developed by Sunstorm Interactive, containing 50 levels (25 for single player and 25 for multiplayer) and various editing utilities.", "* '''''Duke Assault''''': An add-on released in 1997 containing over 1,500 levels for ''Duke Nukem 3D''.", "It was published by WizardWorks and created by fans in the ''Duke Nukem 3D'' modding community.", "* '''''Duke Nukem's Penthouse Paradise''''': This is an official add-on for ''Duke Nukem 3D'', created by Jeffrey D. Erb and Mark Farish of Intersphere Communications Ltd. and available exclusively from GT Interactive and Penthouse Magazine in May 1997.Taking place between ''Duke Nukem 3D'' and the ''Atomic Edition'', aliens interrupt Duke's R&R and a couple of Penthouse photo shoots.", "Duke has to fight his way through a hotel, clubs, and, finally, the Penthouse offices.", "The level features music from the industrial rock band Needle.", "* '''''Duke - It's Zero Hour''''': An add-on developed by ZeroHour Software and released in November 1997.It was originally slated to be a retail product via WizardWorks, but the developers ended up releasing it for free.", "It has 11 new levels that feature 12 all-new monsters, five new weapons, music, and sound effects.=== Console versions and add-ons ===''Duke Nukem 3D'' was ported to many consoles of the time.", "All of the ports featured some sort of new content.", "* '''''Duke Nukem 3D''''' (Game.com) was released in 1997 in the USA only.", "Unlike every other version of the game, Duke Nukem cannot turn; he can only move forward, backward, and strafe to the left or right.", "Due to the Game.com's monochrome screen, it is also the only version to lack color.", "It only includes four levels from each of the original three episodes for a total of 12 levels.", "These levels were modified to accommodate Duke Nukem's inability to turn.", "* '''''Duke Nukem 3D''''' (Sega Saturn) was ported by Lobotomy Software and published by Sega in 1997.It retains the original name and uses Lobotomy Software's own fully 3D ''SlaveDriver'' engine.", "This version uses the Sega NetLink for online gaming, and has built-in support for the Saturn's analog pad.", "It also includes a hidden multiplayer mini-game called ''Death Tank Zwei'', and an exclusive bonus level called Urea 51, accessed through the level \"Fahrenheit\".", "It was the final game branded by Sega of America under the Deep Water label, employed for games featuring adult content such as ''Eternal Champions: Challenge from the Dark Side''.", "* '''''Duke Nukem: Total Meltdown''''' (titled simply ''Duke Nukem'' in Europe), the PlayStation port released on December 2, 1997, was developed by Aardvark Software.", "It contains all three original episodes, plus an exclusive fourth episode, ''Plug 'n' Pray'', which includes six new levels and a secret level.", "The secret level was also included in the PC version of ''Duke Nukem 3D''.", "The new episode features several new enemies, including three new types of Pig Cops, and a new final boss, the CyberKeef.", "This version also features remixed music, some rearranged from the PC version, and some original, in streaming XA-Audio made by Mark Knight.", "It includes support for analog pads and the PlayStation Link Cable.Nintendo 64 port.", "Note its level design changes and that some sprites were replaced with polygonal models.", "* '''''Duke Nukem 64''''' is a port released on November 14, 1997 for the Nintendo 64 and features a split screen 4-player mode.", "It was developed by Eurocom.", "In-game music was removed due to limited storage capacity, many items were renamed to avoid drug and sex references, and new lines of dialogue were recorded specifically for this version to remove profanity.", "Several levels were altered to include areas from the ''Atomic Edition'', such as a Duke Burger outlet in the second level which was not in the original PC version.", "Levels are played sequentially instead of as separate episodes.", "Other changes include the addition of Rumble Pak support, four new weapons, dual sub-machine guns, a grenade launcher, a missile launcher, and the Plasma Cannon, alternative ammo types for the pistol, shotgun, and missile launcher, and a fully 3D model for the Cycloid Emperor boss.", "The Protector Drone, an enemy from the ''Atomic Edition'', also appears a few times in the standard levels.", "Originally, the weapons and end bosses were going to be polygonal.Mega Drive/Genesis port* '''''Duke Nukem 3D''''' (Mega Drive/Genesis) was released in 1998 by Tec Toy.", "The visuals were drastically simplified, being closer to early shooters like ''Wolfenstein 3D''.", "It consisted solely of ''Lunar Apocalypse'', the second from the original game's three episodes, which was heavily modified to suit the game engine.", "This version was released in South America only.", "In 2015, Piko Interactive acquired the rights to the port from Tec Toy and released it worldwide in cartridge form on October 16, 2015.", "* '''''Duke Nukem 3D''''' (Xbox 360) was released on September 24, 2008.This version features: the ability to \"rewind\" the game to any prior point upon dying, save clips of gameplay, and play cooperatively online, as well as the standard \"Dukematch\" online multiplayer mode.", "The music received a slight quality upgrade with modern MIDI tools.", "* '''''Duke Nukem 3D''''' (iPhone/iPod Touch) was released on August 11, 2009, and ported by MachineWorks Northwest.", "The game employs a new engine, which uses a trademarked touch-screen system called TapShoot to allow players to lock onto and dispatch foes.", "An update in September 2009 made the game compatible with the first and second-generation iPod Touch.", "It also added a new control scheme which lets players control Duke by dragging their finger around the screen.", "* '''''Duke Nukem 3D''''' (Nokia N900) was released on December 29, 2009.As shown in a MaemoWorld's video, Duke is controlled using the Qwerty keypad and touchscreen.", "* '''''Duke Nukem 3D: Megaton Edition''''' (PlayStation 3, PlayStation Vita) was released on January 6, 2015, in North America, and January 7, 2015, in Europe.", "It is a port of the ''Megaton Edition'' released on Steam for Windows, Mac, and Linux.", "It was developed by General Arcade for the PC, ported to consoles by Abstraction Games, and published by Devolver Digital.", "It features cross-buy and Cross-Play between both platforms.", "As of February 2016, the game is no longer available for purchase in North America due to publishing rights returning to Gearbox Software.", "Previously purchased copies can still be downloaded and played.", "* '''''Duke Nukem 3D: 20th Anniversary World Tour''''' (PlayStation 4, Xbox One, Nintendo Switch): Released on October 11, 2016.Includes a new 5th episode, made by the original designers and new music by Lee Jackson, the original composer.", "The Nintendo Switch version released on June 23, 2020." ], [ "Sales", "''Duke Nukem 3D'' was a commercial hit, selling about 3.5 million copies.", "In the United States alone, it was the 12th best-selling computer game in the period from 1993 to 1999, with 950,000 units sold.", "NPD Techworld, a firm that tracked sales in the United States, reported 1.25 million units sold of ''Duke Nukem 3D'' by December 2002." ], [ "Source ports", "Following the release of the ''Doom'' source code in 1997, players wanted a similar source code release from 3D Realms.", "The last major game to make use of the ''Duke Nukem 3D'' source code was TNT Team's ''World War II GI'' in 1999.Its programmer, Matthew Saettler, obtained permission from 3D Realms to expand the gameplay enhancements done on ''WWII GI'' to ''Duke Nukem 3D''.", "''EDuke'' was a semi-official branch of ''Duke Nukem 3D'' that was released as a patch as ''Duke Nukem 3D'' v2.0 for ''Atomic Edition'' users on July 28, 2000.It included a demo mod made by several beta testers.", "It focused primarily on enhancing the CON scripting language in ways which allowed those modifying the game to do much more with the system than originally possible.", "Though a further version was planned, it never made it out of beta.", "It was eventually cancelled due to programmer time constraints.", "About a month after the release of the ''Duke Nukem 3D'' source code, ''Blood'' project manager Matt Saettler released the source code for both ''EDuke'' v2.0 and EDuke v2.1, the test version of which would have eventually become the next ''EDuke'' release, under the GPL.The source code to the ''Duke Nukem 3D'' v1.5 executable, which uses the Build engine, was released as free software under the GPL-2.0-or-later license on April 1, 2003.The game content remains under a proprietary license.", "The game was quickly ported by enthusiasts to modern operating systems.The first ''Duke Nukem 3D'' port was from icculus.org.", "It is a cross-platform project that allows the game to be played on AmigaOS, AmigaOS 4, AROS, BeOS, FreeBSD, Linux, Mac OS X, MorphOS, Solaris, and Windows rather than MS-DOS.", "The icculus.org codebase would later be used as the base for several other ports, including ''Duke3d_32''.Another popular early project was Jonathon Fowler's ''JFDuke3D'', which, in December 2003, received backing from the original author of Build, programmer Ken Silverman.", "Fowler, in cooperation with Silverman, released a new version of ''JFDuke3D'' using Polymost, an OpenGL-enhanced renderer for Build which allows hardware acceleration and 3D model support along with 32-bit color high resolution textures.", "Another project based on ''JFDuke3D'' called ''xDuke'', unrelated to the ''xDuke'' project based on ''Duke3d_w32'', runs on the Xbox.", "Silverman has since helped Fowler with a large portion of other engine work, including updating the network code, and helping to maintain various other aspects of the engine.", "Development appears to have stopped; as of January 2015, there have been no new versions since October 9, 2005.While a few short-lived DOS-based ''EDuke'' projects emerged, it was not until the release of ''EDuke32'', an extended version of ''Duke3D'' incorporating variants of both Fowler's Microsoft Windows ''JFDuke3D'' code, and Saettler's ''EDuke code'', by one of 3D Realms' forum moderators in late 2004, that ''EDuke's'' scripting extensions received community focus.", "Among the various enhancements, support for advanced shader model 3.0 based graphics was added to ''EDuke32'' during late 2008-early 2009.In June 2008, thanks to significant porting contributions from the DOSBox team, ''EDuke32'' became the only ''Duke Nukem 3D'' source port to compile and run natively on 64-bit Linux systems without the use of a 32-bit compatibility environment.On April 1, 2009, an OpenGL Shader Model 3.0 renderer was revealed to have been developed for ''EDuke32'', named ''Polymer'' to distinguish from Ken Silverman's ''Polymost''.", "It allows for much more modern effects such as dynamic lighting and normal mapping.", "Although Polymer is fully functional, it is technically incomplete and unoptimized, and is still in development.", "As of the fifth installment of the ''High Resolution Pack'', released in 2011, the Polymer renderer is mandatory.", "In 2011, another significant development of ''EDuke32'' was the introduction of true room over room (TROR), where sectors can be placed over other sectors, and can be seen at the same time.", "In practice, this allows for true three-dimensional level design that was previously impossible, although the base engine is still 2D.On December 18, 2012, ''Chocolate Duke3D'' port was released.", "Inspired by ''Chocolate Doom'', the primary goal was to refactor the code so developers would easily read and learn from it.In February 2013, a source code review article was published that described the internal working of the code." ], [ "Reception", "All versions of the game have earned a positive aggregate score on GameRankings and Metacritic.", "The original release on MS-DOS holds an aggregate score of 89% on GameRankings and a score of 89/100 on Metacritic.", "The version released on Nintendo 64 holds an aggregate score of 74% on GameRankings and a score of 73/100 on Metacritic.", "The version released on Xbox 360 holds an aggregate score of 81% on GameRankings while it holds a score of 80/100 on Metacritic.", "The iOS version holds an aggregate score of 64% on GameRankings.Daniel Jevons of ''Maximum'' gave it five out of five stars, calling it \"absolutely perfect in every respect.\"", "He particularly cited the game's speed and fluidity even on low-end PCs, imaginative weapons, varied and identifiable environments, true 3D level designs, and strong multiplayer mode.", "A ''Next Generation'' critic summarized: \"''Duke Nukem 3D'' has everything ''Doom'' doesn't, but it also doesn't leave out the stuff that made ''Doom'' a classic.\"", "He praised the imaginative weapons, long and complex single-player campaign, competitive multiplayer, built-in level editor, and parental lock.", "Reviewers paid a lot of attention to the sexual content within the game.", "Reception of this element varied: Tim Soete of ''GameSpot'' felt that it was \"morally questionable\", while the Game Revolution reviewer noted that it was \"done in a tongue-in-cheek manner,\" and he was \"not personally offended\".", "GamingOnLinux reviewer Hamish Paul Wilson commented in a later retrospective how the game's \"dark dystopian atmosphere filled with pornography and consumerist decadence\" in his view helped to ground \"the game's more outlandish and obscene moments in context\", concluding that \"in a world as perverse as this, someone like Duke becoming its hero seems almost inevitable.", "\"''Next Generation'' reviewed the Macintosh version of the game and stated that \"Though it took a year, the Mac port of ''Duke Nukem 3D'' is an impressive feat, both for the game's own features, and the quality of the port.", "\"The Saturn version also received generally positive reviews, with critics particularly praising the use of real-world settings for the levels and Duke's numerous one-liners.", "Reviewers were also generally impressed with how accurately it replicates the PC version.", "AllGame editor Colin Williamson highly praised the Sega Saturn port, referring to it as \"one of the best versions\" and that it was \"probably one of the best console ports ever released.\"", "''GamePro'' summarized that \"All the gore, vulgarity, go-go dancers, and ultra-intense 3D combat action that made Duke Nukem 3D excel on the PC are firmly intact in the Saturn version, making it one of the premier corridor shooters on the system.\"", "However, some complained at the limitations of this version's multiplayer.", "Dan Hsu of ''Electronic Gaming Monthly'' said it was unfortunate that it supports only two players instead of four, while ''Sega Saturn Magazine'' editor Rich Leadbetter complained at the multiplayer being only supported through the Sega NetLink and not the Saturn link cable, since the NetLink was not being released in Europe, effectively making the Saturn version single-player only to Europeans.The Nintendo 64 version was likewise positively received, with critics almost overwhelming praising the new weapons and polygonal explosions, though some said that the use of sprites for most enemies and objects makes the game look outdated.", "While commenting that the deathmatch gameplay is less impressive than that of ''GoldenEye 007'', critics also overwhelmingly applauded the port's multiplayer features.", "''Next Generation'' stated that \"The sound effects and music are solid, the levels are still interactive as heck, and it's never quite felt so good blasting enemies with a shotgun or blowing them to chunks with pipe bombs.\"", "''GamePro'' opined that the censoring of sexual content from the port stripped the game of all uniqueness, but the vast majority of critics held that the censorship, though unfortunate, was not extensive enough to eliminate or even reduce Duke's distinctive personality.", "Peer Schneider of ''IGN'' called it \"a better and much more intense shooter than ''Hexen'' and ''Doom 64'', and currently the best N64 game with a two-player co-op mode.", "If you don't already own the PC or Saturn version of Duke, do yourself a favor and get it.\"", "Crispin Boyer of ''Electronic Gaming Monthly'', while complaining that the large weapons obscure too much of the player's view in four-player mode, assessed that \"You're not gonna find a better console version of Duke.", "\"The PlayStation console port met with more mixed reviews.", "''GamePro'' and Tim Soete of ''GameSpot'' both found this conversion technically inferior, particularly the frame rate.", "Both also complained that the control configuration only provides three presets, with no option for custom configuration.", "Soete also found the game had become dated by the time this version was released, though he still recommended it for those who do not own a PC.", "''IGN''s Jay Boor gave it a more enthusiastic recommendation, saying it \"plays exactly like its PC predecessor\" and praising the PlayStation-exclusive levels and link cable support.", "''Duke Nukem 3D'' was a finalist for CNET Gamecenter's 1996 \"Best Action Game\" award, which ultimately went to ''Quake''.", "In 1996, ''Next Generation'' ranked it as the 35th top game of all time, called \"for many, the game ''Quake'' should have been.\"", "In 1996 ''Computer Gaming World'' named ''Duke Nukem 3D'' #37 overall among the best games of all time and #13 among the \"best ways to die in computer gaming\".", "It won a 1996 Spotlight Award for Best Action Game.", "In 1998, ''PC Gamer'' declared it the 29th-best computer game ever released, and the editors called it \"a gaming icon\" and \"an absolute blast\".", "''PC Gamer'' magazine's readers' voted it #13 on its all-time top games poll.", "The editors of ''PC Game'' ranked it as the 12th top game of all time in 2001 citing the game's humor and pop-culture references, and as the 15th best games of all time in 2005.", "''GamePro'' included it among the most important video games of all time.", "In 2009, IGN's Cam Shea ranked it as the ninth top 10 Xbox Live Arcade game, stating that it was as fun as it was in its initial release, and praised the ability to rewind to any point before the player died.=== Controversy ===''Duke Nukem 3D'' was attacked by some critics, who alleged that it promoted pornography and murder.", "In response to the criticism encountered, censored versions of the game were released in certain countries in order to avoid it being banned altogether.", "A similar censored version was carried at Wal-Mart retail stores in the United States.In Australia, the game was originally refused classification on release.", "3D Realms repackaged the game with the parental lock feature permanently enabled, although a patch available on the 3D Realms website allowed the user to revert the game back into its uncensored U.S. version.", "The OFLC then attempted to have the game pulled from the shelves, but it was discovered that the distributor had notified them of this fact and the rating could not be surrendered; six months later, the game was reclassified and released uncensored with an MA15+ rating.", "In Germany, the BPjM placed the game on their \"List B\" (\"List of Media Harmful to Young People\") of videos games, thus prohibiting its advertisement in the public.", "However, it was not fully confiscated, meaning that an adult could still request to see the game and buy it.", "In 1999, ''Duke Nukem 3D'' was banned in Brazil, along with ''Doom'' and several other first-person shooters after a rampage in and around a movie theater was supposedly inspired by the first level in the game.Despite such concerns from critics, legislators, and publishers, Scott Miller later recounted that 3D Realms saw very little negative feedback to the game's controversial elements from actual gamers or their parents.", "He pointed out that ''Duke Nukem 3D'' was appropriately rated \"M\" and had no real nudity, and speculated that that was enough to make it inoffensive to the general public." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* (archived)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Daoism–Taoism romanization issue" ], [ "Introduction", "The English words '''Daoism''' () and '''Taoism''' (, ) are alternative spellings for the same-named Chinese philosophy and religion.", "The root for Daoism or Taoism is the Chinese word 道 (\"path\" or \"way\"), which was transcribed ''tao'' or ''tau'' in the earliest systems for the romanization of Chinese and ''dao'' or ''dau'' in 20th century systems." ], [ "Phonology", "To explain why English ''Taoism'' is pronounced (), it is necessary to introduce some technical terminology from linguistics.", "A phoneme is the smallest unit of speech sounds that a particular language distinguishes, and unrelated languages can have disparate phonemic inventories.As a result, phonemic gaps can affect borrowed words.", "English has and consonants and Chinese has but not , thus, Chinese uses /l-/ to transcribe both /l-/ and /r-/ English loanwords; for example, ''léishè'' 雷射 \"laser\" and ''léidá'' 雷達 \"radar\".", "Conversely, Japanese has the /r-/ phoneme but not /l-/, with borrowings of ''rēza'' レーザ and ''rēdā'' レーダー.In phonetics, the consonant of Chinese ''tao'' or ''dào'' 道 is classified as an unaspirated denti-alveolar stop.", "Aspiration is articulation that involves an audible puff of breath; for example, the /t/ in English ''tore'' is aspirated with a burst of air while the /t/ in ''store'' is unaspirated.", "The IPA symbol for aspiration is a superscript \"h\", (e.g., ), and the optional diacritic for unaspiration is a superscript equals sign \"=\", (e.g., ).", "A stop consonant or oral occlusive is a consonant in which the speaker blocks the vocal tract so that all airflow ceases, and a denti-alveolar consonant is articulated with a flat tongue against the alveolar ridge and upper teeth.The present Chinese unaspirated denti-alveolar stop in pinyin ''dào'' 道 is commonly transcribed with the IPA symbol , although some linguists prefer using with the voiceless under-ring diacritic.", "The sinologist and phonologist Jerry Norman explains the reason for using instead of t for Pinyin ''d''.", "Chinese stops and affricates fall into two contrasting unaspirated and aspirated series.", "The unaspirated series (''b'', ''d'', ''g'', etc.)", "is lenis, and \"often gives the impression of being voiced to the untrained ear\", while the aspirated series (''p'', ''t'', ''k'', etc.)", "is strongly aspirated (1988:139).", "Standard Chinese phonology uses aspiration for the contrastive distribution of consonantal stops.", "For example, phonemically differentiating the unaspirated denti-alveolar stop // with the aspirated denti-alveolar stop //, as in unaspirated ''dào'' or // 道 \"way\" and aspirated ''tào'' or // 套 \"sheath; case; cover\".Instead of aspiration, English phonology primarily contrasts stop consonants by voicing, that is, the vocal cords vibrate in a voiced sound but not in a voiceless or unvoiced one.", "The voiced stops (, , and ) are in contrastive distribution with voiceless (, , and ) in English.", "Voiced stops are usually unaspirated and voiceless stops are sometimes aspirated.", "There are six voiceless plosives in Chinese: simple and aspirated p p', t t', k k', which would correspond to English voiceless and voiced p b, t d, k g. The six Chinese plosives are generally rendered by English p t k, for instance, simple t in moutan, and Tanka, and aspirated t' in fantan and twankay (Yuan 1981: 251).In English, aspiration is allophonic, meaning an alternative pronunciation for a single phoneme in a particular language.", "For example, as in ''pin'' and as in ''spin'' are allophones for the phoneme because they cannot distinguish words.", "English-speakers treat them as the same sound, but they are phonetically different; the first is aspirated and the second is unaspirated.Phonological rules can miss the point when it comes to loanwords, which are borrowings that move from a language with one set of well-formedness conditions to a language with a different set, with the result that adjustments have to be made to meet the new constraints (Yip 1993:262).", "Coming back to the Chinese unaspirated denti-alveolar stop in pinyin ''dào'' 道, this speech sound exists in English—but never as the stressed first syllable in a word.", "Unaspirated occurs instead in words such as \"s'''t'''op\" or \"pa'''t'''\" as a complementary /t/ allophone of the aspirated initial ''t'' in English, such as in \"'''t'''ap\".", "Owing to the linguistic difference between the Chinese aspirated /tʰ/ vs. unaspirated /t/ phonemic contrast and English voiced /d/ vs. unvoiced /t/ phonemic contrast, an English speaker who is unfamiliar with Chinese romanization will likely pronounce ''Dao'' with the voiced alveolar plosive and ''Tao'' with the voiceless alveolar plosive .", "Thus, the Chinese unaspirated phoneme in ''dào'' 道 /taʊ/ is nearer to the pronunciation of English voiced unaspirated in ''Dow'' /daʊ/ than the voiceless aspirated in ''Taos'' taʊs, but it is neither (Carr 1990: 60)." ], [ "Romanizations", "Scholars have been developing Chinese romanization systems for four centuries, and the unaspirated 道 \"road; way\" has many transcriptions.Jesuit missionaries in China recorded the earliest romanizations of /taʊ/ 道.", "The first bilingual Chinese dictionary in a Western language, Michele Ruggieri's and Matteo Ricci's Portuguese 1583–1588 ''Dicionário Português-Chinês'' or ''Pú-Hàn cídiǎn'' 葡漢辭典 (Yong and Peng 2008: 385), transcribed /taʊ/ as \"táo\" (Witek 2001: 190).", "The Latin 1615 ''De Christiana expeditione apud Sinas'', compiled by Matteo Ricci and Nicolas Trigault, romanized it as \"tau\" in the Chinese term \"Tausu\" (i.e., ''Daoshi'' 道士, \"Daoist priest\"), which Samuel Purchas's 1625 English translation gave as \"Tausa\" (XII: 461).During the 19th and 20th centuries, new and revised Chinese romanization schemes flourished.", "The Standard Chinese pronunciation of 道 is variously transcribed as Wade–Giles ''tao'' (or ''tao''4 marking 4th tone), Legge romanization ''tâo'', Latinxua Sin Wenz ''dau'', Gwoyeu Romatzyh ''daw'', Yale ''dàu'', and Hanyu Pinyin ''dào''.", "In addition to Latin alphabet romanizations, there are transliterations of Zhuyin fuhao ㄉㄠ and Cyrillic Pallidius System ''дао''.", "Romanization systems use one of two arbitrary ways to represent the Chinese phonemic opposition between aspirated and unaspirated consonants.", "Take for example, Chinese unaspirated 道 \"way\" and aspirated 桃 \"peach\".", "Some systems, like Wade–Giles ''tao'' 道 and ''t'ao'' 桃, introduce a special symbol for aspiration, in this case the Greek rough breathing diacritic (῾) indicating before a vowel; others, like Pinyin ''dao'' 道 and ''tao'' 桃, use \"d\" and \"t\".", "In English and other languages, \"d\" and \"t\" indicate a voiced and unvoiced distinction, which is not phonemic in Chinese (Carr 1990: 59).While many scholars prefer the more familiar spelling \"Taoism\", arguing that it is now an English word in its own right, the term \"Daoism\" is becoming increasingly popular.", "In one work, \"Daoism\" was preferred to \"Taoism\" principally for technical, phonological and conventional reasons, but also because it was thought the modern term \"Daoism\" helped highlight a departure from earlier Western interpretations of the philosophy (Girardot, Miller, and Liu 2001: xxxi).", "Miller later added that \"Daoism\" is his preferred usage as a distinction \"from what 'Taoism' represented in the 20th-century Western imagination\" (Miller 2008: xiii).", "One commentator, who goes beyond the spelling distinction between Orientalist \"Taoism\" and academic \"Daoism\", discriminates \"Taoism\" with its common voiced /ˈtaʊ.ɪzəm/ mispronunciation.", "Having explained that both \"Daoism\" and \"Taoism\" are pronounced \"with a 'd' sound\", i.e., /ˈdaʊ.ɪzəm/, Komjathy describes a new religious movement labeled \"American Taoism\" or \"Popular Western Taoism\" (a term coined by Herman 1998) in which \"Taoism\" is pronounced with a \"hard 't' sound\", /ˈtaʊ.ɪzəm/ (2014: 1, 206)." ], [ "Borrowings", "Within the lexical set of English words originating from Chinese, the loanword ''Tao/Dao'' is more typical than the loanblend ''Taoism/Daoism''.", "Most Sinitic borrowings in English are loanwords directly transliterated from Chinese (for example, ''Tao/Dao'' from ''dào'' 道 \"way, path; say\" or ''kowtow'' from ''kòutóu'' 叩頭 lit.", "\"knock head\"), some are calques or loan translations (''brainwashing'' from ''xǐnăo'' 洗腦, lit.", "\"brain wash\" or ''Red Guards'' from ''Hóngwèibīng'' 红卫兵), and a few are hybrid words or loanblends that combine a borrowing with a native element (''Taoism/Daoism'' from ''Tao/Dao'' \"the Way\" and -ism suffix or ''Peking duck'' from ''Běijīng kǎoyā'' 北京烤鴨 \"roast Beijing duck\").", "Besides English ''Taoism/Daoism'', other common ''-ism'' borrowings include ''Confucianism'', ''Mohism'', and ''Maoism''.", "While most Chinese loanwords have a \"foreign appearance\", monosyllabic ones such as li or tong are more likely to remain \"alien\" than loanblends with English elements such as Taoism or tangram that are more readily \"naturalized\" (Yuan 1981: 250).The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' (2nd ed.)", "records the progression of occurrences over the succeeding centuries: ''Tao'' 1736, ''Tau'' 1747, ''Taouism'' and ''Taouist'' 1838, ''Taoistic'' 1856, ''Tao-ism'' 1858, ''Taoism'' 1903, ''Daoism'' 1948, ''Dao'' and ''Daoist'' 1971.Linguists distinguish between hypercorrection, the erroneous use of a nonstandard word form due to a belief that it is more accurate than the corresponding standard form (for instance, the /fra:ns/ pronunciation for France /fræns/), and hyperforeignism, the misapplication of foreign loanword pronunciation patterns extended beyond their use in the original language (such as dropping the \"t\" in claret /ˈklærɪt/).", "''Taoism'' is neither a hypercorrection because it originated from a spelling misunderstanding rather than a phonemic modification, nor a hyperforeignism because it is not an attempt to sound more Chinese (Carr 1990: 68).The pronunciation of ''Taoism'' as instead of is not unique and typifies many Chinese borrowings in English (e.g., gung-ho, Cohen 1989) that are distorted owing to Chinese romanization systems.", "Wade–Giles ''I Ching'' and ''T'ai Chi Ch'üan'' (Pinyin ''Yìjīng'' and ''Tàijíquán'') are two common cases in which the Pinyin romanization more accurately represents Chinese pronunciation than Wade–Giles (Carr 1990: 67–68).", "''I Ching'' transcribes the Chinese /i t͡ɕiŋ/ 易經 Book of Changes, but some English speakers pronounce it /ˈaɪ tʃiːŋ/, reading Chinese ''I'' /i/ as the English pronoun ''I'' /aɪ/ and the aspirated alveolo-palatal ''Ch'' / t͡ɕʰ/ as the fortis postalveolar /tʃ/.", "The ''T'ai Chi Ch'üan'' martial art /tʰaɪ̯ t͡ɕi t͡ɕʰy̯ɛn/ 太极拳 is commonly misspelled ''Tai Chi Chuan'' (Pinyin ''Daijizhuan'') without umlaut or apostrophes (the Wikipedia article is titled Tai chi), and is similarly naturalized as English /ˌtaɪ ˌtʃi ˈtʃwɑn/." ], [ "Lexicography", "English dictionaries provide some insights into the ''Daoism''/''Taoism'' pronunciation issue.", "For over a century, British and American lexicographers glossed the pronunciation of ''Taoism'' as (), but gradually began changing it to () and added ''Daoism'' entries.One scholar analyzed ''Taoism'' pronunciation glosses in general-purpose English dictionaries, comparing twelve published in Great Britain (1933–1989) and eleven published in the United States (1948–1987).", "After standardizing the various dictionary respelling systems into the International Phonetic Alphabet, there are four types of ''Taoism'' glosses involving prescriptive linguistics and descriptive linguistics: () is prescriptively accurate, () describes a common distortion, and the alternate (, ) and (, ) glosses are more comprehensive (Carr 1990: 63–64).Nine of the twelve British-English dictionaries gloss the pronunciation of ''Taoism'' as (), and three give (, ).", "The eleven American-English references haves more varied glosses: (, ) six times, () twice, (, ) twice, and () once (''OAD'', 1979).", "The respective first accurate American and British lexicographic glosses for ''Taoism'' were \"''douizm; tou''-\" (''Webster's Second'', 1934) and \"Also '''Daoism''' and with pronunc.", "(dau•iz'm)\" (''OED supplement'', 1986).", "Within the present sample of English-language dictionaries, the American publications were faster to rectify the mistaken () pronunciation to () (Carr 1990: 64–65).Besides () and () pronunciation variations for the consonant ''T'' in ''Taoism'', the dictionaries also glosses the vocalic () diphthong as (//), (//), and the triphthong (//), which may be owing to the old ''Taouism'', ''Tauism'', and ''Tavism'' variant spellings (Carr 1990: 64).", "For instance, the 1989 ''OED2'' mixed gloss \"(ˈtɑːəʊɪz(ə)m, ˈdaʊɪz(ə)m)\" combines the (//) pronunciation from the 1933 ''OED1'' ''Taoism'' entry and the () from the 1986 ''OED supplement''." ], [ "References", "* Carr, Michael.", "1990.", "\"Whence the Pronunciation of ''Taoism''?\"", "''Dictionaries'' 12:55–74.", "* Cohen, Gerald.", "1989.", "\"''Gung Ho'' Revisited, Part 1\".", "''Comments on Etymology'' 29.3:1–42.", "*Girardot, N. J., James Miller and Liu Xiaogan, eds.", "2001.", "''Daoism and Ecology: Ways within a Cosmic Landscape''.", "Harvard University Press.", "* (Only snippet view on Google Books)*Herman, Jonathan R.", "1998.", "\"Review of Tao Te Ching: A Book About the Way and the Power of the Way\".", "''Journal of the American Academy of Religion'' 66.3: 686–89.", "*Komjathy, Louis.", "2014.", "''Daoism: A Guide for the Perplexed''.", "A&C Black.", "*Miller, James.", "2008.", "''Daoism: A Beginner's Guide''.", "Oneworld Publications.", "*Norman, Jerry.", "1988.''Chinese''.", "New York: Cambridge University Press.", "*Purchas, Samuel.", "1625.", "''A discourse of the Kingdome of China, taken out of Ricius and Trigautius, containing the countrey, people, government, religion, rites, sects, characters, studies, arts, acts; and a Map of China added, drawne out of one there made with Annotations for the understanding thereof'', found in '' Hakluytus posthumus, or Purchas His Pilgrimes''.", "*Witek, John W, ed.", "2001.", "''Dicionário Português-Chinês'', Michele Ruggiero and Matteo Ricci, S. Local, Biblioteca Nacional de Lisboa, IPOR, Ricci Institute, University of San Francisco.", "*Yip, Moira (1993), \"Cantonese Loanword Phonology and Optimality Theory\", ''Journal of East Asian Linguistics'' 2.3: 261–291.", "*Yong, Heming and Jing Peng, 2008.", "''Chinese Lexicography: A History from 1046 BC to AD 1911'', Oxford University Press.", "*Yuan Jia Hua (1981), \"English Words of Chinese Origin\", ''Journal of Chinese Linguistics'' 9.2: 244-286" ], [ "External links", "* Daoism or Taoism?, James Miller, Queen's University* Popular Western Taoism.", "Louis Komjathy, Center for Daoist Studies* Why we say \"Beizhing\" and not \"Beijing\", Victor H. Mair discusses \"Taoism\" mispronunciations, ''Language Log'', 2 May 2019" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Tao Te Ching" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''''Tao Te Ching''''' () is a Chinese classic text and foundational work of Taoism written , and traditionally credited to the sage Laozi, though the text's authorship, date of composition and date of compilation are debated.", "The oldest excavated portion dates back to the late 4th century BC, but modern scholarship dates other parts of the text as having been written—or at least compiled—later than the earliest portions of the ''Zhuangzi''.The ''Tao Te Ching'' is a foundational text in both philosophical and religious forms of Taoism, alongside ''Zhuangzi''.", "It has also had significant influence on other schools of philosophy and religion throughout Chinese history, including Legalism, Confucianism, and particularly Chinese Buddhism, whose interpretations largely used Taoist terminology upon its original introduction to the country.", "Many artists, including poets, painters, calligraphers, and gardeners, have used the ''Tao Te Ching'' as a source of inspiration.", "Its influence has spread widely within the globe's artistic and academic spheres.", "It is one of the most translated texts in world literature." ], [ "Title", "In English, the title is commonly rendered ''Tao Te Ching'' , following Wade–Giles romanisation, or ''Dao De Jing'' , following pinyin.", "It can be translated as ''The Classic of the Way and its Power'', ''The Book of the Tao and Its Virtue'', ''The Book of the Way and of Virtue'', ''The Tao and its Characteristics'', ''The Canon of Reason and Virtue'', ''The Classic Book of Integrity and the Way'', or ''A Treatise on the Principle and Its Action''.Ancient Chinese books were commonly referenced by the name of their real or supposed author, in this case the \"Old Master\", Laozi.", "As such, the ''Tao Te Ching'' is also sometimes referred to as the ''Laozi'', especially in Chinese sources.The title \"Daodejing\", with its status as a classic, was only first applied from the reign of Emperor Jing of Han (157–141 BC) onward.", "Other titles of the work include the honorific \"Sutra (or \"Perfect Scripture\") of the Way and Its Power\" (''Daode Zhenjing'') and the descriptive \"5,000-Character Classic\" (''Wuqian Wen'')." ], [ "Text", "''Tao Te Ching'' has a long and complex textual history.", "Known versions and commentaries date back two millennia, including ancient bamboo, silk, and paper manuscripts discovered in the twentieth century.=== Internal structure ===The ''Tao Te Ching'' is a text of around 5,000 Chinese characters in 81 brief chapters or sections ().", "There is some evidence that the chapter divisions were later additions—for commentary, or as aids to rote memorisation—and that the original text was more fluidly organised.", "It has two parts, the ''Tao Ching'' (; chapters 1–37) and the ''Te Ching'' (; chapters 38–81), which may have been edited together into the received text, possibly reversed from an original ''Te Tao Ching''.", "The written style is laconic, has few grammatical particles, and encourages varied, contradictory interpretations.", "The ideas are singular; the style is poetic.", "The rhetorical style combines two major strategies: short, declarative statements and intentional contradictions.", "The first of these strategies creates memorable phrases, while the second forces the reader to reconcile supposed contradictions.The Chinese characters in the original versions were probably written in seal script, while later versions were written in clerical script and regular script styles.Victor H. Mair thought that Taoists in the early history of the faith had positive \"cultural relations\" with Hindu groups and that the ''Tao Te Ching'' was written in reaction to Indian philosophy and that the author(s) viewed Brahman as being the same as Tao.=== Historicity of the purported author ===The ''Tao Te Ching'' is ascribed to Laozi, whose historical existence has been a matter of scholarly debate.", "His name, which means \"Old Master\", has only fuelled controversy on this issue.Laozi riding a water buffaloThe first biographical reference to Laozi is in the ''Records of the Grand Historian'', by Chinese historian Sima Qian (), which combines three stories.", "In the first, Laozi was a contemporary of Confucius (551–479 BC).", "His surname was Li (), and his personal name was Er () or Dan ().", "He was an official in the imperial archives, and wrote a book in two parts before departing to the West; at the request of the keeper of the Han-ku Pass, Yinxi, Laozi composed the ''Tao Te Ching''.", "In the second story, Laozi, also a contemporary of Confucius, was Lao Laizi (), who wrote a book in 15 parts.", "Third, Laozi was the grand historian and astrologer Lao Dan (), who lived during the reign of Duke Xian of Qin (, 384–362 BC).Three-quarters of the ''Tao Te Ching'' rhymes, \"according to...reconstructed phonetic values of Ancient Chinese.", "\"Generations of scholars have debated the historicity of Laozi and the dating of the ''Tao Te Ching''.", "Linguistic studies of the text's vocabulary and rhyme scheme point to a date of composition after the ''Shijing'' yet before the ''Zhuangzi''.", "Legends claim variously that Laozi was \"born old\" and that he lived for 996 years, with twelve previous incarnations starting around the time of the Three Sovereigns before the thirteenth as Laozi.", "Some scholars have expressed doubts over Laozi's historical existence.Many Taoists venerate Laozi as ''Daotsu'', the founder of the school of Dao, the ''Daode Tianzun'' in the Three Pure Ones, and one of the eight elders transformed from Taiji in the Chinese creation myth.The predominant view among scholars today is that the text is a compilation or anthology representing multiple authors.", "The current text might have been compiled , drawn from a wide range of texts dating back a century or two.=== Principal versions ===Among the many transmitted editions of the ''Tao Te Ching'' text, the three primary ones are named after early commentaries.", "The \"Yan Zun Version\", which is only extant for the ''Te Ching'', derives from a commentary attributed to Han dynasty scholar Yan Zun (, fl.", "80 BC – 10 AD).", "The \"Heshang Gong Version\" is named after the legendary Heshang Gong ( 'Riverside Sage') who supposedly lived during the reign (180–157 BC) of Emperor Wen of Han.", "This commentary has a preface written by Ge Xuan (, 164–244 AD), granduncle of Ge Hong, and scholarship dates this version to around the 3rd century AD.", "The \"Wang Bi Version\" has more verifiable origins than either of the above.", "Wang Bi (, 226–249 AD) was a Three Kingdoms period philosopher and commentator on the ''Tao Te Ching'' and the ''I Ching''.", "''Tao Te Ching'' scholarship has advanced from archaeological discoveries of manuscripts, some of which are older than any of the received texts.", "Beginning in the 1920s and 1930s, Marc Aurel Stein and others found thousands of scrolls in the Mogao Caves near Dunhuang.", "They included more than 50 partial and complete manuscripts.", "One written by the scribe So/Su Dan () is dated 270 AD and corresponds closely with the Heshang Gong version.", "Another partial manuscript has the Xiang'er () commentary, which had previously been lost.=== Mawangdui and Guodian texts ===In 1973, archaeologists discovered copies of early Chinese books, known as the Mawangdui Silk Texts, in a tomb dating from 168 BC.", "They included two nearly complete copies of the text, referred to as Text A () and Text B (), both of which reverse the traditional ordering and put the ''Te Ching'' section before the ''Tao Ching'', which is why the Henricks translation of them is named \"Te-Tao Ching\".", "Based on calligraphic styles and imperial naming taboo avoidances, scholars believe that Text A can be dated to about the first decade and Text B to about the third decade of the 2nd century BC.In 1993, the oldest known version of the text, written on bamboo slips, was found in a tomb near the town of Guodian () in Jingmen, Hubei, and dated prior to 300 BC.", "The Guodian Chu Slips comprise about 800 slips of bamboo with a total of over 13,000 characters, about 2,000 of which correspond with the ''Tao Te Ching.", "''Both the Mawangdui and Guodian versions are generally consistent with the received texts, excepting differences in chapter sequence and graphic variants.", "Several recent ''Tao Te Ching'' translations utilise these two versions, sometimes with the verses reordered to synthesize the new finds.=== Themes ===" ], [ "Versions and translations", "The ''Tao Te Ching'' has been translated into Western languages over 250 times, mostly to English, German, and French.", "According to Holmes Welch, \"It is a famous puzzle which everyone would like to feel he had solved.\"", "The first English translation of the ''Tao Te Ching'' was produced in 1868 by the Scottish Protestant missionary John Chalmers, entitled ''The Speculations on Metaphysics, Polity, and Morality of the \"Old Philosopher\" Lau-tsze''.", "It was heavily indebted to Julien's French translation and dedicated to James Legge, who later produced his own translation for Oxford's ''Sacred Books of the East''.Other notable English translations of the ''Tao Te Ching'' are those produced by Chinese scholars and teachers: a 1948 translation by linguist Lin Yutang, a 1961 translation by author John Ching Hsiung Wu, a 1963 translation by sinologist Din Cheuk Lau, another 1963 translation by professor Wing-tsit Chan, and a 1972 translation by Taoist teacher Gia-Fu Feng together with his wife Jane English.Many translations are written by people with a foundation in Chinese language and philosophy who are trying to render the original meaning of the text as faithfully as possible into English.", "Some of the more popular translations are written from a less scholarly perspective, giving an individual author's interpretation.", "Critics of these versions claim that their translators deviate from the text and are incompatible with the history of Chinese thought.", "Russell Kirkland goes further to argue that these versions are based on Western Orientalist fantasies and represent the colonial appropriation of Chinese culture.", "Other Taoism scholars, such as Michael LaFargue and Jonathan Herman, argue that while they do not pretend to scholarship, they meet a real spiritual need in the West.", "These Westernized versions aim to make the wisdom of the Tao Te Ching more accessible to modern English-speaking readers by, typically, employing more familiar cultural and temporal references.=== Translational difficulties ===The ''Tao Te Ching'' is written in Classical Chinese, which poses a number of challenges to complete comprehension.", "As Holmes Welch notes, the written language \"has no active or passive, no singular or plural, no case, no person, no tense, no mood.\"", "Moreover, the received text lacks many grammatical particles which are preserved in the older Mawangdui and Beida texts, which permit the text to be more precise.", "Lastly, many passages of the ''Tao Te Ching'' are deliberately vague and ambiguous.Since there are no punctuation marks in Classical Chinese, it can be difficult to conclusively determine where one sentence ends and the next begins.", "Moving a full-stop a few words forward or back or inserting a comma can profoundly alter the meaning of many passages, and such divisions and meanings must be determined by the translator.", "Some editors and translators argue that the received text is so corrupted (from originally being written on one-line bamboo strips linked with silk threads) that it is impossible to understand some chapters without moving sequences of characters from one place to another." ], [ "Notable translations", "* * * .", "* * .", "* * * * * * Houang, François and Leyris, Pierre (1979), ''La Voie et sa vertu: Tao-tê-king'' (in French), Paris: Éditions du Seuil* .", "* * * .", "* .", "* Addiss, Stephen and Lombardo, Stanley (1991) ''Tao Te Ching,'' Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company.", "* .", "* Chad Hansen, ''Laozi: Tao Te Ching on The Art of Harmony,'' Duncan Baird Publications 2009* Red Pine, (2009) Lao-tzu's Taoteching, Copper Canyon Press, .", "* David Hinton, ''Tao Te Ching'', Counterpoint, 2015* Sinedino, Giorgio (2015), ''Dao De Jing'' (in Portuguese), São Paulo: Editora Unesp* John Minford (2018), ''Tao Te Ching: The Essential Translation of the Ancient Chinese Book of the Tao'', New York: Viking Press, ." ], [ "See also", "* Daozang* Daoism* Bogar* Ecclesiastes* Huahujing* Huainanzi* Huangdi Yinfujing* Liezi* Qingjing Jing* Sanhuangjing* Straw dog* Taiping Jing* Xishengjing* ''Zhuangzi''* Wenzi* Four Books and Five Classics" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* * .", "* .", "* * * * * Kaltenmark, Max.", "''Lao Tzu and Taoism''.", "Translated by Roger Greaves.", "Stanford: Stanford University Press.", "1969.", "* ** * .", "* ** * * .", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* * Daodejing Wang Bi edition with English translation, Guodian text, and Mawangdui text – Chinese Text Project* * Legge, Suzuki, and Goddard's translations side-by-side, along with the original text" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Detroit Lions" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Detroit Lions''' are a professional American football team based in Detroit.", "The Lions compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member of the National Football Conference (NFC) North Division.", "The team plays their home games at Ford Field in Downtown Detroit.The franchise was founded in Portsmouth, Ohio as the Portsmouth Spartans and joined the NFL on July 12, 1930.Amid financial struggles, the franchise was relocated to Detroit in 1934 and renamed the Lions in reference to the city's Major League Baseball (MLB) franchise, the Detroit Tigers.The Lions won four NFL Championship Games between 1935 and 1957.Following the 1957 championship, the franchise did not win a playoff game until the 1991 season and did not win another until the 2023 season.", "They are the only franchise operational for the entirety of the Super Bowl era to not appear in the Super Bowl." ], [ "Franchise history" ], [ "Logos and uniforms", "Aside from a brief change to scarlet and black from 1948 to 1950 instituted by then head coach Bo McMillin, which was influenced by his years as coach at Indiana, the Lions' uniforms have basically remained the same since they moved to Detroit in 1934–silver helmets, silver pants, and either blue or white jerseys.Billy Sims (No.", "20) rushing the ball against the Los Angeles Rams on September 7, 1980Glenn Presnell, the then last surviving member of the 1934 Lions, recalled that after the Portsmouth Spartans relocated to Detroit, team owner George A. Richards asked him and his wife to pick the Lions' colors from combinations that included red and white, orange and black, and blue and silver.", "The Presnells liked blue and silver the best, so Richards selected it.", "The blue used by the Lions is officially known as \"Honolulu blue\", which is inspired by the color of the waves off the coast of Hawaii.There have been minor changes to the uniform design throughout the years, such as changing the silver stripe patterns on the jersey sleeves, and changing the colors of the jersey numbers.", "\"TV numbers\", which are auxiliary uniform numbers to help TV broadcasters identify players from the line of scrimmage, were added to the jersey sleeves in 1956.White trim was added to the logo in 1970, with outlines (white on the blue jersey, silver on the white jersey) added to the numbers in 1972; the color arrangement on the numbers on the blue jerseys was reversed in 1982.The silver facemasks became blue in 1984.In 1998, the team wore blue pants with their white jerseys along with grey socks but dropped that combination after the season.", "In 1999, the \"TV numbers\" on the sleeves were moved to the shoulders.In 1994, every NFL team wore throwback jerseys, and the Lions' were similar to the jerseys wore during their 1935 championship season.", "The helmets and pants were solid silver, the jerseys Honolulu blue with silver numbers and the jersey did not have \"TV numbers\" on the sleeves.", "The team wore solid blue socks and black cleats.", "The helmets also did not have logos, as helmets were simple leather back then.", "The Lions also wore 1950s-style jerseys during their traditional Thanksgiving Day games from 2001 to 2004 as the NFL encouraged teams to wear throwback jerseys on Thanksgiving Day.In 2003, the team added black trim to their logo and jerseys.", "The facemasks on the helmet changed from blue to black with the introduction of the new color.", "In 2005, the team introduced an alternate, black, jersey.For 2008, the team dropped the black jersey in favor of a throwback uniform to commemorate the franchise's 75th anniversary.", "The throwback uniform became the team's permanent alternate jersey in 2009, replacing the former black alternate.", "The Lions officially unveiled a new logo and uniforms on April 20, 2009.The logo was given a flowing mane and fangs, while the typeface featured a modern font.On February 1, 2017, the Lions announced a new typeface, logo, and the complete removal of the color black from the team identity.", "While the previous logo was retained, the border was changed from black to silver.", "The Lions then unveiled the new uniforms on April 13, 2017, which include the white jersey and blue pants combo for the first time since 1998.They introduced an alternate all-grey uniform, an alternate all-Honolulu blue uniform, and a helmet with a silver face mask.", "The Lions also added the initials \"WCF\" to the left sleeve as a permanent tribute to William Clay Ford, who owned the team from 1963 until his death in 2014.The sleeve addition replaces the black \"WCF\" patch on the left breast that was added after Ford's death.On September 20, 2021, the Lions wore white pants with their road white uniforms against the Green Bay Packers.", "The white pants, which lacked striping, were previously worn during the \"scarlet and black\" era in the 1948 and 1949 seasons.On April 12, 2023, the Lions announced they would celebrate their 90th season in franchise history during the 2023 season with a commemorative logo and jersey patch.", "The inspiration for the patch is an homage to their logo from 1961 to 1969, which is also honored in the WCF memorial logo and the 60th commemorative season logo.", "On June 21, 2023, the Lions unveiled an alternate blue helmet.", "The helmet, which features the 1960s logo, was paired with the grey uniform.", "This was the first time the Lions wore a blue helmet since 1955." ], [ "Thanksgiving Day tradition", "The Lions, seen here during the 2007 Thanksgiving game against their division rival Green Bay Packers, have played on Thanksgiving since 1934 with the exception of the years during World War II.In 1934, then team owner George A. Richards, who also was the owner of a major radio affiliate of the NBC Blue Network, WJR in Detroit, the forerunner to today's ABC, negotiated an agreement with NBC to carry his Thanksgiving game live across all of the network's stations.", "Excluding the years of 1939–1944, due to World War II, the Lions have played on Thanksgiving ever since." ], [ "Players of note", "===Current roster===Calvin JohnsonBobby LayneBarry SandersCharlie SandersJoe SchmidtDoak Walker===Retired numbers==='''Detroit Lions retired numbers'''No.PlayerPositionTenureRetired '''7''' Dutch Clark QB 1931–19321934–1938 October 15, 1939 '''20''' Lem Barney CB 1967–1977 November 25, 2004 Billy Sims RB 1980–1984 Barry Sanders RB 1989–1998 '''22''' Bobby Layne QB, K 1950–1958 '''37''' Doak Walker HB, K, P 1950–1955 December 11, 1955 '''56''' Joe Schmidt 1 LB 1953–1965 '''85''' Chuck Hughes 2 WR 1970–1971 '''Notes:'''* 1 The No.", "56 was temporarily unretired with Schmidt's blessing when the Lions acquired linebacker Pat Swilling from the New Orleans Saints.", "No player has worn it since Swilling left.", "* 2 Posthumous.", "Hughes died of a heart attack during a game on October 24, 1971, and his No.", "85 was withdrawn from circulation.", "Over the years, however, the number would return to circulation.", "'''Special cases'''* The Lions retired No.", "93 for the 2009 season after Corey Smith disappeared, presumed dead, when a boat he was fishing in with friends capsized off the Florida coast.", "The Lions also wore 93 decals on their helmets that season.", "The number was assigned to Kyle Vanden Bosch in 2010.===Pro Football Hall of Fame members===Detroit Lions Hall of Fame membersPlayers No.", "Name Position(s) SeasonsInducted No.", "Name Positions Seasons Inducted 20 '''Lem Barney''' CB 1967–1977 1992 28 '''Yale Lary''' S, P 1952–1953 1956–1964 1979 19, 24 '''Jack Christiansen''' S 1951–1958 1970 22 '''Bobby Layne''' QB 1950–1958 1967 19, 12, 7 '''Dutch Clark''' B 1931–1932 1934–1938 1963 24, 44 '''Dick LeBeau''' CB 1959–1972 2010 Head coach 1937–1938 76 '''Lou Creekmur''' OT 1950–1959 1996 30 Ollie Matson RB 1963 1972 77 Curley Culp DT 1980–1981 2013 39 Hugh McElhenny HB 1964 1970 35, 44 Bill Dudley HB 1947–1949 1966 20 '''Barry Sanders''' RB 1989–1998 2004 93 Dwight Freeney DE 2017 2024 88 '''Charlie Sanders''' TE 1968–1977 2007 52 Frank Gatski C 1957 1985 56 '''Joe Schmidt''' LB Head coach 1953–19651967–1972 1973 81 '''Calvin Johnson''' WR 2007–2015 2021 63 '''Dick Stanfel''' G 1952–1955 2016 35 John Henry Johnson FB 1957–1959 1987 37 '''Doak Walker''' HB, K 1950–1955 1986 71 '''Alex Karras''' DT 1958–1962 1964–1970 2020 30, 50 '''Alex Wojciechowicz''' C, LB 1938–1946 1968 81 '''Night Train Lane''' CB 1960–1965 1974 ===Pride of the Lions===In 2009, the Pride of the Lions was established.", "The Pride of the Lions is the ring of honor for the franchise's greatest players.Elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame'''Pride of the Lions'''No.PlayerPositionTenureInducted '''20''' Lem Barney CB 1967–1977 2009 '''75''' Lomas Brown OT 1985–1995 2023 '''76''' Roger Brown DT 1960–1966 2018 '''24''' Jack Christiansen DB 1951–1958 2009 '''7, 12, 19''' Dutch Clark QB 1931–1932 1934–1938 2009 '''76''' Lou Creekmur G/T 1950–1959 2009 '''4''' Jason Hanson K 1992–2012 2013 '''71''' Alex Karras DT 1958–1962 1964–1970 2018 '''81''' Dick \"Night Train\" Lane CB 1960–1965 2009 '''28''' Yale Lary DB, P 1952–19531956–1964 2009 '''22''' Bobby Layne QB 1950–1958 2009 '''24, 44''' Dick LeBeau DB 1959–1972 2010 '''84''' Herman Moore WR 1991–2001 2018 '''20''' Barry Sanders RB 1989–1998 2009 '''88''' Charlie Sanders TE 1968–1977 2009 '''56''' Joe Schmidt LB 1953–1965 2009 '''54''' Chris Spielman LB 1988–1995 2021 '''63''' Dick Stanfel OG 1952–1955 2016 '''37''' Doak Walker HB 1950–1955 2009 '''30, 50''' Alex Wojciechowicz C, LB 1938–1946 2009===75th Season All-Time Team===On November 9, 2008, the Lions honored the 75th Season All-Time Team during halftime against the Jacksonville Jaguars.", "The team was chosen via an online fan poll and selection committee.", "'''Bold''' indicates those elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame.", "'''75th Season All-Time Team'''No.PlayerPositionTenure '''6''' Jim Arnold P 1986–1993 '''60''' Al Baker DE 1978–1982 '''20''' '''Lem Barney''' CB 1967–1977 '''36''' Bennie Blades DB 1988–1996 '''75''' Lomas Brown T 1985–1995 '''76''' Roger Brown DT 1960–1966 '''19, 24''' '''Jack Christiansen''' DB 1951–1958 '''7, 12, 19''' '''Dutch Clark''' QB 1931–1932 1934–1938 '''89''' Gail Cogdill WR 1960–1968 '''76''' '''Lou Creekmur''' G/T 1950–1959 '''25''' Jim David DB 1952–1959 '''44''' Don Doll DB 1949–1952 '''78''' Doug English DT 1975–1985 '''54''' Ed Flanagan C 1965–1974 '''53''' Kevin Glover C 1985–1997 '''75''' John Gordy OG 1957–1967 '''23''' Mel Gray KR/PR 1989–1994 '''4''' Jason Hanson 1 K 1992–2012 '''71''' '''Alex Karras''' DT 1958–1962 1964–1970 '''81''' '''Dick \"Night Train\" Lane''' CB 1960–1965 '''28''' '''Yale Lary''' DB, P 1952–19531956–1964 '''22''' '''Bobby Layne''' QB 1950–1958 '''24, 44''' '''Dick LeBeau''' DB 1959–1972 '''84''' Herman Moore WR 1991–2001 '''3''' Eddie Murray K 1980–1991 '''91''' Robert Porcher DE 1992–2003 '''20''' '''Barry Sanders''' RB 1989–1998 '''88''' '''Charlie Sanders''' TE 1968–1977 '''30''' Cory Schlesinger FB 1995–2006 '''56''' '''Joe Schmidt''' LB 1953–1965 '''66''' Harley Sewell OG 1953–1962 '''20''' Billy Sims RB 1980–1984 '''54''' Chris Spielman LB 1988–1995 '''37''' '''Doak Walker''' HB 1950–1955 '''55''' Wayne Walker LB 1958–1972 '''30, 50''' '''Alex Wojciechowicz''' C, LB 1938–1946'''Note:'''* 1 Hanson was active at the time of the selection.===Lions All-Time Team===On September 29, 2019, the Lions honored their All-Time Team in celebration of the NFL's centennial during halftime against the Kansas City Chiefs.", "The team was chosen via fan voting, contributions from the Detroit Lions Legends Community, team executives, and select members of the media.", "'''Bold''' indicates those elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame.", "'''Lions All-Time Team'''No.PlayerPositionTenure '''60''' Al Baker DE 1978–1982 '''20''' '''Lem Barney''' CB 1967–1977 '''36''' Bennie Blades DB 1988–1996 '''75''' Lomas Brown T 1985–1995 '''76''' Roger Brown DT 1960–1966 '''19, 24''' '''Jack Christiansen''' DB 1951–1958 '''7, 12, 19''' '''Dutch Clark''' QB 1931–1932 1934–1938 '''89''' Gail Cogdill WR 1960–1968 '''76''' '''Lou Creekmur''' G/T 1950–1959 '''25''' Jim David DB 1952–1959 '''44''' Don Doll DB 1949–1952 '''7, 20, 56''' Ox Emerson G, C, LB 1931–1937 '''78''' Doug English DT 1975–1985 '''54''' Ed Flanagan C 1965–1974 '''53''' Kevin Glover C 1985–1997 '''23''' Mel Gray KR/PR 1989–1994 '''4''' Jason Hanson K 1992–2012 '''81''' '''Calvin Johnson''' WR 2007–2015 '''71''' '''Alex Karras''' DT 1958–1962 1964–1970 '''81''' '''Dick \"Night Train\" Lane''' CB 1960–1965 '''28''' '''Yale Lary''' DB, P 1952–19531956–1964 '''22''' '''Bobby Layne''' QB 1950–1958 '''24, 44''' '''Dick LeBeau''' DB 1959–1972 '''53''' Mike Lucci LB 1965–1973 '''84''' Herman Moore WR 1991–2001 '''48''' Don Muhlbach 1 LS 2004–2020 '''33''' Nick Pietrosante FB 1959–1965 '''91''' Robert Porcher DE 1992–2003 '''20''' '''Barry Sanders''' RB 1989–1998 '''88''' '''Charlie Sanders''' TE 1968–1977 '''30''' Cory Schlesinger FB 1995–2006 '''56''' '''Joe Schmidt''' LB 1953–1965 '''66''' Harley Sewell OG 1953–1962 '''20''' Billy Sims RB 1980–1984 '''54''' Chris Spielman LB 1988–1995 '''9''' Matthew Stafford 1 QB 2009–2020 '''63''' '''Dick Stanfel''' OG 1952–1955 '''37''' '''Doak Walker''' HB 1950–1955 '''30, 50''' '''Alex Wojciechowicz''' C, LB 1938–1946'''Note:'''* 1 Stafford and Muhlbach were active at the time of the selection.===Michigan Sports Hall of Fame===" ], [ "Staff", "===Current staff======Head coaches===Dan Campbell is the current head coach of the Detroit Lions.The Lions have had 30 head coaches throughout their franchise history.", "Their first head coach was Hal Griffen, who compiled a 5–6–3 (.464) overall record with the team of 1930.Wayne Fontes was the longest-tenured head coach in Lions history, serving from 1988 to 1996.The current head coach of the Lions is Dan Campbell, who was hired on January 20, 2021.===Offensive coordinators===Name Tenure No Offensive Coordinator between 1934–1966 Bill McPeak 1967–1972 No Offensive Coordinator between1973–1975 Ken Shipp 1976 Ed Hughes 1977 Bob Schnelker 1978–1981 Ted Marchibroda 1982–1983 Bill Nelsen 1984 Bob Baker 1985–1988 Dave Levy 1991 Dan Henning 1992–1993 Dave Levy 1994 Tom Moore 1994–1996 Sylvester Croom 1997–2000 Gary Moeller 2000 Maurice Carthon 2001–2002 Sherman Lewis 2003–2004 Ted Tollner 2005 Mike Martz 2006–2007 Jim Colletto 2008 Scott Linehan 2009–2013 Joe Lombardi 2014–2015 Jim Bob Cooter 2015–2018 Darrell Bevell 2019–2020 Anthony Lynn 2021 Ben Johnson 2022–present===Defensive coordinators===Name Tenure No Defensive Coordinator between1934–1951 Buster Ramsey 1952–1959 Don Shula 1960–1962 No Defensive Coordinator between1963–1974 Jimmy Carr (American football) 1975–1976 Fritz Shurmur 1977 No Defensive Coordinator between 1978–1979 Maxie Baughan 1980–1982 Ed Beard 1983–1984 Wayne Fontes 1985–1988 Woody Widenhofer 1989–1992 Hank Bullough 1993 Herb Paterra 1994–1995 Jim Eddy 1996 Larry Peccatiello 1997–2000 Vince Tobin 2001 Kurt Schottenheimer 2002–2003 Dick Jauron 2004–2005 Donnie Henderson 2006 Joe Barry 2007–2008 Gunther Cunningham 2009–2013 Teryl Austin 2014–2017 Paul Pasqualoni 2018–2019 Cory Undlin 2020 Aaron Glenn 2021–present===Special Teams coordinators===Name Tenure John Bonamego 2019 Brayden Coombs 2020 Dave Fipp 2021–present" ], [ "Rivalries", "The Lions have had several division rivals in their existence.", "Their oldest rivals are the Chicago Bears and the Green Bay Packers, whom they have faced since 1930.The Minnesota Vikings have been in a division with Detroit since their inaugural season in 1961.The Lions and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers were also division opponents in the NFL Central fron 1977 to 2001.The Lions also share a rivalry with the Cleveland Browns, which began in the 1950s when the Browns and Lions played each other in four NFL Championship Games.", "The Lions won three of those championships, while the Browns won one.", "This was one of the NFL's best rivalries in the 1950s.", "Since the AFL–NFL merger of 1970, the teams have met much less frequently due to the Browns' move to the American Football Conference (AFC).", "From 2002 to 2014, the two teams played an annual preseason game known as the \"Great Lakes Classic\"." ], [ "Radio and television", "Map of radio affiliates===Radio===The Lions' flagship radio station is WXYT-FM.", "Dan Miller does play-by-play, Lomas Brown does color commentary, and T. J. Lang is the sideline reporter.In 2015, the team announced that they were moving from WXYT-FM to WJR for the 2016 NFL season, ending a 20-year relationship with CBS Radio.", "The decision to part with WXYT was reportedly instigated by a demand by the team for the station to fire on-air personality Mike Valenti, who has had a history of making critical comments about the Lions during his drivetime show, as a condition of any future renewal.", "A CBS Radio spokesperson stated that their refusal was meant to maintain the station's integrity.The Lions' flagship station returned to WXYT-FM starting with the 2021 season.===TV=======Preseason====In 2015, WJBK took over from WXYZ-TV as the flagship station for Lions preseason games.", "In 2023, the announcers were Jason Ross Jr. with play-by-play, Devin Gardner with color commentary, and Dannie Rogers with sideline reports.", "Games are produced by Bally Sports Detroit.====Regular season====Regular season games are broadcast regionally on Fox, except when the Lions play an AFC team in Detroit, in which case the game airs regionally on CBS; however, since 2014, with the institution of the NFL's \"cross flex\" broadcast rules, any Lions game slated to air on Fox can be moved to CBS.", "The Thanksgiving Day game in Detroit is always televised nationally, alternating between Fox in odd years and CBS in even years.", "In 2011, the Lions became the last NFC team to play on NBC's ''Sunday Night Football'' since the network began airing Sunday night games in 2006.====Blackouts====The Lions' winless performance in 2008 and 2–14 season in 2009, coupled with the effects of the Great Recession in Michigan, led to several local broadcast blackouts, as local fans did not purchase enough tickets by the 72-hour blackout deadline.", "The first blackout in the then seven-year history of Ford Field was on October 26, 2008, against the Washington Redskins.", "The previous 50 regular season home games had been sellouts.", "The second home game of the 2009 season in which the Lions broke the losing streak, also against the Redskins, was blacked out locally, as well as the comeback victory over the Cleveland Browns.", "The Lions had only one blackout in 2010, yet another Redskins game, which the Lions won 37–25.However, in 2015, the NFL suspended its blackout policies, meaning that all Lions games will be shown on local TV, regardless of tickets sold.Games were also often blacked out at the Lions' previous home, the 80,000-seat Pontiac Silverdome, despite winning seasons and the success and popularity of star players such as Barry Sanders." ], [ "Lions cheerleaders", "On June 13, 2016, the Lions announced the addition of cheerleaders to the organization.", "The team also announced that Rebecca Girard-Smoker, formerly the director of the Detroit Pistons dance team, would be the coach of the cheerleading squad.", "It marked the first time in over 40 years the team had an official cheerleading squad.", "The cheerleading squad is a part of the entertainment during football games, and active at community events." ], [ "See also", "* NFL on Thanksgiving Day* Portsmouth Spartans" ], [ "References", "'''Notes''''''Bibliography'''*" ], [ "External links", "* * Detroit Lions at the National Football League official website" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dyne" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''dyne''' (symbol: '''dyn'''; ) is a derived unit of force specified in the centimetre–gram–second (CGS) system of units, a predecessor of the modern SI." ], [ "History", "The name '''dyne''' was first proposed as a CGS unit of force in 1873 by a Committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science." ], [ "Definition", "The dyne is defined as \"the force required to accelerate a mass of one gram at a rate of one centimetre per second squared\".", "An equivalent definition of the dyne is \"that force which, acting for one second, will produce a change of velocity of one centimetre per second in a mass of one gram\".One dyne is equal to 10 micronewtons, 10−5 N or to 10 nsn (nanosthenes) in the old metre–tonne–second system of units.", "* 1 dyn = 1 g⋅cm/s2 = 10−5 kg⋅m/s2 = 10−5 N* 1 N = 1 kg⋅m/s2 = 105 g⋅cm/s2 = 105 dyn" ], [ "Use", "The '''dyne per centimetre''' is a unit traditionally used to measure surface tension.", "For example, the surface tension of distilled water is 71.99 dyn/cm at 25 °C (77 °F).", "(In SI units this is or .)" ], [ "See also", "* Centimetre–gram–second system of units* Erg" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Detroit Tigers" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Detroit Tigers''' are an American professional baseball team based in Detroit, Michigan.", "The Tigers compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member of the American League (AL) Central division.", "One of the AL's eight charter franchises, the club was founded in Detroit as a member of the minor league Western League in 1894 and is the only Western League team still in its original city.", "They are also the oldest continuous one name, one city franchise in the AL.Since their establishment as a major league franchise in 1901, the Tigers have won four World Series championships (, , , and ), 11 AL pennants (1907, 1908, 1909, 1934, 1935, 1940, 1945, 1968, 1984, 2006, 2012), and four AL Central division championships (2011, 2012, 2013, and 2014).", "They also won division titles in 1972, 1984, and 1987 as a member of the AL East.", "Since 2000, the Tigers have played their home games at Comerica Park in Downtown Detroit.The Tigers constructed Bennett Park at the corner of Michigan Avenue and Trumbull Avenue in Corktown just west of Downtown Detroit and began playing there in 1896.In 1912, the team moved into Navin Field, which was built on the same location.", "It was expanded in 1938 and renamed Briggs Stadium.", "It was renamed Tiger Stadium in 1961 and the Tigers played there until 1999.From 1901 to 2023, the Tigers' overall win–loss record is ().", "The franchise's best winning percentage was in 1934, while its worst was in 2003." ], [ "Franchise history", "===Western League beginnings (1894–1900) ===1900 Detroit Tigers team photoThe franchise was founded as a member of the reorganized Western League in 1894.They originally played at Boulevard Park, sometimes called League Park.", "It was located on East Lafayette, then called Champlain Street, between Helen and East Grand Boulevard, near Belle Isle.", "In 1895, owner George Vanderbeck decided to build Bennett Park at the corner of Michigan and Trumbull Avenues, which would remain the team's base of operations for the next 104 seasons.", "The first game at The Corner was an exhibition on April 13, 1896.The team, now occasionally called the \"Tigers,\" beat a local semi-pro team, known as the Athletics, by a score of 30–3.The Tigers played their first Western League game at Bennett Park on April 28, 1896, defeating the Columbus Senators 17–2.At the end of the 1897 season, Rube Waddell was loaned to the team to gain professional experience.", "After being fined, Waddell left Detroit to pitch in Canada.When the Western League renamed itself the American League for 1900, it was still a minor league, but the next year, it broke from the National Agreement and declared itself a major league, openly competing with the National League for players and for fans in four contested cities.", "For a while, there were rumors of the team relocating to Pittsburgh.", "However, these rumors were put to rest when the two leagues made peace in 1903 when they signed a new National Agreement.===First Major League season (1901)===Logo (1901 to 1902)The Tigers were established as a charter member of the now major league American League in 1901.They played their first game as a major league team at home against the Milwaukee Brewers on April 25, 1901, with an estimated 10,000 fans at Bennett Park.", "After entering the ninth inning behind 13–4, the team staged a dramatic comeback to win 14–13.The team finished third in the eight-team league.That initial season they were the first major league team to have a mascot—a red tiger on a dark background—on their ballcap.", "It was replaced by the letter \"D\" in 1903, and their iconic Olde English-style letterform appeared the following year.===The Cobb era (1905–1926)=======1905====Ty Cobb in 1913In 1905, the team acquired 18-year-old Ty Cobb, a fearless player who came to be regarded as one of the greatest players of all time.", "The addition of Cobb to an already talented team that included Sam Crawford, Hughie Jennings, Bill Donovan and George Mullin quickly yielded results.====1907 American League Champions====Behind the hitting of outfielders Ty Cobb (.350) and Sam Crawford (.323), and the pitching of Bill Donovan and Ed Killian (25 wins each), the Tigers went 92–58 to win the AL pennant in 1907 by 1.5 games over the Philadelphia Athletics.", "They moved on to their first World Series appearance against the Chicago Cubs.Game 1 ended in a rare 3–3 tie, called due to darkness after 12 innings.", "The Tigers scored only three runs in the succeeding four games, never scoring more than one run in a game, and lost the Series, 4–0.====1908 American League Champions====1908 World Series programThe Tigers won the AL by just a half-game over the 90–64 Cleveland Naps with a 90–63 record.", "Cobb hit .324, while Sam Crawford hit .311 with 7 home runs, which was enough to lead the league in the \"dead ball\" era.The Cubs, however, would defeat the Tigers again in the 1908 World Series, this time in five games.", "This would be the Cubs' last World Championship until 2016.====1909 American League Champions====In 1909, Detroit posted a 98–54 season, winning the AL pennant by 3.5 games over the Athletics.", "Ty Cobb won the batting triple crown in 1909, hitting .377 with 9 home runs (all inside-the-park) and 107 RBIs.", "He also led the league with 76 stolen bases.", "George Mullin was the pitching hero, going 29–8 with a 2.22 ERA, while fellow pitcher Ed Willett went 21–10.Mullin's 11–0 start in 1909 was a Tigers record for 104 years, finally being broken by Max Scherzer's 13–0 start in 2013.It was hoped that a new opponent in the 1909 Series, the Pittsburgh Pirates, would yield different results.", "The Tigers performed better in the Fall Classic, taking Pittsburgh to seven games, but they were blown out 8–0 in the decisive game at Bennett Park.====1910–1914====The Tigers dropped to third place in the American League in 1910 with an 86–68 record.", "They posted 89 wins in 1911 to finish second, but were still well behind a powerhouse Philadelphia Athletics team that won 101 games.", "The team sunk to a dismal sixth place in both the 1912 and 1913 seasons.", "A bright spot in 1912 was George Mullin pitching the franchise's first no-hitter in a 7–0 win over the St. Louis Browns on July 4, his 32nd birthday.Cobb went into the stands in a May 15, 1912, game to attack a fan that was abusing him, and was suspended.", "Three days later, the Tigers protested the suspension by fielding a team of replacement players against the Philadelphia Athletics.", "They lost 24–2.During this five-season stretch, Cobb posted batting averages of .383, .420, .409, .390 and .368, winning the AL batting title every year.====1915====In 1915, the Tigers won a then-club record 100 games, but narrowly lost the AL pennant to the Boston Red Sox, who won 101 games.", "The 1915 Tigers were led by an outfield consisting of Ty Cobb, Sam Crawford, and Bobby Veach that finished #1, #2, and #3 in RBIs and total bases.", "Cobb also set a stolen base record with 96 steals in 1915 that stood until 1962, when it was broken by Maury Wills.", "Baseball historian Bill James has ranked the 1915 Tigers outfield as the greatest in the history of baseball.", "The only team in Tigers' history with a better winning percentage than the 1915 squad was the 1934 team that lost the World Series to the St. Louis Cardinals.====1916–1920====The Tigers dropped to third place in 1916 with an 87–67 record, and would remain mired in the middle of the AL standings the rest of the decade, never winning more than 80 games.", "In the late teens and into the 1920s, Cobb continued to be the marquee player, though he was pushed by budding star outfielder Harry Heilmann, who went on to hit .342 for his career.Hughie Jennings left the Tigers after the 1920 season, having accumulated 1,131 wins as a manager.", "This stood as a Tiger record until 1992, when it was broken by Sparky Anderson.", "Cobb himself took over managerial duties in 1921, but during his six years at the helm, the Tigers topped out at 86 wins and never won a pennant.====1921====In 1921, the Tigers amassed 1,724 hits and a team batting average of .316, the highest team hit total and batting average in AL history.", "That year, outfielders Harry Heilmann and Ty Cobb finished #1 and #2 in the American League batting race with batting averages of .394 and .389, respectively.", "The downfall of the 1921 Tigers, however, was the absence of good pitching.", "The team ERA was 4.40.Without pitching to support the offense, the 1921 Tigers finished in sixth place in the American League at 71–82, 27 games behind the New York Yankees.On August 19, 1921, Cobb collected his 3,000th career hit off Elmer Myers of the Boston Red Sox.", "Aged 34 at the time, he is still the youngest player to reach that milestone, also reaching it in the fewest at-bats (8,093).====1922–1926====The Tigers continued to field good teams during Ty Cobb's tenure as player-manager, finishing as high as second in 1923, but lack of quality pitching kept them from winning a pennant.", "Harry Heilmann hit .403 in 1923, becoming the last AL player to top .400 until Ted Williams hit .406 in 1941.In 1925, Heilmann collected six hits in a season-ending doubleheader to win the batting title, finishing at .393 to Tris Speaker's .389.Cobb announced his retirement in November 1926 after 22 seasons with the Tigers, though he would return to play two more seasons with the Philadelphia Athletics.===The Tigers break through (1927–1940)===Hank Greenberg====1927–1933====Though the Tigers struggled with mediocre records in the seven years following Cobb's departure, they were building a solid foundation, adding slugging first baseman Hank Greenberg and pitchers Tommy Bridges and Schoolboy Rowe to a lineup that already included second baseman Charlie Gehringer.In 1927, Harry Heilmann flirted with a .400 batting average all year, eventually finishing at .398 and winning his fourth AL batting title.Following the 1933 season, the Tigers added perhaps the final piece of the puzzle, acquiring catcher Mickey Cochrane from the Philadelphia Athletics to serve as player-manager.====1934 American League Champions====The Tigers won the 1934 AL pennant with a 101–53 record, at the time a team record for wins, and still the best win percentage (.656) in team history.", "The Tigers infield (Hank Greenberg and Charlie Gehringer, along with shortstop Billy Rogell and third baseman Marv Owen) accumulated 462 runs during the season, with Gehringer (214 hits, .356 average) leading the way.", "Schoolboy Rowe led a strong pitching staff, winning 16 straight decisions at one point of the season and finishing with a 24–8 record.The Tigers would fall in the 1934 World Series in seven games to the \"Gashouse Gang\" St. Louis Cardinals.", "After winning a tight battle in Game 5 with a 3–1 decision over Dizzy Dean, Detroit took a 3–2 series lead, but would lose the next two games at Navin Field (Tiger Stadium).", "For the second time in a World Series Game 7, Detroit folded.", "St. Louis scored seven times in the third inning off starter Elden Auker and a pair of relievers, while Dean baffled the Tiger hitters en route to an 11–0 victory.", "The final game was marred by an ugly incident.", "After spiking Tigers third baseman Marv Owen in the sixth inning, Cardinals left fielder Joe Medwick had to be removed from the game for his own safety by Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis after being pelted with debris from angry fans in the large temporary bleacher section in left field.====1935 World Series Champions====The Tigers 1935 lineup featured four future Hall of Famers (Hank Greenberg, Mickey Cochrane, Goose Goslin and Charlie Gehringer).", "Although they did not challenge the 1934 team's 101 wins, their 93–58 record was good enough to give them the AL pennant by three games over the New York Yankees.", "Greenberg was named AL MVP after hitting .328 and leading the league in home runs (36), extra-base hits (98) and RBIs (168).", "Incredibly, Greenberg's RBI total was 48 higher than the next closest player (Lou Gehrig, with 120).", "The Tigers also got strong contributions from Gehringer (.330), Cochrane (.319) and starting pitchers Tommy Bridges (21–10) and Elden Auker (18–7).The Tigers finally won their first World Series, defeating the Chicago Cubs, 4–2.Game 6 concluded with Goslin's dramatic walk-off RBI single, scoring Cochrane for a 4–3 victory.After owner Frank Navin died in the offseason, Walter Briggs Sr. took over control of the team.====1936–1939====Despite being forecast to win the American League pennant again in 1936, the Tigers fell to a distant second place behind the New York Yankees both that season and in 1937.The team fell further down the standings with an 84–70 record in 1938 and an 81–73 record in 1939.Hank Greenberg nevertheless provided some excitement for Tigers fans in 1938 by challenging the single-season home run record held by Babe Ruth (60).", "He went into the season's final weekend against the Cleveland Indians with 58 home runs, tied with Jimmie Foxx for the most by a right-handed batter at the time, but he failed to homer.During the final week of the 1938 season, the Tigers presciently held out doubts about a pennant in 1939, but figured that 1940 would be their year.====1940 American League Champions====In a tight three-team race, the 90–64 Tigers won the 1940 AL pennant by one game over the Cleveland Indians and two games over the New York Yankees.", "Prior to the season, first baseman Hank Greenberg was persuaded to move to left field to make room for Rudy York, whom the Tigers had deemed no longer suitable to be their catcher.", "The move proved successful.", "York hit .316 with 33 home runs and 134 RBIs.", "Greenberg batted .340 and slammed 41 home runs while driving in 150.Greenberg won his second AL MVP award, becoming the first major leaguer to win the award at two different positions.", "Charlie Gehringer batted .313 while collecting 101 walks (for a .428 on-base percentage) and scoring 108 runs.Bobo Newsom was the ace of the Tiger pitching staff in 1940, going 21–5 with a 2.83 ERA.", "An unlikely hero on the mound this season was 30-year-old rookie Floyd Giebell.", "Making just his third major league start on September 27, Giebell was called upon to pitch the pennant-clinching game against Bob Feller of the Indians.", "Feller surrendered just three hits, one being a 2-run homer by Rudy York, while Giebell blanked the Tribe for a 2–0 victory.The Tigers lost the 1940 World Series to the Cincinnati Reds in seven games.", "Despite a heroic effort by Bobo Newsom, the Tigers came up short in the deciding game, losing 2–1.Newsom's father had died in a Cincinnati hotel room after watching his son win Game 1.An inspired Newsom won Game 5 and pitched Game 7 on just one day's rest.", "This was the third time the Tigers had lost a World Series in a deciding seventh game.===The war years (1941–1945)===Hal NewhouserWith Hank Greenberg serving in World War II for all or parts of the 1941–1944 seasons, the Tigers struggled to recapture the glory of 1940.They finished no higher than fifth place in 1941–1943, but did manage a second-place finish in 1944, largely on the strength of pitchers Hal Newhouser and Dizzy Trout, who won 29 and 27 games, respectively.", "Newhouser, who was 29–9 with a 2.22 ERA, won the first of his two consecutive AL MVP awards this season.", "The Tigers were in first place as late as September 18, but would finish one game behind the St. Louis Browns for the AL pennant.====1945 World Series Champions====With the end of World War II and the timely return of Hank Greenberg and others from the military, the Tigers won the AL pennant by just 1.5 games over the Washington Senators with an 88–65 record.", "Virgil Trucks returned from the U.S. Navy in time to pitch innings of 1-run ball in the pennant-clinching game, with starter Hal Newhouser pitching the final innings in relief.", "Newhouser won the pitching triple crown, leading the AL in wins (25), ERA (1.81) and strikeouts (212).", "He became the first pitcher in the history of the AL, and still the only pitcher as of 2022, to win the MVP Award in two consecutive seasons.With Newhouser, Trucks and Dizzy Trout on the mound and Greenberg leading the offense, Detroit responded in a World Series Game 7 for the first time, staking Newhouser to a 5–0 lead before he threw a pitch en route to a 9–3 victory over the Cubs.", "Because many stars had not yet returned from the military, some baseball scholars have deemed the 1945 World Series to be among the worst-played contests in World Series history.", "For example, prior to the World Series, Chicago sportswriter Warren Brown was asked who he liked, and he answered, \"I don't think either one of them can win.", "\"===A long drought (1946–1967)=======1946–1950====Following their World Series win in 1945, the Tigers continued to have winning records for the remainder of the decade, finishing second in the AL three times, but never winning the pennant.Hal Newhouser had another outstanding season in 1946, again leading the league in wins (26) and ERA (1.94) while striking out a career-high 275 batters.", "He nearly won his third straight AL MVP award, finishing second to Ted Williams, who had led the Boston Red Sox to 104 wins (12 games ahead of the second-place Tigers).", "Also in 1946, the Tigers acquired George Kell, a third baseman who would become a 10-time all-star and Hall of Famer.", "He batted over .300 in eight straight seasons (1946–53), and finished with a career .306 average.", "Kell won the batting title in a very close race with Ted Williams in 1949, going 2-for-3 on the last day of the season to edge out the Red Sox slugger, .34291 to .34276.The 1950 season was particularly frustrating, as the Tigers posted a 95–59 record for a .617 winning percentage, the fourth-best in team history at the time.", "However, they finished that season three games behind a strong New York Yankees team that went on to sweep the Philadelphia Phillies in the World Series.====1951–1960====Over the next 10 years, the Tigers sank to the middle and lower ranks of the American League.", "The team had only three winning records over this span and never finished higher than fourth place.", "The last place 1952 team went 50–104 (.325), which was the worst season in Tigers history until the 2003 team lost 119 games.", "Despite the dismal season, starter Virgil Trucks threw two no-hitters in 1952, becoming only the third pitcher in major league history to accomplish this feat.", "1952 also saw Tiger first baseman Walt Dropo get a hit in 12 consecutive plate appearances over a three-game stretch from July 14 to July 15, tying a major league record set by Johnny Kling in 1902.Team owner Walter Briggs Sr. died in 1952.His son Walter Briggs Jr. inherited the team, but he was forced to sell it in 1956 to broadcast media owners John Fetzer and Fred Knorr.Notwithstanding Detroit's fall in the standings, the decade saw the debut of outfielder Al Kaline in 1953.One of the few major league players who never played a day in the minor leagues, he would hit over .300 nine times in his career.", "He also made 15 All-Star teams, won 10 Gold Gloves, and featured one of the league's best arms in right field.", "In 1955, the 20-year-old Kaline hit .340 to become the youngest-ever batting champion in major league history.1958 saw the Tigers become the second to last team to integrate their roster when Dominican player Ozzie Virgil Sr. joined the team.", "Only the Boston Red Sox trailed the Tigers in integrating their roster.====1961====As the American League expanded from 8 to 10 teams, Detroit began its slow ascent back to success with an outstanding 1961 campaign.", "The Tigers led the majors in runs scored and won 101 games, a whopping 30-game improvement over the 71–83 1960 team, but still finished eight games behind the Yankees.", "This marked one of the few times in major league history that a team failed to reach the postseason despite winning 100 or more games, though it had happened once before to the Tigers in 1915.First baseman Norm Cash won the batting title with a .361 average, while teammate Al Kaline finished second.", "Cash never hit over .286 before or after the 1961 season, and would later say of the accomplishment: \"It was a freak.", "Even at the time, I realized that.\"", "Cash's plate heroics, which also included 41 home runs and 132 RBI, might have earned him MVP honors were it not for New York's Roger Maris bashing a then record 61 homers the same season.", "Cash also drew 124 walks for a league-leading .487 on-base percentage.", "Tigers outfielder Rocky Colavito actually bettered Cash's home run and RBI totals, with 45 and 140, respectively.The 1961 club featured two non-white starters, Bill Bruton and Jake Wood, and later in the 1960s, black players such as Willie Horton, Earl Wilson, and Gates Brown would contribute to Detroit's rise in the standings.====1962–1966====Hall of Fame member Al Kaline, nicknamed \"Mr. Tiger\" (1953–1974), was an 18× All-StarAs a strong nucleus developed, Detroit repeatedly posted winning records throughout the 1960s.", "In 1963, pitchers Mickey Lolich and Denny McLain entered the rotation.", "Outfielders Willie Horton (1963), Mickey Stanley (1964) and Jim Northrup (1964) would also come aboard around this time.The team managed a third-place finish during a bizarre 1966 season, in which manager Chuck Dressen and acting manager Bob Swift were both forced to resign their posts because of health problems.", "Thereafter, Frank Skaff took over the managerial reins until the end of the season.", "Both Dressen and Swift died during the year; Dressen died of a heart attack in August, while Swift died of lung cancer in October.", "Following the season, the Tigers hired Mayo Smith to be their new manager.====1967====In 1967, the Tigers were involved in one of the closest pennant races in history.", "Because of rainouts, the Tigers were forced to play back-to-back doubleheaders against the California Angels over the final two days of the season.", "They needed to sweep the doubleheader on the last day of the season to force a one-game playoff with the Boston Red Sox.", "The Tigers won the first game, but lost the second, giving the Red Sox the pennant with no playoff.", "Detroit finished the season at 91–71, one game behind Boston.", "Starter Earl Wilson, acquired the previous season from the Red Sox, led the Tigers (and the major leagues) with 22 wins and would form a strong 1–2–3 combination with Denny McLain and Mickey Lolich over the next few years.===1968–1972=======Glory in '68: 1968 World Series Champions====The Tigers finally returned to the World Series in 1968.The team grabbed first place from the Baltimore Orioles on May 10 and would not relinquish the position, clinching the pennant on September 17 and finishing with a 103–59 record.", "In a year that was marked by dominant pitching, starter Denny McLain went 31–6 (with a 1.96 ERA), the first time a pitcher had won 30 or more games in a season since Dizzy Dean accomplished the feat in 1934; no pitcher has accomplished it since.", "McLain won the AL MVP and Cy Young Award for his efforts.=====1968 World Series=====Tiger StadiumIn the 1968 World Series, the Tigers met the defending World Series champion St. Louis Cardinals, led by starter Bob Gibson, who had posted a modern-era record 1.12 ERA during the regular season, and speedy outfielder Lou Brock.", "This was the first time the Tigers and Cardinals had met in the World Series since 1934.The series was predicated with a bold decision by manager Mayo Smith to play center fielder Mickey Stanley at shortstop, replacing the slick fielding but weak hitting of Ray Oyler.", "Stanley had never played shortstop before, but was a Gold Glover in the outfield and an excellent athlete.", "Smith played him at short for the final nine games of the regular season and all seven World Series games, with Oyler only appearing as a late-inning defensive replacement.", "This allowed Smith to play an outfield of Willie Horton, Jim Northrup and Al Kaline in every game.In Game 1, Gibson completely shut down the Detroit lineup, striking out a World Series record 17 batters en route to an easy 4–0 win.", "However, due in no small part to pitcher Mickey Lolich's victories in Games 2 and 5, the Tigers climbed back into the World Series.", "Many fans believe the turning point came in the fifth inning of Game 5, with the Tigers down three games to one, and trailing in the game, 3–2.Left fielder Willie Horton made a perfect throw to home plate to nail Lou Brock, who tried to score from second base standing up, as catcher Bill Freehan blocked the plate with his foot.", "The Tigers came back with three runs in the seventh to win that game, 5–3, and stay alive.", "The Cardinals would not threaten to score the rest of this game, and scored only two more meaningless runs over the remainder of the series.", "In Game 6, McLain ensured a Game 7 by notching his only win of the World Series, a 13–1 blowout, despite pitching on only two days' rest.Mickey Lolich was the 1968 World Series MVPIn Game 7 at Busch Memorial Stadium, Lolich, also pitching on two days' rest, faced Gibson.", "Both men pitched brilliantly, putting zeros up on the scoreboard for much of the game.", "In the bottom of the sixth inning, the Cardinals looked primed to take the lead as Lou Brock singled to lead off the inning, only to be promptly picked off by Lolich.", "One out later, Curt Flood followed with another single, and was also picked off by Lolich.", "In the top of the seventh, an exhausted Gibson finally cracked, giving up two-out singles to Norm Cash and Willie Horton.", "Jim Northrup then struck the decisive blow, lashing a triple to center field over the head of Flood, who appeared to misjudge how hard the ball was hit.", "That scored both Cash and Horton; Northrup himself was then brought home by a Bill Freehan double.", "Detroit added an insurance run in the ninth.", "A ninth-inning solo home run by Mike Shannon was all the Cardinals could muster against Lolich as the Tigers took the game, 4–1, and the World Series, 4–3.The Tigers became only the third team to ever win the World Series after being down 3–1.For his three victories that propelled the Tigers to the championship, Lolich was named the World Series Most Valuable Player.", ", Lolich is the last pitcher to have three complete-game victories in a single World Series.====1969–1971====1969 saw further expansion as both leagues realigned into two divisions of six teams, and the Tigers were placed in the American League East.", "That year, Detroit failed to defend its title, despite Denny McLain having another outstanding season with a 24–9 campaign, earning him his second straight Cy Young Award (co-winner with Baltimore's Mike Cuellar).", "The Tigers' 90 wins placed them a distant second in the division to a very strong Baltimore Orioles team, which had won 109 games.The Tigers suffered a disappointing 1970 season, finishing fourth in the AL East with a 79–83 record.", "Following the season, Mayo Smith was let go and was replaced by Billy Martin.", "In a playing career that was primarily spent with the New York Yankees, Martin played his final games with the Minnesota Twins and stayed in that organization after his retirement.", "He managed the Twins to an AL West Division title in 1969, but was fired after that season due to rocky relationships with his players, which included a legendary fight with pitcher Dave Boswell in an alley behind Detroit's Lindell AC sports bar.Also during the offseason, Denny McLain, who had been suspended three times and had a 3–5 record, was part of an eight-player deal with the Washington Senators in what would turn out to be a heist for Detroit.", "The Tigers acquired pitcher Joe Coleman, shortstop Eddie Brinkman and third baseman Aurelio Rodríguez.Martin's Tigers posted 91 wins in 1971.However, they had to settle for a second-place finish behind the Orioles, who won 101 games to take their third straight AL East Division crown.", "The season was highlighted by Mickey Lolich's 308 strikeouts, which led the AL and is still the single-season record in franchise history.", "Lolich also won 25 games and posted a 2.92 ERA while throwing an incredible 376 innings and completing 29 of his 45 starts.", "Coleman paid immediate dividends for Detroit, winning 20 games, while McLain went 10–22 for the Senators and was out of baseball by the following season.====1972 AL East Champions====Joe Coleman, Eddie Brinkman and Aurelio Rodríguez all played critical roles in 1972, when the Tigers captured their first AL East division title.", "Oddities of the schedule due to an early season strike allowed the 86–70 Tigers to win the division by just game.", "Brinkman was named Tiger of the Year by the Detroit Baseball Writers, despite a .203 batting average, as he committed just 7 errors in 728 chances (.990 fielding percentage).", "He also had a streak of 72 games and 331 chances without an error during the season, both AL records for a shortstop.", "Mickey Lolich was his steady self for the Tigers, winning 22 games with a sparkling 2.50 ERA, while Coleman won 19 and had a 2.80 ERA.", "Starter Woodie Fryman, acquired on August 2, was the final piece of the puzzle as he went 10–3 over the last two months of the regular season and posted a minuscule 2.06 ERA.", "Fryman was also the winning pitcher in the division-clinching game against the Boston Red Sox, a 3–1 victory on October 3.=====1972 ALCS=====In the 1972 American League Championship Series, Detroit faced the American League West division champion Oakland Athletics, who had become steadily competitive ever since the 1969 realignment.", "In Game 1 of the ALCS in Oakland, Mickey Lolich, the hero of '68, took the hill and allowed just one run over nine innings.", "The Athletics' ace, Catfish Hunter, matched Lolich, surrendering only a solo home run to Norm Cash, and the game went into extra innings.", "Al Kaline hit a solo homer to break a 1–1 tie in the top of the 11th inning, only to be charged with a throwing error on Gonzalo Márquez's game-tying single in the bottom half of the frame that allowed Gene Tenace to score the winning run.", "Blue Moon Odom shut down Detroit 5–0 in Game 2.The end of Game 2 was marred by an ugly incident in which Tigers reliever Lerrin LaGrow hit A's shortstop and leadoff hitter Bert Campaneris on the ankle with a pitch.", "An angered Campaneris threw the bat at LaGrow, and LaGrow ducked just in time for the bat to sail over his head.", "Both benches cleared, and though no punches were thrown, both LaGrow and Campaneris were suspended for the remainder of the series.", "It was widely believed that Martin had ordered the pitch that hit Campaneris, who had three hits, two stolen bases and two runs scored in the game.As the series shifted to Detroit, the Tigers caught their stride.", "Joe Coleman held the A's scoreless on seven hits in Game 3, striking out 14 batters in a 3–0 victory for the Tigers.", "Game 4 was another pitchers' duel between Hunter and Lolich, resulting again in a 1–1 tie at the end of nine innings.", "Oakland scored two runs in the top of the 10th and put the Tigers down to their last three outs.", "Detroit pushed two runs across the plate to tie the game before Jim Northrup came through in the clutch again.", "His single off Dave Hamilton scored Gates Brown to give the Tigers a 4–3 win and even the series at two games apiece.A first-inning run on an RBI ground out from Bill Freehan, set up by a Gene Tenace passed ball that allowed Dick McAuliffe to reach third, gave Detroit an early lead in the deciding fifth and final game in Detroit.", "Reggie Jackson's steal of home in the second inning tied it up, though Jackson was injured in a collision with Freehan and had to leave the game.", "Tenace's two-out single to left field plated George Hendrick to give Oakland a 2–1 lead in the fourth inning.", "The run was controversial to many Tigers fans, as Hendrick was ruled safe at first base two batters prior to the Tenace hit.", "Hendrick appeared to be out by two steps on a grounder to short, but umpire John Rice ruled that Norm Cash pulled his foot off first base.", "Replays and photos, however, show that Cash did not pull his foot.", "Thanks to that play and four innings of scoreless relief from Vida Blue, the A's took the AL pennant and a spot in the World Series.===A slow decline (1973–1978)===Willie Horton (1963–1977) had his No.", "23 retired by the clubThe 1973 season saw the Tigers drop to third place in the division, with an 85–77 record.", "Joe Coleman posted another 23 wins, but the other Tiger starters had subpar seasons.", "Willie Horton hit .316, but injuries limited him to just 111 games.", "Jim Northrup posted the best batting average of his career (.307) but was inexplicably limited to part-time duty (119 games played), which Northrup attributed to an ongoing feud with Billy Martin that had actually started in the 1972 ALCS.", "Northrup even proclaimed to the press that Martin \"took the fun out of the game.\"", "Martin did not survive the 1973 season as manager.", "He was fired that September after ordering his pitchers to throw spitballs (and telling the press that he did so) in protest of opposing Cleveland Indians pitcher Gaylord Perry, whom Martin was convinced was doing the same.", "Third base coach Joe Schultz served as interim manager for the remainder of the season.A bright spot for the Tigers in 1973 was relief pitcher John Hiller, who marked his first full season since suffering a heart attack in 1971 by collecting a league-leading 38 saves and posting a brilliant 1.44 ERA.", "Hiller's saves total would stand as a Tiger record until 2000, when it was broken by Todd Jones' 42 saves (Jones' record would later be broken by José Valverde's 49 saves in 2011).After the season, the Tigers hired Ralph Houk to be their new manager.", "Houk served in that capacity for five full seasons, through the end of the 1978 season.", "The roster of players who played under Houk were mostly aging veterans from the 1960s, whose performance had slipped from their peak years.", "The Tigers did not have a winning season from 1974 to 1977, and their 57 wins in the 1975 season was the team's lowest since 1952.Perhaps the biggest signal of decline for the Tigers was the retirement of Kaline following the 1974 season, after he notched his 3,000th career hit.", "Kaline finished with 3,007 hits and was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in his first year of eligibility in 1980.====1976: The Year of The Bird====Mark \"The Bird\" Fidrych, 1976 AL Rookie of the YearTiger fans were provided a glimmer of hope when 21-year-old rookie Mark Fidrych made his debut in 1976.Fidrych, known as \"The Bird\", was a colorful character known for talking to the baseball and other eccentricities.", "During a game against the Yankees, Graig Nettles responded to Fidrych's antics by talking to his bat.", "After making an out, he later lamented that his Japanese-made bat did not understand him.", "Fidrych entered the All-Star break at 9–2 with a 1.78 ERA, and was the starting pitcher for the American League in the All-Star Game played that year in Philadelphia to celebrate the American Bicentennial.", "He finished the season with a record of 19–9 and an American League-leading ERA of 2.34.Fidrych, the AL Rookie of the Year, was one of the few bright spots that year with the Tigers finishing next to last in the AL East in 1976.Aurelio Rodríguez won the Gold Glove Award in 1976 at third base, snapping a streak in which Hall of Famer Brooks Robinson had won it for 16 consecutive seasons.====1977–1978====Injuries to his knee, and later his arm, drastically limited Fidrych's appearances in 1977–78.Perhaps more important, however, was the talent coming up through the Tigers farm system at the time.", "Jack Morris, Lance Parrish, Alan Trammell and Lou Whitaker all made their debuts in 1977, and would help the team to 88 wins in 1978, the only winning season under Houk.===The \"Bless You Boys\" era (1979–1987)===Houk's immediate successor as Tigers manager in 1979 was Les Moss, but Moss would only last until June of that year.", "From June 14, 1979, until the end of the 1995 season, the team was managed by George \"Sparky\" Anderson, one of baseball's winningest managers and winner of two World Series rings as manager of the Cincinnati Reds during their peak as The Big Red Machine.", "When Anderson joined the Tigers in 1979 and assessed the team's young talent, he boldly predicted that it would be a pennant winner within five years.Acerbic sports anchor Al Ackerman initiated the phrase \"Bless You Boys\".", "Originally used as a sarcastic remark, Ackerman's phrase would take on a new meaning in 1984.====The Roar of '84: 1984 World Series Champions====Sparky Anderson was the manager of the Tigers from 1979 to 1995As in 1968, the Tigers' next World Series season would be preceded by a disappointing second-place finish, as the 1983 Tigers won 92 games to finish six games behind the Baltimore Orioles in the AL East.The first major news of the 1984 season actually came in late 1983, when broadcasting magnate John Fetzer, who had owned the Tigers since 1957, sold the team to Domino's Pizza founder and CEO Tom Monaghan for $53 million.The 1984 team got off to a 9–0 start highlighted by Jack Morris tossing a nationally televised no-hitter against Chicago in the fourth game of the season.", "They stayed hot for most of the year, posting a 35–5 record over their first forty games and cruising to a franchise-record 104 victories.", "The Tigers led the division from opening day until the end of the regular season and finished a staggering 15 games ahead of the second-place Toronto Blue Jays.", "Closer Willie Hernández, acquired from the 1983 NL champion Philadelphia Phillies in the offseason, won both the Cy Young Award and AL MVP, a rarity for a relief pitcher.=====1984 ALCS=====The Tigers faced the Kansas City Royals in the American League Championship Series.", "In Game 1, Alan Trammell, Lance Parrish and Larry Herndon went deep to crush the Royals 8–1 at Royals Stadium (now Kauffman Stadium).", "In Game 2, the Tigers scored twice in the 11th inning when Johnny Grubb doubled off Royals closer Dan Quisenberry en route to a 5–3 victory.", "The Tigers completed the sweep at Tiger Stadium in Game 3.Marty Castillo's third-inning RBI fielder's choice would be all the help Detroit would need.", "Milt Wilcox outdueled Charlie Leibrandt, and after Hernandez got Darryl Motley to pop out to preserve the 1–0 win, the Tigers were returning to the World Series.=====1984 World Series=====In the NLCS, the San Diego Padres rallied from losing the first two games to overcome the Chicago Cubs and prevent a fifth Cubs-Tigers series.", "The Tigers would open the 1984 World Series on the road in San Diego.In Game 1, Larry Herndon hit a two-run home run that gave the Tigers a 3–2 lead.", "Jack Morris pitched a complete game with 2 runs on 8 hits, and Detroit drew first blood.", "The Padres evened the series the next night despite pitcher Ed Whitson being chased after pitching of an inning and giving up three runs on five Tiger hits.", "Tigers starter Dan Petry exited the game after innings when Kurt Bevacqua's three-run homer gave San Diego a 5–3 lead they would not relinquish.When the series shifted to the Motor City, the Tigers took command.", "In Game 3, a two-out rally in the second inning, highlighted by Marty Castillo's 2-run homer, led to four runs and the yanking of Padres starter Tim Lollar after innings.", "The Padres never recovered, losing 5–2.Eric Show continued the parade of bad outings in Game 4, getting bounced after innings after giving up a pair of 2-run homers to World Series MVP Alan Trammell in his first two at-bats.", "Trammell's homers held up with the help of another Morris complete game, and the Tigers' 4–2 win gave them a commanding lead in the series.Kirk Gibson, a Michigan State alumni, hit the clinching home run in Game 5 of the 1984 World SeriesIn Game 5, Kirk Gibson's two-run shot in the first inning would be the beginning of another early end for the Padres' starter Mark Thurmond.", "Although the Padres would pull back even at 3–3, chasing Petry in the fourth inning in the process, the Tigers retook the lead on a Rusty Kuntz sacrifice fly (actually a pop-out to retreating second baseman Alan Wiggins that the speedy Gibson was able to score on), and then went up 5–3 on a solo homer by Parrish.Gibson came to bat in the eighth inning with runners on second and third and the Tigers clinging to a 5–4 lead.", "A \"Sounds of the Game\" video made during the Series by MLB Productions captured this moment, and has been played on TV a number of times since then.", "Padres manager Dick Williams was shown in the dugout flashing four fingers, ordering an intentional walk, before San Diego reliever Goose Gossage summoned him to the mound.", "Sparky Anderson was seen and heard yelling to Gibson, \"He don't want to walk you!", "\", and making a swing-the-bat gesture.", "As Anderson had suspected, Gossage threw a 1–0 fastball on the inside corner, and Gibson was ready.", "He launched the pitch into Tiger Stadium's right field upper deck for a three-run homer, giving the Tigers a four-run lead and effectively clinching the game and the series.Aurelio López pitched innings of relief and retired all seven batters he faced, earning the win.", "Despite allowing a rare run in the top of the 8th inning, Willie Hernández got the save as Tony Gwynn flew out to Larry Herndon to end the game, sending Detroit into a wild victory celebration.1984 World Series MVP, Alan Trammell (SS)The Tigers led their division wire-to-wire, from opening day and every day thereafter, culminating in the World Series championship.", "This had not been done in the major leagues since the 1955 Brooklyn Dodgers.", "With the win, Anderson became the first manager to win the World Series in both leagues.====1987 AL East Champions====After a pair of third-place finishes in 1985 and 1986, the 1987 Tigers faced lowered expectations – which seemed to be confirmed by an 11–19 start to the season.", "However, the team hit its stride thereafter and gradually gained ground on its AL East rivals.", "This charge was fueled in part by the acquisition of pitcher Doyle Alexander from the Atlanta Braves in exchange for minor league pitcher John Smoltz.", "Alexander started 11 games for the Tigers, posting a 9–0 record and a 1.53 ERA.", "Smoltz, a Michigan native, went on to have a long and productive career, mostly with the Braves, and was ultimately inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 2015.Despite the Tigers' great season, they entered September neck-and-neck with the Toronto Blue Jays.", "The two teams would square off in seven hard-fought games during the final two weeks of the season.", "All seven games were decided by one run, and in the first six of the seven games, the winning run was scored in the final inning of play.", "At Exhibition Stadium, the Tigers dropped three in a row to the Blue Jays before winning a dramatic extra-inning showdown.The Tigers entered the final week of the 1987 season 2.5 games behind.", "After a series against the Baltimore Orioles, the Tigers returned home trailing by a game and swept the Blue Jays.", "Detroit clinched the division in a 1–0 victory over Toronto in front of 51,000 fans at Tiger Stadium on October 4.Frank Tanana went all nine innings for the complete-game shutout, and outfielder Larry Herndon gave the Tigers their lone run on a second-inning home run.", "Detroit finished the season two games ahead of Toronto, securing the best record in the majors (98–64).In what would prove to be their last postseason appearance until 2006, the Tigers were upset in the 1987 American League Championship Series by the 85–77 Minnesota Twins (who in turn won the World Series that year) 4–1.The Twins clinched the series in Game 5 at Tiger Stadium, 9–5.===A new approach (1988–1995)===Despite their 1987 division title victory, the Tigers proved unable to build on their success.", "The team lost Kirk Gibson to free agency in the offseason, but still spent much of 1988 in first place in the AL East.", "A late season slump left the team in second place at 88–74, one game behind the Boston Red Sox.Cecil Fielder in 1996In 1989, the team collapsed to a 59–103 record, worst in the majors.", "The franchise then attempted to rebuild using a power-hitting approach, with sluggers Cecil Fielder, Rob Deer and Mickey Tettleton joining Trammell and Whitaker in the lineup (fitting for the team with the most 200+ home run seasons in baseball history).", "In 1990, Fielder led the American League with 51 home runs (becoming the first player to hit 50 since George Foster in 1977, and the first AL player since Roger Maris and Mickey Mantle in 1961), and finished second in the voting for AL MVP.", "He hit 44 home runs and collected 132 RBI in 1991, again finishing second in the AL MVP balloting.", "Behind the hitting of Fielder and others, the Tigers improved by 20 wins in 1990 (79–83), and posted a winning record in 1991 (84–78).", "However, the team lacked quality pitching, despite Bill Gullickson's 20 wins in 1991, and its core of key players began to age, setting the franchise up for decline.", "Their minor league system was largely barren of talent as well, producing only a few everyday players during the 1990s.", "Adding insult to injury, the Tigers and radio station WJR announced in December 1990 that they were not renewing the contract of long-time Hall of Fame play-by play announcer Ernie Harwell, and that the 1991 season would be Harwell's last with the team.", "The announcement was met with resounding protests from fans, both in Michigan and around the baseball world.1992 saw the Tigers win only 75 games, with Fielder being one of the few bright spots as he won the AL RBI title for a third straight season (124).", "In August 1992, the franchise was sold to Mike Ilitch, the President and CEO of Little Caesars Pizza who also owned the Detroit Red Wings.", "One of Ilitch's first moves as the new owner was to rehire Ernie Harwell.", "Late in the season, Sparky Anderson won his 1,132nd game as a Tiger manager, passing Hughie Jennings for the most all-time wins in franchise history.", "The team also responded with an 85–77 season in 1993, but it would be their last winning season for a number of years.On October 2, 1995, manager Sparky Anderson chose to not only end his career with the Tigers, but retire from baseball altogether.===Randy Smith era (1996–2002)===From 1994 to 2005, the Tigers did not post a winning record, the longest sub-.500 stretch in franchise history.", "In 1996, the Tigers lost a then-team record 109 games, under new general manager Randy Smith.", "The only team in the majors to have a longer stretch without a winning season during this time were the Pittsburgh Pirates, who did not have a winning record in the years spanning 1993 to 2012.The Tigers' best record over this span was 79–83, recorded in 1997 and 2000.In 1998, the Tigers moved from the AL East, where they had been since the divisions were created in 1969, to the AL Central as part of a realignment necessitated by the addition of the expansion Tampa Bay Devil Rays.The entrance sign of Comerica ParkIn 2000, the team left Tiger Stadium in favor of Comerica Park.Soon after it opened, Comerica Park drew criticism for its deep dimensions, which made it difficult to hit home runs; the distance to left-center field (395 ft), in particular, was seen as unfair to hitters.", "This led to the nickname \"Comerica National Park.\"", "The team made a successful bid to bring in slugger Juan González from the Texas Rangers for the inaugural season at Comerica Park.", "After four consecutive seasons of no fewer than 39 home runs, González only hit 22 homers in 2000.He cited Comerica Park's dimensions as a major reason why he turned down a multiyear contract extension.", "In 2003, the franchise largely quieted the criticism by moving in the left-center fence to , taking the flagpole in that area out of play, a feature carried over from Tiger Stadium.", "In 2005, the team moved the bullpens to the vacant area beyond the left field fence and filled the previous location with seats.In late 2001, Dave Dombrowski, former general manager of the 1997 World Series champion Florida Marlins, was hired as team president.", "In 2002, the Tigers started the season 0–6, prompting Dombrowski to fire the unpopular Smith, as well as manager Phil Garner.", "Dombrowski then took over as general manager and named bench coach Luis Pujols to finish the season as interim manager.", "The team finished 55–106.After the season was over, Pujols was let go.===Most losses in American League history (2003)===Dave Dombrowski hired popular former shortstop Alan Trammell to manage the team in 2003.With fellow 1984 teammates Kirk Gibson and Lance Parrish on the coaching staff, the rebuilding process began.", "On August 30, 2003, the Tigers' defeat at the hands of the Chicago White Sox caused them to join the 1962 New York Mets, who were a first year expansion team, as the only modern MLB teams to lose 100 games before September.", "They avoided tying the 1962 Mets' modern MLB record of 120 losses only by winning five of their last six games of the season, including three out of four against the Minnesota Twins, who had already clinched the AL Central and were resting their stars.Mike Maroth went 9–21, becoming the first pitcher to lose 20 games in more than 20 years.", "Maroth, Jeremy Bonderman (6–19), and Nate Cornejo (6–17) were the top three pitchers in losses in the entire major leagues, the first time in history that this had occurred.The Tigers finished 43–119, the worst record in franchise history.", "This eclipsed the previous AL record of 117 losses set by the 1916 Philadelphia Athletics.", "While the 2003 Tigers rank as the third worst team in major league history based on total losses, they fare slightly better based on winning percentage.", "Their .265 win percentage is the majors' sixth-worst since 1900.===Rebuilding the franchise (2004–2006)===After the embarrassing 2003 season, the Tigers vowed to make changes.", "Under Dave Dombrowski, the franchise demonstrated a willingness to sign marquee free agents.", "In 2004, the team signed or traded for several talented but high-risk veterans, such as Fernando Viña, Rondell White, Iván Rodríguez, Ugueth Urbina, and Carlos Guillén, and the gamble paid off.", "The 2004 Tigers finished 72–90, a 29-game improvement over the previous season.", "This was the largest improvement in the AL since the Baltimore Orioles had a 33-game improvement from 1988 to 1989.Prior to the 2005 season, the Tigers spent a large sum for two prized free agents, Troy Percival and Magglio Ordóñez.", "On June 8, 2005, the Tigers traded pitcher Ugueth Urbina and infielder Ramón Martínez to the Philadelphia Phillies for Plácido Polanco.", "The Tigers stayed on the fringes of contention for the AL wild card for the first four months of the season, but then faded badly, finishing 71–91.The collapse was perceived as being due both to injuries and to a lack of player unity; Rodríguez in particular was disgruntled, taking a leave of absence during the season to deal with a difficult divorce.", "Trammell, though popular with the fans, took part of the blame for the poor clubhouse atmosphere and lack of continued improvement, and he was fired at the end of the season.A highlight of the 2005 campaign was Detroit's hosting of the Major League Baseball All-Star Game, its first since 1971.In the Home Run Derby, Rodríguez finished second, losing to the Phillies' Bobby Abreu.In October 2005, Jim Leyland, who managed Dombrowski's 1997 World Series champion Florida Marlins, replaced Trammell as manager; two months later, in response to Troy Percival's arm problems, closer Todd Jones, who had spent five seasons in Detroit (1997–2001), signed a two-year deal to return to the Tigers.", "Veteran left-hander Kenny Rogers also joined the Tigers from the Texas Rangers in late 2005.====The return of the Tigers: 2006 American League Champions====Magglio Ordóñez hit a walk-off home run to clinch the 2006 AL pennantAfter years of futility, the 2006 season showed signs of hope.", "The impressive rookie campaigns of eventual AL Rookie of the Year Justin Verlander, centerfielder Curtis Granderson, and flamethrowing relief pitcher Joel Zumaya, coupled with a well-publicized early-season tirade by Leyland, helped the team explode and quickly rise to the top of the AL Central.", "The team reached a high point when they were 40 games over .500, but a second half swoon started to raise questions about the team's staying power.", "On August 27, a 7–1 victory over the Cleveland Indians gave the Tigers their 82nd victory and their first winning season since 1993.On September 24, the Tigers beat the Kansas City Royals 11–4 to clinch their first playoff berth since 1987.A division title seemed inevitable.", "All that was required was one win in the final five games of the season, which included three games against the Royals, whom the Tigers had manhandled much of the season.", "However, the Tigers lost all five games to finish 95–67, and the division title went to the 96–66 Minnesota Twins.", "The Tigers instead settled for the AL wild card.The playoffs saw the Tigers beat the heavily favored New York Yankees 3–1 in the ALDS and sweep the Oakland Athletics in the 2006 ALCS, thanks to a walk-off home run in Game 4 by right fielder Magglio Ordóñez.", "They advanced to the World Series, where they lost to the underdog St. Louis Cardinals in five games.===Falling short (2007–2010)===Curtis Granderson in 2007====2007====During the offseason, the Tigers traded for outfielder Gary Sheffield, who had been a part of the 1997 World Series champion Florida Marlins managed by Jim Leyland.", "In addition to acquisitions, Dombrowski developed a productive farm system.", "Justin Verlander and Joel Zumaya, the most notable rookie contributors to the 2006 team, were followed by Andrew Miller, who was drafted in 2006 and called up early in the 2007 campaign, and minor leaguer Cameron Maybin, an athletic five-tool outfielder ranked #6 in Baseball America's 2007 Top 100 Prospects.On June 12, Verlander threw the Tigers' first no-hitter since 1984 (Jack Morris) and the first in Comerica Park history, in a 4–0 win over the Milwaukee Brewers.", "The Tigers had the best record in baseball in late July, but lost a few players to injuries and started to play poorly in the second half.", "The Tigers were officially eliminated from playoff competition on September 26, 2007, when the New York Yankees clinched a wild card berth.", "The Tigers, at 88–74, finished second in the AL Central.Magglio Ordóñez captured the AL batting title in 2007 with a .363 average, becoming the first Tiger to win it since Norm Cash did so in 1961.====2008====Justin Verlander, June 2008Going into the 2008 season, the franchise traded for prominent talent in Édgar Rentería (from the Atlanta Braves) and Miguel Cabrera and Dontrelle Willis (from the Florida Marlins).", "However, the Tigers, who now boasted the second-highest team payroll in the majors at over $138 million, began the regular season by losing seven straight games.", "The Tigers climbed back, and at the midway point of the season, they were 42–40.In the end, the team finished miserably, slumping to a 74–88 record.", "Justin Verlander finished with his worst season as a pro, as he went 11–17 with a 4.84 ERA.", "The Tigers also lost closer Todd Jones to retirement on September 25, 2008.Despite the disappointing season, the team set an attendance record in 2008, drawing 3,202,654 customers to Comerica Park.====2009====Going into the 2009 season, the Tigers acquired starter Edwin Jackson from the 2008 AL Champion Tampa Bay Rays, and called up rookie and former #1 draft pick Rick Porcello.", "Jackson was outstanding in the first half, making his first All-Star team, while Porcello was solid most of the year, posting a 14–9 record with a 3.96 ERA and displaying grit and maturity beyond his 20 years of age.", "Justin Verlander bounced back from an off 2008 to win 19 games.", "He posted a 3.45 ERA and led the AL in strikeouts (269) to finish third in the AL Cy Young balloting.", "Fernando Rodney assumed the closer role in spring training, replacing the retired Todd Jones.", "Rodney responded with 37 saves in 38 tries, while Bobby Seay, Fu-Te Ni, Brandon Lyon, and Ryan Perry shored up the middle relief that plagued the team in 2007 and 2008.Despite the improvements, the Tigers once again found themselves struggling to hold a lead in the AL Central.", "The team entered September with a 7-game lead in the division, but wound up tied with the Minnesota Twins at 86 wins by the final day of the regular season.", "The season ended on October 6 with a 6–5 loss in 12 innings to the Twins in the tie-breaker game, leaving the Tigers with an 86–77 record.", "The Tigers spent 146 days of the 2009 season in first place, but became the first team in Major League history to lose a three-game lead with four games left to play.====2010====Alex Avila, March 2010Entering 2010, the Tigers parted ways with Curtis Granderson and Edwin Jackson as part of a three-way trade with the New York Yankees and Arizona Diamondbacks; in return they picked up outfield prospect Austin Jackson and pitchers Phil Coke, Max Scherzer and Daniel Schlereth.", "Jackson made the Tigers opening day roster, and was American League Rookie of the Month for April.", "2010 also saw the debut of Brennan Boesch, who was named the AL Rookie of the Month for May and June.At the All-Star break, the Tigers were a half-game out of first place in the AL Central, behind the Chicago White Sox.", "However, a slow start after the break and injuries to three key players sent the Tigers into yet another second half tailspin.", "The Tigers finished the season in third place with an 81–81 record, 13 games back of the division-winning Minnesota Twins.", "While playing outstanding baseball at home, the Tigers were just 29–52 on the road.Among the season highlights were Miguel Cabrera hitting .328 with 38 home runs and an AL-best 126 RBI, earning the AL Silver Slugger Award at first base and finishing second in the AL MVP race (earning 5 of 28 first-place votes).", "Jackson (.293 average, 103 runs, 181 hits, 27 stolen bases) finished second in the AL Rookie of the Year voting.", "Justin Verlander enjoyed another strong season (18–9 record, 3.37 ERA, 219 strikeouts).=====The near-perfect game=====On June 2, 2010, Armando Galarraga was pitching a perfect game against the Cleveland Indians with 2 outs in the top of the ninth inning when first-base umpire Jim Joyce made a controversial call, ruling Jason Donald safe at first.", "Video replay showed he was out.", "A tearful Joyce later said, \"I just cost that kid a perfect game.", "I thought he beat the throw.", "I was convinced he beat the throw, until I saw the replay.\"", "Galarraga would later tell reporters that Joyce apologized to him directly and gave him a hug.", "The next day, with Joyce umpiring home plate, Galarraga brought out the lineup card and the two shook hands.", "Despite nationwide support for overturning the call, which included supportive statements from the Governor of Michigan and the White House, commissioner Bud Selig let the call stand.", "However, he said he would look into expanding instant replay in the future.===Division winners (2011–2014)=======2011: First AL Central Championship====The Tigers returned much of their roster from 2010, while adding relief pitcher Joaquín Benoit, catcher/DH Victor Martinez, and starting pitcher Brad Penny.On May 7, Verlander took a perfect game against the Toronto Blue Jays into the 8th inning.", "After a walk to J. P. Arencibia, Verlander coaxed a double-play grounder and went on to the 9th inning to complete his second career no-hitter by facing the minimum 27 batters.", "It was the seventh no-hitter in Tigers history.", "On August 27, Verlander defeated the Minnesota Twins, 6–4, to become the first Tiger since Bill Gullickson in 1991 to win 20 games in a season.", "Verlander also became the first major league pitcher since Curt Schilling in 2002 to reach 20 wins before the end of August.In May, the Tigers were as many as eight games back of the first place Cleveland Indians.", "However, they would start to play better.The Tigers sent five players to the 2011 All-Star Game.", "Catcher Alex Avila was voted in as a starter, while Justin Verlander, José Valverde and Miguel Cabrera were added as reserves.", "Verlander was unavailable to play in the All-Star Game due to the rule where starting pitchers who play the Sunday beforehand are ineligible.", "Shortstop Jhonny Peralta was later added to the All-Star team when the Yankees' Derek Jeter was unable to play due to injury.As a three-way battle for the division title developed between the Tigers, Indians, and Chicago White Sox, the Tigers put together an 18–10 record in August to begin to pull away.", "Starter Doug Fister, who was acquired at the trade deadline, provided an immediate spark, going 8–1 over the final two months of the season with a sparkling 1.79 ERA.", "After a loss on September 1, the Tigers reeled off a 12-game winning streak to put any thoughts of another late-season collapse to rest.", "The streak consisted of four consecutive three-game sweeps over their AL Central Division rivals.", "It was the Tigers' longest winning streak since the 1934 team won 14 straight.", "On September 16, the Tigers clinched the AL Central Division title with a 3–1 win over the Oakland Athletics.", "It was their first AL Central title since joining the division in 1998, and first division title of any kind since 1987.Members of the 2011 Tigers won multiple statistical awards in 2011.Verlander won the pitching triple crown, leading the AL in wins (24), ERA (2.40) and strikeouts (250).", "On November 15, Verlander was a unanimous selection for the AL Cy Young Award.", "In a much closer vote six days later, Verlander also won AL MVP, becoming the first pitcher to do so since Dennis Eckersley in 1992.Valverde was the AL saves leader with 49 (in 49 save opportunities), winning the 2011 MLB Delivery Man of the Year Award.", "Cabrera won the AL batting title with a .344 average, while also leading the AL in on-base percentage (.448) and doubles (48).The Tigers beat the New York Yankees by a score of 3–2 in Game 5 of the ALDS, winning the series 3–2.They advanced to the ALCS, but they lost to the defending AL Champion Texas Rangers, 4–2.====2012: American League Champions====In 2012, Miguel Cabrera became the first Major League player to win the Triple Crown in 45 years.Delmon Young (left) and Prince Fielder (right) in 2012In 2012, the Tigers looked to defend their 2011 AL Central Division title, with the hopes of earning a second consecutive playoff appearance.", "On January 24, the Tigers signed free agent All-Star first baseman Prince Fielder to a 9-year, $214 million contract.", "The move came shortly after the Tigers learned that Víctor Martínez had torn his anterior cruciate ligament during offseason training in Lakeland, Florida, and would likely miss the entire 2012 season.", "Miguel Cabrera moved back to his original position of third base, leading to the eventual release of veteran Brandon Inge on April 26.On July 23, the Tigers acquired veteran second baseman Omar Infante, who played for Detroit in 2003–07, and starting pitcher Aníbal Sánchez from the Miami Marlins in exchange for starting pitcher Jacob Turner and two other minor leaguers.At the midway point of the 2012 season, the Tigers were three games under .500 (39–42).", "The team played much better in the second half and, after a fierce battle down the stretch with the Chicago White Sox, the Tigers clinched the AL Central division title on October 1 with a 6–3 win against the Kansas City Royals.", "Coupled with the Tigers' division title in 2011, it marked the first back-to-back divisional titles in team history, and first back-to-back postseason appearances since 1934–35.The Tigers concluded the season with an 88–74 record.On the final day of the season, Cabrera earned the Triple Crown in batting, leading the AL in batting average (.330), home runs (44), and runs batted in (139).", "No player had accomplished this feat since Carl Yastrzemski in 1967.On the mound, starters Justin Verlander and Max Scherzer finished first and second among the American League strikeout leaders, with 239 and 231, respectively.", "Verlander (17–8, 2.64 ERA) finished second in the Cy Young Award balloting to David Price of the Tampa Bay Rays.In the American League Division Series, the Tigers defeated the Oakland Athletics, 3–2, earning their second straight trip to the American League Championship Series.", "The Tigers completed a four-game sweep of the New York Yankees in the ALCS to win their 11th AL pennant and earn a trip to the World Series.", "In the World Series, the Tigers were swept by the San Francisco Giants.On November 15, 2012, Cabrera was named AL MVP.====2013: American League title defense====The Tigers entered the 2013 season looking to defend their 2012 AL pennant.", "Key acquisitions in the offseason included signing free agent outfielder Torii Hunter to a two-year, $26 million contract, while also signing their 2012 trade deadline acquisition, pitcher Aníbal Sánchez, to a five-year, $80 million deal.", "The Tigers also signed free agent catcher Brayan Peña to a one-year contract.", "Moreover, ace starter Justin Verlander signed a $180 million contract extension.", "The Tigers placed six players on the 2013 American League All-Star team: Miguel Cabrera, Prince Fielder, Jhonny Peralta, Torii Hunter, Max Scherzer and Justin Verlander.On September 25, the Tigers clinched their third consecutive AL Central Division title.", "Tigers pitchers struck out 1,428 batters during the regular season, breaking the record of 1,404 held by the 2003 Chicago Cubs.", "Cabrera (.348 average, 44 HR, 139 RBI) was voted the AL MVP for the second straight season, while Scherzer (21–3, 2.90 ERA, 240 strikeouts) won the AL Cy Young Award.The Tigers played the Oakland Athletics for the second straight year in the ALDS, and defeated the A's, 3–2.The Tigers set a record by striking out 57 Oakland batters in the ALDS.", "With his Game 5 gem, Verlander ran his postseason scoreless streak against Oakland to 30 innings.The Tigers advanced to their third straight ALCS, where they played the Boston Red Sox for the first ever time in the postseason.", "The Tigers would be defeated in six games.====2014: Changes at the top====Jim Leyland, manager from 2006 to 2013Jim Leyland stepped down from his managerial position after eight years with Detroit, and the Tigers hired Brad Ausmus as Leyland's successor.", "On November 20, 2013, the Tigers traded Prince Fielder to the Texas Rangers for three time All-Star second baseman Ian Kinsler plus cash considerations with regard to Fielder's remaining contract amount.", "The Tigers later traded starting pitcher Doug Fister to the Washington Nationals for infielder Steve Lombardozzi Jr. and pitchers Ian Krol and Robbie Ray.In an effort to improve a bullpen that often struggled in 2013, the Tigers signed veteran closer Joe Nathan to a two-year, $20 million contract, with a club option for 2016, and later signed Joba Chamberlain to a one-year, $2.5 million deal.", "On May 2, 2014, a month into the season, with the bullpen having a combined 5.37 ERA, which was 29th out of 30 in MLB, the Tigers signed free agent reliever Joel Hanrahan to a one-year contract.", "However, he never came off the disabled list to pitch for the team.", "The team further bolstered the bullpen near the MLB trading deadline, dealing pitchers Corey Knebel and Jake Thompson to the Texas Rangers in exchange for former All-Star closer Joakim Soria on July 23.On July 31, with just hours left before the end of the non-waiver trade deadline, the Tigers traded pitcher Drew Smyly and shortstop Willy Adames to the Tampa Bay Rays, and Austin Jackson to the Seattle Mariners in a three-team deal to acquire pitcher David Price from the Rays.", "With the acquisition of Price, the Tigers became the first team in major league history with three consecutive Cy Young Award winners in its starting rotation.On September 28, the last day of the regular season, Price pitched a 3–0 gem against the Minnesota Twins, and the Tigers clinched their fourth consecutive AL Central Division title.", "The 90–72 Tigers finished one game ahead of the Kansas City Royals.The Tigers faced the Baltimore Orioles in the 2014 American League Division Series, where they were swept, 3–0.J.", "D. Martinez became the first player in franchise history to hit home runs in his first two career postseason games.", "Both were part of back-to-back homers, with Víctor Martínez and Nick Castellanos in Games 1 and 2, respectively.===2015: Mid-season Reboot===Brad Ausmus continued to manage the Tigers for a second season.", "Free agents Max Scherzer and Torii Hunter left for other teams at the end of the year, while Rick Porcello, Eugenio Suárez, Robbie Ray, and prospect Devon Travis were all lost through trades.", "On the receiving end, the Tigers traded for slugger Yoenis Céspedes, relief pitcher Alex Wilson, speedy outfielder Anthony Gose and starting pitchers Alfredo Simón and Shane Greene.After winning the first six games of the year in record-breaking fashion, the season slowly went downhill for the Tigers.", "Inconsistent pitching, division rivals outperforming expectations, and injuries to multiple players, including Joe Nathan, who only appeared in one game, Victor Martínez, and career first stints on the disabled list for Justin Verlander and Miguel Cabrera, sent the team below the .500 mark as the trade deadline came and the decision was made to \"reboot\" the team.", "Within a two-day span in late July, the Tigers traded David Price, Joakim Soria and Cespedes, receiving six well regarded prospects in return, including Daniel Norris and Michael Fulmer.On August 4, longtime general manager Dave Dombrowski was released by the team, with assistant GM Al Avila being promoted to general manager and president of baseball operations.Despite difficulties, the Tigers still ended up sending four players to the 2015 MLB All-Star Game: Miguel Cabrera received his 10th career All-Star selection and the starting nod, but could not play due to injury; David Price received his 5th career selection as well as the credit for the win for the American League; and J.D.", "Martinez and Jose Iglesias both received their first career All-Star selections.The Tigers ended the season in last place in the AL Central Division with a record of 74–87.The pitching staff was one of the worst in MLB, ending 27th in ERA, 28th in FIP, and 27th in WHIP.", "However, the team also ended with a team batting average of .270, the best in MLB, while Miguel Cabrera finished with the highest player batting average in the AL and MLB (.338), earning his fourth batting title in five years.===2016===Brad Ausmus and the Tigers entered the 2016 season with new pitching coach Rich Dubee and 9 out of 25 members of the 2015 roster being replaced through trades and free agency.", "Prominent additions included two highly sought free agents, starting pitcher Jordan Zimmermann and outfielder Justin Upton, as well as players acquired through trades: outfielder Cameron Maybin, and the veteran closer Francisco Rodriguez, who led a totally revamped bullpen.", "The Tigers lost two 2016 draft picks due to free agent compensation but, because of their bottom-ten finish in 2015, they kept their first round pick.", "Key veteran losses include catcher Alex Avila and outfielder Rajai Davis, who both signed free agent deals with other teams in the division.The Tigers finished the season with a record of 86–75, eight games behind the first place Cleveland Indians.", "Detroit was the final team to fall out of contention for a wild card spot, losing Saturday and Sunday games to the Atlanta Braves, while the two teams they were chasing, Baltimore and Toronto, got needed wins.Pitcher Michael Fulmer, acquired from the New York Mets organization in 2015, won the 2016 AL Rookie of the Year Award.===Rebuilding (2017–present)=======2017====Mike Ilitch, the Tigers owner since 1992, died at the age of 87 on February 10, 2017.The team remains in an Ilitch family trust, under the leadership of Mike's son, Christopher Ilitch.", "Like the Detroit Red Wings, the Tigers honored their owner in multiple ways, the most prominent being a \"Mr.", "I\" uniform patch.After a disappointing record through the All-Star break, the Tigers began committing to a rebuild, trading J. D. Martinez, Alex Avila and Justin Wilson in July, plus Justin Upton and Justin Verlander in August.", "On September 22, the Tigers announced that the team would not extend manager Brad Ausmus' contract past the 2017 season, ending his four-year tenure as manager.", "Under the management of Ausmus, the Tigers had a record of 314–332 (.486 winning percentage) and won one AL Central division title in 2014.The Tigers went 6–24 in September, ending the season in a tie for the worst record in MLB with the San Francisco Giants.", "However, due to a tiebreaker, the Tigers were awarded the number one overall pick in the 2018 MLB Draft.====2018====On October 20, 2017, the Tigers announced that Ron Gardenhire and the team had reached a three-year agreement for the former Minnesota Twins skipper to succeed Brad Ausmus as the team's manager.", "While rebuilding with young players, the team also lost slugger Miguel Cabrera and expected ace pitcher Michael Fulmer to extensive stints on the disabled list.", "This led the team to the same 64–98 record as the previous year, the fifth worst record in MLB, but still good for third place in a very weak AL Central division.====2019====Significant changes to the 2019 season opening roster include the departure of José Iglesias, and the one-year signings of the middle infield tandem of Jordy Mercer and Josh Harrison, both formerly of the Pittsburgh Pirates.", "On March 19, it was announced that Michael Fulmer would undergo Tommy John surgery and miss the 2019 season.", "The Tigers finished the season with a 47–114 record, the worst in all of Major League Baseball, and their second worst season in franchise history after their 43–119 record in 2003.The 2019 Tigers tied the 1939 St. Louis Browns for the most home losses (59) during a season in the modern era.====2020====On April 6, Al Kaline died at the age of 85.Kaline had been affiliated with the team for 67 years, most recently as an executive.", "The Tigers wore a No.", "6 patch to honor him.", "In the shortened 60-game season due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the Tigers remained in playoff contention heading into September.", "On September 19, manager Ron Gardenhire announced his retirement from baseball effective immediately, citing health concerns.", "Bench coach Lloyd McClendon was named interim manager for the remainder of the season.", "The Tigers ultimately faded down the stretch, finishing with a 23–35 record.====2021====On October 30, 2020, the Tigers hired A. J. Hinch as manager.", "On May 18, 2021, Spencer Turnbull pitched the eighth no-hitter in Tigers history against the Seattle Mariners.", "Turnbull became the first Tigers player to throw a no-hitter since Justin Verlander on May 7, 2011.The Tigers finished the season with a 77–85 record.", "This outperformed preseason predictions for the team, most of which said the Tigers would finish last.====2022====On August 10, 2022, the Tigers fired Al Avila as general manager.", "On September 19, 2022, the Tigers hired Scott Harris as president of baseball operations.", "The Tigers finished the season with a 66–96 record and had one of the worst offense in the league.", "On October 25, 2022, the Tigers hired Rob Metzler as vice president and assistant general manager.====2023====On September 21, 2023, the Tigers hired Jeff Greenberg as general manager.", "The Tigers finished the season with a 78–84 record, and in second place in the division.", "This was the final season for long-time Tigers slugger Miguel Cabrera, who announced he would retire from playing.", "Following his retirement he joined the Tigers' front office as a special assistant to Scott Harris.", "===Best seasons in Detroit Tigers history==='''Best seasons in Detroit Tigers history''' '''Rank''' '''Year''' '''Wins''' '''Losses''' '''Win %'''   '''Finish''' 1 1934 101 53 Lost 1934 World Series to Cardinals 2 1915 100 54 2nd in AL behind Red Sox 3 1909 98 54 Lost 1909 World Series to Pirates 4 1984 104 58 Won 1984 World Series over Padres 5 1968 103 59 Won 1968 World Series over Cardinals 6 1961 101 61 2nd in AL behind Yankees 7 1950 95 59 2nd in AL behind Yankees 8 1935 93 58 Won 1935 World Series over Cubs 9 1907 92 58 Lost 1907 World Series to Cubs 10 1987 98 64 Lost 1987 ALCS to Twins===Worst seasons in Detroit Tigers history==='''Worst seasons in Detroit Tigers history''' '''Rank''' '''Year''' '''Wins''' '''Losses''' '''Win %''' 1 2003 43 119 2201947114 3 1952 50 104 4 1996 53 109 5 2002 55 106 6 1975 57 102 7 1989 59 103 8 1902 52 83 9 1953 60 94 10 2017 and 2018 64 98 ===Payroll==='''Total team payroll''' '''Year''' '''Amount''' 2007 $93,880,369 2008 $137,685,196 2009 $115,085,145 2010 $122,864,928 2011 $105,700,231 2012 $138,800,000 2013 $151,420,000 2014 $172,571,526 2015 $172,282,250 2016 $180,855,981 2017 $180,250,600 2018 $111,286,000 2019 $104,581,900 2020 $43,164,880 (60-game season) 2021 $85,648,945" ], [ "Nickname", "Tiger Stadium, home of the Tigers from 1912 to 1999, at the corner of Michigan and Trumbull Avenues in the Corktown district of DetroitThere are various legends about how the Tigers got their nickname.", "One involves the striped socks they wore.", "George Stallings, the team's manager, took credit for the name.", "However, the earliest known use of it appeared in the ''Detroit Free Press'' on April 16, 1895, a year prior to Stallings joining the team.In the book ''A Place for Summer: A Narrative History of Tiger Stadium'', Richard Bak states that the name originated from the Detroit Light Guard military unit, who were known as \"The Tigers\".", "They had played significant roles in certain Civil War battles and in the 1898 Spanish–American War.", "Upon entry into the majors, the ballclub sought and received formal permission from the Light Guard to use its trademark.", "From that day forth, the team has been known as the Tigers." ], [ "Rivalries", "===Chicago White Sox===The series between the Tigers and Chicago White Sox is one of the oldest active rivalries in the league today.", "Both teams joined the American League in 1901 after being charter members of the original Western League.", "Both have actively played one another annually for over 120 seasons.", "As is often the case between professional sports teams located Chicago or Detroit, there usually exists a rivalry as such with the Bulls–Pistons rivalry of the NBA, the Blackhawks–Red Wings rivalry of the NHL, and the Bears–Lions rivalry of the NFL.", "Despite playing one another for over 2,200 games, both teams have yet to meet in the postseason.===Divisional===The Tigers also maintain divisional rivalries with the Cleveland Guardians, the Kansas City Royals, and the Minnesota Twins.", "The rivalry with Cleveland came to a head when the Tigers played at Progressive Field on August 7, 2013, with the teams first and second in the AL Central standings.", "Many Tigers fans who made the short trip to Cleveland started several \"Let's go Tigers!\"", "chants while the game was tied in the 9th inning.", "Cleveland fans countered with a \"Detroit's bankrupt!\"", "chant, in reference to the city's 2013 bankruptcy.", "Footage of the game from SportsTime Ohio that had the chants clearly audible quickly went viral, with many baseball fans on social media criticizing Cleveland fans for the chant due to the circumstances of Detroit's financial situation.", "The Tigers ended up defeating Cleveland 6–5 in 14 innings.===Other teams===The Tigers have a holdover rivalry with the Toronto Blue Jays due to when the Tigers competed in the AL East.", "Additionally, the Tigers have had some rivalries with NL teams that they have faced repeatedly in the World Series, such as the Chicago Cubs (four times) and St. Louis Cardinals (three times).", "In interleague play, the Pittsburgh Pirates are the Tigers' \"natural rival.\"" ], [ "Fanbase", "There are numerous Tigers fans along the Lake Erie region throughout the state of Michigan, northwestern Ohio, southwestern Ontario, as well as a small fan base in and around the Erie, Pennsylvania area, due in part to Detroit's proximity to these regions as well as the presence of the Tigers' Double-A affiliate Erie SeaWolves in northwestern Pennsylvania.", "The Tigers have their Triple-A affiliate Toledo Mud Hens in Toledo, Ohio in addition to their Double-A affiliate in Erie.", "The cities of Windsor and Sarnia, Ontario, have large fan bases of loyal Tigers fans.", "The Tigers continue to develop a strong and long line of baseball fans in Ontario; the majority of baseball fans in southwestern Ontario are considered Tigers loyalists." ], [ "Home attendance", "Tigers opening day 2007; view from section 324 at Comerica Park===Comerica Park==='''Home attendance at Comerica Park''' '''Year''' '''Total attendance''' '''Game average''' '''League rank''' 2000 2,438,617 30,106 7th 2001 1,921,305 23,720 9th 2002 1,503,623\t 18,795 12th 2003 1,368,245 16,892 13th 2004 1,917,004 23,667 9th 2005 2,024,431 24,993 10th 2006 2,595,937 32,049 5th 2007 3,047,133 32,719 3rd 2008 3,202,645 39,539 3rd 2009 2,567,165 31,693 4th 2010 2,461,237 30,386 6th 2011 2,642,045 32,618 6th 2012 3,028,033 37,383 5th 2013 3,083,397 38,067 3rd 2014 2,917,209 36,015 4th 2015 2,726,048 33,655 5th 2016 2,493,859 31,173 7th 2017 2,321,599 28,662 7th 2018 1,856,970 22,926 10th 2019 1,501,430 18,536\t 12th 2020 N/A (COVID-19 pandemic) N/A N/A 2021 1,102,623 13,612 11th 2022 1,575,544 19,214 10th" ], [ "Rally cry", "During the 1968 season, the team was cheered on by the phrase, \"Go Get 'Em, Tigers\", which was made popular by a song of the same name written and recorded by Artie Fields.", "\"Sock it to 'em, Tigers!\"", "was also a popular phrase during this time.During the 1984 World Series championship run, the team was cheered on to the cry, \"Bless You Boys,\" a phrase coined by sportscaster Al Ackerman.In 2005, the team began using the phrase \"Who's Your Tiger?\"", "as its slogan.During the 2006 season, a rally cry caught on in the Tigers' dugout.", "In a June game against the New York Yankees, Tigers pitcher Nate Robertson was featured in an in-game interview with FSN Detroit.", "During the interview, Robertson began to stuff Big League Chew bubble gum into his mouth.", "The Tigers would spark a rally, in which they came back to tie the game.", "As a result, the phrase \"Gum Time\" became popular.Additionally, the chant of a local man, the late James Van Horn, who patrolled the streets around Comerica Park yelling out \"Eat 'Em Up Tigers!", "Eat 'Em Up!", "\", was very popular.In 2009, the team used the phrase \"Always a Tiger\" as its slogan.In 2011, the slogan was switched back to \"Who's Your Tiger?", "\"During the 2018 season, a rally cry caught on with both players and fans.", "In a May game against them Los Angeles Angels, a goose appeared on the field during a second rain delay.", "After a few minutes, it left the field only to fly into the scoreboard.", "The goose was unharmed.", "When the game resumed, the Tigers scored five runs in the sixth inning and won the game, 6–1.As a result, the goose was referred to as the \"Rally Goose\" and the phrase became popular." ], [ "Uniforms and logos", "Outfielder Ron LeFlore wearing the traditional Tigers home uniform with navy blue piping down the front and an Old English \"D\" on the left chestThe Tigers have worn essentially the same home uniform since 1934 — solid white jersey with navy blue piping down the front and an Old English \"D\" on the left chest, white pants, navy blue hat with a white letter D in the blackletter or ''textur''/''textualis'' typeface associated with Middle and Early Modern English and popularly referred to as \"Old English\" even though it was not used for that language.", "On the Tigers' road uniforms, the D on their hats is orange and a script \"Detroit\" appears across the jersey.", "A version of the team's blackletter D was first seen on Tigers uniforms in 1904, after using a simple block D in 1903.The blackletter D appeared frequently after that until being established in 1934.In 1960, the Tigers changed their uniform to read \"Tigers\" in script form, but the change only lasted one season before the traditional uniform was reinstated.The Tigers used to have different versions of the Old English D on the cap and jersey.", "In 2018, the Tigers changed the classic curved logo on their home uniforms to match that of the sharp-cornered hat logo; additionally, the logo on the cap was enlarged.", "In 2019, the Tigers reverted to the smaller logo on the cap, but kept the cap curved 'D' on the home jerseys.In 2023, the Tigers entered into a uniform sponsorship deal with Michigan-based supermarket chain Meijer.", "The patch, which is located on either sleeve depending on the player's handedness, matches the colors of the team's uniforms.", "'''Unique characteristics of the Tigers uniforms:'''* The Tigers are the only team in Major League Baseball to have a color on their road uniforms that is not on their home uniforms (orange).", "The Tigers first added orange to their road uniform in 1903, but it was not until 1972 that the Tigers made orange an accent color on their road uniforms full-time.", "The Tigers also wore the \"orange D\" navy caps at home during the late 1940s through the 1950s.", "* The Tigers' uniforms have more belt loops than those of any other team, owing to the fact that their uniform pants do not feature the wide \"tunnel\" loops that appear on most baseball pants.", "'''Alternate jerseys:'''In 1995, the Tigers introduced a solid navy blue alternate jersey, which featured the team's primary logo at the time, a tiger stepping through the D, on the chest.", "It was worn for one home game.The Tigers wear the throwback jerseys of the Detroit Stars for their annual Negro Leagues Tribute Game in order to pay tribute to the Negro leagues players and their contributions to the game of baseball.The Tigers wear a white and navy blue home jersey with \"Tigres\" across the chest for their annual \"¡Fiesta Tigres!\"", "game to recognize and honor the contributions of Hispanic and Latino players and coaches to the game of baseball.Like all of MLB, the Tigers wore a highly stylized and brightly colored jersey for Players Weekend.", "In the inaugural games from August 25–27, 2017, their away jerseys were grey with bright orange with \"Tigers\" on the chest, the orange cap had a tiger instead of the Old English \"D\" on it.", "Players were also encouraged to use nicknames on the back of their jerseys.", "In the 2018 season, the Tigers wore a blue jersey with orange sleeves that said \"Tigers\" on the chest, with an orange cap that had a tiger on it." ], [ "Baseball Hall of Famers", "===Ford C. Frick Award recipients======Michigan Sports Hall of Fame===Mickey CochraneSam CrawfordCharlie GehringerHarry HeilmannGeorge KellLou Whitaker'''Detroit Tigers in the Michigan Sports Hall of Fame'''No.NamePositionTenureNotes — Frank Navin Owner 1908–1935 Born in Adrian.", "— Walter Briggs Sr.", "Owner 1919–1935 Born in Ypsilanti.", "— John Fetzer Owner 1961–1983 — Mike Ilitch Owner 1992–2017 Born and raised in Detroit.", "— Marian Ilitch Owner 1992 Born and raised in Dearborn.", "— Jim Campbell Executive 1962–19831978–19901990–1992 — Ty Tyson Broadcaster 1927-1942 — Paul Carey Broadcaster 1973–1991 Born and raised in Mount Pleasant.", "— Ernie Harwell Broadcaster 1960–19911993–2002 — Van Patrick Broadcaster 1949, 1952–1959 — Ray Lane Broadcaster 1967–1972, 1999-2003 — Frank Beckmann Broadcaster 1995-2003 — Ty Cobb CFManager 1905–19261921–1926 — Sam Crawford OF 1903–1917 — Wish Egan P 1902 Born and raised in Evart.", "— Harry Heilmann RF/1BBroadcaster 19141916–1929 — Hughie Jennings IFManager 1907, 1909–1910, 1912, 19181907–1920 — Heinie Manush LF 1923–1927 — George Mullin P 1902–1913 1 Lou Whitaker 2B 1977–1995 2 Charlie Gehringer 2BGM 1924–19421951–1953 Grew up near Fowlerville.", "Attended the University of Michigan.", "3 Mickey Cochrane CManager 1934–19371934–1938 3 Dick McAuliffe 2B/SS 1960–1973 3 Alan Trammell SSCoachManager 1977–199619992003–2005 4 Goose Goslin LF 1934–1937 4 Rudy York 1B 1934, 1937–1945 4 Charlie Maxwell LF 1955–1962 Born in Lawton.", "Attended Western Michigan University.", "5 Hank Greenberg 1B 1930, 1933–19411945–1946 5, 20 Vic Wertz RF/1B 1947–19521961–1963 5 Jim Northrup OF 1964–1974 Born in Breckenridge.", "Attended Alma College.", "6 Al Kaline RFBroadcaster 1953–1974 7 Billy Rogell SS 1930–1939 7, 26 Harvey Kuenn OF/SS 1952–1959 7 Rick Leach OF/1B 1981–1983 Born in Ann Arbor.", "Attended the University of Michigan.", "10 Tommy Bridges P 1930–19431945–1946 10 Jim Leyland Manager 2006–2013 11 Sparky Anderson Manager 1979–1995 11 Bill Freehan C 1961, 1963–1976 Born and raised in Detroit.", "Attended the University of Michigan.", "13 Lance Parrish C 1977–1986 14 Schoolboy Rowe P 1933–1942 14, 15 Jim Bunning P 1955–1963 Elected mainly for his performance with Philadelphia Phillies.", "15, 21 George Kell 3BBroadcaster | 1946–19521959–19631965–1996 16 Hal Newhouser P 1939–1953 Born and raised in Detroit.", "17 Denny McLain P 1963–1970 18 John Hiller P 1965–19701972–1980 20 Billy Pierce P 1945, 1948 Elected mainly for his performance with Chicago White Sox.", "Born in Detroit and grew up in Highland Park.", "21 Barney McCosky OF 1939–1942, 1946 Grew up in Detroit.", "21, 30 Don Lund OF 1949, 1952–1954 Born and raised in Detroit.", "Attended the University of Michigan.", "21 Willie Hernández P 1984–1989 22 Virgil Trucks P 1941–1952, 1956 23 Willie Horton LF/DH 1963–1977 Born and raised in Detroit.", "Attended Detroit Northwestern High School.", "23 Kirk Gibson OFCoachBroadcaster 1979–19871993–19952003–2005 Born in Pontiac.", "Grew up in Waterford and attended Michigan State University.", "24 Mickey Stanley CF 1964–1978 Grew up in Grand Rapids.", "25 Norm Cash 1BBroadcaster 1960–1974 26 Gates Brown LFCoach 1963–19751978–1984 26 Frank Tanana P 1985–1992 Grew up in Detroit.", "29 Mickey Lolich P 1963–1975 47 Jack Morris PBroadcaster 1977–1990 ===Retired numbers and honorees===This is how the retired numbers and honored names are displayed on the outfield walls at Comerica Park:In left field:In right field:* Ty Cobb, Harry Heilmann, Heinie Manush, Hughie Jennings, and Sam Crawford are honored by their names on the wall at Comerica Park.", "They all played in an era where numbers were not worn on jerseys.", "* Though their numbers are not officially retired, the names of Mickey Cochrane and George Kell are displayed at Comerica Park to honor their contributions to the Detroit Tigers organization.", "Cochrane wore No.", "3, later retired for Alan Trammell, and Kell wore No.", "21 for five years, 7 for two years, and 15 for one year.", "They both entered the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum as Detroit Tigers, and their plaques in the Hall show them wearing the Tigers' cap.", "* Al Kaline was also a TV color commentator for the Tigers from 1975 to 2002.George Kell was also a play-by-play announcer for the Tigers from 1959 to 1963 and again from 1965 to 1996.", "* Ernie Harwell spent 42 years (in two stints) calling Tigers games on radio and television.", "* Jackie Robinson's No.", "'''42''' was retired throughout Major League Baseball in 1997.Almost all the players with retired numbers (and Ty Cobb) also have statues of themselves that sit behind their names, which are painted on the left-center field wall.National Avenue, which runs behind the third-base stands at the Tigers' previous home Tiger Stadium, was renamed Cochrane Street for Mickey Cochrane.", "Cherry Street, which runs behind the left-field stands at Tiger Stadium, was renamed Kaline Drive for Al Kaline.===Team captains===* Bill Coughlin 1907–1908* Germany Schaefer 1907–1909* George Moriarty 1911–1916* Brad Ausmus 1999* Doug Brocail 1999* Dean Palmer 1999" ], [ "Award winners" ], [ "Roster" ], [ "Minor league affiliations", "The Detroit Tigers farm system consists of seven minor league affiliates.ClassTeamLeagueLocationBallparkAffiliated Triple-A Toledo Mud Hens International League Toledo, Ohio Fifth Third Field 1987 Double-A Erie SeaWolves Eastern League Erie, Pennsylvania UPMC Park 2001 High-A West Michigan Whitecaps Midwest League Comstock Park, Michigan LMCU Ballpark 1997 Single-A Lakeland Flying Tigers Florida State League Lakeland, Florida Publix Field at Joker Marchant Stadium 1963 Rookie FCL Tigers Florida Complex League Lakeland, Florida Publix Field at Joker Marchant Stadium 1995 DSL Tigers 1Dominican Summer LeagueSan Pedro de Macorís, San Pedro de MacorísDetroit Tigers Academy 1992 DSL Tigers 2 2022" ], [ "Broadcasters", "Ernie Harwell served as a broadcaster for the Tigers from 1960 to 1991 and 1993–2002===Radio===The Tigers' current flagship radio stations are Detroit sister stations WXYT (1270 AM) and WXYT-FM (97.1 FM).", "Dan Dickerson does play-by-play with Bobby Scales and Cameron Maybin rotating on color commentary.", "Games are syndicated throughout Michigan, Toledo and Archbold, Ohio.===Television===As of 2023, the Tigers' current exclusive local television rights holder is Bally Sports Detroit, which picked up the rights in 1998 taking them away from Pro-Am Sports System, owned by Post-Newsweek Stations.", "The Tigers renewed in 2008, over a bid from a rival regional sports channel by Dish Network and AT&T's U-verse, apparently until 2021.Through 25 games in 2017, their games have averaged a 5.57 rating, which was fifth in the major league.", "During the 2016 season, the Tigers averaged a 7.56 rating and 138,000 viewers on primetime TV broadcasts.The Tigers' television broadcast team consists of Jason Benetti on play-by-play and former Tigers players Kirk Gibson, Todd Jones, Cameron Maybin and Craig Monroe rotating on color commentary.", "On games where Benetti is assigned to work for Fox Sports, Dan Dickerson serves as an alternate.===Former===" ], [ "Franchise records" ], [ "Facilities", "The team maintains a training center in the Dominican Republic." ], [ "See also", "* List of Detroit Tigers seasons* Detroit Tigers all-time roster* Managers and ownership of the Detroit Tigers" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*****" ], [ "External links", "* * Detroit Tigers at Baseball Reference* Sports E-Cyclopedia Detroit Tigers Page" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Diocletian" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Diocletian''' (, ; , ; 242/245 – 311/312), nicknamed '''''Jovius''''', was Roman emperor from 284 until his abdication in 305.He was born '''Diocles''' to a family of low status in the Roman province of Dalmatia.", "Diocles rose through the ranks of the military early in his career, eventually becoming a cavalry commander for the army of Emperor Carus.", "After the deaths of Carus and his son Numerian on a campaign in Persia, Diocles was proclaimed emperor by the troops, taking the name Diocletianus.", "The title was also claimed by Carus's surviving son, Carinus, but Diocletian defeated him in the Battle of the Margus.Diocletian's reign stabilized the empire and ended the Crisis of the Third Century.", "He appointed fellow officer Maximian as ''Augustus'', co-emperor, in 286.Diocletian reigned in the Eastern Empire, and Maximian reigned in the Western Empire.", "Diocletian delegated further on 1 March 293, appointing Galerius and Constantius as junior colleagues (each with the title ''Caesar''), under himself and Maximian respectively.", "Under the Tetrarchy, or \"rule of four\", each tetrarch would rule over a quarter-division of the empire.", "Diocletian secured the empire's borders and purged it of all threats to his power.", "He defeated the Sarmatians and Carpi during several campaigns between 285 and 299, the Alamanni in 288, and usurpers in Egypt between 297 and 298.Galerius, aided by Diocletian, campaigned successfully against Persia, the empire's traditional enemy, and in 299, he sacked their capital, Ctesiphon.", "Diocletian led the subsequent negotiations and achieved a lasting and favorable peace.Diocletian separated and enlarged the empire's civil and military services and reorganized the empire's provincial divisions, establishing the largest and most bureaucratic government in the history of the empire.", "He established new administrative centers in Nicomedia, Mediolanum, Sirmium, and Trevorum, closer to the empire's frontiers than the traditional capital at Rome.", "Building on third-century trends towards absolutism, he styled himself an autocrat, elevating himself above the empire's masses with imposing forms of court ceremonies and architecture.", "Bureaucratic and military growth, constant campaigning, and construction projects increased the state's expenditures and necessitated a comprehensive tax reform.", "From at least 297 on, imperial taxation was standardized, made more equitable, and levied at generally higher rates.Not all of Diocletian's plans were successful: the Edict on Maximum Prices (301), his attempt to curb inflation via price controls, was counterproductive and quickly ignored.", "Although effective while he ruled, Diocletian's tetrarchic system collapsed after his abdication under the competing dynastic claims of Maxentius and Constantine, sons of Maximian and Constantius respectively.", "The Diocletianic Persecution (303–312), the empire's last, largest, and bloodiest official persecution of Christianity, failed to eliminate Christianity in the empire.", "After 324, Christianity became the empire's preferred religion under Constantine.", "Despite these failures and challenges, Diocletian's reforms fundamentally changed the structure of the Roman imperial government and helped stabilize the empire economically and militarily, enabling the empire to remain essentially intact for another 150 years despite being near the brink of collapse in Diocletian's youth.", "Weakened by illness, Diocletian left the imperial office on 1 May 305, becoming the first Roman emperor to abdicate the position voluntarily.", "He lived out his retirement in his palace on the Dalmatian coast, tending to his vegetable gardens.", "His palace eventually became the core of the modern-day city of Split in Croatia." ], [ "Early life", "Panorama of amphitheatre in SalonaDiocletian was born in Dalmatia, probably at or near the town of Salona (modern Solin, Croatia), to which he retired later in life.", "His original name was Diocles (in full, Gaius Valerius Diocles), possibly derived from Dioclea, the name of both his mother and her supposed place of birth.", "Diocletian's official birthday was 22 December, and his year of birth has been estimated at between 242 and 245 based on a statement that he was aged 68 at death (alongside other evidence).", "His parents were of low status; Eutropius records \"that he is said by most writers to have been the son of a scribe, but by some to have been a freedman of a senator called Anulinus.\"", "The first forty years of his life are mostly obscure.", "Diocletian was considered an ''Illyricianus'' (Illyrian) who had been schooled and promoted by Aurelian.", "The 12th-century Byzantine chronicler Joannes Zonaras states that he was ''Dux Moesiae'', a commander of forces on the lower Danube.", "The often-unreliable ''Historia Augusta'' states that he served in Gaul, but this is not corroborated by other sources and is ignored by modern historians.", "The first time Diocletian's whereabouts are accurately established was in 282 when the Emperor Carus made him commander of the ''Protectores domestici'', the elite cavalry force directly attached to the Imperial household.", "This post earned him the honor of a consulship in 283.===Death of Numerian===Carus's death, amid a successful war with Persia and in mysterious circumstances – he was believed to have been struck by lightning or killed by Persian soldiers – left his sons Numerian and Carinus as the new ''Augusti''.", "Carinus quickly made his way to Rome from his post in Gaul and arrived there by January 284, becoming the legitimate Emperor in the West.", "Numerian lingered in the East.", "The Roman withdrawal from Persia was orderly and unopposed.", "The Sassanid king Bahram II could not field an army against them as he was still struggling to establish his authority.", "By March 284, Numerian had only reached Emesa (Homs) in Syria; by November, only Asia Minor.", "In Emesa he was apparently still alive and in good health: he issued the only extant rescript in his name there, but after he left the city, his staff, including the prefect (Numerian's father-in-law and the dominant influence in his entourage) Aper, reported that he suffered from an inflammation of the eyes.", "He traveled in a closed coach from then on.", "When the army reached Bithynia, some of the soldiers smelled an odor emanating from the coach.", "They opened its curtains and found Numerian dead.", "Both Eutropius and Aurelius Victor describe Numerian's death as an assassination.Aper officially broke the news in Nicomedia (İzmit) in November.", "Numerian's generals and tribunes called a council for the succession, and chose Diocles as Emperor, in spite of Aper's attempts to garner support.", "On 20 November 284, the army of the east gathered on a hill outside Nicomedia.", "The army unanimously saluted Diocles as their new ''Augustus'', and he accepted the purple imperial vestments.", "He raised his sword to the light of the sun and swore an oath disclaiming responsibility for Numerian's death.", "He asserted that Aper had killed Numerian and concealed it.", "In full view of the army, Diocles drew his sword and killed Aper.", "Soon after Aper's death, Diocles changed his name to the more Latinate \"Diocletianus\" – in full, Gaius Valerius Diocletianus.===Conflict with Carinus===Head of Carinus at the Centrale MontemartiniAfter his accession, Diocletian and Lucius Caesonius Bassus were named as consuls and assumed the ''fasces'' in place of Carinus and Numerian.", "Bassus was a member of a senatorial family from Campania, a former consul and proconsul of Africa, chosen by Probus for signal distinction.", "He was skilled in areas of government where Diocletian presumably had no experience.", "Diocletian's elevation of Bassus symbolized his rejection of Carinus' government in Rome, his refusal to accept second-tier status to any other emperor, and his willingness to continue the long-standing collaboration between the empire's senatorial and military aristocracies.", "It also tied his success to that of the Senate, whose support he would need in his advance on Rome.Diocletian was not the only challenger to Carinus' rule; the usurper Julianus, Carinus' ''corrector Venetiae'', took control of northern Italy and Pannonia after Diocletian's accession.", "Julianus minted coins from Siscia (Sisak, Croatia) declaring himself emperor and promising freedom.", "This aided Diocletian in his portrayal of Carinus as a cruel and oppressive tyrant.", "Julianus' forces were weak, and were handily dispersed when Carinus' armies moved from Britain to northern Italy.", "As the leader of the united East, Diocletian was clearly the greater threat.", "Over the winter of 284–85, Diocletian advanced west across the Balkans.", "In the spring, some time before the end of May, his armies met Carinus' across the river Margus (Great Morava) in Moesia.", "In modern accounts, the site has been located between the Mons Aureus (Seone, west of Smederevo) and Viminacium, near modern Belgrade, Serbia.Despite having a stronger, more powerful army, Carinus held the weaker position.", "His rule was unpopular, and it was later alleged that he had mistreated the Senate and seduced his officers' wives.", "It is possible that Flavius Constantius, the governor of Dalmatia and Diocletian's associate in the household guard, had already defected to Diocletian in the early spring.", "When the Battle of the Margus began, Carinus' prefect Aristobulus also defected.", "In the course of the battle, Carinus was killed by his own men.", "Following Diocletian's victory, both the western and the eastern armies acclaimed him as Emperor.", "Diocletian exacted an oath of allegiance from the defeated army and departed for Italy." ], [ "Early rule", "Aureus of Diocletian, minted 288Diocletian may have become involved in battles against the Quadi and Marcomanni immediately after the Battle of the Margus.", "He eventually made his way to northern Italy and made an imperial government, but it is not known whether he visited Rome at this time.", "There is a contemporary issue of coins suggestive of an imperial ''adventus'' (arrival) for the city, but some modern historians state that Diocletian avoided the city, to demonstrate that the city and its Senate were no longer politically relevant to the affairs of the empire.", "Diocletian dated his reign from his elevation by the army, not his ratification by the Senate, following the practice established by Carus, who had declared the Senate's ratification a useless formality.", "However, Diocletian offered proof of his deference towards the Senate by retaining Aristobulus as ordinary consul and colleague for 285 (one of the few instances during the Late Empire in which an emperor admitted a ''privatus'' as his colleague) and by creating senior senators Vettius Aquilinus and Junius Maximus ordinary consuls for the following year – for Maximus, it was his second consulship.If Diocletian did enter Rome shortly after his accession, he did not stay long; he is attested back in the Balkans by 2 November 285, on campaign against the Sarmatians.Head of Diocletian at the National Museum of SerbiaDiocletian replaced the prefect of Rome with his consular colleague Bassus.", "Most officials who had served under Carinus, however, retained their offices under Diocletian.", "In an act of ''clementia'' denoted by the epitomator of Aurelius Victor as unusual, Diocletian did not kill or depose Carinus's traitorous praetorian prefect and consul Aristobulus, but confirmed him in both roles.", "He later gave him the proconsulate of Africa and the post of urban prefect for 295.The other figures who retained their offices might have also betrayed Carinus.===Maximian made Caesar===The assassinations of Aurelian and Probus demonstrated that sole rulership was dangerous to the stability of the empire.", "Conflict boiled in every province, from Gaul to Syria, Egypt to the lower Danube.", "It was too much for one person to control, and Diocletian needed a lieutenant.", "At some time in 285 at Mediolanum (Milan), Diocletian raised his fellow-officer Maximian to the office of ''Caesar'', making him his effective co-ruler.The concept of dual rulership was not new to the Roman Empire.", "Augustus, the first emperor, had nominally shared power with his colleagues, and a formal office of co-emperor (co-''Augustus'') had existed from Marcus Aurelius onward.", "Most recently, Emperor Carus and his sons had ruled together, albeit unsuccessfully.", "Diocletian was in a less comfortable position than most of his predecessors, as he had a daughter, Valeria, but no sons.", "His co-ruler had to be from outside his family, raising the question of trust.", "Some historians state that Diocletian adopted Maximian as his ''filius Augusti'', his \"Augustan son\", upon his appointment to the throne, following the precedent of some previous Emperors.", "This argument has not been universally accepted.", "Diocletian and Maximian added each other's ''nomina'' (their family name, \"Valerius\" and \"Aurelius\", respectively) to their own, thus creating an artificial family link and becoming part of the \"Aurelius Valerius\" family.Diocletian and Maximian on an aureus (287 AD)The relationship between Diocletian and Maximian was quickly couched in religious terms.", "Around 287 Diocletian assumed the title ''Iovius'' (Jovius), and Maximian assumed the title ''Herculius'' (Hercules).", "The titles were probably meant to convey certain characteristics of their associated leaders.", "Diocletian, in Jovian style, would take on the dominating roles of planning and commanding; Maximian, in Herculian mode, would act as Jupiter's heroic subordinate.", "For all their religious connotations, the emperors were not \"gods\" in the tradition of the Imperial cult – although they may have been hailed as such in Imperial panegyrics.", "Instead, they were seen as the gods' representatives, effecting their will on earth.", "The shift from military acclamation to divine sanctification took the power to appoint emperors away from the army.", "Religious legitimization elevated Diocletian and Maximian above potential rivals in a way military power and dynastic claims could not.===Conflict with Sarmatia and Persia===After his acclamation, Maximian was dispatched to fight the rebel Bagaudae, insurgent peasants of Gaul.", "Diocletian returned to the East, progressing slowly.", "By 2 November, he had only reached Civitas Iovia (Botivo, near Ptuj, Slovenia).", "In the Balkans during the autumn of 285, he encountered a tribe of Sarmatians who demanded assistance.", "The Sarmatians requested that Diocletian either help them recover their lost lands or grant them pasturage rights within the empire.", "Diocletian refused and fought a battle with them, but was unable to secure a complete victory.", "The nomadic pressures of the European Plain remained and could not be solved by a single war; soon the Sarmatians would have to be fought again.Diocletian wintered in Nicomedia.", "There may have been a revolt in the eastern provinces at this time, as he brought settlers from Asia to populate emptied farmlands in Thrace.", "He visited Syria Palaestina the following spring, His stay in the East saw diplomatic success in the conflict with Persia: in 287, Bahram II granted him precious gifts, declared open friendship with the Empire, and invited Diocletian to visit him.", "Roman sources insist that the act was entirely voluntary.Around the same time, perhaps in 287, Persia relinquished claims on Armenia and recognized Roman authority over territory to the west and south of the Tigris.", "The western portion of Armenia was incorporated into the empire and made a province.", "Tiridates III, the Arsacid claimant to the Armenian throne and a Roman client, had been disinherited and forced to take refuge in the empire after the Persian conquest of 252–53.In 287, he returned to lay claim to the eastern half of his ancestral domain and encountered no opposition.", "Bahram II's gifts were widely recognized as symbolic of a victory in the ongoing conflict with Persia, and Diocletian was hailed as the \"founder of eternal peace\".", "The events might have represented a formal end to Carus's eastern campaign, which probably ended without an acknowledged peace.", "At the conclusion of discussions with the Persians, Diocletian re-organized the Mesopotamian frontier and fortified the city of Circesium (Buseire, Syria) on the Euphrates.===Maximian made Augustus===Maximian's campaigns were not proceeding as smoothly.", "The Bagaudae had been easily suppressed, but Carausius, the man he had put in charge of operations against Saxon and Frankish pirates on the Saxon Shore, had, according to literary sources, begun keeping the goods seized from the pirates for himself.", "Maximian issued a death warrant for his larcenous subordinate.", "Carausius fled the Continent, proclaimed himself emperor, and agitated Britain and northwestern Gaul into open revolt against Maximian and Diocletian.Far more probable, according to the archaeological evidence, is that Carausius had held some important military post in Britain, already had a firm basis of power in Britain and Northern Gaul, and profited from the lack of legitimacy of the central government.", "Carausius strove to have his legitimacy as a junior emperor acknowledged by Diocletian: in his coinage, he extolled the \"concord\" between him and the central power.", "One bronze piece from 290 read PAX AVGGG, \"the Peace of the three Augusti\"; on the other side, it showed Carausius together with Diocletian and Maximian, with the caption CARAVSIVS ET FRATRES SVI, \"Carausius & his brothers\".", "However, Diocletian could not allow a breakaway regional usurper following in Postumus's footprints to enter, of his own accord, the imperial college.Spurred by the crisis, on 1 April 286, Maximian took up the title of ''Augustus'' (emperor).", "Unusually, Diocletian could not have been present to witness it.", "It has even been suggested that Maximian usurped the title and was only later recognized by Diocletian in hopes of avoiding civil war.", "This suggestion is unpopular, as it is clear that Diocletian meant for Maximian to act with a certain amount of independence.", "It may be posited that Diocletian felt the need to bind Maximian closer to him, by making him his empowered associate, to avoid the possibility of him striking some sort of deal with Carausius.Carausius, rebel emperor of Roman Britain.", "Most of the evidence for Carausius's reign comes from his coinage, which was of generally fine quality.Maximian realized that he could not immediately suppress the rogue commander, so in 287 he campaigned against tribes beyond the Rhine instead.", "As Carausius was allied to the Franks, Maximian's campaigns could be seen as an effort to deny him a basis of support on the mainland.", "The following spring, as Maximian prepared a fleet for an expedition against Carausius, Diocletian returned from the East to meet Maximian.", "The two emperors agreed on a joint campaign against the Alamanni.", "Diocletian invaded Germania through Raetia while Maximian progressed from Mainz.", "Each burned crops and food supplies as he went, destroying the Germans' means of sustenance.", "The two men added territory to the empire and allowed Maximian to continue preparations against Carausius without further disturbance.", "On his return to the East, Diocletian managed what was probably another rapid campaign against the resurgent Sarmatians.", "No details survive, but surviving inscriptions indicate that Diocletian took the title ''Sarmaticus Maximus'' after 289.In the East, Diocletian engaged in diplomacy with desert tribes in the regions between Rome and Persia.", "He might have been attempting to persuade them to ally themselves with Rome, thus reviving the old, Rome-friendly, Palmyrene sphere of influence, or to reduce the frequency of their incursions.", "No details survive for these events.", "Some of the princes of these states were Persian client kings, a disturbing fact for the Romans in light of increasing tensions with the Sassanids.", "In the West, Maximian lost the fleet built in 288 and 289, probably in the early spring of 290.The panegyrist who refers to the loss suggests that its cause was a storm, but this might have been an attempt to conceal an embarrassing military defeat.", "Diocletian broke off his tour of the Eastern provinces soon thereafter.", "He returned with haste to the West, reaching Emesa by 10 May 290, and Sirmium on the Danube by 1 July 290.Diocletian met Maximian in Milan either in late December 290 or January 291.The meeting was undertaken with a sense of solemn pageantry.", "The emperors spent most of their time in public appearances.", "It has been surmised that the ceremonies were arranged to demonstrate Diocletian's continuing support for his faltering colleague.", "A deputation from the Roman Senate met with the emperors, renewing its infrequent contact with the Imperial office.", "The choice of Milan over Rome further snubbed the capital's pride.", "But then it was already a long-established practice that Rome itself was only a ceremonial capital, as the actual seat of the Imperial administration was determined by the needs of defense.", "Long before Diocletian, Gallienus (r. 253–68) had chosen Milan for his headquarters.", "If the panegyric detailing the ceremony implied that the true center of the empire was not Rome, but where the emperor sat (\"...the capital of the empire appeared to be there, where the two emperors met\"), it simply echoed what had already been stated by the historian Herodian in the early third century: \"Rome is where the emperor is\".", "During the meeting, decisions on matters of politics and war were probably made in secret.", "The Augusti would not meet again until 303." ], [ "Tetrarchy", "===Foundation of the Tetrarchy===dioceses and the four tetrarchs' zones of influence post-299, after Diocletian and Galerius had exchanged their allocated provinces.Triumphal arch of the Tetrarchy, Sbeitla, TunisiaSome time after his return, and before 293, Diocletian transferred command of the war against Carausius from Maximian to Flavius Constantius, which he concluded successfully in 296.Constantius was a former Governor of Dalmatia and a man of military experience stretching back to Aurelian's campaigns against Zenobia (272–73).", "He was Maximian's praetorian prefect in Gaul, and the husband to Maximian's daughter, Theodora.", "On 1 March 293 at Milan, Maximian gave Constantius the office of caesar.", "The same day, in either Philippopolis (Plovdiv, Bulgaria) or Sirmium, Diocletian did the same for Galerius, husband to Diocletian's daughter Valeria, and perhaps Diocletian's praetorian prefect.", "Constantius was assigned Gaul and Britain.", "Galerius was initially assigned Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and responsibility for the eastern borderlands.This arrangement is called the Tetrarchy, from a Greek term meaning \"rulership by four\".", "The Tetrarchs were more or less sovereign in their own lands, and they travelled with their own imperial courts, administrators, secretaries, and armies.", "They were joined by blood and marriage; Diocletian and Maximian now styled themselves as brothers, and formally adopted Galerius and Constantius as sons.", "These relationships implied a line of succession.", "Galerius and Constantius would become ''Augusti'' after the departure of Diocletian and Maximian.", "Maximian's son Maxentius and Constantius's son Constantine would then become Caesars.", "In preparation for their future roles, Constantine and Maxentius were taken to Diocletian's court in Nicomedia.===Conflict in the Balkans and Egypt===A Trajanic temple on the island of Philae, the newly established border between the Nobatae and Blemmyes and Roman Egypt.Diocletian spent the spring of 293 travelling with Galerius from Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia) to Byzantium (Istanbul, Turkey).", "Diocletian then returned to Sirmium, where he remained for the following winter and spring.", "He campaigned successfully against the Sarmatians in 294, probably in the autumn.", "The Sarmatians' defeat kept them from the Danube provinces for a long time.", "Meanwhile, Diocletian built forts north of the Danube, part of a new defensive line called the ''Ripa Samartica'', at Aquincum (Budapest, Hungary), Bononia (Vidin, Bulgaria), Ulcisia Vetera, Castra Florentium, Intercisa (Dunaújváros, Hungary), and Onagrinum (Begeč, Serbia).", "In 295 and 296 Diocletian campaigned in the region again, and won a victory over the Carpi in the summer of 296.Later during both 299 and 302, as Diocletian was residing in the East, it was Galerius's turn to campaign victoriously on the Danube.", "By the end of his reign, Diocletian had secured the entire length of the Danube, provided it with forts, bridgeheads, highways, and walled towns, and sent fifteen or more legions to patrol the region; an inscription at Sexaginta Prista on the Lower Danube extolled restored tranquility to the region.", "The defense came at a heavy cost but was a significant achievement in an area difficult to defend.Luxor Temple's imperial cult chamber.", "It depicts senior military officers gathered around Diocletian's throne, circa 280.Galerius, meanwhile, was engaged during 291–293 in disputes in Upper Egypt, where he suppressed a regional uprising.", "He returned to Syria in 295 to fight the revanchist Persian empire.", "Diocletian's attempts to bring the Egyptian tax system in line with Imperial standards stirred discontent, and a revolt swept the region after Galerius's departure.", "The usurper Domitius Domitianus declared himself ''Augustus'' in July or August 297.Much of Egypt, including Alexandria, recognized his rule.", "Diocletian moved into Egypt to suppress him, first putting down rebels in the Thebaid in the autumn of 297, then moving on to besiege Alexandria.", "Domitianus died in December 297, by which time Diocletian had secured control of the Egyptian countryside.", "Alexandria, whose defense was organized under Domitianus's former ''corrector'' Aurelius Achilleus, held out probably until March 298.Later in 298, a triumphal column was erected in Alexandria to honor Diocletian, known as Pompey's Pillar.Bureaucratic affairs were completed during Diocletian's stay: a census took place, and Alexandria, in punishment for its rebellion, lost the ability to mint independently.", "Diocletian's reforms in the region, combined with those of Septimius Severus, brought Egyptian administrative practices much closer to Roman standards.", "Diocletian travelled south along the Nile the following summer, where he visited Oxyrhynchus and Elephantine.", "In Nubia, he made peace with the Nobatae and Blemmyes tribes.", "Under the terms of the peace treaty Rome's borders moved north to Philae and the two tribes received an annual gold stipend.", "Diocletian left Africa quickly after the treaty, moving from Upper Egypt in September 298 to Syria in February 299.He met with Galerius in Mesopotamia.===War with Persia=======Invasion, counterinvasion====Medallion of Diocletian, AD 294.In 294, Narseh, a son of Shapur who had been passed over for the Sassanid succession, came to power in Persia.", "In early 294, Narseh sent Diocletian the customary package of gifts between the empires, and Diocletian responded with an exchange of ambassadors.", "Within Persia, Narseh was destroying every trace of his immediate predecessors from public monuments.", "He sought to identify himself with the warlike kings Ardashir I (r. 226–41) and Shapur I (r. 241–72), who had defeated and imprisoned Emperor Valerian (r. 253–260) following his failed invasion of the Sasanian Empire.Narseh declared war on Rome in 295 or 296.He appears to have first invaded western Armenia, where he seized the lands delivered to Tiridates in the peace of 287.He moved south into Roman Mesopotamia in 297, where he inflicted a severe defeat on Galerius in the region between Carrhae (Harran, Turkey) and Callinicum (Raqqa, Syria), suggested by the historian Fergus Millar to have been somewhere on the Balikh River.", "Diocletian may or may not have been present at the battle, but he quickly divested himself of all responsibility.", "In a public ceremony at Antioch, the official version of events was clear: Galerius was responsible for the defeat; Diocletian was not.", "Diocletian publicly humiliated Galerius, forcing him to walk for a mile at the head of the Imperial caravan, still clad in the purple robes of the Emperor.Detail of Galerius attacking Narseh on the Arch of Galerius at Thessaloniki, Greece, the city where Galerius carried out most of his administrative actions.Galerius was reinforced, probably in the spring of 298, by a new contingent collected from the empire's Danubian holdings.", "Narseh did not advance from Armenia and Mesopotamia, leaving Galerius to lead the offensive in 298 with an attack on northern Mesopotamia via Armenia.", "It is unclear if Diocletian was present to assist the campaign; he might have returned to Egypt or Syria.", "Narseh retreated to Armenia to fight Galerius's force, to Narseh's disadvantage; the rugged Armenian terrain was favorable to Roman infantry, but not to Sassanid cavalry.", "In two battles, Galerius won major victories over Narseh.", "During the second encounter, Roman forces seized Narseh's camp, his treasury, his harem, and his wife.", "Galerius continued down the Tigris, and took the Persian capital Ctesiphon before returning to Roman territory along the Euphrates.====Peace negotiations====Narseh sent an ambassador to Galerius to plead for the return of his wives and children in the course of the war, but Galerius dismissed him.", "Serious peace negotiations began in the spring of 299.The ''magister memoriae'' (secretary) of Diocletian and Galerius, Sicorius Probus, was sent to Narseh to present terms.", "The conditions of the resulting Peace of Nisibis were heavy: Armenia returned to Roman domination, with the fort of Ziatha as its border; Caucasian Iberia would pay allegiance to Rome under a Roman appointee; Nisibis, now under Roman rule, would become the sole conduit for trade between Persia and Rome; and Rome would exercise control over the five satrapies between the Tigris and Armenia: Ingilene, Sophanene (Sophene), Arzanene (Aghdznik), Corduene (Carduene), and Zabdicene (near modern Hakkâri, Turkey).", "These regions included the passage of the Tigris through the Anti-Taurus range; the Bitlis pass, the quickest southerly route into Persian Armenia; and access to the Tur Abdin plateau.A stretch of land containing the later strategic strongholds of Amida (Diyarbakır, Turkey) and Bezabde came under firm Roman military occupation.", "With these territories, Rome would have an advance station north of Ctesiphon, and would be able to slow any future advance of Persian forces through the region.", "Many cities east of the Tigris came under Roman control, including Tigranokert, Saird, Martyropolis, Balalesa, Moxos, Daudia, and Arzan – though under what status is unclear.", "At the conclusion of the peace, Tiridates regained both his throne and the entirety of his ancestral claim.", "Rome secured a wide zone of cultural influence, which led to a wide diffusion of Syriac Christianity from a center at Nisibis in later decades, and the eventual Christianization of Armenia.", "To strengthen the defence of the east Diocletian had a fortified road constructed at the southern border, where the empire bordered the Arabs, in the year 300.This road would remain in use for centuries but proved ineffective in defending the border as conventional armies could not operate in the region." ], [ "Religious persecutions", "===Early persecutions===At the conclusion of the Peace of Nisibis, Diocletian and Galerius returned to Antioch.", "At some time in 299, the emperors took part in a ceremony of sacrifice and divination in an attempt to predict the future.", "The haruspices were unable to read the entrails of the sacrificed animals and blamed Christians in the Imperial household.", "The emperors ordered all members of the court to perform a sacrifice to purify the palace.", "The emperors sent letters to the military command, demanding the entire army perform the required sacrifices or face discharge.", "Diocletian was conservative in matters of religion, faithful to the traditional Roman pantheon and understanding of demands for religious purification, but Eusebius, Lactantius and Constantine state that it was Galerius, not Diocletian, who was the prime supporter of the purge.", "Galerius, even more devoted and passionate than Diocletian, saw political advantage in the persecution.", "He was willing to break with a government policy of inaction on the issue.Antioch was Diocletian's primary residence from 299 to 302, while Galerius swapped places with his Augustus on the Middle and Lower Danube.", "Diocletian visited Egypt once, over the winter of 301–2, and issued a grain dole in Alexandria.", "Following some public disputes with Manicheans, Diocletian ordered that the leading followers of Mani be burnt alive along with their scriptures.", "In a 31 March 302 rescript from Alexandria, he declared that low-status Manicheans must be executed by the blade, and high-status Manicheans must be sent to work in the quarries of Proconnesus (Marmara Island, Turkey) or the mines of Phaeno in southern Palestine.", "All Manichean property was to be seized and deposited in the imperial treasury.", "Diocletian found much to be offended by in Manichean religion: its novelty, its alien origins, its perceived corruption of Roman morals, and its inherent opposition to long-standing religious traditions.", "His reasons for opposing Manichaeanism were also applied to his next target, Christianity.===Great Persecution===Catacomb of Saints Marcellinus and Peter on the Via Labicana.", "Christ between Peter and Paul.", "To the sides are the martyrs Gorgonius, Peter, Marcellinus, TiburtiusDiocletian returned to Antioch in the autumn of 302.He ordered that the deacon Romanus of Caesarea have his tongue removed for defying the order of the courts and interrupting official sacrifices.", "Romanus was then sent to prison, where he was executed on 17 November 303.Diocletian left the city for Nicomedia in the winter, accompanied by Galerius.", "According to Lactantius, Diocletian and Galerius argued over imperial policy towards Christians while wintering at Nicomedia in 302.Diocletian believed that forbidding Christians from the bureaucracy and military would be sufficient to appease the gods, but Galerius pushed for extermination.", "The two men sought the advice of the oracle of Apollo at Didyma.", "The oracle responded that the impious on Earth hindered Apollo's ability to provide advice.", "Rhetorically Eusebius records the Oracle as saying \"The just on Earth...\" These impious, Diocletian was informed by members of the court, could only refer to the Christians of the empire.", "At the behest of his court, Diocletian acceded to demands for universal persecution.On 23 February 303, Diocletian ordered that the newly built church at Nicomedia be razed.", "He demanded that its scriptures be burned, and seized its precious stores for the treasury.", "The next day, Diocletian's first \"Edict against the Christians\" was published.", "The edict ordered the destruction of Christian scriptures and places of worship across the empire, and prohibited Christians from assembling for worship.", "Before the end of February, a fire destroyed part of the Imperial palace.", "Galerius convinced Diocletian that the culprits were Christians, conspirators who had plotted with the eunuchs of the palace.", "An investigation was commissioned, but no responsible party was found.", "Executions followed anyway, and the palace eunuchs Dorotheus and Gorgonius were executed.", "One individual, Peter Cubicularius, was stripped, raised high, and scourged.", "Salt and vinegar were poured in his wounds, and he was slowly boiled over an open flame.", "The executions continued until at least 24 April 303, when six individuals, including the bishop Anthimus, were decapitated.", "A second fire occurred sixteen days after the first.", "Galerius left the city for Rome, declaring Nicomedia unsafe.", "Diocletian would soon follow.Medallion of Diocletian, AD 303.Although further persecutory edicts followed, compelling the arrest of the Christian clergy and universal acts of sacrifice, they were ultimately unsuccessful; most Christians escaped punishment, and pagans too were generally unsympathetic to the persecution.", "The martyrs' sufferings strengthened the resolve of their fellow Christians.", "Constantius and Maximian did not apply the later edicts, and left the Christians of the West unharmed.", "Galerius rescinded the edict in 311, announcing that the persecution had failed to bring Christians back to traditional religion.", "The temporary apostasy of some Christians, and the surrendering of scriptures, during the persecution played a major role in the subsequent Donatist controversy.", "Within twenty-five years of the persecution's inauguration, the Christian emperor Constantine would rule the empire alone.", "He would reverse the consequences of the edicts, and return all confiscated property to Christians.", "Under Constantine's rule, Christianity would become the empire's preferred religion.", "Diocletian was demonized by his Christian successors: Lactantius intimated that Diocletian's ascendancy heralded the apocalypse." ], [ "Later life", "===Illness and abdication===Diocletian entered the city of Rome in the early winter of 303.On 20 November, he celebrated, with Maximian, the twentieth anniversary of his reign (), the tenth anniversary of the Tetrarchy (''decennalia''), and a triumph for the war with Persia.", "Diocletian soon grew impatient with the city, as the Romans acted towards him with what Edward Gibbon, following Lactantius, calls \"licentious familiarity\".", "The Roman people did not give enough deference to his supreme authority; it expected him to act the part of an aristocratic ruler, not a monarchic one.", "On 20 December 303, Diocletian cut short his stay in Rome and left for the north.", "He did not even perform the ceremonies investing him with his ninth consulate; he did them in Ravenna on 1 January 304 instead.", "There are suggestions in the ''Panegyrici Latini'' and Lactantius's account that Diocletian arranged plans for his and Maximian's future retirement of power in Rome.", "Maximian, according to these accounts, swore to uphold Diocletian's plan in a ceremony in the Temple of Jupiter.From Ravenna, Diocletian left for the Danube.", "There, possibly in Galerius's company, he took part in a campaign against the Carpi.", "He contracted a minor illness while on campaign, but his condition quickly worsened and he chose to travel in a litter.", "In the late summer, he left for Nicomedia.", "On 20 November 304, he appeared in public to dedicate the opening of the circus beside his palace.", "He collapsed soon after the ceremonies.", "Over the winter of 304–5 he kept within his palace at all times.", "Rumors that Diocletian's death was being kept secret until Galerius could assume power spread through the city.", "On 13 December, it was falsely announced that Diocletian had killed himself.", "The city was sent into mourning from which it recovered after public declarations that Diocletian was still alive.", "When Diocletian reappeared in public on 1 March 305, he was emaciated and barely recognizable.Galerius arrived in the city later in March.", "According to Lactantius, he came armed with plans to reconstitute the Tetrarchy, force Diocletian to step down, and fill the Imperial office with men compliant to his will.", "Through coercion and threats, he eventually convinced Diocletian to comply with his plan.", "Lactantius also claims that he had done the same to Maximian at Sirmium.", "On 1 May 305, Diocletian called an assembly of his generals, traditional companion troops, and representatives from distant legions.", "They met at the same hill, out of Nicomedia, where Diocletian had been proclaimed emperor.", "In front of a statue of Jupiter, his patron deity, Diocletian addressed the crowd.", "With tears in his eyes, he told them of his weakness, his need for rest, and his will to resign.", "He declared that he needed to pass the duty of empire on to someone stronger.", "He thus became the first Roman emperor to voluntarily abdicate his title.Most in the crowd believed that Constantine and Maxentius, the only adult sons of reigning emperors, who had long been preparing to succeed their fathers, would be granted the title of ''Caesar''.", "Constantine had travelled through Palestine at the right hand of Diocletian, and was present at the palace in Nicomedia in 303 and 305.It is likely that Maxentius received the same treatment.", "In Lactantius's account, when Diocletian announced that he was to resign, the entire crowd turned to face Constantine.", "It was not to be: Severus II and Maximinus II were declared caesars.", "Maximinus appeared and took Diocletian's robes.", "On the same day, Severus received his robes from Maximian in Milan.", "Constantius succeeded Maximian as ''Augustus'' of the West, but Constantine and Maxentius were entirely ignored in the transition of power.", "This did not bode well for the future security of the tetrarchic system.=== Retirement and death ===Modern view of the Peristyle in Diocletian's Palace (Split, Croatia)Diocletian retired to his homeland, Dalmatia.", "He moved into the expansive Diocletian's Palace, a heavily fortified compound located by the small town of Spalatum on the shores of the Adriatic Sea, and near the large provincial administrative center of Salona.", "The palace is preserved in great part to this day and forms the historic core of Split, modern-day Croatia, where it was designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1979.Maximian retired to villas in Campania or Lucania.", "Their homes were distant from political life, but Diocletian and Maximian were close enough to remain in regular contact with each other.", "Galerius assumed the consular ''fasces'' in 308 with Diocletian as his colleague.", "In the autumn of 308, Galerius again conferred with Diocletian at Carnuntum (Petronell-Carnuntum, Austria).", "Diocletian and Maximian were both present on 11 November 308, to see Galerius appoint Licinius to be Augustus in place of Severus, who had died at the hands of Maxentius.", "He ordered Maximian, who had attempted to return to power after his retirement, to step down permanently.", "At Carnuntum people begged Diocletian to return to the throne, to resolve the conflicts that had arisen through Constantine's rise to power and Maxentius's usurpation.", "Diocletian's reply: \"If you could show the cabbage that I planted with my own hands to your emperor, he definitely wouldn't dare suggest that I replace the peace and happiness of this place with the storms of a never-satisfied greed.", "\"Diocletian lived for four more years, spending his days in his palace gardens.", "He saw his tetrarchic system fail, torn apart by the civil wars of his successors.", "He heard of Maximian's third claim to the throne, his forced suicide, and his ''damnatio memoriae''.", "In his own palace, statues and portraits of his former companion emperor were torn down and destroyed.", "After an illness, Diocletian died on 3 December 311, with some proposing that he took his own life in despair." ], [ "Reforms", "===Tetrarchic and ideological===Diocletian saw his work as that of a restorer, a figure of authority whose duty it was to return the empire to peace, to recreate stability and justice where barbarian hordes had destroyed it.", "He arrogated, regimented and centralized political authority on a massive scale.", "In his policies, he enforced an Imperial system of values on diverse and often unreceptive provincial audiences.", "In the Imperial propaganda from the period, recent history was perverted and minimized in the service of the theme of the tetrarchs as \"restorers\".", "Aurelian's achievements were ignored, the revolt of Carausius was backdated to the reign of Gallienus, and it was implied that the tetrarchs engineered Aurelian's defeat of the Palmyrenes; the period between Gallienus and Diocletian was effectively erased.", "The history of the empire before the tetrarchy was portrayed as a time of civil war, savage despotism, and imperial collapse.", "In those inscriptions that bear their names, Diocletian, the \"founder of eternal peace\", and his companions are referred to as \"restorers of the whole world\", men who succeeded in \"defeating the nations of the barbarians, and confirming the tranquility of their world\".", "The theme of restoration was conjoined to an emphasis on the uniqueness and accomplishments of the tetrarchs themselves.The cities where emperors lived frequently in this period – Milan, Trier, Arles, Sirmium, Serdica, Thessaloniki, Nicomedia and Antioch – were treated as alternate imperial seats, to the exclusion of Rome and its senatorial elite.", "A new style of ceremony was developed, emphasizing the distinction of the emperor from all other persons.", "The quasi-republican ideals of Augustus's ''primus inter pares'' were abandoned for all but the tetrarchs themselves.", "Diocletian took to wearing a gold crown and jewels, and forbade the use of purple cloth to all but the emperors.", "His subjects were required to prostrate themselves in his presence (''adoratio''); the most fortunate were allowed the privilege of kissing the hem of his robe (''proskynesis'', προσκύνησις).", "Circuses and basilicas were designed to keep the face of the emperor perpetually in view, and always in a seat of authority.", "The emperor became a figure of transcendent authority, a man beyond the grip of the masses.", "His every appearance was stage-managed.", "This style of presentation was not new – many of its elements were first seen in the reigns of Aurelian and Severus – but it was only under the tetrarchs that it was refined into an explicit system.===Administrative===In keeping with his move from an ideology of republicanism to one of autocracy, Diocletian's council of advisers, his , differed from those of earlier emperors.", "He destroyed the Augustan illusion of imperial government as a cooperative affair among emperor, army, and senate.", "In its place he established an effectively autocratic structure, a shift later epitomized in the institution's name: it would be called a , not a council.", "Diocletian regulated his court by distinguishing separate departments () for different tasks.", "From this structure came the offices of different , like the (\"Master of Offices\"), and associated secretariats.", "These were men suited to dealing with petitions, requests, correspondence, legal affairs, and foreign embassies.", "Within his court Diocletian maintained a permanent body of legal advisers, men with significant influence on his re-ordering of juridical affairs.", "There were also two finance ministers, dealing with the separate bodies of the public treasury and the private domains of the emperor, and the praetorian prefect, the most significant person of the whole.", "Diocletian's reduction of the Praetorian Guards to the level of a simple city garrison for Rome lessened the military powers of the prefect – although a prefect like Asclepiodotus was still a trained general – but the office retained much civil authority.", "The prefect kept a staff of hundreds and managed affairs in all segments of government: in taxation, administration, jurisprudence, and minor military commands, the praetorian prefect was often second only to the emperor himself.Altogether, Diocletian greatly increased the number of bureaucrats at the government's command; Lactantius claimed that there were now more men using tax money than there were paying it.", "The historian Warren Treadgold estimates that under Diocletian the number of men in the civil service doubled from 15,000 to 30,000.The classicist Roger S. Bagnall estimates that there was one bureaucrat for every 5–10,000 people in Egypt based on 400 or 800 bureaucrats for 4 million inhabitants.", "Jones estimated 30,000 bureaucrats, which he remarks is \"not an extravagant number\" given the size of the empire.", "He breaks down the bureaucracy as less than 12,000 provincial officials, and roughly 6,000 diocesan officials.", "For the military, he estimates a modest 300 officials per , and 40 per , for a total of about 5,000 military officials.", "For the praetorian prefect and urban prefect, he estimates approximately 5,000 clerks.", "He comments that the expense the empire paid for these was not high, as many lower-level clerks were not paid, and the wage of higher officials was generally modest.", "To avoid the possibility of local usurpations, to facilitate a more efficient collection of taxes and supplies, and to ease the enforcement of the law, Diocletian doubled the number of provinces from fifty to almost one hundred.", "The provinces were grouped into twelve dioceses, each governed by an appointed official called a , or \"deputy of the praetorian prefects\".", "Some of the provincial divisions required revision, and were modified either soon after 293 or early in the fourth century.", "Rome herself (including her environs, as defined by a -radius perimeter around the city itself) was not under the authority of the praetorian prefect, as she was to be administered by a city prefect of senatorial rank – the sole prestigious post with actual power reserved exclusively for senators, except for some governors in Italy with the titles of corrector and the proconsuls of Asia and Africa.", "The dissemination of imperial law to the provinces was facilitated by Diocletian's reform of the Empire's provincial structure, which meant that there were now more governors () ruling over smaller regions and smaller populations.", "Diocletian's reforms shifted the governors' main function to that of the presiding official in the lower courts: whereas in the early Empire military and judicial functions were the function of the governor, and procurators had supervised taxation, under the new system and governors were responsible for justice and taxation, and a new class of (\"dukes\"), acting independently of the civil service, had military command.", "These dukes sometimes administered two or three of the new provinces created by Diocletian, and had forces ranging from two thousand to more than twenty thousand men.", "In addition to their roles as judges and tax collectors, governors were expected to maintain the postal service () and ensure that town councils fulfilled their duties.This curtailment of governors' powers as the Emperors' representatives may have lessened the political dangers of an all-too-powerful class of Imperial delegates, but it also severely limited governors' ability to oppose local landed elites, especially those of senatorial status, which, although with reduced opportunities for office holding, retained wealth, social prestige, and personal connections, particularly in relatively peaceful regions without a great military presence.", "On one occasion, Diocletian had to exhort a proconsul of Africa not to fear the consequences of treading on the toes of the local magnates of senatorial rank.", "If a governor of senatorial rank himself felt these pressures, the difficulties faced by a mere praeses were likely greater.", "This led to a strained relationship between the central power and local elites: sometime during 303, attempted military sedition in Seleucia Pieria and Antioch prompted Diocletian to extract bloody retribution on both cities by putting to death a number of their council members for failing in their duties of keeping order in their jurisdiction.===Legal===Justinian's ''Corpus Juris Civilis'' (527–534).", "The ''Corpus'' drew on the codices of Gregorius and Hermogenian, drafted and published under Diocletian's reign.As with most emperors, much of Diocletian's daily routine rotated around legal affairs – responding to appeals and petitions, and delivering decisions on disputed matters.", "Rescripts, authoritative interpretations issued by the emperor in response to demands from disputants in both public and private cases, were a common duty of second- and third-century emperors.", "In the \"nomadic\" imperial courts of the later Empire, one can track the progress of the imperial retinue through the locations from whence particular rescripts were issued – the presence of the Emperor was what allowed the system to function.", "Whenever the imperial court would settle in one of the capitals, there was a glut in petitions, as in late 294 in Nicomedia, where Diocletian kept winter quarters.Admittedly, Diocletian's praetorian prefects – Afranius Hannibalianus, Julius Asclepiodotus, and Aurelius Hermogenianus – aided in regulating the flow and presentation of such paperwork, but the deep legalism of Roman culture kept the workload heavy.", "Emperors in the forty years preceding Diocletian's reign had not managed these duties so effectively, and their output in attested rescripts is low.", "Diocletian, by contrast, was prodigious in his affairs: there are around 1,200 rescripts in his name still surviving, and these probably represent only a small portion of the total issue.", "The sharp increase in the number of edicts and rescripts produced under Diocletian's rule has been read as evidence of an ongoing effort to realign the whole Empire on terms dictated by the imperial center.Under the governance of the jurists Gregorius, Aurelius Arcadius Charisius, and Hermogenianus, the imperial government began issuing official books of precedent, collecting and listing all the rescripts that had been issued since the reign of Hadrian (r. 117–38).", "The Codex Gregorianus includes rescripts up to 292, which the Codex Hermogenianus updated with a comprehensive collection of rescripts issued by Diocletian in 293 and 294.Although the very act of codification was a radical innovation, given the precedent-based design of the Roman legal system, the jurists were generally conservative, and constantly looked to past Roman practice and theory for guidance.", "They were probably given more free rein over their codes than the later compilers of the ''Codex Theodosianus'' (438) and ''Codex Justinianus'' (529) would have.", "Gregorius and Hermogenianus's codices lack the rigid structuring of later codes, and were not published in the name of the emperor, but in the names of their compilers.", "Their official character was clear in that both collections were acknowledged by courts as authoritative records of imperial legislation up to the date of their publication and regularly updated.After Diocletian's reform of the provinces, governors were called ''iudex'', or judge.", "The governor became responsible for his decisions first to his immediate superiors, as well as to the more distant office of the emperor.", "It was most likely at this time that judicial records became verbatim accounts of what was said in trial, making it easier to determine bias or improper conduct on the part of the governor.", "With these records and the Empire's universal right of appeal, Imperial authorities probably had a great deal of power to enforce behavior standards for their judges.", "In spite of Diocletian's attempts at reform, the provincial restructuring was far from clear, especially when citizens appealed the decisions of their governors.", "Proconsuls, for example, were often both judges of first instance and appeal, and the governors of some provinces took appellant cases from their neighbors.", "It soon became impossible to avoid taking some cases to the emperor for arbitration and judgment.", "Diocletian's reign marks the end of the classical period of Roman law.", "Where Diocletian's system of rescripts shows adherence to classical tradition, Constantine's law is full of Greek and eastern influences.Partly in response to economic pressures and in order to protect the vital functions of the state, Diocletian restricted social and professional mobility.", "Peasants became tied to the land in a way that presaged later systems of land tenure and workers such as bakers, armorers, public entertainers and workers in the mint had their occupations made hereditary.", "Soldiers' children were also forcibly enrolled, something that followed spontaneous tendencies among the rank-and-file, but also expressed increasing difficulties in recruitment.===Military===It is archaeologically difficult to distinguish Diocletian's fortifications from those of his successors and predecessors.", "The Devil's Dykes, for example—the Danubian earthworks traditionally attributed to Diocletian—cannot even be securely dated to a particular century.", "The most that can be said about built structures under Diocletian's reign is that he rebuilt and strengthened forts at the Upper Rhine frontier (where he followed the works built under Probus along the Lake Constance-Basel and the Rhine–Iller–Danube line), on the Danube (where a new line of forts on the far side of the river, the ''Ripa Sarmatica'', was added to older, rehabilitated fortresses), in Egypt and on the frontier with Persia.", "Beyond that, much discussion is speculative and reliant on the broad generalizations of written sources.", "Diocletian and the tetrarchs had no consistent plan for frontier advancement, and records of raids and forts built across the frontier are likely to indicate only temporary claims.", "The ''Strata Diocletiana'', built after the Persian Wars, which ran from the Euphrates North of Palmyra and South towards northeast Arabia in the general vicinity of Bostra, is the classic Diocletianic frontier system, consisting of an outer road followed by tightly spaced forts – defensible hard-points manned by small garrisons – followed by further fortifications in the rear.", "In an attempt to resolve the difficulty and slowness of transmitting orders to the frontier, the new capitals of the tetrarchic era were all much closer to the empire's frontiers than Rome had been: Trier sat on the Moselle, a tributary of the Rhine, Sirmium and Serdica were close to the Danube, Thessaloniki was on the route leading eastward, and Nicomedia and Antioch were important points in dealings with Persia.Lactantius criticized Diocletian for an excessive increase in troop sizes, declaring that \"each of the four princes strove to maintain a much more considerable military force than any sole emperor had done in times past.", "There began to be fewer men who paid taxes than there were who received wages; so that the means of the husbandmen being exhausted by enormous impositions, the farms were abandoned, cultivated grounds became woodland, and universal dismay prevailed\".", "The fifth-century pagan Zosimus, by contrast, praised Diocletian for keeping troops on the borders, rather than keeping them in the cities, as Constantine was held to have done.", "Both these views had some truth to them, despite the biases of their authors: Diocletian and the tetrarchs did greatly expand the army, and the growth was mostly in frontier regions, where the increased effectiveness of the new Diocletianic legions seem to have been mostly spread across a network of strongholds.", "Nevertheless, it is difficult to establish the precise details of these shifts given the weakness of the sources.", "The army expanded to about 580,000 men from a 285 strength of 390,000, of which 310,000 men were stationed in the East, most of whom manned the Persian frontier.", "The navy increased from approximately 45,000 to approximately 65,000 men.Diocletian's expansion of the army and civil service meant that the empire's tax burden grew.", "Since military upkeep took the largest portion of the imperial budget, any reforms here would be especially costly.", "The proportion of the adult male population, excluding slaves, serving in the army increased from roughly 1 in 25 to 1 in 15, an increase judged excessive by some modern commentators.", "Official troop allowances were kept to low levels, and the mass of troops often resorted to extortion or the taking of civilian jobs.", "Arrears became the norm for most troops.", "Many were even given payment in kind in place of their salaries.", "Were he unable to pay for his enlarged army, there would likely be civil conflict, potentially open revolt.", "Diocletian was led to devise a new system of taxation.===Economic=======Taxation====In the early empire (30 BC – AD 235) the Roman government paid for what it needed in gold and silver.", "The coinage was stable.", "Requisition, forced purchase, was used to supply armies on the march.", "During the third-century crisis (235–285), the government resorted to requisition rather than payment in debased coinage, since it could never be sure of the value of money.", "Requisition was nothing more or less than seizure.", "Diocletian made requisition into tax.", "He introduced an extensive new tax system based on heads (''capita'') and land (''iugera'') – with one iugerum equal to approximately 0.65 acres – and tied to a new, regular census of the empire's population and wealth.", "Census officials traveled throughout the empire, assessed the value of labor and land for each landowner, and joined the landowners' totals together to make citywide totals of ''capita'' and ''iuga''.", "The ''iugum'' was not a consistent measure of land, but varied according to the type of land and crop, and the amount of labor necessary for sustenance.", "The ''caput'' was not consistent either: women, for instance, were often valued at half a ''caput'', and sometimes at other values.", "Cities provided animals, money, and manpower in proportion to its ''capita'', and grain in proportion to its ''iuga''.Most taxes were due each year on 1 September, and levied from individual landowners by ''decuriones'' (decurions).", "These decurions, analogous to city councilors, were responsible for paying from their own pocket what they failed to collect.", "Diocletian's reforms also increased the number of financial officials in the provinces: more ''rationales'' and ''magistri privatae'' are attested under Diocletian's reign than before.", "These officials represented the interests of the fisc, which collected taxes in gold, and the Imperial properties.", "Fluctuations in the value of the currency made collection of taxes in kind the norm, although these could be converted into coin.", "Rates shifted to take inflation into account.", "In 296, Diocletian issued an edict reforming census procedures.", "This edict introduced a general five-year census for the whole empire, replacing prior censuses that had operated at different speeds throughout the empire.", "The new censuses would keep up with changes in the values of ''capita'' and ''iuga''.Italy, which had long been exempt from taxes, was included in the tax system from 290/291 as a diocesis.", "The city of Rome remained exempt; the \"regions\" (i.e., provinces) South of Rome (generally called \"suburbicarian\", as opposed to the Northern, \"annonaria\" region) seem to have been relatively less taxed, in what probably was a sop offered to the great senatorial families and their landed properties.Diocletian's edicts emphasized the common liability of all taxpayers.", "Public records of all taxes were made public.", "The position of ''decurion'', member of the city council, had been an honor sought by wealthy aristocrats and the middle classes who displayed their wealth by paying for city amenities and public works.", "Decurions were made liable for any shortfall in the amount of tax collected.", "Many tried to find ways to escape the obligation.", "By 300, civilians across the empire complained that there were more tax collectors than there were people to pay taxes.====Currency and inflation====A fragment of the Edict on Maximum Prices (301), on display in BerlinPart of the prices edict in Greek in its original area built into a medieval church, Geraki, GreeceAurelian's attempt to reform the currency had failed; the denarius was dead.", "Diocletian restored the three-metal coinage and issued better quality pieces.", "The new system consisted of five coins: the ''aureus''/''solidus'', a gold coin weighing, like its predecessors, one-sixtieth of a pound; the ''argenteus'', a coin weighing one ninety-sixth of a pound and containing ninety-five percent pure silver; the ''follis'', sometimes referred to as the ''laureatus'' A, which is a copper coin with added silver struck at the rate of thirty-two to the pound; the ''radiatus'', a small copper coin struck at the rate of 108 to the pound, with no added silver; and a coin known today as the ''laureatus'' B, a smaller copper coin struck at the rate of 192 to the pound.", "Since the nominal values of these new issues were lower than their intrinsic worth as metals, the state was minting these coins at a loss.", "This practice could be sustained only by requisitioning precious metals from private citizens in exchange for state-minted coin (of a far lower value than the price of the precious metals requisitioned).By 301, the system was in trouble, strained by a new bout of inflation.", "Diocletian, therefore, issued his ''Edict on Coinage'', an act re-tariffing all debts so that the ''nummus'', the most common coin in circulation, would be worth half as much.", "In the edict, preserved in an inscription from the city of Aphrodisias in Caria (near Geyre, Turkey), it was declared that all debts contracted before 1 September 301 must be repaid at the old standards, while all debts contracted after that date would be repaid at the new standards.", "It appears that the edict was made in an attempt to preserve the current price of gold and to keep the Empire's coinage on silver, Rome's traditional metal currency.", "This edict risked giving further momentum to inflationary trends, as had happened after Aurelian's currency reforms.", "The government's response was to issue a price freeze.The ''Edict on Maximum Prices'' (''Edictum De Pretiis Rerum Venalium'') was issued two to three months after the coinage edict, somewhere between 20 November and 10 December 301.The best-preserved Latin inscription surviving from the Greek East, the edict survives in many versions, on materials as varied as wood, papyrus, and stone.", "In the edict, Diocletian declared that the current pricing crisis resulted from the unchecked greed of merchants, and had resulted in turmoil for the mass of common citizens.", "The language of the edict calls on the people's memory of their benevolent leaders, and exhorts them to enforce the provisions of the edict, thereby restoring perfection to the world.", "The edict goes on to list in detail over one thousand goods and accompanying retail prices not to be exceeded.", "Penalties are laid out for various pricing transgressions.In the most basic terms, the edict was ignorant of the law of supply and demand: it ignored the fact that prices might vary from region to region according to product availability, and it ignored the impact of transportation costs in the retail price of goods.", "In the judgment of the historian David Potter, the edict was \"an act of economic lunacy\".", "The fact that the edict began with a long rhetorical preamble betrays at the same time a moralizing stance as well as a weak grasp of economics – perhaps simply the wishful thinking that criminalizing a practice was enough to stop it.", "There is no consensus about how effectively the edict was enforced.Supposedly, inflation, speculation, and monetary instability continued, and a black market arose to trade in goods forced out of official markets.", "The edict's penalties were applied unevenly across the empire (some scholars believe they were applied only in Diocletian's domains), widely resisted, and eventually dropped, perhaps within a year of the edict's issue.", "Lactantius has written of the perverse accompaniments to the edict; of goods withdrawn from the market, of brawls over minute variations in price, of the deaths that came when its provisions were enforced.", "His account may be true, but it seems to modern historians exaggerated and hyperbolic, and the impact of the law is recorded in no other ancient source." ], [ "Legacy", "The monolithic granite column shaft of the Diocletianic honorific column in the Serapeum of Alexandria called \"Pompey's Pillar\" is tall.", "Built 298–303.The historian A.H.M.", "Jones observed that \"It is perhaps Diocletian's greatest achievement that he reigned twenty-one years and then abdicated voluntarily, and spent the remaining years of his life in peaceful retirement.\"", "Diocletian was one of the few emperors of the third and fourth centuries to die naturally, and the first in the history of the empire to retire voluntarily.", "Once he retired, his tetrarchic system collapsed.", "Without the guiding hand of Diocletian, the empire fell into civil wars.", "Stability emerged after the defeat of Licinius by Constantine in 324.Under the Christian Constantine, Diocletian was maligned.", "Constantine's rule, however, demonstrated the benefits of Diocletian's achievements and the autocratic principle he represented: the borders remained secure, in spite of Constantine's large expenditure of forces during his civil wars; the bureaucratic transformation of the Roman government was completed; and Constantine took Diocletian's court ceremonies and made them even more extravagant.Constantine ignored those aspects of Diocletian's reign that did not suit him.", "Diocletian's policy of preserving a stable silver coinage was abandoned, and the gold ''solidus'' became the empire's primary currency instead.", "Diocletian's persecution of Christians was repudiated and changed to a policy of toleration and then favoritism.", "Christianity eventually became the official religion in 380.Most importantly, Diocletian's tax system and administrative reforms lasted, with some modifications, until the advent of the Muslims in the 630s.", "The combination of state autocracy and state religion was instilled in much of Europe, particularly in the lands which adopted Orthodox Christianity.The ''Era of Martyrs'' (Latin: ''anno martyrum'' or AM), also known as the ''Diocletian era'' (Latin: ''anno Diocletiani''), is a method of numbering years used by the Church of Alexandria beginning in the 4th century ''anno Domini'' and by the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria from the 5th century to the present.", "In this system of counting, the beginning of Diocletian's reign in 284 was used as the epoch, making Diocletian's first year in power into the Year 1 of that calendar.", "Western Christians were aware of this count but did not use it; Dionysius Exiguus replaced the ''anno Diocletiani'' era with his anno Domini era because he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians.", "''Dukljan'', a major villain in Serbian mythology who is presented as the adversary of God, is considered to be a mythological reflection of the historical Diocletian.The Talmud includes several semi-legendary accounts of Diocletian.", "One of them recounts that Diocletian was originally a swineherd, and that in this part of his life, he was teased and abused by young Jews.", "When he became the Emperor he called up the leaders of the Jews, who were fearful, saying \"We have teased Diocletian the Swineherd but we respect Diocletian the Emperor\" – to which Diocletian responded, \"You must show respect even to the smallest and lowest of the Romans, because you can never know which one of us will rise to greatness.\"" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "=== Primary sources ===* * * * relevant panegyrics dated 289, 291, 297, 298, and 307.", "* , translation* , translation * * === Secondary sources ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * 2 volumes.", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * .", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Diocletian from the ''Catholic Encyclopedia''.", "* Ruins of the Palace of the Emperor Diocletian at Spalatro in Dalmatia By Robert Adam, 1764.Plates made available by the University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center.", "(N.B.", "\"Spalatro\" was a less used alternative form of \"Spalato\", the Italian name for Croatian \"Split\")." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Deism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Deism''' ( or ; derived from the Latin term ''deus'', meaning \"god\") is the philosophical position and rationalistic theology that generally rejects revelation as a source of divine knowledge and asserts that empirical reason and observation of the natural world are exclusively logical, reliable, and sufficient to determine the existence of a Supreme Being as the creator of the universe.", "More simply stated, Deism is the belief in the existence of God (often, but not necessarily, a God who does not intervene in the universe after creating it), solely based on rational thought without any reliance on revealed religions or religious authority.", "Deism emphasizes the concept of natural theology—that is, God's existence is revealed through nature.Since the 17th century and during the Age of Enlightenment, especially in 18th-century England, France, and North America, various Western philosophers and theologians formulated a critical rejection of the several religious texts belonging to the many organized religions, and began to appeal only to truths that they felt could be established by reason as the exclusive source of divine knowledge.", "Such philosophers and theologians were called \"Deists\", and the philosophical/theological position they advocated is called \"Deism\".Deism as a distinct philosophical and intellectual movement declined toward the end of the 18th century but had a revival in the early 19th century.", "Some of its tenets continued as part of other intellectual and spiritual movements, like Unitarianism, and Deism continues to have advocates today, including with modern variants such as Christian deism and pandeism." ], [ "Early developments of Deism", "=== Ancient history ===Deistical thinking has existed since ancient times; the roots of Deism can be traced back to the philosophical tradition of Ancient Greece.", "The 3rd-century Christian theologian and philosopher Clement of Alexandria explicitly mentioned persons who believed that God was not involved in human affairs, and therefore led what he considered a licentious life.", "However, Deism did not develop as a religio-philosophical movement until after the Scientific Revolution, which began in the mid-16th century in early modern Europe.=== Divinity schools in Islamic theology ===In the history of Islam, one of the earliest systematic schools of Islamic theology to develop were the Muʿtazila in the mid-8th century CE.", "Muʿtazilite theologians emphasized the use of reason and rational thought, positing that the injunctions of God are accessible through rational thought and inquiry, and affirmed that the Quran was created (''makhlūq'') rather than co-eternal with God, which would develop into one of the most contentious questions in the history of Islamic theology.In the 9th–10th century CE, the Ashʿarī school developed as a response to the Muʿtazila, founded by the 10th-century Muslim scholar and theologian Abū al-Ḥasan al-Ashʿarī.", "Ashʿarītes still taught the use of reason in understanding the Quran, but denied the possibility to deduce moral truths by reasoning.", "This position was opposed by the Māturīdī school; according to its founder, the 10th-century Muslim scholar and theologian Abū Manṣūr al-Māturīdī, human reason is supposed to acknowledge the existence of a creator deity (''bāriʾ'') solely based on rational thought and independently from divine revelation.", "He shared this conviction with his teacher and predecessor Abū Ḥanīfa al-Nuʿmān (8th century CE), whereas al-Ashʿarī never held such a view.According to the Afghan-American philosopher Sayed Hassan Hussaini, the early schools of Islamic theology and theological beliefs among classical Muslim philosophers are characterized by \"a rich color of Deism with a slight disposition toward theism\".=== Origins of the term \"''Deism''\" ===The terms ''deism'' and ''theism'' are both derived from words meaning \"god\": the Latin term ''deus'' and the Ancient Greek term ''theós'' (θεός).", "The word ''déiste'' first appeared in French in 1563 in a theological treatise written by the Swiss Calvinist theologian named Pierre Viret, but Deism was generally unknown in the Kingdom of France until the 1690s when Pierre Bayle published his famous ''Dictionnaire Historique et Critique'', which contained an article on Viret.In English, the words ''deist'' and ''theist'' were originally synonymous, but by the 17th century the terms started to diverge in meaning.", "The term ''deist'' with its current meaning first appears in English in Robert Burton's ''The Anatomy of Melancholy'' (1621).=== Herbert of Cherbury and early English Deism ===Lord Herbert of Cherbury, portrayed by Isaac Oliver (1560–1617)The first major statement of Deism in English is Lord Herbert of Cherbury's book ''De Veritate'' (1624).", "Lord Herbert, like his contemporary Descartes, searched for the foundations of knowledge.", "The first two-thirds of his book ''De Veritate'' (''On Truth, as It Is Distinguished from Revelation, the Probable, the Possible, and the False'') are devoted to an exposition of Herbert's theory of knowledge.", "Herbert distinguished truths from experience and reasoning about experience from innate and revealed truths.", "Innate truths are imprinted on our minds, as evidenced by their universal acceptance.", "Herbert referred to universally accepted truths as ''notitiae communes—''Common Notions.", "Herbert believed there were five Common Notions that unify all religious beliefs.# There is one Supreme God.# God ought to be worshipped.# Virtue and piety are the main parts of divine worship.# We ought to be remorseful for our sins and repent.# Divine goodness dispenses rewards and punishments, both in this life and after it.Herbert himself had relatively few followers, and it was not until the 1680s that Herbert found a true successor in Charles Blount (1654 – 1693).===The peak of Deism (1696–1801)===The appearance of John Locke's ''Essay Concerning Human Understanding'' (1690) marks an important turning-point and new phase in the history of English Deism.", "Lord Herbert's epistemology was based on the idea of \"common notions\" (or innate ideas).", "Locke's ''Essay'' was an attack on the foundation of innate ideas.", "After Locke, deists could no longer appeal to innate ideas as Herbert had done.", "Instead, deists were forced to turn to arguments based on experience and nature.", "Under the influence of Newton, they turned to the argument from design as the principal argument for the existence of God.Peter Gay identifies John Toland's ''Christianity Not Mysterious'' (1696), and the \"vehement response\" it provoked, as the beginning of post-Lockian Deism.", "Among the notable figures, Gay describes Toland and Matthew Tindal as the best known; however, Gay considered them to be talented publicists rather than philosophers or scholars.", "He regards Conyers Middleton and Anthony Collins as contributing more to the substance of debate, in contrast with fringe writers such as Thomas Chubb and Thomas Woolston.Other English Deists prominent during the period include William Wollaston, Charles Blount, Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke, and, in the latter part, Peter Annet, Thomas Chubb, and Thomas Morgan.", "Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury was also influential; though not presenting himself as a Deist, he shared many of the deists' key attitudes and is now usually regarded as a Deist.Especially noteworthy is Matthew Tindal's ''Christianity as Old as the Creation'' (1730), which became, very soon after its publication, the focal center of the Deist controversy.", "Because almost every argument, quotation, and issue raised for decades can be found here, the work is often termed \"the Deist's Bible\".", "Following Locke's successful attack on innate ideas, Tindal's \"Bible\" redefined the foundation of Deist epistemology as knowledge based on experience or human reason.", "This effectively widened the gap between traditional Christians and what he called \"Christian Deists\", since this new foundation required that \"revealed\" truth be validated through human reason." ], [ "Enlightenment Deism", "=== Aspects of Deism in Enlightenment philosophy ===Enlightenment Deism consisted of two philosophical assertions: (1) reason, along with features of the natural world, is a valid source of religious knowledge, and (2) revelation is not a valid source of religious knowledge.", "Different Deist philosophers expanded on these two assertions to create what Leslie Stephen later termed the \"constructive\" and \"critical\" aspects of Deism.", "\"Constructive\" assertions—assertions that deist writers felt were justified by appeals to reason and features of the natural world (or perhaps were intuitively obvious or common notions)—included: * God exists and created the universe.", "* God gave humans the ability to reason.", "\"Critical\" assertions—assertions that followed from the denial of revelation as a valid source of religious knowledge—were much more numerous, and included:* Rejection of all books (including the Bible) that claimed to contain divine revelation.", "* Rejection of the incomprehensible notion of the Trinity and other religious \"mysteries\".", "* Rejection of reports of miracles, prophecies, etc.==== The origins of religion ====A central premise of Deism was that the religions of their day were corruptions of an original religion that was pure, natural, simple, and rational.", "Humanity lost this original religion when it was subsequently corrupted by priests who manipulated it for personal gain and for the class interests of the priesthood, and encrusted it with superstitions and \"mysteries\"—irrational theological doctrines.", "Deists referred to this manipulation of religious doctrine as \"priestcraft\", a derogatory term.", "For deists, this corruption of natural religion was designed to keep laypeople baffled by \"mysteries\" and dependent on the priesthood for information about the requirements for salvation.", "This gave the priesthood a great deal of power, which the Deists believed the priesthood worked to maintain and increase.", "Deists saw it as their mission to strip away \"priestcraft\" and \"mysteries\".", "Tindal, perhaps the most prominent deist writer, claimed that this was the proper, original role of the Christian Church.One implication of this premise was that current-day primitive societies, or societies that existed in the distant past, should have religious beliefs less infused with superstitions and closer to those of natural theology.", "This position became less and less plausible as thinkers such as David Hume began studying the natural history of religion and suggested that the origins of religion was not in reason but in emotions, such as the fear of the unknown.====Immortality of the soul====Different Deists had different beliefs about the immortality of the soul, about the existence of Hell and damnation to punish the wicked, and the existence of Heaven to reward the virtuous.", "Anthony Collins, Bolingbroke, Thomas Chubb, and Peter Annet were materialists and either denied or doubted the immortality of the soul.", "Benjamin Franklin believed in reincarnation or resurrection.", "Lord Herbert of Cherbury and William Wollaston held that souls exist, survive death, and in the afterlife are rewarded or punished by God for their behavior in life.", "Thomas Paine believed in the \"probability\" of the immortality of the soul.====Miracles and divine providence====The most natural position for Deists was to reject all forms of supernaturalism, including the miracle stories in the Bible.", "The problem was that the rejection of miracles also seemed to entail the rejection of divine providence (that is, God taking a hand in human affairs), something that many Deists were inclined to accept.", "Those who believed in a watch-maker God rejected the possibility of miracles and divine providence.", "They believed that God, after establishing natural laws and setting the cosmos in motion, stepped away.", "He did not need to keep tinkering with his creation, and the suggestion that he did was insulting.", "Others, however, firmly believed in divine providence, and so, were reluctantly forced to accept at least the possibility of miracles.", "God was, after all, all-powerful and could do whatever he wanted including temporarily suspending his own natural laws.====Freedom and necessity====Enlightenment philosophers under the influence of Newtonian science tended to view the universe as a vast machine, created and set in motion by a creator being that continues to operate according to natural law without any divine intervention.", "This view naturally led to what was then called \"necessitarianism\" (the modern term is \"determinism\"): the view that everything in the universe—including human behavior—is completely, causally determined by antecedent circumstances and natural law.", "(See, for example, La Mettrie's ''L'Homme machine''.)", "As a consequence, debates about freedom versus \"necessity\" were a regular feature of Enlightenment religious and philosophical discussions.", "Reflecting the intellectual climate of the time, there were differences among Deists about freedom and determinism.", "Some, such as Anthony Collins, were actually necessitarians.===David Hume===David HumeViews differ on whether David Hume was a Deist, an atheist, or something else.", "Like the Deists, Hume rejected revelation, and his famous essay ''On Miracles'' provided a powerful argument against belief in miracles.", "On the other hand, he did not believe that an appeal to Reason could provide any justification for religion.", "In the essay ''Natural History of Religion'' (1757), he contended that polytheism, not monotheism, was \"the first and most ancient religion of mankind\" and that the psychological basis of religion is not reason, but fear of the unknown.", "In Waring's words: ===Deism in the United States===Thomas PaineThe Thirteen Colonies of North America – which became the United States of America after the American Revolution in 1776 – were part of the British Empire, and Americans, as British subjects, were influenced by and participated in the intellectual life of the Kingdom of Great Britain.", "English Deism was an important influence on the thinking of Thomas Jefferson and the principles of religious freedom asserted in the First Amendment to the United States Constitution.", "Other Founding Fathers who were influenced to various degrees by Deism were Ethan Allen, Benjamin Franklin, Cornelius Harnett, Gouverneur Morris, Hugh Williamson, James Madison, and possibly Alexander Hamilton.In the United States, there is a great deal of controversy over whether the Founding Fathers were Christians, Deists, or something in between.", "Particularly heated is the debate over the beliefs of Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, and George Washington.In his ''Autobiography'', Franklin wrote that as a young man \"Some books against Deism fell into my hands; they were said to be the substance of sermons preached at Boyle's lectures.", "It happened that they wrought an effect on me quite contrary to what was intended by them; for the arguments of the Deists, which were quoted to be refuted, appeared to me much stronger than the refutations; in short, I soon became a thorough Deist.\"", "Like some other Deists, Franklin believed that, \"The Deity sometimes interferes by his particular Providence, and sets aside the Events which would otherwise have been produc'd in the Course of Nature, or by the Free Agency of Man,\" and at the Constitutional Convention stated that \"the longer I live, the more convincing proofs I see of this truth—that God governs in the affairs of men.", "\"Thomas Jefferson is perhaps the Founding Father who most clearly exhibits Deistic tendencies, although he generally referred to himself as a Unitarian rather than a Deist.", "His excerpts of the canonical gospels (now commonly known as the ''Jefferson Bible'') strip all supernatural and dogmatic references from the narrative on Jesus' life.", "Like Franklin, Jefferson believed in God's continuing activity in human affairs.Thomas Paine is especially noteworthy both for his contributions to the cause of the American Revolution and for his writings in defense of Deism, alongside the criticism of Abrahamic religions.", "In ''The Age of Reason'' (1793–1794) and other writings, he advocated Deism, promoted reason and freethought, and argued against institutionalized religions in general and the Christian doctrine in particular.", "''The Age of Reason'' was short, readable, and probably the only Deistic treatise that continues to be read and influential today.The last contributor to American Deism was Elihu Palmer (1764–1806), who wrote the \"Bible of American Deism\", ''Principles of Nature'', in 1801.Palmer is noteworthy for attempting to bring some organization to Deism by founding the \"Deistical Society of New York\" and other Deistic societies from Maine to Georgia.===Deism in France and continental Europe===Voltaire at age 24, portrayed by Nicolas de LargillièreFrance had its own tradition of religious skepticism and natural theology in the works of Montaigne, Pierre Bayle, and Montesquieu.", "The most famous of the French Deists was Voltaire, who was exposed to Newtonian science and English Deism during his two-year period of exile in England (1726–1728).", "When he returned to France, he brought both back with him, and exposed the French reading public (i.e., the aristocracy) to them, in a number of books.French Deists also included Maximilien Robespierre and Rousseau.", "During the French Revolution (1789–1799), the Deistic Cult of the Supreme Being—a direct expression of Robespierre's theological views—was established briefly (just under three months) as the new state religion of France, replacing the deposed Catholic Church and the rival atheistic Cult of Reason.There were over five hundred French Revolutionaries who were deists.", "These deists do not fit the stereotype of deists because they believed in miracles and often prayed to God.", "In fact, over seventy of them thought that God miraculously helped the French Revolution win victories over their enemies.", "Furthermore, over a hundred French Revolutionary deists also wrote prayers and hymns to God.", "Citizen Devillere was one of the many French Revolutionary deists who believed God did miracles.", "Devillere said, \"God, who conducts our destiny, deigned to concern himself with our dangers.", "He commanded the spirit of victory to direct the hand of the faithful French, and in a few hours the aristocrats received the attack which we prepared, the wicked ones were destroyed and liberty was avenged.", "\"Deism in Germany is not well documented.", "We know from correspondence with Voltaire that Frederick the Great was a Deist.", "Immanuel Kant's identification with Deism is controversial.===Decline of Enlightenment Deism===Peter Gay describes Enlightenment Deism as entering slow decline as a recognizable movement in the 1730s.", "A number of reasons have been suggested for this decline, including: * The increasing influence of naturalism and materialism.", "* The writings of David Hume and Immanuel Kant raising questions about the ability of reason to address metaphysical questions.", "* The violence of the French Revolution.", "* Christian revivalist movements, such as Pietism and Methodism (which emphasized a personal relationship with God), along with the rise of anti-rationalist and counter-Enlightenment philosophies such as that of Johann Georg Hamann.Although Deism has declined in popularity over time, scholars believe that these ideas still have a lingering influence on modern society.", "One of the major activities of the Deists, biblical criticism, evolved into its own highly technical discipline.", "Deist rejection of revealed religion evolved into, and contributed to, 19th-century liberal British theology and the rise of Unitarianism." ], [ "Contemporary Deism<!--'Monodeism' redirects here-->", "Contemporary Deism attempts to integrate classical Deism with modern philosophy and the current state of scientific knowledge.", "This attempt has produced a wide variety of personal beliefs under the broad classification of belief of \"deism.", "\"There are a number of subcategories of modern Deism, including '''monodeism''' (the default, standard concept of deism), pandeism, panendeism, spiritual deism, process deism, Christian deism, polydeism, scientific deism, and humanistic deism.", "Some deists see design in nature and purpose in the universe and in their lives.", "Others see God and the universe in a co-creative process.", "Some deists view God in classical terms as observing humanity but not directly intervening in our lives, while others see God as a subtle and persuasive spirit who created the world, and then stepped back to observe.===Recent philosophical discussions of Deism===In the 1960s, theologian Charles Hartshorne scrupulously examined and rejected both deism and pandeism (as well as pantheism) in favor of a conception of God whose characteristics included \"absolute perfection in some respects, relative perfection in all others\" or \"AR,\" writing that this theory \"is able consistently to embrace all that is positive in either deism or pandeism,\" concluding that \"panentheistic doctrine contains all of deism and pandeism except their arbitrary negations.", "\"Charles Taylor, in his 2007 book ''A Secular Age'', showed the historical role of Deism, leading to what he calls an \"exclusive humanism\".", "This humanism invokes a moral order whose ontic commitment is wholly intra-human with no reference to transcendence.", "One of the special achievements of such deism-based humanism is that it discloses new, anthropocentric moral sources by which human beings are motivated and empowered to accomplish acts of mutual benefit.", "This is the province of a buffered, disengaged self, which is the locus of dignity, freedom, and discipline, and is endowed with a sense of human capability.", "According to Taylor, by the early 19th century this Deism-mediated exclusive humanism developed as an alternative to Christian faith in a personal God and an order of miracles and mystery.", "Some critics of Deism have accused adherents of facilitating the rise of nihilism.=== Deism in Nazi Germany ===''On positive German God-belief'' (1939)In Nazi Germany, ''Gottgläubig'' (literally: \"believing in God\") was a Nazi religious term for a form of non-denominationalism practised by those German citizens who had officially left Christian churches but professed faith in some higher power or divine creator.", "Such people were called ''Gottgläubige'' (\"believers in God\"), and the term for the overall movement was ''Gottgläubigkeit'' (\"belief in God\"); the term denotes someone who still believes in a God, although without having any institutional religious affiliation.", "These National Socialists were not favourable towards religious institutions of their time, nor did they tolerate atheism of any type within their ranks.", "The 1943 ''Philosophical Dictionary'' defined ''Gottgläubig'' as: \"official designation for those who profess a specific kind of piety and morality, without being bound to a church denomination, whilst however also rejecting irreligion and godlessness.\"", "The ''Gottgläubigkeit'' is considered a form of deism, and was \"predominantly based on creationist and deistic views\".In the 1920 National Socialist Programme of the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP), Adolf Hitler first mentioned the phrase \"Positive Christianity\".", "The Nazi Party did not wish to tie itself to a particular Christian denomination, but with Christianity in general, and sought freedom of religion for all denominations \"so long as they do not endanger its existence or oppose the moral senses of the Germanic race.\"", "(point 24).", "When Hitler and the NSDAP got into power in 1933, they sought to assert state control over the churches, on the one hand through the ''Reichskonkordat'' with the Roman Catholic Church, and the forced merger of the German Evangelical Church Confederation into the Protestant Reich Church on the other.", "This policy seems to have gone relatively well until late 1936, when a \"gradual worsening of relations\" between the Nazi Party and the churches saw the rise of ''Kirchenaustritt'' (\"leaving the Church\").", "Although there was no top-down official directive to revoke church membership, some Nazi Party members started doing so voluntarily and put other members under pressure to follow their example.", "Those who left the churches were designated as ''Gottgläubige'' (\"believers in God\"), a term officially recognised by the Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick on 26 November 1936.He stressed that the term signified political disassociation from the churches, not an act of religious apostasy.", "The term \"dissident\", which some church leavers had used up until then, was associated with being \"without belief\" (''glaubenslos''), whilst most of them emphasized that they still believed in a God, and thus required a different word.A census in May 1939, six years into the Nazi era and after the annexation of the mostly Catholic Federal State of Austria and mostly Catholic German-occupied Czechoslovakia into German-occupied Europe, indicates that 54% of the population considered itself Protestant, 41% considered itself Catholic, 3.5% self-identified as ''Gottgläubig'', and 1.5% as \"atheist\".=== Deism in Turkey ===Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founding father of the Republic of Turkey, serving as its first president from 1923 until his death in 1938.He undertook sweeping progressive reforms, which modernized Turkey into a secular, industrializing nation.An early April 2018 report of the Turkish Ministry of Education, titled ''The Youth is Sliding towards Deism'', observed that an increasing number of pupils in İmam Hatip schools was repudiating Islam in favour of Deism (irreligious belief in a creator God).", "The report's publication generated large-scale controversy in the Turkish press and society at large, as well as amongst conservative Islamic sects, Muslim clerics, and Islamist parties in Turkey.The progressive Muslim theologian Mustafa Öztürk noted the Deistic trend among Turkish people a year earlier, arguing that the \"very archaic, dogmatic notion of religion\" held by the majority of those claiming to represent Islam was causing \"the new generations to get indifferent, even distant, to the Islamic worldview.\"", "Despite lacking reliable statistical data, numerous anecdotes and independent surveys appear to point in this direction.", "Although some commentators claim that the secularization of Turkey is merely a result of Western influence or even an alleged \"conspiracy\", other commentators, even some pro-government ones, have come to the conclusion that \"the real reason for the loss of faith in Islam is not the West but Turkey itself\".=== Deism in the United States ===Though Deism subsided in the United States post-Enlightenment, it never died out entirely.Thomas Edison, for example, was heavily influenced by Thomas Paine's ''The Age of Reason''.", "Edison defended Paine's \"scientific deism\", saying, \"He has been called an atheist, but atheist he was not.", "Paine believed in a supreme intelligence, as representing the idea which other men often express by the name of deity.\"", "In 1878, Edison joined the Theosophical Society in New Jersey, but according to its founder, Helena Blavatsky, he was not a very active member.", "In an October 2, 1910, interview in the ''New York Times Magazine'', Edison stated:Edison was labeled an atheist for those remarks, and although he did not allow himself to be drawn into the controversy publicly, he clarified himself in a private letter:He also stated, \"I do not believe in the God of the theologians; but that there is a Supreme Intelligence I do not doubt.", "\"The 2001 American Religious Identification Survey (ARIS) report estimated that between 1990 and 2001 the number of self-identifying Deists grew from 6,000 to 49,000, representing about 0.02% of the U.S. population at the time.", "The 2008 ARIS survey found, based on their stated beliefs rather than their religious identification, that 70% of Americans believe in a personal God: roughly 12% are atheists or agnostics, and 12% believe in \"a deist or paganistic concept of the Divine as a higher power\" rather than a personal God.The term \"ceremonial deism\" was coined in 1962 and has been used since 1984 by the Supreme Court of the United States to assess exemptions from the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, thought to be expressions of cultural tradition and not earnest invocations of a deity.", "It has been noted that the term does not describe any school of thought within Deism itself." ], [ "See also", "* American Enlightenment* Atheism during the Age of Enlightenment* Ceremonial deism* Deism in England and France in the 18th century* Deistic evolution* Great Architect of the Universe* Ietsism* Infinitism* List of deists* Moralistic therapeutic deism* Nicodemite* Non-physical entity* Nontheism* Philosophical theism* Religious affiliations of presidents of the United States* Religious interpretations of the Big Bang theory* Spiritual but not religious* Theistic rationalism* Transcendentalism* Unitarian Universalism" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations===" ], [ "Bibliography", "===Histories===* Betts, C. J.", "''Early Deism in France: From the so-called 'deistes' of Lyon (1564) to Voltaire's 'Lettres philosophiques' (1734)'' (Martinus Nijhoff, 1984)* Craig, William Lane.", "''The Historical Argument for the Resurrection of Jesus During the Deist Controversy'' (Edwin Mellen, 1985)* Hazard, Paul.", "''European thought in the eighteenth century from Montesquieu to Lessing'' (1954).", "pp 393–434.", "* * Hudson, Wayne.", "''Enlightenment and modernity: The English deists and reform'' (Routledge, 2015).", "* Israel, Jonathan I.", "''Enlightenment contested: philosophy, modernity, and the emancipation of man 1670-1752'' (Oxford UP, 2006).", "* Lemay, J.", "A. Leo, ed.", "''Deism, Masonry, and the Enlightenment.", "Essays Honoring Alfred Owen Aldridge''.", "(U of Delaware Press, 1987).", "* Lucci, Diego.", "''Scripture and deism: The biblical criticism of the eighteenth-century British deists'' (Peter Lang, 2008).", "* McKee, David Rice.", "''Simon Tyssot de Patot and the Seventeenth-Century Background of Critical Deism'' (Johns Hopkins Press, 1941)* Orr, John.", "''English Deism: Its Roots and Its Fruits'' (1934)* Schlereth, Eric R. ''An Age of Infidels: The Politics of Religious Controversy in the Early United States'' (U of Pennsylvania Press; 2013) 295 pages; on conflicts between deists and their opponents.", "* Willey, Basil.", "''The Eighteenth Century Background: Studies on the Idea of Nature in the Thought of the Period'' (1940)* Yoder, Timothy S. ''Hume on God: Irony, deism and genuine theism'' (Bloomsbury, 2008).===Primary sources===* * * ''Deism: An Anthology'' by Peter Gay (Van Nostrand, 1968)* ''Deism and Natural Religion: A Source Book'' by E. Graham Waring (Frederick Ungar, 1967)* ''The American Deists: Voices of Reason & Dissent in the Early Republic'' by Kerry S. Walters (University of Kansas Press, 1992), which includes an extensive bibliographic essay* by Bob Johnson, founder of the World Union of Deists* by Bob Johnson* by Bob Johnson===Secondary sources===*************" ], [ "Further reading", "***" ], [ "External links", "**" ] ]
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[ [ "Dramaturge" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''dramaturge''' or '''dramaturg''' () is a literary adviser or editor in a theatre, opera, or film company who researches, selects, adapts, edits, and interprets scripts, libretti, texts, and printed programmes (or helps others with these tasks), consults authors, and does public relations work.", "Its modern-day function was originated by the innovations of Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, an 18th-century German playwright, philosopher, and theatre theorist." ], [ "Responsibilities", "One of the dramaturge's contributions is to categorize and discuss the various types of plays or operas, their interconnectedness and their styles.", "The responsibilities of a dramaturge vary from one theatre or opera company to the next.", "They might include the hiring of actors, the development of a season of plays or operas with a sense of coherence among them, assistance with and editing of new plays or operas by resident or guest playwrights or composers/librettists, the creation of programs or accompanying educational services, helping the director with rehearsals, and serving as elucidator of history or spokesperson for deceased or otherwise absent playwrights or composers.", "At larger theatres or opera houses, the dramaturge works on the historical and cultural research into the play or opera and its setting.In theatre companies, a dramaturge will create a workbook for the director and actors (usually these are different) and work extensively with the director prior to the first rehearsal." ], [ "History", "Gotthold Ephraim LessingGotthold Ephraim Lessing was hired by the Hamburg National Theatre in 1767, to serve as the theatre's critic of plays and acting, a position which would later be named dramaturge.", "This position grew over time to what it is today, encompassing the wide variety of tasks seen by modern dramaturgies." ], [ "Discrepancies with definition", "The modern definition of ''dramaturge'' is often debated as to what specific tasks this job does, with some defining it as the bridge between the director and the actors, others defining it as one who determines the meaning of plays and shows for the actors, and others claiming that even they don't quite have a complete definition for their job.", "This discrepancy between dramaturges is likely due to the lack of an official historical definition, and the wide variety of tasks that dramaturges could be asked to work on, depending on the theatre, director, the show being produced, and the actors.", "Since Gotthold Ephraim Lessing didn't create an official definition for his own position at the Hamburg National Theatre, modern dramaturges have to infer their tasks based on what Lessing did during his career, and adapt to the current needs of modern theatre." ], [ "Recent growth in number of dramaturges", "Since the year 2000, the number of dramaturges working around the world has increased, although it remains a fairly rare job to have.", "In 2000, 400 dramaturges were recorded as being active in the United States, with that number growing.", "There are various possible causes of this growth, but some dramaturges attribute the growth to the fact that dramaturgy combines two popular studies for young students: the liberal arts and theatre.", "Some dramaturges are worried, however, that this growth may slow down, due to a decrease in the number of modern plays being written." ], [ "See also", "* Dramaturgy" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Literary Managers & Dramaturgs of the Americas, official website of the organization of these professionals in North America" ] ]
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[ [ "Dispersion" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dispersion''' may refer to:" ], [ "Economics and finance", "*Dispersion (finance), a measure for the statistical distribution of portfolio returns*Price dispersion, a variation in prices across sellers of the same item*Wage dispersion, the amount of variation in wages encountered in an economy*Dispersed knowledge, notion that any one person is unable to perceive all economic forces" ], [ "Science and mathematics", "===Mathematics===*Statistical dispersion, a quantifiable variation of measurements of differing members of a population**Index of dispersion, a normalized measure of the dispersion of a probability distribution*Dispersion point, a point in a topological space the removal of which leaves the space highly disconnected===Physics===*The dependence of wave velocity on frequency or wavelength:**Dispersion (optics), for light waves**Dispersion (water waves), for water waves**Acoustic dispersion, for sound waves**Dispersion relation, the mathematical description of dispersion in a system**Modal dispersion, spreading of signals in multimode fibers and waveguides by a distortion mechanism***Polarization mode dispersion, a form of modal dispersion**Dielectric dispersion, the dependence of the permittivity of a dielectric material on the frequency of an applied electric field**Dispersion measure, the dispersion of radio signals from pulsars and fast radio bursts*Dispersive mass transfer, in fluid dynamics, the spreading of mass from areas of high to low concentration**Atmospheric dispersion modeling, mathematical simulation of how air pollutants disperse in the ambient atmosphere*London dispersion force, an instantaneous induced dipole-induced dipole*Dispersed particle resistance, a measured parameter to characterize battery active materials===Other sciences===*Biological dispersal, the distribution of animals, spores, fruits and their seeds, etc.", "*Dispersion (chemistry), a system in which particles are dispersed in a continuous phase of a different composition*Dispersion (geology), a process whereby sodic soil disperses when exposed to water*Dispersion (materials science), the fraction of atoms of a material exposed to the surface*Dispersion polymerization, a polymerization process*Velocity dispersion, the statistical variation of velocities about the mean velocity for a group of astronomical objects" ], [ "Other uses", "*, Jewish communities who lived amongst the gentiles in the first century CE*''Dispersion'' (album), the second album by High Rise*Dispersion Technology, a scientific instrument manufacturer located in Bedford Hills, New York" ], [ "See also", "** *Dispersal (disambiguation)*Dispersive (disambiguation)*Dispersity, a measure of the heterogeneity of sizes of molecules or particles in a mixture" ] ]
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[ [ "Dyson sphere" ], [ "Introduction", "Freeman Dyson, the first scientist to explore the conceptA '''Dyson sphere''' is a hypothetical megastructure that encompasses a star and captures a large percentage of its solar power output.", "The concept is a thought experiment that attempts to imagine how a spacefaring civilization would meet its energy requirements once those requirements exceed what can be generated from the home planet's resources alone.", "Because only a tiny fraction of a star's energy emissions reaches the surface of any orbiting planet, building structures encircling a star would enable a civilization to harvest far more energy.The first modern imagining of such a structure was by Olaf Stapledon in his science fiction novel ''Star Maker'' (1937).", "The concept was later explored by the physicist Freeman Dyson in his 1960 paper \"Search for Artificial Stellar Sources of Infrared Radiation\".", "Dyson speculated that such structures would be the logical consequence of the escalating energy needs of a technological civilization and would be a necessity for its long-term survival.", "A signature of such spheres detected in astronomical searches could be an indicator of extraterrestrial life.Since Dyson's paper, many variant designs involving an artificial structure or series of structures to encompass a star have been proposed in exploratory engineering or described in science fiction, often under the name \"Dyson sphere\".", "Fictional depictions often describe a solid shell of matter enclosing a star – an arrangement considered by Dyson himself to be impossible." ], [ "Origins", "Inspired by the 1937 science fiction novel ''Star Maker'' by Olaf Stapledon, the physicist and mathematician Freeman Dyson was the first to formalize the concept of what became known as the \"Dyson sphere\" in his 1960 ''Science'' paper \"Search for Artificial Stellar Sources of Infra-Red Radiation\".", "Dyson theorized that as the energy requirements of an advanced technological civilization increased, there would come a time when it would need to systematically harvest the energy from its local star on a large scale.", "He speculated that this could be done via a system of structures orbiting the star, designed to intercept and collect its energy.", "He argued that as the structure would result in the large-scale conversion of starlight into far-infrared radiation, an earth-based search for sources of infrared radiation could identify stars supporting intelligent life.Dyson did not detail how such a system could be constructed, simply referring to it in the paper as a 'shell' or 'biosphere'.", "He later clarified that he did not have in mind a solid structure, saying \"A solid shell or ring surrounding a star is mechanically impossible.", "The form of 'biosphere' which I envisaged consists of a loose collection or swarm of objects traveling on independent orbits around the star\".", "Such a concept has often been referred to as a '''Dyson swarm'''; however, in 2013, Dyson said that he had come to regret that the concept had been named after him." ], [ "Search for megastructures", "Dyson-style energy collectors around a distant star would absorb and re-radiate energy from the star.", "The wavelengths of such re-radiated energy may be atypical for the star's spectral type, due to the presence of heavy elements not naturally occurring within the star.", "If the percentage of such atypical wavelengths were to be significant, an alien megastructure could be detected at interstellar distances.", "This could indicate the presence of what has been called a Type II Kardashev civilization.SETI has looked for such infrared-heavy spectra from solar analogs, as has Fermilab.", "Fermilab discovered 17 potential \"ambiguous\" candidates, of which four were in 2006 called \"amusing but still questionable\".", "Later searches also resulted in several candidates, all of which remain unconfirmed.On 14 October 2015, Planet Hunters' citizen scientists discovered unusual light fluctuations of the star KIC 8462852 raising press speculation that a Dyson sphere may have been discovered.", "However, subsequent analysis showed that the results were consistent with the presence of dust." ], [ "Feasibility and science-based speculation", "Although Dyson sphere systems are theoretically possible, building a stable megastructure around the Sun is currently far beyond humanity's engineering capacity.", "The number of craft required to obtain, transmit, and maintain a complete Dyson sphere exceeds present-day industrial capabilities.", "George Dvorsky has advocated the use of self-replicating robots to overcome this limitation in the relatively near term.", "Some have suggested that Dyson sphere habitats could be built around white dwarfs and even pulsars.Stellar engines are hypothetical megastructures whose purpose is to extract useful energy from a star, sometimes for specific purposes.", "For example, Matrioshka brains have been proposed to extract energy for computation, while Shkadov thrusters would extract energy for propulsion.", "Some proposed stellar engine designs are based on the Dyson sphere." ], [ "Fictional accounts", "A precursor to the concept of Dyson spheres was featured in the 1937 novel ''Star Maker'' by Olaf Stapledon, in which he described \"every solar system... surrounded by a gauze of light-traps, which focused the escaping solar energy for intelligent use\".Fictional Dyson spheres are typically solid structures forming a continuous shell around the star in question, although Dyson himself considered that prospect to be mechanically implausible.", "They are sometimes used as the type of plot device known as a Big Dumb Object.Dyson spheres appear as a background element in many works of fiction, including the 1964 novel ''The Wanderer'' by Fritz Leiber where aliens enclose multiple stars in this way.", "Dyson spheres are depicted in the 1975–1983 book series ''Saga of Cuckoo'' by Frederik Pohl and Jack Williamson, and one functions as the setting of Bob Shaw's 1975 novel ''Orbitsville'' and its sequels.Variations on the concept include a single circular band in Larry Niven's 1970 novel ''Ringworld'', a half sphere in the 2012 novel ''Bowl of Heaven'' by Gregory Benford and Niven, and nested spheres—also known as a Matrioshka brain—in Colin Kapp's 1980s ''Cageworld'' series and Brian Stableford's 1979–1990 ''Asgard'' trilogy." ], [ "See also", "* * * * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Dyson sphere FAQ* FermiLab: IRAS-based whole sky upper limit on Dyson spheres, with an appendix on Dyson sphere engineering" ] ]
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[ [ "Democide" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Democide''' refers to \"the intentional killing of an unarmed or disarmed person by government agents acting in their authoritative capacity and pursuant to government policy or high command.\"", "The term was first coined by Holocaust historian and statistics expert, R.J. Rummel in his book ''Death by Government'', but has also been described as a better term than genocide to refer to certain types of mass killings, by renowned Holocaust historian Yehuda Bauer.", "According to Rummel, this definition covers a wide range of deaths, including forced labor and concentration camp victims, extrajudicial summary killings, and mass deaths due to governmental acts of criminal omission and neglect, such as in deliberate famines like the Holodomor, as well as killings by ''de facto'' governments, for example, killings during a civil war.", "This definition covers any murder of any number of persons by any government.Rummel created ''democide'' as an extended term to include forms of government murder not covered by ''genocide''.", "According to Rummel, democide surpassed war as the leading cause of non-natural death in the 20th century." ], [ "Definition", "Democide is the murder of any person or people by their government, including genocide, politicide, and mass murder.", "Democide is not necessarily the elimination of entire cultural groups but rather groups within the country that the government feels need to be eradicated for political reasons and due to claimed future threats.According to Rummel, genocide has three different meanings.", "The ordinary meaning is murder by government of people due to their national, ethnic, racial or religious group membership.", "The legal meaning of genocide refers to the international treaty on genocide, the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide.", "This also includes nonlethal acts that in the end eliminate or greatly hinder the group.", "Looking back on history, one can see the different variations of democides that have occurred, but it still consists of acts of killing or mass murder.", "The generalized meaning of genocide is similar to the ordinary meaning but also includes government killings of political opponents or otherwise intentional murder.", "In order to avoid confusion over which meaning is intended, Rummel created ''democide'' for this third meaning.In \"How Many Did Communist Regimes Murder?", "\", Rummel wrote:First, however, I should clarify the term democide.", "It means for governments what murder means for an individual under municipal law.", "It is the premeditated killing of a person in cold blood, or causing the death of a person through reckless and wanton disregard for their life.", "Thus, a government incarcerating people in a prison under such deadly conditions that they die in a few years is murder by the state—democide—as would parents letting a child die from malnutrition and exposure be murder.", "So would government forced labor that kills a person within months or a couple of years be murder.", "So would government created famines that then are ignored or knowingly aggravated by government action be murder of those who starve to death.", "And obviously, extrajudicial executions, death by torture, government massacres, and all genocidal killing be murder.", "However, judicial executions for crimes that internationally would be considered capital offenses, such as for murder or treason (as long as it is clear that these are not fabricated for the purpose of executing the accused, as in communist show trials), are not democide.", "Nor is democide the killing of enemy soldiers in combat or of armed rebels, nor of noncombatants as a result of military action against military targets.In his work and research, Rummel distinguished between colonial, democratic, and authoritarian and totalitarian regimes.", "He defined totalitarianism as follows:There is much confusion about what is meant by totalitarian in the literature, including the denial that such systems even exist.", "I define a totalitarian state as one with a system of government that is unlimited constitutionally or by countervailing powers in society (such as by a church, rural gentry, labor unions, or regional powers); is not held responsible to the public by periodic secret and competitive elections; and employs its unlimited power to control all aspects of society, including the family, religion, education, business, private property, and social relationships.", "Under Stalin, the Soviet Union was thus totalitarian, as was Mao's China, Pol Pot's Cambodia, Hitler's Germany, and U Ne Win's Burma.", "Totalitarianism is then a political ideology for which a totalitarian government is the agency for realizing its ends.", "Thus, totalitarianism characterizes such ideologies as state socialism (as in Burma), Marxism-Leninism as in former East Germany, and Nazism.", "Even revolutionary Moslem Iran since the overthrow of the Shah in 1978–79 has been totalitarian—here totalitarianism was married to Moslem fundamentalism.", "In short, totalitarianism is the ideology of absolute power.", "State socialism, communism, Nazism, fascism, and Moslem fundamentalism have been some of its recent raiments.", "Totalitarian governments have been its agency.", "The state, with its international legal sovereignty and independence, has been its base.", "As will be pointed out, mortacracy is the result." ], [ "Estimates", "In his estimates, Rudolph Rummel relied mostly on historical accounts, an approach that rarely provides accuracy compared with contemporary academic opinion.", "In the case of Mexican democide, Rummel wrote that while \"these figures amount to little more than informed guesses\", he thought \"there is enough evidence to at least indict these authoritarian regimes for megamurder.\"", "According to Rummel, his research showed that the death toll from democide is far greater than the death toll from war.", "After studying over 8,000 reports of government-caused deaths, Rummel estimated that there have been 262 million victims of democide in the last century.", "According to his figures, six times as many people have died from the actions of people working for governments than have died in battle.", "One of his main findings was that democracies have much less democide than authoritarian regimes.", "Rummel argued that there is a relation between political power and democide.", "Political mass murder grows increasingly common as political power becomes unconstrained.", "At the other end of the scale, where power is diffuse, checked, and balanced, political violence is a rarity.", "According to Rummel, \"the more power a regime has, the more likely people will be killed.", "This is a major reason for promoting freedom.\"", "Rummel argued that \"concentrated political power is the most dangerous thing on earth.", "\"Rummel's estimates, especially about Communist democide, typically included a wide range and cannot be considered determinative.", "Rummel calculated nearly 43 million deaths due to democide inside and outside the Soviet Union during Stalin's regime.", "This is much higher than an often quoted figure in the popular press of 20 million, or a 2010s scholarly figure of 9 million.", "Rummel responded that the 20 million estimate is based on a figure from Robert Conquest's ''The Great Terror'' and that Conquest's qualifier \"almost certainly too low\" is usually forgotten.", "For Rummell, Conquest's calculations excluded camp deaths before 1936 and after 1950, executions (1939–1953), the forced population transfer in the Soviet Union (1939–1953), the deportation within the Soviet Union of minorities (1941–1944), and those the Soviet Red Army and Cheka (the secret police) executed throughout Eastern Europe after their conquest during the 1944–1945 period.", "Moreover, the Holodomor that killed 5 million in 1932–1934 (according to Rummel) is also not included.", "According to Rummel, forced labor, executions, and concentration camps were responsible for over one million deaths in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea from 1948 to 1987.After decades of research in the state archives, most scholars say that Stalin's regime killed between 6 and 9 million, which is considerably less than originally thought, while Nazi Germany killed at least 11 million, which is in line with previous estimates." ], [ "Application", "=== Authoritarian and totalitarian regimes ======= Communist regimes ====The concept of democide has been applied by Rummel to Communist regimes.", "In 1987, Rudolph Rummel's book ''Death by Government'' Rummel estimated that 148 million were killed by Communist governments from 1917 to 1987.The list of Communist countries with more than 1 million estimated victims included: * China at 76,702,000 (1949–1987), * the Soviet Union at 61,911,000 (1917–1987), * Democratic Kampuchea (1975–1979) at 2,035,000, * Vietnam (1945–1987) at 1,670,000, * Poland (1945–1987) at 1,585,000, * North Korea (1948–1987) at 1,563,000, * Yugoslavia (1945–1987) at 1,072,000.In 1993, Rummel wrote: \"Even were we to have total access to all communist archives we still would not be able to calculate precisely how many the communists murdered.", "Consider that even in spite of the archival statistics and detailed reports of survivors, the best experts still disagree by over 40 percent on the total number of Jews killed by the Nazis.", "We cannot expect near this accuracy for the victims of communism.", "We can, however, get a probable order of magnitude and a relative approximation of these deaths within a most likely range.\"", "In 1994, Rummel updated his estimates for Communist regimes at about 110 million people, foreign and domestic, killed by Communist democide from 1900 to 1987.Due to additional information about Mao Zedong's culpability in the Great Chinese Famine according to ''Mao: The Unknown Story'', a 2005 book authored by Jon Halliday and Jung Chang, Rummel revised upward his total for Communist democide to about 148 million, using their estimate of 38 million famine deaths.Rummel's figures for Communist governments have been criticized for the methodology which he used to arrive at them, and they have also been criticized for being higher than the figures which have been given by most scholars (for example, ''The Black Book of Communism'' estimates the number of those killed in the USSR at 20 million).==== Right-wing authoritarian, fascist, and feudal regimes ====Estimates by Rummel for fascist or right-wing authoritarian regimes include: * Nazi Germany at 20,946,000 (1933–1945), * Nationalist China (1925–1949) and later Taiwan (1949–1987) at 10,214,000, * Empire of Japan at 5,964,000 (1900–1945).", "Estimates for other regime-types include: * the Ottoman Empire at 1,883,000 (Armenian genocide and Greek genocide), * Pakistan at 1,503,000 (1971 Bangladesh genocide), * Porfiriato in Mexico at somewhere between 600,000 and 3,000,000 and closer to 1,417,000 (1900–1920), * the Russian Empire at 1,066,000 (1900–1917).Democide in Communist and Nationalist China, Nazi Germany, and the Soviet Union are characterized by Rummel as deka-megamurderers (128,168,000), while those in Cambodia, Japan, Pakistan, Poland, Turkey, Vietnam, and Yugoslavia are characterized as the lesser megamurderers (19,178,000), and cases in Mexico, North Korea, and feudal Russia are characterized as suspected megamurderers (4,145,000).", "Rummel wrote that \"even though the Nazis hardly matched the democide of the Soviets and Communist Chinese\", they \"proportionally killed more\".=== Colonial regimes ===In response to David Stannard's figures about what he terms \"the American Holocaust\", Rummel estimated that over the centuries of European colonization about 2 million to 15 million American indigenous people were victims of democide, excluding military battles and unintentional deaths in Rummel's definition.", "Rummel wrote that \"even if these figures are remotely true, then this still make this subjugation of the Americas one of the bloodier, centuries long, democides in world history.\"", "* Rummel stated that his estimate for those killed by colonialism is 50,000,000 persons in the 20th century; this was revised upwards from his initial estimate of 815,000 dead.=== Democratic regimes ===While democratic regimes are considered by Rummel to be the least likely to commit democide and engage in wars per the democratic peace theory, Rummel wrote that * \"democracies themselves are responsible for some of this democide.", "Detailed estimates have yet to be made, but preliminarily work suggests that some 2,000,000 foreigners have been killed in cold blood by democracies.\"", "Foreign policy and secret services of democratic regimes \"may also carry on subversive activities in other states, support deadly coups, and actually encourage or support rebel or military forces that are involved in democidal activities.", "Such was done, for example, by the American CIA in the 1952 coup against Iran Prime Minister Mossadeq and the 1973 coup against Chile's democratically elected President Allende by General Pinochet.", "Then there was the secret support given the military in El Salvador and Guatemala although they were slaughtering thousands of presumed communist supporters, and that of the Contras in their war against the Sandinista government of Nicaragua in spite of their atrocities.", "Particularly reprehensible was the covert support given to the Generals in Indonesia as they murdered hundreds of thousands of communists and others after the alleged attempted communist coup in 1965, and the continued secret support given to General Agha Mohammed Yahya Khan of Pakistan even as he was involved in murdering over a million Bengalis in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh).", "\"According to Rummel, examples of democratic democide would include \"those killed in indiscriminate or civilian targeted city bombing, as of Germany and Japan in World War II.", "It would include the large scale massacres of Filipinos during the bloody American colonization of the Philippines at the beginning of this century, deaths in British concentration camps in South Africa during the Boer War, civilian deaths due to starvation during the British blockade of Germany in and after World War I, the rape and murder of helpless Chinese in and around Peking in 1900, the atrocities committed by Americans in Vietnam, the murder of helpless Algerians during the Algerian War by the French, and the unnatural deaths of German prisoners of war in French and American POW camps after World War II.\"" ], [ "See also", "* Classicide* Communal violence* Cultural conflict* Cultural genocide* Crimes against humanity* Environmental killings* Ethnic cleansing* Ethnic conflict* Ethnic hatred* Ethnic nationalism* Ethnic violence* Ethnocide* Extrajudicial killing* Extrajudicial punishment* Famine* Genocide* Genocides in history* Hate crime* Hate group* Killing gender and sexual minorities* List of genocides by death toll* List of wars and anthropogenic disasters by death toll* Lynching* Nuclear warfare* Pogrom* Police brutality* Policide* Political cleansing of population* Political violence* Population cleansing* Sectarian violence* Social cleansing* Religious violence* Terrorism* The Holocaust* Vigilantism* War crime" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Bibliography of Genocide studies" ], [ "External links", "* Power Kills – the website of Rudolph Rummel" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "December 9" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 536 – Gothic War: The Byzantine general Belisarius enters Rome unopposed; the Gothic garrison flees the capital.", "* 730 – Battle of Marj Ardabil: The Khazars annihilate an Umayyad army and kill its commander, al-Jarrah ibn Abdallah al-Hakami.", "*1432 – The first battle between the forces of Švitrigaila and Sigismund Kęstutaitis is fought near the town of Oszmiana (Ashmyany), launching the most active phase of the Lithuanian Civil War.", "*1531 – The Virgin of Guadalupe first appears to Juan Diego at Tepeyac, Mexico City.===1601–1900===*1636 – The Qing dynasty of China, led by Emperor Hong Taiji, invades Joseon.", "*1688 – Glorious Revolution: Williamite forces defeat Jacobites at Battle of Reading, forcing James II to flee England.", "(Date is Old Style; the date in the New Style modern calendar is 19 December.", ")*1775 – American Revolutionary War: British troops and Loyalists, misinformed about Patriot militia strength, lose the Battle of Great Bridge, ending British rule in Virginia.", "*1822 – French physicist Augustin-Jean Fresnel, in a memoir read to the Academy of Sciences, coins the terms ''linear polarization'', ''circular polarization'', and ''elliptical polarization'', and reports a direct refraction experiment verifying his theory that optical rotation is a form of birefringence.", "*1824 – Patriot forces led by General Antonio José de Sucre defeat a Royalist army in the Battle of Ayacucho, putting an end to the Peruvian War of Independence.", "*1835 – Texas Revolution: The Texian Army captures San Antonio following the Siege of Béxar.", "*1851 – The first YMCA in North America is established in Montreal.", "*1856 – The Iranian city of Bushehr surrenders to occupying British forces.", "*1861 – American Civil War: The Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War is established by Congress.", "*1868 – The first traffic lights are installed, outside the Palace of Westminster in London.", "Resembling railway signals, they use semaphore arms and are illuminated at night by red and green gas lamps.", "*1872 – In Louisiana, P. B. S. Pinchback becomes the first African American governor of a U.S. state following the impeachment of Henry C. Warmoth.===1901–present===*1905 – In France, a law separating church and state is passed.", "*1911 – A mine explosion near Briceville, Tennessee, kills 84 miners despite rescue efforts led by the United States Bureau of Mines.", "*1917 – World War I: Field Marshal Allenby captures Jerusalem from the Ottoman Empire.", "*1922 – Gabriel Narutowicz is elected the first president of Poland.", "*1931 – The Constituent Cortes approves a constitution which establishes the Second Spanish Republic.", "*1935 – Student protests occur in Beijing's Tiananmen Square, and are subsequently dispersed by government authorities.", "* 1935 – Walter Liggett, an American newspaper editor and muckraker, is killed in a gangland murder.", "*1937 – Second Sino-Japanese War: Battle of Nanking: Japanese troops under the command of Lt. Gen. Yasuhiko Asaka launch an assault on the Chinese city of Nanking.", "*1940 – World War II: Operation Compass: British and Indian troops under the command of Major-General Richard O'Connor attack Italian forces near Sidi Barrani in Egypt.", "*1941 – World War II: China, Cuba, Guatemala, and the Philippine Commonwealth declare war on Germany and Japan.", "* 1941 – World War II: The American 19th Bombardment Group attacks Japanese ships off the coast of Vigan, Luzon.", "*1946 – The subsequent Nuremberg trials begin with the Doctors' Trial, prosecuting physicians and officers alleged to be involved in Nazi human experimentation and mass murder under the guise of euthanasia.", "* 1946 – The Constituent Assembly of India meets for the first time to write the Constitution of India.", "*1948 – The Genocide Convention is adopted.", "*1950 – Cold War: Harry Gold is sentenced to 30 years in jail for helping Klaus Fuchs pass information about the Manhattan Project to the Soviet Union.", "His testimony is later instrumental in the prosecution of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg.", "*1953 – Red Scare: General Electric announces that all communist employees will be discharged from the company.", "*1956 – Trans-Canada Air Lines Flight 810-9, a Canadair North Star, crashes near Hope, British Columbia, Canada, killing all 62 people on board.", "*1960 – The first episode of ''Coronation Street'', the world's longest-running television soap opera, is broadcast in the United Kingdom.", "*1961 – Tanganyika becomes independent from Britain.", "*1965 – Kecksburg UFO incident: A fireball is seen from Michigan to Pennsylvania; with witnesses reporting something crashing in the woods near Pittsburgh.", "*1968 – Douglas Engelbart gave what became known as \"The Mother of All Demos\", publicly debuting the computer mouse, hypertext, and the bit-mapped graphical user interface using the oN-Line System (NLS).", "*1969 – U.S. Secretary of State William P. Rogers proposes his plan for a ceasefire in the War of Attrition; Egypt and Jordan accept it over the objections of the PLO, which leads to civil war in Jordan in September 1970.", "*1971 – Indo-Pakistani War: The Indian Air Force executes an airdrop of Indian Army units, bypassing Pakistani defences.", "*1973 – British and Irish authorities sign the Sunningdale Agreement in an attempt to establish a power-sharing Northern Ireland Executive and a cross-border Council of Ireland.", "*1979 – The eradication of the smallpox virus is certified, making smallpox the first of only two diseases that have been driven to extinction (with rinderpest in 2011 being the other).", "*1987 – Israeli–Palestinian conflict: The First Intifada begins in the Gaza Strip and West Bank.", "*1992 – American troops land in Somalia for Operation Restore Hope.", "*1996 – Gwen Jacob is acquitted of committing an indecent act, giving women the right to be topless in Ontario, Canada.", "*2003 – A blast in the center of Moscow kills six people and wounds several more.", "*2006 – Space Shuttle program: Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' is launched on STS-116 carrying the P5 truss segment of the International Space Station.", "*2008 – Governor of Illinois Rod Blagojevich is arrested by federal officials for crimes including attempting to sell the U.S. Senate seat being vacated by President-elect Barack Obama.", "*2012 – A plane crash in Mexico kills seven people including singer Jenni Rivera.", "*2013 – At least seven are dead and 63 are injured following a train accident near Bintaro, Indonesia.", "*2016 – President Park Geun-hye of South Korea is impeached by the country's National Assembly in response to a major political scandal.", "* 2016 – At least 57 people are killed and a further 177 injured when two schoolgirl suicide bombers attack a market area in Madagali, Adamawa, Nigeria in the Madagali suicide bombings.", "*2017 – The Marriage Amendment Bill receives royal assent and comes into effect, making Australia the 26th country to legalize same-sex marriage.", "*2019 – A volcano on Whakaari / White Island, New Zealand, kills 22 people after it erupts.", "* 2021 – Fifty-five people are killed and more than 100 injured when a truck with 160 migrants from Central America overturned in Chiapas, Mexico." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1392 – Peter, Duke of Coimbra (d. 1449)*1447 – Chenghua Emperor of China (d. 1487)*1482 – Frederick II, Elector Palatine (d. 1556)*1493 – Íñigo López de Mendoza, 4th Duke of the Infantado (d. 1566)*1508 – Gemma Frisius, Dutch mathematician and cartographer (d. 1555)*1561 – Edwin Sandys, English lawyer and politician (d. 1629)*1571 – Metius, Dutch mathematician and astronomer (d. 1635)*1579 – Martin de Porres, Peruvian saint (d. 1639)*1594 – Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden (d. 1632)===1601–1900===*1608 – John Milton, English poet and philosopher (d. 1674)*1610 – Baldassare Ferri, Italian singer and actor (d. 1680)*1617 – Richard Lovelace, English poet (d. 1657)*1652 – Augustus Quirinus Rivinus, German physician and botanist (d. 1723)*1667 – William Whiston, English mathematician, historian, and theologian (d. 1752)*1717 – Johann Joachim Winckelmann, German archaeologist and historian (d. 1768)*1721 – Peter Pelham, English-American organist and composer (d. 1805)*1728 – Pietro Alessandro Guglielmi, Italian composer (d. 1804)*1742 – Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Swedish Pomeranian and German pharmaceutical chemist (d. 1786)*1745 – Maddalena Laura Sirmen, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1818)*1748 – Claude Louis Berthollet, French chemist and academic (d. 1822)*1752 – Antoine Étienne de Tousard, French general and engineer (d. 1813)*1768 – Joseph Desha, American politician (d. 1842)**1787 – John Dobson, English architect, designed Eldon Square and Lilburn Tower (d. 1865)*1779 – Tabitha Babbitt, American tool maker and inventor (d. 1853)*1806 – Jean-Olivier Chénier, Canadian physician (d. 1838)*1813 – Thomas Andrews, Irish chemist and physicist (d. 1885)*1837 – Émile Waldteufel, French pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1915)*1842 – Peter Kropotkin, Russian zoologist, economist, geographer, and philosopher (d. 1921)*1845 – Joel Chandler Harris, American journalist and author (d. 1908)*1850 – Emma Abbott, American soprano and actress (d. 1891)*1861 – Hélène Smith, French psychic and occultist (d. 1929)*1867 – Gregorios Xenopoulos, Greek journalist and author (d. 1951)*1868 – Fritz Haber, Polish-German chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1934)*1870 – Ida S. Scudder, Indian physician and missionary (d. 1960)* 1870 – Francisco S. Carvajal, Mexican lawyer and politician, president 1914 (d. 1932)*1871 – Joe Kelley, American baseball player and manager (d. 1943)*1873 – George Blewett, Canadian philosopher, author, and academic (d. 1912)*1875 – Harry Miller, American engineer (d. 1943)*1876 – Berton Churchill, Canadian-American actor and singer (d. 1940)*1882 – Elmer Booth, American actor (d. 1915)* 1882 – Joaquín Turina, Spanish-French composer, critic, and educator (d. 1949)*1883 – Nikolai Luzin, Russian mathematician, theorist, and academic (d. 1950)* 1883 – Alexander Papagos, Greek general and politician, 152nd Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1955)* 1883 – Joseph Pilates, German-American fitness expert, developed Pilates (d. 1967)*1886 – Clarence Birdseye, American businessman, founded Birds Eye (d. 1956)*1887 – Tim Moore, American actor (d. 1958)*1889 – Hannes Kolehmainen, Finnish-American runner (d. 1966)*1890 – Laura Salverson, Canadian author (d. 1970)*1891 – Maksim Bahdanovič, Belarusian poet and critic (d. 1917)*1892 – André Randall, French actor (d. 1974)*1895 – Dolores Ibárruri, Spanish activist, journalist and politician (d. 1989)* 1895 – Conchita Supervía, Spanish soprano and actress (d. 1936)*1897 – Hermione Gingold, English actress and singer (d. 1987)*1898 – Irene Greenwood, Australian radio broadcaster and feminist and peace activist (d. 1992)* 1898 – Emmett Kelly, American clown and actor (d. 1979)*1899 – Jean de Brunhoff, French author and illustrator (d. 1937)*1900 – Margaret Brundage, American illustrator, known for illustrating pulp magazine ''Weird Tales'' (d. 1976)* 1900 – Albert Weisbord, American activist, founded the Communist League of Struggle (d. 1977)===1901–present===*1901 – Jean Mermoz, French pilot and politician (d. 1936)* 1901 – Ödön von Horváth, Hungarian-German author and playwright (d. 1938)*1902 – Margaret Hamilton, American schoolteacher, actress and voice artist (d. 1985)*1904 – Robert Livingston, American actor and singer (d. 1988)*1905 – Dalton Trumbo, American author, screenwriter, and blacklistee (d. 1976)*1906 – Grace Hopper, American admiral and computer scientist, designed COBOL (d. 1992)* 1906 – Freddy Martin, American bandleader and tenor saxophonist (d. 1983)*1909 – Douglas Fairbanks Jr., American captain, actor, and producer (d. 2000)*1910 – Vere Bird, first Prime Minister of Antigua and Barbuda (d. 1999)*1911 – Broderick Crawford, American actor (d. 1986)* 1911 – Ryūzō Sejima, Japanese colonel and businessman (d. 2007)*1912 – Tip O'Neill, American lawyer and politician, 55th Speaker of the United States House of Representatives (d. 1994)* 1912 – Jim Turnesa, American golfer (d. 1971)*1914 – Max Manus, Norwegian lieutenant (d. 1996)* 1914 – Frances Reid, American actress (d. 2010)* 1914 – Ljubica Sokić, Serbian painter and illustrator (d. 2009)*1915 – Eloise Jarvis McGraw, American author (d. 2000)* 1915 – Elisabeth Schwarzkopf, German-Austrian soprano and actress (d. 2006)*1916 – Jerome Beatty Jr., American soldier, journalist, and author (d. 2002)* 1916 – Kirk Douglas, American actor, singer, and producer (d. 2020)* 1916 – Colin McCool, Australian cricketer (d. 1986)*1917 – James Jesus Angleton, American CIA agent (d. 1987)* 1917 – James Rainwater, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1986)*1919 – V. Dakshinamoorthy, Indian singer-songwriter (d. 2013)* 1919 – William Lipscomb, American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2011)*1920 – Carlo Azeglio Ciampi, Italian economist and politician, 10th President of Italy (d. 2016)* 1920 – Bruno Ruffo, Italian motorcycle racer and race car driver (d. 2007)*1922 – Redd Foxx, American actor (d. 1991)*1925 – Roy Rubin, American basketball player and coach (d. 2013)*1926 – Henry Way Kendall, American physicist, photographer, and mountaineer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1999)* 1926 – Jan Křesadlo, Czech-English psychologist and author (d. 1995)* 1926 – David Nathan, British journalist (d. 2001)* 1926 – Lorenzo Wright, American sprinter and coach (d. 1972)*1927 – Pierre Henry, French composer (d. 2017)*1928 – Joan Blos, American author and educator (d. 2017)* 1928 – André Milhoux, Belgian race car driver* 1928 – Dick Van Patten, American actor (d. 2015)*1929 – John Cassavetes, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1989)* 1929 – Bob Hawke, Australian union leader and politician, 23rd Prime Minister of Australia (d. 2019)*1930 – Buck Henry, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2020)* 1930 – Óscar Humberto Mejía Víctores, Guatemalan soldier and politician, 27th President of Guatemala (d. 2016)*1931 – Cliff Hagan, American basketball player-coach* 1931 – William Reynolds, American actor (d. 2022)* 1931 – Ladislav Smoljak, Czech actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2010)*1932 – Donald Byrd, American trumpet player and academic (d. 2013)* 1932 – Bill Hartack, American jockey (d. 2007)* 1932 – Billy Edd Wheeler, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and playwright*1933 – Ashleigh Brilliant, English-American author and illustrator* 1933 – Milt Campbell, American decathlete and football player (d. 2012)* 1933 – Morton Downey Jr., American actor and talk show host (d. 2001)* 1933 – Orville Moody, American golfer (d. 2008)*1934 – Judi Dench, English actress * 1934 – Alan Ridout, English composer and teacher (d. 1996)* 1934 – Junior Wells, American blues singer-songwriter and harmonica player (d. 1998)*1938 – David Houston, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1993)* 1938 – Deacon Jones, American football player, sportscaster, and actor (d. 2013)* 1938 – Dimitrios Trichopoulos, Greek epidemiologist, oncologist, and academic (d. 2014)*1940 – Clancy Eccles, Jamaican singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2005)*1941 – Mehmet Ali Birand, Turkish journalist and author (d. 2013)* 1941 – Beau Bridges, American actor, director, and producer* 1941 – Dan Hicks, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2016)*1942 – Billy Bremner, Scottish footballer and manager (d. 1997)* 1942 – Dick Butkus, American football player, sportscaster, and actor (d. 2023)* 1942 – Germain Gagnon, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2014)* 1942 – Fred Jones, Australian rugby league player (d. 2021)* 1942 – Joe McGinniss, American journalist and author (d. 2014)* 1942 – William Turnage, American conservationist (d. 2017)*1943 – Pit Martin, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2008)* 1943 – Joanna Trollope, English author, playwright, and director* 1943 – Kenny Vance, American singer-songwriter and music producer*1944 – Neil Innes, English singer-songwriter (d. 2019)* 1944 – Ki Longfellow, American author, playwright, and producer* 1944 – Bob O'Connor, American businessman and politician, 57th Mayor of Pittsburgh (d. 2006)*1945 – Michael Nouri, American actor*1946 – David Currie, Baron Currie of Marylebone, English economist and academic* 1946 – Dennis Dunaway, American bass player and songwriter* 1946 – Sonia Gandhi, Italian-Indian politician* 1946 – Nicholas Reade, English bishop*1947 – Tom Daschle, American soldier, academic, and politician* 1947 – Jaak Jõerüüt, Estonian politician, 24th Estonian Minister of Defense* 1947 – Allan Jones, English cricketer and umpire*1948 – Marleen Gorris, Dutch director and screenwriter* 1948 – Jonathan Sumption, English historian, author, and judge*1949 – Tom Kite, American golfer and architect*1950 – Joan Armatrading, Kittian-English singer-songwriter and guitarist*1952 – Liaqat Baloch, Pakistani politician* 1952 – Michael Dorn, American actor and voice artist*1953 – Cornelis de Bondt, Dutch composer and educator* 1953 – World B.", "Free, American basketball player* 1953 – John Malkovich, American actor and producer*1954 – Jean-Claude Juncker, Luxembourger lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of Luxembourg* 1954 – Henk ten Cate, Dutch footballer and manager*1955 – Otis Birdsong, American basketball player and radio host* 1955 – Chamras Saewataporn, Thai singer-songwriter*1956 – Sylvia, American country singer-songwriter* 1956 – Jean-Pierre Thiollet, French journalist and author*1957 – Peter O'Mara, Australian guitarist and composer * 1957 – Donny Osmond, American singer-songwriter, dancer, and actor* 1957 – Steve Taylor, American singer-songwriter and producer *1959 – Susan Bullock, English soprano* 1959 – Mario Cantone, American comedian, actor, and writer*1960 – Stefen Fangmeier, American visual effects designer and director* 1960 – Caroline Lucas, English activist and politician* 1960 – Dobroslav Paraga, Croatian politician* 1960 – Juan Samuel, Dominican baseball player and manager*1961 – David Anthony Higgins, American actor and screenwriter* 1961 – Joe Lando, American actor*1962 – Felicity Huffman, American actress and producer* 1962 – Roxanne Swentzell, Santa Clara Pueblo (Native American) ceramic sculptor*1963 – Dave Hilton Jr., Canadian boxer* 1963 – Empress Masako, Empress of Japan*1964 – Michael Foster, American drummer* 1964 – Ross Harrington, Australian rugby league player * 1964 – Hape Kerkeling, German actor and singer* 1964 – Johannes B. Kerner, German journalist and sportscaster* 1964 – Les Kiss, Australian rugby league player* 1964 – Paul Landers, German guitarist *1965 – Joe Ausanio, American baseball player and coach*1966 – Kirsten Gillibrand, American lawyer and politician* 1966 – Dave Harold, English snooker player* 1966 – Gideon Sa'ar, Israeli lawyer and politician, 24th Israeli Minister of Internal Affairs* 1966 – Martin Taylor, English footballer and coach*1967 – Joshua Bell, American violinist and conductor* 1967 – Jason Dozzell, English footballer and manager*1968 – Kurt Angle, American freestyle and professional wrestler* 1968 – Brian Bell, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1968 – Brent Price, American basketball player*1969 – Jakob Dylan, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1969 – Saskia Garel, Jamaican-Canadian singer-songwriter * 1969 – Lori Greiner, American businesswoman and television personality* 1969 – Bixente Lizarazu, French footballer* 1969 – Raphaël Rouquier, French mathematician and academic* 1969 – Allison Smith, American actress*1970 – Kara DioGuardi, American singer-songwriter and producer * 1970 – Lance Krall, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter*1971 – Geoff Barrow, English drummer, DJ, composer, and producer * 1971 – Nick Hysong, American pole vaulter and coach* 1971 – Petr Nedvěd, Czech-Canadian ice hockey player*1972 – Reiko Aylesworth, American actress* 1972 – Tré Cool, German-American drummer and songwriter* 1972 – Michael Corcoran, American singer-songwriter and producer* 1972 – Fabrice Santoro, Tahitian-French tennis player and sportscaster* 1972 – Saima Wazed, Bangladeshi psychologist *1973 – Stacey Abrams, American politician and activist* 1973 – Fabio Artico, Italian footballer* 1973 – Vénuste Niyongabo, Burundian runner* 1973 – Bárbara Padilla, Mexican-American soprano*1974 – David Akers, American football player* 1974 – Canibus, Jamaican-American rapper* 1974 – Aloísio da Silva Filho, Brazilian footballer* 1974 – Wendy Dillinger, American soccer player, coach, and manager* 1974 – Fiona MacDonald, Scottish curler*1976 – Mona Hanna-Attisha, American pediatrician, professor, and public health advocate *1977 – Shayne Graham, American football player* 1977 – Imogen Heap, English singer-songwriter and keyboard player *1978 – Gastón Gaudio, Argentinian tennis player* 1978 – Jesse Metcalfe, American actor and musician*1979 – Olivia Lufkin, Japanese-American singer-songwriter * 1979 – Stephen McPhail, Irish footballer* 1979 – Aiko Uemura, Japanese skier*1980 – Simon Helberg, American actor, comedian, and musician* 1980 – Ryder Hesjedal, Canadian cyclist* 1980 – Mark Riddell, Australian rugby league player and sportscaster*1981 – Mardy Fish, American tennis player*1982 – Tamilla Abassova, Russian cyclist* 1982 – Nathalie De Vos, Belgian runner* 1982 – Ryan Grant, American football player* 1982 – Jim Slater, American ice hockey player* 1982 – Bastian Swillims, German sprinter*1983 – Jermaine Beckford, English-Jamaican footballer* 1983 – Neslihan Demir Darnel, Turkish volleyball player* 1983 – Dariusz Dudka, Polish footballer* 1983 – Jolene Purdy, American actress*1984 – Ángel Guirado, Spanish–Filipino footballer* 1984 – Leon Hall, American football player*1985 – Wil Besseling, Dutch golfer*1986 – Aron Baynes, Australian basketball player*1987 – Kostas Giannoulis, Greek footballer* 1987 – Gerald Henderson Jr., American basketball player* 1987 – Mat Latos, American baseball player* 1987 – Hikaru Nakamura, Japanese-American chess player* 1987 – Jeff Petry, American ice hockey player* 1987 – Joshua Sasse, English actor*1988 – Kwadwo Asamoah, Ghanaian footballer*1989 – Eric Bledsoe, American basketball player*1990 – Ashleigh Brewer, Australian actress* 1990 – Denise Hannema, Dutch cricketer*1991 – Langston Galloway, American basketball player* 1991 – Choi Min-ho, South Korean singer and actor*1993 – Mark McMorris, Canadian snowboarder* 1993 – Laura Smulders, Dutch cyclist *1995 – Simone Fontecchio, Italian basketball player* 1995 – McKayla Maroney, American gymnast* 1995 – Kelly Oubre Jr., American basketball player*1996 – Mackenzie Blackwood, Canadian ice hockey player* 1996 – Kyle Connor, American ice hockey player* 1996 – MyKayla Skinner, American gymnast*2000 – Diāna Ņikitina, Latvian figure skater" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 638 – Sergius I of Constantinople* 730 – Al-Jarrah ibn Abdallah, Arab general* 748 – Nasr ibn Sayyar, Umayyad general and politician (b.", "663)* 933 – Li Congrong, prince of Later Tang*1117 – Gertrude of Brunswick, Markgräfin of Meißen*1165 – Malcolm IV of Scotland (b.", "1141)*1242 – Richard le Gras, Lord Keeper of England and Abbot of Evesham*1268 – Vaišvilkas, Prince of Black Ruthenia, Grand Duke of Lithuania*1299 – Bohemond I, Archbishop of Trier*1437 – Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor (b.", "1368)*1544 – Teofilo Folengo, Italian poet (b.", "1491)*1565 – Pope Pius IV (b.", "1499)===1601–1900===*1603 – William Watson, English priest (b.", "1559)*1625 – Ubbo Emmius, Dutch historian and geographer (b.", "1547)*1636 – Fabian Birkowski, Polish preacher and author (b.", "1566)*1641 – Anthony van Dyck, Belgian-English painter and illustrator (b.", "1599)*1669 – Pope Clement IX (b.", "1600)*1674 – Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon, English historian and politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (b.", "1609)*1706 – Peter II of Portugal (b.", "1648)*1718 – Vincenzo Coronelli, Italian monk and cartographer (b.", "1650)* 1761 – Tarabai, Queen of Chatrapati Rajaram (b.", "1675)*1793 – Yolande de Polastron, French-Austrian educator (b.", "1749)*1798 – Johann Reinhold Forster, German pastor, botanist, and ornithologist (b.", "1729)*1830 – Heinrich Christian Friedrich Schumacher, Danish surgeon, botanist, and academic (b.", "1757)*1854 – Almeida Garrett, Portuguese journalist and author (b.", "1799)*1858 – Robert Baldwin, Canadian lawyer and politician, 3rd Premier of Canada West (b.", "1804)*1887 – Mahmadu Lamine, Senegalese religious leader===1901–present===*1906 – Ferdinand Brunetière, French author and critic (b.", "1849)*1916 – Natsume Sōseki, Japanese author and poet (b.", "1867)*1924 – Bernard Zweers, Dutch composer and educator (b.", "1854)*1930 – Rube Foster, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1879)*1932 – Karl Blossfeldt, German photographer, sculptor, and educator (b.", "1865)* 1932 – Begum Rokeya, Bangladeshi social worker and author (b.", "1880)*1935 – Walter Liggett, American journalist and activist (b.", "1886)*1937 – Lilias Armstrong, English phonetician (b.", "1882)* 1937 – Gustaf Dalén, Swedish physicist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1869)*1941 – Dmitry Merezhkovsky, Russian author, poet, and philosopher (b.", "1865)*1943 – Georges Dufrénoy, French painter (b.", "1870)*1944 – Laird Cregar, American actor (b.", "1913)*1945 – Yun Chi-ho, South Korean activist and politician (b.", "1864)*1957 – Ali İhsan Sâbis, Turkish general (b.", "1882)*1963 – Daniel O. Fagunwa, Nigerian author and educator (b.", "1903)* 1963 – Perry Miller, American historian, author, and academic (b.", "1905)*1964 – Edith Sitwell, English poet and critic (b.", "1887)*1965 – Branch Rickey, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1884)*1967 – Charles Léon Hammes, Luxembourgian lawyer and judge, 3rd President of the European Court of Justice (b.", "1898)*1968 – Enoch L. Johnson, American mob boss (b.", "1883)*1970 – Artem Mikoyan, Armenian-Russian engineer and businessman, co-founded the Mikoyan-Gurevich Design Bureau (b.", "1905)* 1970 – Feroz Khan Noon, Pakistani politician, 7th Prime Minister of Pakistan (b.", "1893)*1971 – Ralph Bunche, American political scientist, academic, and diplomat, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1904)* 1971 – Sergey Konenkov, Russian sculptor and painter (b.", "1874)* 1971 – Rev.", "Aeneas Francon Williams, Church of Scotland Minister, Missionary in India and China, writer and poet (b.", "1886)*1972 – Louella Parsons, American writer and columnist (b.", "1881)*1975 – William A. Wellman, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1896)*1979 – Fulton J. Sheen, American archbishop (b.", "1895)*1982 – Leon Jaworski, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1905)*1991 – Berenice Abbott, American photographer (b.", "1898)*1992 – Vincent Gardenia, American actor (b.", "1922)*1993 – Danny Blanchflower, Northern Irish footballer and manager (b.", "1926)*1995 – Toni Cade Bambara, American author and academic (b.", "1939)* 1995 – Douglas Corrigan, American pilot (b.", "1907)*1996 – Patty Donahue, American singer-songwriter (b.", "1956)* 1996 – Mary Leakey, English archaeologist and anthropologist (b.", "1913)* 1996 – Alain Poher, French lawyer and politician (b.", "1909)* 1996 – Diana Morgan, Welsh playwright and screenwriter (b.", "1908)*1998 – Shaughnessy Cohen, Canadian lawyer and politician (b.", "1948)* 1998 – Archie Moore, American boxer and actor (b.", "1913)*2001 – Michael Carver, Baron Carver, English field marshal (b.", "1915)*2002 – Mary Hansen, Australian singer and guitarist (b.", "1966)* 2002 – Ian Hornak, American painter and sculptor (b.", "1944)* 2002 – Stan Rice, American painter and poet (b.", "1942)*2003 – Norm Sloan, American basketball player and coach (b.", "1926)* 2003 – Paul Simon, American soldier, journalist, and politician, 39th Lieutenant Governor of Illinois (b.", "1928)*2005 – György Sándor, Hungarian-American pianist and educator (b.", "1912)* 2005 – Robert Sheckley, American author (b.", "1928)*2006 – Georgia Gibbs, American singer (b.", "1919)*2007 – Rafael Sperafico, Brazilian race car driver (b.", "1981)* 2007 – Gordon Zahn, American sociologist, author, and academic (b.", "1918)*2008 – Ibrahim Dossey, Ghanaian footballer (b.", "1972)* 2008 – Yury Glazkov, Russian general, pilot, and astronaut (b.", "1939)*2009 – Gene Barry, American actor (b.", "1919)*2010 – James Moody, American saxophonist, flute player, and composer (b.", "1925)* 2010 – Dov Shilansky, Lithuanian-Israeli lawyer and politician, 10th Speaker of the Knesset (b.", "1924)*2012 – Béla Nagy Abodi, Hungarian painter and academic (b.", "1918)* 2012 – Patrick Moore, English lieutenant, astronomer, and educator (b.", "1923)* 2012 – Alex Moulton, English engineer and businessman, founded the Moulton Bicycle Company (b.", "1920)* 2012 – Jenni Rivera, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actress (b.", "1969)* 2012 – Charles Rosen, American pianist and musicologist (b.", "1927)* 2012 – Riccardo Schicchi, Italian director and producer, co-founded Diva Futura (b.", "1953)* 2012 – Norman Joseph Woodland, American inventor, co-created the bar code (b.", "1921)*2013 – Hristu Cândroveanu, Romanian editor, literary critic and writer (b.", "1928)* 2013 – John Gabbert, American soldier, lawyer, and judge (b.", "1909)* 2013 – Barbara Hesse-Bukowska, Polish pianist and educator (b.", "1930)* 2013 – Eleanor Parker, American actress (b.", "1922)* 2013 – John Wilbur, American football player (b.", "1943)*2014 – Sacvan Bercovitch, Canadian-American author, critic, and academic (b.", "1933)* 2014 – Jane Freilicher, American painter and poet (b.", "1924)* 2014 – Jorge María Mejía, Argentinian cardinal (b.", "1923)* 2014 – Mary Ann Mobley, American model and actress, Miss America 1959 (b.", "1937)* 2014 – Blagoje Paunović, Serbian footballer and manager (b.", "1947)* 2014 – Jože Toporišič, Slovenian linguist and author (b.", "1926)*2015 – Soshana Afroyim, Austrian painter (b.", "1927)* 2015 – Norman Breslow, American statistician and academic (b.", "1941)* 2015 – Juvenal Juvêncio, Brazilian lawyer and politician (b.", "1934)* 2015 – Julio Terrazas Sandoval, Bolivian cardinal (b.", "1936)*2021 – Speedy Duncan, American football player (b.", "1942)* 2021 – Demaryius Thomas, American football player (b.", "1987)*2022 – Jovit Baldivino, Filipino singer and actor (b.", "1993)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Anna's Day, marks the day to start the preparation process of the lutefisk to be consumed on Christmas Eve, as well as a Swedish name day, celebrating all people named Anna.", "(Sweden and Finland)*Armed Forces Day (Peru) *Christian feast day:**Feast of the Conception of the Most Holy Theotokos by St. Anne (Eastern Orthodox Church)**Juan Diego**Leocadia**Nectarius of Auvergne**Peter Fourier**December 9 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Fatherland's Heroes Day (Russia)*Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Tanganyika from Britain in 1961.", "(Tanzania)*International Anti-Corruption Day (United Nations)*National Heroes Day, formerly V.C.", "Bird Day.", "(Antigua and Barbuda)*Navy Day (Sri Lanka)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on December 9" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Diaspora studies" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Diaspora studies''' is an academic field established in the late 20th century to study dispersed ethnic populations, which are often termed diaspora peoples.", "The usage of the term diaspora carries the connotation of forced resettlement, due to expulsion, coercion, slavery, racism, or war, especially nationalist conflicts." ], [ "Academic institutes", "* The International Institute for Diasporic and Transcultural Studies (IIDTS) — a transnational institute incorporating Jean Moulin University (Lyons, France), the University of Cyprus, Sun Yat-sen University (Guangzhou, China) and Liverpool Hope University (UK) — is a dedicated research network operating in a transdisciplinary logic and focused on cultural representation (and auto-representation) of diasporic communities throughout the world.", "The institute sponsors the trilingual publication ''Transtext(e)s-Transcultures: A Journal of Global Cultural Studies''.", "* Nehru University's School of International Studies, www.jnu.ac.in has a strong research programme, DIMP (Diaspora and International Programme) and its faculty run a network www.odi.in (Organisation for Diaspora Initiatives), an international network of higher academic researchers focused on studying Diaspora from International Perspective and examining diaspora as a resource in international relations.", "ODI publishes a research journal www.tandfonline/rdst with Routledge, London.", "* Golong Gilig Institute of Javanese Diaspora Studies, Indonesia." ], [ "Select Bibliography", "* Hall, Stuart (1990).", "\"Cultural Identity and Diaspora.\"", "From Jonathan Rutherford, e.d, ''Identity: Community, Culture, and Difference'' (Lawrence & Wishart), pp.", "222-37.Available online.", "(Also available here .)" ], [ "See also", "* Diaspora politics" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Domitian" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Domitian''' (, ; ; 24 October 51 – 18 September 96) was Roman emperor from 81 to 96.The son of Vespasian and the younger brother of Titus, his two predecessors on the throne, he was the last member of the Flavian dynasty.", "Described as \"a ruthless but efficient autocrat\", his authoritarian style of ruling put him at sharp odds with the Senate, whose powers he drastically curtailed.Domitian had a minor and largely ceremonial role during the reigns of his father and brother.", "After the death of his brother, Domitian was declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard.", "His 15-year reign was the longest since that of Tiberius.", "As emperor, Domitian strengthened the economy by revaluing the Roman coinage, expanded the border defenses of the empire, and initiated a massive building program to restore the damaged city of Rome.", "Significant wars were fought in Britain, where his general Agricola attempted to conquer Caledonia (Scotland), and in Dacia, where Domitian was unable to procure a decisive victory against King Decebalus.", "Domitian's government exhibited strong authoritarian characteristics.", "Religious, military, and cultural propaganda fostered a cult of personality, and by nominating himself perpetual censor, he sought to control public and private morals.As a consequence, Domitian was popular with the people and the army, but considered a tyrant by members of the Roman Senate.", "Domitian's reign came to an end in 96 when he was assassinated by court officials.", "He was succeeded the same day by his advisor Nerva.", "After his death, Domitian's memory was condemned to oblivion by the Senate, while senatorial and equestrian authors such as Tacitus, Pliny the Younger, and Suetonius propagated the view of Domitian as a cruel and paranoid tyrant.", "Modern revisionists instead have characterized Domitian as a ruthless but efficient autocrat whose cultural, economic, and political programs provided the foundation of the peaceful second century." ], [ "Early life", "=== Background and family ===Flavian family tree, indicating the descendants of Titus Flavius Petro and TertullaDomitian was born in Rome on 24 October 51, the youngest son of Titus Flavius Vespasianus—commonly known as Vespasian—and Flavia Domitilla Major.", "He had an older sister, Domitilla the Younger, and brother, also named Titus Flavius Vespasianus.", "Decades of civil war during the 1st century BC had contributed greatly to the demise of the old aristocracy of Rome, which a new Italian nobility gradually replaced in prominence during the early part of the 1st century.", "One such family, the Flavians, or Flavia gens, rose from relative obscurity to prominence in just four generations, acquiring wealth and status under the emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty.Domitian's great-grandfather, Titus Flavius Petro, had served as a centurion under Pompey during Caesar's civil war.", "His military career ended in disgrace when he fled the battlefield at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC.", "Nevertheless, Petro managed to improve his status by marrying the extremely wealthy Tertulla, whose fortune guaranteed the upward mobility of Petro's son Titus Flavius Sabinus, Domitian's grandfather.", "Sabinus himself amassed further wealth and possible equestrian status through his services as tax collector in Asia and banker in Helvetia (modern Switzerland).", "By marrying Vespasia Polla he allied the Flavian family to the more prestigious ''gens Vespasia'', ensuring the elevation of his sons Titus Flavius Sabinus and Vespasian to senatorial rank.A denarius of Domitian.", "Caption: CAES.", "DOMIT.", "AVG.", "GERM.", "P. M., TR.", "P. XIIII.The political career of Vespasian included the offices of quaestor, aedile, and praetor, and culminated in a consulship in 51, the year of Domitian's birth.", "As a military commander, Vespasian gained early renown by participating in the Roman invasion of Britain in 43.Nevertheless, ancient sources allege poverty for the Flavian family at the time of Domitian's upbringing, even claiming Vespasian had fallen into disrepute under the emperors Caligula (37–41) and Nero (54–68).", "Modern history has refuted these claims, suggesting these stories later circulated under Flavian rule as part of a propaganda campaign to diminish success under the less reputable Emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and to maximize achievements under Emperor Claudius (41–54) and his son Britannicus.By all appearances, the Flavians enjoyed high imperial favour throughout the 40s and 60s.", "While Titus received a court education in the company of Britannicus, Vespasian pursued a successful political and military career.", "Following a prolonged period of retirement during the 50s, he returned to public office under Nero, serving as proconsul of the Africa Province in 63, and accompanying the emperor Nero during an official tour of Greece in 66.That same year Jews from the Province of Judaea revolted against the Roman Empire, sparking what is now known as the First Jewish–Roman War.", "Vespasian was assigned to lead the Roman army against the insurgents, with Titus—who had completed his military education by this time—in charge of a legion.=== Youth and character ===File:Domitian Sestertius 92-94 AD.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A sestertius of Domitian|252x252px|A sestertius of Domitian.", "Caption: IMP.", "CAES.", "DOMIT.", "AVG.", "GERM.", "CONS.", "IV, CENS.", "PERP.", "P. / IOVI VICTORI.Of the three Flavian emperors, Domitian would rule the longest, despite the fact that his youth and early career were largely spent in the shadow of his older brother.", "Titus had gained military renown during the First Jewish–Roman War.", "After their father Vespasian became emperor in 69 following the civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors, Titus held a great many offices, while Domitian received honours, but no responsibilities.", "By the time he was 16 years old, Domitian's mother and sister had long since died, while his father and brother were continuously active in the Roman military, commanding armies in Germania and Judaea.", "For Domitian, this meant that a significant part of his adolescence was spent in the absence of his near relatives.During the Jewish–Roman wars, he was likely taken under the care of his uncle Titus Flavius Sabinus II, at the time serving as city prefect of Rome; or possibly even Marcus Cocceius Nerva, a loyal friend of the Flavians and the future successor to Domitian.", "He received the education of a young man of the privileged senatorial class, studying rhetoric and literature.", "In his biography in the ''Lives of the Twelve Caesars'', Suetonius attests to Domitian's ability to quote the important poets and writers such as Homer or Virgil on appropriate occasions, and describes him as a learned and educated adolescent, with elegant conversation.", "Among his first published works were poetry, as well as writings on law and administration.", "Unlike his brother Titus, Domitian was not educated at court.", "Whether he received formal military training is not recorded, but according to Suetonius, he displayed considerable marksmanship with the bow and arrow.", "A detailed description of Domitian's appearance and character is provided by Suetonius, who devotes a substantial part of his biography to his personality:Domitian was allegedly extremely sensitive regarding his baldness, which he disguised in later life by wearing wigs.", "According to Suetonius, he even wrote a book on the subject of hair care.", "With regard to Domitian's personality, however, the account of Suetonius alternates sharply between portraying Domitian as the emperor-tyrant, a man both physically and intellectually lazy, and the intelligent, refined personality drawn elsewhere.", "Historian Brian Jones concludes in ''The Emperor Domitian'' that assessing the true nature of Domitian's personality is inherently complicated by the bias of the surviving sources.", "Common threads nonetheless emerge from the available evidence.", "He appears to have lacked the natural charisma of his brother and father.", "He was prone to suspicion, displayed an odd, sometimes self-deprecating sense of humour, and often communicated in cryptic ways.", "This ambiguity of character was further exacerbated by his remoteness, and as he grew older, he increasingly displayed a preference for solitude, which may have stemmed from his isolated upbringing.", "Indeed, by the age of eighteen nearly all of his closest relatives had died by war or disease.", "Having spent the greater part of his early life in the twilight of Nero's reign, Domitian's formative years would have been strongly influenced by the political turmoil of the 60s, culminating with the civil war of 69, which brought his family to power." ], [ "Rise of the Flavians", "=== Year of the Four Emperors ===The Roman Empire during the Year of the Four Emperors (69); Blue areas indicate provinces loyal to Vespasian and Gaius Licinius Mucianus; Green areas indicate provinces loyal to VitelliusOn 9 June 68, amid growing opposition of the Senate and the army, Nero committed suicide and with him the Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end.", "Chaos ensued, leading to a year of brutal civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors, during which the four most influential generals in the Roman Empire—Galba, Otho, Vitellius and Vespasian—successively vied for imperial power.", "News of Nero's death reached Vespasian as he was preparing to besiege the city of Jerusalem.", "Almost simultaneously the Senate had declared Galba, then governor of Hispania Tarraconensis (modern northern Spain), as Emperor of Rome.", "Rather than continue his campaign, Vespasian decided to await further orders and send Titus to greet the new Emperor.", "Before reaching Italy, Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced by Otho, the governor of Lusitania (modern Portugal).", "At the same time Vitellius and his armies in Germania had risen in revolt and prepared to march on Rome, intent on overthrowing Otho.", "Not wanting to risk being taken hostage by one side or the other, Titus abandoned the journey to Rome and rejoined his father in Judaea.Otho and Vitellius realized the potential threat posed by the Flavian faction.", "With four legions at his disposal, Vespasian commanded a strength of nearly 80,000 soldiers.", "His position in Judaea further granted him the advantage of being nearest to the vital province of Egypt, which controlled the grain supply to Rome.", "His brother Titus Flavius Sabinus II, as city prefect, commanded the entire city garrison of Rome.", "Tensions among the Flavian troops ran high but so long as either Galba or Otho remained in power, Vespasian refused to take action.", "When Otho was defeated by Vitellius at the First Battle of Bedriacum, the armies in Judaea and Egypt took matters into their own hands and declared Vespasian emperor on 1 July 69.Vespasian accepted and entered an alliance with Gaius Licinius Mucianus, the governor of Syria, against Vitellius.", "A strong force drawn from the Judaean and Syrian legions marched on Rome under the command of Mucianus, while Vespasian travelled to Alexandria, leaving Titus in charge of ending the Jewish rebellion.In Rome, Domitian was placed under house arrest by Vitellius, as a safeguard against Flavian aggression.", "Support for the old emperor waned as more legions around the empire pledged their allegiance to Vespasian.", "On 24 October 69, the forces of Vitellius and Vespasian (under Marcus Antonius Primus) met at the Second Battle of Bedriacum, which ended in a crushing defeat for the armies of Vitellius.", "In despair, Vitellius attempted to negotiate a surrender.", "Terms of peace, including a voluntary abdication, were agreed upon with Titus Flavius Sabinus II but the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard—the imperial bodyguard—considered such a resignation disgraceful and prevented Vitellius from carrying out the treaty.", "On the morning of 18 December, the emperor appeared to deposit the imperial insignia at the Temple of Concord but at the last minute retraced his steps to the Imperial palace.", "In the confusion, the leading men of the state gathered at Sabinus' house, proclaiming Vespasian as Emperor, but the multitude dispersed when Vitellian cohorts clashed with the armed escort of Sabinus, who was forced to retreat to the Capitoline Hill.During the night, he was joined by his relatives, including Domitian.", "The armies of Mucianus were nearing Rome but the besieged Flavian party did not hold out for longer than a day.", "On 19 December, Vitellianists burst onto the Capitol and in a skirmish, Sabinus was captured and executed.", "Domitian managed to escape by disguising himself as a worshipper of Isis and spent the night in safety with one of his father's supporters, Cornelius Primus.", "By the afternoon of 20 December, Vitellius was dead, his armies having been defeated by the Flavian legions.", "With nothing more to be feared, Domitian came forward to meet the invading forces; he was universally saluted by the title of ''Caesar'' and the mass of troops conducted him to his father's house.", "The following day, 21 December, the Senate proclaimed Vespasian emperor of the Roman Empire.=== Aftermath of the war ===''The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis'' (detail), by Rembrandt (1661).", "During the Batavian rebellion, Domitian eagerly sought the opportunity to attain military glory, but was denied command of a legion by superior officers.Although the war had officially ended, a state of anarchy and lawlessness pervaded in the first days following the demise of Vitellius.", "Order was properly restored by Mucianus in early 70 but Vespasian did not enter Rome until September of that year.", "In the meantime, Domitian acted as the representative of the Flavian family in the Roman Senate.", "He received the title of ''Caesar'' and was appointed praetor with consular power.", "The ancient historian Tacitus describes Domitian's first speech in the Senate as brief and measured, at the same time noting his ability to elude awkward questions.", "Domitian's authority was merely nominal, foreshadowing what was to be his role for at least ten more years.", "By all accounts, Mucianus held the real power in Vespasian's absence and he was careful to ensure that Domitian, still only eighteen years old, did not overstep the boundaries of his function.Strict control was also maintained over the young Caesar's entourage, promoting away Flavian generals such as Arrius Varus and Antonius Primus and replacing them with more reliable men such as Arrecinus Clemens.", "Equally curtailed by Mucianus were Domitian's military ambitions.", "The civil war of 69 had severely destabilized the provinces, leading to several local uprisings such as the Batavian revolt in Gaul.", "Batavian auxiliaries of the Rhine legions, led by Gaius Julius Civilis, had rebelled with the aid of a faction of Treveri under the command of Julius Classicus.", "Seven legions were sent from Rome, led by Vespasian's brother-in-law Quintus Petillius Cerialis.Although the revolt was quickly suppressed, exaggerated reports of disaster prompted Mucianus to depart the capital with reinforcements of his own.", "Domitian eagerly sought the opportunity to attain military glory and joined the other officers with the intention of commanding a legion of his own.", "According to Tacitus, Mucianus was not keen on this prospect but since he considered Domitian a liability in any capacity that was entrusted to him, he preferred to keep him close at hand rather than in Rome.", "When news arrived of Cerialis' victory over Civilis, Mucianus tactfully dissuaded Domitian from pursuing further military endeavours.", "Domitian then wrote to Cerialis personally, suggesting he hand over command of his army but, once again, he was snubbed.", "With the return of Vespasian in late September, his political role was rendered all but obsolete and Domitian withdrew from government devoting his time to arts and literature.=== Marriage ===A bust of Domitia Longina (Louvre)Where his political and military career had ended in disappointment, Domitian's private affairs were more successful.", "In 70 Vespasian attempted to arrange a dynastic marriage between his youngest son and the daughter of Titus, Julia Flavia, but Domitian was adamant in his love for Domitia Longina, going so far as to persuade her husband, Lucius Aelius Lamia Plautius Aelianus, to divorce her so that Domitian could marry her himself.", "Despite its initial recklessness, the alliance was very prestigious for both families.", "Domitia Longina was the younger daughter of Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo, a respected general and honoured politician who had distinguished himself for his leadership in Armenia.", "Following the failed Pisonian conspiracy against Nero in 65, he had been forced to commit suicide.", "She was also a granddaughter of Junia Lepida, a descendant of Emperor Augustus.", "The new marriage not only re-established ties to senatorial opposition, but also served the broader Flavian propaganda of the time, which sought to diminish Vespasian's political success under Nero.", "Instead, connections to Claudius and Britannicus were emphasised, and Nero's victims, or those otherwise disadvantaged by him, rehabilitated.In 80, Domitia and Domitian's only attested son was born.", "It is not known what the boy's name was, but he died in childhood in 83.Shortly following his accession as emperor, Domitian bestowed the honorific title of ''Augusta'' upon Domitia, while their son was deified, appearing as such on the reverse of coin types from this period.", "Nevertheless, the marriage appears to have faced a significant crisis in 83.For reasons unknown, Domitian briefly exiled Domitia, and then soon recalled her, either out of love or due to rumours that he was carrying on a relationship with his niece Julia Flavia.", "Jones argues that most likely he did so for her failure to produce an heir.", "By 84, Domitia had returned to the palace, where she lived for the remainder of Domitian's reign without incident.", "Little is known of Domitia's activities as empress, or how much influence she wielded in Domitian's government, but it seems her role was limited.", "From Suetonius, we know that she at least accompanied the Emperor to the amphitheatre, while the Jewish writer Josephus speaks of benefits he received from her.", "It is not known whether Domitian had other children, but he did not marry again.", "Despite allegations by Roman sources of adultery and divorce, the marriage appears to have been happy.=== Ceremonial heir (71–81) ===''The Triumph of Titus'', by Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema (1885), depicting the Flavian family during the triumphal procession of 71.Vespasian proceeds at the head of the family, dressed as pontifex maximus, followed by Domitian with Domitia Longina, and finally Titus, also dressed in religious regalia.", "An exchange of glances between Titus and Domitia suggests an affair upon which historians have speculated.", "Alma-Tadema was known for his meticulous historical research on the ancient world.Before becoming Emperor, Domitian's role in the Flavian government was largely ceremonial.", "In June 71, Titus returned triumphant from the war in Judaea.", "Ultimately, the rebellion had claimed the lives of tens of thousands, perhaps hundreds of thousands, a majority of whom were Jewish.", "The city and temple of Jerusalem were completely destroyed, its most valuable treasures carried off by the Roman army, and nearly 100,000 people were captured and enslaved.", "For his victory, the Senate awarded Titus a Roman triumph.", "On the day of the festivities, the Flavian family rode into the capital, preceded by a lavish parade that displayed the spoils of the war.", "The family procession was headed by Vespasian and Titus, while Domitian, riding a magnificent white horse, followed with the remaining Flavian relatives.Leaders of the Jewish resistance were executed in the Forum Romanum, after which the procession closed with religious sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter.", "A triumphal arch, the Arch of Titus, was erected at the south-east entrance to the Forum to commemorate the successful end of the war.", "Yet the return of Titus further highlighted the comparative insignificance of Domitian, both militarily and politically.", "As the eldest and most experienced of Vespasian's sons, Titus shared tribunician power with his father, received seven consulships, the censorship, and was given command of the Praetorian Guard; powers that left no doubt he was the designated heir to the Empire.", "As a second son, Domitian held honorary titles, such as ''Caesar'' or ''Princeps Iuventutis'', and several priesthoods, including those of ''augur'', ''pontifex'', ''frater arvalis'', ''magister frater arvalium'', and ''sacerdos collegiorum omnium'', but no office with ''imperium''.", "He held six consulships during Vespasian's reign but only one of these, in 73, was an ordinary consulship.", "The other five were less prestigious suffect consulships, which he held in 71, 75, 76, 77 and 79 respectively, usually replacing his father or brother in mid-January.While ceremonial, these offices no doubt gained Domitian valuable experience in the Roman Senate, and may have contributed to his later reservations about its relevance.", "Under Vespasian and Titus, non-Flavians were virtually excluded from the important public offices.", "Mucianus himself all but disappeared from historical records during this time, and it is believed he died sometime between 75 and 77.Real power was unmistakably concentrated in the hands of the Flavian faction; the weakened Senate only maintained the facade of democracy.", "Because Titus effectively acted as co-emperor with his father, no abrupt change in Flavian policy occurred when Vespasian died on 24 June 79.Titus assured Domitian that full partnership in the government would soon be his, but neither tribunician power nor ''imperium'' of any kind was conferred upon him during Titus' brief reign.Two major disasters struck during 79 and 80.In October/November 79, Mount Vesuvius erupted, burying the surrounding cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum under metres of ash and lava; the following year, a fire broke out in Rome that lasted three days and destroyed a number of important public buildings.", "Consequently, Titus spent much of his reign coordinating relief efforts and restoring damaged property.", "On 13 September 81, after barely two years in office, he unexpectedly died of fever during a trip to the Sabine territories.", "Ancient authors have implicated Domitian in the death of his brother, either by directly accusing him of murder, or implying he left the ailing Titus for dead, even alleging that during his lifetime, Domitian was openly plotting against his brother.", "It is difficult to assess the factual veracity of these statements given the known bias of the surviving sources.", "Brotherly affection was likely at a minimum, but this was hardly surprising, considering that Domitian had barely seen Titus after the age of seven.", "Whatever the nature of their relationship, Domitian seems to have displayed little sympathy when his brother lay dying, instead making for the Praetorian camp where he was proclaimed emperor.", "The following day, 14 September, the Senate confirmed Domitian's powers, granting tribunician power, the office of ''pontifex maximus'', and the titles of ''Augustus'' (\"venerable\"), and ''Pater Patriae'' (\"father of the country\")." ], [ "Emperor (81–96)", "=== Rule ===A silver tetradrachm of Domitian from the Antioch Mint in Syria.", "c 91–92 AD.As emperor, Domitian quickly dispensed with the republican facade his father and brother had maintained during their reign.", "By moving the centre of government to the imperial court, Domitian openly rendered the Senate's powers obsolete.", "According to Pliny the Younger, Domitian believed that the Roman Empire was to be governed as a divine monarchy with himself as the benevolent despot at its head.", "In addition to exercising absolute political power, Domitian believed the emperor's role encompassed every aspect of daily life, guiding the Roman people as a cultural and moral authority.", "To usher in the new era, he embarked on ambitious economic, military, and cultural programs with the intention of restoring the Empire to the splendour it had seen under the Emperor Augustus.Despite these grand designs, Domitian was determined to govern the Empire conscientiously and scrupulously.", "He became personally involved in all branches of the administration: edicts were issued governing the smallest details of everyday life and law, while taxation and public morals were rigidly enforced.", "According to Suetonius, the imperial bureaucracy never ran more efficiently than under Domitian, whose exacting standards and suspicious nature maintained historically low corruption among provincial governors and elected officials.", "Although he made no pretence regarding the significance of the Senate under his absolute rule, those senators he deemed unworthy were expelled from the Senate, and in the distribution of public offices he rarely favored family members, a policy that stood in contrast to the nepotism practiced by Vespasian and Titus.Above all, however, Domitian valued loyalty and malleability in those he assigned to strategic posts, qualities he found more often in men of the equestrian order than in members of the Senate or his own family, whom he regarded with suspicion, and promptly removed from office if they disagreed with imperial policy.", "The reality of Domitian's autocracy was further highlighted by the fact that, more than any emperor since Tiberius, he spent significant periods of time away from the capital.", "Although the Senate's power had been in decline since the fall of the Republic, under Domitian the seat of power was no longer even in Rome, but rather wherever the Emperor was.", "Until the completion of the Flavian Palace on the Palatine Hill, the imperial court was situated at Alba or Circeii, and sometimes even farther afield.", "Domitian toured the European provinces extensively, and spent at least three years of his reign in Germania and Illyricum, conducting military campaigns on the frontiers of the Empire.==== Palaces, villas, and other major buildings ====For his personal use, he was active in constructing many monumental buildings, including the Villa of Domitian, a vast and sumptuous palace situated 20 km outside Rome in the Alban Hills.", "In Rome itself, he built the Palace of Domitian on the Palatine Hill.", "Seven other villas are linked with Domitian at Tusculum, Antium, Sabaudia, Vicarello, Caieta, Terracina and Baiae.", "Only that at Sabaudia has been positively identified.The Stadium of Domitian was dedicated in 86 AD as a gift to the people of Rome as part of an Imperial building program, following the damage or destruction of most of the buildings on the Field of Mars by fire in 79 AD.", "It was Rome's first permanent venue for competitive athletics, and is today occupied by the Piazza Navona.", "In Egypt too, Domitian was quite active in constructing buildings and decorating them.", "He appears, together with Trajan, in offering scenes on the propylon of the Temple of Hathor at Dendera.", "His cartouche also appears in the column shafts of the Temple of Khnum at Esna.=== Economy ===Upon his accession, Domitian revalued the Roman currency by increasing the silver content of the denarius by 12%.", "This coin commemorates the deification of Domitian's son.Domitian's tendency towards micromanagement was nowhere more evident than in his financial policy.", "The question of whether Domitian left the Roman Empire in debt or with a surplus at the time of his death has been fiercely debated.", "The evidence points to a balanced economy for the greater part of Domitian's reign.", "Upon his accession he revalued the Roman currency dramatically.", "He increased the silver purity of the denarius from 90% to 98% – the actual silver weight increasing from 2.87 grams to 3.26 grams.", "A financial crisis in 85 forced a devaluation of the silver purity and weight to 93.5% and 3.04 grams respectively.", "Nevertheless, the new values were still higher than the levels that Vespasian and Titus had maintained during their reigns.", "Domitian's rigorous taxation policy ensured that this standard was sustained for the following eleven years.", "Coinage from this era displays a highly consistent degree of quality including meticulous attention to Domitian's titulature and refined artwork on the reverse portraits.Jones estimates Domitian's annual income at more than 1.2 billion sestertii, of which over one-third would presumably have been spent maintaining the Roman army.", "The other major expense was the extensive reconstruction of Rome.", "At the time of Domitian's accession the city was still suffering from the damage caused by the Great Fire of 64, the civil war of 69 and the fire in 80.Much more than a renovation project, Domitian's building program was intended to be the crowning achievement of an Empire-wide cultural renaissance.", "Around fifty structures were erected, restored or completed, achievements second only to those of Augustus.", "Among the most important new structures were an odeon, a stadium, and an expansive palace on the Palatine Hill known as the Flavian Palace, which was designed by Domitian's master architect Rabirius.", "The most important building Domitian restored was the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitoline Hill, said to have been covered with a gilded roof.", "Among those completed were the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, the Arch of Titus and the Flavian Amphitheatre (Colosseum), to which he added a fourth level and finished the interior seating area.In order to appease the people of Rome an estimated 135 million sestertii was spent on donatives, or ''congiaria'', throughout Domitian's reign.", "The Emperor also revived the practice of public banquets, which had been reduced to a simple distribution of food under Nero, while he invested large sums on entertainment and games.", "In 86 he founded the Capitoline Games, a quadrennial contest comprising athletic displays, chariot racing, and competitions for oratory, music and acting.=== Military campaigns ===Gobustan, Azerbaijan (then Caucasian Albania), mentioning Domitian and Legio XII FulminataThe military campaigns undertaken during Domitian's reign were generally defensive in nature, as the Emperor rejected the idea of expansionist warfare.", "His most significant military contribution was the development of the Limes Germanicus, which encompassed a vast network of roads, forts and watchtowers constructed along the Rhine river to defend the Empire.", "Nevertheless, several important wars were fought in Gaul, against the Chatti, and across the Danube frontier against the Suebi, the Sarmatians, and the Dacians.The conquest of Britain continued under the command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola, who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia, or modern day Scotland.", "Domitian also founded a new legion in 82, the Legio I Minervia, to fight against the Chatti.", "Domitian is also credited on the easternmost evidence of Roman military presence, the rock inscription near Boyukdash mountain, in present-day Azerbaijan.", "As judged by the carved titles of Caesar, Augustus and Germanicus, the related march took place between 84 and 96 AD.Domitian's administration of the Roman army was characterized by the same fastidious involvement he exhibited in other branches of the government.", "His competence as a military strategist was criticized by his contemporaries however.", "Although he claimed several triumphs, these were largely propaganda manoeuvres.", "Tacitus derided Domitian's victory against the Chatti as a \"mock triumph\", and criticized his decision to retreat in Britain following the conquests of Agricola.", "Nevertheless, Domitian appears to have been very popular among the soldiers, spending an estimated three years of his reign among the army on campaigns—more than any emperor since Augustus—and raising their pay by one-third.", "While the army command may have disapproved of his tactical and strategic decisions, the loyalty of the common soldier was unquestioned.==== Campaign against the Chatti ====Once Emperor, Domitian immediately sought to attain his long delayed military glory.", "As early as 82, or possibly 83, he went to Gaul, ostensibly to conduct a census, and suddenly ordered an attack on the Chatti.", "For this purpose, a new legion was founded, Legio I Minervia, which constructed some 75 kilometres (46 mi) of roads through Chattan territory to uncover the enemy's hiding places.", "Although little information survives of the battles fought, enough early victories were apparently achieved for Domitian to be back in Rome by the end of 83, where he celebrated an elaborate triumph and conferred upon himself the title of ''Germanicus''.", "Domitian's supposed victory was much scorned by ancient authors, who described the campaign as \"uncalled for\", and a \"mock triumph\".", "The evidence lends some credence to these claims, as the Chatti would later play a significant role during the revolt of Saturninus in 89.==== Conquest of northern Britain (77–84) ====Gnaeus Julius Agricola (Bath)One of the most detailed reports of military activity under the Flavian dynasty was written by Tacitus, whose biography of his father-in-law Gnaeus Julius Agricola largely concerns the conquest of northern Britain between 77 and 84.Agricola arrived as governor of Roman Britain, immediately launching campaigns into Caledonia (modern Scotland).", "In 82, Agricola crossed an unidentified body of water and defeated peoples unknown to the Romans until then.", "He fortified the coast facing Ireland, and Tacitus recalls that his father-in-law often claimed the island could be conquered with a single legion and a few auxiliaries.", "He had given refuge to an exiled Irish king whom he hoped he might use as the excuse for conquest.", "This conquest never happened, but some historians believe that the crossing referred to was in fact a small-scale exploratory or punitive expedition to Ireland.Turning his attention from Ireland, the following year Agricola raised a fleet and pushed beyond the River Forth into Caledonia.", "To aid the advance, a large legionary fortress was constructed at Inchtuthil.", "In the summer of 84, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians, led by Calgacus, at the Battle of Mons Graupius.", "Although the Romans inflicted heavy losses on the enemy, two-thirds of the Caledonian army escaped and hid in the Scottish marshes and Highlands, ultimately preventing Agricola from bringing the entire British island under his control.", "In 85, Agricola was recalled to Rome by Domitian, having served for more than six years as governor, longer than normal for consular legates during the Flavian era.Tacitus claims that Domitian ordered his recall because Agricola's successes outshone the Emperor's own modest victories in Germania.", "The relationship between Agricola and the Emperor is unclear: on the one hand, Agricola was awarded triumphal decorations and a statue, on the other, Agricola never again held a civil or military post in spite of his experience and renown.", "He was offered the governorship of the province of Africa but declined it, either due to ill health or, as Tacitus claims, the machinations of Domitian.", "Not long after Agricola's recall from Britain, the Roman Empire entered into war with the Kingdom of Dacia in the East.", "Reinforcements were needed, and in 87 or 88, Domitian ordered a large-scale strategic withdrawal of troops in the British province.", "The fortress at Inchtuthil was dismantled and the Caledonian forts and watchtowers abandoned, moving the Roman frontier some 120 kilometres (75 mi) further south.", "The army command may have resented Domitian's decision to retreat, but to him the Caledonian territories never represented anything more than a loss to the Roman treasury.====Dacian wars (85–88)====The Roman province of Dacia (purple area) after the conquest of Trajan in 106, with the Black Sea to the far right.The most significant threat the Roman Empire faced during the reign of Domitian arose from the northern provinces of Illyricum, where the Suebi, the Sarmatians and the Dacians continuously harassed Roman settlements along the Danube river.", "Of these, the Sarmatians and the Dacians posed the most formidable threat.", "In approximately 84 or 85 the Dacians, led by King Decebalus, crossed the Danube into the province of Moesia, wreaking havoc and killing the Moesian governor Oppius Sabinus.", "Domitian quickly launched a counteroffensive, personally travelling to the region accompanied by a large force commanded by his praetorian prefect Cornelius Fuscus.", "Fuscus successfully drove the Dacians back across the border in mid-85, prompting Domitian to return to Rome and celebrate his second triumph.The victory proved short-lived, however: as early in 86 Fuscus embarked on an ill-fated expedition into Dacia.", "Fuscus was killed, and the battle standard of the Praetorian Guard was lost.", "The loss of the battle standard, or ''aquila'', was indicative of a crushing defeat and a serious affront to Roman national pride.", "Domitian returned to Moesia in August 86.He divided the province into Lower Moesia and Upper Moesia, and transferred three additional legions to the Danube.", "In 87, the Romans invaded Dacia once more, this time under the command of Tettius Julianus, and finally defeated Decebalus in late 88 at the same site where Fuscus had previously perished.", "An attack on the Dacian capital Sarmizegetusa was forestalled when new troubles arose on the German frontier in 89.In order to avert having to conduct a war on two fronts, Domitian agreed to terms of peace with Decebalus, negotiating free access of Roman troops through the Dacian region while granting Decebalus an annual subsidy of 8 million sesterces.", "Contemporary authors severely criticized this treaty, which was considered shameful to the Romans and left the deaths of Sabinus and Fuscus unavenged.", "For the remainder of Domitian's reign Dacia remained a relatively peaceful client kingdom, but Decebalus used the Roman money to fortify his defenses.", "Domitian probably wanted a new war against the Dacians, and reinforced Upper Moesia with two more cavalry units brought from Syria and with at least five cohorts brought from Pannonia.", "Trajan continued Domitian's policy and added two more units to the auxiliary forces of Upper Moesia, and then he used the build up of troops for his Dacian wars.", "Eventually the Romans achieved a decisive victory against Decebalus in 106.Again, the Roman army sustained heavy losses, but Trajan succeeded in capturing Sarmizegetusa and, importantly, annexed the Dacian gold and silver mines.===Religious policy===genius'' of Domitian with the aegis and a cornucopia, marble statue, Capitoline Museums, RomeDomitian firmly believed in the traditional Roman religion, and personally saw to it that ancient customs and morals were observed throughout his reign.", "In order to justify the divine nature of the Flavian rule, Domitian emphasized connections with the chief deity Jupiter, perhaps most significantly through the impressive restoration of the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill.", "A small chapel dedicated to ''Jupiter Conservator'' was also constructed near the house where Domitian had fled to safety on 20 December 69.Later in his reign, he replaced it with a more expansive building, dedicated to Jupiter Custos.", "The goddess he worshipped the most zealously, however, was Minerva.", "Not only did he keep a personal shrine dedicated to her in his bedroom, she regularly appeared on his coinage—in four different attested reverse types—and he founded a legion, Legio I Minervia, in her name.Domitian also revived the practice of the imperial cult, which had fallen somewhat out of use under Vespasian.", "Significantly, his first act as emperor was the deification of his brother Titus.", "Upon their deaths, his infant son, and niece, Julia Flavia, were likewise enrolled among the gods.", "With regards to the emperor himself as a religious figure, both Suetonius and Cassius Dio allege that Domitian officially gave himself the title of ''Dominus et Deus'' (\"Lord and God\").", "However, not only did he reject the title of ''Dominus'' during his reign, but since he issued no official documentation or coinage to this effect, historians such as Brian Jones contend that such phrases were addressed to Domitian by flatterers who wished to earn favors from him.", "To foster the worship of the imperial family, he erected a dynastic mausoleum on the site of Vespasian's former house on the Quirinal, and completed the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, a shrine dedicated to the worship of his deified father and brother.", "To memorialize the military triumphs of the Flavian family, he ordered the construction of the Templum Divorum and the Templum Fortuna Redux, and completed the Arch of Titus.Construction projects such as these constituted only the most visible part of Domitian's religious policy, which also concerned itself with the fulfilment of religious law and public morals.", "In 85, he nominated himself perpetual censor, the office that held the task of supervising Roman morals and conduct.", "Once again, Domitian acquitted himself of this task dutifully, and with care.", "He renewed the ''Lex Iulia de Adulteriis Coercendis'', under which adultery was punishable by exile.", "From the list of jurors he struck an equestrian who had divorced his wife and taken her back, while an ex-quaestor was expelled from the Senate for acting and dancing.", "As eunuchs were popularly used as servants, Domitian punished people who castrated others and wanted to ban the eunuchs themselves.", "Subsequent emperors made similar prohibitions, but Domitian may have been the first to do so.", "Despite his moralizing, Domitian had his own favorite eunuch boy, Earinus, who was commemorated by the contemporary court poets Martial and Statius.Domitian also heavily prosecuted corruption among public officials, removing jurors if they accepted bribes and rescinding legislation when a conflict of interest was suspected.", "He ensured that libellous writings, especially those directed against himself, were punishable by exile or death.", "Actors were likewise regarded with suspicion.", "Consequently, he forbade mimes from appearing on stage in public.", "Philosophers did not fare much better.", "Epictetus, who had set himself up in Rome as a professor of philosophy, remarked that philosophers were able to \"look tyrants steadily in the face\", and it was Domitian's decree of 94, expelling all philosophers from Rome, that caused Epictetus to shift his base to the recently founded Roman city of Nicopolis, in Epirus, Greece, where he lived simply, worked safely and died of old age.", "In 87, Vestal Virgins were found to have broken their sacred vows of lifelong public chastity.", "As the Vestals were regarded as daughters of the community, this offense essentially constituted incest.", "Accordingly, those found guilty of any such transgression were condemned to death, either by a manner of their choosing, or according to the ancient fashion, which dictated that Vestals should be buried alive.Coin of Domitian, found in the Buddhist stupa of Ahin Posh, dedicated under the Kushan Empire in 150–160, in modern Afghanistan.Foreign religions were tolerated insofar as they did not interfere with public order, or could be assimilated with the traditional Roman religion.", "The worship of Egyptian deities in particular flourished under the Flavian dynasty, to an extent not seen again until the reign of Commodus.", "Veneration of Serapis and Isis, who were identified with Jupiter and Minerva respectively, was especially prominent.", "Fourth century writings by Eusebius maintain that Jews and Christians were heavily persecuted toward the end of Domitian's reign.", "The Book of Revelation and First Epistle of Clement are thought by some to have been written during this period, the latter making mention of \"sudden and repeated misfortunes\", which are assumed to refer to persecutions under Domitian.", "Although Jews were heavily taxed, no contemporary authors give specific details of trials or executions based on religious offenses other than those within the Roman religion.", "Suetonius mentions having seen in his youth a nonagenarian being stripped by a procurator to see if he was circumcised.===Opposition=======Revolt of Governor Saturninus (89)====Domitian, Capitoline Museums, RomeOn 1 January 89, the governor of Germania Superior, Lucius Antonius Saturninus, and his two legions at Mainz, Legio XIV Gemina and Legio XXI Rapax, revolted against the Roman Empire with the aid of the Germanic Chatti people.", "The precise cause for the rebellion is uncertain, although it appears to have been planned well in advance.", "The Senatorial officers may have disapproved of Domitian's military strategies, such as his decision to fortify the German frontier rather than attack, as well as his recent retreat from Britain, and finally the disgraceful policy of appeasement towards Decebalus.", "At any rate, the uprising was strictly confined to Saturninus' province, and quickly detected once the rumour spread across the neighbouring provinces.", "The governor of Germania Inferior, Aulus Bucius Lappius Maximus, moved to the region at once, assisted by Titus Flavius Norbanus, the procurator of Rhaetia.", "From Spain, Trajan was summoned, while Domitian himself came from Rome with the Praetorian Guard.By a stroke of luck, a thaw prevented the Chatti from crossing the Rhine and coming to Saturninus' aid.", "Within twenty-four days the rebellion was crushed, and its leaders at Mainz savagely punished.", "The mutinous legions were sent to the front in Illyricum, while those who had assisted in their defeat were duly rewarded.", "Lappius Maximus received the governorship of the province of Syria, a second consulship in May 95, and finally a priesthood, which he still held in 102.Titus Flavius Norbanus may have been appointed to the prefecture of Egypt, but almost certainly became prefect of the Praetorian Guard by 94, with Titus Petronius Secundus as his colleague.", "Domitian opened the year following the revolt by sharing the consulship with Marcus Cocceius Nerva, suggesting the latter had played a part in uncovering the conspiracy, perhaps in a fashion similar to the one he played during the Pisonian conspiracy under Nero.", "Although little is known about the life and career of Nerva before his accession as Emperor in 96, he appears to have been a highly adaptable diplomat, surviving multiple regime changes and emerging as one of the Flavians' most trusted advisors.", "His consulship may therefore have been intended to emphasize the stability and status quo of the regime.", "The revolt had been suppressed and the Empire returned to order.====Relationship with the Senate====Domitian in military garb, wearing the muscle cuirass with decorative reliefs, from Vaison-la-Romaine, FranceSince the fall of the Republic, the authority of the Roman Senate had largely eroded under the quasi-monarchical system of government established by Augustus, known as the Principate.", "The Principate allowed the existence of a ''de facto'' dictatorial regime, while maintaining the formal framework of the Roman Republic.", "Most Emperors upheld the public facade of democracy, and in return the Senate implicitly acknowledged the Emperor's status as a ''de facto'' monarch.", "Some rulers handled this arrangement with less subtlety than others.", "Domitian was not so subtle, often coming to the Senate as a triumpher and conqueror to show his disdain for them.", "From the outset of his reign, he stressed the reality of his autocracy.", "He disliked aristocrats and had no fear of showing it, withdrawing every decision-making power from the Senate to reduce its control to an administrative one, and instead relying on a small set of friends and equestrians to control the important offices of state.The dislike was mutual.", "After Domitian's assassination, the senators of Rome rushed to the Senate house, where they immediately passed a motion condemning his memory to oblivion.", "Under the rulers of the Nervan-Antonian dynasty, senatorial authors published histories that elaborated on the view of Domitian as a tyrant.", "Nevertheless, the evidence suggests that Domitian did make concessions toward senatorial opinion.", "Whereas his father and brother had concentrated consular power largely in the hands of the Flavian family, Domitian admitted a surprisingly large number of provincials and potential opponents to the consulship, allowing them to head the official calendar by opening the year as an ordinary consul.", "Whether this was a genuine attempt to reconcile with hostile factions in the Senate cannot be ascertained.", "By offering the consulship to potential opponents, Domitian may have wanted to compromise these senators in the eyes of their supporters.", "When their conduct proved unsatisfactory, they were almost invariably brought to trial and exiled or executed, and their property was confiscated.Both Tacitus and Suetonius speak of escalating persecutions toward the end of Domitian's reign, identifying a point of sharp increase around 93, or sometime after the failed revolt of Saturninus in 89.At least twenty senatorial opponents were executed, including Domitia Longina's former husband Lucius Aelius Lamia Plautius Aelianus and three of Domitian's own family members, Titus Flavius Sabinus, Titus Flavius Clemens and Marcus Arrecinus Clemens.", "Flavius Clemens was a cousin of Domitian, and the emperor had even designated Clemens' two young sons as his successors, calling them as \"Vespasian\" and \"Domitian\".", "Some of these men were executed as early as 83 or 85, however, lending little credit to Tacitus' notion of a \"reign of terror\" late in Domitian's reign.", "According to Suetonius, some were convicted for corruption or treason, others on trivial charges, which Domitian justified through his suspicion:Jones compares the executions of Domitian to those under Emperor Claudius (41–54), noting that Claudius executed around 35 senators and 300 equestrians, and yet was still deified by the Senate and regarded as one of the good Emperors of history.", "Domitian was apparently unable to gain support among the aristocracy, despite attempts to appease hostile factions with consular appointments.", "His autocratic style of government accentuated the Senate's loss of power, while his policy of treating patricians and even family members as equals to all Romans earned him their contempt." ], [ "Death and succession", "===Assassination===According to Suetonius, Domitian worshipped Minerva as his protector goddess with superstitious veneration.", "In a dream, she is said to have abandoned the emperor prior to the assassination.Domitian was assassinated on 18 September 96 in a conspiracy by court officials.", "A highly detailed account of the plot and the assassination is provided by Suetonius.", "He alleges that Domitian's chamberlain Parthenius played the main role in the plot, and historian John Grainger cites Parthenius' likely fear over Domitian's recent execution of Nero's former secretary Epaphroditus as a possible motive.", "The act itself was carried out by a freedman of Parthenius named Maximus, and a steward of Domitian's niece Flavia Domitilla, named Stephanus.", "According to Suetonius, a number of omens had foretold Domitian's death.", "The Germanic soothsayer predicted the date of Domitian's death and was consequently sentenced to death by him.Several days prior to the assassination, Minerva had appeared to the emperor in a dream.", "She announced that she had been disarmed by Jupiter and could no longer give Domitian her protection.", "According to an auspice he had received, the Emperor believed that his death would be at midday.", "As a result, he was always restless around that time.", "On the day of the assassination, Domitian was distressed and repeatedly asked a servant to tell him what time it was.", "The servant, who was himself one of the plotters, lied to the emperor, telling him that it was already late in the afternoon.", "Apparently put at ease, the Emperor went to his desk to sign some decrees.", "Stephanus, who had been feigning an injury to his arm for several days and wearing a bandage to allow him to carry a concealed dagger, suddenly appeared:During the attack, Stephanus and Domitian had struggled on the floor, during which time Stephanus was stabbed by the emperor and died shortly afterward.", "Domitian's body was carried away on a common bier and unceremoniously cremated by his nurse Phyllis.", "Later, she took the emperor's ashes to the Flavian Temple and mingled them with those of his niece, Julia.", "He was 44 years old.", "As had been foretold, his death came at midday.", "Cassius Dio, writing nearly a hundred years later, suggests that the assassination was improvised, while Suetonius implies it was a well-organized conspiracy, citing Stephanus' feigned injury and claiming that the doors to the servants' quarters had been locked prior to the attack and that a sword Domitian kept concealed beneath his pillow as a last line of personal protection against a would-be assassin, had also been removed beforehand.", "Dio included Domitia Longina among the conspirators, but in light of her attested devotion to Domitian—even years after her husband had died—her involvement in the plot seems highly unlikely.", "The precise involvement of the Praetorian Guard is unclear.", "One of the guard's commanders, Titus Petronius Secundus, was almost certainly aware of the plot.", "The other, Titus Flavius Norbanus, the former governor of Raetia, was a member of Domitian's family.===Succession and aftermath===Upon the death of Domitian, Nerva was proclaimed Emperor by the Senate.The ''Fasti Ostienses'', the Ostian Calendar, records that on the same day as Domitian's assassination, the Senate proclaimed Marcus Cocceius Nerva emperor.", "Despite his political experience, this was a remarkable choice.", "Nerva was old and childless, and had spent much of his career out of the public light, prompting both ancient and modern authors to speculate on his involvement in Domitian's assassination.", "According to Cassius Dio, the conspirators approached Nerva as a potential successor prior to the assassination, suggesting that he was at least aware of the plot.", "He does not appear in Suetonius' version of the events, but this may be understandable, since his works were published under Nerva's direct descendants Trajan and Hadrian.", "To suggest the dynasty owed its accession to murder would have been less than sensitive.", "On the other hand, Nerva lacked widespread support in the Empire, and as a known Flavian loyalist, his track record would not have recommended him to the conspirators.", "The precise facts have been obscured by history, but modern historians believe Nerva was proclaimed Emperor solely on the initiative of the Senate, within hours after the news of the assassination broke.The decision may have been hasty so as to avoid civil war, but neither appears to have been involved in the conspiracy.", "The Senate nonetheless rejoiced at the death of Domitian, and immediately following Nerva's accession as Emperor, passed ''damnatio memoriae'' on Domitian's memory; his coins and statues were melted, his arches were torn down and his name was erased from all public records.", "Domitian and, over a century later, Publius Septimius Geta were the only emperors known to have officially received a ''damnatio memoriae'', though others may have received ''de facto'' ones.", "In many instances, existing portraits of Domitian, such as those found on the Cancelleria Reliefs, were simply recarved to fit the likeness of Nerva, which allowed quick production of new images and recycling of previous material.", "Yet the order of the Senate was only partially executed in Rome, and wholly disregarded in most of the provinces outside Italy.According to Suetonius, the people of Rome met the news of Domitian's death with indifference, but the army was much grieved, calling for his deification immediately after the assassination, and in several provinces rioting.", "As a compensation measure, the Praetorian Guard demanded the execution of Domitian's assassins, which Nerva refused.", "Instead he merely dismissed Titus Petronius Secundus, and replaced him with a former commander, Casperius Aelianus.", "Dissatisfaction with this state of affairs continued to loom over Nerva's reign, and ultimately erupted into a crisis in October 97, when members of the Praetorian Guard, led by Casperius Aelianus, laid siege to the Imperial Palace and took Nerva hostage.", "He was forced to submit to their demands, agreeing to hand over those responsible for Domitian's death and even giving a speech thanking the rebellious Praetorians.", "Titus Petronius Secundus and Parthenius were sought out and killed.", "Nerva was unharmed in this assault, but his authority was damaged beyond repair.", "Shortly thereafter he announced the adoption of Trajan as his successor, and with this decision nearly abdicated." ], [ "Flavian family tree" ], [ "Legacy", "===Ancient sources===Domitian as Emperor (Vatican Museums), possibly recut from a statue of NeroThe classic view of Domitian is usually negative, since most of the antique sources were related to the Senatorial or aristocratic class, with which Domitian had notoriously difficult relations.", "Furthermore, contemporary historians such as Pliny the Younger, Tacitus and Suetonius all wrote after his reign when his memory had been condemned to oblivion by the Senate.", "The work of Domitian's court poets Martial and Statius constitutes virtually the only literary evidence concurrent with his reign.", "Perhaps as unsurprising as the attitude of post-Domitianic historians, the poems of Martial and Statius are highly adulatory, praising Domitian's achievements as equalling those of the gods.", "The most extensive account of the life of Domitian to survive was written by the historian Suetonius, who was born during the reign of Vespasian, and published his works under Emperor Hadrian (117–138).", "His ''De vita Caesarum'' is the source of much of what is known of Domitian.", "Although his text is predominantly negative, it neither exclusively condemns nor praises Domitian, and asserts that his rule started well, but gradually declined into terror.", "The biography is problematic, however, in that it appears to contradict itself with regards to Domitian's rule and personality, at the same time presenting him as a conscientious, moderate man, and as a decadent libertine.According to Suetonius, Domitian wholly feigned his interest in arts and literature, and never bothered to acquaint himself with classic authors.", "Other passages, alluding to Domitian's love of epigrammatic expression, suggest that he was in fact familiar with classic writers, while he also patronized poets and architects, founded artistic Olympics, and personally restored the library of Rome at great expense after it had burned down.", "''De Vita Caesarum'' is also the source of several outrageous stories regarding Domitian's married life.", "According to Suetonius, Domitia Longina was exiled in 83 because of an affair with a famous actor named Paris.", "When Domitian found out, he allegedly murdered Paris in the street and promptly divorced his wife, with Suetonius further adding that once Domitia was exiled, Domitian took Julia as his mistress, who later died during a failed abortion.", "Modern historians consider this highly implausible however, noting that malicious rumours such as those concerning Domitia's alleged infidelity were eagerly repeated by post-Domitianic authors, and used to highlight the hypocrisy of a ruler publicly preaching a return to Augustan morals, while privately indulging in excesses and presiding over a corrupt court.Nevertheless, the account of Suetonius has dominated imperial historiography for centuries.", "Although Tacitus is usually considered to be the most reliable author of this era, his views on Domitian are complicated by the fact that his father-in-law, Gnaeus Julius Agricola, may have been a personal enemy of the Emperor.", "In his biographical work ''Agricola'', Tacitus maintains that Agricola was forced into retirement because his triumph over the Caledonians highlighted Domitian's own inadequacy as a military commander.", "Several modern authors such as Dorey have argued the opposite: that Agricola was in fact a close friend of Domitian, and that Tacitus merely sought to distance his family from the fallen dynasty once Nerva was in power.Tacitus' major historical works, including ''The Histories'' and Agricola's biography, were all written and published under Domitian's successors, Nerva (96–98) and Trajan (98–117).", "Unfortunately, the part of Tacitus' ''Histories'' dealing with the reign of the Flavian dynasty is almost entirely lost.", "His views on Domitian survive through brief comments in its first five books, and the short but highly negative characterization in ''Agricola'' in which he severely criticizes Domitian's military endeavours.", "Nevertheless, Tacitus admits his debt to the Flavians with regard to his own public career.", "Other influential 2nd century authors include Juvenal and Pliny the Younger, the latter of whom was a friend of Tacitus and in 100 delivered his famous ''Panegyricus Traiani'' before Trajan and the Roman Senate, exalting the new era of restored freedom while condemning Domitian as a tyrant.", "Juvenal savagely satirized the Domitianic court in his ''Satires'', depicting the Emperor and his entourage as corrupt, violent and unjust.", "As a consequence, the anti-Domitianic tradition was already well established by the end of the 2nd century, and by the 3rd century, even expanded upon by early Church historians, who identified Domitian as an early persecutor of Christians, such as in the Acts of John.=== Modern revisionism ===Bust of Domitian wearing the civic crown, from the Palazzo Massimo alle Terme, RomeOver the course of the 20th century, Domitian's military, administrative and economic policies were re-evaluated.", "Hostile views of Domitian had been propagated until archeological and numismatic advances brought renewed attention to his reign, and necessitated a revision of the literary tradition established by Tacitus and Pliny.", "It would be nearly a hundred years after Stéphane Gsell's 1894 ''Essai sur le règne de l'empereur Domitien'' however, before any new, book-length studies were published.", "The first of these was Jones' 1992 ''The Emperor Domitian''.", "He concludes that Domitian was a ruthless but efficient autocrat.", "For the majority of his reign, there was no widespread dissatisfaction with his policies.", "His harshness was limited to a highly vocal minority, who exaggerated his despotism in favor of the Nervan-Antonian dynasty that followed.", "His foreign policy was realistic, rejecting expansionist warfare and negotiating peace at a time when Roman military tradition dictated aggressive conquest.", "Persecution of religious minorities, such as Jews and Christians, was non-existent.In 1930, Ronald Syme argued for a complete reassessment of Domitian's financial policy, which had been largely viewed as a disaster.", "His economic program, which was rigorously efficient, maintained the Roman currency at a standard it would never again achieve.", "Domitian's government nonetheless exhibited totalitarian characteristics.", "As Emperor, he saw himself as the new Augustus, an enlightened despot destined to guide the Roman Empire into a new era of Flavian renaissance.", "Using religious, military and cultural propaganda, he fostered a cult of personality.", "He deified three of his family members and erected massive structures to commemorate the Flavian achievements.", "Elaborate triumphs were celebrated in order to boost his image as a warrior-emperor, but many of these were either unearned or premature.", "By nominating himself perpetual censor, he sought to control public and private morals.", "He started several major construction projects in Rome including the Aqua Traiana and the Baths of Trajan.He became personally involved in all branches of the government and successfully prosecuted corruption among public officials.", "The dark side of his censorial power involved a restriction in freedom of speech, and an increasingly oppressive attitude toward the Roman Senate.", "He punished libel with exile or death and, due to his suspicious nature, increasingly accepted information from informers to bring false charges of treason if necessary.", "Despite his vilification by contemporary historians, Domitian's administration provided the foundation for the Principate of the peaceful 2nd century.", "His successors Nerva and Trajan were less restrictive, but in reality their policies differed little from his.", "Much more than a \"gloomy coda to the...1st century\", the Roman Empire prospered between 81 and 96, in a reign that Theodor Mommsen described as a somber but intelligent despotism." ], [ "See also", "* Cultural depictions of Domitian* List of Roman emperors" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Bibliography ===* * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * Minaud, Gérard, ''Les vies de 12 femmes d'empereur romain – Devoirs, Intrigues & Voluptés'', Paris, L'Harmattan, 2012, ch.", "5, '' La vie de Domitia Longina, femme de Domitien'', pp. 121–146..", "* === Primary sources ===* Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' Book 67, English translation* Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Domitian, Latin text with English translation* Tacitus, ''Agricola'', English translation* Tacitus, ''Histories'', English translation" ], [ "External links", "* * A private collection of coins minted by Domitian" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Damascus steel" ], [ "Introduction", "Close-up of a 13th-century Persian-forged Damascus steel sword.", "'''Damascus steel''' is the forged steel of the blades of swords smithed in the Near East from ingots of Wootz steel either imported from Southern India or made in production centres in Sri Lanka or Khorasan, Iran.", "These swords are characterized by distinctive patterns of banding and mottling reminiscent of flowing water, sometimes in a \"ladder\" or \"rose\" pattern.", "Such blades were reputed to be tough, resistant to shattering, and capable of being honed to a sharp, resilient edge.Wootz (Indian), Pulad (Persian), Fuladh (Arabic), Bulat (Russian) and Bintie (Chinese) are all names for historical ultra-high carbon crucible steel typified by carbide segregation.", "\"Wootz\" is an erroneous transliteration of \"utsa\" or \"fountain\" in Sanskrit; however, since 1794, it has been the primary word used to refer to historical hypereutectoid crucible steel.", "The term \"Damascus steel\" itself likely traces its roots to the medieval city of Damascus, Syria." ], [ "History", "=== Origins ===The origin of the name \"Damascus Steel\" is contentious: the Islamic scholars al-Kindi (full name Abu Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi, circa 800 CE – 873 CE) and al-Biruni (full name Abu al-Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni, circa 973 CE – 1048 CE) both wrote about swords and steel made for swords, based on their surface appearance, geographical location of production or forging, or the name of the smith, and each mentions \"damascene\" or \"damascus\" swords to some extent.Drawing from al-Kindi and al-Biruni, there are three potential sources for the term \"Damascus\" in the context of steel:# Al-Kindi called swords produced and forged in Damascus as Damascene but it is worth noting that these swords were not described as having a pattern in the steel.# Al-Biruni mentions a sword-smith called Damasqui who made swords of crucible steel.The most common explanation is that steel is named after Damascus, the capital city of Syria and one of the largest cities in the ancient Levant.", "It may either refer to swords made or sold in Damascus directly, or it may just refer to the aspect of the typical patterns, by comparison with Damask fabrics (also named for Damascus), or it may indeed stem from the root word of \"damas\".Macroscopic section of crucible steel (left) and false color labeling (right) showing rafts rich in carbide forming elements (CFEs) which lead to clustered cementite spheroids, as well as divorced cementite spheroids.Identification of crucible \"Damascus\" steel based on metallurgical structures is difficult, as crucible steel cannot be reliably distinguished from other types of steel by just one criterion, so the following distinguishing characteristics of crucible steel must be taken into consideration:* The crucible steel was liquid, leading to a relatively homogeneous steel content with virtually no slag* The formation of dendrites is a typical characteristic* The segregation of elements into dendritic and interdendritic regions throughout the sampleBy these definitions, modern recreations of crucible steel are consistent with historic examples.The reputation and history of Damascus steel has given rise to many legends, such as the ability to cut through a rifle barrel or to cut a hair falling across the blade, though the accuracy of these legends is not reflected by the extant examples of patterned crucible steel swords which are often tempered in such a way as to retain a bend after being flexed past their elastic limit.", "A research team in Germany published a report in 2006 revealing nanowires and carbon nanotubes in a blade forged from Damascus steel, although John Verhoeven of Iowa State University in Ames suggests that the research team which reported nanowires in crucible steel was seeing cementite, which can itself exist as rods, so there might not be any carbon nanotubes in the rod-like structure.", "Although many types of modern steel outperform ancient Damascus alloys, chemical reactions in the production process made the blades extraordinary for their time, as Damascus steel was very flexible and very hard at the same time.", "During the smelting process to obtain wootz steel ingots, woody biomass and leaves are known to have been used as carburizing additives along with certain specific types of iron rich in microalloying elements.", "These ingots would then be further forged and worked into Damascus steel blades.", "Research now shows that carbon nanotubes can be derived from plant fibers, suggesting how the nanotubes were formed in the steel.", "Some experts expect to discover such nanotubes in more relics as they are analyzed more closely.", "Wootz was also mentioned to have been made out of a co-fusion process using \"shaburqan\" (hard steel, likely white cast iron) and \"narmahan\" (soft steel) by Biruni, both of which were forms of either high- and low-carbon bloomery iron, or low-carbon bloom with cast iron.", "In such a crucible recipe, no added plant material is necessary to provide the required carbon content, and as such any nanowires of cementite or carbon nanotubes would not have been the result of plant fibres.", "A bladesmith from Damascus, c. 1900Damascus blades were first manufactured in the Near East from ingots of wootz steel that were imported from Southern India (present day Tamil Nadu and Kerala).", "The Arabs introduced the wootz steel to Damascus, where a weapons industry thrived.", "From the 3rd century to the 17th century, steel ingots were being shipped to the Middle East from South India.", "There was also domestic production of crucible steel outside of India, including Merv (Turkmenistan) and Yazd, Iran.=== Loss of the technique ===Many claim that modern attempts to duplicate the metal have not been entirely successful due to differences in raw materials and manufacturing techniques.", "However, several individuals in modern times have successfully produced pattern forming hypereutectoid crucible steel with visible carbide banding on the surface, consistent with original Damascus Steel.Production of these patterned swords gradually declined, ceasing by around 1900, with the last account being from 1903 in Sri Lanka documented by Coomaraswamy.", "Some gunsmiths during the 18th and 19th century used the term \"damascus steel\" to describe their pattern-welded gun barrels, but they did not use crucible steel.", "Several modern theories have ventured to explain this decline, including the breakdown of trade routes to supply the needed metals, the lack of trace impurities in the metals, the possible loss of knowledge on the crafting techniques through secrecy and lack of transmission, suppression of the industry in India by the British Raj, or a combination of all the above.In addition to being made into blades in India (particularly Golconda) and Sri Lanka, wootz / ukku was exported as ingots to various production centers, including Khorasan, and Isfahan, where the steel was used to produce blades, as well as across the Middle East.", "Al Kindi states that crucible steel was also made in Khorasan known as Muharrar, in addition to steel that was imported.", "In Damascus, where many of these swords were sold, there is no evidence of local production of crucible steel, though there is evidence of imported steel being forged into swords in Damascus.", "Due to the distance of trade for this steel, a sufficiently lengthy disruption of the trade routes could have ended the production of Damascus steel and eventually led to the loss of the technique.", "In addition, the need for key trace impurities of carbide formers such as tungsten, vanadium or manganese within the materials needed for the production of the steel may be absent if this material was acquired from different production regions or smelted from ores lacking these key trace elements.", "The technique for controlled thermal cycling after the initial forging at a specific temperature could also have been lost, thereby preventing the final damask pattern in the steel from occurring.", "The disruption of mining and steel manufacture by the British Raj in the form of production taxes and export bans may have also contributed to a loss of knowledge of key ore sources or key techniques.The discovery of carbon nanotubes in the Damascus steel's composition supports the hypothesis that wootz production was halted due to a loss of ore sources or technical knowledge, since the precipitation of carbon nanotubes probably resulted from a specific process that may be difficult to replicate should the production technique or raw materials used be significantly altered.", "The claim that carbon nanowires were found has not been confirmed by further studies, and there is contention among academics including John Verhoeven about whether the nanowires observed are actually stretched rafts or rods formed out of cementite spheroids." ], [ "Reproduction", "Recreating Damascus steel has been attempted by archaeologists using experimental archaeology.", "Many have attempted to discover or reverse-engineer the process by which it was made.=== Moran: billet welding ===Pattern on modern \"Damascus knife\".Detail of handmade hair-cutting scissors from a Japanese company, 2010s.Since the well-known technique of pattern welding—the forge-welding of a blade from several differing pieces—produced surface patterns similar to those found on Damascus blades, some modern blacksmiths were erroneously led to believe that the original Damascus blades were made using this technique.", "However today, the difference between wootz steel and pattern welding is fully documented and well understood.", "Pattern-welded steel has been referred to as \"Damascus steel\" since 1973 when Bladesmith William F. Moran unveiled his \"Damascus knives\" at the Knifemakers' Guild Show.This \"Modern Damascus\" is made from several types of steel and iron slices welded together to form a billet, and currently, the term \"Damascus\" (although technically incorrect) is widely accepted to describe modern pattern-welded steel blades in the trade.", "The patterns vary depending on how the smith works the billet.", "The billet is drawn out and folded until the desired number of layers are formed.", "To attain a Master Smith rating with the American Bladesmith Society that Moran founded, the smith must forge a Damascus blade with a minimum of 300 layers.=== Verhoeven and Pendray: crucible ===J.", "D. Verhoeven and A. H. Pendray published an article on their attempts to reproduce the elemental, structural, and visual characteristics of Damascus steel.", "They started with a cake of steel that matched the properties of the original wootz steel from India, which also matched a number of original Damascus swords that Verhoeven and Pendray had access to.", "The wootz was in a soft, annealed state, with a grain structure and beads of pure iron carbide in cementite spheroids, which resulted from its hypereutectoid state.", "Verhoeven and Pendray had already determined that the grains on the surface of the steel were grains of iron carbide—their goal was to reproduce the iron carbide patterns they saw in the Damascus blades from the grains in the wootz.Although such material could be worked at low temperatures to produce the striated Damascene pattern of intermixed ferrite/pearlite and cementite spheroid bands in a manner identical to pattern-welded Damascus steel, any heat treatment sufficient to dissolve the carbides was thought to permanently destroy the pattern.", "However, Verhoeven and Pendray discovered that in samples of true Damascus steel, the Damascene pattern could be recovered by thermally cycling and thermally manipulating the steel at a moderate temperature.", "They found that certain carbide forming elements, one of which was vanadium, did not disperse until the steel reached higher temperatures than those needed to dissolve the carbides.", "Therefore, a high heat treatment could remove the visual evidence of patterning associated with carbides but did not remove the underlying patterning of the carbide forming elements; a subsequent lower-temperature heat treatment, at a temperature at which the carbides were again stable, could recover the structure by the binding of carbon by those elements and causing the segregation of cementite spheroids to those locations.", "Thermal cycling after forging allows for the aggregation of carbon onto these carbide formers, as carbon migrates much more rapidly than the carbide formers.", "Progressive thermal cycling leads to the coarsening of the cementite spheroids via Ostwald ripening.=== Anosov, Wadsworth and Sherby: bulat ===In Russia, chronicles record the use of a material known as bulat steel to make highly valued weapons, including swords, knives, and axes.", "Tsar Michael of Russia reportedly had a bulat helmet made for him in 1621.The exact origin or the manufacturing process of the bulat is unknown, but it was likely imported to Russia via Persia and Turkestan, and it was similar and possibly the same as Damascus steel.", "Pavel Petrovich Anosov successfully reproduced the process in the mid-19th century.", "Wadsworth and Sherby also researched the reproduction of bulat steel and published their results in 1980.Cementite crystal structure.", "Iron atoms are in blue, carbon atoms are in black.=== Additional research ===A team of researchers based at the Technical University of Dresden that used x-rays and electron microscopy to examine Damascus steel discovered the presence of cementite nanowires and carbon nanotubes.", "Peter Paufler, a member of the Dresden team, says that these nanostructures are a result of the forging process.Sanderson proposes that the process of forging and annealing accounts for the nano-scale structures.=== In gunmaking ===Prior to the early 20th century, all shotgun barrels were forged by heating narrow strips of iron and steel and shaping them around a mandrel.", "This process was referred to as \"laminating\" or \"Damascus\".", "These types of barrels earned a reputation for weakness and were never meant to be used with modern smokeless powder, or any kind of moderately powerful explosive.", "Because of the resemblance to Damascus steel, higher-end barrels were made by Belgian and British gun makers.", "These barrels are proof marked and meant to be used with light pressure loads.", "Current gun manufacturers make slide assemblies and small parts such as triggers and safeties for Colt M1911 pistols from powdered Swedish steel resulting in a swirling two-toned effect; these parts are often referred to as \"Stainless Damascus\"." ], [ "Cultural references and misconceptions", "The blade that Beowulf used to kill Grendel's mother in the story ''Beowulf'' was described in some Modern English translations as \"damascened\".The exceptionally strong fictional Valyrian steel mentioned in George R. R. Martin's book series ''A Song of Ice and Fire'', as well as its television adaptation ''Game of Thrones'', appears to have been inspired by Damascus steel, but with a magic twist.", "Just like Damascus/Wootz steel, Valyrian steel also seems to be a lost art from an ancient civilization.", "Unlike Damascus steel, however, Valyrian steel blades require no maintenance and cannot be damaged through normal combat.A common misconception is that the steel was hardened by thrusting it six times in the back and thighs of a slave.", "This originated in an article on page 28 of the Chicago Tribune of November 4, 1894 titled ''Tempering Damascus Blades''.", "The note asserts that a certain \"Prof. von Eulenspiegel\" found a scroll \"among the ruins of ancient Tyre\".", "\"Eulenspiegel\" is the name of the legendary prankster of medieval Germany." ], [ "See also", "*Toledo steel*Wootz steel*Noric steel*Bulat steel*Tamahagane steel*Mokume-gane*Laminated steel blade*Tungsten carbide" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* \"Damascene Technique in Metal Working\"*** John Verhoeven: Mystery of Damascus Steel Swords Unveiled***" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Stab-in-the-back myth" ], [ "Introduction", "caricatured Jew stabbing a German Army soldier in the back with a dagger.", "The capitulation of the Central Powers was blamed on socialists, Bolsheviks, and the Weimar Republic, but in particular on Jews.Hagen takes aim at Siegfried's back with a spear in an 1847 painting by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld of a scene from the epic poem ''Nibelungenlied'' (\"Song of the Nibelungs\") – which was the basis for Richard Wagner's opera ''Götterdämmerung''.", "The '''stab-in-the-back myth''' (, , ) was an antisemitic and anticommunist conspiracy theory that was widely believed and promulgated in Germany after 1918.It maintained that the Imperial German Army did not lose World War I on the battlefield, but was instead betrayed by certain citizens on the home front – especially Jews, revolutionary socialists who fomented strikes and labour unrest, and republican politicians who had overthrown the House of Hohenzollern in the German Revolution of 1918–1919.Advocates of the myth denounced the German government leaders who had signed the Armistice of 11 November 1918 as the \"'''November criminals'''\" ().When Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party rose to power in 1933, they made the conspiracy theory an integral part of their official history of the 1920s, portraying the Weimar Republic as the work of the \"November criminals\" who had \"stabbed the nation in the back\" in order to seize power.", "Nazi propaganda depicted Weimar Germany as \"a morass of corruption, degeneracy, national humiliation, ruthless persecution of the honest 'national opposition'—fourteen years of rule by Jews, Marxists, and 'cultural Bolsheviks', who had at last been swept away by the National Socialist movement under Hitler and the victory of the 'national revolution' of 1933\".Historians inside and outside of Germany unanimously reject the myth, pointing out that the Imperial German Army was out of reserves, was being overwhelmed by the entrance of the United States into the war, and had already lost the war militarily by late 1918." ], [ "Background", "In the later part of World War I, the Supreme High Command (''Oberste Heeresleitung'', OHL) controlled not only the military but also a large part of the economy through the Auxiliary Services Act of December 1916, which under the Hindenburg Programme aimed at a total mobilisation of the economy for war production.", "In order to implement the Act, however, ''Generalfeldmarschall'' Paul von Hindenburg and his Chief-of-Staff, First Quartermaster General Erich Ludendorff had to make significant concessions to labour unions and the Reichstag.", "Hindenburg and Ludendorff threatened to resign in July 1917 if the Emperor did not remove Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg, who had lost his usefulness to them when he lost the confidence of the Reichstag after it passed the Reichstag Peace Resolution calling for a negotiated peace without annexations.", "Bethmann Hollweg resigned and was replaced by Georg Michaelis, whose appointment was supported by the OHL.", "After only 100 days in office, however, he became the first chancellor to be ousted by the Reichstag.", "After years of fighting and having incurred millions of casualties, Britain and France were too war-weary to contemplate an invasion of Germany with its unknown consequences.", "However the Allies had been amply resupplied by the United States, which had fresh armies ready for combat.", "On the Western Front, although the Hindenburg Line had been penetrated and German forces were in retreat, the Allied armies had not reached the western German frontier.", "Meanwhile on the Eastern Front, Germany had already won its war against Russia, concluded with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.", "In the West, Germany had successes with the Spring Offensive of 1918 but the attack had run out of momentum, the Allies had regrouped and in the Hundred Days Offensive retaken lost ground with no sign of stopping.", "Contributing to the ''Dolchstoßlegende'', the overall failure of the German offensive was blamed on strikes in the arms industry at a critical moment, leaving soldiers without an adequate supply of materiel.", "The strikes were seen as having been instigated by treasonous elements, with the Jews taking most of the blame.The weakness of Germany's strategic position was exacerbated by the rapid collapse of the other Central Powers in late 1918, following Allied victories on the Macedonian and Italian fronts.", "Bulgaria was the first to sign an armistice on 29 September 1918, at Salonica.", "On 30 October the Ottoman Empire capitulated at Mudros.", "On 3 November Austria-Hungary sent a flag of truce to the Italian Army to ask for an armistice.", "The terms, arranged by telegraph with the Allied Authorities in Paris, were communicated to the Austro-Hungarian commander and accepted.", "The armistice with Austria-Hungary was signed in the Villa Giusti, near Padua, on 3 November.", "Austria and Hungary signed separate treaties following the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian empire.After the last German offensive on the Western Front failed in 1918, Hindenburg and Ludendorff admitted that the war effort was doomed, and they pressed Kaiser Wilhelm II for an armistice to be negotiated, and for a rapid change to a civilian government in Germany.", "They began to take steps to deflect the blame for losing the war from themselves and the German Army to others.", "Ludendorff said to his staff on 1 October:I have ... asked His Majesty to include in the government those circles who are largely responsible for things having developed as they have.", "We will now see these gentlemen move into the ministries.", "Let them be the ones to sign the peace treaty that must now be negotiated.", "Let them eat the soup that they have cooked for us!In this way, Ludendorff was setting up the republican politicians – many of them Socialists – who would be brought into the government, and would become the parties that negotiated the armistice with the Allies, as the scapegoats to take the blame for losing the war, instead of himself and Hindenburg.", "Normally, during wartime an armistice is negotiated between the military commanders of the hostile forces, but Hindenburg and Ludendorff had instead handed this task to the new civilian government.", "The attitude of the military was \"The parties of the left have to take on the odium of this peace.", "The storm of anger will then turn against them,\" after which the military could step in again to ensure that things would once again be run \"in the old way\".", "On 5 October, the German Chancellor, Prince Maximilian of Baden, contacted U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, indicating that Germany was willing to accept his Fourteen Points as a basis for discussions.", "Wilson's response insisted that Germany institute parliamentary democracy, give up the territory it had gained to that point in the war, and significantly disarm, including giving up the German High Seas Fleet.", "On 26 October, Ludendorff was dismissed from his post by the Emperor and replaced by Lieutenant General Wilhelm Groener, who started to prepare the withdrawal and demobilisation of the army.On 11 November 1918, the representatives of the newly formed Weimar Republic – created after the Revolution of 1918–1919 forced the abdication of the Kaiser – signed the armistice that ended hostilities.", "The military commanders had arranged it so that they would not be blamed for suing for peace, but the republican politicians associated with the armistice would: the signature on the armistice document was of Matthias Erzberger, who was later murdered for his alleged treason.Given that the heavily censored German press had carried nothing but news of victories throughout the war, and that Germany itself was unoccupied while occupying a great deal of foreign territory, it was no wonder that the German public was mystified by the request for an armistice, especially as they did not know that their military leaders had asked for it, nor did they know that the German Army had been in full retreat after their last offensive had failed.Thus the conditions were set for the \"stab-in-the-back myth\", in which Hindenburg and Ludendorff were held to be blameless, the German Army was seen as undefeated on the battlefield, and the republican politicians – especially the Socialists – were accused of betraying Germany.", "Further blame was laid at their feet after they signed the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, which led to territorial losses and serious financial pain for the shaky new republic, including a crippling schedule of reparation payments.Conservatives, nationalists, and ex-military leaders began to speak critically about the peace and Weimar politicians, socialists, communists, and Jews.", "Even Catholics were viewed with suspicion by some due to supposed fealty to the Pope and their presumed lack of national loyalty and patriotism.", "It was claimed that these groups had not sufficiently supported the war and had played a role in selling out Germany to its enemies.", "These ''November Criminals'', or those who seemed to benefit from the newly formed Weimar Republic, were seen to have \"stabbed them in the back\" on the home front, by either criticising German nationalism, instigating unrest and mounting strikes in the critical military industries, or by profiteering.", "These actions were believed to have deprived Germany of almost certain victory at the eleventh hour." ], [ "Origins of the myth", "According to historian Richard Steigmann-Gall, the stab-in-the-back concept can be traced back to a sermon preached on 3 February 1918, by Protestant Court Chaplain Bruno Doehring, nine months before the war had even ended.", "German scholar Boris Barth, in contrast to Steigmann-Gall, implies that Doehring did not actually use the term, but spoke only of 'betrayal'.", "Barth traces the first documented use to a centrist political meeting in the Munich Löwenbräukeller on 2 November 1918, in which Ernst Müller-Meiningen, a member of the Progressive People's Party in the ''Reichstag'', used the term to exhort his listeners to keep fighting:As long as the front holds, we damned well have the duty to hold out in the homeland.", "We would have to be ashamed of ourselves in front of our children and grandchildren if we attacked the battle front from the rear and gave it a dagger-stab (''wenn wir der Front in den Rücken fielen und ihr den Dolchstoß versetzten'').However, the widespread dissemination and acceptance of the \"stab-in-the-back\" myth came about through its use by Germany's highest military echelon.", "In Spring 1919, Max Bauer – an army colonel who had been the primary adviser to Ludendorff on politics and economics – published ''Could We Have Avoided, Won, or Broken Off the War?", "'', in which he wrote that \"The war was lost only and exclusively through the failure of the homeland.\"", "The birth of the specific term \"stab-in-the-back\" itself can possibly be dated to the autumn of 1919, when Ludendorff was dining with the head of the British Military Mission in Berlin, British general Sir Neill Malcolm.", "Malcolm asked Ludendorff why he thought Germany lost the war.", "Ludendorff replied with his list of excuses, including that the home front failed the army.Friedrich Ebert contributed to the myth when he told returning veterans that \"No enemy has vanquished you.", "\"Malcolm asked him: \"Do you mean, General, that you were stabbed in the back?\"", "Ludendorff's eyes lit up and he leapt upon the phrase like a dog on a bone.", "\"Stabbed in the back?\"", "he repeated.", "\"Yes, that's it, exactly, we were stabbed in the back\".", "And thus was born a legend which has never entirely perished.The phrase was to Ludendorff's liking, and he let it be known among the general staff that this was the \"official\" version, which led to it being spread throughout German society.", "It was picked up by right-wing political factions, and was even used by Kaiser Wilhelm II in the memoirs he wrote in the 1920s.", "Right-wing groups used it as a form of attack against the early Weimar Republic government, led by the Social Democratic Party (SPD), which had come to power with the abdication of the Kaiser.", "However, even the SPD had a part in furthering the myth when ''Reichspräsident'' Friedrich Ebert, the party leader, told troops returning to Berlin on 10 November 1918 that \"No enemy has vanquished you,\" (''kein Feind hat euch überwunden!'')", "and \"they returned undefeated from the battlefield\" (''sie sind vom Schlachtfeld unbesiegt zurückgekehrt'').", "The latter quote was shortened to ''im Felde unbesiegt'' (undefeated on the battlefield) as a semi-official slogan of the ''Reichswehr''.", "Ebert had meant these sayings as a tribute to the German soldier, but it only contributed to the prevailing feeling.Further \"proof\" of the myth's validity was found in British general Frederick Barton Maurice's book ''The Last Four Months'', published in 1919.German reviews of the book misrepresented it as proving that the German Army had been betrayed on the home front by being \"dagger-stabbed from behind by the civilian populace\" (''von der Zivilbevölkerung von hinten erdolcht''), an interpretation that Maurice disavowed in the German press, to no effect.", "According to William L. Shirer, Ludendorff used the reviews of the book to convince Hindenburg about the validity of the myth.On 18 November 1919, Ludendorff and Hindenburg appeared before the Committee of Inquiry into Guilt for World War I () of the newly elected Weimar National Assembly, which was investigating the causes of the war and Germany's defeat.", "The two generals appeared in civilian clothing, explaining publicly that to wear their uniforms would show too much respect to the commission.", "Hindenburg refused to answer questions from the chairman, and instead read a statement that had been written by Ludendorff.", "In his testimony he cited what Maurice was purported to have written, which provided his testimony's most memorable part.", "Hindenburg declared at the end of his – or Ludendorff's – speech: \"As an English general has very truly said, the German Army was 'stabbed in the back'\".Furthering, the specifics of the stab-in-the-back myth are mentioned briefly by Kaiser Wilhelm II in his memoir:I immediately summoned Field Marshal von Hindenburg and the Quartermaster General, General Groener.", "General Groener again announced that the army could fight no longer and wished rest above all else, and that, therefore, any sort of armistice must be unconditionally accepted; that the armistice must be concluded as soon as possible, since the army had supplies for only six to eight days more and was cut off from all further supplies by the rebels, who had occupied all the supply storehouses and Rhine bridges; that, for some unexplained reason, the armistice commission sent to France–consisting of Erzberger, Ambassador Count Oberndorff, and General von Winterfeldt–which had crossed the French lines two evenings before, had sent no report as to the nature of the conditions.Hindenburg, Chief of the German General Staff at the time of the Ludendorff Offensive, also mentioned this event in a statement explaining the Kaiser’s abdication:The conclusion of the armistice was directly impending.", "At moment of the highest military tension revolution broke out in Germany, the insurgents seized the Rhine bridges, important arsenals, and traffic centres in the rear of the army, thereby endangering the supply of ammunition and provisions, while the supplies in the hands of the troops were only enough to last for a few days.", "The troops on the lines of communication and the reserves disbanded themselves, and unfavourable reports arrived concerning the reliability of the field army proper.It was particularly this testimony of Hindenburg that led to the widespread acceptance of the ''Dolchstoßlegende'' in post-World War I Germany." ], [ "Antisemitic aspects", "Nazi theorist Alfred Rosenberg was one of many on the far-right who spread the stab-in-the-back myth.The antisemitic instincts of the German Army were revealed well before the stab-in-the-back myth became the military's excuse for losing the war.", "In October 1916, in the middle of the war, the army ordered a Jewish census of the troops, with the intent to show that Jews were under-represented in the ''Heer'' (army), and that they were over-represented in non-fighting positions.", "Instead, the census showed just the opposite, that Jews were over-represented both in the army as a whole and in fighting positions at the front.", "The Imperial German Army then suppressed the results of the census.Charges of a Jewish conspiratorial element in Germany's defeat drew heavily upon figures such as Kurt Eisner, a Berlin-born German Jew who lived in Munich.", "He had written about the illegal nature of the war from 1916 onward, and he also had a large hand in the Munich revolution until he was assassinated in February 1919.The Weimar Republic under Friedrich Ebert violently suppressed workers' uprisings with the help of Gustav Noske and ''Reichswehr'' general Wilhelm Groener, and tolerated the paramilitary ''Freikorps'' forming all across Germany.", "In spite of such tolerance, the Republic's legitimacy was constantly attacked with claims such as the stab-in-the-back.", "Many of its representatives such as Matthias Erzberger and Walther Rathenau were assassinated, and the leaders were branded as \"criminals\" and Jews by the right-wing press dominated by Alfred Hugenberg.Anti-Jewish sentiment was intensified by the Bavarian Soviet Republic (6 April – 3 May 1919), a communist government which briefly ruled the city of Munich before being crushed by the ''Freikorps''.", "Many of the Bavarian Soviet Republic's leaders were Jewish, allowing antisemitic propagandists to connect Jews with communism, and thus treason.1924 right-wing German political cartoon showing Philipp Scheidemann, the German Social Democratic politician who proclaimed the Weimar Republic and was its second chancellor, and Matthias Erzberger, an anti-war politician from the Centre Party, who ended World War I by signing the armistice with the Allied Powers, as stabbing the German Army in the backIn 1919, ''Deutschvölkischer Schutz und Trutzbund'' (German Nationalist Protection and Defiance Federation) leader Alfred Roth, writing under the pseudonym \"Otto Arnim\", published the book ''The Jew in the Army'' which he said was based on evidence gathered during his participation on the ''Judenzählung'', a military census which had in fact shown that German Jews had served in the front lines proportionately to their numbers.", "Roth's work claimed that most Jews involved in the war were only taking part as profiteers and spies, while he also blamed Jewish officers for fostering a defeatist mentality which impacted negatively on their soldiers.", "As such, the book offered one of the earliest published versions of the stab-in-the-back legend.", "''\"12,000 Jewish soldiers died on the field of honor for the fatherland.\"''", "A leaflet published in 1920 by German Jewish veterans in response to accusations of the lack of patriotismA version of the stab-in-the-back myth was publicised in 1922 by the anti-Semitic Nazi theorist Alfred Rosenberg in his primary contribution to Nazi theory on Zionism, ''Der Staatsfeindliche Zionismus'' (Zionism, the Enemy of the State).", "Rosenberg accused German Zionists of working for a German defeat and supporting Britain and the implementation of the Balfour Declaration." ], [ "Aftermath", "The ''Dolchstoß'' was a central image in propaganda produced by the many right-wing and traditionally conservative political parties that sprang up in the early days of the Weimar Republic, including Adolf Hitler's Nazi Party.", "For Hitler himself, this explanatory model for World War I was of crucial personal importance.", "He had learned of Germany's defeat while being treated for temporary blindness following a gas attack on the front.", "In ''Mein Kampf'', he described a vision at this time which drove him to enter politics.", "Throughout his career, he railed against the \"November criminals\" of 1918, who had stabbed the German Army in the back.German historian Friedrich Meinecke attempted to trace the roots of the expression \"stab-in-the-back\" in a 11 June 1922 article in the Viennese newspaper ''Neue Freie Presse''.", "In the 1924 national election, the Munich cultural journal ''Süddeutsche Monatshefte'' published a series of articles blaming the SPD and trade unions for Germany's defeat in World War I, which came out during the trial of Hitler and Ludendorff for high treason following the Beer Hall Putsch in 1923.The editor of an SPD newspaper sued the journal for defamation, giving rise to what is known as the ''Munich Dolchstoßprozess'' from 19 October to 20 November 1925.Many prominent figures testified in that trial, including members of the parliamentary committee investigating the reasons for the defeat, so some of its results were made public long before the publication of the committee report in 1928.===World War II===German-ruled Slovenia: the legend reads \"''A knife in the back at the fatal moment!''\".", "It depicts British Prime Minister Winston Churchill stabbing Europa in the back while Europa fights the Red Army; a stereotyped Jew watches on with glee.The Allied policy of unconditional surrender was devised in 1943 in part to avoid a repetition of the stab-in-the-back myth.", "According to historian John Wheeler-Bennett, speaking from the British perspective,It was necessary for the Nazi régime and/or the German Generals to surrender unconditionally in order to bring home to the German people that they had lost the War by themselves; so that their defeat should not be attributed to a \"stab in the back\"." ], [ "Wagnerian allusions", "To some Germans, the idea of a \"stab in the back\" was evocative of Richard Wagner's 1876 opera ''Götterdämmerung'', in which Hagen murders his enemy Siegfried – the hero of the story – with a spear in his back.", "In Hindenburg's memoirs, he compared the collapse of the German Army to Siegfried's death." ], [ "Psychology of belief", "Historian Richard McMasters Hunt argues in a 1958 article that the myth was an irrational belief which commanded the force of irrefutable emotional convictions for millions of Germans.", "He suggests that behind these myths was a sense of communal shame, not for causing the war, but for losing it.", "Hunt argues that it was not the guilt of wickedness, but the shame of weakness that seized Germany's national psychology, and \"served as a solvent of the Weimar democracy and also as an ideological cement of Hitler's dictatorship\"." ], [ "Equivalents in other countries", "===United States===Parallel interpretations of national trauma after military defeat appear in other countries.", "For example, it was applied to the United States' involvement in the Vietnam War and in the mythology of the Lost Cause of the Confederacy." ], [ "See also", "* Austria victim theory* Causes of World War II* Centre for the Study of the Causes of the War* Defeatism* Genocide justification* German Revolution of 1918–19* Holocaust inversion* Jewish war conspiracy theory* More German than the Germans, a contrasting trope about German Jewry* Secondary antisemitism" ], [ "References", "'''Informational notes''''''Citations''''''Bibliography'''* * * * * * '''Further reading'''* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Antisemitism on the Florida Holocaust Museum website* Die Judischen Gefallenen A Roll of Honor Commemorating the 12,000 German Jews Who Died for their Fatherland in World War I.", "* Book review by Harold Marcuse, with 15 \"stab-in-the-back\" illustrations, 1918–1942" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Davenport, Iowa" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Davenport''' is a city in and the county seat of Scott County, Iowa, United States.", "Located along the Mississippi River on the eastern border of the state, it is the largest of the Quad Cities, a metropolitan area with a population of 384,324 and a combined statistical area population of 474,019, ranking as the 147th-largest MSA and 91st-largest CSA in the nation.", "According to the 2020 census, the city had a population of 101,724, making it Iowa's third-most populous city after Des Moines and Cedar Rapids.", "Davenport was founded on May 14, 1836, by Antoine Le Claire and named for his friend George Davenport.From 1860 until 1980, Davenport enjoyed a long period of industrial and population growth, averaging yearly increases of about 760 people.", "Over that period, Davenport industries were diverse, from manufacturing locomotives, a major meat-packing plant, a Caterpillar loader plant, a historic movie-projector plant, to car and truck wheel manufacture.", "These and other industries left, and since 1980, population growth has been flat, hovering around 100,000 over the past 40 years.The city is prone to frequent flooding due to its location on the Mississippi River and the city's resistance to building a modern levee, unlike its sister cities.", "Davenport's flood wall dates from the 1919, while Rock Island's higher flood wall dates from 1970 and Bettendorf's from the 1980s.", "The latter two protected their respective downtowns during the 2023 flood The history and historical costs of proposed levee projects were summarized in 2023 by the local paper after Davenport received national media attention for the 2023 flood.There are two main universities: St. Ambrose University and Palmer College of Chiropractic, where the first chiropractic adjustment took place.", "Several annual music festivals take place in Davenport, including the Mississippi Valley Blues Festival, the Mississippi Valley Fair, and the Bix Beiderbecke Memorial Jazz Festival.", "An internationally known foot race, called the Bix 7, is run during the festival.", "The city has a Class A minor-league baseball team, the Quad Cities River Bandits.", "Davenport has 50 plus parks and facilities, as well as more than of recreational paths for biking or walking.Three interstates (80, 74 and 280) and two major United States Highways serve the city.", "Davenport has seen steady population growth since its incorporation.", "National economic difficulties in the 1980s resulted in job and population losses.", "Notable people from the city have included jazz legend Bix Beiderbecke, Pulitzer Prize–winning playwright Susan Glaspell, former National Football League running back Roger Craig, UFC Welterweight Champion Pat Miletich, IBF Middleweight and WBA Super Middleweight boxing champion Michael Nunn, and former two-time WWE Champion and WWE Universal Champion Seth Rollins." ], [ "History", "The land was originally owned by the historic Sauk people, Meskwaki (Fox), and Ho-Chunk (Winnebago) Native American tribes.", "France laid claim to this territory as part of its New France and Illinois Country in the 18th century.", "Its traders and missionaries came to the area from Canada (Quebec), but it did not have many settlers here.", "After losing to Great Britain in the Seven Years' War, France ceded its territory east of the Mississippi River to the victor, but retained lands to the west.In 1803, France sold its holdings in North America west of the Mississippi River to the United States under the Louisiana Purchase.", "Lieutenant Zebulon Pike was the first United States representative to officially visit the Upper Mississippi River area.", "On August 27, 1805, Pike camped on the present-day site of Davenport.In 1832, a group of Sauk, Meskwaki, and Kickapoo people were defeated by the United States in the Black Hawk War.", "The United States government concluded the Black Hawk Purchase, sometimes called the Forty-Mile Strip or Scott's Purchase, by which the US acquired lands in what is now eastern Iowa.", "The purchase was made for $640,000 on September 21, 1832, and contained an area of some , at a price equivalent to 11 cents/acre ($26/km).", "Although named after the defeated chief Black Hawk, he was being held prisoner by the US.", "Sauk chief Keokuk, who had remained neutral in the war, signed off on the purchase.", "It was made on the site of present-day Davenport.", "Army General Winfield Scott and Governor of Illinois, John Reynolds, acted on behalf of the United States, with Antoine Le Claire, a mixed-race (Métis) man, serving as translator.", "He later was credited with founding Davenport.Chief Keokuk gave a generous portion of land to Antoine Le Claire's wife, Marguerite, the granddaughter of a Sauk chief.", "Le Claire built their home on the exact spot where the agreement was signed, as stipulated by Keokuk, or he would have forfeited the land.", "Le Claire finished the 'Treaty House' in the spring of 1833.He founded Davenport on May 14, 1836, naming it for his friend Colonel George Davenport, who was stationed at Fort Armstrong during the war.", "The city was incorporated on January 25, 1839.The area was successively governed by the legislatures of the Michigan Territory, the Wisconsin Territory, Iowa Territory and finally Iowa.Scott County was formed by an act of the Wisconsin Territorial legislature in 1837.Both Davenport and its neighbor Rockingham campaigned to become the county seat.", "The city with the most votes from Scott County citizens in the February 1838 election would become the county seat.", "On the eve of the election, Davenport citizens acquired the temporary service of Dubuque laborers so they could vote in the election.", "Davenport won the election with the help of the laborers.", "Rockingham supporters protested the elections to the territorial governor, on the grounds the laborers from Dubuque were not Scott County residents.", "The governor refused to certify the results of the election.", "A second election was held the following August.", "To avoid another import of voters, the governor set a 60-day residency requirement for all voters.", "Davenport won by two votes.", "Because the margin of victory was so close, a third election was held in the summer of 1840.As the August election drew nearer, Rockingham residents grew tired of the county seat cause.", "Davenport easily won the third election.", "Consequently, to avoid questions about the county seat, Davenport quickly built the first county courthouse.The Rock Island Railroad built the first railroad bridge across the Mississippi River in 1856.It connected Davenport to Rock Island, Illinois.", "This railway connection resulted in significant improvements to transportation and commerce with Chicago, a booming 19th-century city.", "The addition of new railroad lines to Muscatine and Iowa City, and the acquisition of other lines by the Rock Island Railroad, resulted in Davenport becoming a commercial railroad hub.Aerial view of early Davenport Steamboat companies rightly saw nationwide railroads as a threat to their business.", "On May 6, 1856, just weeks after the bridge was completed, a steamboat captain deliberately crashed the ''Effie Afton'' into the bridge.", "The owner of the ''Effie Afton'', John Hurd, filed a lawsuit against the Rock Island Railroad Company.", "Abraham Lincoln was the lead defense lawyer for the railroad company.", "The hung jury meant that neither party was awarded damages; the bridge was repaired within the span of a few months, and no further intentional sabotage was pursued.", "However, further litigation continued for many years, until ultimately the United States Supreme Court upheld the right to bridge navigable streams; the bridge, and others like it that had been built in the interim, were allowed to remain.Claim House was constructed by George L. Davenport, son of Colonel George Davenport, in 1832 or 1833.It is believed to be the oldest structure in the city.", "Prior to the start of the Civil War, Governor Samuel J. Kirkwood declared Davenport to be Iowa's first military headquarters; five military camps were set up in the city to aid the Union.The Davenport City Hall was built in 1895 for price of $100,000 ($ in dollars).", "Architectural journals of the time poked fun at the project due to the small amount of money budgeted.", "The skyline began forming in the 1920s with the construction of the Kahl Building, the Parker Building, and the Capitol Theatre during a period of economic and building expansion.Steamboat Iowa'', which appears in the Seal of Iowa.By 1932, thousands of Davenport residents were on public relief, due to the Great Depression.", "A shantytown of the poor developed in the west end of the city, along the Mississippi River.", "Sickness, hunger, and unsanitary living conditions plagued the area.The situation would soon change, as many citizens went to work for the Works Progress Administration.", "Davenport had an economic boom during and after World War II, driven by wartime industry and peacetime demand.", "As Davenport grew, it absorbed smaller surrounding communities, annexing Rockingham, Nahant, Probstei, East Davenport, Oakdale, Cawiezeel, Blackhawk, Mt.", "Joy, Green Tree, and others.", "Oscar Mayer, Ralston Purina, and other companies built plants in west Davenport.", "The Interstate highway network reached Davenport in 1956, improving transportation in the area.", "By 1959, more than 1,000 homes a year were being constructed.By the late 1970s, the good times were over for both downtown and local businesses and industries.", "Railroad restructuring in the mid-20th century had caused a loss of jobs in the industry.", "The farm crisis of the 1980s negatively affected Davenport and the rest of the Quad Cities, where a total of 35,000 workers lost their jobs throughout the entire Quad Cities area.", "Restructuring of heavy industry also continued: the Caterpillar plant on the city's north side closed, causing another wave of job loss.With the 1990s, the city finally showed the beginnings of a resurgence.", "In the early 21st century, many renovations and building additions have occurred to revitalize the downtown area, including repairing Modern Woodmen Park, the building of the Skybridge and the Figge Art Museum.", "In 2011, the Gold Coast and Hamburg Historic District was named as a 2011 \"America's Great Place\" by the American Planning Association." ], [ "Geography", "Lithograph of Davenport from a letter-head dating to 1868According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water.", "Davenport is located approximately west of Chicago and east of the Iowa state capital of Des Moines.", "The city is located about north of St. Louis, Missouri, and southeast of Minneapolis, Minnesota.", "Farmland surrounds Davenport, outside the Quad Cities area.Davenport is located on the banks of the Mississippi River.", "At this point the river has a maximum depth of around and is wide where the Centennial Bridge crosses it.", "The river flows from east to west in this area, as opposed to its usual north to south direction.", "From the river the city starts to slope north up a hill, which is steep at some points.", "The streets of the city, especially downtown and in the central part of the town, follow a grid design.Davenport often makes national headlines when it suffers seasonal flooding by the Mississippi River.", "It is the largest city bordering the Mississippi that has no permanent flood wall or levee.", "Davenport residents prefer to maintain open access to the river for parks and vistas rather than have it cut off by dikes and levees.", "Davenport has adopted ordinances requiring any new construction in the floodplain to be elevated above the 100-year-flood level, or protected with walls.", "As a result, former mayor Phil Yerington said that if they \"let Mother Nature take her course, we'll all be better off\".", "An example of a Davenport building that is elevated or flood-proofed is the Figge Art Museum.=== Climate ===Flooding on April 30, 2008.The red line (at the top right) indicates where the Mississippi River should be.", "The picture was taken from the Skybridge.Under the Köppen climate classification, Davenport is considered to have a humid continental climate (''Dfa'').", "Summers are very warm to hot with high levels of humidity.", "Winters have cold temperatures and often high winds, with snow likely from November through February.", "Average snowfall in Davenport is per year.", "January is on average the coldest month, while July is the warmest.", "The highest temperature recorded in Davenport was on July 12, 1936.The lowest temperature, , was recorded on January 18, 2009.Substantial weather changes frequently occur at three- to four-day intervals as a result of mid-latitude storm tracks, which is where low and high pressure extratropical disturbances occur.", "During the summers, farmers experience difficulties while farming such as shallow soil, the humidity, and cold damp windsAlthough several minor tornadoes have occurred, no devastating tornado has ever touched down in Davenport.", "Flooding, however, is often a problem in Davenport due to the lack of a flood wall.", "During the Great Flood of 1993, the water crested at on July 9.This is nearly above the flood stage.", "Major flooding in Davenport causes many problems.", "Roads in and around the downtown area, including U.S. Route 67, are closed and cause increased traffic on other city roads.", "The effects of major flooding can be long-lasting.", "For example, during the 2008 flooding, Credit Island in the city's southwest corner remained closed for 5½ months while crews worked on cleaning up damage and removing river debris.", "Duck Creek, a stream situated in Bettendorf and Davenport, is also vulnerable to flash flooding.", "Severe thunderstorms on June 16, 1990, created heavy flash flooding in Bettendorf and Davenport that killed four people.", "Another major flood happened on June 12, 2008, when severe thunderstorms caused Duck Creek to overflow its banks and flood properties and nearby streets (see Iowa flood of 2008).===Neighborhoods===Map highlighting the historic neighborhoodsVillage of East Davenport, is full of small specialty shops.Davenport has several neighborhoods dating back to the 1840s.", "The original city plot was around current day Ripley and 5th Streets, where Antoine Le Claire had built his house.", "The city can be divided into five areas: downtown, central, east end, near north and northwest, and west end.", "Many architectural designs are found throughout the city including Victorian, Queen Anne, Tudor Revival, and others.", "Many of the original neighborhoods were inhabited by German settlers.The east side of the city dates back to 1850 and has always contained higher end housing.", "The proximity and commanding view of the river kept these neighborhoods a fashionable address, long after the original families departed.", "Lindsay Park, in The Village of East Davenport, was used as parade grounds for Civil War soldiers from Camp McClellan.In contrast to the east side, the central and west neighborhoods originally contained many of the working class Germans who settled the town.", "Development on the west side started in the 1850s, with extensive construction occurring in the 1870s.", "Housing was mostly one and a half to two-story front gable American Foursquare and simplified Queen Anne style.", "The central Hamburg neighborhood, now known as the Hamburg Historic District, contains the most architecturally significant residences in the old German neighborhoods.", "Also in central Davenport, the Vander Veer Park Historic District is a neighborhood anchored by Vander Veer Park, a large park with a botanical garden and a fountain.", "The park was modeled after New York City's Central Park and originally shared its name.", "Vander Veer is surrounded by large Queen Anne and Tudor Revival style houses that were built between 1895 and 1915.Development of the Vander Veer Park was one of the first major beautification efforts.Today, the eastern side of Davenport still contains many of the higher class houses in the city.", "The old Civil War parade grounds, in The Village of East Davenport (\"The Village\" for short), have been turned into Lindsay Park, which is surrounded by small specialty shops.", "West of The Village, Downtown contains the two tallest buildings in the Quad Cities; the Wells Fargo Bank Building, which is 255 feet tall, and the Mid-American Energy Building, which is 220 feet tall.", "Other tall buildings include the 11-story Hotel Blackhawk, the 150 foot Kahl Building and the Davenport City Hall." ], [ "Demographics", "===2020 census===As of the census of 2020, the population was 101,724.The population density was .", "There were 46,964 housing units at an average density of .", "The racial makeup of the city was 74.1% White, 12.0% Black or African American, 2.2% Asian, 0.4% Native American, 2.6% from other races, and 8.7% from two or more races.", "Ethnically, the population was 8.8% Hispanic or Latino of any race.Map of racial distribution in Davenport, 2020 U.S. census.", "Each dot is one person: ===2010 census===According to the 2010 United States Census estimate, the city population grew to 99,685 and the Quad Cities metropolitan area grew to 379,690.===2000 census===As of the 2000 census, there were 98,359 people, 39,124 households, and 24,804 families residing in the city.", "The population density was .", "There were 41,350 housing units at an average density of .", "Davenport's population density was 30 times the average density of Iowa and 20 times the average density of the United States.", "However, it was about a third less than Des Moines and 20 percent less than Cedar Rapids, the only two cities in Iowa with higher populations than Davenport.", "Sioux City, the next city smaller than Davenport in population, had a density of 5 people more per square mile.The racial makeup of the area was 83.7% White (410,861), 11.43% Black or African American (27,757), 0.4% American Indian and Alaskan Native (1,255), 2.0% Asian (6,624), 0.03% Pacific Islander (156), and 2.0% from two or more races (11,929).", "7.1% of the population was Hispanic or Latino of any race (37,070).", "There were 39,124 households, out of which 31.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.0% were married couples living together, 13.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.6% were non-families.", "Of all households, 29.5% were made up of individuals, and 9.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 3.03.Age spread: 26.2% under the age of 18, 10.7% from 18 to 24, 30.1% from 25 to 44, 20.9% from 45 to 64, and 12.1% who were 65 years of age or older.", "The median age was 34 years.", "For every 100 females, there were 94.7 males." ], [ "Economy", "Davenport's biggest labor industry is manufacturing, with over 7,600 jobs in the sector.", "John Deere is the second largest employer in the Quad Cities, after the Rock Island Arsenal as a whole.", "Deere, however, is the largest single employer, employing 7,200 workers in the Quad Cities and 948 on its north side Davenport plant.", "John Deere World Headquarters is located in Moline.", "Other large employers in Davenport and the Quad Cities include, Genesis Health System with 5,125 employees and 4,900 in Davenport, Trinity Regional Health System with 3,333, regional grocery store Hy-Vee with 3,138 and the Davenport Community School District with 2,237 employees.Davenport is the headquarters for department store Von Maur, which has 24 stores.", "Davenport is also the headquarters of Lee Enterprises, which publishes fifty daily newspapers and more than 300 weekly newspapers, shoppers, and specialty publications, along with online sites in 23 states.", "As of September 2009, the unemployment rate in Davenport and the rest of the Quad Cities, had risen to 8.4%.The median income for a household in the city was $40,378, with families earning $51,445.Males had a median income of $41,853 versus $30,002 for females.", "The per capita income for the city was $18,828.About 10.5% of families and 14.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 19.2% of those under age 18 and 6.4% of those ages 65 or over.The surrounding Quad Cities have major places of employment, including the Rock Island Arsenal, KONE, Inc and Alcoa." ], [ "Arts and culture", "===Landmarks===The Redstone Building was originally the longtime home of the Petersen Harned Von Maur flagship store and is now home of the River Music Experience.The Putnam Museum.Downtown Davenport has many points of interest including the Davenport Public Library, the Davenport Skybridge, Figge Art Museum, River Music Experience, Putnam Museum, the RiverCenter/Adler Theater, Modern Woodmen Park which is home of the Quad City River Bandits baseball team and the Centennial Bridge.", "The former Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Freight House, now known as The Freight House, is home to several small businesses featuring locally grown items, such as a deli, a grocery hub, and a tap room for a local brewery.Davenport's cultural and educational institutions include the Figge Art Museum, which houses The National Center for Midwest Art and Design, and was founded in 1925 as the Davenport Municipal Art Gallery.", "The Putnam Museum, which was founded in 1867 and was one of the first museums west of the Mississippi River.", "The Quad City Symphony Orchestra, headquartered in downtown Davenport, was founded in 1915.The Davenport Public Library was opened in 1839.The German American Heritage Center is located at the foot of the Centennial Bridge.Uptown features a few historic landmarks such as the Iowa Soldiers' Orphans' Home which took in homeless children from all of Iowa's ninety-nine counties following the Civil War and Ambrose Hall which was the original building of St. Ambrose University.", "Aside from landmarks, uptown contains some entertainment venues too, such as the Great Mississippi Valley Fairgrounds, which hosts fairs, stock car racing, and many other events.", "NorthPark Mall is the city's main shopping mall and has 160 stores.", "Its companion, SouthPark Mall, is located in Moline.", "Brady Street Stadium is home to Davenport high school and Saint Ambrose University football games.", "Davenport has a number of parks, including Credit Island park which has a bike path, baseball diamonds, tennis courts, and fishing along the Mississippi River.", "Vander Veer Botanical Park has a small botanical garden and also features a walking path, a lagoon, and a large fountain.", "The Stampe Lilac Garden is located in Duck Creek Park, on Locust St.===Events and festivals===Bix Fest is a three-day music festival with many traditional jazz bands held in tribute to internationally renowned jazz cornetist, pianist, composer, and Davenport native Bix Beiderbecke.", "The festival was started in August 1971 and the Bix Beiderbecke Memorial Society was founded one year later to organize and sponsor it.", "2009 was the 39th consecutive festival.", "In addition to the Bix Fest, the Wells Fargo Street Fest features live music, food, and vendors.The annual Bix 7 is a road race held in late July in Davenport.", "The race was founded in 1975 by John A. Hudetz a resident of Bettendorf, Iowa, who wanted to bring to the Quad Cities some of the excitement he felt when he ran his first Boston Marathon.", "The first race had 84 participants, but today 12,000 to 18,000 runners take part.", "In late July or early August the six-day Great Mississippi Valley Fair features major grandstand concerts, carnival rides, attractions, and food vendors.", "Sturgis on the River is a large annual gathering of motorcycles which includes bands and food vendors.", "Other local expositions include River Roots Live, Beaux Arts Fair and many others.===Livability Award===Davenport (along with neighboring Rock Island, Illinois), won the 2007 City Livability Award in the small-city category from the U.S. Conference of Mayors.", "Tom Cochran, executive director of the Conference, stated that the award \"gives the Conference a chance to highlight mayoral leadership in making urban areas safer, cleaner and more livable.\"", "The award acknowledges achievements from the RiverVision plan of Davenport and Rock Island." ], [ "Sports", "Davenport and the Quad Cities are home to many sports teams.", "The Quad Cities River Bandits baseball team play games at Downtown Davenport's Modern Woodmen Park.", "The TaxSlayer Center in Moline is home the Quad City Steamwheelers indoor football team and the Quad City Storm hockey team.", "Davenport high schools are in the Mississippi Athletic Conference for sports." ], [ "Parks and recreation", "Junge Park is situated along the Duck Creek bike path.", "The park includes baseball and softball fields, along with sand volleyball, and basketball courts.Davenport has over fifty parks or recreational trails.", "Major parks include Credit Island, which is a park in southwest Davenport located alongside the Mississippi River.", "Fejervary Park contains a pool and has had approximately 20,000 visitors each year since 1996.Junge Park is situated along the Duck Creek Parkway and includes baseball and softball fields, sand volleyball, and basketball courts.", "LeClaire Park is located right on the banks of the Mississippi River next to Modern Woodmen Park and hosts many summer events including River Roots Live and Ribfest.", "Bands for the Bix Fest play in the park each July.", "Vander Veer Botanical Park welcomes approximately 25,000 visitors to continuous floral shows.The city features two recreational trails for biking or walking.", "Duck Creek Parkway extends from Emeis Park in west Davenport east to Bettendorf along Duck Creek.", "Riverfront Parkway extends along the Mississippi waterfront from Credit Island to Bettendorf.", "Both these trails continue into Bettendorf.", "Plans are being discussed to connect the two trails in Riverdale.", "Three public golf courses are offered in the city.", "For river-related activities, The Channel Cat boat offers rides across the river and has two stops in Iowa and three stops in Illinois and connects the bike paths that each state has on its river front." ], [ "Government", "The Davenport City Hall was built in 1895 at the price of $100,000.Davenport uses a mayor–council form of local government.", ", city government consists of mayor Mike Matson and a ten-person council.", "One person is elected from each of the eight wards and two at-large aldermen are elected to represent the whole city.", "Nonpartisan elections are held in odd-numbered years.", "The mayor is the top elected individual for the city and presides over city council meetings, voting in case of a tie.", "The mayor appoints city board members.", "The city council's job is to make laws and set the city budget.", "The city administrator, currently Corrin Spiegel, is appointed by the mayor with confirmation by two-thirds of the council.", "Citywide goals through 2012 include having a financially responsible government, having a growing economy, revitalizing neighborhoods, and upgrading city infrastructure and public facilities.", "The establishment of Davenport as a political and government unit came in 1839, three years after the city was settled.", "The city was incorporated as a result of a resolution by Iowa Representative Jonathan W. Parker by special charter in the Iowa Territory on January 25, 1839.Parker was a resident of Davenport and one of six trustees elected to govern the city with Rodolphus Bennet being the first mayor.", "Activity for the first four months was minimal as the council failed to meet.", "In 1842, the city charter was amended for the first time.", "Changes include having six alderman replace the five trustees, dividing the city into three wards, and appointing a city clerk position to replace the recorder.", "The charter was amended again in 1851 to expand the city area, provide greater detail of the duties of the mayor, city council, and other officials.", "During the last half of the 19th century, government assumed expanding responsibilities for public welfare and public works improvements.The city expanded police protection, even temporarily having volunteer police officers to assist the three paid officers.", "Fire protection was expanded in 1882, with the city's first 13 paid firefighters.", "Former mayor Henry Vollmer accomplished several public works achievements, including large street paving and new sub-divisions being plotted.", "A large city budget surplus brought the creation of the Davenport City Hall.", "After 1900, each mayor brought new agendas for city improvement.", "Waldo Becker encouraged new railroads for the city.", "He also promised a more business-like government, in terms of financial responsibility and to depoliticize the police department.", "In the mid-1920s the city established the first zoning ordinances, electrical traffic signals and street lighting.", "The city also expanded with the incorporation of the city of Rockingham and the establishment of the Davenport Municipal Airport.The 2010 fiscal year budget was $199.2 million, an increase of $35 million from 2009.The city's general fund receives the largest amount of funds from property taxes, followed by service fees such as solid waste collection and swimming pool or golf course admission and 80% of its expenses go to personnel costs.", "The city has given a few surveys for citizens to rate the quality of life and city services.", "The largest department in the city is the public works department with a budget of $36.7 million.", "The police department is second with a budget of $22.4 million, while the fire department has a budget of $15 million.", "The parks department has $6.1 million, and the Davenport Public Library has a $3.8 million budget.The U.S.", "Courthouse in DavenportAt the federal level, Davenport is in Iowa's 2nd congressional district.", "It is represented by Republican Mariannette Miller-Meeks.", "The two Senators are Republicans Chuck Grassley and Joni Ernst.", "At the state level, Davenport is represented by the 45th, 46th, and 47th Iowa Senate districts and in the Iowa House of Representatives by the 89th, 90th, 92nd, 93rd, and 94th districts., the 41st senate district covers the eastern third of the city and all of Bettendorf, Riverdale, and Panorama Park.", "It is more conservative then other Davenport districts being represented by a Republican since the 1970s.", "The district is slightly moving more liberal with an increase of 3,000 Democrats between 2006 and 2010.The district is represented by Republican Senator Roby Smith.", "The 42nd district covers the western third of the city along with all of Scott County that is not in Davenport, Bettendorf, Riverdale, or Panorama Park as well as western and southern rural Clinton County and is represented by Republican Senator Shawn Hamerlinck.", "The 43rd senate district covers the central third of the city and is represented by Democrat Joe Seng.The 81st house district covers the eastern third of the city along with small western portion of Bettendorf.", "The district shares the same western boundaries as the forty-first senate district.", "The district is represented by Democrat Phyllis Thede.", "The 84th district covers the western third of the city, and has the same eastern boundary as Senate district forty-two and is represented by Republican Ross Paustian.", "The 85th and 86th districts are made up of the same area as the forty-third senate district.", "The 85th district covers the north and west-central area while the 86th district covers southern and eastern part of the senate district.", "Both are represented by Democrats with Jim Lykam representing the 85th and Cindy Winckler representing the 86th.Davenport has a Federal Court House for the United States District Court for the Southern District of Iowa.+ US House of Representatives Name Congressional DistrictParty Mariannette Miller-Meeks 2nd District Republican+ Iowa Senate Name DistrictParty Jim Lykam District 45 Democratic Mark S. Lofgren District 46 Republican Roby Smith District 47 Republican+ Iowa House of Representatives Name DistrictParty Monica Kurth District 89 Democratic Cindy Winckler District 90 Democratic Ross Paustian District 92 Republican Phyllis Thede District 93 Democratic Gary Mohr District 94 Republican" ], [ "Education", "St. Ambrose University, established in 1882, is the oldest of the two universities in Davenport.Davenport public schools serve nearly 14,500 students in the communities of Davenport, Blue Grass, Buffalo, and Walcott.", "The Davenport Community School District is the fourth-largest school district in Iowa.", "Davenport has four public high schools: Central, West, Mid City and North and one private high school: Assumption.", "There are six public intermediate schools and 23 public elementary schools.", "Sudlow, one of the intermediate schools, was named after Phebe Sudlow, the first female public school superintendent in the United States.", "She was superintendent for Davenport schools from 1874 to 1878.The high schools are part of the Mississippi Athletic Conference for sports.The city has four colleges and universities: Saint Ambrose University, established in 1882, is the oldest; Kaplan University, Palmer Chiropractic College, and Hamilton Technical College.", "Palmer College is the first chiropractic school and the site of the first chiropractic adjustment in the world.Marycrest International University was a university in Davenport from 1939 to 2002, when it closed.", "The campus was renovated and adapted to senior citizen housing." ], [ "Media", "KWQC building was the first television station in Davenport.There are two major daily newspapers in Davenport.", "The ''Quad-City Times'' is based out of Davenport and ''The Dispatch/Rock Island Argus'' is based out of Moline.", "An alternative free newspaper, the ''River Cities' Reader'', is published in Davenport.", "All four major television networks have stations in the area, including KWQC (NBC) and KLJB (Fox) in Davenport.", "WHBF (CBS) is located in Rock Island and WQAD (ABC) is in Moline.The Quad Cities ranks as the 97th largest market for television and the 147th largest market for radio.", "Radio station WOC made its local broadcasting debut on February 18, 1922.It was the second licensed station on the air.", "In 1933 WOC hired future president Ronald Reagan as a staff announcer." ], [ "Infrastructure", "===Transportation===The Rock Island Centennial Bridge connects Downtown Davenport with Downtown Rock Island, IllinoisThree interstate highways serve Davenport: Interstate 80, Interstate 280, and Interstate 74.Interstate 88 serves the Illinois Quad Cities and runs east to Chicago.", "U.S. Route 6, U.S. Route 61, and U.S. Route 67 also go through Davenport; U.S. 67 crosses over to Illinois via the Rock Island Centennial Bridge.", "Davenport is connected to the Illinois side of the Quad Cities by a total of three bridges across the Mississippi River.", "The Government Bridge and the Centennial Bridge connect Downtown Davenport with the Rock Island Arsenal and downtown Rock Island, respectively.", "The I-280 Bridge connects the western edge of Davenport with the western edge of Rock Island.Heading into Downtown Davenport on Harrison Street (US 61) South Bound.Other highways include Iowa Highway 22, which is on the city's southwest side, and Iowa Highway 130, which runs along Northwest Boulevard on Davenport's north edge.", "For air travel, Davenport Municipal Airport – located adjacent to the city's northern city limits – serves smaller aircraft, and is the home of the annual Quad City Airshow.", "The Quad City International Airport across the river in Moline, Illinois, is the closest commercial airport.", "Major railroads include the Iowa Interstate Railroad and the Iowa, Chicago and Eastern.", "Two national U.S. recreation trails intersect in Davenport: the Mississippi River Trail and the American Discovery Trail.Amtrak currently does not serve Davenport or the Quad Cities.", "The closest station currently is about away in Galesburg, Illinois.", "In 2008, United States Senators Tom Harkin, Chuck Grassley, Dick Durbin, and Barack Obama sent a letter to Amtrak asking them to begin plans to bring rail service to the Quad Cities.", "In October 2010, a $230 million federal fund was announced that will bring Amtrak service to the Quad Cities, with a new line running from Moline to Chicago.", "They had hoped to have the line completed in 2015, and offer two round trips daily to Chicago.", "Currently the Moline station does not have any Amtrak service.", "Greyhound Lines/Burlington Trailways bus service has a station in Davenport.", "The building is shared with the local Davenport Citibus.", "Davenport does not have any river ports.Davenport has an infamous \"truck-eating bridge\".", "The bridge, or rather three bridges, is a set of railroad bridges that cross over north and southbound U.S. Route 61 and another street.", "Every year an average of 12 semi trucks hit the bridge, usually causing massive damage to the trucks.", "The bridges, made out of iron, steel, and concrete, are rarely damaged.====Davenport Citibus====Public transit appeared in Davenport in 1969 when the city created a City Transit Authority.", "The authority at first provided monetary support to Davenport City Lines Bus Company, which was a privately owned company.", "After a few years the city purchased the Davenport City Lines and placed the operation of public transportation under the jurisdiction of the city's Department of Municipal Transportation.", "Today, CitiBus is a division of the Department of Public Works.", "CitiBus has a total of 20 vehicles and covers approximately of the city.", "CitiBus connects with both Bettendorf Transit and the Illinois Quad Cities mass transit system, MetroLINK.", "In 2007 Citibus saw a ridership of 1,022,815 customers.", "Ridership as of September 2008 had grown to 1,045,000 due in part to high gas prices.===Utilities===Genesis West is one of the two hospitals in Davenport.", "The other hospital is Genesis East.Electricity to Davenport, and the rest of the Iowa Quad Cities, is provided by MidAmerican Energy Company.", "Water is provided by the Mississippi River and is treated by the Iowa American Water Company.", "The water treatment facility is located in southeast Davenport.===Health care===Davenport is served by two hospitals: Genesis Medical Center East – Rusholme Street and Genesis Medical Center – West Central Park Avenue part of the Genesis Health System.", "Together the facilities, along with two other facilities outside Davenport have 665 beds.", "The hospitals employ more than 600 physicians and 5,000 staff members.", "The American Nurses Credentialing Center, awarded Genesis Medical Center the Magnet designation for excellence in nursing services.", "Fewer than three percent of hospitals receive this honor." ], [ "Notable people", "Notable Davenporters include jazz musician Bix Beiderbecke, after whom the Bix 7 road race and jazz festival are named.", "The artist Isabel Bloom was raised in Davenport; she is the creator of decorative concrete figurines that bear her name.Guitarist and vocalist John Kadlecik, who founded The Dark Star Orchestra and toured with the members of The Grateful Dead in the band Furthur, also grew up in Davenport.Sports figures born in Davenport include NFL running back Roger Craig, NFL offensive lineman Julian Vandervelde, former NBA guard Ricky Davis, former NBA G-League guard Marlon Stewart, former middleweight boxing champion Michael Nunn, UFC welterweight champion Robbie Lawler, NFL wide receiver Kenny Shedd and professional wrestler Seth Rollins.Other natives include the aviation pioneer Samuel Cody, actors Stuart Margolin, Lara Flynn Boyle, Sue Lyon, Linnea Quigley, and Greg Stolze.", "Otto Frederick Rohwedder, the inventor of mass-produced sliced bread, and actor Jock Mahoney, grew up in Davenport.The former mayor of St. Louis, Lyda Krewson, was born in Davenport." ], [ "Film, theater, and literary references", "* Bix Beiderbecke recorded a song in 1925 called \"Davenport Blues\".", "* In the bed department scene of the Marx Brothers 1941 movie \"The Big Store\" Groucho tells a man to \"Just press that button over by the davenport.\".", "The man replies \"Where is the davenport?\"", "and Groucho replies \"It's in Iowa.\"''.", "* The 1958 Johnny Cash song, \"Big River\", also later recorded by Bill Monroe and other artists, mentions \"cavortin' in Davenport.", "\"* Davenport is one of eight cities listed in the song \"Iowa Stubborn\" from the 1957 musical ''The Music Man''.", "* Davenport during and following the 1993 flood is a playable scenario in Sim City 2000 Scenarios Volume 1: Great Disasters.", "* In the film ''Tommy Boy'', Richard Hayden attempts to get directions to a business appointment in Davenport from a service station 22 miles away on the Illinois side of the river, but the employee tells him to get a new map despite being in the Quad Cities metro area." ], [ "Sister cities", "Davenport's sister cities are:* Kaiserslautern, Germany (1960)* Ilhéus, Brazil (2005)* County Carlow, Ireland (2006)===Friendship cities===Davenport has friendly relations with:* Langfang, China (2018)* Colón, Mexico" ], [ "See also", "* African Americans in Davenport, Iowa* Bucktown, Davenport* List of tallest buildings in the Quad Cities" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===*" ], [ "Further reading", "*Plan and Zoning Commission, ''Historic Preservation in Davenport, Iowa for Inclusion in the Davenport Comprehensive Plan'', Davenport (1985) *Svendsen, Marlys, ''Davenport A Pictorial History'', (1987) Davenport: G. Bradley Publishing, Inc., *Svendsen, Marlys, ''Davenport Historical Survey Report : A Thematic History of Davenport, Iowa, 1836–1940 with reference to buildings, structures & sites'', (1980) Davenport," ], [ "External links", "* City of Davenport" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Diffraction" ], [ "Introduction", "diffraction pattern of a red laser beam projected onto a plate after passing through a small circular aperture in another plate'''Diffraction''' is the interference or bending of waves around the corners of an obstacle or through an aperture into the region of geometrical shadow of the obstacle/aperture.", "The diffracting object or aperture effectively becomes a secondary source of the propagating wave.", "Italian scientist Francesco Maria Grimaldi coined the word ''diffraction'' and was the first to record accurate observations of the phenomenon in 1660.Infinitely many points (three shown) along length project phase contributions from the wavefront, producing a continuously varying intensity on the registering plateIn classical physics, the diffraction phenomenon is described by the Huygens–Fresnel principle that treats each point in a propagating wavefront as a collection of individual spherical wavelets.", "The characteristic bending pattern is most pronounced when a wave from a coherent source (such as a laser) encounters a slit/aperture that is comparable in size to its wavelength, as shown in the inserted image.", "This is due to the addition, or interference, of different points on the wavefront (or, equivalently, each wavelet) that travel by paths of different lengths to the registering surface.", "If there are multiple, closely spaced openings (e.g., a diffraction grating), a complex pattern of varying intensity can result.These effects also occur when a light wave travels through a medium with a varying refractive index, or when a sound wave travels through a medium with varying acoustic impedance – all waves diffract, including gravitational waves, water waves, and other electromagnetic waves such as X-rays and radio waves.", "Furthermore, quantum mechanics also demonstrates that matter possesses wave-like properties and, therefore, undergoes diffraction (which is measurable at subatomic to molecular levels).The amount of diffraction depends on the size of the gap.", "Diffraction is greatest when the size of the gap is similar to the wavelength of the wave.", "In this case, when the waves pass through the gap they become semi-circular." ], [ "History", "Thomas Young's sketch of two-slit diffraction for water waves, which he presented to the Royal Society in 1803The effects of diffraction of light were first carefully observed and characterized by Francesco Maria Grimaldi, who also coined the term ''diffraction'', from the Latin ''diffringere'', 'to break into pieces', referring to light breaking up into different directions.", "The results of Grimaldi's observations were published posthumously in 1665.Isaac Newton studied these effects and attributed them to ''inflexion'' of light rays.", "James Gregory (1638–1675) observed the diffraction patterns caused by a bird feather, which was effectively the first diffraction grating to be discovered.", "Thomas Young performed a celebrated experiment in 1803 demonstrating interference from two closely spaced slits.", "Explaining his results by interference of the waves emanating from the two different slits, he deduced that light must propagate as waves.", "Augustin-Jean Fresnel did more definitive studies and calculations of diffraction, made public in 1816 and 1818, and thereby gave great support to the wave theory of light that had been advanced by Christiaan Huygens and reinvigorated by Young, against Newton's particle theory." ], [ "Mechanism", "Single-slit diffraction in a circular ripple tankIn classical physics diffraction arises because of the way in which waves propagate; this is described by the Huygens–Fresnel principle and the principle of superposition of waves.", "The propagation of a wave can be visualized by considering every particle of the transmitted medium on a wavefront as a point source for a secondary spherical wave.", "The wave displacement at any subsequent point is the sum of these secondary waves.", "When waves are added together, their sum is determined by the relative phases as well as the amplitudes of the individual waves so that the summed amplitude of the waves can have any value between zero and the sum of the individual amplitudes.", "Hence, diffraction patterns usually have a series of maxima and minima.In the modern quantum mechanical understanding of light propagation through a slit (or slits) every photon is described by its wavefunction that determines the probability distribution for the photon: the light and dark bands are the areas where the photons are more or less likely to be detected.", "The wavefunction is determined by the physical surroundings such as slit geometry, screen distance and initial conditions when the photon is created.", "The wave nature of individual photons (as opposed to wave properties only arising from the interactions between multitudes of photons) was implied by a low-intensity double-slit experiment first performed by G. I. Taylor in 1909.The quantum approach has some striking similarities to the Huygens-Fresnel principle; based on that principle, as light travels through slits and boundaries, secondary point light sources are created near or along these obstacles, and the resulting diffraction pattern is going to be the intensity profile based on the collective interference of all these light sources that have different optical paths.", "In the quantum formalism, that is similar to considering the limited regions around the slits and boundaries from which photons are more likely to originate, and calculating the probability distribution (that is proportional to the resulting intensity of classical formalism).There are various analytical models which allow the diffracted field to be calculated, including the Kirchhoff-Fresnel diffraction equation (derived from the wave equation), the Fraunhofer diffraction approximation of the Kirchhoff equation (applicable to the far field), the Fresnel diffraction approximation (applicable to the near field) and the Feynman path integral formulation.", "Most configurations cannot be solved analytically, but can yield numerical solutions through finite element and boundary element methods.It is possible to obtain a qualitative understanding of many diffraction phenomena by considering how the relative phases of the individual secondary wave sources vary, and, in particular, the conditions in which the phase difference equals half a cycle in which case waves will cancel one another out.The simplest descriptions of diffraction are those in which the situation can be reduced to a two-dimensional problem.", "For water waves, this is already the case; water waves propagate only on the surface of the water.", "For light, we can often neglect one direction if the diffracting object extends in that direction over a distance far greater than the wavelength.", "In the case of light shining through small circular holes we will have to take into account the full three-dimensional nature of the problem.File:Square diffraction.jpg|Computer-generated intensity pattern formed on a screen by diffraction from a square apertureFile:Two-Slit Diffraction.png|Generation of an interference pattern from two-slit diffractionFile:Doubleslit.gif|Computational model of an interference pattern from two-slit diffractionFile:Optical diffraction pattern ( laser), (analogous to X-ray crystallography).JPG|Optical diffraction pattern (laser, analogous to X-ray crystallography)File:Diffraction pattern in spiderweb.JPG|Colors seen in a spider web are partially due to diffraction, according to some analyses." ], [ "Examples", "The effects of diffraction are often seen in everyday life.", "The most striking examples of diffraction are those that involve light; for example, the closely spaced tracks on a CD or DVD act as a diffraction grating to form the familiar rainbow pattern seen when looking at a disc.This principle can be extended to engineer a grating with a structure such that it will produce any diffraction pattern desired; the hologram on a credit card is an example.Diffraction in the atmosphere by small particles can cause a bright ring to be visible around a bright light source like the sun or the moon.", "solar glory on steam from hot springs.", "A glory is an optical phenomenon produced by light backscattered (a combination of diffraction, reflection and refraction) towards its source by a cloud of uniformly sized water droplets.|thumb|centerA shadow of a solid object, using light from a compact source, shows small fringes near its edges.", "The bright spot (Arago spot) seen in the center of the shadow of a circular obstacle is due to diffractionDiffraction spikes are diffraction patterns caused due to non-circular aperture in camera or support struts in telescope; In normal vision, diffraction through eyelashes may produce such spikes.View from the end of Millennium Bridge; Moon rising above the Southwark Bridge.", "Street lights are reflecting in the Thames.Simulated diffraction spikes in hexagonal telescope mirrorsThe speckle pattern which is observed when laser light falls on an optically rough surface is also a diffraction phenomenon.", "When deli meat appears to be iridescent, that is diffraction off the meat fibers.", "All these effects are a consequence of the fact that light propagates as a wave.Diffraction can occur with any kind of wave.", "Ocean waves diffract around jetties and other obstacles.", "Circular waves generated by diffraction from the narrow entrance of a flooded coastal quarry Sound waves can diffract around objects, which is why one can still hear someone calling even when hiding behind a tree.Diffraction can also be a concern in some technical applications; it sets a fundamental limit to the resolution of a camera, telescope, or microscope.Other examples of diffraction are considered below.===Single-slit diffraction===2D Single-slit diffraction with width changing animation Numerical approximation of diffraction pattern from a slit of width four wavelengths with an incident plane wave.", "The main central beam, nulls, and phase reversals are apparent.Graph and image of single-slit diffractionA long slit of infinitesimal width which is illuminated by light diffracts the light into a series of circular waves and the wavefront which emerges from the slit is a cylindrical wave of uniform intensity, in accordance with the Huygens–Fresnel principle.An illuminated slit that is wider than a wavelength produces interference effects in the space downstream of the slit.", "Assuming that the slit behaves as though it has a large number of point sources spaced evenly across the width of the slit interference effects can be calculated.", "The analysis of this system is simplified if we consider light of a single wavelength.", "If the incident light is coherent, these sources all have the same phase.", "Light incident at a given point in the space downstream of the slit is made up of contributions from each of these point sources and if the relative phases of these contributions vary by or more, we may expect to find minima and maxima in the diffracted light.", "Such phase differences are caused by differences in the path lengths over which contributing rays reach the point from the slit.We can find the angle at which a first minimum is obtained in the diffracted light by the following reasoning.", "The light from a source located at the top edge of the slit interferes destructively with a source located at the middle of the slit, when the path difference between them is equal to Similarly, the source just below the top of the slit will interfere destructively with the source located just below the middle of the slit at the same angle.", "We can continue this reasoning along the entire height of the slit to conclude that the condition for destructive interference for the entire slit is the same as the condition for destructive interference between two narrow slits a distance apart that is half the width of the slit.", "The path difference is approximately so that the minimum intensity occurs at an angle given bywhere is the width of the slit, is the angle of incidence at which the minimum intensity occurs, and is the wavelength of the light.A similar argument can be used to show that if we imagine the slit to be divided into four, six, eight parts, etc., minima are obtained at angles given bywhere is an integer other than zero.There is no such simple argument to enable us to find the maxima of the diffraction pattern.", "The intensity profile can be calculated using the Fraunhofer diffraction equation aswhere is the intensity at a given angle, is the intensity at the central maximum which is also a normalization factor of the intensity profile that can be determined by an integration from to and conservation of energy, and which is the unnormalized sinc function.This analysis applies only to the far field (Fraunhofer diffraction), that is, at a distance much larger than the width of the slit.From the intensity profile above, if the intensity will have little dependency on hence the wavefront emerging from the slit would resemble a cylindrical wave with azimuthal symmetry; If only would have appreciable intensity, hence the wavefront emerging from the slit would resemble that of geometrical optics.When the incident angle of the light onto the slit is non-zero (which causes a change in the path length), the intensity profile in the Fraunhofer regime (i.e.", "far field) becomes:The choice of plus/minus sign depends on the definition of the incident angle 2-slit (top) and 5-slit diffraction of red laser lightDiffraction of a red laser using a diffraction gratingA diffraction pattern of a 633 nm laser through a grid of 150 slits===Diffraction grating===Diffraction gratingA diffraction grating is an optical component with a regular pattern.", "The form of the light diffracted by a grating depends on the structure of the elements and the number of elements present, but all gratings have intensity maxima at angles ''θ''''m'' which are given by the grating equationwhere is the angle at which the light is incident, is the separation of grating elements, and is an integer which can be positive or negative.The light diffracted by a grating is found by summing the light diffracted from each of the elements, and is essentially a convolution of diffraction and interference patterns.The figure shows the light diffracted by 2-element and 5-element gratings where the grating spacings are the same; it can be seen that the maxima are in the same position, but the detailed structures of the intensities are different.A computer-generated image of an '''Airy disk''' Computer-generated light diffraction pattern from a circular aperture of diameter 0.5 micrometre at a wavelength of 0.6 micrometre (red-light) at distances of 0.1 cm – 1 cm in steps of 0.1 cm.", "One can see the image moving from the Fresnel region into the Fraunhofer region where theAiry pattern is seen.===Circular aperture===The far-field diffraction of a plane wave incident on a circular aperture is often referred to as the Airy disk.", "The variation in intensity with angle is given bywhere is the radius of the circular aperture, is equal to and is a Bessel function.", "The smaller the aperture, the larger the spot size at a given distance, and the greater the divergence of the diffracted beams.===General aperture===The wave that emerges from a point source has amplitude at location that is given by the solution of the frequency domain wave equation for a point source (the Helmholtz equation),where is the 3-dimensional delta function.", "The delta function has only radial dependence, so the Laplace operator (a.k.a.", "scalar Laplacian) in the spherical coordinate system simplifies to(See del in cylindrical and spherical coordinates.)", "By direct substitution, the solution to this equation can be readily shown to be the scalar Green's function, which in the spherical coordinate system (and using the physics time convention ) isThis solution assumes that the delta function source is located at the origin.", "If the source is located at an arbitrary source point, denoted by the vector and the field point is located at the point , then we may represent the scalar Green's function (for arbitrary source location) asTherefore, if an electric field is incident on the aperture, the field produced by this aperture distribution is given by the surface integralOn the calculation of Fraunhofer region fieldswhere the source point in the aperture is given by the vectorIn the far field, wherein the parallel rays approximation can be employed, the Green's function,simplifies toas can be seen in the adjacent figure.The expression for the far-zone (Fraunhofer region) field becomesNow, sinceandthe expression for the Fraunhofer region field from a planar aperture now becomesLettingandthe Fraunhofer region field of the planar aperture assumes the form of a Fourier transformIn the far-field / Fraunhofer region, this becomes the spatial Fourier transform of the aperture distribution.", "Huygens' principle when applied to an aperture simply says that the far-field diffraction pattern is the spatial Fourier transform of the aperture shape, and this is a direct by-product of using the parallel-rays approximation, which is identical to doing a plane wave decomposition of the aperture plane fields (see Fourier optics).===Propagation of a laser beam===The way in which the beam profile of a laser beam changes as it propagates is determined by diffraction.", "When the entire emitted beam has a planar, spatially coherent wave front, it approximates Gaussian beam profile and has the lowest divergence for a given diameter.", "The smaller the output beam, the quicker it diverges.", "It is possible to reduce the divergence of a laser beam by first expanding it with one convex lens, and then collimating it with a second convex lens whose focal point is coincident with that of the first lens.", "The resulting beam has a larger diameter, and hence a lower divergence.", "Divergence of a laser beam may be reduced below the diffraction of a Gaussian beam or even reversed to convergence if the refractive index of the propagation media increases with the light intensity.", "This may result in a self-focusing effect.When the wave front of the emitted beam has perturbations, only the transverse coherence length (where the wave front perturbation is less than 1/4 of the wavelength) should be considered as a Gaussian beam diameter when determining the divergence of the laser beam.", "If the transverse coherence length in the vertical direction is higher than in horizontal, the laser beam divergence will be lower in the vertical direction than in the horizontal.===Diffraction-limited imaging===lucky image'' of the binary star zeta Boötis.The ability of an imaging system to resolve detail is ultimately limited by diffraction.", "This is because a plane wave incident on a circular lens or mirror is diffracted as described above.", "The light is not focused to a point but forms an Airy disk having a central spot in the focal plane whose radius (as measured to the first null) iswhere is the wavelength of the light and is the f-number (focal length divided by aperture diameter ) of the imaging optics; this is strictly accurate for (paraxial case).", "In object space, the corresponding angular resolution iswhere is the diameter of the entrance pupil of the imaging lens (e.g., of a telescope's main mirror).Two point sources will each produce an Airy pattern – see the photo of a binary star.", "As the point sources move closer together, the patterns will start to overlap, and ultimately they will merge to form a single pattern, in which case the two point sources cannot be resolved in the image.", "The Rayleigh criterion specifies that two point sources are considered \"resolved\" if the separation of the two images is at least the radius of the Airy disk, i.e.", "if the first minimum of one coincides with the maximum of the other.Thus, the larger the aperture of the lens compared to the wavelength, the finer the resolution of an imaging system.", "This is one reason astronomical telescopes require large objectives, and why microscope objectives require a large numerical aperture (large aperture diameter compared to working distance) in order to obtain the highest possible resolution.===Speckle patterns===The speckle pattern seen when using a laser pointer is another diffraction phenomenon.", "It is a result of the superposition of many waves with different phases, which are produced when a laser beam illuminates a rough surface.", "They add together to give a resultant wave whose amplitude, and therefore intensity, varies randomly.===Babinet's principle===Babinet's principle is a useful theorem stating that the diffraction pattern from an opaque body is identical to that from a hole of the same size and shape, but with differing intensities.", "This means that the interference conditions of a single obstruction would be the same as that of a single slit.===\"\"===The '''knife-edge effect''' or '''knife-edge diffraction''' is a truncation of a portion of the incident radiation that strikes a sharp well-defined obstacle, such as a mountain range or the wall of a building.The knife-edge effect is explained by the Huygens–Fresnel principle, which states that a well-defined obstruction to an electromagnetic wave acts as a secondary source, and creates a new wavefront.", "This new wavefront propagates into the geometric shadow area of the obstacle.Knife-edge diffraction is an outgrowth of the \"half-plane problem\", originally solved by Arnold Sommerfeld using a plane wave spectrum formulation.", "A generalization of the half-plane problem is the \"wedge problem\", solvable as a boundary value problem in cylindrical coordinates.", "The solution in cylindrical coordinates was then extended to the optical regime by Joseph B. Keller, who introduced the notion of diffraction coefficients through his geometrical theory of diffraction (GTD).", "Pathak and Kouyoumjian extended the (singular) Keller coefficients via the uniform theory of diffraction (UTD).File:Diffraction sharp edge.gif|Diffraction on a sharp metallic edgeFile:Diffraction softest edge.gif|Diffraction on a soft aperture, with a gradient of conductivity over the image width" ], [ "Patterns", "The upper half of this image shows a diffraction pattern of He-Ne laser beam on an elliptic aperture.", "The lower half is its 2D Fourier transform approximately reconstructing the shape of the aperture.Several qualitative observations can be made of diffraction in general:* The angular spacing of the features in the diffraction pattern is inversely proportional to the dimensions of the object causing the diffraction.", "In other words: The smaller the diffracting object, the 'wider' the resulting diffraction pattern, and vice versa.", "(More precisely, this is true of the sines of the angles.", ")* The diffraction angles are invariant under scaling; that is, they depend only on the ratio of the wavelength to the size of the diffracting object.", "* When the diffracting object has a periodic structure, for example in a diffraction grating, the features generally become sharper.", "The third figure, for example, shows a comparison of a double-slit pattern with a pattern formed by five slits, both sets of slits having the same spacing, between the center of one slit and the next." ], [ "Matter wave diffraction", "According to quantum theory every particle exhibits wave properties and can therefore diffract.", "Diffraction of electrons and neutrons is one of the powerful arguments in favor of quantum mechanics.", "The wavelength associated with a particle is the de Broglie wavelengthwhere is Planck's constant and is the momentum of the particle (mass × velocity for slow-moving particles).", "For example, a sodium atom traveling at about 300 m/s would have a de Broglie wavelength of about 50 picometres.", "Diffraction of matter waves has been observed for small particles, like electrons, neutrons, atoms, and even large molecules.", "The short wavelength of these matter waves makes them ideally suited to study the atomic crystal structure of solids, small molecules and proteins." ], [ "Bragg diffraction", "Following Bragg's law, each dot (or ''reflection'') in this diffraction pattern forms from the constructive interference of X-rays passing through a crystal.", "The data can be used to determine the crystal's atomic structure.Diffraction from a large three-dimensional periodic structure such as many thousands of atoms in a crystal is called Bragg diffraction.It is similar to what occurs when waves are scattered from a diffraction grating.", "Bragg diffraction is a consequence of interference between waves reflecting from many different crystal planes.The condition of constructive interference is given by ''Bragg's law'':where is the wavelength, is the distance between crystal planes, is the angle of the diffracted wave, and is an integer known as the ''order'' of the diffracted beam.Bragg diffraction may be carried out using either electromagnetic radiation of very short wavelength like X-rays or matter waves like neutrons (and electrons) whose wavelength is on the order of (or much smaller than) the atomic spacing.", "The pattern produced gives information of the separations of crystallographic planes , allowing one to deduce the crystal structure.For completeness, Bragg diffraction is a limit for a large number of atoms with X-rays or neutrons, and is rarely valid for electron diffraction or with solid particles in the size range of less than 50 nanometers." ], [ "Coherence", "The description of diffraction relies on the interference of waves emanating from the same source taking different paths to the same point on a screen.", "In this description, the difference in phase between waves that took different paths is only dependent on the effective path length.", "This does not take into account the fact that waves that arrive at the screen at the same time were emitted by the source at different times.", "The initial phase with which the source emits waves can change over time in an unpredictable way.", "This means that waves emitted by the source at times that are too far apart can no longer form a constant interference pattern since the relation between their phases is no longer time independent.The length over which the phase in a beam of light is correlated is called the coherence length.", "In order for interference to occur, the path length difference must be smaller than the coherence length.", "This is sometimes referred to as spectral coherence, as it is related to the presence of different frequency components in the wave.", "In the case of light emitted by an atomic transition, the coherence length is related to the lifetime of the excited state from which the atom made its transition.If waves are emitted from an extended source, this can lead to incoherence in the transversal direction.", "When looking at a cross section of a beam of light, the length over which the phase is correlated is called the transverse coherence length.", "In the case of Young's double-slit experiment, this would mean that if the transverse coherence length is smaller than the spacing between the two slits, the resulting pattern on a screen would look like two single-slit diffraction patterns.In the case of particles like electrons, neutrons, and atoms, the coherence length is related to the spatial extent of the wave function that describes the particle." ], [ "Applications", "=== Diffraction before destruction ===A new way to image single biological particles has emerged since the 2010s, utilising the bright X-rays generated by X-ray free-electron lasers.", "These femtosecond-duration pulses will allow for the (potential) imaging of single biological macromolecules.", "Due to these short pulses, radiation damage can be outrun, and diffraction patterns of single biological macromolecules will be able to be obtained." ], [ "See also", "* Angle-sensitive pixel* Atmospheric diffraction* Brocken spectre* Cloud iridescence* Coherent diffraction imaging* Diffraction from slits* Diffraction spike* Diffraction vs. interference* Diffractive solar sail* Diffractometer* Dynamical theory of diffraction* Electron diffraction* Fraunhofer diffraction* Fresnel imager* Fresnel number* Fresnel zone* Point spread function* Powder diffraction* Quasioptics* Refraction* Reflection* Schaefer–Bergmann diffraction* Thinned-array curse* X-ray scattering techniques" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol.", "I Ch.", "30: Diffraction* * Using a cd as a diffraction grating at YouTube" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Stephen Donaldson (activist)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Stephen Donaldson''' (July 27, 1946 – July 18, 1996), born '''Robert Anthony Martin Jr.''' and also known by the pseudonym '''Donny the Punk''', was an American bisexual rights activist, and political activist.", "He is best known for his pioneering activism in LGBT rights and prison reform, and for his writing about punk rock and subculture.He coined the term 'protective pairing'." ], [ "Childhood and adolescence (1946–1965)", "The son of a career naval officer, Donaldson spent his early childhood in different seaport cities in the eastern United States and in Germany.", "Donaldson later described his father Robert, the son of Italian and German immigrants, as a man who \"frowned on display of emotion\" and his mother Lois as \"an English, Scottish Texan, artistic, free-spirited, emotional, impulsive.\"", "After his parents' divorce in 1953, when he was seven years old, Donaldson's mother suffered from acute porphyria (a rare genetic disease), and his father gained custody of Robert and his two brothers.", "His father remarried several years later.", "At age 12, Donaldson was expelled from Boy Scouts for engaging in sexual behavior with other boys (who, as recipients, were not punished).", "\"The disgrace triggered a family crisis, resolved by sending the boy to live in Germany, where he could be watched over by his stepmother's relatives.\"", "He attended a military boarding school and continued homosexual activity, hiding it from adults.In April 1962, at the age of fifteen, Donny returned to the United States to live with his grandparents in West Long Branch, New Jersey.", "In high school he was the news editor of the school paper, an actor, and a student government officer.", "He achieved a perfect score on the SAT and graduated as valedictorian.", "He also became active in politics as a libertarian conservative, supporting Barry Goldwater for president\" and \"considered joining the Young Americans for Freedom but was so uptight that he first checked with J. Edgar Hoover by letter to inquire whether the YAF was \"a communist organization, communist subverted, or in danger of becoming either\".", "Hoover sent back a reply ''\"praising his concern about communism and then opened an FBI file on the boy\"''.", "(Years later, Donaldson received a copy of his FBI file through the Freedom of Information Act.", ")Donaldson later wrote about his developing sexual identity:In 1965, Donaldson went to Florida to spend the summer with his mother.", "\"When Lois discovered young Robert was having an affair with a Cuban man, she decided to punish her son by outing him in letters to her ex-husband and to Columbia University, which Donaldson had planned to attend in the fall.\"", "Donaldson moved to New York, where, he later wrote, \"The gays of New York welcomed me enthusiastically, offered hospitality, and 'brought me out' as a 'butch' homosexual (in contrast to the \"queens\").", "Among the Mattachine Society members he met were Frank Kameny and Dick Leitsch." ], [ "College years (1965–1970)", "===Founding of Student Homophile League=======Motivation====In August 1965, Donaldson \"had a social worker call the dean's office to ask whether Columbia would register a known homosexual.\"", "After a delay of two weeks, the administration responded that he \"would be allowed to register, on condition that he undergo psychotherapy and not attempt to seduce other students.", "\"He entered Columbia University that fall and began using the pseudonym Stephen Donaldson so he could be open about his sexuality without embarrassing his father.", "They both were named Robert Martin, and his father taught mathematics at Rider College in New Jersey.", "The surname was based on the first name, \"Donald\", of the baseball teammate who was his first love.", "His first year of college was difficult: he met no other bisexual students or faculty and had to move from a shared suite to a single room when his suitemates \"told the college dean David Truman that they felt uncomfortable living with a homosexual.\"", "Apparently ambivalent, they offered Donaldson \"great apologies and said they realized they shouldn't feel\" unwilling to live with him.In the summer of 1966, Donaldson began a relationship with gay activist Frank Kameny, who had a great influence on him.", "Donaldson later wrote:In August, Kameny took Donaldson to Cherry Grove on Fire Island, where he \"was thrilled to meet another gay Columbia student James Millham and to learn that Millham lived with his lover, a New York University student, in one of Columbia's dormitories.", "\"====Struggle with Columbia for charter====That fall, Donaldson suggested to Millham \"that they form a Mattachine-like organization on campus, what he envisioned as 'the first chapter of a spreading confederation of student homophile groups.'\"", "At first, Donaldson was unable to gain official recognition for the Student Homophile League (SHL) ''(now called the Columbia Queer Alliance),'' as Columbia required a membership list.", "Donaldson and Millham were the only gay students willing to provide their names.", "This prevented the group from receiving university funding or holding public events on campus until Donaldson realized that by \"recruiting the most prominent student leaders to become ''pro forma'' members, he could satisfy the administration without compromising the anonymity of gay students, and Columbia officially chartered the country's first student gay rights group on April 19, 1967,\" and subsequently the first known LGBT student movement.====Publicity and controversy====On April 27, an article about the organization appeared in the student paper, the ''Columbia Spectator'', which students \"seemed to think ... was some sort of April Fool hoax.\"", "It soon became clear that it was not.", "''The Spectator'' ran an editorial praising the chartering of the group and printed letters from students attacking and defending the decision.", "At this point, there was no apparent opposition from Columbia faculty or staff.", "The fledgling group was advised by the university chaplain, the Rev.", "John D. Cannon, who gave permission for them to hold meetings in his office and later let Donaldson hold office hours there.Despite having \"assured the administration that publicity would be kept to a minimum,\" Donaldson \"launched an aggressive public information campaign about SHL and homosexuality\", making sure it was covered on Columbia radio station WKCR, where he was a staff member.", "He also sent out \"at least three press releases to several large newspapers, wire services, and magazines with national and international distribution.\"", "The group received little coverage until gay rights supporter Murray Schumach saw the ''Spectator'' piece and wrote an article, headlined \"Columbia Charters Homosexual Group\", which appeared on the front page of ''The New York Times'' on May 3, 1967:The article also quoted Dr. Harold E. Love, the chairman of Columbia's Committee on Student Organizations, who said there was no reason to deny the request once they had determined it was a \"bona fide student organization.\"", "The article noted that \"funds were said to have been supplied for the organization by some Columbia alumni who were reported to have learned about it from advertisements in magazines for homosexuals\" and that Donaldson said that the group \"maintains liaison\" with, but is not controlled by, outside homosexual groups.", "The alumnus supporter was Foster Gunnison Jr., a founding member of the North American Conference of Homophile Organizations, with whom Donaldson had strategized about getting the organization approved.", "Gunnison \"sent the administration a letter of support and made a cash contribution\".Historian David Eisenbach argued in ''Gay Power: An American Revolution'' that \"much of the SHL's influence grew out of the media attention it attracted....", "Within a week of the ''New York Times'' story, media outlets across the country had homed in, with coverage ranging from favorable to neutral to ''The Gainesville Sun'''s 'Student Group Seeks Rights for Deviants.", "'\".As a result of the publicity, there were \"sharp verbal clashes\" between Columbia officials and the SHL.", "Brett Beemyn wrote about the backlash:A surprising source of opposition to Donaldson and the SHL was the Mattachine Society of New York (MSNY), whose president Dick Leitsch \"resented the media attention that SHL had generated\".", "With the unanimous support of the board, Leitsch contacted \"Frank Hogan, the Manhattan District Attorney and a Member of the Columbia Board of Trustees to advise him on how to undermine SHL.\"", "In a letter to Hogan, Leitsch wrote:Donaldson was defended by homophile leaders Barbara Gittings, Frank Kameny, and Forest Gunnison.====Subsequent chapters and organizations====The publicity also led students at other universities to contact Donaldson about starting chapters.", "In 1968, Donaldson certified SHL chapters at Cornell University, led by Jearld Moldenhauer and advised by radical priest Daniel Berrigan; New York University, headed by Rita Mae Brown; and Stanford University.", "In 1969, chapters were started at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology by Stan Tillotson, San Francisco State University, and Rutgers University by African American Lionel Cuffie.", "The University of Massachusetts Amherst gained a chapter in 1970.Other early campus gay groups outside the SHL network included the Boston University Homophile Committee, Fight Repression of Erotic Expression (FREE) at the University of Minnesota, and Homosexuals Intransigent at the City College of New York.Donaldson was \"heavily involved throughout the rest of the 1960s not only as national leader of the Student Homophile League but also as an elected officer of the North American Conference of Homophile Organizations (NACHO) and of its Eastern Regional subsidiary\".", "By 1971, there were an estimated 150 gay student groups at colleges and universities \"often with official sanction and with remarkable acceptance from fellow students\".===Writing career===Donaldson began his writing career in college by working summers as a reporter for the Associated Press and ''The Virginian-Pilot'' and writing a regular column for the New York newsmagazine ''Gay Power'' and occasional reports for ''The Advocate''.He also worked summers as a legislative intern in the offices of U.S.", "Representatives Howard H. Callaway (Republican, Georgia) and Donald E. Lukens (Republican, Ohio).", "Frank Kameny arranged his first internship, which was in the summer of 1966.In New York, Donaldson funded \"his education by working as a hustler, first at the infamous intersection of Fifty-third Street and Third Avenue, then as a call boy through a house.", "He claimed to have serviced several famous clients, including Rock Hudson and Roy Cohn.", "\"===Other countercultural activity===While at Columbia, Donaldson \"experimented with cannabis and LSD\" and described himself as \"ordained in the psychedelic church,\" going on to guide first-time LSD users.", "He wrote that he became a liberal in 1967 in response to the Kerner Report on racism towards blacks in the United States and went on to become a \"full-fledged hippy-valued radical.\"", "He was arrested twice for participating in anti-war protests at Columbia, including a \"liberation\" of Columbia president Grayson Kirk's office, spending an uneventful night in jail in 1968.===Discomfort with gay liberation movement===In 1966, Donaldson fell in love with a woman, Judith \"JD Rabbit\" Jones (whom he later considered his \"lifetime companion\") and began to identify as bisexual.", "His \"growing feeling of discomfort with biphobia in the homophile/gay liberation movement was a major factor\" in his deciding to quit the movement and enlist in the Navy after graduating with highest honours from Columbia in 1970." ], [ "Military experience (1970–1972)", "Robert Martin's (Stephen Donaldson's) military portrait, medals, and insigniaDonaldson had a longstanding desire to join the Navy, even buying a sailor's uniform during college, in which he cruised the city and pretended to be a serviceman on a visit to a naval base in Pensacola, Florida, and maintained a \"lifelong identification with sailors and seafaring.\"", "After graduating from Columbia in 1970, he enlisted and served as a radioman at a NATO base in Italy with an unblemished record until \"he wrote to a former shipmate, Terry Fountain, about his latest sexual adventures with both women and men at his current home port of Naples, Italy\".", "After Fountain left the letter unattended on his desk, someone turned it over to the Naval Investigative Service, which allegedly coerced Fountain into signing a statement that he had sex with Donaldson, which Fountain later recanted.", "In 1971, \"the Navy announced its intention to release Donaldson by General Discharge on grounds of suspected homosexual involvement.\"", "As Randy Shilts wrote in Conduct Unbecoming: Gays and Lesbians in the US Military:These supporters included six congressional representatives, including New York's Bella Abzug (who called his case a \"witch-hunt\") and Edward Koch; senators Richard Schweiker of Pennsylvania and Sam Ervin of North Carolina; the president of the American Psychiatric Association (APA), Judd Marmor (who had been \"influential in having homosexuality removed from the APA's official list of clinical disorders\"); Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Elmo R. Zumwalt Jr.; and the American Civil Liberties Union, which provided a staff attorney to represent him.Despite the support, he received a general discharge in 1972.Donaldson continued to fight, and, in 1977, his discharge was upgraded to \"honorable\" as part of \"President Carter's sweeping amnesty program for Vietnam-era draft evaders, deserters, and service members\", at which time:According to Eisenbach:" ], [ "Bisexual activism (1972–1977)", "Donaldson later summarized his military experience and the subsequent transition in his life:Donaldson wrote about his experience at the conference later that summer:This group adopted by consensus the \"Ithaca Statement on Bisexuality\".After a series of meetings, the Committee of Friends on Bisexuality was formed, with Donaldson (using the name Bob Martin) as its chair until he left the Quakers in 1977.Donaldson was involved in the New York bisexual movement in the mid-1970s, for example appearing in 1974 on a New York Gay Activists Alliance panel with Kate Millet.", "Donaldson propounded the belief that ultimately bisexuality would be perceived as much more threatening to the prevailing sexual order than homosexuality, because it potentially subverted everyone's identity (the idea that everyone is potentially bisexual was widespread) and could not, unlike exclusive homosexuality, be confined to a segregated, stigmatized and therefore manageable ghetto.He and bisexual activist Brenda Howard and gay activist L. Craig Schoonmaker are credited with popularizing the word \"Pride\" to describe LGBT Pride celebrations that are now held around the world every June." ], [ "Washington jail experiences and aftermath (1973)", "===Demonstrations and incarcerations===After being discharged from the Navy in 1972, Donaldson moved to Washington, D.C., where he \"worked as Pentagon correspondent for the ''Overseas Weekly'', a privately owned newspaper distributed to American servicemen stationed in Europe\".", "Donaldson considered himself a Quaker and took part in the Langley Hill Monthly Meeting, where he was part of a group influenced by \"a series of pray-ins at the White House sponsored by the Community for Creative Non-Violence (CCNV)\" who felt a call to \"hold a memorial meeting for worship at the White House to commemorate the nuclear bombing of Nagasaki on its 28th anniversary and for the victims of all wars and violence\" on August 9, 1973.The protesters (referred to as the \"White House Seven\") were arrested for unlawful entry and released on bail except for Donaldson, who refused and spent the night in the D.C. jail before being released by a judge the next morning.", "On August 14 Donaldson was one of 66 demonstrators (including Daniel Berrigan) who took part in a CCNV-sponsored pray-in at the White House protesting the bombing of Cambodia, where he was again arrested.", "Donaldson again refused to post bail.", "In a 1974 account under the pseudonym Donald Tucker, he explained:Liddy wrote in his autobiography that he heard that Donaldson worked for ''The Washington Post'', suspected him of being in prison \"to try to steal a march(''?'')\"", "on Woodward and Bernstein by getting a first hand story\", and expressed the wish that he be transferred elsewhere.However, Donaldson himself in \"The Punk Who Wouldn't Shut Up\", states that guard captain Clinton Cobb had him moved to the most dangerous cell-block in the prison and his subsequent rapes arranged as he believed him to be writing a piece on prison corruption for ''The Washington Post''.", "On signing in, he had naively and honestly listed his profession as 'Journalist'.That night, Donaldson was lured into a cell by a prisoner who claimed that he and his friends wanted to 'discuss pacifism' with him in their cells.", "He was then anally and orally raped dozens of times by an estimated 45 male inmates.", "He suffered additional abuse a second night before he escaped from his tormentors (two of whom were pimping him to the others for cigarettes) and collapsed, sobbing, at the cell block gate where guards retrieved him.", "After a midnight examination at D.C. General Hospital (during which he remained handcuffed) he was returned to the jail hospital, untreated either for physical injury or emotional trauma.Donaldson later claimed that the guards told him he'd been deliberately set up by Captain Cobb.", "The following morning, Lucy Witt posted his bond and took him to a doctor.===Publicity and hearings===On August 24 the next day, Donaldson held a press conference, becoming the first male prison-rape survivor to publicly recount his experiences; this resulted in \"massive and prolonged\" publicity (under his legal name, Robert Martin).", "All three Washington newspapers carried lengthy stories; newspapers from Hartford to Miami picked it up from wire services, and all three network-affiliated TV stations carried filmed interviews.One television station and one newspaper carried editorials.", "Under the headline \"Nightmares at D.C.", "Jail,\" the ''Star-News'' wrote: \"....It is particularly ironic that the victim of this latest nightmare chose to go to the jail rather than post collateral because he 'wanted to understand at an experience level what the prison system is all about.'", "He survived the lesson but only just.", "And being a man of uncommon understanding, he may also survive its after-effects.", "\"On August 28 Donaldson met with attorney William Schaffer, who agreed to represent him in a possible civil suit against the D.C. Department of Corrections with the goal of pressuring officials to make major improvements to the jail system.", "Donaldson wrote the following year about this \"time of agony\":After deliberations with the Langley Hill Meeting, Donaldson decided on October 20 not to file a civil suit and not to cooperate with the grand jury inquiry into a criminal suit against his attackers.===Trial outcomes===Donaldson and the rest of the White House Seven defended themselves against the August 9 charge of illegal entry; they were found guilty and sentenced on September 26 to \"the choice of $25 or five days in jail or a one-year unsupervised probation conditional on a promise not to violate any local, state or federal law during that period\".", "Donaldson rejected the probation outright.", "\"I cannot promise to abide by all the laws of the United States\", he said, \"because if there is an unjust law that has to be broken to further divine purposes, I will break it\".At first Donaldson chose to go to jail rather than pay the fine, which he viewed as cooperating with the government.", "He changed his mind after finding out he would be returned to the same jail in Washington, D.C.", "He regretfully said: \"My conscience tells me I should have gone (to jail), but I was shaking all over.", "It was obvious I just couldn't go through it again.", "I couldn't go back.", "\"As for the August 14 charge which led to his traumatic imprisonment, Donaldson refused to plead (unlike most of those arrested, who pleaded no contest) and went to trial alone on September 28.Representing himself, Donaldson testified on legal, moral and religious issues (including an explanation of ''karma'' and of silent meditation).", "When the jury returned a not guilty verdict on October 1, there was much rejoicing in the small courtroom.===Effect on Donaldson===The injuries to Donaldson's rectum were so severe that they required surgery, and he had to spend a week in the Washington D.C. Veterans' Hospital.", "He later said: \"The government sewed up the tears in my rectum which the government occasioned.", "\"In a 1974 account in the ''Friends Journal'', Donaldson asked:In 1982, Donaldson wrote about his lack of success in getting needed psychological counseling after the rapes:Donaldson wrote that he was aided in his sexual recovery by an understanding woman who helped him regain his confidence.", "After a year and a half, he returned to his prior level of sexual activity.", "In 1975, \"the suppressed emotions began to rise to the level of consciousness, primarily in the form of anger, aggression, and a vigorous reassertion of his own masculinity,\" leading him to join a male consciousness raising group and then, in 1976, to pursue \"individual Gestalt therapy (not being able to afford anything else) with a lay therapist.", "\"From 1974-77 Donaldson did graduate work in religion at Columbia University, and served as Chairman of the Student Governing Board of the Earl Hall Center for Religion and Life.", "In May 1976 he was ordained as a novice monk in the orthodox (Theravada) Buddhist Order.", "During the late-1970s Donaldson worked intermittently as a developer of war simulation games for SPI in New York and immersed himself in New York's punk rock subculture, centered on the CBGB nightclub in downtown Manhattan.", "Several personal tragedies, including the 1976 suicide of his mother, contributed to bouts of psychological depression." ], [ "Subsequent arrests and incarcerations (1976–1990)", "===Acceptance of \"punk\" role (1976)===While traveling to Florida for his mother's funeral in late 1976, Donaldson was arrested after urinating in a motel parking lot, then was charged with possession after the police searched his hotel room and found cannabis.", "He was placed in a small cell block with four white and eight black prisoners, most of them Marines from a nearby base, who demanded sexual services.", "Donaldson later wrote:Donaldson was pleasantly surprised that they treated him not with the contempt he expected but with genuine warmth and affection.", "Grateful for their kindness and protection, Donaldson decided to embrace his role as \"punk\" and do his best to keep his men happy.After the black prisoners fought the white Marines over him, Donaldson was placed in solitary confinement, where he remained until his bail was posted.", "Donaldson was defended against the possession charge by the chief counsel of the state chapter of the American Civil Liberties Union.", "The case was thrown out due to unconstitutional police behavior.===Adoption of jailhouse attitudes (1977)===In the spring of 1977, Donaldson became depressed enough to cut his wrist and arranged to get himself arrested for sale of LSD in Norfolk, Virginia, with the hope, he later wrote, \"to find myself being wanted and needed, to find the warm security I had experienced with the marines in the county jail.\"", "Donaldson was placed in the city jail, where he was gang-raped nightly until the guards were alerted and he was put in solitary confinement for his protection (to which Donaldson vigorously objected, believing the loss of rights and privileges unfair).", "After being released into a cell with blacks (who had allegedly paid $5 to receive him), Donaldson was again raped and \"paralyzed with terror, the emotions of D.C.", "Jail overwhelming him\", he fought his assailant, for which he was returned to solitary.", "After being released into a white cell, he was greeted: \"Why, it's Donny the Punk!", "\", giving him his nickname.Donaldson experienced another mental shift:Donaldson was eventually claimed by a cellmate, Terry, who treated him with kindness.", "The two had a cell to themselves when a frightened newcomer was moved in and, with Terry's consent, Donaldson decided to emotionally manipulate the newcomer into becoming his own punk.", "Donaldson wrote:After several months, Donaldson's case was dropped by the prosecution after the arresting officer's suicide.", "Donaldson wrote:===The darkness on the edge of society (1980–1984)===Stephen Donaldson, July 1984Donaldson continued to suffer from depression, insomnia, and panic attacks in the late 1970s, and attempted suicide in 1977, the year after the suicide of his mother Lois Vaugahn.", "In 1980, Donaldson \"hit rock bottom\" and committed a semi-deranged incident at a Veterans' Hospital in the Bronx.", "Having been denied treatment after a half-day wait and asked to come back the following day, Donaldson returned with a gun and fired it through a window.", "During the subsequent trial, Donaldson heavily criticized the United States Government's policies.", "The judge ultimately found him guilty.Although nobody was hurt, Donaldson was convicted of assault with intent to commit murder and sentenced to ten years in federal prison.", "He was guilty of counts 1–6, \"Unlawfully, willfully and knowingly within the special maritime and territorial jurisdiction of the United States did seize, confine, inveigle, decoy, kidnap and abduct and hold for ransom and reward and otherwise a person and did commit assault with intent to commit murder, in that while at a Hospital\".In a 1982 essay written from jail, Donaldson described the event:Less than a year into his term, Donaldson had been \"raped once, assaulted once, and claimed by five different men\" in jail and was fearing his upcoming transfer to his first maximum security prison, where he went on to spend over a year in protective custody, which he described as \"a solitary retreat\" in a letter to Bo Lozoff.", "Lozoff was leader of the Prison-Ashram Project, which encourages convicts to use their prisons as ashrams (religious retreats) for spiritual growth.", "In their correspondence, Donaldson expressed his desire to help other survivors but lamented that:Donaldson was released on parole in April 1984 and returned to New York City.", "During the 1980s-90s, Donaldson volunteered as a counselor to male victims of sexual assault, and spoke out publicly in a wide variety of forums on the issue of prisoner rape.", "In 1987-88 he visited India for religious study and was there initiated in the Veerashaiva tradition of Shaivite Hinduism.", "This trip constituted a parole violation, and resulted in another term in federal prison during 1990.In 1992 Donaldson visited Europe to meet punk rock musicians and fans and to lecture on the American punk scene.", "Throughout this period he advanced his career as an editor and writer.", "His short essays on such topics as punk rock, prison conditions, Buddhism and sexuality appeared in numerous magazines and underground publications." ], [ "Stop Prisoner Rape", "Through Bo Lozoff, Donaldson met Tom Cahill, whose correspondence with Lozoff also appeared in ''We're All Doing Time''.", "Cahill was \"an Air Force veteran turned peace activist when he was jailed for civil disobedience in San Antonio, Texas in 1968.For the first twenty-four hours, he was beaten, gang-raped and otherwise tortured\", allegedly as part of the Federal Bureau of Investigation's Counter Intelligence Program (COINTELPRO) due to Cahill's anti-Vietnam War activity.Around 1983, Cahill resurrected the defunct organization \"People Organized to Stop Rape of Imprisoned Persons\" (POSRIP), which had been founded in 1980 by Russell Smith.", "In 2004, Cahill recollected:Donaldson became president of Stop Prisoner Rape, Inc. (SPR), which he and Cahill incorporated in the mid-1990s from POSRIP.", "The organization (since 2008 known as Just Detention International) helps prisoners deal with the psychological and physical trauma of rape, and works to prevent rape from happening.", "Donaldson was perhaps the first activist against male rape in the United States to gain significant media attention.", "Writing on behalf of SPR, he appeared on the Op-Ed page of ''The New York Times'', as well as in other major media.", "He testified on behalf of the American Civil Liberties Union in its case ''ACLU et al.", "v. Reno'', which went to the U.S. Supreme Court." ], [ "Activism and writing", "As \"Donny the Punk\", Donaldson was already a respected writer and personality in the punk and anti-racist skinhead subcultures.", "He had published in punk zines such as ''Maximumrocknroll'', ''Flipside'' and ''J.D.s''.", "In the mid-1980s, Donny was the chief organizer of The Alternative Press & Radio Council (APRC), which brought together members of the punk community (such as fanzine editors and college radio DJs) from New York City, New Jersey, and Connecticut.", "This co-operative group met on Sundays before the weekly CBGB Sunday hardcore matinees and organized several benefit concerts.", "The group published a newsletter, and released a compilation LP on Mystic Records in 1986, which was entitled ''Mutiny On The Bowery.''", "The compilation featured live recordings from the group's benefit concerts.", "Among other active members of the APRC were WFMU-FM DJ Pat Duncan, ''Maximumrocknroll'' columnist Mykel Board and ''Jersey Beat'' editor Jim Testa.Donaldson was associate editor of the ''Encyclopedia of Homosexuality'' (Garland Publishing, 1990).", "He was editor-in-chief of a concise edition of the encyclopedia, which remains unpublished." ], [ "Legacy and honors", "Donaldson died of a bronchial infection in 1996 at the age of 49.He was HIV-positive at the time.After Donaldson's death, the Columbia Queer Alliance renamed its student lounge in his honor.", "SPR continued to work for prisoners' rights.", "It contributed to gaining the passage of the first US law against rape in prison Prison Rape Elimination Act of 2003.The issue of rape and prisoners' rights continues to receive national and state attention." ], [ "See also", "*Sexual orientation and the United States military*T. J. Parsell" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "External links", "* Stop Prisoner Rape, Inc. is now Just Detention International* Writings by and about Stephen Donaldson at Just Detention International website (previously SPR.org)* Stephen Donaldson papers at the New York Public Library* (pdf)*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dolmen" ], [ "Introduction", "Poulnabrone dolmen, the Burren, County Clare, IrelandAmadalavalasa, Andhra Pradesh, IndiaA '''dolmen''' () or '''portal tomb''' is a type of single-chamber megalithic tomb, usually consisting of two or more upright megaliths supporting a large flat horizontal capstone or \"table\".", "Most date from the Late Neolithic period (40003000 BCE) and were sometimes covered with earth or smaller stones to form a tumulus (burial mound).", "Small pad-stones may be wedged between the cap and supporting stones to achieve a level appearance.", "In many instances, the covering has eroded away, leaving only the stone \"skeleton\"." ], [ "Etymology", "===Celtic (dolmen, cromlech, etc.", ")===The word ''dolmen'' entered archaeology when Théophile Corret de la Tour d'Auvergne used it to describe megalithic tombs in his (1796) using the spelling ''dolmin'' (the current spelling was introduced about a decade later and had become standard in French by about 1885).", "The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' does not mention ''dolmin'' in English and gives its first citation for ''dolmen'' from a book on Brittany in 1859, describing the word as \"The French term, used by some English authors, for a cromlech ...\".", "The name was supposedly derived from a Breton language term meaning 'stone table' but doubt has been cast on this, and the ''OED'' describes its origin as \"Modern French\".", "A book on Cornish antiquities from 1754 said that the current term in the Cornish language for a cromlech was ('hole of stone') and the OED says that \"There is reason to think that this was the term inexactly reproduced by Latour d'Auvergne sic as ''dolmen'', and misapplied by him and succeeding French archaeologists to the ''cromlech''\".", "Nonetheless it has now replaced ''cromlech'' as the usual English term in archaeology, when the more technical and descriptive alternatives are not used.", "The later Cornish term was ''quoit'' – an English-language word for an object with a hole through the middle preserving the original Cornish language term of – the name of another dolmen-like monument is in fact Mên-an-Tol 'stone with hole' (Standard Written Form: ''Men An Toll''.", ")In Irish Gaelic they are called .===Germanic (Hünengrab, dysse, etc.", ")===Dolmens are known by a variety of names in other languages, including Galician and , , , Afrikaans and , , Abkhaz: , Adyghe: Danish and , , , and .", "''Granja'' is used in Portugal, Galicia, and some parts of Spain.", "The rarer forms ''anta'' and ''ganda'' also appear.", "In Catalan-speaking areas, they are known simply as , but also by a variety of folk names, including ('cave'), ('crate' or 'coffin'), ('table'), ('chest'), ('hut'), ('hut'), ('slab'), ('pallet slab'), ('rock') or ('stone'), usually combined with a second part such as ('of the Arab'), ('of the Moor/s'), ('of the thief'), ('of the devil'), ('of Roland'),.", "In the Basque Country, they are attributed to the ''jentilak'', a race of giants.The etymology of the and – with ''/'' meaning 'giant' – all evoke the image of giants buried (// = 'bed/grave') there.", "Of other Celtic languages, Welsh was borrowed into English and ''quoit'' is commonly used in English in Cornwall." ], [ "Western Europe", "===Origin and purpose===It remains unclear when, why and by whom the earliest dolmens were made.", "The oldest known are found in Western Europe, dating from c. 7,000 years ago.", "Archaeologists still do not know who erected these dolmens, which makes it difficult to know why they did it.", "They are generally all regarded as tombs or burial chambers, despite the absence of clear evidence for this.", "Human remains, sometimes accompanied by artefacts, have been found in or close to the dolmens which could be scientifically dated using radiocarbon dating.", "However, it has been impossible to prove that these remains date from the time when the stones were originally set in place." ], [ "Middle East", "Dolmens can be found in the Levant, some along the Jordan Rift Valley (Upper Galilee in Israel, the Golan Heights, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, and southeast Turkey.", "Dolmens in the Levant belong to a different, unrelated tradition to that of Europe, although they are often treated \"as part of a trans-regional phenomenon that spanned the Taurus mountains to the Arabian peninsula.\"", "In the Levant, they are of Early Bronze rather than Late Neolithical age.", "They are mostly found along the Jordan Rift Valley's eastern escarpment, and in the hills of the Galilee, in clusters near Early Bronze I proto-urban settlements (3700–3000 BCE), additionally restricted by geology to areas allowing the quarrying of slabs of megalithic size.", "In the Levant, geological constraints led to a local burial tradition with a variety of tomb forms, dolmens being one of them." ], [ "Korea", "Dolmen at Ganghwa Island, South KoreaDolmens were built in Korea from the Bronze Age to the early Iron Age, with about 40,000 to be found throughout the peninsula.", "In 2000, the dolmen groups of Jukrim-ri and Dosan-ri in Gochang, Hyosan-ri and Daesin-ri in Hwasun, and Bujeong-ri, Samgeori and Osang-ri in Ganghwa gained World Cultural Heritage status.", "(See Gochang, Hwasun and Ganghwa Dolmen Sites.", ")They are mainly distributed along the West Sea coastal area and on large rivers from the Liaoning region of China (the Liaodong Peninsula) to Jeollanam-do.", "In North Korea, they are concentrated around the Taedong and Jaeryeong Rivers.", "In South Korea, they are found in dense concentrations in river basins, such as the Han and Nakdong Rivers, and in the west coast area (Boryeong in South Chungcheong Province, Buan in North Jeolla Province, and Jeollanam-do.", "They are mainly found on sedimentary plains, where they are grouped in rows parallel to the direction of the river or stream.", "Those found in hilly areas are grouped in the direction of the hill." ], [ "Types", "* * * * * File:Trethevy Quoit from the South - geograph.org.uk - 362250.jpg|Trethevy Quoit – one of the best-preserved in Cornwall, UK dated to around 3500–2500 BCEFile:Chûn Quoit (small).jpg|Chûn Quoit in Cornwall, UK, about 2400 BCEFile:Lanyon Quoit 05.jpg|Lanyon Quoit in Cornwall, UK, 3500–2500 BCEFile:MarayoorDolmen.JPG|A dolmen erected by Neolithic people in Marayur, Kerala, India.File:Muniyara.jpg|Dolmens of Marayoor, India.File:Example of a southern-style dolmen at Ganghwa Island.jpg|A southern-style dolmen at Ganghwa Island, South KoreaFile:Korea-Hwasun Dolmen sites03.jpg|The biggest dolmen near Hwasun, South KoreaFile:Dolmen Roch-Feutet.JPG|The dolmen Er-Roc'h-Feutet in Carnac, Brittany, FranceFile:Crucuno dolmen.jpg|Crucuno dolmen in Plouharnel, Brittany, FranceFile:KilclooneyDolmen1986.jpg|Kilclooney More dolmen near Ardara, County Donegal, IrelandFile:LG Dolmen1.JPG|Lancken-Granitz dolmen, GermanyFile:Hunebed-d27.jpg|T-shaped Hunebed D27 in Borger-Odoorn, NetherlandsFile:Antadaaboboreira.jpg|Dólmen da Aboboreira, Baião, PortugalFile:Dolmen di Avola.JPG|Dolmen of Avola, SicilyFile:Bisceglie dolmen della chianca 5.JPG|Dolmen of Bisceglie, ApuliaFile:12i dolmen di Montalbano.jpg|Dolmen of Fasano, ApuliaFile:Tinkinswood burial chamber (4787).jpg|Tinkinswood, Vale of Glamorgan, Wales, around 3000 BCEFile:Dolmen de Axeitos.jpg|Dolmen of Oleiros, GaliciaFile:Mores02.jpg|Dolmen Sa Coveccada, Mores, SardiniaFile:Dolmen Russia Kavkaz Jane 1.jpg|RussiaFile:Долмен Начови чаири.jpg|BulgariaFile:Dolmen-Keriaval.jpg|Keriaval Dolmen, Carnac, Brittany, France" ], [ "See also", "* Gochang, Hwasun and Ganghwa Dolmen Sites* Irish megalithic tombs* List of dolmens* List of megalithic sites* Megalithic art* Neolithic Europe* Nordic megalith architecture" ], [ "References", "=== Sources ===* Cooney, Gabriel.", "''Death in Irish prehistory''.", "Dublin: Royal Irish Academy, 2023.", "* * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* ." ], [ "External links", "* World heritage site of dolmen in Korea* Piccolo, Salvatore.", "\"Dolmen.\"", "World History Encyclopedia.", "* The Megalith Map* The Megalithic Portal and Megalith Map* on UNESCO's World Heritage List.", "* Jersey Heritage Trust* Dolmens of Russia* Dolmens.", "Part 2.How and for which purpose were they built?", "Hypotheses" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Declination" ], [ "Introduction", "In astronomy, '''declination''' (abbreviated '''dec'''; symbol '''''δ''''') is one of the two angles that locate a point on the celestial sphere in the equatorial coordinate system, the other being hour angle.", "The declination angle is measured north (positive) or south (negative) of the celestial equator, along the hour circle passing through the point in question.Right ascension and '''declination''' as seen on the inside of the celestial sphere.", "The primary direction of the system is the vernal equinox, the ascending node of the ecliptic (red) on the celestial equator (blue).", "Declination is measured northward or southward from the celestial equator, along the hour circle passing through the point in question.The root of the word ''declination'' (Latin, ''declinatio'') means \"a bending away\" or \"a bending down\".", "It comes from the same root as the words ''incline'' (\"bend forward\") and ''recline'' (\"bend backward\").In some 18th and 19th century astronomical texts, declination is given as ''North Pole Distance'' (N.P.D.", "), which is equivalent to 90 – (declination).", "For instance an object marked as declination −5 would have an N.P.D.", "of 95, and a declination of −90 (the south celestial pole) would have an N.P.D.", "of 180." ], [ "Explanation", "Declination in astronomy is comparable to geographic latitude, projected onto the celestial sphere, and right ascension is likewise comparable to longitude.Points north of the celestial equator have positive declinations, while those south have negative declinations.", "Any units of angular measure can be used for declination, but it is customarily measured in the degrees (°), minutes (′), and seconds (″) of sexagesimal measure, with 90° equivalent to a quarter circle.", "Declinations with magnitudes greater than 90° do not occur, because the poles are the northernmost and southernmost points of the celestial sphere.An object at the* celestial equator has a declination of 0°* north celestial pole has a declination of +90°* south celestial pole has a declination of −90°The sign is customarily included whether positive or negative." ], [ "Effects of precession", "Right ascension (blue) and '''declination''' (green) as seen from outside the celestial sphere.The Earth's axis rotates slowly westward about the poles of the ecliptic, completing one circuit in about 26,000 years.", "This effect, known as precession, causes the coordinates of stationary celestial objects to change continuously, if rather slowly.", "Therefore, equatorial coordinates (including declination) are inherently relative to the year of their observation, and astronomers specify them with reference to a particular year, known as an epoch.", "Coordinates from different epochs must be mathematically rotated to match each other, or to match a standard epoch.The currently used standard epoch is J2000.0, which is January 1, 2000 at 12:00 TT.", "The prefix \"J\" indicates that it is a Julian epoch.", "Prior to J2000.0, astronomers used the successive Besselian Epochs B1875.0, B1900.0, and B1950.0." ], [ "Stars", "A star's direction remains nearly fixed due to its vast distance, but its right ascension and declination do change gradually due to precession of the equinoxes and proper motion, and cyclically due to annual parallax.", "The declinations of Solar System objects change very rapidly compared to those of stars, due to orbital motion and close proximity.As seen from locations in the Earth's Northern Hemisphere, celestial objects with declinations greater than 90° −  (where = observer's latitude) appear to circle daily around the celestial pole without dipping below the horizon, and are therefore called circumpolar stars.", "This similarly occurs in the Southern Hemisphere for objects with declinations less (i.e.", "more negative) than −90° −  (where is always a negative number for southern latitudes).", "An extreme example is the pole star which has a declination near to +90°, so is circumpolar as seen from anywhere in the Northern Hemisphere except very close to the equator.Circumpolar stars never dip below the horizon.", "Conversely, there are other stars that never rise above the horizon, as seen from any given point on the Earth's surface (except extremely close to the equator.", "Upon flat terrain, the distance has to be within approximately 2 km, although this varies based upon the observer's altitude and surrounding terrain).", "Generally, if a star whose declination is is circumpolar for some observer (where is either positive or negative), then a star whose declination is − never rises above the horizon, as seen by the same observer.", "(This neglects the effect of atmospheric refraction.)", "Likewise, if a star is circumpolar for an observer at latitude , then it never rises above the horizon as seen by an observer at latitude −.Neglecting atmospheric refraction, for an observer at the equator, declination is always 0° at east and west points of the horizon.", "At the north point, it is 90° − , and at the south point, −90° + .", "From the poles, declination is uniform around the entire horizon, approximately 0°.+ '''Stars visible by latitude''''''Observer's latitude (°)''' '''Declination''''''of circumpolar stars (°)''''''of non-circumpolar stars (°)''''''of stars not visible (°)''' + for north latitude, − for south   − for north latitude, + for south 90 (Pole) 90 to 0 0 to 90 66.5 (Arctic/Antarctic Circle) 90 to 23.5 +23.5 to −23.5 23.5 to 90 45 (midpoint) 90 to 45 +45 to −45 45 to 90 23.5 (Tropic of Cancer/Capricorn) 90 to 66.5 +66.5 to −66.5 66.5 to 90 0 (Equator) +90 to −90 Non-circumpolar stars are visible only during certain days or seasons of the year.equator (green) and is positive northward (towards the top), negative southward (towards the bottom).", "The lines of right ascension (blue) divide the sky into great circles, here 1 hour apart." ], [ "Sun", "The Sun's declination varies with the seasons.", "As seen from arctic or antarctic latitudes, the Sun is circumpolar near the local summer solstice, leading to the phenomenon of it being above the horizon at midnight, which is called midnight sun.", "Likewise, near the local winter solstice, the Sun remains below the horizon all day, which is called polar night." ], [ "Relation to latitude", "When an object is directly overhead its declination is almost always within 0.01 degrees of the observer's latitude; it would be exactly equal except for two complications.The first complication applies to all celestial objects: the object's declination equals the observer's astronomical latitude, but the term \"latitude\" ordinarily means geodetic latitude, which is the latitude on maps and GPS devices.", "In the continental United States and surrounding area, the difference (the vertical deflection) is typically a few arcseconds (1 arcsecond = of a degree) but can be as great as 41 arcseconds.The second complication is that, assuming no deflection of the vertical, \"overhead\" means perpendicular to the ellipsoid at observer's location, but the perpendicular line does not pass through the center of the Earth; almanacs provide declinations measured at the center of the Earth.", "(An ellipsoid is an approximation to sea level that is mathematically manageable)." ], [ "See also", "* Celestial coordinate system* Ecliptic* Equatorial coordinate system* Geographic coordinate system* Lunar standstill* Position of the Sun* Right ascension* Setting circles" ], [ "Notes and references" ], [ "External links", "* MEASURING THE SKY A Quick Guide to the Celestial Sphere James B. Kaler, University of Illinois* Celestial Equatorial Coordinate System University of Nebraska-Lincoln* Celestial Equatorial Coordinate Explorers University of Nebraska-Lincoln* * Sidereal pointer (Torquetum) – to determine '''RA'''/'''DEC'''." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Diaspora" ], [ "Introduction", "Indian Diaspora is the world's largest diaspora.", "pictured at Ricoh Coliseum, in Toronto, Canada on April 15, 2015Mexican diaspora is the world's second-largest diaspora; pictured is Mexican day celebrations in Germany.A '''diaspora''' ( ) is a population that is scattered across regions which are separate from its geographic place of origin.", "The word is used in reference to people who identify with a specific geographic location, but currently reside elsewhere.Notable diasporic populations include the Jewish diaspora formed after the Babylonian exile; Assyrian–Chaldean–Syriac diaspora following the Assyrian genocide; Greeks that fled or were displaced following the fall of Constantinople and the later Greek genocide as well as the Istanbul pogroms; the emigration of Anglo-Saxons (primarily to the Byzantine Empire) after the Norman Conquest of England; the southern Chinese and Indians who left their homelands during the 19th and 20th centuries; the Irish diaspora after the Great Famine; the Scottish diaspora that developed on a large scale after the Highland and Lowland Clearances; Romani from the Indian subcontinent; the Italian diaspora and the Mexican diaspora; Circassians in the aftermath of the Circassian genocide; the Palestinian diaspora due to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict; the Armenian diaspora following the Armenian genocide; the Lebanese diaspora due to the Lebanese civil war; and Syrians due to the Syrian civil war; The Iranian diaspora, which grew from half a million to 3.8 million between the 1979 revolution and 2019, mostly live in United States, Canada and Turkey.", "According to a 2019 United Nations report, the Indian diaspora is the world's largest diaspora, with a population of 17.5 million, followed by the Mexican diaspora, with a population of 11.8 million, and the Chinese diaspora, with a population of 10.7 million." ], [ "Etymology", "The term \"diaspora\" is derived from the Greek verb διασπείρω (diaspeirō), \"I scatter\", \"I spread about\" which in turn is composed of διά (dia), \"between, through, across\" and the verb σπείρω (speirō), \"I sow, I scatter\".", "The term διασπορά (diaspora) hence meant \"scattering\".America following the Great Famine in IrelandThere is confusion over the exact process of derivation from these Ancient Greek verbs to the concept of diaspora.", "Many cite Thucydides (5th century BC) as the first to use the word.", "However, sociologist Stéphane Dufoix remarks \"not only is the noun ''diaspora'' quite absent from the Greek original Thucydides' ''Peloponnesian War'', II, 27), but the original does not include the verb ''diaspeírô'' either.", "The verb used is the verb ''speírô'' (seed) conjugated in the passive aorist.\"", "The passage in Thucydides reads:, translated to mean 'Those of the Aeginetans who did not settle here were '''scattered''' over the rest of Hellas.", "'Dufoix further notes, \"Of all the occurrences of ''diaspora'' in the ''Thesaurus Linguae Graecae'' (TLG), which draws upon almost the entire written corpus in the Greek language . . .", "none refer to colonisation.\"", "Dufoix surmises that the confusion may stem from a comment by Jewish historian Simon Dubnow, who wrote an entry on diaspora for the influential Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences.", "His entry, published in 1931, includes the following remark: \"In a sense Magna Graecia constituted a Greek diaspora in the ancient Roman Empire.\"", "\"Magna Graecia\" refers to ancient Greek colonies established along the Italian coast, which lost their independence following the Second Punic War and their integration into the Roman Empire.The first recorded use of the word \"diaspora\" is found in the Septuagint, first in:* Deuteronomy 28:25, in the phrase , , translated to mean 'thou shalt be a dispersion in all kingdoms of the earth'and secondly in:* Psalms 146(147).2, in the phrase , , translated to mean 'The Lord doth build up Jerusalem: he gathereth together the outcasts of Israel'.When the Bible was translated into Greek, the word ''diaspora'' was applied in reference to the Kingdom of Samaria which was exiled from Israel by the Assyrians between 740 and 722 BC, as well as Jews, Benjaminites, and Levites who were exiled from the Kingdom of Judah by the Babylonians in 587 BC, and Jews who were exiled from Roman Judea by the Roman Empire in 70 AD.", "It subsequently came to be used in reference to the historical movements and settlement patterns of the Jews.", "In English, capitalized, and without modifiers, the term can refer specifically to the Jewish diaspora.", "The wider application of ''diaspora'' evolved from the Assyrian two-way mass deportation policy of conquered populations to deny future territorial claims on their part.===Definition===The oldest known use of the word \"diaspora\" in English is in 1594 in John Stockwood's translation of Lambert Daneau's commentary on the Twelve Prophets.", "Daneau writes:This scattering abrode of the Iewes, as it were an heauenly sowing, fell out after their returne from the captiuitie of Babylon.", "Wherevpon both Acts.", "2.and also 1.Pet.", "1.and 1.Iam.", "ver.", "1.sic they are called ''Diaspora'', that is, a scattering or sowing abrode.However, the current entry on \"diaspora\" in the ''Oxford English Dictionary Online'' dates the first recorded use a century later to 1694, in a work on ordination by the Welsh theologian James Owen.", "Owen wanted to prove that there is no difference in the Bible between Presbyters and Bishops; he cited the example of the Jews in exile:The Presbyters of the Jewish ''Diaspora'', to whom St. ''Peter'' wrote, are requir'd ποιμαίνειν ϗ̀ ἐπισκοπείν, to feed or rule the Flock, and to perform the office and work of Bishops among them.The OED records a usage of \"diaspora\" in 1876, which refers to \"extensive ''diaspora'' work (as it is termed) of evangelizing among the National Protestant Churches on the continent\".The term became more widely assimilated into English by the mid 1950s, with long-term expatriates in significant numbers from other particular countries or regions also being referred to as a diaspora.", "An academic field, diaspora studies, has become established relating to this sense of the word.===Scholarly work and expanding definition===Chinese diaspora is the world's third largest; Paifang (torna) gateway at Sydney Chinatown in Australia.William Safran in an article published in 1991, set out six rules to distinguish diasporas from migrant communities.", "These included criteria that the group maintains a myth or collective memory of their homeland; they regard their ancestral homeland as their true home, to which they will eventually return; being committed to the restoration or maintenance of that homeland, and they relate \"personally or vicariously\" to the homeland to a point where it shapes their identity.", "Safran's definitions were influenced by the idea of the Jewish diaspora.", "Safran also included a criterion of having been forced into exile by political or economic factors, followed by a long period of settlement in the new host culture.", "In 1997, Robin Cohen argued that a diasporic group could leave its homeland voluntarily, and assimilate deeply into host cultures.Rogers Brubaker (2005) more inclusively applied three basic definitional criteria: First, geographic dispersion (voluntary or forced) of a people; second, \"the orientation to a real or imagined 'homeland' as an authoritative source of value, identity and loyalty\"; and third, maintenance of a social boundary corresponding to the conservation of a distinctive diasporic identity which differs from the host culture.", "Brubaker also noted that the use of the term ''diaspora'' has been widening.", "He suggests that one element of this expansion in use \"involves the application of the term diaspora to an ever-broadening set of cases: essentially to any and every nameable population category that is to some extent dispersed in space\".", "Brubaker used the WorldCat database to show that 17 out of the 18 books on diaspora published between 1900 and 1910 were on the Jewish diaspora.", "The majority of works in the 1960s were also about the Jewish diaspora, but in 2002 only two out of 20 books sampled (out of a total of 253) were about the Jewish case, with a total of eight different diasporas covered.Brubaker outlined the original use of the term ''diaspora'' as follows:Armenian American dancers in New York CitySome observers have labeled evacuation from New Orleans and the Gulf Coast in the wake of Hurricane Katrina the New Orleans diaspora, since a significant number of evacuees have not been able to return, yet maintain aspirations to do so.", "Agnieszka Weinar (2010) notes the widening use of the term, arguing that recently, \"a growing body of literature succeeded in reformulating the definition, framing diaspora as almost any ''population'' on the move and no longer referring to the specific ''context'' of their existence\".", "It has even been noted that as charismatic Christianity becomes increasingly globalized, many Christians conceive of themselves as a diaspora, and form a bond that mimics salient features of some ethnic diasporas.Professional communities of individuals no longer in their homeland can also be considered diaspora.", "For example, science diasporas are communities of scientists who conduct their research away from their homeland and trading diasporas are communities of merchant aliens.", "In an article published in 1996, Khachig Tölölyan argues that the media have used the term corporate diaspora in a rather arbitrary and inaccurate fashion, for example as applied to “mid-level, mid-career executives who have been forced to find new places at a time of corporate upheaval” (10) The use of corporate diaspora reflects the increasing popularity of the diaspora notion to describe a wide range of phenomena related to contemporary migration, displacement and transnational mobility.", "While corporate diaspora seems to avoid or contradict connotations of violence, coercion, and unnatural uprooting historically associated with the notion of diaspora, its scholarly use may heuristically describe the ways in which corporations function alongside diasporas.", "In this way, corporate diaspora might foreground the racial histories of diasporic formations without losing sight of the cultural logic of late capitalism in which corporations orchestrate the transnational circulation of people, images, ideologies and capital.In contemporary times, scholars have classified the different kinds of diasporas based on their causes, such as colonialism, trade/labour migrations, or the social coherence which exists within the diaspora communities and their ties to the ancestral lands.", "Some diaspora communities maintain strong cultural and political ties to their homelands.", "Other qualities that may be typical of many diasporas are thoughts of return to the ancestral lands, maintaining any form of ties with the region of origin as well as relationships with other communities in the diaspora, and lack of full integration into the new host countries.", "Diasporas often maintain ties to the country of their historical affiliation and usually influence their current host country's policies towards their homeland.", "\"Diaspora management\" is a term that Harris Mylonas has \"re-conceptualized to describe both the policies that states follow in order to build links with their diaspora abroad and the policies designed to help with the incorporation and integration of diasporic communities when they 'return' home\"." ], [ "African diasporas", "The diaspora of sub-Saharan Africans during the Atlantic slave trade is one of the most notorious modern diasporas.", "10.7 million people from West Africa survived transportation to arrive in the Americas as slaves starting in the late 16th century CE and continuing into the 19th.", "Outside of the Atlantic slave trade, however, African diasporic communities have existed for millennia.", "While some communities were slave-based, other groups emigrated for various reasons.", "From the 8th through the 19th centuries, the Arab slave trade dispersed millions of Africans to Asia and the islands of the Indian Ocean.", "The Islamic slave trade also has resulted in the creation of communities of African descent in India, most notably the Siddi, Makrani and Sri Lanka Kaffirs.Beginning as early as the 2nd century AD, the kingdom of Aksum (modern-day Ethiopia) created colonies on the Arabian Peninsula.", "During the 4th century, Aksum formally adopted Christianity as a state religion, becoming the first to do so along with Armenia.", "In the 6th century, Kaleb of Axum invaded Himyar (modern-day Yemen) to aid and defend Christians under religious persecution.", "During these campaigns, several groups of soldiers chose not to return to Aksum.", "These groups are estimated to have ranged in size from the 600s to mid 3000s.", "Previously, migrant Africans with national African passports could only enter thirteen African countries without advanced visas.", "In pursuing a unified future, the African Union (AU) launched an African Union Passport in July 2016, allowing people with a passport from one of the 55 member states of the AU to move freely between these countries under this visa free passport and encourage migrants with national African passports to return to Africa.==Asian diasporas==Indian diaspora is the world's largest diaspora; Diwali lights in Little India, Singapore.", "Bukharan Jews in Samarkand, present-day Uzbekistan, The largest Asian diaspora in the world is the Indian diaspora.", "The overseas Indian community, estimated to number over 17.5 million, is spread across many regions of the world, on every continent.", "It is a global community which is diverse, heterogeneous and eclectic and its members represent different regions, languages, cultures, and faiths (see Desi).", "Similarly, the Romani, numbering roughly 12 million in Europe trace their origins to the Indian subcontinent, and their presence in Europe is first attested to in the Middle Ages.The earliest known Asian diaspora of note is the Jewish diaspora.", "With roots in the Babylonian Captivity and later migrations under Hellenism, the majority of the diaspora can be attributed to the Roman conquest, expulsion, and enslavement of the Jewish population of Judea, whose descendants became the Ashkenazim, Sephardim, and Mizrahim of today, roughly numbering 15 million of which 8 million still live in the diaspora, though the number was much higher before Zionist immigration to what is now Israel and the murder of 6 million Jews in the Holocaust.Chinese emigration (also known as the Chinese Diaspora; see also Overseas Chinese) first occurred thousands of years ago.", "The mass emigration that occurred from the 19th century to 1949 was caused mainly by wars and starvation in mainland China, as well as political corruption.", "Most migrants were illiterate or poorly educated peasants, called by the now-recognized racial slur coolies (Chinese: 苦力, literally \"hard labor\"), who migrated to developing countries in need of labor, such as the Americas, Australia, South Africa, Southeast Asia, Malaya and other places.Pakistani diaspora is the third in Asia with approximately 9 million Pakistanis living abroad mostly in middle east, North America and Europe.At least three waves of Nepalese diaspora can be identified.", "The earliest wave dates back to hundreds of years as early marriage and high birthrates propelled Hindu settlement eastward across Nepal, then into Sikkim and Bhutan.", "A backlash developed in the 1980s as Bhutan's political elites realized that Bhutanese Buddhists were at risk of becoming a minority in their own country.", "At least 60,000 ethnic Nepalese from Bhutan have been resettled in the United States.", "A second wave was driven by British recruitment of mercenary soldiers beginning around 1815 and resettlement after retirement in the British Isles and Southeast Asia.", "The third wave began in the 1970s as land shortages intensified and the pool of educated labor greatly exceeded job openings in Nepal.", "Job-related emigration created Nepalese enclaves in India, the wealthier countries of the Middle East, Europe, and North America.", "Current estimates of the number of Nepalese living outside Nepal range well up into the millions.In Siam, regional power struggles among several kingdoms in the region led to a large diaspora of ethnic Lao between the 1700s–1800s by Siamese rulers to settle large areas of the Siamese kingdom's northeast region, where Lao ethnicity is still a major factor in 2012.During this period, Siam decimated the Lao capital, capturing, torturing, and killing the Lao king Anuwongse, who led the lao rebellion in the 19th century." ], [ "European diasporas", "European history contains numerous diaspora-causing events.", "In ancient times, the trading and colonising activities of the Greek tribes from the Balkans and Asia Minor spread people of Greek culture, religion and language around the Mediterranean and Black Sea basins, establishing Greek city-states in southern Italy (the so-called \"Magna Graecia\"), northern Libya, eastern Spain, the south of France, and the Black Sea coasts.", "Greeks founded more than 400 colonies.", "Tyre and Carthage also colonised the Mediterranean.Greek territories and colonies during the Archaic period (750–550 BC)Alexander the Great's the conquest of the Achaemenid Empire marked the beginning of the Hellenistic period, characterized by a new wave of Greek colonization in Asia and Africa, with Greek ruling classes established in Egypt, southwest Asia and northwest India.", "Subsequent waves of colonization and migration during the Middle Ages added to the older settlements or created new ones, thus replenishing the Greek diaspora and making it one of the most long-standing and widespread in the world.", "The Romans also established numerous colonies and settlements outside of Rome and throughout the Roman empire.The Migration-Period relocations, which included several phases, are just one set of many in history.", "The first phase Migration-Period displacement (between 300 and 500 AD) included relocation of the Goths (Ostrogoths and Visigoths), Vandals, Franks, various other Germanic peoples (Burgundians, Lombards, Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Suebi and Alemanni), Alans and numerous Slavic tribes.", "The second phase, between 500 and 900 AD, saw Slavic, Turkic, and other tribes on the move, resettling in Eastern Europe and gradually leaving it predominantly Slavic, and affecting Anatolia and the Caucasus as the first Turkic tribes (Avars, Huns, Khazars, Pechenegs), as well as Bulgars, and possibly Magyars arrived.", "The last phase of the migrations saw the coming of the Hungarian Magyars.", "The Viking expansion out of Scandinavia into southern and eastern Europe, Iceland, the British Isles and Greenland.", "The recent application of the word \"diaspora\" to the Viking lexicon highlights their cultural profile distinct from their predatory reputation in the regions they settled, especially in the North Atlantic.", "The more positive connotations associated with the social science term help to view the movement of the Scandinavian peoples in the Viking Age in a new way.Such colonizing migrations cannot be considered indefinitely as diasporas; over very long periods, eventually, the migrants assimilate into the settled area so completely that it becomes their new mental homeland.", "Thus the modern Magyars of Hungary do not feel that they belong in the Western Siberia that the Hungarian Magyars left 12 centuries ago; and the English descendants of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes do not yearn to reoccupy the plains of Northwest Germany.Christopher Columbus, who opened the way for the widespread European colonization of the Americas.In 1492 a Spanish-financed expedition headed by Christopher Columbus arrived in the Americas, after which European exploration and colonization rapidly expanded.", "Historian James Axtell estimates that 240,000 people left Europe for the Americas in the 16th century.", "Emigration continued.", "In the 19th century alone over 50 million Europeans migrated to North and South America.", "Other Europeans moved to Siberia, Africa, and Australasia.", "The properly Spanish emigrants were mainly from several parts of Spain, but not only the impoverished ones (i.e., Basques in Chile), and the destination varied also along the time.", "As an example, the Galicians moved first to the American colonies during the XVII-XX (mainly but not only Mexico, Cuba, Argentine and Venezuela, as many writers during the Francoist exile), later to Europe (France, Switzerland) and finally within Spain (to Madrid, Catalonia or the Basque Country).A specific 19th-century example is the Irish diaspora, beginning in the mid-19th century and brought about by or \"the Great Hunger\" of the Irish Famine.", "An estimated 45% to 85% of Ireland's population emigrated to areas including Britain, the United States, Canada, Argentina, Australia, and New Zealand.", "The size of the Irish diaspora is demonstrated by the number of people around the world who claim Irish ancestry; some sources put the figure at 80 to 100 million.From the 1860s, the Circassian people, originally from Europe, were dispersed through Anatolia, Australia, the Balkans, the Levant, North America, and West Europe, leaving less than 10% of their population in the homeland – parts of historical Circassia (in the modern-day Russian portion of the Caucasus).Italian Argentines during the opening parade of the XXXIV Immigrant's Festival.", "About 60% of Argentina's population has Italian ancestry.The Scottish Diaspora includes large populations of Highlanders moving to the United States and Canada after the Highland Clearances; as well as the Lowlanders, becoming the Ulster Scots in Ireland and the Scotch-Irish in America.There were two major Italian diasporas in Italian history.", "The first diaspora began around 1880, two decades after the Unification of Italy, and ended in the 1920s to the early 1940s with the rise of Fascist Italy.", "Poverty was the main reason for emigration, specifically the lack of land as ''mezzadria'' sharecropping flourished in Italy, especially in the South, and property became subdivided over generations.", "Especially in Southern Italy, conditions were harsh.", "Until the 1860s to 1950s, most of Italy was a rural society with many small towns and cities and almost no modern industry in which land management practices, especially in the South and the Northeast, did not easily convince farmers to stay on the land and to work the soil.", "Another factor was related to the overpopulation of Southern Italy as a result of the improvements in socioeconomic conditions after Unification.", "That created a demographic boom and forced the new generations to emigrate en masse in the late 19th century and the early 20th century, mostly to the Americas.", "The new migration of capital created millions of unskilled jobs around the world and was responsible for the simultaneous mass migration of Italians searching for \"work and bread\".", "The second diaspora started after the end of World War II and concluded roughly in the 1970s.", "Between 1880 and 1980, about 15,000,000 Italians left the country permanently.", "By 1980, it was estimated that about 25,000,000 Italians were residing outside Italy." ], [ "Internal diasporas", "In the United States of America, approximately 4.3 million people moved outside their home states in 2010, according to IRS tax-exemption data.", "In a 2011 TEDx presentation, Detroit native Garlin Gilchrist referenced the formation of distinct \"Detroit diaspora\" communities in Seattle and in Washington, DC, while layoffs in the auto industry also led to substantial blue-collar migration from Michigan to Wyoming 2005.In response to a statewide exodus of talent, the State of Michigan continues to host \"MichAGAIN\" career-recruiting events in places throughout the United States with significant Michigan-diaspora populations.In the People's Republic of China, millions of migrant workers have sought greater opportunity in the country's booming coastal metropolises, though this trend has slowed with the further development of China's interior.", "Migrant social structures in Chinese megacities are often based on place of origin, such as a shared hometown or province, and recruiters and foremen commonly select entire work-crews from the same village.", "In two separate June 2011 incidents, Sichuanese migrant workers organized violent protests against alleged police misconduct and migrant-labor abuse near the southern manufacturing hub of Guangzhou.Much of Siberia's population has its origins in internal migration – voluntary or otherwise – from European Russia since the 16th century.Pamphlet advertising for immigration to Western Canada, In Canada, internal migration has occurred for a number of different factors over the course of Canadian history.", "An example is the migration of workers from Atlantic Canada (particularly Newfoundland and Labrador) to Alberta, driven in part by the cod collapse in the early 1990s and the 1992 moratorium on cod fishing.", "Fishing had previously been a major driver of the economies of the Atlantic provinces, and this loss of work proved catastrophic for many families.", "As a result, beginning in the early 1990s and into the late 2000s, thousands of people from the Atlantic provinces were driven out-of-province to find work elsewhere in the country, especially in the Alberta oil sands during the oil boom of the mid-2000s.", "This systemic export of labour is explored by author Kate Beaton in her 2022 graphic memoir ''Ducks'', which details her experience working in the Athabasca oil sands.Falck steelworks in Sesto San Giovanni, in LombardyWith the fall of Fascist regime in 1943, and the end of World War II in 1945, a large internal migratory flow began from one Italian region to another.", "This internal emigration was sustained and constantly increased by the economic growth that Italy experienced between the 1950s and 1960s.", "Given that this economic growth mostly concerned Northwest Italy, which was involved in the birth of many industrial activities, migratory phenomena affected the peasants of the Triveneto and southern Italy, who began to move in large numbers.", "Other areas of northern Italy were also affected by emigration such as the rural areas of Mantua and Cremona.", "The destinations of these emigrants were mainly Milan, Turin, Varese, Como, Lecco, and Brianza.", "The rural population of the aforementioned areas began to emigrate to the large industrial centers of the north-west, especially in the so-called \"industrial triangle, or the area corresponding to the three-sided polygon with vertices in the cities of Turin, Milan and Genoa.", "Even some cities in central and southern Italy (such as Rome, which was the object of immigration due to employment in the administrative and tertiary sectors) experienced a conspicuous immigration flow.", "These migratory movements were accompanied by other flows of lesser intensity, such as transfers from the countryside to smaller cities and travel from mountainous areas to the plains.", "The main reasons that gave rise to this massive migratory flow were linked to the living conditions in the places of origin of the emigrants (which were very harsh), the absence of stable work, the high rate of poverty, the poor fertility of many agricultural areas, the fragmentation of land properties, which characterized southern Italy above all, and the insecurity caused by organized crime.", "Overall, the Italians who moved from southern to northern Italy amounted to 4 million.", "The migratory flow from the countryside to the big cities also contracted and then stopped in the 1980s.", "At the same time, migratory movements towards medium-sized cities and those destined for small-sized villages increased." ], [ "Twentieth century", "The twentieth century saw huge population movements.", "Some involved large-scale transfers of people by government action.", "Some migrations occurred to avoid conflict and warfare.", "Other diasporas formed as a consequence of political developments, such as the end of colonialism.===World War II, colonialism, and post-colonialism===As World War II (1939–1945) unfolded, Nazi German authorities deported and killed millions of Jews; they also enslaved or murdered millions of other people, including Romani, Ukrainians, Russians, and other Slavs.", "Some Jews fled from the persecution and moved to the unoccupied parts of Western Europe or they moved to the Americas before the borders of the Americas were closed.", "Later, other Eastern European refugees moved west, away from Soviet expansion and from the Iron Curtain regimes established as World War II ended.", "Hundreds of thousands of these anti-Soviet political refugees and displaced persons ended up in western Europe, Australia, Canada, and the United States of America.After World War II, the Soviet Union and communist-controlled Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Yugoslavia expelled millions of ethnic Germans, most of them were the descendants of immigrants who had settled in those areas centuries ago.", "This expulsion was allegedly carried out in reaction to Nazi Germany's invasions and pan-German attempts to annex Eastern European territory.", "Most of the refugees moved to the West, including western Europe, and with tens of thousands seeking refuge in the United States.Istrian Italians leave Pola in 1947 during the Istrian-Dalmatian exodusThe Istrian–Dalmatian exodus was the post-World War II exodus and departure of local ethnic Italians (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians) as well as ethnic Slovenes, Croats, and Istro-Romanians from the Yugoslav territory of Istria, Kvarner, the Julian March as well as Dalmatia, towards Italy, and in smaller numbers, towards the Americas, Australia, and South Africa.", "These regions were ethnically mixed, with long-established historic Croatian, Italian, and Slovene communities.", "According to various sources, the exodus is estimated to have amounted to between 230,000 and 350,000 Italians (the others being ethnic Slovenes, Croats, and Istro-Romanians, who chose to maintain Italian citizenship) leaving the areas in the aftermath of the conflict.", "Hundreds or perhaps tens of thousands of local ethnic Italians (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians) were killed or summarily executed during World War II by Yugoslav Partisans and OZNA during the first years of the exodus, in what became known as the ''foibe'' massacres.", "From 1947, after the war, Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians were subject by Yugoslav authorities to less violent forms of intimidation, such as nationalization, expropriation, and discriminatory taxation, which gave them little option other than emigration.", "In 1953, there were 36,000 declared Italians in Yugoslavia, just about 16% of the original Italian population before World War II.", "According to the census organized in Croatia in 2001 and that organized in Slovenia in 2002, the Italians who remained in the former Yugoslavia amounted to 21,894 people (2,258 in Slovenia and 19,636 in Croatia).Spain sent many political activists into exile during the rule of Franco's military regime from 1936 until his death in 1975.Prior to World War II and the re-establishment of Israel in 1948, a series of anti-Jewish pogroms broke out in the Arab world and caused many to flee, mostly to Palestine/Israel.", "The 1947–1949 Palestine war likewise saw at least 750,000 Palestinians expelled or forced to flee from the newly forming Israel.", "Many Palestinians continue to live in refugee camps in the Middle East, while others have resettled in other countries.The 1947 Partition in the Indian subcontinent resulted in the migration of millions of people between India, Pakistan, and present-day Bangladesh.", "Many were murdered in the religious violence of the period, with estimates of fatalities up to 2 million people.", "Thousands of former subjects of the British Raj went to the UK from the Indian subcontinent after India and Pakistan became independent in 1947.From the late 19th century, and formally from 1910, Japan made Korea a Japanese colony.", "Millions of Chinese fled to western provinces not occupied by Japan (that is, in particular, Sichuan and Yunnan in the Southwest and Shaanxi and Gansu in the Northwest) and to Southeast Asia.", "More than 100,000 Koreans moved across the Amur River into the Russian Far East (and later into the Soviet Union) away from the Japanese.===The Cold War and the formation of post-colonial states===Both during and after the Cold War-era, huge populations of refugees migrated from countries which experienced conflicts, especially from then-developing countries.", "Upheavals in the Middle East and Central Asia, some of which were related to power struggles between the United States and the Soviet Union, produced new refugee populations that developed into global diasporas.", "* In Southeast Asia, many Vietnamese people emigrated to France and later millions of other Vietnamese people migrated to the United States, Australia and Canada after the Cold War-related Vietnam War of 1955–1975.Later, 30,000 French ''colons'' from Cambodia were displaced after they were expelled by the 1975–1979 Khmer Rouge regime under Pol Pot.", "A small, predominantly Muslim ethnic group, the Cham people, long residing in Cambodia, were nearly eradicated.", "The mass exodus of Vietnamese people from Vietnam from 1975 onwards led to the popularisation of the term \"boat people\".", "* In Southwestern China, many Tibetan people emigrated to India, following the 14th Dalai Lama after the failure of his 1959 Tibetan uprising.", "This wave lasted until the 1960s, and another wave followed when Tibet opened up to trade and tourism in the 1980s.", "It is estimated that about 200,000 Tibetans live now dispersed worldwide, half of them in India, Nepal and Bhutan.", "In lieu of lost citizenship papers, the Central Tibetan Administration offers Green Book identity documents to Tibetan refugees.", "* Celebrations of Murugan by the Sri Lankan Tamil community in Paris, FranceSri Lankan Tamils have historically migrated to find work, notably, during the British colonial period (1796–1948).", "Since the beginning of the Sri Lankan Civil War in 1983, more than 800,000 Tamils have been displaced within Sri Lanka as a local diaspora, and over a half-million Tamils have emigrated as the Tamil diaspora to destinations such as India, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the UK, and Europe.", "* The Afghan diaspora resulted from the 1979 invasion of Afghanistan by the former Soviet Union, resulting in the creation of the second-largest refugee population in the world (2.6 million in 2018).", "* Many Iranians fled from the 1979 Iranian Revolution which culminated in the fall of the USA/British-ensconced Shah.", "* In Africa, a new series of diasporas was formed after the end of colonial rule.", "In some cases, as countries became independent, numerous minority descendants of Europeans emigrated; others stayed.", "* Uganda expelled 80,000 South Asians in 1972 and took over their businesses and properties.", "* The 1990–1994 Rwandan Civil War between rival social/ethnic groups (Hutu and Tutsi) turned deadly and produced a mass efflux of refugees.", "* In Latin America, following the 1959 Cuban Revolution and the introduction of communism, over a million people have left Cuba.", "* A new Jamaican diaspora formed around the start of the 21st century.", "More than 1 million Dominicans live abroad, a majority living in the US.", "* A million Colombian refugees have left Colombia since 1965 to escape violence and civil wars.", "* In South America, thousands of Argentine and Uruguay refugees fled to Europe during periods of military rule in the 1970s and 1980s.", "* In Central America, Nicaraguans, Salvadorans, Guatemalans, and Hondurans have fled conflict and poor economic conditions.", "* Hundreds of thousands of people fled from the Rwandan genocide in 1994 and moved into neighboring countries.", "* Between 4 and 6 million have emigrated from Zimbabwe beginning in the 1990s especially since 2000, greatly increasing the Zimbabwean diaspora due to a protracted socioeconomic crisis, forming large communities in South Africa, the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, and smaller communities in the United States, New Zealand and Ireland.", "The long war in Congo, in which numerous nations have been involved, has also result in millions of displaced refugees.", "* A South Korean diaspora movement during the 1990s caused the homeland fertility rate to drop when a large amount of the middle class emigrated, as the rest of the population continued to age.", "To counteract the change in these demographics, the South Korean government initiated a diaspora-engagement policy in 1997." ], [ "Twenty-first century", "===Middle East===Migrants crossing the Aegean Sea from Turkey to the Greek island of Lesbos during the 2015 European migrant crisisFollowing the Iraq War, nearly 3 million Iraqis had been displaced as of 2011, with 1.3 million within Iraq and 1.6 million in neighboring countries, mainly Jordan and Syria.", "The Syrian Civil War has forced further migration, with at least 4 million displaced as per UN estimates.", "2.8 million Iranians immigrated in 2022, i.e., 3.3% of the total population; the majority of which were academics.", "There are five million registered Afghanistanis, 10 million approximately.===Venezuelan refugee crisis===Following the presidency of Hugo Chávez and the establishment of his Bolivarian Revolution, over 7 million Venezuelans emigrated from Venezuela during the Venezuelan refugee crisis.", "The analysis of a study by the Central University of Venezuela titled ''Venezuelan Community Abroad: A New Method of Exile'' by ''El Universal'' states that the diaspora in Venezuela has been caused by the \"deterioration of both the economy and the social fabric, rampant crime, uncertainty and lack of hope for a change in leadership in the near future\"." ], [ "Diaspora Internet services", "Numerous web-based news portals and forum sites are dedicated to specific diaspora communities, often organized on the basis of an origin characteristic and a current location characteristic.", "The location-based networking features of mobile applications such as China's WeChat have also created online diaspora communities when used outside of their home markets.", "Now, large companies from the emerging countries are looking at leveraging diaspora communities to enter the more mature market." ], [ "In popular culture", "''Gran Torino'', a 2008 drama starring Clint Eastwood, was the first mainstream American film to feature the Hmong American diaspora." ], [ "See also", "* List of diasporas* List of ethnic cleansing campaigns* List of expulsions of African Americans* List of sovereign states and dependent territories by immigrant population* Expulsion of Poles by Nazi Germany* Partition of India* Late Ottoman genocides** Armenian genocide** Assyrian genocide** Great Famine of Mount Lebanon** Greek genocide* Diaspora politics * Ethnic cleansing* Kurdish refugees* Jewish history** Antisemitism*** Persecution of Jews**** History of the Jews in World War II***** The Holocaust** Expulsions and exoduses of Jews**** The Exodus*** Jewish exodus from the Muslim world* Forced displacement* Forced settlements in the Soviet Union* Exodusters* Great Migration (African American)* History of immigration to the United States* Human migration* Long Walk of the Navajo* Population transfer** Population transfer in the Soviet Union* Rural exodus* State collapse* Statelessness* Stateless nation* Trail of Tears* Ummah* Yom HaAliyah* Myanmar conflict** Persecution of Muslims in Myanmar*** Rohingya conflict**** Rohingya genocide* Anti-Romani sentiment** History of the Romani people*** Romani Holocaust* Xinjiang conflict** Uyghur genocide* World War II evacuation and expulsion* Persecution of Yazidis** Yazidi genocide* Expulsion of the Acadians* Expulsion of the Moriscos" ], [ "References", "===Citations ======Sources ===* Barclay, John M. G.", "(ed.", "), ''Negotiating Diaspora: Jewish Strategies in the Roman Empire'', Continuum International Publishing Group, 2004* Baser, B.", "& Swain, A.", "''Diasporas as Peacemakers: Third Party Mediation in Homeland Conflicts'' with Ashok Swain.", "International Journal on World Peace 25 (3), September 2008.", "* Braziel, Jana Evans.", "2008.", "''Diaspora: An Introduction''.", "Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell.", "* * Bueltmann, Tanja, et al.", "eds.", "''Locating the English Diaspora, 1500–2010'' (Liverpool University Press, 2012)* * * Délano Alonso, Alexandra & Mylonas, Harris.", "2019.\"", "The Microfoundations of Diaspora Politics: Unpacking the State and Disaggregating the Diaspora\", ''Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies'', Volume 45, Issue 4: 473–491.", "* * * Galil, Gershon, & Weinfeld, Moshe, ''Studies in Historical Geography and Biblical Historiography: Presented to Zekharyah Ḳalai'', Brill, 2000* * Kantor, Mattis, ''The Jewish Timeline Encyclopedia: A Year-by-year History from Creation to the Present'', (new updated edition), Northvalem New Jersey: Jason Aronson, 1992* * Luciuk, Lubomyr, ''Searching for Place: Ukrainian Displaced Persons, Canada and the Migration of Memory''.", "University of Toronto Press, 2000.", "* Mahroum, Sami & De Guchteneire, P. (2007), ''Transnational Knowledge Through Diaspora Networks-Editorial''.", "International Journal of Multicultural Societies 8 (1), pp.", "1–3* Mahroum, Sami; Eldridge, Cynthia; Daar, Abdallah S. (2006).", "''Transnational diaspora options: How developing countries could benefit from their emigrant populations''.", "International Journal on Multicultural Societies, 2006.", "* Nesterovych, Volodymyr (2013). \"", "Impact of ethnic diasporas on the adoption of normative legal acts in the United States\".", "Viche.", "8: pp.", "19–23.", "* Oonk, G., ''Global Indian Diasporas: trajectories of migration and theory'', Amsterdam University Press, 2007 Free download here* * Shain, Yossi, ''Kinship and Diasporas in International Politics'', Michigan University Press, 2007* * Weheliye, Alexander G. \"My Volk to Come: Peoplehood in Recent Diaspora Discourse and Afro-German Popular Music.\"", "Black Europe and the African Diaspora.", "Ed.", "Darlene Clark.", "Hine, Trica Danielle.", "Keaton, and Stephen Small.", "Urbana: University of Illinois, 2009.pp.", "161–179.", "* * Xharra, B.", "& Wählisch, M. ''Beyond Remittances: Public Diplomacy and Kosovo's Diaspora'', Foreign Policy Club, Pristina (2012), abstract and free access here." ], [ "Further reading", "* Cohen, Robin, and Carolin Fischer (eds.)", "''Routledge Handbook of Diaspora Studies'' (2019)* Gewecke, Frauke.", "\"Diaspora\" (2012).", "University Bielefeld – Center for InterAmerican Studies.", "* Knott, Kim, and Sean McLoughlin, eds.", "''Diasporas: Concepts, Intersections, Identities'' (2010)* Sheffer, Gabriel.", "''Diaspora Politics: At Home Abroad'' (2006)" ], [ "External links", "* Livius.org: Diaspora * Open access book on Diasporas* Integration: Building Inclusive Societies (IBIS) UN Alliance of Civilizations online community on Good Practices of Integration of Migrants across the World* Diasporic Trajectories: Transnational Cultures in the 21st Century Podcast playlist of a seminar series held in 2015 at the University of Edinburgh, School of Literatures, Languages, and Cultures" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "List of dog breeds" ], [ "Introduction", "Selection of different dog breedsThis '''list of dog breeds''' includes both extant and extinct dog breeds, varieties and types.", "A research article on dog genomics published in Science/AAAS defines modern dog breeds as \"a recent invention defined by conformation to a physical ideal and purity of lineage\".According to BigThink, over 40% of the world’s dog breeds come from the United Kingdom, France and Germany.", "It states: \"Great Britain and France are the ground zero of dog fancying, with 57 registered breeds each.", "Germany is not far behind, with 47 breeds.", "These three countries alone represent more than 40% of all dog breeds recognized by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale.\"" ], [ "Extant breeds, varieties and types", "'''Note:''' not all dogs listed below are recognized breeds by an official breed registry that can certify the dog is a purebred, including The Kennel Club (TKC - 1873), the oldest and first official dog breed registry in the world, located in the United Kingdom, and the three oldest breed registries in North America, and largest in the world, including the American Kennel Club (AKC - 1884), United Kennel Club (UKC - 1898), and Canadian Kennel Club (CKC - 1888).=== A–C ====== D–K ====== L–R ====== S–Z ===" ], [ "Extinct and critically endangered breeds, varieties and types" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Bibliography ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Daniel Jones (phonetician)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Daniel Jones''' (12 September 1881 – 4 December 1967) was a London-born British phonetician who studied under Paul Passy, professor of phonetics at the École des Hautes Études at the Sorbonne (University of Paris).", "He was head of the department of phonetics at University College London." ], [ "Biography", "In 1900, Jones studied briefly at William Tilly's Marburg Language Institute in Germany, where he was first introduced to phonetics.", "In 1903, he received his BA degree in mathematics at the University of Cambridge, and by right his MA in 1907.From 1905 to 1906, he studied in Paris under Paul Passy, who was one of the founders of the International Phonetic Association, and in 1911, he married Passy's niece Cyrille Motte.", "He briefly took private lessons from the British phonetician Henry Sweet.In 1907, he became a part-time lecturer at the University College London and was afterwards appointed to a full-time position.", "In 1912, he became the head of the Department of Phonetics and was appointed to a chair in 1921, a post he held until his retirement in 1949.From 1906 onwards, Jones was an active member of the International Phonetic Association, and was assistant secretary from 1907 to 1927, secretary from 1927 to 1949, and president from 1950 to 1967.In 1909, Jones wrote the short ''Pronunciation of English'', a book he later radically revised.", "The resulting work, ''An Outline of English Phonetics'', followed in 1918 and is the first truly comprehensive description of British Received Pronunciation, and the first such description of the standard pronunciation of any language.The year 1917 was a landmark for Jones in many ways.", "He became the first linguist in the western world to use the term phoneme in its current sense, employing the word in his article \"The phonetic structure of the Sechuana Language\".", "Jones had made an earlier notable attempt at a pronunciation dictionary but it was now that he produced the first edition of his famous ''English Pronouncing Dictionary'', a work which in revised form is still in print.", "It was here that the cardinal vowel diagram made a first appearance.The problem of the phonetic description of vowels is of long standing, going back to the era of the ancient Indian linguists.", "Three nineteenth-century British phoneticians worked on this topic.", "Alexander Melville Bell (1867) devised a phonetic alphabet which included an elaborate system for vowels.", "Alexander John Ellis had also suggested vowel symbols for his phonetic alphabets.", "Sweet did much work on the systematic description of vowels, producing an elaborate system of vowel description involving a multitude of symbols.", "Jones however was the one who is generally credited with having gone much of the way towards a practical solution through his scheme of 'cardinal vowels', a relatively simple system of reference vowels which for many years has been taught systematically to students within the British tradition.", "Much of the inspiration for this scheme can be found in the earlier publications of Passy.IPA vowel trapezium, an application of Jones's workIn the original form of the cardinal vowels, Jones employed a dual-parameter system of description based on the supposed height of the tongue arch together with the shape of the lips.", "This he reduced to a simple quadrilateral diagram which could be used to help visualize how vowels are articulated.", "Tongue height (close vs. open) is represented on the vertical axis and front vs. back on the horizontal axis indicates the portion of the tongue raised on the horizontal axis.", "Lip-rounding is also built into the system, so that front vowels (such as i, e, a) have spread or neutral lip postures, but the back vowels (such as o, u) have more marked lip-rounding as vowel height increases.", "Jones thus arrived at a set of eight \"primary Cardinal Vowels\", and recorded these on gramophone disc for HMV in 1917.Later modifications to his theory allowed for an additional set of eight \"secondary Cardinal Vowels\" with reverse lip shapes, permitting the representation of eight secondary cardinal vowels (front rounded and back unrounded).", "Eventually, Jones also devised symbols for central vowels and positioned these on the vowel diagram.", "He made two further disc recordings for Linguaphone in 1943 and 1956.With the passing years, the accuracy of many of Jones's statements on vowels has come increasingly under question, and most linguists now consider that the vowel quadrilateral must be viewed as a way of representing auditory space in visual form, rather than the tightly defined articulatory scheme envisaged by Jones.", "Nevertheless, the International Phonetic Association still uses a version of Jones's model, and includes a Jones-type vowel diagram on its influential International Phonetic Alphabet leaflet contained in the \"Handbook of the International Association\".", "Many phoneticians (especially those trained in the British school) resort to it constantly as a quick and convenient form of reference.Although Jones is especially remembered for his work on the phonetics and phonology of English, he ranged far more widely.", "He produced phonetic/phonological treatments which were masterly for their time on the sound systems of Cantonese, Tswana (Sechuana as it was then known), Sinhalese, and Russian.", "He was the first phonetician to produce, in his \"Sechuana Reader\", a competent description of an African tone language, including the concept of downstep.", "Jones helped develop new alphabets for African languages, and suggested systems of romanisation for Indian languages and Japanese.", "He also busied himself with support for revised spelling for English through the Simplified Spelling Society.Apart from his own vast array of published work, Jones acted as mentor to numerous scholars who later went on to become famous linguists in their own right.", "These included such names as Lilias Armstrong, Harold Palmer, Ida C. Ward, Hélène Coustenoble, Arthur Lloyd James, Dennis Fry, A. C. Gimson, Gordon Arnold, J.D.", "O'Connor, Clive Sansom, and many more.", "For several decades, his department at University College was pivotal in the development of phonetics and in making its findings known to the wider world.", "Beverley Collins and Inger M. Mees (1998) speculate that it is Jones, not as is often thought Sweet, who provided George Bernard Shaw with the basis for his fictional character Professor Henry Higgins in ''Pygmalion''.After retirement, Jones worked at his publications almost up to the end of his long life.", "He died at his home in Gerrards Cross on 4 December 1967." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*Asher, R. E. (1994), ''Encyclopedia of language and linguistics'', Oxford: Pergamon Press.", "*Bell, A. Melville (1967), \"Visible Speech\", London: Simpkin Marshall; rpt in facsimile in B. Collins and I. Mees (2006), \"Phonetics of English in the 19th Century\", London: Routledge.", "*Collins, B. and I. Mees (1998), ''The Real Professor Higgins: The Life and Career of Daniel Jones'', Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.", "*IPA (1999), \"Handbook of the International Phonetic Association\", Cambridge: CUP.", "*Jones, D. (1909), \"The Pronunciation of English\", Cambridge: CUP; rpt in facsimile in Jones (2002).", "*Jones, D. (1917a), \"An English Pronouncing Dictionary\", London: Dent, rpt in facsimile in Jones (2002).", "17th edn, P. Roach, J. Hartman and J. Setter (eds), Cambridge: CUP, 2006.", "*Jones, D. (1917b), The phonetic structure of the Sechuana language, Transactions of the Philological Society 1917–20, pp.", "99–106; rpt in Jones (2002).", "*Jones, D. (1918), \"An Outline of English Phonetics\", Leipzig: Teubner; rpt in Jones (2002).", "*Jones, D. and Kwing Tong Woo (1912), \"A Cantonese Phonetic Reader\", London: University of London Press; rpt in Jones (2002).", "*Jones, D. and S. Plaatje (1916), \"A Sechuana Reader\", London: ULP; rpt in Jones (2002).", "*Jones, D. and H. S. Perera (1919), \"A Colloquial Sinhalese Reader\", Manchester: Manchester University Press; rpt in Jones (2002).", "*Jones, D. and M. Trofimov (1923), \"The Pronunciation of Russian\", Cambridge: CUP; rpt in facsimile in Jones (2002).", "*Jones, Daniel and Dahl, Ivar (1944).", "''Castellano bonaerense'', en ''Fundamentos de escritura fonética''.", "London, University College, págs.", "16-17.", "*Jones, D. (2002), Daniel Jones: Selected Works, Vols.", "1–8, ed.", "B. Collins and I.M.", "Mees, London: Routledge.", "*Michaelis, H. and D. Jones (1913), \"A Phonetic Dictionary of the English Language\", Hanover-Berlin: Carl Meyer and Gustav Prior; rpt in Jones (2002)." ], [ "External links", "*Ling Links, People, I-M, Section on Daniel Jones* Parts of his book ''An Outline of English Phonetics''*\" The Daniel Jones Legacy\", J. Windsor Lewis*\" Anniversary of the Death of Daniel Jones\", J. Windsor Lewis*\" Daniel Jones b 12th Sept 1881\", J. Windsor Lewis (includes a recording of Jones speaking)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "David Beckham" ], [ "Introduction", "'''David Robert Joseph Beckham''' ( ; born 2 May 1975) is an English former professional footballer, the president and co-owner of Inter Miami and co-owner of Salford City.", "Primarily a right winger and known for his range of passing, crossing ability and free-kick taking, Beckham has been hailed as one of the greatest and most recognisable midfielders of his generation, as well as one of the best free-kick takers of all time.", "He won 19 major trophies in his career, and is the first English player to win league titles in four different countries: England, Spain, the United States and France.Beckham's professional club career began with Manchester United, where he made his first-team debut in 1992 at age 17.With United, he won the Premier League title six times, the FA Cup twice, the FA Charity Shield twice, the Intercontinental Cup and the UEFA Champions League in 1999.He then played four seasons with Real Madrid, winning the La Liga championship in his final season with the club.", "In July 2007, Beckham signed a five-year contract with Major League Soccer club LA Galaxy.", "While a Galaxy player, he spent two loan spells in Italy with AC Milan in 2009 and 2010.He became the first British footballer to play 100 UEFA Champions League games.", "He retired in May 2013 after a 20-year career.In international football, Beckham made his England debut on 1 September 1996, at the age of 21.He was captain for six years, earning 58 caps during his tenure.", "He made 115 career appearances in total, appearing at three FIFA World Cups in 1998, 2002 and 2006 as well as two UEFA European Championships in 2000 and 2004.Beckham held the England appearance record for an outfield player until 2016.A global ambassador of football, Beckham is considered to be a British cultural icon.", "He has been in a well publicised marriage to Victoria Beckham since 1999 and was consistently ranked among the highest earners in football, in 2013 being listed as the highest-paid player in the world having earned over $50 million in the previous twelve months.", "Beckham was runner-up in the Ballon d'Or in 1999, twice runner-up for FIFA World Player of the Year (1999 and 2001) and in 2004 was named by Pelé in the FIFA 100 list of the world's greatest living players.", "He was inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame in 2008, and the Premier League Hall of Fame in 2021.He has been a UNICEF ambassador since 2005, and in 2015 he launched ''7: The David Beckham UNICEF Fund''.", "In 2014, MLS announced that Beckham and a group of investors would own Inter Miami, which began playing in 2020." ], [ "Early life", "David Robert Joseph Beckham was born on 2 May 1975 at Whipps Cross University Hospital in Leytonstone, London, England.", "He is the son of Sandra Georgina (''née'' West; b.", "1949), a hairdresser, and David Edward Alan \"Ted\" Beckham (b. Edmonton, London, 1948), a kitchen fitter; the couple married in 1969 in the London Borough of Hackney.", "He was given the middle name Robert in honour of Bobby Charlton, his father's favourite footballer.", "He has an older sister, Lynne Georgina, and a younger sister, Joanne Louise.", "He attended Chingford County High School in Nevin Drive, Chingford.", "In a 2007 interview, Beckham said that, \"At school whenever the teachers asked, 'What do you want to do when you're older?'", "I'd say, 'I want to be a footballer.'", "And they'd say, 'No, what do you really want to do, for a job?'", "But that was the only thing I ever wanted to do.", "\"Beckham's maternal grandfather was Jewish, and Beckham has referred to himself as \"half Jewish\" and wrote in his autobiography \"I've probably had more contact with Judaism than with any other religion\".", "In his book ''Both Feet on the Ground'', Beckham stated that growing up he attended church every week with his parents, because that was the only way he could play football for their team.His parents were fanatical Manchester United supporters who frequently travelled 200 miles (320 km) to Old Trafford from London to attend the team's home matches.", "David inherited his parents' love of Manchester United, and his main sporting passion was football.", "He attended one of Bobby Charlton's Soccer Schools in Manchester and won the chance to take part in a training session with Barcelona, as part of a talent competition.", "He played for a local youth team called Ridgeway Rovers, which was coached by his father, Stuart Underwood, and Steve Kirby.", "Beckham was a Manchester United mascot for a match against West Ham United in 1986.Young Beckham had trials with his local club Leyton Orient, Norwich City and attended Tottenham Hotspur's school of excellence, though never represented the club in a match.", "During a two-year period in which Beckham played for Brimsdown Rovers' youth team, he was named Under-15 Player of the Year in 1990.He also attended Bradenton Preparatory Academy, but signed schoolboy forms at Manchester United on his 14th birthday, and subsequently signed a Youth Training Scheme contract on 8 July 1991.Beckham was a late developer and not selected to represent the England Schoolboys' team primarily on account of his small size." ], [ "Club career", "===Manchester United=======1991–1994: Youth and early-career====Having signed for Manchester United as a trainee on 8 July 1991, Beckham was part of a group of young players, including Ryan Giggs, Gary Neville, Phil Neville, Nicky Butt and Paul Scholes, who were coached by Eric Harrison, and helped the club win the FA Youth Cup in May 1992.Beckham scored Manchester United's second goal in the 30th minute of their 3–1 first-leg win of the final against Crystal Palace on 14 April 1992.In the second leg on 15 May, Beckham played a full 90-minutes of the fixture which ended 3–2 in favour of Manchester United and 6–3 on aggregate.", "Beckham's impact led to a first-team debut on 23 September 1992, as a substitute for Andrei Kanchelskis in a League Cup match against Brighton & Hove Albion.", "Shortly afterwards, Beckham signed as a professional on 23 January 1993.Manchester United again reached the final of the FA Youth Cup, where they faced Leeds United.", "The first leg was played on 10 May 1993, where Beckham started in Manchester United's 2–0 home loss but was replaced by substitute Robbie Savage.", "In the second leg on 13 May 1993, Beckham played the full 90 minutes of Manchester United's 2–1 defeat, which gave Leeds United a 4–1 aggregate score.", "Beckham also received honours with the club's reserve team when the squad won the league in 1994.In September 1994, Beckham made his first full appearance in the club's first team against Port Vale in a League Cup fixture.", "On 7 December 1994, Beckham made his UEFA Champions League debut, scoring a goal in a 4–0 victory at home to Galatasaray in the final game of the group stage.", "Despite the victory, however, they finished third out of four in their group, behind Barcelona.====1994–1995: Loan to Preston North End====Beckham then went to Preston North End, on loan for part of the 1994–95 season, to get some first-team experience.He scored two goals in five appearances, notably directly from a corner kick.====1995–1996: Return to United and first Championship====Beckham returned to Manchester and made his Premier League debut for Manchester United on 2 April 1995 in a goalless draw against Leeds United.", "He played four times for United in the league that season, as they finished second behind Blackburn Rovers, missing out on a third successive Premier League title by a single point.", "He was not in the squad for the FA Cup final with Everton on 20 May, which United lost 1–0, leaving the club without a major trophy for the first time since 1989.United manager Sir Alex Ferguson had a great deal of confidence in the club's young players.", "Beckham was part of a group of young talents Ferguson brought into United in the 1990s (known as \"Fergie's Fledglings\"), which included Nicky Butt and Gary and Phil Neville.", "When experienced players Paul Ince, Mark Hughes and Andrei Kanchelskis left the club after the end of the 1994–95 season, his decision to let youth team players replace them instead of buying star players from other clubs (United had been linked with moves for players including Darren Anderton, Marc Overmars and Roberto Baggio, but no major signings were made that summer), drew a great deal of criticism.", "The criticism increased when United started the season with a 3–1 defeat at Aston Villa, with Beckham scoring United's only goal of the game.", "However, United recovered from this early-season defeat and the young players performed well.Beckham swiftly established himself as United's right-sided midfielder (rather than a right-winger in the style of his predecessor Andrei Kanchelskis) and helped them to win the Premier League title and FA Cup double that season, scoring the winner in the semi-final against Chelsea and also providing the corner from which Eric Cantona scored in the FA Cup Final.", "Beckham's first title medal had, for a while, looked like it would not be coming that season, as United were still 10 points adrift of leaders Newcastle United at the turn of the new year, but Beckham and his teammates had overhauled the Tynesiders at the top of the league by mid March and they remained top until the end of the season.", "Despite playing regularly and to a consistently high standard for Manchester United, Beckham did not break into the England squad before Euro 1996.====1996–1998: First-choice and inheriting No.", "7 shirt====At the beginning of the 1996–97 season, Beckham was given the number 10 shirt that had most recently been worn by Mark Hughes.", "On 17 August 1996 (the first day of the Premier League season), Beckham became something of a household name when he scored a spectacular goal in a match against Wimbledon.", "With United leading 2–0, Beckham noticed that Wimbledon's goalkeeper Neil Sullivan was standing a long way out of his goal, and hit a shot from the halfway line – 57 yards out – that floated over the goalkeeper and into the net.His goal celebration saw him raise his arms and walk away smiling rather than run as he often would.", "In a UK poll conducted by Channel 4 in 2002, the British public voted the goal No.18 in the list of the 100 Greatest Sporting Moments.", "In a 2016 Sky Sports poll, it was ranked the best opening day goal in Premier League history.", "During the 1996–97 season, Beckham became an automatic first-choice player at Manchester United, helping them to retain the Premier League title, and was voted PFA Young Player of the Year by his peers.", "Prior to the 1997–98 season, Beckham inherited the number 7 shirt, a number previously worn by such United greats as George Best and Eric Cantona.", "Manchester United started the season well but erratic performances in the second half of the season saw United finish second behind Arsenal.", "Beckham had the most assists in the league with 13, while his nine Premier League goals included a free kick from the edge of the 18-yard box against Manchester United's arch rivals Liverpool at Anfield.====1998–1999: Treble====Manchester United during the 1999 FA Cup Final at Wembley StadiumIn the 1998–99 season, he was part of the United team that won the treble of the Premier League, FA Cup and Champions League, a unique feat in English football until Manchester City's 2022–23 season.", "There had been speculation that the criticism that he had received after being sent off in the World Cup would lead to him leaving England, but Beckham decided to stay at Manchester United.To ensure they would win the Premier League title, United needed to win their final league match of the season, at home to Tottenham.", "There were reports suggesting that the opposition would allow themselves to be beaten to prevent their local rivals Arsenal from retaining the title, but Tottenham took an early lead in the match.", "Beckham scored the equaliser with a curling strike from twelve yards out, after receiving the ball on the right side of the penalty area, placing the ball into the top left corner of the goal; United went on to win the match 2–1 and the league.Beckham played in central midfield in United's win over Bayern Munich in the 1999 UEFA Champions League Final, as United's first-choice centre-midfielders Paul Scholes and Roy Keane were suspended for the match.", "United were losing the match 1–0 at the end of normal time, but won the trophy by scoring two goals in injury time.", "Both of the goals came from corners taken by Beckham.", "Those crucial assists, coupled with great performances over the rest of the season, led to him finishing runner up to Rivaldo for 1999's European Footballer of the Year and FIFA World Player of the Year awards.====1999–2000: Another Championship====Despite Beckham's achievements in the 1998–99 season, he was still unpopular among some opposition fans and journalists, and he was criticised after being sent off for a deliberate foul in Manchester United's World Club Championship match against Necaxa.", "It was suggested in the press that his wife was a bad influence on him, and that it might be in United's interests to sell him, but his manager publicly backed him, and he stayed at the club.During the 1999–2000 season, there was a talk of a transfer to Juventus in Italy, but this never happened.", "Beckham helped United retain the Premier League title in 1999–2000 by an 18-point margin, after being pushed by Arsenal and Leeds United for much of the season.", "United won their final 11 league games of the season, with Beckham scoring five goals during this run, with his last goal coming from a swerving shot from the edge of the penalty area in their final home game against Tottenham Hotspur.====2000–2001: Troubled relationship with Ferguson====By the early-2000s, the relationship between Ferguson and Beckham had begun to deteriorate, possibly as a result of Beckham's fame and commitments away from football.", "In 2000, Beckham was given permission to miss training to look after his son Brooklyn, who had gastroenteritis, but Ferguson was furious when Victoria Beckham was photographed at a London Fashion Week event on the same night, claiming that Beckham would have been able to train if Victoria had looked after Brooklyn that day.", "He responded by fining Beckham the maximum amount that was permitted (two weeks' wages – then £50,000) and dropping him for a crucial match against United's rivals Leeds United.", "He later criticised Beckham for this in his autobiography, claiming he had not been \"fair to his teammates\" Beckham had a good season for his club, though, and helped United to win the Premier League by a record margin.He was a key player in United's third successive league title in 2000–01, only the fourth time that any club had achieved three league titles in a row.", "He scored nine Premier League goals, and had the most assists in the league with 12.====2001–2002: Contract extension====On 10 April 2002, Beckham was injured during a Champions League match against Deportivo de La Coruña, breaking the second metatarsal bone in his left foot.", "There was speculation in the British media that the injury might have been caused deliberately, as the player who had injured Beckham was Argentine Aldo Duscher, and England and Argentina were due to meet in that year's World Cup.", "The injury prevented Beckham from playing for United for the rest of the season and they missed out on the Premier League title to Arsenal (also being knocked out of the Champions League by Bayer Leverkusen on away goals in the semi-finals), but he signed a three-year contract in May, following months of negotiations with the club, mostly concerning extra payments for his image rights.", "The income from his new contract, and his many endorsement deals, made him the highest-paid player in the world at the time.", "Despite the season being curtailed with injury, 2001–02 was one of Beckham's best seasons as a United player; he scored 16 goals in all competitions, the best of his career.====2002–2003: Boot incident and United exit====Following an injury early in the 2002–03 season, Beckham was unable to regain his place on the Manchester United team, with Ole Gunnar Solskjær having replaced him on the right side of midfield.", "His relationship with his manager deteriorated further on 15 February 2003 when, in the changing room following an FA Cup defeat to Arsenal, a furious Alex Ferguson threw or kicked a boot that struck Beckham over the eye, causing a cut that required stitches.", "The incident led to a great deal of transfer speculation involving Beckham, with bookmakers offering odds on whether he or Ferguson would be first to leave the club.", "Although the team had started the season badly, their results improved greatly from December onwards and they won the league, with Beckham managing a total of eleven goals.", "He was still a first-choice player for England, however, and in the Queen's Birthday Honours List he was appointed an OBE for services to football on 13 June 2003.Beckham had made 265 Premier league appearances for United and scored 61 goals.", "He also made 81 Champions league appearances, scoring 15 goals.", "Beckham won six Premier League titles, two FA Cups, one European Cup, one Intercontinental Cup and one FA Youth Cup in the space of twelve years.", "By this stage, he was their joint second longest serving player behind Ryan Giggs (having joined them at the same time as Nicky Butt, Gary Neville and Paul Scholes).===Real Madrid=======2003–2004: Becoming a ''Galáctico''====As the summer 2003 transfer window approached, Manchester United appeared keen to sell Beckham to Barcelona and the two clubs even announced that they reached a deal for Beckham's transfer, but instead he joined reigning Spanish champions Real Madrid for €37 million on a four-year contract.", "Beckham was the latest signing in the ''Galácticos'' era of global stars signed by club president Florentino Pérez every summer.", "The news came as a bitter blow to the newly elected Barcelona president Joan Laporta, who based much of his presidential campaign on signing Beckham.The transfer to Real Madrid was announced in mid-June and formally completed on 1 July 2003, making Beckham the third Englishman to play for the club, after Laurie Cunningham and Steve McManaman, the latter of whom he succeeded in his position.", "Following a successful medical on 2 July, Beckham was unveiled in front of 500 accredited journalists from 25 countries at the club's basketball facility, where he was handed the famous white shirt by former Real Madrid player Alfredo Di Stéfano.", "Although Beckham had worn the number seven shirt for Manchester United and England, he was unable to wear it at Madrid as it was assigned to club captain Raúl.", "Beckham decided to wear number 23 instead, citing his admiration of basketball player Michael Jordan, who also wore the number 23 shirt, as the reason behind his decision.", "On sales of Beckham-related merchandise following his arrival at Real, an Adidas spokesman stated: \"Put Beckham's name on any product and Real Madrid didn't stop selling\".Beckham (top) and Zinedine Zidane at Real Madrid in 2003In the week before Beckham's presentation, Real named Carlos Queiroz as their new head coach, meaning that Beckham was reunited with a familiar face upon arriving to Madrid, since Queiroz had spent the previous season as Ferguson's assistant at Manchester United.", "In late-July 2003, the club went on a tour of the Far East as part of pre-season training, but also to cash in on Beckham's huge marketing appeal in Asia, where he enjoyed tremendous following.", "Comparing his reception upon arriving at Kunming Airport in south China to Beatlemania, ''Marca'' ran the headline, \"Beckham-mania in China\".", "After the opening game in Beijing the tour featured games in Hong Kong, Tokyo and Bangkok.", "Real's brand recognition in that part of the globe was already well established as the club made financially successful trips to Asia during previous off-seasons.", "The presence of a global marketing icon such as Beckham, however, made this particular tour a financial smash for ''los Merengues''.Shortly after his transfer to Real, Beckham also ended his relationship with agent Tony Stephens of SFX Europe, who had guided him through his career until that point, including helping to engineer Beckham's move from Manchester to Madrid.", "Beckham signed on with Simon Fuller and his company 19 Entertainment, which already managed the career of Victoria.", "Beckham also appointed close friend Terry Byrne to be his personal manager.In late-August 2003, Real Madrid won the Spanish Super Cup over two legs versus Mallorca, with Beckham scoring the final goal in a 3–0 return leg win at home, thus setting the stage for the start of the league season.", "Playing in a star-laden team which included three former FIFA World Player of the Year recipients, Zinedine Zidane, Ronaldo and Luís Figo, in addition to Roberto Carlos, Raúl and Iker Casillas, Beckham did not require much time to settle in, scoring five times in his first 16 matches (including a goal less than three minutes into his La Liga debut).", "Queiroz mostly favoured the adaptable 5–3–2 formation, with two fullbacks Míchel Salgado and Roberto Carlos, often joining the attack down the wings, while Beckham played on the right of the three-man midfield, alongside Zidane and Figo.Real Madrid were runners-up in the Copa del Rey, were knocked out of the UEFA Champions League at the quarter-final stage and finished the league season in fourth place, meaning the team, whose president Pérez expected them to win either the Spanish league or the Champions League each season, did not match expectations.", "In July 2004, while Beckham was in pre-season training in Spain, an intruder scaled a wall at the Beckham home while carrying a can of petrol.", "Victoria and their children were in the house at the time, but security guards apprehended the man before he reached the house.====2004–2005: Managerial changes====The league season began with new head coach José Antonio Camacho at the helm, but he ended up lasting only three matches, handing in his resignation as Real dropped to eighth spot in the La Liga standings.", "Camacho's assistant Mariano García Remón took over on temporary basis as Real's leadership scrambled to find a permanent replacement.", "Beckham made more headlines on 9 October 2004 when he admitted intentionally fouling Ben Thatcher in an England match against Wales to get himself booked.", "Beckham was due to receive a one-match suspension for his next caution, and had picked up an injury which he knew would keep him out of England's next match, so he deliberately fouled Thatcher to serve his suspension in a match that he would have had to miss anyway.", "The Football Association asked Beckham for an explanation of his actions and he admitted that he had \"made a mistake\" and apologised.", "He was sent off shortly afterwards, this time in a league match for Real Madrid against Valencia.", "Having received a yellow card, he was judged to have sarcastically applauded the referee and was given a second yellow card, causing an automatic dismissal, although the suspension was cancelled on appeal.By Christmas 2004, with the team sitting in second position in the league, García Remón was dismissed, and Vanderlei Luxemburgo became the new head coach.", "However, the well-travelled Brazilian failed to inspire the team to the title as Real again finished the season in second position.", "On 3 December 2005, Beckham was sent off for the third time that season in a league match against Getafe.", "A day later Luxemburgo was sacked and was replaced by Juan Ramón López Caro.", "By the end of that season, Beckham was third in La Liga in number of assists.====2005–2006: Outpaced by Barcelona====Beckham warming up with Real Madrid in 2006During the season, Beckham established football academies in Los Angeles and east London and was named a judge for the 2006 British Book Awards.", "Real Madrid finished second to Barcelona in the 2005–06 La Liga, albeit with a large twelve-point gap, and only reached the last 16 in the Champions League after losing to Arsenal.", "The season also marked the end of an era for the club as Pérez resigned his post as president in January 2006, with Vicente Boluda named as replacement on an interim basis until the end of the season.====2006–2007: Real Madrid exit====The summer 2006 off-season marked a turbulent time as the club's presidential elections were held.", "Ramón Calderón became the new Real president.", "As expected, none of the club officials who served under the previous president was kept, including head coach López Caro.", "Initially out of favour with newly arrived head coach Fabio Capello, Beckham started only a few games at the beginning of the season, as the speedier José Antonio Reyes was normally preferred on the right wing.", "Of the first nine matches Beckham started, Real lost seven.", "On 10 January 2007, after prolonged contractual negotiations, Real Madrid's sporting director Predrag Mijatović announced that Beckham would not remain at Real Madrid after the end of the season.", "However, he later claimed that he was mistranslated and that he actually said that Beckham's contract had not yet been renewed.On 11 January 2007, Beckham announced that he had signed a five-year deal to play for the LA Galaxy, beginning 1 July 2007.On 13 January 2007, Fabio Capello said that Beckham had played his last game for Real Madrid, although he continued to train with the team.", "A few days later, while speaking to the students at Villanueva University Center in Madrid, Calderón said that Beckham is \"going to Hollywood to be half a film star\", adding \"our technical staff were right not to extend his contract, which has been proved by the fact that no other technical staff in the world wanted him except Los Angeles\".About a month later, however, Capello backtracked on his earlier statement, allowing Beckham to rejoin the team for the match against Real Sociedad on 10 February 2007.The player immediately repaid his head coach's trust by scoring the equalising goal from a 27-yard free kick, as Real Madrid eventually recorded a 2–1 victory.", "In his final UEFA Champions League appearance for the club, Real Madrid were knocked out of the competition by Bayern Munich at the round-of-16 stage (on the away goals rule) on 7 March 2007.Beckham played a pivotal role in all three Madrid goals in the home game, with Bayern goalkeeper Oliver Kahn describing his performance as \"world class\".Beckham during his last season with Real MadridOn 17 June 2007, the last day of the La Liga season, Beckham started in his final match for the club, a 3–1 win over Mallorca which saw them clinch the title from Barcelona.", "With Real down 0–1, Beckham limped off the field and was replaced by José Antonio Reyes, who scored two goals, leading the team to that season's La Liga title, their first since Beckham had signed with them and 30th overall in the club's history.", "Although Real and Barçelona both finished level on points, Madrid took the title because of their superior head-to-head record, capping a remarkable six-month turnaround for Beckham.", "With his wife and children, along with celebrity friends Tom Cruise and Katie Holmes, watching from a luxury box at the Santiago Bernabéu, it was only Beckham's second piece of silverware since he joined the famous club.Towards the end of the season, as Beckham was getting back into Capello's good books after successfully fighting his way back into the first team, Real Madrid announced they would try to untie his transfer to LA Galaxy, but were ultimately unsuccessful.", "Several weeks before Beckham's scheduled arrival in the United States, Real's management contacted LA Galaxy's ownership group about reacquiring the player, but were quickly turned down.A month after the conclusion of Beckham's Real career, ''Forbes'' magazine reported that he had been the party primarily responsible for the team's huge increase in merchandise sales, a total reported to top US$600 million during Beckham's four years at the club.===LA Galaxy=======2007: First season in MLS====Beckham's involvement with Major League Soccer (MLS) began while he was still a Real Madrid player when it was confirmed on 11 January 2007 that he would be leaving Madrid in six months to join MLS side LA Galaxy.", "The speculation about his new contract in Madrid was thus put to an end and the following day Beckham's official press conference was held in conjunction with the 2007 MLS SuperDraft.The announcement made global headlines and elevated the league's profile.", "Though many worldwide media outlets reported the deal to be worth US$250 million, the astronomical figure was soon revealed to be something of a PR stunt engineered by Beckham's media handlers (British representative agency 19 Entertainment).", "To maximise the media effect, in the press release they decided to list the potential sum that Beckham could make over the five-year period from all his revenue sources, which in addition to his Galaxy pay, also include his personal endorsements.", "Beckham's actual deal with the Galaxy was a five-year contract worth US$32.5 million in total or $6.5 million per year.The high-profile acquisition paid immediate financial dividends for Galaxy long before Beckham joined the team.", "On the strength of the signing and the media frenzy it created, the club was able to pull off a new five-year shirt sponsorship deal with the Herbalife nutrition company worth US$20 million.", "The gate revenue peaked as well with 11,000 new season tickets holders and sold-out luxury suites (each one of the 42 inside the team's home stadium, the Home Depot Center).", "LA Galaxy owners Anschutz Entertainment Group (AEG) also reported an immediate spike in business.", "Involved on many business fronts worldwide, AEG was already leveraging its Beckham association in places such as Shanghai and Beijing, where the company had been working aggressively for years to receive clearance to build arenas and stadiums.", "The company's CEO Tim Leiweke put it as follows: \"Suddenly, we're known as the company that owns the team that David Beckham is going to play for, so our world changed\".In the months following the announcement, the additional terms of Beckham's contract became public knowledge.", "One unique contract provision was giving him the option of buying an MLS expansion franchise in any market except New York City at the fixed price of $25 million whenever he stopped playing in the league – an allowance that the league's owners had never given to a player before.", "Another provision was the opt-out clause after the 2009 season, meaning that should he decide so, Beckham was free to leave the club after completing year three of his five-year contract.", "The league had a salary cap in place, requiring the creation of the Designated Player Rule for Beckham to bypass the cap; the rule was later nicknamed in his honor.", "In April 2007, he and wife Victoria bought an $18.2 million home on San Ysidro Drive in Beverly Hills.Beckham (with a blue captain's armband) became LA Galaxy captain immediately upon joining the team.Beckham's contract with LA Galaxy took effect on 11 July, and on 13 July, he was officially unveiled as a Galaxy player at the Home Depot Center, to much fanfare and world media interest, in front of more than 5,000 gathered fans and some 700 accredited media members.", "Beckham chose to wear number 23.It was announced that Galaxy jersey sales had already reached a record figure of over 250,000 prior to this formal introduction.In parallel, Beckham's handlers at 19 Entertainment succeeded in putting together an unprecedented US media rollout designed to expand his carefully crafted personal brand in America.", "He made the cover of ''Sports Illustrated'', a few weeks earlier Adidas launched the extensive 13-part ad campaign \"Fútbol meets Football\" starring Beckham and NFL running back Reggie Bush, and ''W'' magazine published a racy photo spread featuring David and wife Victoria photographed by Steven Klein.", "Meanwhile, ESPN sports network was running a promotional campaign and it also agreed to air the ''David Beckham: New Beginnings'' documentary produced by 19 Entertainment before the friendly match versus Chelsea, which was expected to be Beckham's American debut.", "In addition to popularising soccer, Beckham's arrival was used as platform for entertainment industry endeavours.", "Since both Beckham's and his wife's often overlapping careers were handled by 19 Entertainment, which is owned by Simon Fuller, who in turn has a business relationship with the Creative Artists Agency (CAA), one of Hollywood's most powerful talent agencies, it was important also for CAA that the Beckhams made as big an impact as possible upon their arrival in the United States.", "On 16 July, CAA had hosted a welcoming bash for David at its new eight-storey, $400 million headquarters in Century City, with CAA employees reportedly instructed beforehand to line the staircase and clap for Beckham upon his arrival.", "That night Victoria's reality show prime-time special ''Victoria Beckham: Coming to America'' aired on NBC, drawing negative reviews in the press and poor viewership ratings.Beckham during an LA Galaxy game in 2007On Saturday afternoon, 21 July, despite still nursing the injured left ankle that he picked up a month earlier during the final match of La Liga's season, Beckham made his Galaxy debut, coming on for Alan Gordon in the 78th minute of a 0–1 friendly loss to Chelsea as part of the World Series of Soccer.", "With a capacity crowd, along with a long Hollywood celebrity list featuring Tom Cruise, Katie Holmes, Eva Longoria, Governor of California Arnold Schwarzenegger and Drew Carey among others, present at the Home Depot Center, the match was broadcast live on ESPN's main network.", "However, the proceedings on the field of play took a back seat to the Beckham spectacle, and despite the presence of worldwide football stars such as Andriy Shevchenko, Didier Drogba, Michael Ballack and Frank Lampard, the US television cameras were firmly focused on Beckham, who spent most of the match on the bench.", "The match's added time featured a scare for already injured Beckham when he got tackled by Steve Sidwell, whose cleats struck Beckham's right foot, sending him airborne before he crumpled hard to the ground.", "Though the existing injury was not aggravated too much, Beckham's recovery process was set back by about a week.", "ESPN's presentation of Beckham's debut earned a 1.0 TV rating, meaning it was seen in an average of 947,000 television homes in the US – a disappointing figure given the national media buzz and two weeks of constant promotion by ESPN.", "As far as sporting events that were televised that weekend in the United States, Beckham's much publicised debut drew fewer TV viewers than the British Open golf tournament, a regular-season Major League Baseball game, and even the Indy Racing League's Honda 200 motor race.The day after the made-for-TV debut was reserved for the welcoming party for the Beckhams at LA's Museum of Contemporary Art, formally billed as being hosted by Tom Cruise, Katie Holmes, Will Smith and Jada Pinkett Smith, though in actuality a CAA-organized event.", "Attended by many Hollywood A-listers, the lavish event was well-covered in the US celebrity tabloid media, including daily entertainment TV magazines such as ''Entertainment Tonight'' and ''Access Hollywood''.Beckham missed the next four LA Galaxy matches – three in the North American SuperLiga and an MLS game away at Toronto FC - though he still made the trip with his teammates, sitting on the bench in street clothes.", "It was in Toronto on 5 August that the team got its first taste of what life would be like on the road with Beckham on the roster.", "Due to security concerns, it was the first time the team flew on a charter for a road match, rather than flying commercial; MLS normally forbids charter flights for away matches, claiming they provide competitive advantage, but in this case they made an exception due to the frenzy created around Beckham and resulting security issues.", "Also, instead of the usual MLS-mandated modest hotels, LA Galaxy stayed at the five-star Le Méridien King Edward in downtown Toronto (an expense paid for by the local Toronto promoter), while the glitz and glamour continued with the velvet rope, red carpet party at the Ultra Supper Club with Beckham as the centerpiece guest.Beckham playing for LA Galaxy in 2008Two weeks after his twelve-minute appearance against Chelsea, Beckham made his league debut as a substitute on 9 August away versus D.C. United in front of the sellout crowd of 46,686 (nearly three times the average D.C. United home crowd) at the RFK Stadium, coming on for Quavas Kirk in the 71st minute.", "Coming into the nationally televised match on ESPN, played under a heavy downpour with his team down a man and down a goal, Beckham left a mark during the remaining 20-plus minutes.", "He hit a long free kick that Carlos Pavón failed to finish on for the equaliser, and then in the final minutes Beckham served a weighted through ball into Landon Donovan's path that United's keeper Troy Perkins managed to break up in the last moment – the Galaxy lost 1–0.The next match on the road trip was at New England Revolution and Beckham decided to sit it out, fearing further aggravating his ankle injury on the Gillette Stadium's artificial surface.Beckham returned to the pitch the following week, again facing D.C. United, in the SuperLiga semi-final on 15 August.", "During this game, he had many firsts with the Galaxy; his first start, first yellow card and first game as team captain.", "He also scored his first goal for the team, from a free kick, and also made his first assist, for Landon Donovan in the second half.", "These goals gave the team a 2–0 victory, and a place in the North American SuperLiga final versus Pachuca on 29 August.During the SuperLiga final against Pachuca, Beckham injured his right knee, with an MRI scan revealing that he had sprained his medial collateral ligament and would be out for six weeks.", "He returned to play in the final home match of the season.", "The Galaxy were eliminated from playoff contention on 21 October, in the final MLS match of the season, a 1–0 loss to the Chicago Fire.", "Beckham played as a substitute in the match, bringing his season totals to eight matches played (5 league); one goal scored (0 league); and three assists (2 league).====2008====Beckham trained with Arsenal from 4 January 2008 for three weeks, until he returned to the Galaxy for pre-season training.", "Beckham scored his first league goal with the Galaxy on 3 April, against the San Jose Earthquakes in the ninth minute.", "On 24 May 2008, the Galaxy defeated the Kansas City Wizards 3–1, giving the Galaxy their first winning record in two years and moving the club into first place in the Western Conference.", "In the match, Beckham scored an empty-net goal from 70 yards out.", "The goal marked the second time in Beckham's career that he had scored from his own half, the other being a 1996-goal from the half-way line against Wimbledon at Selhurst Park.", "Overall, however, the Galaxy had a disappointing year, failing to qualify for the end-of-season play-offs.====2009: Loan to AC Milan====AC Milan in 2009In 2008, Beckham's success in the England national team under Fabio Capello led to speculation that he might return to Europe to retain match fitness for the World Cup qualifying matches in 2009.On 30 October 2008, AC Milan announced that Beckham was to join them on loan from 7 January 2009.Despite this and other speculation, Beckham made it clear that the move in no way signalled his intent to leave MLS and announced his intent to return to the Galaxy in time for the start of the 2009 season in March.", "Many at Milan both within and outside of the club expressed serious reservations about the transfer, with it considered by some players no more than a marketing move.Beckham was unveiled at Milan's training facility by the club's chief executive Adriano Galliani on 20 December 2008.The player chose the number 32 shirt previously worn by Christian Vieri, as both the number 7 and 23 shirts were already used by Alexandre Pato and club vice captain Massimo Ambrosini, respectively.", "The day after his unveiling, Beckham was brought to the San Siro, where he was introduced to the home fans by walking out on the pitch before the league match versus Udinese and proclaiming \"Forza Milan\" over the public address system.", "Afterwards, he and wife Victoria watched from a luxury box as Milan won 5–1.Playing on the squad led by the 26-year-old superstar Kaká, in addition to several other world-class players at or near the peak of their careers – such as 28-year-old Ronaldinho and 29-year-old Andrea Pirlo – as well as club veterans Paolo Maldini, Clarence Seedorf, Massimo Ambrosini, Giuseppe Favalli, Gianluca Zambrotta, Filippo Inzaghi and Andriy Shevchenko, Beckham made his competitive debut for the ''rossoneri'' in Serie A as a starter away at Roma on 11 January 2009, playing 89 minutes of the 2–2 draw in front of 53,444 at the Stadio Olimpico.", "Playing his first competitive match in almost three months, Beckham gave a decent performance in right midfield alongside Pirlo.", "Though clearly lacking match fitness, occasionally struggling to keep up in a high-tempo match, Beckham put in enough useful crosses and corners to justify the coach Carlo Ancelotti's decision to play him from the start.", "In Beckham's home debut against Fiorentina a week later, he turned in another understated performance on the right side of midfield before advancing into a more active central role in the second half thus effectively taking over Seedorf's role after the Dutchman was subbed off.", "Milan won 1–0 courtesy of Pato, but the 65,000+ San Siro crowd mostly focused on Kaká, imploring him to stay.A noticeably older team, the Ancelotti-coached Milan was proving a good fit for the 33-year-old Englishman.", "He scored his first goal in Serie A for Milan in a 4–1 victory over Bologna on 25 January, his third appearance for the club.", "Though Beckham was expected to return to Los Angeles in March, after impressing at the Italian club, scoring two goals in his first four matches and assisting on several more, rumours began to swirl that Beckham would stay in Milan, with the Italian club reportedly offering to pay a multi-million-dollar fee for him.", "The rumours were confirmed on 4 February, when Beckham stated that he was seeking a permanent transfer to Milan, in a bid to sustain his England career through the 2010 World Cup.", "Milan, however, failed to match Galaxy's valuation of Beckham, in the US$10–15 million range.Still, negotiations continued during a month of speculation.", "On 2 March, the ''Los Angeles Times'' reported that Beckham's loan had been extended through mid-July.", "This was later confirmed by Beckham, revealing what was described as a unique \"timeshare\" deal, in which Beckham would play with L.A. from mid-July until the end of the 2009 MLS season.====2009: Return to Galaxy====After his return from Milan, many LA fans showed dislike and anger towards him as he missed the first half of the season, and several held up signs saying \"Go home fraud\", and \"Part-time player\".", "The Galaxy, however, had a much more successful season than in previous years, rising from third to first in the Western Conference during Beckham's time with them.", "He remained a key part of the squad which saw Galaxy win the 2009 Western Conference final after a 2–0 overtime victory over the Houston Dynamo.In the MLS Cup final on 22 November 2009, the Galaxy lost to Real Salt Lake by 5–4 in a penalty shoot-out after a 1–1 draw.", "Beckham also scored in the shootout.====2010: Second loan to Milan====In November 2009, after the end of 2009 MLS season, it was confirmed that Beckham would return to Milan for a second loan period, beginning in January 2010.On 6 January 2010, Beckham made a winning return in a Milan shirt, playing 75 minutes of a 5–2 victory over Genoa.", "On 16 February 2010, Beckham played against Manchester United for the first time since he left the club in 2003.He played 76 minutes of the match at the San Siro – which ended 3–2 to Manchester United – before being substituted for Clarence Seedorf.Beckham returned to Old Trafford for the second leg of the tie on 10 March 2010; he did not start the match, but was brought on for Ignazio Abate in the 64th minute to a positive reception from the Manchester United fans.", "The score was 3–0 for United at that point and the tie was all but decided.", "The match was the first time Beckham had played against Manchester United at Old Trafford, and saw him create several scoring opportunities via crosses and corner kicks, but Manchester United dominated Milan and beat them 4–0, winning the tie 7–2.Following the final whistle, he aroused a bit of controversy by draping the green-and-gold scarf around his neck that was given to him by the Manchester United supporters protesting against club owner Malcolm Glazer.", "As the fan protests against Glazer by the people gathered around Manchester United Supporters' Trust gained steam in 2010, the green-and-gold scarf had come to be seen as an anti-Glazer symbol, and by extension many saw Beckham's decision to publicly put it on as gesture of support.", "When asked about it later, however, Beckham responded that protests are not his business.In Milan's next game, against Chievo, Beckham suffered a torn left Achilles tendon, causing him to miss the World Cup as well as the MLS season due to the injury, which took him out of action for the next five months.", "Doctor Sakari Orava performed surgery on Beckham's tendon in Turku, Finland, on 15 March 2010.After the operation, Orava confirmed: \"it went quite fine.", "The prognosis is he needs a rehabilitation for the next few months, and the plaster cast is the next six to eight weeks.", "I would say that it will be maybe four months before he's running, but six months before he's jumping and kicking.", "\"====2010: Second return to Galaxy====Beckham playing for LA Galaxy in 2010On 11 September 2010, after recovering from his Achilles tendon injury, Beckham returned to the game as a substitute in the 70th minute in the Galaxy's 3–1 win over Columbus Crew.", "On 4 October, Beckham scored a trademark free kick in a 2–1 win over Chivas USA to mark his first goal in 2010.On 24 October, Beckham scored his second goal of the season in the Galaxy's 2–1 win over FC Dallas which secured them their second successive Western Conference title and first MLS Supporters' Shield since 2002.====2011: MLS Cup champion====During January and February 2011, ahead of the 2011 MLS season, Beckham trained with Tottenham Hotspur.", "Rumours in the media claimed that the club were in talks with the Galaxy to sign the player on loan, but, according to Spurs manager Harry Redknapp, the move was blocked by Galaxy, who wanted a full final season from their number 23.As a result, he ended up only training with the club as he had done with Arsenal three years earlier.", "With Beckham playing in the centre of midfield, the Galaxy won the 2011 MLS cup.Beckham with LA Galaxy in 2012On 15 May, Beckham scored his first goal of the season for the Galaxy from a 30-yard free kick, in a 4–1 victory over Sporting Kansas City.", "On 9 July, Beckham scored directly from a corner in a 2–1 win over Chicago Fire, repeating a feat he also achieved while playing for Preston North End.After having his best season with the Galaxy to date, and finishing second in the league in assists, Beckham finished his fifth MLS season on a high.", "On 20 November 2011, he joined an elite group of players to have won league titles in three countries, when Los Angeles won their third MLS Cup against the Houston Dynamo, winning 1–0 on a goal by captain Landon Donovan, with assists from Beckham and fellow designated player Robbie Keane.====2012: Second successive cup victory====Following the 2011 season, in which the Galaxy won their second consecutive Supporters' Shield, having the second most points in MLS history, Beckham's five-year contract with the Galaxy expired on 31 December 2011.Despite being 36, he stated that he did not intend to retire.", "Beckham was heavily linked with Paris Saint-Germain, but on 18 January 2012, Galaxy announced Beckham had signed a new two-year contract to remain in Los Angeles.", "In May 2012, Beckham and his victorious teammates were received by President of the United States Barack Obama at the White House.Beckham helped the Galaxy to a fourth-place finish in the Western Conference during the 2012 regular season, with Beckham scoring seven goals and adding nine assists.", "The Galaxy defeated Vancouver Whitecaps, the San Jose Earthquakes and the Seattle Sounders on their way to the MLS Cup final, where they defeated the Houston Dynamo 3–1 to retain the cup.", "He was subbed off in the 89th minute for Marcelo Sarvas, and was given a standing ovation at their home venue.", "Beckham had earlier announced that the 2012 MLS Cup Final would be his final game with the Galaxy, despite having another year remaining on his contract.===Paris Saint-Germain===On 31 January 2013, ahead of the transfer deadline it was announced that Beckham would be undergoing a medical with Paris Saint-Germain, ahead of a potential move to the Ligue 1 side.", "Beckham signed a five-month deal with the club later that afternoon, and confirmed that his entire salary during his time in Paris would be donated to a local children's charity.", "His PSG debut came on 24 February 2013, when he came off the bench in the 76th minute in a Ligue 1 home match against Marseille.", "This made him the 400th player in the history of the club.", "On 12 May 2013, Beckham won a fourth different top flight winners' medal, after PSG beat Lyon 1–0 to claim the Ligue 1 title.On 16 May 2013, Beckham announced that he would retire from professional football at the end of that year's French football season.", "Following his decision to retire at the end of the 2012–13 season, Beckham was given specially designed boots in the colours of the Union Jack to wear in his final game.", "These boots had the names of his wife and children stitched on to them.", "On 18 May 2013, Beckham was made captain in his final home game against Brest.", "In this game, Beckham assisted a goal by Matuidi from a corner.", "Beckham was subbed off after 80 minutes, receiving hugs from his fellow players and manager, as well as a standing ovation from fans.", "PSG went on to win the game 3–1." ], [ "International career", "Beckham captained England 59 times in 115 appearances, the fourth-highest after Bobby Moore, Billy Wright and Bryan Robson.Beckham made his first appearance for England on 1 September 1996, in a FIFA World Cup qualifying match against Moldova.", "In June 1997, he participated in the Tournoi de France, the friendly international football tournament held in France as a warm-up to the 1998 FIFA World Cup.===1998 FIFA World Cup===Beckham played in all of England's qualifying matches for the 1998 FIFA World Cup and was part of the 23-man squad for the finals in France, but the team's manager Glenn Hoddle publicly accused him of not concentrating on the tournament, and he did not start in either of England's first two games.", "He was picked for the third game against Colombia and scored with a bending 30-yard free kick in a 2–0 victory, which was his first goal for England.In the second round (last 16) of that competition, he received a red card in England's match against Argentina.", "Beckham, after having been fouled by Diego Simeone, kicked Simeone while lying on the ground, striking him on the calf muscle.", "''Sports Illustrated'' was critical of the Argentinian's theatrics in that incident, stating that Simeone first delivered a \"heavy-handed challenge\" on Beckham, and then \"fell like a ton of bricks\" when Beckham retaliated.", "Simeone later admitted to trying to get Beckham sent off by over-reacting to the kick and then, along with other members of his team, urging the referee to send Beckham off.", "The match finished in a draw, and England were eliminated in a penalty shootout.", "Many supporters and journalists blamed Beckham for England's elimination and he became the target of criticism and abuse, including the hanging of an effigy outside a London pub, and the ''Daily Mirror'' printing a dartboard with a picture of him centred on the bullseye.", "He also received death threats after the World Cup.===Euro 2000 and England captaincy===The abuse that Beckham was receiving from English supporters peaked during England's 3–2 defeat by Portugal in Euro 2000, a match where Beckham set up two goals, when a group of England supporters taunted him throughout the match.", "Beckham responded by raising his middle finger and, while the gesture attracted some criticism, many of the newspapers that had previously encouraged his vilification asked their readers to stop abusing him.On 15 November 2000, following Kevin Keegan's resignation as England manager in October, Beckham was promoted to team captain by the caretaker manager Peter Taylor, and then kept the role under new manager Sven-Göran Eriksson.Beckham played a major role in helping England qualify for the 2002 FIFA World Cup, starring in an impressive 5–1 victory over Germany in Munich.", "The final step in Beckham's conversion from villain to national hero happened in England's final qualifying game against Greece on 6 October 2001.England needed to win or draw the match to qualify outright for the World Cup, but were losing 2–1 with little time remaining.", "When Teddy Sheringham was fouled eight yards outside the Greek penalty area, England were awarded a free-kick and Beckham ensured England's qualification with a curling strike of the kind that had become his trademark.", "Beckham was voted the BBC Sports Personality of the Year for 2001, and finished runner-up to Luís Figo of Portugal, for the FIFA World Player of the Year award.===2002 FIFA World Cup and Euro 2004===Argentina at the 2002 World CupBeckham was partially fit by the time of the 2002 World Cup held in Japan and South Korea, and played in the first match against Sweden.", "After the events of four years earlier, Beckham achieved a degree of revenge over Argentina by scoring the winning goal with a penalty.", "England defeated Denmark in the second round with Beckham providing an assist in a 3–0 win.", "England were knocked out in the quarter-finals by eventual winners Brazil after Ronaldinho scored the winner.The following month, at the opening ceremony of the 2002 Commonwealth Games in Manchester, Beckham escorted Kirsty Howard as she presented the Jubilee Baton to the Queen.", "Beckham played in all of England's matches at Euro 2004.He had a penalty saved in England's 2–1 defeat to France and missed another in a penalty shootout in the quarter-final match against Portugal.", "England lost the shootout, thus going out of the competition.Beckham became a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador in January 2005 and was involved in promoting London's successful bid for the 2012 Olympic Games.", "In October 2005, Beckham's sending off against Austria made him the first England captain to be sent off and the first player to be sent off twice while playing for England.", "He captained England for the 50th time in a friendly international against Argentina the following month.===2006 FIFA World Cup===In England's opening game at the 2006 World Cup, against Paraguay on 10 June 2006, Beckham's free kick led to an own-goal by Carlos Gamarra as England won 1–0.In England's next match, played against Trinidad and Tobago on 15 June 2006, Beckham's cross in the 83rd minute led to a Peter Crouch goal, which put England into the lead 1–0.Beckham gave another assist to Steven Gerrard.", "In the end they won 2–0.He was named Man of the Match by tournament sponsor Budweiser.During England's second round match against Ecuador, Beckham scored from a free kick in the 59th minute, becoming the first English player to score in three separate World Cups, and giving England a 1–0 victory and a place in the quarter-finals.", "He was sick before the game and vomited several times as a result of dehydration and illness that he got after having scored the winning goal for England.", "In the quarter-final against Portugal, Beckham was substituted following an injury shortly after half time and the England team went on to lose the match on penalties (3–1), the score having been 0–0 after extra time.", "After his substitution, Beckham was visibly shaken and emotional for not being able to play, being in tears at one point.A day after England were knocked out of the World Cup, an emotional Beckham made a statement in a news conference that he had stepped down as England captain, stating: \"It has been an honour and privilege to captain my country but, having been captain for 58 of my 95 games, I feel the time is right to pass on the armband as we enter a new era under Steve McClaren.\"", "(Beckham had won 94 caps up to that point.)", "He was succeeded by Chelsea captain John Terry.Having stepped down as captain after the World Cup, Beckham was dropped completely from the England national team selected by new coach Steve McClaren on 11 August 2006.McClaren said that he was \"looking to go in a different direction\" with the team, and that Beckham \"wasn't included within that.\"", "McClaren said Beckham could be recalled in future.", "Shaun Wright-Phillips, Kieran Richardson and the World Cup alternative to Beckham, Aaron Lennon, were all included, although McClaren eventually opted to employ Steven Gerrard in that role.===Post-2006 World Cup===Brazil from which John Terry scored.On 26 May 2007, McClaren announced that Beckham would be recalled to the England squad for the first time since stepping down as their captain.", "Beckham started against Brazil in England's first match at the new Wembley Stadium and put in a positive performance.", "In the second half, he set up England's goal converted by captain John Terry.", "It looked as though England would claim victory over Brazil, but newcomer Diego equalised in the dying seconds.", "In England's next match, a Euro 2008 qualifier against Estonia, Beckham sent two trademark assists for Michael Owen and Peter Crouch, helping England to prevail 3–0.Beckham had assisted in three of England's four total goals in those two games, and he stated his desire to continue to play for England after his move to Major League Soccer.On 22 August 2007, Beckham played in a friendly for England against Germany, becoming the first to play for England while with a non-European club team.", "On 21 November 2007, Beckham earned his 99th cap against Croatia, setting up a goal for Peter Crouch to tie the game at 2–2.Following the 2–3 loss, England failed to qualify for the Euro 2008 Finals.", "Despite this, Beckham said that he had no plans to retire from international football and wanted to continue playing for the national team.", "After being passed over by new England coach and Beckham's former manager at Real Madrid, Fabio Capello, for a friendly against Switzerland which would have given him his hundredth cap; Beckham admitted that he was not in shape at the time, as he had not played a competitive match in three months.===100 England caps, final appearance===Beckham lining up a free kick for England in 2008On 20 March 2008, Beckham was recalled to the England squad by Capello for the friendly against France in Paris on 26 March.", "Beckham became only the fifth Englishman to win 100 caps.", "Capello had hinted on 25 March 2008 that Beckham had a long-term future in his side, ahead of crucial qualifiers for the 2010 World Cup.On 11 May 2008, Capello included an in-form Beckham in his 31-man England squad to face the United States at Wembley on 28 May before the away fixture with Trinidad and Tobago on 1 June.", "Beckham – who wore a pair of golden boots to mark the occasion – was honoured before the match by receiving an honorary gold cap representing his 100th cap from Bobby Charlton, and was given a standing ovation from the crowd.", "He played well and assisted John Terry on the match-winning goal.", "When substituted at half-time for David Bentley, the pro-Beckham crowd booed the decision.", "In a surprise move, Capello handed Beckham the captaincy for England's friendly against Trinidad and Tobago on 1 June 2008.The match was the first time since the 2006 World Cup that Beckham had skippered England and marked a dramatic turnaround for Beckham.", "In two years, he had gone from being dropped completely from the England squad to being reinstated (though temporarily) as England captain.During the 2010 World Cup Qualifier against Belarus, which England won 3–1 in Minsk, Beckham came off the bench in the 87th minute to earn his 107th cap making him England's third-most-capped player in history, overtaking Bobby Charlton in the process.", "On 11 February 2009, Beckham drew level with Bobby Moore's record of 108 caps for an English outfield player, coming on as a substitute for Stewart Downing in a friendly match against Spain.", "On 28 March 2009, Beckham surpassed Moore to hold the record outright when he came on as a substitute in a friendly against Slovakia, providing the assist for a goal from Wayne Rooney in the process.", "In all, Beckham had made 16 appearances out of a possible 20 for England under Capello until his ruptured Achilles tendon of March 2010 ruled him out of selection for the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa.", "His last game for England before injury had been on 14 October 2009 as a substitute in England's last World Cup qualifying game, which ended England 3–0 Belarus.After a poor performance from England at the World Cup, Capello remained as manager but was under pressure to revamp the England squad for the imminent UEFA Euro 2012 qualification campaign.", "He unveiled a new team at the next England match, a home friendly game against Hungary on 11 August 2010, with Beckham still unavailable for selection but aiming for a return to playing in MLS by the following month.", "In the post-match interview, Capello said of the prospect of the now 35-year-old Beckham playing any future competitive matches for England, that: \"I need to change it.", "David is a fantastic player but I think we need new players for the future\", referring to the new players that play in Beckham's right midfield position, including Theo Walcott and Adam Johnson, adding: \"This is the future of the team under Fabio Capello or another manager.\"", "He said that Beckham may be selected for one last friendly game, stating, \"If he is fit, I hope we will play one more game here at Wembley so the fans can say goodbye.\"", "In response to the comments, Beckham's agent released a statement reiterating Beckham's position that he had no desire to retire from international football, and would always make himself available for selection for England if fit and if needed.Beckham remained ten caps short of the record number of 125 caps by goalkeeper Peter Shilton, for a player of any position.", "Beckham was named in the provisional squad to represent the Great Britain Olympic football team at the 2012 Olympics.", "He was not included in the final selection by manager Stuart Pearce, while Andy Hunt, the head the British Olympic Association, contacted Beckham's representatives for him to be related to Team GB more broadly." ], [ "Player profile", "===Style of play===Beckham scoring with a bending free kick in 2007.His typical pose when striking free-kicks or crossing the ball in open play, his body leans to the left to generate extra whip on the ball.Throughout his career, Beckham was considered one of the best and most recognisable players of his generation, as well as one of the greatest free-kick exponents of all time.", "As of September 2023, Beckham ranks joint-5th all time (alongside Lionel Messi) in goals scored from direct free kicks with 65.Moreover, Beckham has been rated by some pundits as one of the greatest wide midfielders of all time.", "Predominantly right-footed, his range of passing, vision, crossing ability and bending free-kicks enabled him to create chances for teammates or score goals, attributes that saw him excel as a right winger, despite his lack of significant pace.", "Unlike his Manchester United teammate Ryan Giggs on the opposite wing, Beckham preferred to beat players through his movement and passing, rather than going at opponents directly with the ball.", "He formed a strong partnership on the right side of the pitch with full-back Gary Neville during his time with the club, due to their understanding, as well as Neville's ability to get forward with his overlapping runs, get on the end of Beckham's passes, and deliver crosses into the box whenever the latter was heavily marked.Although Beckham primarily played on the right flank, he was also used as a central midfielder throughout his career (occasionally with Manchester United, but in particular with Real Madrid and AC Milan), and on rare instances as a deep-lying playmaker, in particular in his later career, in order to compensate for his physical decline with his advancing age.", "Beckham felt that his best role was on the right, although he personally preferred playing in the centre.", "In addition to his passing, crossing, and prowess from set-pieces, Beckham also stood out for his stamina and defensive work-rate on the pitch, having played both as an attacking midfielder and as a box-to-box midfielder in his youth; he was also occasionally deployed as a wing-back.", "Moreover, he was also an accurate striker of the ball from distance, as well as being a competent penalty taker.", "He also drew praise in the media for his ball control and ability to create space for himself on the pitch, as well as his anticipation, composure, determination, athleticism, dedication, and intelligence as a footballer.===Approach to training and praise from managers===Beckham was a product of Sir Alex Ferguson's hard-working approach at Manchester United.", "Ferguson said that Beckham \"practised with a discipline to achieve an accuracy that other players wouldn't care about.\"", "Beckham reportedly spent hours practising his free kicks after training sessions had ended.Beckham maintained his training routine at Real Madrid and even when his relationship with management was strained in early 2007, Real Madrid president Ramón Calderón and manager Fabio Capello praised Beckham for maintaining his professionalism and commitment to the club.", "Beckham's Real Madrid teammate Roberto Carlos regarded Beckham to be the best free-kick exponent he had ever seen.", "One of the other best free kick exponents of their generation, Roberto Carlos, commented on the dilemma the team faced when they won a free kick on the edge of the penalty area: \"I would stand on one side and Beckham on the other but I wanted to see Beckham take the free-kick because it's beautiful how he hits the ball.\"", "During Beckham's time with Milan, his manager Carlo Ancelotti praised the Englishman for his intelligence and work-rate, in particular the improvements he demonstrated to the technical and tactical aspects of his game, which allowed him to compensate for his loss of pace.His former England manager Steve McClaren stated: \"I've been very fortunate to work with some great players and he Beckham was one of them.", "He was a great player, he made the very most of his talents and that was through sheer hard work, professionalism, always doing extra on the training field.", "He inspired his team-mates through his performances, he was a winner.", "He was a leader, people followed him.\"", "Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger stated, \"What remains in your memory is his genuine commitment and dedication, his natural humility which he always had, that will stay forever.", "\"In May 2013, asked about how he wanted to be remembered in his retirement, Beckham said, \"I just want people to see me as a hardworking footballer, someone that's passionate about the game, someone that – every time I stepped on the pitch – I've given everything that I have, because that's how I feel.", "That's how I look back on it and hope people will see me.", "\"===Discipline===Earlier in his career, Beckham's discipline during matches was brought into question on occasion in the media, due to his temper, as well as his tendency to commit rash challenges and pick up unnecessary bookings.", "Beckham was the first England player ever to collect two red cards, and the first England captain to be sent off.", "Beckham's most notorious red card was during the 1998 World Cup after Argentina's Diego Simeone had fouled him: Beckham, lying face down on the pitch, kicked out at the Argentine midfielder, who fell dramatically.", "Along with Wayne Rooney, he holds the record for the most red cards for England at international level.", "His second red card for England came on 8 October 2005, in a 2006 World Cup qualifier against Austria in Manchester.His only red card with Manchester United came on 6 January 2000, in the 2000 FIFA Club World Championship against Necaxa.", "During his time at Real Madrid, he amassed 41 yellow cards and four red cards in La Liga; he also received a red card in a Copa del Rey match against Valencia on 21 January 2004, in Madrid.", "His only red card with LA Galaxy came on 15 August 2009, in a 2–0 home defeat to the Seattle Sounders in MLS.", "He received one red card while at Paris Saint-Germain – picked up in injury time – in a match against Evian on 28 April 2013.Between 2000 and 2013, Beckham played 572 competitive games for England, Milan, LA Galaxy, Manchester United, Real Madrid and PSG, and he received nine red cards – one every 63–64 matches, on average.===Reception===Wax statue of Beckham at Madame Tussauds, LondonDespite his success, popularity, and playing ability, critical reception of Beckham was often divided among sporting figures and fans throughout his career, in part – as Subhankar Mondal of ''Goal'' notes – due to his ventures off the pitch, and the widespread coverage that his personal life received.", "His former Manchester United manager, Alex Ferguson, speculated in 2007 that Beckham's increasing celebrity status, in particular following his highly publicised relationship with his future wife Victoria, had actually had a negative impact on his playing career.", "In 2015, moreover, he claimed he had only coached four world class players throughout his time at United, excluding Beckham from the list, commenting: \"I don't mean to demean or criticise any of the great or very good footballers who played for me during my 26-year career at United, but there were only four who were world class: Cantona, Giggs, Cristiano Ronaldo and Scholes.", "\"Upon his departure to LA Galaxy, reflected on the dichotomy of Beckham's playing career and his status off the pitch, describing him as \"the great paradox of world football,\" also adding: \"He is the greatest icon on the planet and the cause of such delirium in the media and on the streets, the greatest catwalk model there is.", "And yet he has been an anti-diva.", "He was the most galactic of the galacticos off the pitch, but the greatest of earthlings when he walked on to the field.\"", "Regarding Beckham's crossing ability, Rob Smyth of ''The Guardian'' said in 2014: \"he was a great crosser and perhaps the greatest of all time,\" also noting that \"he was a dead-ball specialist and also a dying-ball specialist: ... his signature crosses in open play involved a ball that was barely moving, which allowed him to use the same technique as with corners and free-kicks.\"", "Nigel Reed of CBC Sports commented on Beckham's career and celebrity status, stating: \"His brand is global, his appeal universal.", "He sparked debate and polarized opinion.", "But underneath the gloss he was, first and foremost, a very good footballer.\"", "He also added that while he felt that \"Beckham was not the greatest player of his generation,\" he believed he had the ability to change games, describing him as \"master of his art and a deadly opponent,\" whose \"talent was only topped by his passion.\"" ], [ "Football-related business activities", "===David Beckham Academy===Beckham Academy in LondonIn 2005, Beckham founded the David Beckham Academy football school, operating from two sites, in London and Los Angeles.", "It was announced in late-2009 that both would close.", "A mobile academy is being developed by Beckham, to travel around the UK and further afield.===Inter Miami===On 5 February 2014, MLS announced that Beckham had exercised his option to buy a MLS expansion team for $25 million, which he had received as part of the contract he signed with the LA Galaxy in 2007.The ownership group, led by Beckham, originally hoped the Miami-based team would begin play in 2016 or 2017.After delays getting a stadium deal completed, MLS announced in January 2018 that the team had been approved, and would likely begin play in 2020.The team name and crest were revealed on 5 September.", "Club Internacional de Futbol Miami – more commonly known as, Inter Miami – is represented by a black crest with neon pink trimmings and herons whose legs clasp to form an \"M\" for Miami.The club made its MLS debut on 1 March 2020 with a 1–0 away loss to Los Angeles.===Salford City===In January 2019 it was announced that Beckham was set to join his Class of '92 teammates as part owner of English non-league club Salford City, taking 10% of the club previously held by Peter Lim, with the deal being subject to Football Association approval.", "On 31 January, the club announced that the FA had approved him to become a director of the club." ], [ "Personal life", "Victoria in 2019In 1997, Beckham started dating Victoria Adams after she attended a Manchester United match.", "She was famously known as \"Posh Spice\" of the pop music group Spice Girls, one of the world's top pop groups at the time, and his team was also enjoying a great run of success.", "Therefore, their relationship instantly attracted a great deal of media attention.", "The couple were dubbed \"Posh and Becks\" by the media.", "He proposed to her on 24 January 1998 in a restaurant in Cheshunt, England.", "Their first child was born fourteen months later.On 4 July 1999, they married at Luttrellstown Castle in Ireland.", "Beckham's teammate Gary Neville was the best man, and the couple's four-month-old son, Brooklyn, was the ring bearer.", "The media were kept away from the ceremony, as the Beckhams had an exclusive deal with ''OK!", "Magazine'', but newspapers were still able to obtain photographs showing them sitting on golden thrones.", "437 staff were employed for the wedding reception, which was estimated to have cost £500,000.David and Victoria Beckham have four children: sons Brooklyn Joseph (born 4 March 1999 at Portland Hospital, London), Romeo James (born 1 September 2002 at Portland Hospital, London), Cruz David (born 20 February 2005 at Ruber International Hospital, Madrid), and daughter Harper Seven (born 10 July 2011 at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles).", "Elton John is godfather to Brooklyn and Romeo Beckham; their godmother is Elizabeth Hurley.", "Harper and Cruz were baptized Catholic at Holy Trinity, Chipping Norton; among their godparents were Eva Longoria and Marc Anthony.Beckham's three sons have all played football in the Arsenal academy.", "Brooklyn played football for Arsenal U16, through the end of the 2014–15 season.", "Like their father, Brooklyn and Romeo have both done modelling work and been named among ''GQ'''s best dressed British men.In his early-Manchester United career, Beckham lived in a four-bedroom house in Worsley that he bought directly from the property developer as a 20-year-old in 1995.In 1999, shortly after his wedding, he and Victoria bought a country house set in in Sawbridgeworth, Hertfordshire, which the media nicknamed \"Beckingham Palace\".Known by the nickname \"Golden Balls\", Beckham acquired the name from Victoria, who revealed it on national TV in 2008 while praising him for rebuilding his reputation after the 1998 World Cup.Beckham has obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), which he says makes him \"have everything in a straight line or everything has to be in pairs.\"", "Victoria claimed: \"If you open our fridge, it's all co-ordinated down either side.", "We've got three fridges – food in one, salad in another and drinks in the third.", "In the drinks one, everything is symmetrical.", "If there's three cans, he'll throw one away because it has to be an even number.", "\"A staunch monarchist, Beckham queued for 13 hours in September 2022 to see Queen Elizabeth ll lying in state at Westminster Hall following her death, after refusing opportunities to skip ahead.In April 2004, the British tabloid ''News of the World'' carried claims by Beckham's former personal assistant Rebecca Loos that she and Beckham had engaged in an extramarital affair.", "A week later, the Malaysian-born Australian model Sarah Marbeck claimed that she had slept with Beckham on two occasions.", "Beckham dismissed both claims as \"ludicrous\".===Legal issues===In September 2010, Beckham announced that he was making a court application against prostitute Irma Nici and several others over claims in the magazine ''In Touch'' that he had sex with her.", "His court application was dismissed under US freedom of speech laws, and the magazine later accepted that the allegations against Beckham were untrue.On 9 May 2019, at Bromley Magistrates Court, Beckham was banned from driving for six months.", "He previously pleaded guilty to using a mobile phone while driving his Bentley in central London on 21 November 2018.The court heard he was photographed by a member of the public holding a phone as he drove in \"slowly moving\" traffic.", "Beckham received six points on his licence, to add to the six he already had for previous speeding matters.", "He was also fined £750, and ordered to pay £100 in prosecution costs and a £75 surcharge fee within seven days.===Tattoos===, Beckham has more than 65 tattoos covering a large part of his body, including tattoos on his hands, neck and head.", "There are names of his sons Romeo, Cruz and Brooklyn, and of his wife Victoria.", "His wife's name, tattooed on his left forearm, is in the Devanagari script (used for the Hindi and Sanskrit languages, among others) because Beckham thought it would be \"tacky\" to have it in English.", "However, this was misspelt as the equivalent of \"Vhictoria\".", "In his autobiography ''David Beckham: My Side'', he said that the idea of having tattoos came to him in 1999 after his son Brooklyn was born, following a conversation on the subject of tattoos with Mel B and her then-husband, Jimmy Gulzar.", "Beckham said: \"When you see me, you see the tattoos.", "You see an expression of how I feel about Victoria and the boys.", "They're part of me.", "\"He has also added several tattoos that pay tribute to his daughter, Harper, as well as several tattoos with religious significance.", "In 2018, Beckham added to his collection with a tattoo of a solar system covering the left side of his scalp.", "Many of Beckham's tattoos were completed by the Manchester-based tattoo artist Louis Molloy." ], [ "Celebrity status and commercial partnerships", "Beckham in Cape Town, South Africa, in 2009Beckham's relationship and marriage to Victoria, who has been famous in her own right as part of the Spice Girls, contributed to his celebrity beyond football.Beckham became known as a fashion icon, and together with Victoria, the couple became lucrative spokespeople sought after by clothing designers, health and fitness specialists, fashion magazines, and perfume and cosmetics manufacturers.", "Early endorsements included the British hair styling brand Brylcreem for £4 million in 1997, which saw him appear in UK commercials.", "In 2002 he was hailed as the ultimate \"metrosexual\" by the man who invented the term and has been described as such by numerous other articles since.", "The various iconic hairstyles he sported throughout his career – including a buzz cut, a Mohawk, and a ponytail – were widely covered in the media.While heterosexual, Beckham actively courted a gay fanbase and openly supported gay media, preferring to give interviews to publications that supported the LGBTQ community.", "He came to be called a \"gay icon\" – a term he embraces – for his popularity and support among the gay community.", "This honorific has been in dispute, however, since Beckham signed a deal with Qatar to become a brand ambassador for the 2022 FIFA World Cup.", "Qatar persecutes LGBT people, causing many gay fans of Beckham and public LGBTQ figures such as Joe Lycett and Josh Cavallo to demand his status as a gay icon be rescinded.", "Beckham defended his status as a brand ambassador in a statement on 18 November, saying that the World Cup will be \"a platform for progress, inclusivity and tolerance\".", "On 20 November, Lycett responded on a livestream by appearing to shred £10,000 that he had promised would be given to charity had Beckham pulled out of the deal, which Lycett later revealed to have faked.The Beckhams were paid $13.7 million in 2007 to launch his fragrance line in the United States In the world of fashion, David has appeared on the covers of many magazines.", "US covers have included the men's magazine ''Details'', and with Victoria for the August 2007 issue of ''W''.", "According to Google, \"David Beckham\" was searched for more than any other sports topic on their site in 2003 and 2004.According to Ask Jeeves, Beckham ranked third, after Britney Spears and Osama bin Laden, among subjects most searched for by British users of that site in the first decade of the 2000s.Beckham with United States First Lady Michelle Obama at the White House, 15 March 2012Upon their arrival in Los Angeles on 12 July 2007, the night before Beckham's formal introduction, Los Angeles International Airport was filled with paparazzi and news reporters.", "On the next night, Victoria appeared on ''The Tonight Show'' with Jay Leno to talk about their move to LA, and presented Leno with a number 23 Galaxy jersey with his own name on the back.", "Victoria also talked about her NBC TV show ''Victoria Beckham: Coming to America''.", "On 22 July, a private welcoming party was held for the couple at the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles.", "A-list celebrities attending included Steven Spielberg, Jim Carrey, George Clooney, Tom Cruise, Katie Holmes, Will Smith, Jada Pinkett Smith, and Oprah Winfrey.Beckham's many endorsement deals make him one of the most recognisable athletes throughout the world.", "Having worn Adidas football boots from the start of his career (notably Adidas Predator), in 2003 he signed a $160 million lifetime contract with Adidas, earning nearly half the money upfront, and would continue to earn percentages of profits on all of his branded Adidas products.", "His 2004 Adidas television commercial \"Kicking it\", in which he appears with England Rugby World Cup winner Jonny Wilkinson, was voted among the best British commercials of the year, and also featured as one of the Great Ads of the 21st Century in Channel 4's 2004 update of The 100 Greatest TV Ads.", "He had a 10-year collaboration with PepsiCo that expired in 2009.He has also promoted The Walt Disney Company theme parks.", "In April 2021, he became a global ambassador for Maserati.", "In 2023, as part of Maserati's new personalisation program, \"Fuoriserie Essentials\", the Italian brand unveils its first collection with its ambassador David Beckham.Beckham has several eponymous video games, including ''Go!", "Go!", "Beckham!", "Adventure on Soccer Island'', a platform game for the Game Boy Advance, and ''David Beckham Soccer'', a football game for a number of platforms, and he was brand ambassador for exercise video game ''EA Sports Active 2''.", "Beckham featured in EA Sports' ''FIFA'' video game series; he was on the cover for the UK edition of ''FIFA 98''.", "During his playing career (which ended in May 2013), Beckham generated an estimated £1 billion in shirt and boot sales.", "In 2006, Lloyd's of London insured his legs for £100m, at the time he was playing for Real Madrid.Beckham with Miss Vietnam Trần Tiểu Vy at the Paris Motor Show 2018Beckham played a critical part in bringing the Olympics to London in 2012, travelling with the British delegation to Singapore in 2005 for the host city selection.", "At the 2008 Beijing Olympics closing ceremony, Beckham, Jimmy Page, and Leona Lewis represented Britain during the handover segment for the 2012 Olympics.", "Beckham rode a London double-decker bus into the stadium and Page and Lewis performed \"Whole Lotta Love\".", "He also featured at the Opening Ceremony of the 2012 London Olympics, carrying the Olympic flame to the stadium by speedboat.Beckham visited Afghanistan in May 2010 for a morale-boosting visit to British troops fighting the Taliban insurgency.", "The appearance of Beckham as well as British Foreign Secretary William Hague and Defence Secretary Liam Fox was believed to have prompted a Taliban attack on Kandahar airfield.Chinese authorities appointed Beckham as global ambassador for Chinese football in March 2013.After numerous officials had been banned for match-fixing, and the Chinese Super League had failed to retain the services of well-known international names, Beckham's role was to help improve the image of the game and raise its profile both in China and abroad.From 14 July 2013, Beckham started appearing in adverts for BSkyB, advertising their Sky Sports coverage via the Sky Go app.", "In January 2014, Beckham appeared on ''Late Night with Jimmy Fallon'' on NBC in the U.S., and in March he made a guest appearance in the BBC's Sport Relief special of ''Only Fools and Horses''.", "He was named one of ''GQ''s 50 best dressed British men in 2015.In March 2015 Beckham had the third highest social media rank in the world among sportspeople, behind Cristiano Ronaldo and Lionel Messi, with over 52 million Facebook fans.", "He also has over 80 million Instagram followers, the fifth highest for a footballer, behind Cristiano Ronaldo, Messi, Neymar and Kylian Mbappé, and the second most for a person from the UK, after Dua Lipa.During the 2016 EU referendum, Beckham voiced his opposition to Brexit (the United Kingdom leaving the European Union) stating: \"For our children and their children we should be facing the problems of the world together and not alone.", "For these reasons, I am voting to remain.\"", "Beckham was announced as the new Ambassadorial president of the British Fashion Council on 11 May 2018.Prior to the June 2018 vote by FIFA member nations for selecting the hosts of the 2026 FIFA World Cup, Beckham endorsed the North American bid (Canada, Mexico and the United States).Beckham's former club LA Galaxy unveiled a statue of him outside of their stadium in March 2019, the first of its kind in the MLS.", "He was subject of prank by his friend James Corden, who presented a 'hideous' fake statue before the real one was unveiled.In February 2020, Beckham mentioned that he enjoys spending hours assembling Lego pieces.", "In June 2020, Beckham became a minority owner of the London-based esports organisation Guild Esports.", "In November 2020, EA Sports had an agreement with Beckham to feature him in ''FIFA 21'', in which he would earn £40m from a three-year deal.", "In June 2021, Beckham bought 10% stake of vehicle electrification firm, Lunaz." ], [ "Philanthropy", "Beckham appearing in a 2021 Soccer Aid for UNICEF videoBeckham has supported UNICEF since his days at Manchester United and in January 2005, the English national team captain became a Goodwill Ambassador with a special focus on UNICEF's Sports for Development program.", "In 2012, he met with UK Prime Minister David Cameron at 10 Downing Street to call for more action to help children affected by malnutrition around the world.", "In 2015, his tenth year as a UNICEF Ambassador, Beckham launched ''7: The David Beckham UNICEF Fund'' to help protect children in danger.", "In June 2015 he visited Siem Reap in Cambodia, where he met with child victims of violence.", "Beckham has pledged his support for the Unite for Children, Unite Against AIDS campaign.", "He is a former patron of the Elton John AIDS Foundation.", "In 2013, he also donated all his £3.4 million salary taken from Paris Saint-Germain to two children's charities in France.", "Beckham has been supporting the charity named Help For Heroes for many years whose aim is to help soldiers injured in Iraq and Afghan wars.On 17 January 2007, Rebecca Johnstone, a 19-year-old cancer patient from Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, received a surprise phone call from Beckham.", "After the conversation, he sent her a Real Madrid jersey with his signature on it.", "Rebecca died on 29 January 2007.On 1 July 2007, Beckham appeared as a speaker at the Concert for Diana held at Wembley Stadium, London to celebrate the life of Princess Diana almost 10 years after her death.", "Proceeds from the concert went to Diana's charities as well as to charities of which her sons Princes William and Harry are patrons.Beckham's England national football team-themed Paddington Bear statue—\"Golden Paws\"—in London, auctioned to raise funds for the NSPCCBeckham is a founding member of the Malaria No More UK Leadership Council and helped launch the charity in 2009 with Andy Murray at Wembley Stadium.", "Beckham also appeared in a 2007 public service announcement for Malaria No More U.S., advertising the need for inexpensive bed nets.", "The TV spot aired in the United States on Fox Networks, including Fox Soccer Channel.", "In November 2014, Beckham designed a Paddington Bear statue, one of fifty created by various celebrities (including Emma Watson and Kate Moss) which were located around London prior to the release of the film ''Paddington''.", "The statues were auctioned to raise funds for the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC).Since joining Major League Soccer, Beckham has been a very public advocate in the United States for related charities such as \"MLS W.O.R.K.S.\"", "On 17 August 2007, he conducted a youth clinic in Harlem, along with other current and former MLS players.", "This was in advance of his first New York City area match the following day against the New York Red Bulls.", "That team's Jozy Altidore and Juan Pablo Ángel were also with Beckham, teaching skills to disadvantaged youth to benefit FC Harlem Lions." ], [ "Appearances in films", " Beckham never personally appeared in the 2002 film ''Bend It Like Beckham'', except in archive footage.", "He and his wife wanted to make cameo appearances, but scheduling proved difficult, so the director used lookalike Andy Harmer instead.Beckham makes a cameo appearance with Zinedine Zidane and Raúl, in the 2005 film ''Goal!''.", "Harmer also doubled for him in the party scene.", "Beckham himself appears in the sequel ''Goal II: Living the Dream'' in a larger role, when the film's lead character gets transferred to Real Madrid.", "This time, the story centres on the Real Madrid team, with other Madrid players also appearing on and off the pitch, alongside the fictional characters.", "Through the use of stock footage from the 2006 FIFA World Cup, Beckham appeared in ''Goal III: Taking on the World'', which was released straight to DVD on 15 June 2009.In 2013, British business magazine ''Marketing Week'' wrote of his \"somewhat limited acting skills\".", "Through his friendship with Guy Ritchie, he has made two cameo appearances in Ritchie's films: as a projectionist in ''The Man from U.N.C.L.E.''", "(based on the 1964 MGM television series of the same name), and as Trigger in ''King Arthur: Legend of the Sword''.Beckham has played along to jokes about his voice.", "In a 2018 promo for ''Deadpool 2'', Beckham is seen watching the first instalment of the film franchise in which Ryan Reynolds' character compares Beckham's voice to inhaling helium.", "Beckham is seen rolling his eyes at the voice jibe before receiving an apology text from Deadpool.", "Beckham answers his door to the antihero who presents him with milk and cookies, before Deadpool knocks again and has a bunch of helium-filled red balloons." ], [ "Filmography", "+ Television Year Title Role Notes 2023 ''Beckham'' Himself 4 episodes on Netflix" ], [ "Career statistics", "===Club===+ Appearances and goals by club, season and competitionClubSeasonLeagueNational cupLeague cupContinentalOtherTotalDivisionAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsManchester United1992–93Premier League00001000–101993–94Premier League0000000000001994–95Premier League40203011001011995–96Premier League337312020–4081996–97Premier League36821001021149121997–98Premier League3794200801050111998–99Premier League3467110122105591999–2000Premier League316–00122504882000–01Premier League3192000120104692001–02Premier League281110001351043162002–03Premier League3163151133–5211Total26562246121831510139485Preston North End (loan)1994–95Third Division520000–0052Real Madrid2003–04La Liga32342–71214572004–05La Liga30400–80–3842005–06La Liga31331–71–4152006–07La Liga23321–60–314Total1161394–2822115520LA Galaxy2007Major League Soccer5000––21712008Major League Soccer25500––002552009Major League Soccer11200––401522010Major League Soccer7200––301022011Major League Soccer26200––403022012Major League Soccer24700–1160318Total981800–1119111820AC Milan (loan)2008–09Serie A18200–20–2022009–10Serie A11000–20–130Total29200–40–332Paris Saint-Germain2012–13Ligue 110020–20–140Career total52397351012111818313719129===International===+ Appearances and goals by national team and yearNational teamYearAppsGoalsEngland199630199790199881199970200010020011052002932003942004122200591200681200750200880200980Total11517:''Scores and results list England's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Beckham goal''.+ List of international goals scored by David BeckhamNo.DateVenueCapOpponentScoreResultCompetition 1 26 June 1998 Stade Bollaert-Delelis, Lens, France 17 2–0 2–0 1998 FIFA World Cup 2 24 March 2001 Anfield, Liverpool, England 39 2–1 2–1 2002 FIFA World Cup qualification 3 25 May 2001 Pride Park, Derby England 41 3–0 4–0 Friendly 4 6 June 2001 Olympic Stadium, Athens, Greece 42 2–0 2–0 2002 FIFA World Cup qualification 5 6 October 2001 Old Trafford, Manchester, England 46 2–2 2–2 2002 FIFA World Cup qualification 6 10 November 2001 Old Trafford, Manchester, England 47 1–0 1–1 Friendly 7 7 June 2002 Sapporo Dome, Sapporo, Japan 51 1–0 1–0 2002 FIFA World Cup 8 12 October 2002 Tehelné pole, Bratislava, Slovakia 55 1–1 2–1 UEFA Euro 2004 qualification 9 16 October 2002 St Mary's Stadium, Southampton, England 56 1–1 2–2 UEFA Euro 2004 qualification 10 29 March 2003 Rheinpark Stadion, Vaduz, Liechtenstein 58 2–0 2–0 UEFA Euro 2004 qualification 11 2 April 2003 Stadium of Light, Sunderland, England 59 2–0 2–0 UEFA Euro 2004 qualification 12 20 August 2003 Portman Road, Ipswich, England 61 1–0 3–1 Friendly 13 6 September 2003 Skopje City Stadium, Skopje, Macedonia 62 2–1 2–1 UEFA Euro 2004 qualification 14 18 August 2004 St James' Park, Newcastle, England 73 1–0 3–0 Friendly 15 9 October 2004 Old Trafford, Manchester, England 76 2–0 2–0 2006 FIFA World Cup qualification 16 30 March 2005 St James' Park, Newcastle, England 80 2–0 2–0 2006 FIFA World Cup qualification 17 25 June 2006 Gottlieb-Daimler-Stadion, Stuttgart, Germany 93 1–0 1–0 2006 FIFA World Cup" ], [ "Honours", "'''Manchester United'''*Premier League: 1995–96, 1996–97, 1998–99, 1999–2000, 2000–01, 2002–03*FA Cup: 1995–96, 1998–99*FA Charity Shield: 1996, 1997*UEFA Champions League: 1998–99*Intercontinental Cup: 1999'''Real Madrid'''*La Liga: 2006–07*Supercopa de España: 2003'''LA Galaxy'''*MLS Cup: 2011, 2012**Western Conference (regular season): 2009, 2010, 2011**Western Conference (playoffs): 2009, 2011, 2012*Supporters' Shield: 2010, 2011'''Paris Saint-Germain'''*Ligue 1: 2012–13'''England'''*Tournoi de France: 1997'''Individual'''Beckham's 2001 FIFA World Player of the Year runner-up trophy*FIFA World Player of the Year – Silver Award: 1999, 2001*Most assists in the Premier League: 1997–98, 1999–2000 ''(shared)'', 2000–01*Premier League Player of the Month: August 1996*PFA Young Player of the Year: 1996–97*FWA Tribute Award: 2008*Sir Matt Busby Player of the Year: 1996–97*England Player of the Year: 2003*ESM Team of the Year: 1998–99*UEFA Club Footballer of the Year: 1998–99*UEFA Club Midfielder of the Year: 1998–99*UEFA Team of the Year: 2001, 2003*Premier League 10 Seasons Awards (1992–93 to 2001–02):**Domestic & Overall Team of the Decade**Goal of the Decade (vs. Wimbledon, 17 August 1996)*BBC Sports Personality of the Year: 2001*BBC Sports Personality of the Year Lifetime Achievement Award: 2010*Real Madrid Player of the Year: 2005–06*PFA Team of the Year: 1996–97 Premier League, 1997–98 Premier League, 1998–99 Premier League, 1999–2000 Premier League*FIFA 100*ESPY Awards:**Best Male Soccer Player: 2004**Best MLS Player: 2008, 2012*English Football Hall of Fame: 2008*Premier League Hall of Fame: 2021*MLS Comeback Player of the Year Award: 2011*PFA Team of the Century (1997–2007): 2007*International Federation of Football History & Statistics (IFFHS) Legends*UEFA President's Award: 2018'''Orders and special awards'''*Officer of the Order of the British Empire by Queen Elizabeth II: 2003*United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) Goodwill Ambassador (2005–present)*\"Britain's Greatest Ambassador\" – 100 Greatest Britons awards*''The Celebrity 100,'' number 15 – ''Forbes,'' 2007*Number 1 on the list of the 40 most influential men under the age of 40 in the UK – ''Arena'', 2007*Time 100: 2008*Gold Blue Peter Badge winner, 2001*Do Something Athlete Award, 2011*AC Milan Hall of Fame'''Records'''*First Englishman to win league titles in four countries (England, Spain, United States, France).", "*First England player to score at three FIFA World Cups.", "*First British footballer to play 100 UEFA Champions League games.", "*Most free-kicks scored in the Premier League: 18.", "*Most free-kicks scored in a Premier League season: 5 in 2000-01" ], [ "See also", "* List of footballers with 100 or more UEFA Champions League appearances* List of men's footballers with 100 or more international caps* Designated Player Rule (Beckham Rule)* List of select Jewish footballers" ], [ "References", "===Books===* * * * * * ===Internet===" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * * David Beckham on TikTok* David Beckham on Facebook * David Beckham at ManUtd.com* David Beckham at RealMadrid.com* * * * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dianic Wicca" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dianic Wicca''', also known as '''Dianic Witchcraft''', is a modern pagan goddess tradition focused on female experience and empowerment.", "Leadership is by women, who may be ordained as priestesses, or in less formal groups that function as collectives.", "While some adherents identify as Wiccan, it differs from most traditions of Wicca in that only goddesses are honored (whereas most Wiccan traditions honor both female and male deities).While there is more than one tradition known as ''Dianic'', the most widely known is the female-only variety, with the most prominent tradition thereof founded by Zsuzsanna Budapest in the United States in the 1970s.", "It is notable for its worship of a single, monotheistic Great Goddess (with all other goddesses - of all cultures worldwide - seen as \"aspects\" of this goddess) and a focus on egalitarian matriarchy.", "While the tradition is named after the Roman goddess Diana, Dianics worship goddesses from many cultures, within the Dianic Wiccan ritual framework.", "Diana, (considered correlate to the Greek Artemis) \"is seen as representing a central mythic theme of woman-identified cosmology.", "She is the protector of women and of the wild, untamed spirit of nature.\"", "The Dianic Wiccan belief and ritual structure is an eclectic combination of elements from British Traditional Wicca, Italian folk-magic as recorded by Charles Leland in ''Aradia'', New Age beliefs, and folk magic and healing practices from a variety of different cultures." ], [ "Beliefs and practices", "Dianic Wiccans of the Budapest lineage worship the Goddess, who they see as containing all goddesses, from all cultures; she is seen as the source of all living things and containing all that is within her.", "Dianic covens practice magic in the form of meditation and visualization in addition to spell work.", "They focus especially on healing themselves from the wounds of the patriarchy while affirming their own womanhood.Rituals can include reenacting religious and spiritual lore from a female-centered standpoint, celebrating the female body, and mourning society's abuses of women.", "The practice of magic is rooted in the belief that energy or 'life force' can be directed to enact change.", "However it is important to note that rituals are often improvised to suit individual or group needs and vary from coven to coven.", "Some Dianic Wiccans eschew manipulative spellwork and hexing because it goes against the Wiccan Rede.", "However, many other Dianic witches (notably Budapest) do not consider hexing or binding of those who attack women to be wrong, and actively encourage the binding of rapists.===Differences from mainstream Wicca===Diana (or Artemis, by her Greek name) as a protector of women and wild natureLike other Wiccans, Dianics may form covens, attend festivals, celebrate the eight major Wiccan holidays, and gather on Esbats.", "They use many of the same altar tools, rituals, and vocabulary as other Wiccans.", "Dianics may also gather in less formal Circles.", "The most noticeable difference between the two are that Dianic covens of Budapest lineage are composed entirely of women.", "Central to feminist Dianic focus and practice are embodied Women's Mysteries - the celebrations and honoring of the female life cycle and its correspondences to the Earth's seasonal cycle, healing from internalized oppression, female sovereignty and agency.", "Another marked difference in cosmology from other Wiccan traditions is rejecting the concept of duality based in gender stereotypes.", "When asked why \"men and gods\" are excluded from her rituals, Budapest stated:Sociological studies have shown that there is therapeutic value inherent in Dianic ritual.", "Healing rituals to overcome personal trauma and raise awareness about violence against women have earned comparisons to the female-centered consciousness-raising groups of the 1960s and 70s.", "Some Dianic groups develop rituals specifically to confront gendered personal trauma, such as battery, rape, incest, and partner abuse.", "In one ethnographic study of such a ritual, women shifted their understanding of power from the hands of their abusers to themselves.", "It was found that this ritual had improved self-perception in participants in the short-term, and that the results could be sustained with ongoing practice.", "Dianic Wicca developed from the Women's Liberation Movement and some covens traditionally compare themselves with radical feminism.", "Dianics pride themselves on the inclusion of lesbian and bisexual members in their groups and leadership.", "It is a goal within many covens to explore female sexuality and sensuality outside of male control, and many rituals function to affirm lesbian sexuality, making it a popular tradition for lesbians and bisexuals.", "Some covens exclusively consist of same-sex oriented women and advocate lesbian separatism.", "Ruth Barrett writes," ], [ "History", "Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches claims that ancient Diana, Aphrodite, Aradia, and Herodias cults linked to the Sacred Mysteries are the origin of the all-female coven and many witch myths as we know them.Z Budapest's branch of Dianic Wicca began on the Winter Solstice of 1971, when Budapest led a ceremony in Hollywood, California.", "Self-identifying as a \"hereditary witch,\" and claiming to have learned folk magic from her mother, Budapest is frequently considered the mother of modern Dianic Wiccan tradition.", "Dianic Wicca itself is named after the Roman goddess of the same name.Ruth Rhiannon Barrett was ordained by Z Budapest in 1980 and inherited Budapest's Los Angeles ministry.", "This community continues through Circle of Aradia, a grove of Temple of Diana, Inc." ], [ "Denominations and related traditions", "modified Triple-goddess Wiccan symbol* Traditions derived from Zsuzsanna Budapest - Female-only covens run by priestesses trained and initiated by Budapest.", "* Independent Dianic witches - who may have been inspired by Budapest, her published work (such as ''The Holy Book of Women's Mysteries'') or other woman's spirituality movements, and who emphasize independent study and self-initiation.===McFarland Dianic===McFarland Dianic is a Neopagan tradition of goddess worship founded by Morgan McFarland and Mark Roberts which, despite the shared name, has a different theology and structure than the women-only groups.", "In most cases, the McFarland Dianics accept male participants.", "McFarland largely bases their tradition on the work of Robert Graves and his book ''The White Goddess''.", "While some McFarland covens will initiate men, the leadership is limited to female priestesses.", "Like the women-only Dianic traditions, \"McFarland Dianic covens espouse feminism as an all-important concept.\"", "They consider the decision whether to include or exclude males as \"solely the choice of a member coven's individual High Priestess.\"" ], [ "Criticism for transphobia", "Dianic Wicca has been criticised by many in the Neopagan community for being transphobic.", "In February 2011, Zsuzsanna Budapest conducted a ritual with the Circle of Cerridwen at PantheaCon for \"genetic women only\" from which she barred trans women as well as men.", "This caused a backlash that led many to criticize Dianic Wicca as an inherently transphobic lesbian-separatist movement.", "The ''Los Angeles Times'' wrote that:" ], [ "See also", "*******" ], [ "References", "===Works cited===*****" ], [ "Further reading", "* Barrett, Ruth.", "''Women's Rites, Women's Mysteries: Intuitive Ritual Creation''.", "Llewellyn Publications; 2007, .", "Earlier publishing: ''Women's Rites, Women's Mysteries: Creating Ritual in the Dianic Wiccan Tradition''.", "Authorhouse; 2004, .", "* Eisler, Riane, ''The Chalice and the Blade''.", "* Mountainwater, Shekhinah, ''Ariadne's Thread''.", "* Ochshorn, Judith and Cole, Ellen.", "''Women's Spirituality, Women's Lives''.", "Haworth Press 1995.. pp 122 & 133 referring to Z Budapest and Shekinah Mountainwater, among others, in a discussion of Dianic Witchcraft.", "* Pond, Gina, et al. ''", "Gender and Transgender in Modern Paganism''.", "Circle of Cerridwen Press, 2012.", "* On Starhawk, the Reclaiming Tradition and feminism, M. Macha NightMare .", "* ''Interview with Starhawk in Modern Pagans: An Investigation of Contemporary Pagan Practices'', ed.", "V. Vale and John Sulak, Re/Search, San Francisco, 2001, ." ], [ "External links", "* Dianic Wicca, Official Website * Dianic Tradition, Official Website* Dianic Wicca, Website* Z. Budapest* International Goddess Conference* Susan B. Anthony Coven, Dianic Wicca Website* Temple of Diana* The McFarland Dianic Tradition" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol''' ('''DHCP''') is a network management protocol used on Internet Protocol (IP) networks for automatically assigning IP addresses and other communication parameters to devices connected to the network using a client–server architecture.The technology eliminates the need for individually configuring network devices manually, and consists of two network components, a centrally installed network DHCP server and client instances of the protocol stack on each computer or device.", "When connected to the network, and periodically thereafter, a client requests a set of parameters from the server using DHCP.DHCP can be implemented on networks ranging in size from residential networks to large campus networks and regional ISP networks.", "Many routers and residential gateways have DHCP server capability.", "Most residential network routers receive a unique IP address within the ISP network.", "Within a local network, a DHCP server assigns a local IP address to each device.DHCP services exist for networks running Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4), as well as version 6 (IPv6).", "The IPv6 version of the DHCP protocol is commonly called DHCPv6." ], [ "History", "The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) was defined in 1984 for the configuration of simple devices, such as diskless workstations, with a suitable IP address.", "Acting in the data link layer, it made implementation difficult on many server platforms.", "It required that a server be present on each individual network link.", "RARP was superseded by the Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP) defined in September 1985.This introduced the concept of a relay agent, which allowed the forwarding of BOOTP packets across networks, allowing one central BOOTP server to serve hosts on many IP subnets.DHCP was first defined in October 1993.It is based on BOOTP, but can dynamically allocate IP addresses from a pool and reclaim them when they are no longer in use.", "It can also be used to deliver a wide range of extra configuration parameters to IP clients, including platform-specific parameters.Four years later, the DHCPINFORM message type (used for WPAD) and other small changes were added.", "This definition, from 1997, remains the core of the standard for IPv4 networks.DHCPv6 was initially defined in 2003.After updates by many subsequent RFCs, its definition was replaced in 2018, where prefix delegation and stateless address autoconfiguration were now merged." ], [ "{{Anchor|LEASE}}Overview", "Internet Protocol (IP) defines how devices communicate within and across local networks on the Internet.", "A DHCP server can manage IP settings for devices on its local network, e.g., by assigning IP addresses to those devices automatically and dynamically.DHCP operates based on the client–server model.", "When a computer or other device connects to a network, the DHCP client software sends a DHCP broadcast query requesting the necessary information.", "Any DHCP server on the network may service the request.", "The DHCP server manages a pool of IP addresses and information about client configuration parameters such as default gateway, domain name, the name servers, and time servers.", "On receiving a DHCP request, the DHCP server may respond with specific information for each client, as previously configured by an administrator, or with a specific address and any other information valid for the entire network and for the time period for which the allocation (''lease'') is valid.", "A DHCP client typically queries this information immediately after booting, and periodically thereafter before the expiration of the information.", "When a DHCP client refreshes an assignment, it initially requests the same parameter values, but the DHCP server may assign a new address based on the assignment policies set by administrators.On large networks that consist of multiple links, a single DHCP server may service the entire network when aided by DHCP relay agents located on the interconnecting routers.", "Such agents relay messages between DHCP clients and DHCP servers located on different subnets.Depending on implementation, the DHCP server may have three methods of allocating IP addresses:;Dynamic allocation: A network administrator reserves a range of IP addresses for DHCP, and each DHCP client on the LAN is configured to request an IP address from the DHCP server during network initialization.", "The request-and-grant process uses a lease concept with a controllable time period, allowing the DHCP server to reclaim and then reallocate IP addresses that are not renewed.", ";Automatic allocation: The DHCP server permanently assigns an IP address to a requesting client from a range defined by an administrator.", "This is like dynamic allocation, but the DHCP server keeps a table of past IP address assignments, so that it can preferentially assign to a client the same IP address that the client previously had.", ";Manual allocation: This method is also variously called ''static DHCP allocation'', ''fixed address allocation'', ''reservation'', and ''MAC/IP address binding''.", "An administrator maps a unique identifier (a ''client id'' or MAC address) for each client to an IP address, which is offered to the requesting client.", "DHCP servers may be configured to fall back to other methods if this fails.DHCP services are used for Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) and IPv6.The details of the protocol for IPv4 and IPv6 differ sufficiently that they may be considered separate protocols.", "For the IPv6 operation, devices may alternatively use stateless address autoconfiguration.", "IPv6 hosts may also use link-local addressing to achieve operations restricted to the local network link." ], [ "Operation", "An illustration of a typical non-renewing DHCP session; each message may be either a broadcast or a unicast, depending on the DHCP client capabilities.The sequence diagram for configuring and allocating a new address for a DHCP clientThe DHCP employs a connectionless service model, using the User Datagram Protocol (UDP).", "It is implemented with two UDP port numbers for its operations which are the same as for the bootstrap protocol (BOOTP).", "The server listens on UDP port number 67, and the client listens on UDP port number 68.DHCP operations fall into four phases: server discovery, IP lease offer, IP lease request, and IP lease acknowledgement.", "These stages are often abbreviated as DORA for discovery, offer, request, and acknowledgement.The DHCP operation begins with clients broadcasting a request.", "If the client and server are in different Broadcast Domains, a DHCP Helper or DHCP Relay Agent may be used.", "Clients requesting renewal of an existing lease may communicate directly via UDP unicast, since the client already has an established IP address at that point.", "Additionally, there is a BROADCAST flag (1 bit in 2 byte flags field, where all other bits are reserved and so are set to 0) the client can use to indicate in which way (broadcast or unicast) it can receive the DHCPOFFER: 0x8000 for broadcast, 0x0000 for unicast.", "Usually, the DHCPOFFER is sent through unicast.", "For those hosts which cannot accept unicast packets before IP addresses are configured, this flag can be used to work around this issue.===Discovery===The DHCP client broadcasts a DHCPDISCOVER message on the network subnet using the destination address (limited broadcast) or the specific subnet broadcast address (directed broadcast).", "A DHCP client may also request an IP address in the DHCPDISCOVER, which the server may take into account when selecting an address to offer.For example, if HTYPE is set to 1, to specify that the medium used is Ethernet, HLEN is set to 6 because an Ethernet address (MAC address) is 6 octets long.", "The CHADDR is set to the MAC address used by the client.", "Some options are set as well.+ Example DHCPDISCOVER messageEthernet: source=sender's MAC; destination=IP: source=; destination= UDP: source port=68; destination port=67 Octet 0 Octet 1 Octet 2 Octet 3 OP HTYPE HLEN HOPS 0x01 0x01 0x06 0x00 XID 0x3903F326 SECS FLAGS 0x0000 0x0000 CIADDR (Client IP address) 0x00000000 YIADDR (Your IP address) 0x00000000 SIADDR (Server IP address) 0x00000000 GIADDR (Gateway IP address) 0x00000000 CHADDR (Client hardware address) 0x00053C04 0x8D590000 0x00000000 0x00000000 192 octets of 0s, or overflow space for additional options; BOOTP legacy.", "Magic cookie 0x63825363 DHCP options 0x350101 53: 1 (DHCP Discover) 0x3204c0a80164 50: requested 0x370401030f06 55 (Parameter Request List): 0xff 255 (Endmark)===Offer===When a DHCP server receives a DHCPDISCOVER message from a client, which is an IP address lease request, the DHCP server reserves an IP address for the client and makes a lease offer by sending a DHCPOFFER message to the client.", "This message contains the client's client id (traditionally a MAC address), the IP address that the server is offering, the subnet mask, the lease duration, and the IP address of the DHCP server making the offer.", "The DHCP server may also take notice of the hardware-level MAC address in the underlying transport layer: according to current RFCs the transport layer MAC address may be used if no client ID is provided in the DHCP packet.The DHCP server determines the configuration based on the client's hardware address as specified in the CHADDR (client hardware address) field.", "In the following example the server () specifies the client's IP address in the YIADDR (your IP address) field.+ Example DHCPOFFER messageEthernet: source=sender's MAC; destination=client mac addressIP: source=; destination=UDP: source port=67; destination port=68 Octet 0 Octet 1 Octet 2 Octet 3 OP HTYPE HLEN HOPS 0x02 0x01 0x06 0x00 XID 0x3903F326 SECS FLAGS 0x0000 0x0000 CIADDR (Client IP address) 0x00000000 YIADDR (Your IP address) 0xC0A80164 () SIADDR (Server IP address) 0xC0A80101 () GIADDR (Gateway IP address) 0x00000000 CHADDR (Client hardware address) 0x00053C04 0x8D590000 0x00000000 0x00000000 192 octets of 0s; BOOTP legacy.", "Magic cookie 0x63825363 DHCP options 53: 2 (DHCP Offer) 1 (subnet mask): 3 (Router): 51 (IP address lease time): 86400s (1 day) 54 (DHCP server): 6 (DNS servers):===Request===In response to the DHCP offer, the client replies with a DHCPREQUEST message, broadcast to the server, requesting the offered address.", "A client can receive DHCP offers from multiple servers, but it will accept only one DHCP offer.", "Before claiming an IP address, the client will broadcast an ARP request, in order to find if there is another host present in the network with the proposed IP address.", "If there is no reply, this address does not conflict with that of another host, so it is free to be used.The client must send the ''server identification'' option in the DHCPREQUEST message, indicating the server whose offer the client has selected.", "When other DHCP servers receive this message, they withdraw any offers that they have made to the client and return their offered IP address to the pool of available addresses.+ Example DHCPREQUEST messageEthernet: source=sender's MAC; destination=IP: source=; destination=; UDP: source port=68; destination port=67 Octet 0 Octet 1 Octet 2 Octet 3 OP HTYPE HLEN HOPS 0x01 0x01 0x06 0x00 XID 0x3903F326 SECS FLAGS 0x0000 0x0000 CIADDR (Client IP address)0x00000000 YIADDR (Your IP address) 0x00000000 SIADDR (Server IP address) 0xC0A80101 () GIADDR (Gateway IP address) 0x00000000 CHADDR (Client hardware address) 0x00053C04 0x8D590000 0x00000000 0x00000000 192 octets of 0s; BOOTP legacy.", "Magic cookie 0x63825363 DHCP options 53: 3 (DHCP Request) 50: requested 54 (DHCP server): ===Acknowledgement===When the DHCP server receives the DHCPREQUEST message from the client, the configuration process enters its final phase.", "The acknowledgement phase involves sending a DHCPACK packet to the client.", "This packet includes the lease duration and any other configuration information that the client might have requested.", "At this point, the IP configuration process is completed.The protocol expects the DHCP client to configure its network interface with the negotiated parameters.After the client obtains an IP address, it should probe the newly received address (e.g.", "with ARP Address Resolution Protocol) to prevent address conflicts caused by overlapping address pools of DHCP servers.", "If this probe finds another computer using that address, the computer should send DHCPDECLINE, broadcast, to the server.+ Example DHCPACK messageEthernet: source=sender's MAC; destination=client's MACIP: source=; destination=UDP: source port=67; destination port=68 Octet 0 Octet 1 Octet 2 Octet 3 OP HTYPE HLEN HOPS 0x02 0x01 0x06 0x00 XID 0x3903F326 SECS FLAGS 0x0000 0x0000 CIADDR (Client IP address) 0x00000000 YIADDR (Your IP address) 0xC0A80164 () SIADDR (Server IP address) 0xC0A80101 () GIADDR (Gateway IP address switched by relay) 0x00000000 CHADDR (Client hardware address) 0x00053C04 0x8D590000 0x00000000 0x00000000 192 octets of 0s.", "BOOTP legacy Magic cookie 0x63825363 DHCP options 53: 5 (DHCP ACK) 1 (subnet mask): 3 (Router): 51 (IP address lease time): 86400s (1 day) 54 (DHCP server): 6 (DNS servers):===Information===A DHCP client may request more information than the server sent with the original DHCPOFFER.", "The client may also request repeat data for a particular application.", "For example, browsers use ''DHCP Inform'' to obtain web proxy settings via WPAD.===Releasing===The client sends a request to the DHCP server to release the DHCP information and the client deactivates its IP address.", "As client devices usually do not know when users may unplug them from the network, the protocol does not mandate the sending of ''DHCP Release''." ], [ "Client configuration parameters", "A DHCP server can provide optional configuration parameters to the client.", "RFC 2132 describes the available DHCP options defined by Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) - DHCP and BOOTP PARAMETERS.A DHCP client can select, manipulate and overwrite parameters provided by a DHCP server.", "In Unix-like systems this client-level refinement typically takes place according to the values in the configuration file ''/etc/dhclient.conf''." ], [ "Options", "Options are octet strings of varying length.", "This is called Type–length–value encoding.", "The first octet is the option code, the second octet is the number of following octets and the remaining octets are code dependent.For example, the DHCP message-type option for an offer would appear as 0x35, 0x01, 0x02, where 0x35 is code 53 for \"DHCP message type\", 0x01 means one octet follows and 0x02 is the value of \"offer\".The following tables list the available DHCP options.+ RFC 1497 (BOOTP Vendor Information Extensions) vendor extensions Code Name Length Notes 0 Pad 0 octets Can be used to pad other options so that they are aligned to the word boundary; is not followed by length byte 1 Subnet mask 4 octets Client's subnet mask as per RFC 950.If both the subnet mask and the router option (option 3) are included, the subnet mask option must be first.", "2 Time offset 4 octets Offset of the client's subnet in seconds from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).", "The offset is expressed as a two's complement 32-bit integer.", "A positive offset indicates a location east of the zero meridian and a negative offset indicates a location west of the zero meridian.", "3 Router Multiples of 4 octets Available routers, should be listed in order of preference 4 Time server Multiples of 4 octets Available Time Protocol servers to synchronise with, should be listed in order of preference 5 Name server Multiples of 4 octets Available IEN 116 name servers, should be listed in order of preference 6 Domain name server Multiples of 4 octets Available DNS servers, should be listed in order of preference 7 Log server Multiples of 4 octets Available log servers, should be listed in order of preference 8 Cookie server Multiples of 4 octets ''Cookie ''in this case means \"fortune cookie\" or \"quote of the day\", a pithy or humorous anecdote often sent as part of a logon process on large computers; it has nothing to do with cookies sent by websites.", "9 LPR Server Multiples of 4 octets A list of Line Printer Daemon protocol servers available to the client, should be listed in order of preference 10 Impress server Multiples of 4 octets A list of Imagen Impress servers available to the client, should be listed in order of preference 11 Resource location server Multiples of 4 octets A list of Resource Location Protocol servers available to the client, should be listed in order of preference 12 Host name Minimum of 1 octet Name of the client.", "The name may be qualified with the local domain name.", "13 Boot file size 2 octets Length of the boot image in 512B blocks 14 Merit dump file Minimum of 1 octet Path where crash dumps should be stored 15 Domain name Minimum of 1 octet 16 Swap server 4 octets 17 Root path Minimum of 1 octet 18 Extensions path Minimum of 1 octet 255 End 0 octets Used to mark the end of the vendor option field+ IP layer parameters per host Code Name Length Notes 19 IP forwarding enable/disable 1 octet 20 Non-local source routing enable/disable 1 octet 21 Policy filter Multiples of 8 octets 22 Maximum datagram reassembly size 2 octets 23 Default IP time-to-live 1 octet 24 Path MTU aging timeout 4 octets 25 Path MTU plateau table Multiples of 2 octets + IP Layer Parameters per Interface Code Name Length Notes 26 Interface MTU 2 octets 27 All subnets are local 1 octet 28 Broadcast address 4 octets 29 Perform mask discovery 1 octet 30 Mask supplier 1 octet 31 Perform router discovery 1 octet 32 Router solicitation address 4 octets 33 Static route Multiples of 8 octets A list of destination/router pairs+ Link layer parameters per interface Code Name Length Notes 34 Trailer encapsulation option 1 octet 35 ARP cache timeout 4 octets 36 Ethernet encapsulation 1 octet + TCP parameters Code Name Length Notes 37 TCP default TTL 1 octet 38 TCP keepalive interval 4 octets 39 TCP keepalive garbage 1 octet + Application and service parameters Code Name Length Notes 40 Network information service domain Minimum of 1 octet 41 Network information servers Multiples of 4 octets 42 Network Time Protocol (NTP) servers Multiples of 4 octets 43 Vendor-specific information Minimum of 1 octets 44 NetBIOS over TCP/IP name server Multiples of 4 octets 45 NetBIOS over TCP/IP datagram Distribution Server Multiples of 4 octets 46 NetBIOS over TCP/IP node type 1 octet 47 NetBIOS over TCP/IP scope Minimum of 1 octet 48 X Window System font server Multiples of 4 octets 49 X Window System display manager Multiples of 4 octets 64 Network Information Service+ domain Minimum of 1 octet 65 Network Information Service+ servers Multiples of 4 octets 68 Mobile IP home agent Multiples of 4 octets 69 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) server Multiples of 4 octets 70 Post Office Protocol (POP3) server Multiples of 4 octets 71 Network News Transfer Protocol (NNTP) server Multiples of 4 octets 72 Default World Wide Web (WWW) server Multiples of 4 octets 73 Default Finger protocol server Multiples of 4 octets 74 Default Internet Relay Chat (IRC) server Multiples of 4 octets 75 StreetTalk server Multiples of 4 octets 76 StreetTalk Directory Assistance (STDA) server Multiples of 4 octets + DHCP extensions Code Name Length Notes 50 Requested IP address 4 octets 51 IP address lease time 4 octets 52 Option overload 1 octet 53 DHCP message type 1 octet 54 Server identifier 4 octets 55 Parameter request list Minimum of 1 octet 56 Message Minimum of 1 octet 57 Maximum DHCP message size 2 octets 58 Renewal (T1) time value 4 octets 59 Rebinding (T2) time value 4 octets 60 Vendor class identifier Minimum of 1 octet 61 Client-identifier Minimum of 2 octets 66 TFTP server name Minimum of 1 octet 67 Bootfile name Minimum of 1 octet ===DHCP message types===This table lists the DHCP message types, documented in RFC 2132, RFC 3203, RFC 4388, RFC 6926 and RFC 7724.These codes are the value in the DHCP extension 53, shown in thetable above.+ DHCP message types Code Name Length RFC 1 DHCPDISCOVER 1 octet rfc2132 2 DHCPOFFER 1 octet rfc2132 3 DHCPREQUEST 1 octet rfc2132 4 DHCPDECLINE 1 octet rfc2132 5 DHCPACK 1 octet rfc2132 6 DHCPNAK 1 octet rfc2132 7 DHCPRELEASE 1 octet rfc2132 8 DHCPINFORM 1 octet rfc2132 9 DHCPFORCERENEW 1 octet rfc3203 10 DHCPLEASEQUERY 1 octet rfc4388 11 DHCPLEASEUNASSIGNED 1 octet rfc4388 12 DHCPLEASEUNKNOWN 1 octet rfc4388 13 DHCPLEASEACTIVE 1 octet rfc4388 14 DHCPBULKLEASEQUERY 1 octet rfc6926 15 DHCPLEASEQUERYDONE 1 octet rfc6926 16 DHCPACTIVELEASEQUERY 1 octet rfc7724 17 DHCPLEASEQUERYSTATUS 1 octet rfc7724 18 DHCPTLS 1 octet rfc7724====Client vendor identification====An option exists to identify the vendor and functionality of a DHCP client.", "The information is a variable-length string of characters or octets which has a meaning specified by the vendor of the DHCP client.", "One method by which a DHCP client can communicate to the server that it is using a certain type of hardware or firmware is to set a value in its DHCP requests called the Vendor Class Identifier (VCI) (Option 60).The value to which this option is set gives the DHCP server a hint about any required extra information that this client needs in a DHCP response.", "Some types of set-top boxes set the VCI to inform the DHCP server about the hardware type and functionality of the device.", "An Aruba campus wireless access point, for example, supplies value 'ArubaAP' as option 60 in its DHCPDISCOVER message.", "The DHCP server can then augment its DHCPOFFER with an IP address of an Aruba wireless controller in option 43, so the access point knows where to register itself.Setting a VCI by the client allows a DHCP server to differentiate between client machines and process the requests from them appropriately.===Other extensions===+ Documented DHCP options Code Name Length RFC 82 Relay agent information Minimum of 2 octets RFC 3046 85 Novell Directory Service (NDS) servers Minimum of 4 octets, multiple of 4 octets RFC 2241 86 NDS tree name Variable RFC 2241 87 NDS context Variable RFC 2241 100 Time zone, POSIX style Variable RFC 4833 101 Time zone, tz database style Variable RFC 4833 114 DHCP Captive-Portal Variable RFC 8910 119 Domain search Variable RFC 3397 121 Classless static route Variable RFC 3442 209 Configuration File Variable RFC 5071 210 Path Prefix Variable RFC 5071 211 Reboot Time Variable RFC 5071====Relay agent information sub-options====The relay agent information option (option 82) specifies container for attaching sub-options to DHCP requests transmitted between a DHCP relay and a DHCP server.+ Relay agent sub-options Code Name Length RFC 1 Agent Circuit ID Minimum of 1 octet RFC 3046 2 Agent Remote ID Minimum of 1 octet RFC 3046 4 Data-Over-Cable Service Interface Specifications (DOCSIS) device class 4 octets RFC 3256" ], [ "Relaying", "In small networks, where only one IP subnet is being managed, DHCP clients communicate directly with DHCP servers.", "However, DHCP servers can also provide IP addresses for multiple subnets.", "In this case, a DHCP client that has not yet acquired an IP address cannot communicate directly with a DHCP server not on the same subnet, as the client's broadcast can only be received on its own subnet.In order to allow DHCP clients on subnets not directly served by DHCP servers to communicate with DHCP servers, DHCP relay agents can be installed on these subnets.", "A DHCP relay agent runs on a network device, capable of routing between the client's subnet and the subnet of the DHCP server.", "The DHCP client broadcasts on the local link; the relay agent receives the broadcast and transmits it to one or more DHCP servers using unicast.", "The IP addresses of the DHCP servers are manually configured in the relay agent.The relay agent stores its own IP address, from the interface on which it has received the client's broadcast, in the ''GIADDR'' field of the DHCP packet.The DHCP server uses the GIADDR-value to determine the subnet, and subsequently the corresponding address pool, from which to allocate an IP address.When the DHCP server replies to the client, it sends the reply to the GIADDR-address, again using unicast.The relay agent then retransmits the response on the local network, using unicast (in most cases) to the newly reserved IP address, in an Ethernet frame directed to the client's MAC address.The client should accept the packet as its own, even when that IP address is not yet set on the interface.Directly after processing the packet, the client sets the IP address on its interface and is ready for regular IP communication, directly thereafter.If the client's implementation of the IP stack does not accept unicast packets when it has no IP address yet, the client may set the ''broadcast'' bit in the FLAGS field when sending a DHCPDISCOVER packet.The relay agent will use the broadcast IP address (and the clients MAC address) to inform the client of the server's DHCPOFFER.The communication between the relay agent and the DHCP server typically uses both a source and destination UDP port of 67." ], [ "Client states", "A simplified DHCP client state-transition diagram based on figure 5 of RFC 2131.A DHCP client can receive these messages from a server:* DHCPOFFER* DHCPACK* DHCPNAKThe client moves through DHCP states depending on how the server responds to the messages that the client sends." ], [ "Reliability", "The DHCP ensures reliability in several ways: periodic renewal, rebinding, and failover.", "DHCP clients are allocated leases that last for some period of time.", "Clients begin to attempt to renew their leases once half the lease interval has expired.", "They do this by sending a unicast ''DHCPREQUEST'' message to the DHCP server that granted the original lease.", "If that server is down or unreachable, it will fail to respond to the ''DHCPREQUEST''.", "However, in that case the client repeats the ''DHCPREQUEST'' from time to time, so if the DHCP server comes back up or becomes reachable again, the DHCP client will succeed in contacting it and renew the lease.If the DHCP server is unreachable for an extended period of time, the DHCP client will attempt to rebind, by broadcasting its ''DHCPREQUEST'' rather than unicasting it.", "Because it is broadcast, the ''DHCPREQUEST'' message will reach all available DHCP servers.", "If some other DHCP server is able to renew the lease, it will do so at this time.In order for rebinding to work, when the client successfully contacts a backup DHCP server, that server must have accurate information about the client's binding.", "Maintaining accurate binding information between two servers is a complicated problem; if both servers are able to update the same lease database, there must be a mechanism to avoid conflicts between updates on the independent servers.", "A proposal for implementing fault-tolerant DHCP servers was submitted to the Internet Engineering Task Force, but never formalized.If rebinding fails, the lease will eventually expire.", "When the lease expires, the client must stop using the IP address granted to it in its lease.", "At that time it will restart the DHCP process from the beginning by broadcasting a DHCPDISCOVER message.", "Since its lease has expired, it will accept any IP address offered to it.", "Once it has a new IP address (presumably from a different DHCP server) it will once again be able to use the network.", "However, since its IP address has changed, any ongoing connections will be broken." ], [ "IPv6 networks", "The basic methodology of DHCP was developed for networks based on Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4).", "Since the development and deployment of IPv6 networks, DHCP has also been used for assigning parameters in such networks, despite the inherent features of IPv6 for stateless address autoconfiguration.", "The IPv6 version of the protocol is designated as DHCPv6." ], [ "Security", "The base DHCP does not include any mechanism for authentication.Because of this, it is vulnerable to a variety of attacks.", "These attacks fall into three main categories:* Unauthorized DHCP servers providing false information to clients.", "* Unauthorized clients gaining access to resources.", "* Resource exhaustion attacks from malicious DHCP clients.Because the client has no way to validate the identity of a DHCP server, unauthorized DHCP servers (commonly called \"rogue DHCP\") can be operated on networks, providing incorrect information to DHCP clients.", "This can serve either as a denial-of-service attack, preventing the client from gaining access to network connectivity, or as a man-in-the-middle attack.", "Because the DHCP server provides the DHCP client with server IP addresses, such as the IP address of one or more DNS servers, an attacker can convince a DHCP client to do its DNS lookups through its own DNS server, and can therefore provide its own answers to DNS queries from the client.", "This in turn allows the attacker to redirect network traffic through itself, allowing it to eavesdrop on connections between the client and network servers it contacts, or to simply replace those network servers with its own.Because the DHCP server has no secure mechanism for authenticating the client, clients can gain unauthorized access to IP addresses by presenting credentials, such as client identifiers, that belong to other DHCP clients.", "This also allows DHCP clients to exhaust the DHCP server's store of IP addresses—by presenting new credentials each time it asks for an address, the client can consume all the available IP addresses on a particular network link, preventing other DHCP clients from getting service.DHCP does provide some mechanisms for mitigating these problems.", "The Relay Agent Information Option protocol extension (usually referred to in the industry by its actual number as ''Option 82'') allows network operators to attach tags to DHCP messages as these messages arrive on the network operator's trusted network.", "This tag is then used as an authorization token to control the client's access to network resources.", "Because the client has no access to the network upstream of the relay agent, the lack of authentication does not prevent the DHCP server operator from relying on the authorization token.Another extension, Authentication for DHCP Messages (RFC 3118), provides a mechanism for authenticating DHCP messages.", "As of 2002, this extension had not seen widespread adoption because of the problems of managing keys for large numbers of DHCP clients.", "A 2007 book about DSL technologies remarked that:There were numerous security vulnerabilities identified against the security measures proposed by RFC 3118.This fact, combined with the introduction of 802.1x, slowed the deployment and take-rate of authenticated DHCP, and it has never been widely deployed.", "A 2010 book notes that:There have been very few implementations of DHCP Authentication.", "The challenges of key management and processing delays due to hash computation have been deemed too heavy a price to pay for the perceived benefits.Architectural proposals from 2008 involve authenticating DHCP requests using 802.1x or PANA (both of which transport EAP).", "An IETF proposal was made for including EAP in DHCP itself, the so-called EAPoDHCP; this does not appear to have progressed beyond IETF draft level, the last of which dates to 2010." ], [ "IETF standards documents", "* , Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol* , DHCP Options and BOOTP Vendor Extensions* , DHCP Relay Agent Information Option* , Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) Domain Search Option* , Reclassifying Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol Version Four (DHCPv4) Options* , Information Refresh Time Option for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol for IPv6* , Node-specific Client Identifiers for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol Version Four (DHCPv4)* , Detecting Network Attachment in IPv4 (DNAv4)* , Classless Static Route Option for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) version 4* , DHCP reconfigure extension* , Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) Leasequery* , DHCPv4 Bulk Leasequery* , Active DHCPv4 Lease Query" ], [ "See also", "* Boot Service Discovery Protocol (BSDP) a DHCP extension used by Apple's NetBoot* Comparison of DHCP server software* * Preboot Execution Environment (PXE)* Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)* Rogue DHCP* UDP Helper Address a tool for routing DHCP requests across subnet boundaries* Zeroconf Zero Configuration Networking* Kea – an open-source DHCP server developed by the Internet Systems Consortium" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dava Sobel" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dava Sobel''' (born June 15, 1947) is an American writer of popular expositions of scientific topics.", "Her books include ''Longitude'', about English clockmaker John Harrison; ''Galileo's Daughter'', about Galileo's daughter Maria Celeste; and ''The Glass Universe: How the Ladies of the Harvard Observatory Took the Measure of the Stars'' about the Harvard Computers." ], [ "Biography", "Sobel was born in The Bronx, New York City.", "She graduated from the Bronx High School of Science and Binghamton University.", "She wrote ''Longitude: The True Story of a Lone Genius Who Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time'' in 1995.The story was made into a television movie, of the same name by Charles Sturridge and Granada Film in 1999, and was shown in the United States by A&E.Her book ''Galileo's Daughter: A Historical Memoir of Science, Faith, and Love'' was a finalist for the 2000 Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography.Dava Sobel in November 2007She holds honorary doctor of letters degrees from the University of Bath and Middlebury College, Vermont, both awarded in 2002.Sobel made her first foray into teaching at the University of Chicago as the Vare Writer-in-Residence in the winter of 2006.She taught a one-quarter seminar on writing about science.She served as a judge for the PEN/E.", "O. Wilson Literary Science Writing Award in 2012.Sobel is the niece of journalist Ruth Gruber and the cousin of epidemiologist David Michaels." ], [ "Legacy", "The asteroid 30935 Davasobel is named after her.Sobel states she is a chaser of solar eclipses and that \"it's the closest thing to witnessing a miracle\".", "As of August 2012 she had seen eight, and planned to see the November 2012 total solar eclipse in Australia." ], [ "Publications", " * * * * ''Longitude: The True Story of a Lone Genius Who Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time'' (1995) .", "– the genius in question was John Harrison, who spent decades trying to convince the British Admiralty of the accuracy of his naval timepieces and their use in determining longitude when at sea in order to win the longitude prize.", "The book itself won the 1997 British Book of the Year award.", "* ''Galileo's Daughter: A Historical Memoir of Science, Faith, and Love'' (2000) * ''The Best American Science Writing'' 2004 (editor) , * ''The Planets: A discourse on the discovery, science, history and mythology, of the planets in our solar system, with one chapter devoted to each of the celestial spheres.''", "(2005) , * * ''The Glass Universe: How the Ladies of the Harvard Observatory Took the Measure of the Stars'' (2016) ," ], [ "Recognition", "She was named a Fellow of the American Physical Society in 2022 \"for outstanding writings covering many centuries of key developments in physics and astronomy and the people central to those developments\"." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* ** Podcast of Dava Sobel discussing ''The Origins of Longitude'' at the Shanghai International Literary Festival*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Differential geometry" ], [ "Introduction", "A triangle immersed in a saddle-shape plane (a hyperbolic paraboloid), as well as two diverging ultraparallel lines.", "'''Differential geometry''' is a mathematical discipline that studies the geometry of smooth shapes and smooth spaces, otherwise known as smooth manifolds.", "It uses the techniques of differential calculus, integral calculus, linear algebra and multilinear algebra.", "The field has its origins in the study of spherical geometry as far back as antiquity.", "It also relates to astronomy, the geodesy of the Earth, and later the study of hyperbolic geometry by Lobachevsky.", "The simplest examples of smooth spaces are the plane and space curves and surfaces in the three-dimensional Euclidean space, and the study of these shapes formed the basis for development of modern differential geometry during the 18th and 19th centuries.Since the late 19th century, differential geometry has grown into a field concerned more generally with geometric structures on differentiable manifolds.", "A geometric structure is one which defines some notion of size, distance, shape, volume, or other rigidifying structure.", "For example, in Riemannian geometry distances and angles are specified, in symplectic geometry volumes may be computed, in conformal geometry only angles are specified, and in gauge theory certain fields are given over the space.", "Differential geometry is closely related to, and is sometimes taken to include, differential topology, which concerns itself with properties of differentiable manifolds that do not rely on any additional geometric structure (see that article for more discussion on the distinction between the two subjects).", "Differential geometry is also related to the geometric aspects of the theory of differential equations, otherwise known as geometric analysis.Differential geometry finds applications throughout mathematics and the natural sciences.", "Most prominently the language of differential geometry was used by Albert Einstein in his theory of general relativity, and subsequently by physicists in the development of quantum field theory and the standard model of particle physics.", "Outside of physics, differential geometry finds applications in chemistry, economics, engineering, control theory, computer graphics and computer vision, and recently in machine learning." ], [ "History and development", "The history and development of differential geometry as a subject begins at least as far back as classical antiquity.", "It is intimately linked to the development of geometry more generally, of the notion of space and shape, and of topology, especially the study of manifolds.", "In this section we focus primarily on the history of the application of infinitesimal methods to geometry, and later to the ideas of tangent spaces, and eventually the development of the modern formalism of the subject in terms of tensors and tensor fields.=== Classical antiquity until the Renaissance (300 BC1600 AD) ===The study of differential geometry, or at least the study of the geometry of smooth shapes, can be traced back at least to classical antiquity.", "In particular, much was known about the geometry of the Earth, a spherical geometry, in the time of the ancient Greek mathematicians.", "Famously, Eratosthenes calculated the circumference of the Earth around 200 BC, and around 150 AD Ptolemy in his ''Geography'' introduced the stereographic projection for the purposes of mapping the shape of the Earth.", "Implicitly throughout this time principles that form the foundation of differential geometry and calculus were used in geodesy, although in a much simplified form.", "Namely, as far back as Euclid's ''Elements'' it was understood that a straight line could be defined by its property of providing the shortest distance between two points, and applying this same principle to the surface of the Earth leads to the conclusion that great circles, which are only locally similar to straight lines in a flat plane, provide the shortest path between two points on the Earth's surface.", "Indeed, the measurements of distance along such geodesic paths by Eratosthenes and others can be considered a rudimentary measure of arclength of curves, a concept which did not see a rigorous definition in terms of calculus until the 1600s.Around this time there were only minimal overt applications of the theory of infinitesimals to the study of geometry, a precursor to the modern calculus-based study of the subject.", "In Euclid's ''Elements'' the notion of tangency of a line to a circle is discussed, and Archimedes applied the method of exhaustion to compute the areas of smooth shapes such as the circle, and the volumes of smooth three-dimensional solids such as the sphere, cones, and cylinders.There was little development in the theory of differential geometry between antiquity and the beginning of the Renaissance.", "Before the development of calculus by Newton and Leibniz, the most significant development in the understanding of differential geometry came from Gerardus Mercator's development of the Mercator projection as a way of mapping the Earth.", "Mercator had an understanding of the advantages and pitfalls of his map design, and in particular was aware of the conformal nature of his projection, as well as the difference between ''praga'', the lines of shortest distance on the Earth, and the ''directio'', the straight line paths on his map.", "Mercator noted that the praga were ''oblique curvatur'' in this projection.", "This fact reflects the lack of a metric-preserving map of the Earth's surface onto a flat plane, a consequence of the later Theorema Egregium of Gauss.=== After calculus (1600–1800) ===An osculating circle of plane curveThe first systematic or rigorous treatment of geometry using the theory of infinitesimals and notions from calculus began around the 1600s when calculus was first developed by Gottfried Leibniz and Isaac Newton.", "At this time, the recent work of René Descartes introducing analytic coordinates to geometry allowed geometric shapes of increasing complexity to be described rigorously.", "In particular around this time Pierre de Fermat, Newton, and Leibniz began the study of plane curves and the investigation of concepts such as points of inflection and circles of osculation, which aid in the measurement of curvature.", "Indeed, already in his first paper on the foundations of calculus, Leibniz notes that the infinitesimal condition indicates the existence of an inflection point.", "Shortly after this time the Bernoulli brothers, Jacob and Johann made important early contributions to the use of infinitesimals to study geometry.", "In lectures by Johann Bernoulli at the time, later collated by L'Hopital into the first textbook on differential calculus, the tangents to plane curves of various types are computed using the condition , and similarly points of inflection are calculated.", "At this same time the orthogonality between the osculating circles of a plane curve and the tangent directions is realised, and the first analytical formula for the radius of an osculating circle, essentially the first analytical formula for the notion of curvature, is written down.In the wake of the development of analytic geometry and plane curves, Alexis Clairaut began the study of space curves at just the age of 16.In his book Clairaut introduced the notion of tangent and subtangent directions to space curves in relation to the directions which lie along a surface on which the space curve lies.", "Thus Clairaut demonstrated an implicit understanding of the tangent space of a surface and studied this idea using calculus for the first time.", "Importantly Clairaut introduced the terminology of ''curvature'' and ''double curvature'', essentially the notion of principal curvatures later studied by Gauss and others.Around this same time, Leonhard Euler, originally a student of Johann Bernoulli, provided many significant contributions not just to the development of geometry, but to mathematics more broadly.", "In regards to differential geometry, Euler studied the notion of a geodesic on a surface deriving the first analytical geodesic equation, and later introduced the first set of intrinsic coordinate systems on a surface, beginning the theory of ''intrinsic geometry'' upon which modern geometric ideas are based.", "Around this time Euler's study of mechanics in the ''Mechanica'' lead to the realization that a mass traveling along a surface not under the effect of any force would traverse a geodesic path, an early precursor to the important foundational ideas of Einstein's general relativity, and also to the Euler–Lagrange equations and the first theory of the calculus of variations, which underpins in modern differential geometry many techniques in symplectic geometry and geometric analysis.", "This theory was used by Lagrange, a co-developer of the calculus of variations, to derive the first differential equation describing a minimal surface in terms of the Euler–Lagrange equation.", "In 1760 Euler proved a theorem expressing the curvature of a space curve on a surface in terms of the principal curvatures, known as Euler's theorem.Later in the 1700s, the new French school led by Gaspard Monge began to make contributions to differential geometry.", "Monge made important contributions to the theory of plane curves, surfaces, and studied surfaces of revolution and envelopes of plane curves and space curves.", "Several students of Monge made contributions to this same theory, and for example Charles Dupin provided a new interpretation of Euler's theorem in terms of the principle curvatures, which is the modern form of the equation.=== Intrinsic geometry and non-Euclidean geometry (1800–1900) ===The field of differential geometry became an area of study considered in its own right, distinct from the more broad idea of analytic geometry, in the 1800s, primarily through the foundational work of Carl Friedrich Gauss and Bernhard Riemann, and also in the important contributions of Nikolai Lobachevsky on hyperbolic geometry and non-Euclidean geometry and throughout the same period the development of projective geometry.Dubbed the single most important work in the history of differential geometry, in 1827 Gauss produced the ''Disquisitiones generales circa superficies curvas'' detailing the general theory of curved surfaces.", "In this work and his subsequent papers and unpublished notes on the theory of surfaces, Gauss has been dubbed the inventor of non-Euclidean geometry and the inventor of intrinsic differential geometry.", "In his fundamental paper Gauss introduced the Gauss map, Gaussian curvature, first and second fundamental forms, proved the Theorema Egregium showing the intrinsic nature of the Gaussian curvature, and studied geodesics, computing the area of a geodesic triangle in various non-Euclidean geometries on surfaces.At this time Gauss was already of the opinion that the standard paradigm of Euclidean geometry should be discarded, and was in possession of private manuscripts on non-Euclidean geometry which informed his study of geodesic triangles.", "Around this same time János Bolyai and Lobachevsky independently discovered hyperbolic geometry and thus demonstrated the existence of consistent geometries outside Euclid's paradigm.", "Concrete models of hyperbolic geometry were produced by Eugenio Beltrami later in the 1860s, and Felix Klein coined the term non-Euclidean geometry in 1871, and through the Erlangen program put Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometries on the same footing.", "Implicitly, the spherical geometry of the Earth that had been studied since antiquity was a non-Euclidean geometry, an elliptic geometry.The development of intrinsic differential geometry in the language of Gauss was spurred on by his student, Bernhard Riemann in his Habilitationsschrift, ''On the hypotheses which lie at the foundation of geometry''.", "In this work Riemann introduced the notion of a Riemannian metric and the Riemannian curvature tensor for the first time, and began the systematic study of differential geometry in higher dimensions.", "This intrinsic point of view in terms of the Riemannian metric, denoted by by Riemann, was the development of an idea of Gauss' about the linear element of a surface.", "At this time Riemann began to introduce the systematic use of linear algebra and multilinear algebra into the subject, making great use of the theory of quadratic forms in his investigation of metrics and curvature.", "At this time Riemann did not yet develop the modern notion of a manifold, as even the notion of a topological space had not been encountered, but he did propose that it might be possible to investigate or measure the properties of the metric of spacetime through the analysis of masses within spacetime, linking with the earlier observation of Euler that masses under the effect of no forces would travel along geodesics on surfaces, and predicting Einstein's fundamental observation of the equivalence principle a full 60 years before it appeared in the scientific literature.In the wake of Riemann's new description, the focus of techniques used to study differential geometry shifted from the ad hoc and extrinsic methods of the study of curves and surfaces to a more systematic approach in terms of tensor calculus and Klein's Erlangen program, and progress increased in the field.", "The notion of groups of transformations was developed by Sophus Lie and Jean Gaston Darboux, leading to important results in the theory of Lie groups and symplectic geometry.", "The notion of differential calculus on curved spaces was studied by Elwin Christoffel, who introduced the Christoffel symbols which describe the covariant derivative in 1868, and by others including Eugenio Beltrami who studied many analytic questions on manifolds.", "In 1899 Luigi Bianchi produced his ''Lectures on differential geometry'' which studied differential geometry from Riemann's perspective, and a year later Tullio Levi-Civita and Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro produced their textbook systematically developing the theory of absolute differential calculus and tensor calculus.", "It was in this language that differential geometry was used by Einstein in the development of general relativity and pseudo-Riemannian geometry.=== Modern differential geometry (1900–2000) ===The subject of modern differential geometry emerged from the early 1900s in response to the foundational contributions of many mathematicians, including importantly the work of Henri Poincaré on the foundations of topology.", "At the start of the 1900s there was a major movement within mathematics to formalise the foundational aspects of the subject to avoid crises of rigour and accuracy, known as Hilbert's program.", "As part of this broader movement, the notion of a topological space was distilled in by Felix Hausdorff in 1914, and by 1942 there were many different notions of manifold of a combinatorial and differential-geometric nature.Interest in the subject was also focused by the emergence of Einstein's theory of general relativity and the importance of the Einstein Field equations.", "Einstein's theory popularised the tensor calculus of Ricci and Levi-Civita and introduced the notation for a Riemannian metric, and for the Christoffel symbols, both coming from ''G'' in ''Gravitation''.", "Élie Cartan helped reformulate the foundations of the differential geometry of smooth manifolds in terms of exterior calculus and the theory of moving frames, leading in the world of physics to Einstein–Cartan theory.Following this early development, many mathematicians contributed to the development of the modern theory, including Jean-Louis Koszul who introduced connections on vector bundles, Shiing-Shen Chern who introduced characteristic classes to the subject and began the study of complex manifolds, Sir William Vallance Douglas Hodge and Georges de Rham who expanded understanding of differential forms, Charles Ehresmann who introduced the theory of fibre bundles and Ehresmann connections, and others.", "Of particular importance was Hermann Weyl who made important contributions to the foundations of general relativity, introduced the Weyl tensor providing insight into conformal geometry, and first defined the notion of a gauge leading to the development of gauge theory in physics and mathematics.In the middle and late 20th century differential geometry as a subject expanded in scope and developed links to other areas of mathematics and physics.", "The development of gauge theory and Yang–Mills theory in physics brought bundles and connections into focus, leading to developments in gauge theory.", "Many analytical results were investigated including the proof of the Atiyah–Singer index theorem.", "The development of complex geometry was spurred on by parallel results in algebraic geometry, and results in the geometry and global analysis of complex manifolds were proven by Shing-Tung Yau and others.", "In the latter half of the 20th century new analytic techniques were developed in regards to curvature flows such as the Ricci flow, which culminated in Grigori Perelman's proof of the Poincaré conjecture.", "During this same period primarily due to the influence of Michael Atiyah, new links between theoretical physics and differential geometry were formed.", "Techniques from the study of the Yang–Mills equations and gauge theory were used by mathematicians to develop new invariants of smooth manifolds.", "Physicists such as Edward Witten, the only physicist to be awarded a Fields medal, made new impacts in mathematics by using topological quantum field theory and string theory to make predictions and provide frameworks for new rigorous mathematics, which has resulted for example in the conjectural mirror symmetry and the Seiberg–Witten invariants." ], [ "Branches", "===Riemannian geometry===Riemannian geometry studies Riemannian manifolds, smooth manifolds with a ''Riemannian metric''.", "This is a concept of distance expressed by means of a smooth positive definite symmetric bilinear form defined on the tangent space at each point.", "Riemannian geometry generalizes Euclidean geometry to spaces that are not necessarily flat, though they still resemble Euclidean space at each point infinitesimally, i.e.", "in the first order of approximation.", "Various concepts based on length, such as the arc length of curves, area of plane regions, and volume of solids all possess natural analogues in Riemannian geometry.", "The notion of a directional derivative of a function from multivariable calculus is extended to the notion of a covariant derivative of a tensor.", "Many concepts of analysis and differential equations have been generalized to the setting of Riemannian manifolds.A distance-preserving diffeomorphism between Riemannian manifolds is called an isometry.", "This notion can also be defined ''locally'', i.e.", "for small neighborhoods of points.", "Any two regular curves are locally isometric.", "However, the Theorema Egregium of Carl Friedrich Gauss showed that for surfaces, the existence of a local isometry imposes that the Gaussian curvatures at the corresponding points must be the same.", "In higher dimensions, the Riemann curvature tensor is an important pointwise invariant associated with a Riemannian manifold that measures how close it is to being flat.", "An important class of Riemannian manifolds is the Riemannian symmetric spaces, whose curvature is not necessarily constant.", "These are the closest analogues to the \"ordinary\" plane and space considered in Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometry.===Pseudo-Riemannian geometry===Pseudo-Riemannian geometry generalizes Riemannian geometry to the case in which the metric tensor need not be positive-definite.", "A special case of this is a Lorentzian manifold, which is the mathematical basis of Einstein's general relativity theory of gravity.===Finsler geometry===Finsler geometry has ''Finsler manifolds'' as the main object of study.", "This is a differential manifold with a ''Finsler metric'', that is, a Banach norm defined on each tangent space.", "Riemannian manifolds are special cases of the more general Finsler manifolds.", "A Finsler structure on a manifold is a function such that:# for all in and all ,# is infinitely differentiable in ,# The vertical Hessian of is positive definite.===Symplectic geometry===Symplectic geometry is the study of symplectic manifolds.", "An '''almost symplectic manifold''' is a differentiable manifold equipped with a smoothly varying non-degenerate skew-symmetric bilinear form on each tangent space, i.e., a nondegenerate 2-form ''ω'', called the ''symplectic form''.", "A symplectic manifold is an almost symplectic manifold for which the symplectic form ''ω'' is closed: .A diffeomorphism between two symplectic manifolds which preserves the symplectic form is called a symplectomorphism.", "Non-degenerate skew-symmetric bilinear forms can only exist on even-dimensional vector spaces, so symplectic manifolds necessarily have even dimension.", "In dimension 2, a symplectic manifold is just a surface endowed with an area form and a symplectomorphism is an area-preserving diffeomorphism.", "The phase space of a mechanical system is a symplectic manifold and they made an implicit appearance already in the work of Joseph Louis Lagrange on analytical mechanics and later in Carl Gustav Jacobi's and William Rowan Hamilton's formulations of classical mechanics.By contrast with Riemannian geometry, where the curvature provides a local invariant of Riemannian manifolds, Darboux's theorem states that all symplectic manifolds are locally isomorphic.", "The only invariants of a symplectic manifold are global in nature and topological aspects play a prominent role in symplectic geometry.", "The first result in symplectic topology is probably the Poincaré–Birkhoff theorem, conjectured by Henri Poincaré and then proved by G.D. Birkhoff in 1912.It claims that if an area preserving map of an annulus twists each boundary component in opposite directions, then the map has at least two fixed points.===Contact geometry===Contact geometry deals with certain manifolds of odd dimension.", "It is close to symplectic geometry and like the latter, it originated in questions of classical mechanics.", "A ''contact structure'' on a -dimensional manifold ''M'' is given by a smooth hyperplane field ''H'' in the tangent bundle that is as far as possible from being associated with the level sets of a differentiable function on ''M'' (the technical term is \"completely nonintegrable tangent hyperplane distribution\").", "Near each point ''p'', a hyperplane distribution is determined by a nowhere vanishing 1-form , which is unique up to multiplication by a nowhere vanishing function:: A local 1-form on ''M'' is a ''contact form'' if the restriction of its exterior derivative to ''H'' is a non-degenerate two-form and thus induces a symplectic structure on ''H''''p'' at each point.", "If the distribution ''H'' can be defined by a global one-form then this form is contact if and only if the top-dimensional form: is a volume form on ''M'', i.e.", "does not vanish anywhere.", "A contact analogue of the Darboux theorem holds: all contact structures on an odd-dimensional manifold are locally isomorphic and can be brought to a certain local normal form by a suitable choice of the coordinate system.===Complex and Kähler geometry===''Complex differential geometry'' is the study of complex manifolds.An almost complex manifold is a ''real'' manifold , endowed with a tensor of type (1, 1), i.e.", "a vector bundle endomorphism (called an ''almost complex structure''):, such that It follows from this definition that an almost complex manifold is even-dimensional.An almost complex manifold is called ''complex'' if , where is a tensor of type (2, 1) related to , called the Nijenhuis tensor (or sometimes the ''torsion'').An almost complex manifold is complex if and only if it admits a holomorphic coordinate atlas.An ''almost Hermitian structure'' is given by an almost complex structure ''J'', along with a Riemannian metric ''g'', satisfying the compatibility condition:An almost Hermitian structure defines naturally a differential two-form:The following two conditions are equivalent:# # where is the Levi-Civita connection of .", "In this case, is called a ''Kähler structure'', and a ''Kähler manifold'' is a manifold endowed with a Kähler structure.", "In particular, a Kähler manifold is both a complex and a symplectic manifold.", "A large class of Kähler manifolds (the class of Hodge manifolds) is given by all the smooth complex projective varieties.===CR geometry===CR geometry is the study of the intrinsic geometry of boundaries of domains in complex manifolds.===Conformal geometry===Conformal geometry is the study of the set of angle-preserving (conformal) transformations on a space.=== Differential topology ===Differential topology is the study of global geometric invariants without a metric or symplectic form.Differential topology starts from the natural operations such as Lie derivative of natural vector bundles and de Rham differential of forms.", "Beside Lie algebroids, also Courant algebroids start playing a more important role.=== Lie groups ===A Lie group is a group in the category of smooth manifolds.", "Beside the algebraic properties this enjoys also differential geometric properties.", "The most obvious construction is that of a Lie algebra which is the tangent space at the unit endowed with the Lie bracket between left-invariant vector fields.", "Beside the structure theory there is also the wide field of representation theory.=== Geometric analysis ===Geometric analysis is a mathematical discipline where tools from differential equations, especially elliptic partial differential equations are used to establish new results in differential geometry and differential topology.=== Gauge theory ===Gauge theory is the study of connections on vector bundles and principal bundles, and arises out of problems in mathematical physics and physical gauge theories which underpin the standard model of particle physics.", "Gauge theory is concerned with the study of differential equations for connections on bundles, and the resulting geometric moduli spaces of solutions to these equations as well as the invariants that may be derived from them.", "These equations often arise as the Euler–Lagrange equations describing the equations of motion of certain physical systems in quantum field theory, and so their study is of considerable interest in physics." ], [ "Bundles and connections", "The apparatus of vector bundles, principal bundles, and connections on bundles plays an extraordinarily important role in modern differential geometry.", "A smooth manifold always carries a natural vector bundle, the tangent bundle.", "Loosely speaking, this structure by itself is sufficient only for developing analysis on the manifold, while doing geometry requires, in addition, some way to relate the tangent spaces at different points, i.e.", "a notion of parallel transport.", "An important example is provided by affine connections.", "For a surface in '''R'''3, tangent planes at different points can be identified using a natural path-wise parallelism induced by the ambient Euclidean space, which has a well-known standard definition of metric and parallelism.", "In Riemannian geometry, the Levi-Civita connection serves a similar purpose.", "More generally, differential geometers consider spaces with a vector bundle and an arbitrary affine connection which is not defined in terms of a metric.", "In physics, the manifold may be spacetime and the bundles and connections are related to various physical fields." ], [ "Intrinsic versus extrinsic", "From the beginning and through the middle of the 19th century, differential geometry was studied from the ''extrinsic'' point of view: curves and surfaces were considered as lying in a Euclidean space of higher dimension (for example a surface in an ambient space of three dimensions).", "The simplest results are those in the differential geometry of curves and differential geometry of surfaces.", "Starting with the work of Riemann, the ''intrinsic'' point of view was developed, in which one cannot speak of moving \"outside\" the geometric object because it is considered to be given in a free-standing way.", "The fundamental result here is Gauss's theorema egregium, to the effect that Gaussian curvature is an intrinsic invariant.The intrinsic point of view is more flexible.", "For example, it is useful in relativity where space-time cannot naturally be taken as extrinsic.", "However, there is a price to pay in technical complexity: the intrinsic definitions of curvature and connections become much less visually intuitive.These two points of view can be reconciled, i.e.", "the extrinsic geometry can be considered as a structure additional to the intrinsic one.", "(See the Nash embedding theorem.)", "In the formalism of geometric calculus both extrinsic and intrinsic geometry of a manifold can be characterized by a single bivector-valued one-form called the shape operator." ], [ "Applications", "Below are some examples of how differential geometry is applied to other fields of science and mathematics.", "*In physics, differential geometry has many applications, including:**Differential geometry is the language in which Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity is expressed.", "According to the theory, the universe is a smooth manifold equipped with a pseudo-Riemannian metric, which describes the curvature of spacetime.", "Understanding this curvature is essential for the positioning of satellites into orbit around the Earth.", "Differential geometry is also indispensable in the study of gravitational lensing and black holes.", "**Differential forms are used in the study of electromagnetism.", "**Differential geometry has applications to both Lagrangian mechanics and Hamiltonian mechanics.", "Symplectic manifolds in particular can be used to study Hamiltonian systems.", "**Riemannian geometry and contact geometry have been used to construct the formalism of geometrothermodynamics which has found applications in classical equilibrium thermodynamics.", "*In chemistry and biophysics when modelling cell membrane structure under varying pressure.", "*In economics, differential geometry has applications to the field of econometrics.", "*Geometric modeling (including computer graphics) and computer-aided geometric design draw on ideas from differential geometry.", "*In engineering, differential geometry can be applied to solve problems in digital signal processing.", "*In control theory, differential geometry can be used to analyze nonlinear controllers, particularly geometric control* In probability, statistics, and information theory, one can interpret various structures as Riemannian manifolds, which yields the field of information geometry, particularly via the Fisher information metric.", "*In structural geology, differential geometry is used to analyze and describe geologic structures.", "*In computer vision, differential geometry is used to analyze shapes.", "*In image processing, differential geometry is used to process and analyse data on non-flat surfaces.", "*Grigori Perelman's proof of the Poincaré conjecture using the techniques of Ricci flows demonstrated the power of the differential-geometric approach to questions in topology and it highlighted the important role played by its analytic methods.", "* In wireless communications, Grassmannian manifolds are used for beamforming techniques in multiple antenna systems.", "* In geodesy, for calculating distances and angles on the mean sea level surface of the Earth, modelled by an ellipsoid of revolution." ], [ "See also", "* Abstract differential geometry* Affine differential geometry* Analysis on fractals* Basic introduction to the mathematics of curved spacetime* Discrete differential geometry* Gauss* Glossary of differential geometry and topology* Important publications in differential geometry* Important publications in differential topology* Integral geometry* List of differential geometry topics* Noncommutative geometry* Projective differential geometry* Synthetic differential geometry* Systolic geometry* Gauge theory (mathematics)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "**********" ], [ "External links", "* * B. Conrad.", "Differential Geometry handouts, Stanford University* Michael Murray's online differential geometry course, 1996 * A Modern Course on Curves and Surfaces, Richard S Palais, 2003 * Richard Palais's 3DXM Surfaces Gallery * Balázs Csikós's Notes on Differential Geometry * N. J. Hicks, Notes on Differential Geometry, Van Nostrand.", "* MIT OpenCourseWare: Differential Geometry, Fall 2008" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dhole" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''dhole''' ( ; '''''Cuon alpinus''''') is a canid native to Central, South, East and Southeast Asia.", "It is genetically close to species within the genus ''Canis'', but distinct in several anatomical aspects: its skull is convex rather than concave in profile, it lacks a third lower molar and the upper molars possess only a single cusp as opposed to between two and four.", "During the Pleistocene, the dhole ranged throughout Asia, Europe and North America but became restricted to its historical range 12,000–18,000 years ago.The dhole is a highly social animal, living in large clans without rigid dominance hierarchies and containing multiple breeding females.", "Such clans usually consist of about 12 individuals, but groups of over 40 are known.", "It is a diurnal pack hunter which preferentially targets large and medium-sized ungulates.", "In tropical forests, the dhole competes with the tiger (''Panthera tigris'') and the leopard (''Panthera pardus''), targeting somewhat different prey species, but still with substantial dietary overlap.It is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List, as populations are decreasing and estimated to comprise fewer than 2,500 mature individuals.", "Factors contributing to this decline include habitat loss, loss of prey, competition with other species, persecution due to livestock predation, and disease transfer from domestic dogs." ], [ "Etymology and naming", "The etymology of \"dhole\" is unclear.", "The possible earliest written use of the word in English occurred in 1808 by soldier Thomas Williamson, who encountered the animal in Ramghur district, India.", "He stated that ''dhole'' was a common local name for the species.", "In 1827, Charles Hamilton Smith claimed that it was derived from a language spoken in 'various parts of the East'.Two years later, Smith connected this word with 'mad, crazy', and erroneously compared the Turkish word with and (cfr.", "also ; ), which are in fact from the Proto-Germanic *''dwalaz'' 'foolish, stupid'.", "Richard Lydekker wrote nearly 80 years later that the word was not used by the natives living within the species' range.", "The Merriam-Webster ''Dictionary'' theorises that it may have come from the .Other English names for the species include '''Asian wild dog''', '''Asiatic wild dog''', '''Indian wild dog''', '''whistling dog''', '''red dog''', '''red wolf''', and '''mountain wolf'''." ], [ "Taxonomy and evolution", "Skeletal remains of a European dhole dating back to the upper Würm period from Cova Negra de Xàtiva, Valencia, SpainIllustration (1859) by Leopold von Schrenck, one of the first accurate depictions of the species, based on a single skin purchased in the village of Dshare on the Amur''Canis alpinus'' was the binomial name proposed by Peter Simon Pallas in 1811, who described its range as encompassing the upper levels of Udskoi Ostrog in Amurland, towards the eastern side and in the region of the upper Lena River, around the Yenisei River and occasionally crossing into China.", "This northern Russian range reported by Pallas during the 18th and 19th centuries is \"considerably north\" of where this species occurs today.", "''Canis primaevus'' was a name proposed by Brian Houghton Hodgson in 1833 who thought that the dhole was a primitive ''Canis'' form and the progenitor of the domestic dog.", "Hodgson later took note of the dhole's physical distinctiveness from the genus ''Canis'' and proposed the genus ''Cuon''.The first study on the origins of the species was conducted by paleontologist Erich Thenius, who concluded in 1955 that the dhole was a post-Pleistocene descendant of a golden jackal-like ancestor.", "The paleontologist Bjorn Kurten wrote in his 1968 book ''Pleistocene Mammals of Europe'' that the primitive dhole ''Canis majori'' Del Campana 1913 —the remains of which have been found in Villafranchian era Valdarno, Italy and in China—was almost indistinguishable from the genus ''Canis''.", "In comparison, the modern species has greatly reduced molars and the cusps have developed into sharply trenchant points.", "During the Early Middle Pleistocene there arose both ''Canis majori stehlini'' that was the size of a large wolf, and the early dhole ''Canis alpinus'' Pallas 1811 which first appeared at Hundsheim and Mosbach in Germany.", "In the Late Pleistocene era the European dhole (''C.", "a. europaeus'') was modern-looking and the transformation of the lower molar into a single cusped, slicing tooth had been completed; however, its size was comparable with that of a wolf.", "This subspecies became extinct in Europe at the end of the late Würm period, but the species as a whole still inhabits a large area of Asia.", "The European dhole may have survived up until the early Holocene in the Iberian Peninsula.", "and what is believed to be dhole remains have been found at Riparo Fredian in northern Italy dated 10,800 years old.The vast Pleistocene range of this species also included numerous islands in Asia that this species no longer inhabits, such as Sri Lanka, Borneo and possibly Palawan in the Philippines.", "Middle Pleistocene dhole fossils have also been found in the Matsukae Cave in northern Kyushu Island in western Japan and in the Lower Kuzuu fauna in Tochigi Prefecture in Honshu Island, east Japan.", "Dhole fossils from the Late Pleistocene dated to about 10,700 years before present are known from the Luobi Cave or Luobi-Dong cave in Hainan Island in south China where they no longer exist.", "Additionally, fossils of canidae possibly belonging to dhole have been excavated from Dajia River in Taichung County, Taiwan.The fossil record indicates that the species also occurred in North America, with remains being found in Beringia and Mexico.", "Dholes are also known from the Middle and Late Pleistocene fossil record of Europe.", "In 2021, the analyses of the mitochondrial genomes extracted from the fossil remains of two extinct European dhole specimens from the Jáchymka cave, Czech Republic dated 35,000–45,000 years old indicate that these were genetically basal to modern dholes and possessed much greater genetic diversity.The dhole's distinctive morphology has been a source of much confusion in determining the species' systematic position among the Canidae.", "George Simpson placed the dhole in the subfamily Simocyoninae alongside the African wild dog and the bush dog, on account of all three species' similar dentition.", "Subsequent authors, including Juliet Clutton-Brock, noted greater morphological similarities to canids of the genera ''Canis'', ''Dusicyon'' and ''Alopex'' than to either ''Speothos'' or ''Lycaon'', with any resemblance to the latter two being due to convergent evolution.Some authors consider the extinct ''Canis'' subgenus ''Xenocyon'' as ancestral to both the genus ''Lycaon'' and the genus ''Cuon''.", "Subsequent studies on the canid genome revealed that the dhole and African wild dog are closely related to members of the genus ''Canis''.", "This closeness to ''Canis'' may have been confirmed in a menagerie in Madras, where according to zoologist Reginald Innes Pocock there is a record of a dhole that interbred with a golden jackal.=== Admixture with the African wild dog ===In 2018, whole genome sequencing was used to compare all members (apart from the black-backed and side-striped jackals) of the genus ''Canis'', along with the dhole and the African wild dog (''Lycaon pictus'').", "There was strong evidence of ancient genetic admixture between the dhole and the African wild dog.", "Today, their ranges are remote from each other; however, during the Pleistocene era the dhole could be found as far west as Europe.", "The study proposes that the dhole's distribution may have once included the Middle East, from where it may have admixed with the African wild dog in North Africa.", "However, there is no evidence of the dhole having existed in the Middle East nor North Africa.===Subspecies===Historically, up to ten subspecies of dholes have been recognised.", ", seven subspecies are recognised.However, studies on the dhole's mtDNA and microsatellite genotype showed no clear subspecific distinctions.", "Nevertheless, two major phylogeographic groupings were discovered in dholes of the Asian mainland, which likely diverged during a glaciation event.", "One population extends from South, Central and North India (south of the Ganges) into Myanmar, and the other extends from India north of the Ganges into northeastern India, Myanmar, Thailand and the Malaysian Peninsula.", "The origin of dholes in Sumatra and Java is, , unclear, as they show greater relatedness to dholes in India, Myanmar and China rather than with those in nearby Malaysia.", "However, the Canid Specialist Group of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) states that further research is needed because all of the samples were from the southern part of this species' range and the Tien Shan subspecies has distinct morphology.In the absence of further data, the researchers involved in the study speculated that Javan and Sumatran dholes could have been introduced to the islands by humans.", "Fossils of dhole from the early Middle Pleistocene have been found in Java.SubspeciesImageTrinomial authorityDescriptionDistributionSynonyms''C.", "a. adjustus'' '''Burmese dhole''', Indian dhole150 pxPocock, 1941Reddish coat, short hair on the paws and black whiskersNortheastern India and south of the Ganges River, northern Myanmar''antiquus'' (Matthew & Granger, 1923), ''dukhunensis'' (Sykes, 1831)''C.", "a. alpinus'' '''Ussuri dhole'''(nominate subspecies)150 pxPallas, 1811Thick tawny red coat, greyish neck and ochre muzzleEast of the eastern Sayan Mountains, eastern Russia, northeastern Asia ''C.", "a. fumosus''Pocock, 1936Luxuriant yellowish-red coat, dark back and grey neckWestern Sichuan, China and Mongolia.", "Southern Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia and Java, Indonesia''infuscus'' (Pocock, 1936), ''javanicus'' (Desmarest, 1820)''C.", "a. hesperius'' '''Tien Shan dhole'''150 pxAfanasjev and Zolotarev, 1935Long yellow tinted coat, white underside and pale whiskers Smaller than ''C.", "a. alpinus'', with wider skull and lighter-coloured winter fur.Eastern Russia and China''jason'' (Pocock, 1936)''C.", "a. laniger''Pocock, 1936Full, yellowish-grey coat, tail not black but same colour as bodySouthern Tibet, Himalayan Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and Kashmir''grayiformis'' (Hodgson, 1863), ''primaevus'' (Hodgson, 1833)''C.", "a. lepturus''150 pxHeude, 1892Uniform red coat with thick underfurSouth of the Yangtze River, China''clamitans'' (Heude, 1892), ''rutilans'' (Müller, 1839), ''sumatrensis'' (Hodgson, 1833)Sumatran dhole and Javan dhole ''C.", "a. sumatrensis''150 pxHardwicke, 1821Red coat and dark whiskersSumatra, Indonesia Its range is highly fragmented with multiple protected areas in Sumatra and Java." ], [ "Characteristics", "Dhole skull and molars illustrated by St. George Mivart (1890)Captive adult dholeSubadultThe dhole's general tone of the fur is reddish, with the brightest hues occurring in winter.", "In the winter coat, the back is clothed in a saturated rusty-red to reddish colour with brownish highlights along the top of the head, neck and shoulders.", "The throat, chest, flanks, and belly and the upper parts of the limbs are less brightly coloured, and are more yellowish in tone.", "The lower parts of the limbs are whitish, with dark brownish bands on the anterior sides of the forelimbs.", "The muzzle and forehead are greyish-reddish.", "The tail is very luxuriant and fluffy, and is mainly of a reddish-ocherous colour, with a dark brown tip.", "The summer coat is shorter, coarser and darker.", "The dorsal and lateral guard hairs in adults measure in length.", "Dholes in the Moscow Zoo moult once a year from March to May.", "A melanistic individual was recorded in the northern Coimbatore Forest Division in Tamil Nadu.The dhole has a wide and massive skull with a well-developed sagittal crest, and its masseter muscles are highly developed compared to other canid species, giving the face an almost hyena-like appearance.", "The rostrum is shorter than that of domestic dogs and most other canids.", "It has six rather than seven lower molars.", "The upper molars are weak, being one third to one half the size of those of wolves and have only one cusp as opposed to between two and four, as is usual in canids, an adaptation thought to improve shearing ability, thus allowing it to compete more successfully with kleptoparasites.Adult females can weigh , while the slightly larger male may weigh .", "The mean weight of adults from three small samples was .", "In appearance, the dhole has been variously described as combining the physical characteristics of the gray wolf and the red fox, and as being \"cat-like\" on account of its long backbone and slender limbs." ], [ "Distribution and habitat", "Dhole feeding on sambar deer carcass, Khao Yai National ParkLone dhole strolling through the jungle in Mudumalai National ParkThe dhole can be found in Tibet and possibly also in North Korea and Pakistan.", "It once inhabited the alpine steppes extending into Kashmir to the Ladakh area.In Central Asia, the dhole primarily inhabits mountainous areas; in the western part of its range, it lives mostly in alpine meadows and high-montane steppes, while in the east, it mainly ranges in montane taigas, and is sometimes sighted along coastlines.", "In India, Myanmar, Indochina, Indonesia and China, it prefers forested areas in alpine zones and is occasionally sighted in plains regions.In the Pamir Mountains of southern Kyrgyzstan, the presence of the dhole was confirmed in 2019.The dhole might still be present in the Tunkinsky National Park in extreme southern Siberia near Lake Baikal.", "It possibly still lives in the Primorsky Krai province in far eastern Russia, where it was considered a rare and endangered species in 2004, with unconfirmed reports in the Pikthsa-Tigrovy Dom protected forest area; no sighting was reported in other areas since the late 1970s.Currently, no other recent reports are confirmed of dhole being present in Russia.", "However, the dhole might be present in the eastern Sayan Mountains and in the Transbaikal region; it has been sighted in Tofalaria in the Irkutsk Oblast, the Republic of Buryatia and Zabaykalsky Krai.One pack was sighted in the Qilian Mountains in 2006.In 2011 to 2013, local government officials and herders reported the presence of several dhole packs at elevations of near Taxkorgan Nature Reserve in the Xinjiang Autonomous Region.", "Several packs and a female adult with pups were also recorded by camera traps at elevations of around in Yanchiwan National Nature Reserve in the northern Gansu Province in 2013–2014.Dholes have been also reported in the Altyn-Tagh Mountains.In China's Yunnan Province, dholes were recorded in Baima Xueshan Nature Reserve in 2010–2011.Dhole samples were obtained in Jiangxi Province in 2013.Confirmed records by camera-trapping since 2008 have occurred in southern and western Gansu province, southern Shaanxi province, southern Qinghai province, southern and western Yunnan province, western Sichuan province, the southern Xinjiang Autonomous Region and in the Southeastern Tibet Autonomoous Region.", "There are also historical records of dhole dating to 1521–1935 in Hainan Island, but the species is no longer present and is estimated to have become extinct around 1942.The dhole occurs in most of India south of the Ganges, particularly in the Central Indian Highlands and the Western and Eastern Ghats.", "It is also present in Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya and West Bengal and in the Indo-Gangetic Plain's Terai region.", "Dhole populations in the Himalayas and northwest India are fragmented.In 2011, dhole packs were recorded by camera traps in the Chitwan National Park.", "Its presence was confirmed in the Kanchenjunga Conservation Area in 2011 by camera traps.", "In February 2020, dholes were sighted in the Vansda National Park, with camera traps confirming the presence of two individuals in May of the same year.", "This was the first confirmed sighting of dholes in Gujarat since 1970.In Bhutan, the dhole is present in Jigme Dorji National Park.In Bangladesh, it inhabits forest reserves in the Sylhet area, as well the Chittagong Hill Tracts in the southeast.", "Recent camera trap photos in the Chittagong in 2016 showed the continued presence of the dhole.", "These regions probably do not harbour a viable population, as mostly small groups or solitary individuals were sighted.In Myanmar, the dhole is present in several protected areas.", "In 2015, dholes and tigers were recorded by camera-traps for the first time in the hill forests of Karen State.Its range is highly fragmented in the Malaysian Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Vietnam and Thailand.", "In 2014, camera trap videos in the montane tropical forests at in the Kerinci Seblat National Park in Sumatra revealed its continued presence.", "A camera trapping survey in the Khao Ang Rue Nai Wildlife Sanctuary in Thailand from January 2008 to February 2010 documented one healthy dhole pack.", "In northern Laos, dholes were studied in Nam Et-Phou Louey National Protected Area.", "Camera trap surveys from 2012 to 2017 recorded dholes in the same Nam Et-Phou Louey National Protected Area.In Vietnam, dholes were sighted only in Pu Mat National Park in 1999, in Yok Don National Park in 2003 and 2004; and in Ninh Thuan Province in 2014.In 2019, scat samples collected in the Bek-Tosot Conservancy in Kyrgyzstan confirmed the continued presence of dholes in the area.", "This was the first record of dholes from the country in almost three decades.A disjunct dhole population was reported in the area of Trabzon and Rize in northeastern Turkey near the border with Georgia in the 1990s.", "This report was not considered to be reliable.", "One single individual was claimed to have been shot in 2013 in the nearby Kabardino-Balkaria Republic in the central Caucasus; its remains were analysed in May 2015 by a biologist from the Kabardino-Balkarian State University, who concluded that the skull was indeed that of a dhole.", "In August 2015, researchers from the National Museum of Natural History and the Karadeniz Technical University started an expedition to track and document this possible Turkish population of dhole.", "In October 2015, they concluded that no real evidence exists of a living dhole population in Turkey or in the Kabardino-Balkaria Republic, pending DNA analysis of samples from the original 1994 skins." ], [ "Ecology and behaviour", "Dholes produce whistles resembling the calls of red foxes, sometimes rendered as ''coo-coo''.", "How this sound is produced is unknown, though it is thought to help in coordinating the pack when travelling through thick brush.", "When attacking prey, they emit screaming ''KaKaKaKAA'' sounds.", "Other sounds include whines (food soliciting), growls (warning), screams, chatterings (both of which are alarm calls) and yapping cries.", "In contrast to wolves, dholes do not howl or bark.Dholes have a complex body language.", "Friendly or submissive greetings are accompanied by horizontal lip retraction and the lowering of the tail, as well as licking.", "Playful dholes open their mouths with their lips retracted and their tails held in a vertical position whilst assuming a play bow.", "Aggressive or threatening dholes pucker their lips forward in a snarl and raise the hairs on their backs, as well as keep their tails horizontal or vertical.", "When afraid, they pull their lips back horizontally with their tails tucked and their ears flat against the skull.===Social and territorial behaviour===Dholes playing, Pench Tiger ReserveDholes are more social than gray wolves, and have less of a dominance hierarchy, as seasonal scarcity of food is not a serious concern for them.", "In this manner, they closely resemble African wild dogs in social structure.", "They live in clans rather than packs, as the latter term refers to a group of animals that always hunt together.", "In contrast, dhole clans frequently break into small packs of three to five animals, particularly during the spring season, as this is the optimal number for catching fawns.", "Dominant dholes are hard to identify, as they do not engage in dominance displays as wolves do, though other clan members will show submissive behaviour toward them.", "Intragroup fighting is rarely observed.Dholes are far less territorial than wolves, with pups from one clan often joining another without trouble once they mature sexually.", "Clans typically number 5 to 12 individuals in India, though clans of 40 have been reported.", "In Thailand, clans rarely exceed three individuals.", "Unlike other canids, there is no evidence of dholes using urine to mark their territories or travel routes.", "When urinating, dholes, especially males, may raise one hind leg or both to result in a handstand.", "Handstand urination is also seen in bush dogs (''Speothos venaticus'').", "They may defecate in conspicuous places, though a territorial function is unlikely, as faeces are mostly deposited within the clan's territory rather than the periphery.", "Faeces are often deposited in what appear to be communal latrines.", "They do not scrape the earth with their feet, as other canids do, to mark their territories.===Denning===Four kinds of den have been described; simple earth dens with one entrance (usually remodeled striped hyena or porcupine dens); complex cavernous earth dens with more than one entrance; simple cavernous dens excavated under or between rocks; and complex cavernous dens with several other dens in the vicinity, some of which are interconnected.", "Dens are typically located under dense scrub or on the banks of dry rivers or creeks.", "The entrance to a dhole den can be almost vertical, with a sharp turn three to four feet down.", "The tunnel opens into an antechamber, from which extends more than one passage.", "Some dens may have up to six entrances leading up to of interconnecting tunnels.", "These \"cities\" may be developed over many generations of dholes, and are shared by the clan females when raising young together.", "Like African wild dogs and dingoes, dholes will avoid killing prey close to their dens.===Reproduction and development===Dhole pup, Kolmården Wildlife ParkIn India, the mating season occurs between mid-October and January, while captive dholes in the Moscow Zoo breed mostly in February.", "Unlike wolf packs, dhole clans may contain more than one breeding female.", "More than one female dhole may den and rear their litters together in the same den.", "During mating, the female assumes a crouched, cat-like position.", "There is no copulatory tie characteristic of other canids when the male dismounts.", "Instead, the pair lie on their sides facing each other in a semicircular formation.", "The gestation period lasts 60–63 days, with litter sizes averaging four to six pups.", "Their growth rate is much faster than that of wolves, being similar in rate to that of coyotes.The hormone metabolites of five males and three females kept in Thai zoos was studied.", "The breeding males showed an increased level of testosterone from October to January.", "The oestrogen level of captive females increases for about two weeks in January, followed by an increase of progesterone.", "They displayed sexual behaviours during the oestrogen peak of the females.Pups are suckled at least 58 days.", "During this time, the pack feeds the mother at the den site.", "Dholes do not use rendezvous sites to meet their pups as wolves do, though one or more adults will stay with the pups at the den while the rest of the pack hunts.", "Once weaning begins, the adults of the clan will regurgitate food for the pups until they are old enough to join in hunting.", "They remain at the den site for 70–80 days.", "By the age of six months, pups accompany the adults on hunts and will assist in killing large prey such as sambar by the age of eight months.", "Maximum longevity in captivity is 15–16 years.===Hunting behaviour===sambar, Bandipur National ParkBefore embarking on a hunt, clans go through elaborate prehunt social rituals involving nuzzling, body rubbing and mounting.", "Dholes are primarily diurnal hunters, hunting in the early hours of the morning.", "They rarely hunt nocturnally, except on moonlit nights, indicating they greatly rely on sight when hunting.", "Although not as fast as jackals and foxes, they can chase their prey for many hours.", "During a pursuit, one or more dholes may take over chasing their prey, while the rest of the pack keeps up at a steadier pace behind, taking over once the other group tires.", "Most chases are short, lasting only .", "When chasing fleet-footed prey, they run at a pace of .", "Dholes frequently drive their prey into water bodies, where the targeted animal's movements are hindered.Once large prey is caught, one dhole will grab the prey's nose, while the rest of the pack pulls the animal down by the flanks and hindquarters.", "They do not use a killing bite to the throat.", "They occasionally blind their prey by attacking the eyes.", "Serows are among the only ungulate species capable of effectively defending themselves against dhole attacks, due to their thick, protective coats and short, sharp horns capable of easily impaling dholes.", "They will tear open their prey's flanks and disembowel it, eating the heart, liver, lungs and some sections of the intestines.", "The stomach and rumen are usually left untouched.", "Prey weighing less than is usually killed within two minutes, while large stags may take 15 minutes to die.", "Once prey is secured, dholes will tear off pieces of the carcass and eat in seclusion.", "Unlike wolf packs, in which the breeding pair monopolises food, dholes give access to the pups at a kill.", "They are generally tolerant of scavengers at their kills.", "Both mother and young are provided with regurgitated food by other pack members.===Feeding ecology===Dholes feeding on a chital, Bandipur National ParkPrey animals in India include chital, sambar deer, muntjac, mouse deer, barasingha, wild boar, gaur, water buffaloes, banteng, cattle, nilgai, goats, Indian hares, Himalayan field rats and langurs.", "There is one record of a pack bringing down an Indian elephant calf in Assam, despite desperate defense of the mother, resulting in numerous losses to the pack.", "In Kashmir, they prey on markhor, and thamin in Myanmar, Malayan tapir, Sumatran serow in Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula and Javan rusa in Java.", "In the Tian Shan and Tarbagatai Mountains, dholes prey on Siberian ibexes, arkhar, roe deer, Caspian red deer and wild boar.", "In the Altai and Sayan Mountains, they prey on musk deer and reindeer.", "In eastern Siberia, they prey on roe deer, Manchurian wapiti, wild pig, musk deer and reindeer, while in Primorye they feed on sika deer and goral.", "In Mongolia, they prey on argali and rarely Siberian ibex.Like African wild dogs, but unlike wolves, dholes are not known to attack people.", "They are known to eat insects and lizards.", "Dholes eat fruit and vegetable matter more readily than other canids.", "In captivity, they eat various kinds of grasses, herbs and leaves, seemingly for pleasure rather than just when ill.", "In summertime in the Tian Shan Mountains, dholes eat large quantities of mountain rhubarb.", "Although opportunistic, dholes have a seeming aversion to hunting cattle and their calves.", "Livestock predation by dholes has been a problem in Bhutan since the late 1990s, as domestic animals are often left outside to graze in the forest, sometimes for weeks at a time.", "Livestock stall-fed at night and grazed near homes are never attacked.", "Oxen are killed more often than cows, probably because they are given less protection.===Enemies and competitors===Dhole killed and cached in a tree by a leopard, IndiaIn some areas, dholes are sympatric to tigers and leopards.", "Competition between these species is mostly avoided through differences in prey selection, although there is still substantial dietary overlap.", "Along with leopards, dholes typically target animals in the range (mean weights of for dhole and for leopard), while tigers selected for prey animals heavier than (but their mean prey weight was ).", "Also, other characteristics of the prey, such as sex, arboreality and aggressiveness, may play a role in prey selection.", "For example, dholes preferentially select male chital, whereas leopards kill both sexes more evenly (and tigers prefer larger prey altogether), dholes and tigers kill langurs rarely compared to leopards due to the leopards' greater arboreality, while leopards kill wild boar infrequently due to the inability of this relatively light predator to tackle aggressive prey of comparable weight.Tigers are dangerous opponents for dholes, as they have sufficient strength to kill a dhole with a single paw strike.", "Dhole packs are smaller in areas with higher tiger densities due to tigers directly killing dholes and stealing kills they made.", "The kleptoparasitism causes dholes to prefer hunting smaller animals because they can eat more of a smaller carcass before a tiger arrives to steal it.", "Direct predation can lead to lower reproductive and recruitment rates, lower hunting success rates and less food for the pups when a helper is killed, and potentially pack destabilization if one member of the breeding pair is killed.Dhole packs may steal leopard kills, while leopards may kill dholes if they encounter them singly or in pairs.", "There are numerous records of leopards being treed by dholes.", "Dholes were once thought to be a major factor in reducing Asiatic cheetah populations, though this is doubtful, as cheetahs live in open areas as opposed to forested areas favoured by dholes.", "Since leopards are smaller than tigers and are more likely to hunt dholes, dhole packs tend to react more aggressively toward them than they do towards tigers.Dhole packs occasionally attack Asiatic black bears, snow leopards and sloth bears.", "When attacking bears, dholes will attempt to prevent them from seeking refuge in caves and lacerate their hindquarters.Although usually antagonistic toward wolves, they may hunt and feed alongside one another.", "The dhole is also sympatric with the Indian wolf (''Canis lupus pallipes'') in parts of its range.", "There is at least one record of a lone wolf associating with a pair of dholes in Debrigarh Wildlife Sanctuary, and two observations in Satpura Tiger Reserve.", "They infrequently associate in mixed groups with golden jackals.", "Domestic dogs may kill dholes, though they will feed alongside them on occasion.===Diseases and parasites===Dholes are vulnerable to a number of different diseases, particularly in areas where they are sympatric with other canid species.", "Infectious pathogens such as ''Toxocara canis'' are present in their faeces.", "They may suffer from rabies, canine distemper, mange, trypanosomiasis, canine parvovirus and endoparasites such as cestodes and roundworms." ], [ "Threats", "Habitat loss is thought to amount to 60% of the dhole's historical range in India.", "The fragmentation and isolation of dhole populations has resulted in inbreeding and the Allee effect, which threaten its long term viability.Some ethnic groups like the Kuruba and Mon Khmer-speaking tribes will appropriate dhole kills; some Indian villagers welcome the dhole because of this appropriation of dhole kills.", "Dholes were persecuted throughout India for bounties until they were given protection by the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972.Methods used for dhole hunting included poisoning, snaring, shooting and clubbing at den sites.", "Native Indian people killed dholes primarily to protect livestock, while British sporthunters during the British Raj did so under the conviction that dholes were responsible for drops in game populations.", "Persecution of dholes still occurs with varying degrees of intensity according to the region.", "Bounties paid for dholes used to be 25 rupees, though this was reduced to 20 in 1926 after the number of presented dhole carcasses became too numerous to maintain the established reward.", "The Indochinese dhole population suffers heavily from nonselective hunting techniques such as snaring.The fur trade does not pose a significant threat to the dhole.", "The people of India do not eat dhole flesh and their fur is not considered overly valuable.", "Due to their rarity, dholes were never harvested for their skins in large numbers in the Soviet Union and were sometimes accepted as dog or wolf pelts (being labeled as \"half wolf\" for the latter).", "The winter fur was prized by the Chinese, who bought dhole pelts in Ussuriysk during the late 1860s for a few silver rubles.", "In the early 20th century, dhole pelts reached eight rubles in Manchuria.", "In Semirechye, fur coats made from dhole skin were considered the warmest, but were very costly." ], [ "Conservation", "In India, the dhole is protected under Schedule 2 of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.The creation of reserves under Project Tiger provided some protection for dhole populations sympatric with tigers.", "In 2014, the Indian government sanctioned its first dhole conservation breeding centre at the Indira Gandhi Zoological Park (IGZP) in Visakhapatnam.", "The dhole has been protected in Russia since 1974, though it is vulnerable to poison left out for wolves.", "In China, the animal is listed as a category II protected species under the Chinese wildlife protection act of 1988.In Cambodia, the dhole is protected from all hunting, while conservation laws in Vietnam limit extraction and utilisation.In 2016, the Korean company Sooam Biotech was reported to be attempting to clone the dhole using dogs as surrogate mothers to help conserve the species." ], [ "In culture and literature", "Drawing of a dhole from the Imperial Chinese EncyclopediaThree dhole-like animals are featured on the coping stone of the Bharhut stupa dating from 100 BC.", "They are shown waiting by a tree, with a woman or spirit trapped up it, a scene reminiscent of dholes treeing tigers.", "The animal's fearsome reputation in India is reflected by the number of pejorative names it possesses in Hindi, which variously translate as \"red devil\", \"devil dog\", \"jungle devil\", or \"hound of Kali\".Leopold von Schrenck had trouble obtaining dhole specimens during his exploration of Amurland, as the local Gilyaks greatly feared the species.", "This fear and superstition was not, however, shared by neighbouring Tungusic peoples.", "It was speculated that this differing attitude towards the dhole was due to the Tungusic people's more nomadic, hunter-gatherer lifestyle.Dholes appear in Rudyard Kipling's ''Red Dog'', where they are portrayed as aggressive and bloodthirsty animals which descend from the Deccan Plateau into the Seeonee Hills inhabited by Mowgli and his adopted wolf pack to cause carnage among the jungle's denizens.", "They are described as living in packs numbering hundreds of individuals, and that even Shere Khan and Hathi make way for them when they descend into the jungle.", "The dholes are despised by the wolves because of their destructiveness, their habit of not living in dens and the hair between their toes.", "With Mowgli and Kaa's help, the Seeonee wolf pack manages to wipe out the dholes by leading them through bee hives and torrential waters before finishing off the rest in battle.Japanese author Uchida Roan wrote (; A dog's tale) in 1901 as a nationalistic critique of the declining popularity of indigenous dog breeds, which he asserted were descended from the dhole.A fictional version of the dhole, imbued with supernatural abilities, appears in the season 6 episode of TV series ''The X-Files'', titled \"Alpha\".In China, the dhole were widely known throughout history and mythology.", "One notable legendary creature is the Yazi (), which was believed to be a creature that was part-dhole part-dragon.", "In modern times, however, the Chinese word for dhole () is often confused with 'jackal' or 'wolf', resulting in many confusions and mistranslations of dholes as jackals or wolves.Dholes also appear as enemies in the video game ''Far Cry 4'', alongside other predators such as the Bengal tiger, honey badger, snow leopard, clouded leopard, Tibetan wolf and Asian black bear.", "They can be found hunting the player and other NPCs across the map, but are easily killed, being one of the weakest enemies in the game.", "They once again appear in the video game ''Far Cry Primal'', where they play similar roles as their counterparts in the previous game, but can now also be tamed and used in combat by Takkar, the main protagonist of the game.===Tameability===Brian Houghton Hodgson kept captured dholes in captivity, and found, with the exception of one animal, they remained shy and vicious even after 10 months.", "According to Richard Lydekker, adult dholes are nearly impossible to tame, though pups are docile and can even be allowed to play with domestic dog pups until they reach early adulthood.", "A dhole may have been presented as a gift to Ibbi-Sin as tribute." ], [ "See also", "* ''Wild Dog Diaries''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* *" ], [ "External links", "* Dhole Home Page ( Archive)*ARKive – images and movies of the dhole* Saving the dhole: The forgotten 'badass' Asian dog more endangered than tigers, ''The Guardian'' (25 June 2015)* Photos of dhole in Bandipur" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Donald Rumsfeld" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Donald Henry Rumsfeld''' (July 9, 1932 – June 29, 2021) was an American politician, government official and businessman who served as Secretary of Defense from 1975 to 1977 under president Gerald Ford, and again from 2001 to 2006 under President George W. Bush.", "He was both the youngest and the oldest secretary of defense.", "Additionally, Rumsfeld was a four-term U.S.", "Congressman from Illinois (1963–1969), director of the Office of Economic Opportunity (1969–1970), counselor to the president (1969–1973), the U.S. Representative to NATO (1973–1974), and the White House Chief of Staff (1974–1975).", "Between his terms as secretary of defense, he served as the CEO and chairman of several companies.Born in Illinois, Rumsfeld attended Princeton University, graduating in 1954 with a degree in political science.", "After serving in the Navy for three years, he mounted a campaign for Congress in Illinois's 13th Congressional District, winning in 1962 at the age of 30.Rumsfeld accepted an appointment by President Richard Nixon to head the Office of Economic Opportunity in 1969; appointed counsellor by Nixon and entitled to Cabinet-level status, he also headed up the Economic Stabilization Program before being appointed ambassador to NATO.", "Called back to Washington in August 1974, Rumsfeld was appointed chief of staff by President Ford.", "Rumsfeld recruited a young one-time staffer of his, Dick Cheney, to succeed him when Ford nominated him to be Secretary of Defense in 1975.When Ford lost the 1976 election, Rumsfeld returned to private business and financial life, and was named president and CEO of the pharmaceutical corporation G. D. Searle & Company.", "He was later named CEO of General Instrument from 1990 to 1993 and chairman of Gilead Sciences from 1997 to 2001.Rumsfeld was appointed Secretary of Defense for a second time in January 2001 by President George W. Bush.", "As Secretary of Defense, Rumsfeld played a central role in the 2001 United States invasion of Afghanistan and 2003 invasion of Iraq.", "Before and during the Iraq War, he claimed that Iraq had an active weapons of mass destruction program; no stockpiles were ever found.", "A Pentagon Inspector General report found that Rumsfeld's top policy aide \"developed, produced, and then disseminated alternative intelligence assessments on the Iraq and al-Qaeda relationship, which included some conclusions that were inconsistent with the consensus of the Intelligence Community, to senior decision-makers\".", "Rumsfeld's tenure was controversial for its use of torture and the Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse scandal.", "Rumsfeld gradually lost political support and resigned in late 2006.In his retirement years, he published an autobiography, ''Known and Unknown: A Memoir'', as well as ''Rumsfeld's Rules: Leadership Lessons in Business, Politics, War, and Life''." ], [ "Early life and education", "PrincetonDonald Henry Rumsfeld was born at St. Lukes Hospital on July 9, 1932, in Chicago, Illinois, the son of Jeannette Kearsley (née Husted) and George Donald Rumsfeld.", "His father came from a German family that had emigrated in the 1870s from Weyhe in Lower Saxony, but young Donald was sometimes ribbed about looking like a \"tough Swiss.\"", "Growing up in Winnetka, Illinois, Rumsfeld became an Eagle Scout in 1949 and is the recipient of both the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award from the Boy Scouts of America and its Silver Buffalo Award in 2006.Living in Winnetka, his family attended a Congregational church.", "From 1943 to 1945, Rumsfeld lived in Coronado, California, while his father was stationed on an aircraft carrier in the Pacific in World War II.", "He was a ranger at Philmont Scout Ranch in 1949.Rumsfeld attended Baker Demonstration School, and later graduated from New Trier High School where he excelled academically as well as in sports.", "In the band, the young Rumsfeld played drums and also excelled at saxophone.", "He attended Princeton University on academic and NROTC partial scholarships.", "He graduated in 1954 with an A.B.", "in politics after completing a senior thesis titled \"The Steel Seizure Case of 1952 and Its Effects on Presidential Powers\".", "During his time at Princeton, he was an accomplished amateur wrestler, becoming captain of the varsity wrestling team, and captain of the Lightweight Football team playing defensive back.", "While at Princeton he was friends with another future Secretary of Defense, Frank Carlucci.Rumsfeld married Joyce P. Pierson on December 27, 1954.They had three children, six grandchildren, and one great-grandchild.", "He attended Case Western Reserve University School of Law and the Georgetown University Law Center, but did not take a degree from either institution.=== Naval service ===Rumsfeld (right, standing) as a Navy lieutenant in 1955Rumsfeld served in the United States Navy from 1954 to 1957, as a naval aviator and flight instructor.", "His initial training was in the North American SNJ Texan basic trainer after which he transitioned to the T-28 advanced trainer.", "In 1957, he transferred to the Naval Reserve and continued his naval service in flying and administrative assignments as a drilling reservist.", "On July 1, 1958, he was assigned to Anti-submarine Squadron 662 at Naval Air Station Anacostia in Washington, D.C., as a selective reservist.", "Rumsfeld was designated aircraft commander of Anti-submarine Squadron 731 on October 1, 1960, at Naval Air Station Grosse Ile, Michigan, where he flew the S2F Tracker.", "He transferred to the Individual Ready Reserve when he became Secretary of Defense in 1975 and retired with the rank of captain in 1989." ], [ "Career in government (1962–1975)", "===Member of Congress===Rumsfeld during his time in CongressIn 1957, during the Dwight D. Eisenhower administration, Rumsfeld served as administrative assistant to David S. Dennison Jr., a Congressman representing the 11th district of Ohio.", "In 1959, he moved on to become a staff assistant to Congressman Robert P. Griffin of Michigan.", "Engaging in a two-year stint with an investment banking firm, A. G. Becker & Co., from 1960 to 1962, Rumsfeld then set his sights on becoming a member of Congress.He was elected to the United States House of Representatives for Illinois's 13th congressional district in 1962, at the age of 30, and was re-elected by large majorities in 1964, 1966, and 1968.While in Congress, he served on the Joint Economic Committee, the Committee on Science and Aeronautics, and the Government Operations Committee, as well as on the Subcommittees on Military and Foreign Operations.", "He was also a co-founder of the Japanese-American Inter-Parliamentary Council in addition to being a leading cosponsor of the Freedom of Information Act.In 1965, following the defeat of Barry Goldwater by Lyndon B. Johnson in the 1964 presidential election, which also led to the Republicans losing many seats in the House of Representatives, Rumsfeld proposed new leadership for the Republicans in the House, suggesting that representative Gerald Ford from Michigan's 5th congressional district was the most suited candidate to replace Charles A. Halleck as Republican leader.", "Rumsfeld, along with other members of the Republican caucus, then urged Ford to run for Republican leader.", "Ford eventually defeated Halleck and became House Minority Leader in 1965.The group of Republicans that encouraged Ford to run for the Republican leadership became known as the \"Young Turks\".", "Rumsfeld later served during Ford's presidency as his chief of staff in 1974, and was chosen by Ford to succeed James Schlesinger as United States Secretary of Defense in 1975.During Rumsfeld's tenure as member of the U.S. House of Representatives, he voiced concerns about U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, saying that President Johnson and his national security team were overconfident about how the war was being conducted.", "On one occasion, Rumsfeld joined with other members of the House and traveled to Vietnam for a fact-finding mission to see for themselves how the war was going.", "The trip led to Rumsfeld believing that the South Vietnamese government was much too dependent on the United States.", "Rumsfeld was also unsatisfied when he received a briefing about war planning from the commander of the U.S. troops in Vietnam, General William Westmoreland.", "The trip led Rumsfeld to cosponsor a resolution to bring the conduct of the war to the House floor for further debate and discussion about U.S. mismanagement of the war.", "However, under constant pressure from the Johnson administration, the Democrats, who at that time held the majority at the House of Representatives, blocked the resolution from consideration.As a young Congressman, Rumsfeld attended seminars at the University of Chicago, an experience he credits with introducing him to the idea of an all volunteer military, and to the economist Milton Friedman and the Chicago School of Economics.", "He later took part in Friedman's PBS series ''Free to Choose''.During his tenure in the House, Rumsfeld voted in favor of the Civil Rights Acts of 1964 and 1968, and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.===Nixon administration===leftRumsfeld resigned from Congress in 1969his fourth termto serve in the Nixon administration in a variety of executive branch positions.", "Nixon appointed Rumsfeld director of the United States Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO), a position with Cabinet rank.", "Rumsfeld had voted against the creation of OEO when he was in Congress, and, according to his 2011 memoirs, he initially rejected Nixon's offer, citing his own inherent belief that the OEO did more harm than good, and he felt that he was not the right person for the job.", "After much negotiation, he accepted the OEO appointment with Nixon's \"assurances that he would be ... also an assistant to the President, with Cabinet-level status and an office in the White House,\" which \"sweetened (the OEO position) with status and responsibility\".As director, Rumsfeld sought to reorganize the Office to serve what he later described in his 2011 memoir as \"a laboratory for experimental programs\".", "Several beneficial anti-poverty programs were saved by allocating funds to them from other less-successful government programs.", "During this time, he hired Frank Carlucci and Dick Cheney to serve under him.222x222pxHe was the subject of one of writer Jack Anderson's columns, alleging that \"anti-poverty czar\" Rumsfeld had cut programs to aid the poor while spending thousands to redecorate his office.", "Rumsfeld dictated a four-page response to Anderson, labeling the accusations as falsehoods, and invited Anderson to tour his office.", "Despite the tour, Anderson did not retract his claims, and only much later admitted that his column was a mistake.When Rumsfeld left OEO in December 1970, Nixon named him Counselor to the President, a general advisory position; in this role, he retained Cabinet status.", "He was given an office in the West Wing in 1969 and regularly interacted with the Nixon administration hierarchy.", "He was named director of the Economic Stabilization Program in 1970 as well, and later headed up the Cost of Living Council.", "In March 1971 Nixon was recorded saying about Rumsfeld \"at least Rummy is tough enough\" and \"He's a ruthless little bastard.", "You can be sure of that.", "\"In February 1973, Rumsfeld left Washington to serve as U.S.", "Ambassador to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in Brussels, Belgium.", "He served as the United States' Permanent Representative to the North Atlantic Council and the Defense Planning Committee, and the Nuclear Planning Group.", "In this capacity, he represented the United States in wide-ranging military and diplomatic matters, and was asked to help mediate a conflict on behalf of the United States between Cyprus and Turkey.===Ford administration===Chief of Staff Rumsfeld (left) and Deputy-Chief of Staff 222x222pxIn August 1974, after Nixon resigned as president in the aftermath of the Watergate scandal, Rumsfeld was called back to Washington to serve as the transition chairman for the new president, Gerald Ford.", "He had been Ford's confidante since their days in the House, before Ford was House minority leader and was one of the members of the \"Young Turks\" who played a major role in bringing Ford to Republican leadership in the House of Representatives.", "As the new president became settled in, Ford appointed Rumsfeld White House Chief of Staff, following Ford's appointment of General Alexander Haig to be the new Supreme Allied Commander Europe.", "Rumsfeld served from 1974 to 1975." ], [ "Secretary of Defense (1975–1977)", "Secretary of Defense in November 1975In October 1975, Ford reshuffled his cabinet in the Halloween Massacre.", "Various newspaper and magazine articles at the time identified Rumsfeld as having orchestrated these events.", "Ford named Rumsfeld to succeed Schlesinger as the 13th U.S. Secretary of Defense and George H. W. Bush to become Director of Central Intelligence.", "According to Bob Woodward's 2002 book ''Bush at War'', a rivalry developed between the two men and \"Bush senior was convinced that Rumsfeld was pushing him out to the CIA to end his political career.", "\"Rumsfeld's confirmation hearing as Secretary of Defense began on November 12, 1975.During the hearing, Rumsfeld was mostly asked about the administration's defense policy on the Cold War.", "Rumsfeld stated that the Soviet Union was a \"clear and present danger,\" especially following the end of the Vietnam War, which Rumsfeld described as the USSR's chance to build up its domination.", "On November 17, 1975, Rumsfeld was confirmed as Secretary of Defense by a vote of 97–2.At the age of 43, Rumsfeld became the youngest person to serve as United States Secretary of Defense as of 2023.Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld and President Ford share a laugh in a Cabinet meeting, 1975.Rumsfeld with Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General George S. Brown at a Senate Armed Services Committee hearing on January 15, 1976During his tenure as Secretary of Defense, Rumsfeld oversaw the transition to an all-volunteer military.", "He sought to reverse the gradual decline in the defense budget and to build up U.S. strategic and conventional forces, undermining Secretary of State Henry Kissinger at the SALT talks.", "He asserted, along with Team B (which he helped to set up), that trends in comparative U.S.-Soviet military strength had not favored the United States for 15 to 20 years and that, if continued, they \"would have the effect of injecting a fundamental instability in the world\".", "For this reason, he oversaw the development of cruise missiles, the B-1 bomber, and a major naval shipbuilding program.Rumsfeld, who previously was assigned to the House Committee on Science and Astronautics, emphasized the importance of the next stage of the space program following the successful Moon landing in 1969.While serving as Secretary of Defense, Rumsfeld organized a joint-cooperation between the Department of Defense and NASA to develop Skylab.", "Another result of the cooperation was the Space Shuttle program.=== SALT II Treaty ===During his tenure as Secretary of Defense, Rumsfeld worked to finish the SALT II Treaty.", "Rumsfeld, together with Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General George S. Brown drafted the treaty.", "However, an agreement was not made before the 1976 election.", "SALT II was finished and signed during the Carter administration.In 1977, Rumsfeld was awarded the nation's highest civilian award, the Presidential Medal of Freedom.", "Kissinger, his bureaucratic adversary, later paid him a different sort of compliment, pronouncing him \"a special Washington phenomenon: the skilled full-time politician-bureaucrat in whom ambition, ability, and substance fuse seamlessly\".Rumsfeld's first tenure as Secretary of Defense ended on January 20, 1977.He was succeeded by former Secretary of the Air Force Harold Brown." ], [ "Return to the private sector (1977–2000)", "===Business career===In early 1977 Rumsfeld briefly lectured at Princeton's Woodrow Wilson School and Northwestern's Kellogg School of Management.", "His sights instead turned to business, and from 1977 to 1985 Rumsfeld served as chief executive officer, president, and then chairman of G. D. Searle & Company, a worldwide pharmaceutical company based in Skokie, Illinois.", "During his tenure at Searle, Rumsfeld led the company's financial turnaround, thereby earning awards as the Outstanding Chief Executive Officer in the Pharmaceutical Industry from the ''Wall Street Transcript'' (1980) and ''Financial World'' (1981).", "Journalist Andrew Cockburn of Harper's Magazine claimed that Rumsfeld suppressed news that Searle's key product, aspartame, was shown to have potentially dangerous effects by leveraging old government contacts at the Food and Drug Administration.", "In 1985, Searle was sold to the Monsanto Company.Rumsfeld served as chairman and chief executive officer of General Instrument from 1990 to 1993.A leader in broadband transmission, distribution, and access control technologies for cable, satellite, and terrestrial broadcasting applications, the company pioneered the development of the first all-digital high-definition television (HDTV) technology.", "After taking the company public and returning it to profitability, Rumsfeld returned to private business in late 1993.From January 1997 until being sworn in as the 21st Secretary of Defense in January 2001, Rumsfeld served as chairman of Gilead Sciences, Inc. Gilead is the developer of Tamiflu (Oseltamivir), which is used in the treatment of bird flu as well as influenza A and influenza B in humans.", "As a result, Rumsfeld's holdings in the company grew significantly when avian flu became a subject of popular anxiety during his later term as Secretary of Defense.", "Following standard practice, Rumsfeld recused himself from any decisions involving Gilead, and he directed the Pentagon's general counsel to issue instructions outlining what he could and could not be involved in if there were an avian flu pandemic and the Pentagon had to respond.===Part-time public service===U.S.", "President Ronald Reagan and Secretary of State George Shultz in the Oval Office, White House on November 3, 1983During his business career, Rumsfeld continued part-time public service in various posts.", "In November 1983, Rumsfeld was appointed special envoy to the Middle East by President Ronald Reagan, at a turbulent time in modern Middle Eastern history when Iraq was fighting Iran in the Iran–Iraq War.", "The United States wished for Iraq to win the conflict, and Rumsfeld was sent to the Middle East to serve as a mediator on behalf of the president.As President Reagan's Special Envoy to the Middle East, Rumsfeld met with Saddam Hussein during a visit to Baghdad in December 1983, during the Iran–Iraq War.When Rumsfeld visited Baghdad on December 20, 1983, he met Saddam Hussein at Saddam's palace and engaged a 90-minute discussion with him.", "They largely agreed on opposing Syria's occupation of Lebanon; preventing Syrian and Iranian expansion; and preventing arms sales to Iran.", "Rumsfeld suggested that if U.S.-Iraq relations could improve the U.S. might support a new oil pipeline across Jordan, which Iraq had opposed but was now willing to reconsider.", "Rumsfeld also informed Iraqi Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Minister Tariq Aziz that \"Our efforts to assist were inhibited by certain things that made it difficult for us ... citing the use of chemical weapons.", "\"Rumsfeld wrote in his memoir ''Known and Unknown'' that his meeting with Hussein \"has been the subject of gossip, rumors, and crackpot conspiracy theories for more than a quarter of a century ...", "Supposedly I had been sent to see Saddam by President Reagan either to negotiate a secret oil deal, to help arm Iraq, or to make Iraq an American client state.", "The truth is that our encounter was more straightforward and less dramatic.\"", "''The Washington Post'' reported that \"Although former U.S. officials agree that Rumsfeld was not one of the architects of the Reagan administration's tilt toward Iraq—he was a private citizen when he was appointed Middle East envoy—the documents show that his visits to Baghdad led to closer U.S.–Iraqi cooperation on a wide variety of fronts.", "\"In addition to taking the position of Middle East envoy, Rumsfeld served as a member of the President's General Advisory Committee on Arms Control (1982–1986); President Reagan's special envoy on the Law of the Sea Treaty (1982–1983); a senior adviser to President Reagan's Panel on Strategic Systems (1983–1984); a member of the Joint Advisory Commission on U.S./Japan Relations (1983–1984); a member of the National Commission on the Public Service (1987–1990); a member of the National Economic Commission (1988–1989); a member of the board of visitors of the National Defense University (1988–1992); a member of the FCC's High Definition Television Advisory Committee (1992–1993); a member of the U.S. Trade Deficit Review Commission (1999–2000); a member of the Council on Foreign Relations; and chairman of the U.S. Commission to Assess National Security Space Management and Organization (2000).", "Among his most noteworthy positions was chairman of the nine-member Commission to Assess the Ballistic Missile Threat to the United States from January to July 1998.In its findings, the commission concluded that Iraq, Iran, and North Korea could develop intercontinental ballistic missile capabilities in five to ten years and that U.S. intelligence would have little warning before such systems were deployed.During the 1980s, Rumsfeld became a member of the National Academy of Public Administration, and was named a member of the boards of trustees of the Gerald R. Ford Foundation, the Eisenhower Exchange Fellowships, the Hoover Institution at Stanford University, and the National Park Foundation.", "He was also a member of the U.S./Russia Business Forum and chairman of the Congressional Leadership's National Security Advisory Group.", "Rumsfeld was a member of the Project for the New American Century, a think-tank dedicated to maintaining U.S. primacy.", "In addition, he was asked to serve the U.S. State Department as a foreign policy consultant from 1990 to 1993.Though considered one of the Bush administration's staunchest hard-liners against North Korea, Rumsfeld sat on European engineering giant Asea Brown Boveri's board from 1990 to 2001, a company that sold two light-water nuclear reactors to the Korean Peninsula Energy Development Organization for installation in North Korea, as part of the 1994 agreed framework reached under President Bill Clinton.", "Rumsfeld's office said that he did not \"recall it being brought before the board at any time\" though ''Fortune'' magazine reported that \"board members were informed about this project\".", "The Bush administration repeatedly criticized the 1994 agreement and the former Clinton presidency for its softness towards North Korea, regarding the country as a state sponsor of terrorism, and later designated North Korea as part of the Axis-of-Evil.===Presidential and vice-presidential aspirations===During the 1976 Republican National Convention, Rumsfeld received one vote for Vice President of the United States, although he did not seek the office, and the nomination was easily won by Ford's choice, Senator Bob Dole.", "During the 1980 Republican National Convention he again received one vote for vice president.Rumsfeld briefly sought the presidential nomination in 1988, but withdrew from the race before primaries began.", "During the 1996 election season, he initially formed a presidential exploratory committee, but declined to formally enter the race.", "He was instead named national chairman for Republican nominee Bob Dole's campaign." ], [ "Secretary of Defense (2001–2006)", "Director of Administration and Management David O. Cooke (left), as Joyce Rumsfeld holds the Bible in a ceremony at the Eisenhower Executive Office Building.|leftRumsfeld was named Secretary of Defense soon after President George W. Bush took office in 2001 despite Rumsfeld's past rivalry with the previous President Bush.", "Bush's first choice, FedEx founder Fred Smith, was unavailable and Vice President-elect Cheney recommended Rumsfeld for the job.", "Rumsfeld's second tenure as Secretary of Defense cemented him as the most powerful Pentagon chief since Robert McNamara and one of the most influential Cabinet members in the Bush administration.", "His tenure proved to be a pivotal and rocky one that led the United States military into the 21st century.", "Following the September 11 attacks, Rumsfeld led the military planning and execution of the 2001 United States invasion of Afghanistan and the subsequent 2003 invasion of Iraq.", "He pushed hard to send as small a force as soon as possible to both conflicts, a concept codified as the Rumsfeld Doctrine.Throughout his time as defense secretary, Rumsfeld was noted for his candor and quick wit when giving weekly press conferences or speaking with the press.", "''U.S.", "News & World Report'' called him \"a straight-talking Midwesterner\" who \"routinely has the press corps doubled over in fits of laughter\".", "By the same token, his leadership was exposed to much criticism through books covering the Iraq conflict, like Bob Woodward's ''State of Denial'', Thomas E. Ricks' ''Fiasco'', and Seymour Hersh's ''Chain of Command''.===September 11, 2001 attacks===Secretary of the Army Tom White, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General Hugh Shelton, and Senators John Warner (R-VA), and Carl Levin (D-MI), the Ranking Member and Chairman of the Senate Armed Services Committee.On September 11, 2001, al-Qaeda terrorists hijacked commercial airliners and crashed them in coordinated strikes into both towers of the World Trade Center in Lower Manhattan, New York City, and the Pentagon in Washington, D.C.", "The fourth plane crashed into a field in Shanksville, Pennsylvania, and its target was likely a prominent building in Washington, D.C., most probably either the U.S. Capitol Building or the White House.", "Within three hours of the start of the first hijacking and two hours after American Airlines Flight 11 struck the World Trade Center, Rumsfeld raised the defense condition signaling of the United States offensive readiness to DEFCON 3, the highest it had been since the Arab–Israeli war in 1973.Rumsfeld addressed the nation in a press conference at the Pentagon, just eight hours after the attacks and stated, \"It's an indication that the United States government is functioning in the face of this terrible act against our country.", "I should add that the briefing here is taking place in the Pentagon.", "The Pentagon's functioning.", "It will be in business tomorrow.", "\"===Military decisions in the wake of 9/11===Rumsfeld and New York City Mayor Rudy Giuliani speak at the site of the World Trade Center attacks in Lower Manhattan on November 14, 2001.On the afternoon of September 11, Rumsfeld issued rapid orders to his aides to look for evidence of possible Iraqi involvement in regard to what had just occurred, according to notes taken by senior policy official Stephen Cambone.", "\"Best info fast.", "Judge whether good enough hit S.H.", "\"meaning Saddam Hussein\"at same time.", "Not only UBL\" (Osama bin Laden), Cambone's notes quoted Rumsfeld as saying.", "\"Need to move swiftlyNear term target needsgo massivesweep it all up.", "Things related and not.", "\"In the first emergency meeting of the National Security Council on the day of the attacks, Rumsfeld asked, \"Why shouldn't we go against Iraq, not just al-Qaeda?\"", "with his deputy Paul Wolfowitz adding that Iraq was a \"brittle, oppressive regime that might break easily—it was doable,\" and, according to John Kampfner, \"from that moment on, he and Wolfowitz used every available opportunity to press the case.\"", "President George W. Bush reacted to Rumsfeld's suggestion, \"Wait a minute, I didn't hear a word said about him (Saddam Hussein) being responsible for the attack\" and the idea was initially rejected at the behest of Secretary of State Colin Powell, but, according to Kampfner, \"Undeterred Rumsfeld and Wolfowitz held secret meetings about opening up a second front—against Saddam.", "Powell was excluded.\"", "In such meetings they created a policy that would later be dubbed the Bush Doctrine, centering on \"pre-emption\" and the war on Iraq, which the PNAC had advocated in their earlier letters.Richard A. Clarke, the White House counter-terrorism coordinator at the time, has revealed details of another National Security Council meeting the day after the attacks, during which officials considered the U.S. response.", "Already, he said, they were certain al-Qa'ida was to blame and there was no hint of Iraqi involvement.", "\"Rumsfeld was saying we needed to bomb Iraq,\" according to Clarke.", "Clarke then stated, \"We all said, 'No, no, al-Qa'ida is in Afghanistan.", "Clarke also revealed that Rumsfeld complained in the meeting, \"there aren't any good targets in Afghanistan and there are lots of good targets in Iraq.\"", "Rumsfeld even suggested to attack other countries like Libya and Sudan, arguing that if this was to be a truly \"global war on terror\" then all state sponsors of terrorism should be dealt with.Rumsfeld wrote in ''Known and Unknown'', \"Much has been written about the Bush administration's focus on Iraq after 9/11.Commentators have suggested that it was strange or obsessive for the President and his advisers to have raised questions about whether Saddam Hussein was somehow behind the attack.", "I have never understood the controversy.", "I had no idea if Iraq was or was not involved, but it would have been irresponsible for any administration not to have asked the question.", "\"A memo written by Rumsfeld dated November 27, 2001, considers an Iraq war.", "One section of the memo questions \"How start?", "\", listing multiple possible justifications for a U.S.-Iraq War.===War in Afghanistan===Excerpt from Donald Rumsfeld memo dated November 27, 2001Rumsfeld directed the planning for the War in Afghanistan after the September 11 attacks.", "On September 21, 2001, USCENTCOM Commander General Tommy Franks, briefed the President on a plan to destroy al Qaeda in Afghanistan and remove the Taliban government.", "General Franks, also initially proposed to Rumsfeld that the U.S. invade Afghanistan using a conventional force of 60,000 troops, preceded by six months of preparation.", "Rumsfeld, however feared that a conventional invasion of Afghanistan could bog down as had happened to the Soviets in the Soviet–Afghan War and the 1842 retreat from Kabul by the British.", "Rumsfeld rejected Franks's plan, saying \"I want men on the ground now!\"", "Franks returned the next day with a plan utilizing U.S. Special Forces.", "Despite air and missile attacks against al Qaeda in Afghanistan, USCENTCOM had no pre-existing plans for conducting ground operations there.U.S.", "ambassador to Afghanistan Zalmay Khalilzad (right) during a visit to Kandahar, Afghanistan, on February 26, 2004The September 21, 2001 plan emerged after extensive dialogue, but Secretary Rumsfeld also asked for broader plans that looked beyond Afghanistan.On October 7, 2001, just hours after the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan was launched, Rumsfeld addressed the nation in a press conference at the Pentagon stating \"While our raids today focus on the Taliban and the foreign terrorists in Afghanistan, our aim remains much broader.", "Our objective is to defeat those who use terrorism and those who house or support them.", "The world stands united in this effort\".Rumsfeld also stated \"the only way to deal with these terrorist threats is to go at them where they exist.", "You cannot defend at every place at every time against every conceivable, imaginable, even unimaginable terrorist attack.", "And the only way to deal with it is to take the battle to where they are and to root them out and to starve them out by seeing that those countries and those organizations and those non-governmental organizations and those individuals that are supporting and harboring and facilitating these networks stop doing it and find that there's a penalty for doing it\".Rumsfeld in another press conference at the Pentagon on October 29, 2001, stated \"As the first weeks of this effort proceed, it bears repeating that our goal is not to reduce or simply contain terrorist acts, but our goal is to deal with it comprehensively.", "And we do not intend to stop until we've rooted out terrorist networks and put them out of business, not just in the case of the Taliban and the Al Qaeda in Afghanistan, but other networks as well.", "And as I've mentioned, the Al Qaeda network crosses some 40, 50-plus countries.", "\"Rumsfeld announced in November 2001, that he received \"authoritative reports\" that Al-Qaeda's number three Mohammed Atef, bin Laden's primary military chief and a planner of the September 11 attacks on America, was killed by a U.S. airstrike.", "\"He was very, very senior,\" Rumsfeld said.", "\"We obviously have been seeking him out.", "\"In a press conference at the Pentagon on November 19, 2001, Rumsfeld described the role of U.S. ground forces in Afghanistan as firstly in the north, American troops are \"embedded in Northern Alliance\" elements, helping arrange food and medical supplies and pinpointing airstrikes and in the south, commandos and other troops are operating more independently, raiding compounds, monitoring roadblocks and searching vehicles in the hope of developing more information about al-Qaeda and Taliban leaders.", "On December 16, 2001, Rumsfeld visited U.S. troops in Afghanistan at Bagram Air Base.On March 15, 2002, in another press conference at the Pentagon, Rumsfeld commented on the mission of Operation Anaconda by stating \"Operation Anaconda continues in the area south of Gardez in eastern Afghanistan.", "The fighting is winding down as you know.", "Coalition forces are for the most part in an exploitation phase, doing the difficult work of searching caves and clearing areas where the battles and fighting has taken place.", "Our forces are finding weapons, ammunition, some intelligence information.", "In the top 25 al Qaeda, we know some are dead and we know some may be dead; we know some are captured and there are a larger number that we don't know.", "And roughly the same proportions with respect to Taliban\".On May 1, 2003, Rumsfeld during a visit to Afghanistan meeting with U.S. troops stationed in Kabul told the press \"General Franks and I have been looking at the progress that's being made in this country and have concluded that we are at a point where we clearly have moved from major combat activity to a period of stability and stabilization and reconstruction and activities.\"", "\"I should underline however, that there are still dangers, there are still pockets of resistance in certain parts of the country and General McNeal and General Franks and their, the cooperation they have with the President Karzai's government and leadership and Marshall Fayheems assistance.", "We will be continuing as a country to work with the Afghan government and the new Afghan National Army to see that the any areas where there is resistance to this government and to the coalition forces will be dealt with promptly and efficiently.", "\"There was also controversy between the Pentagon and the CIA over who had the authority to fire Hellfire missiles from Predator drones.", "Even though the drones were not ready for deployment until 2002, Daniel Benjamin and Steven Simon have argued that \"these quarrels kept the Predator from being used against al Qaeda ... One anonymous individual who was at the center of the action called this episode 'typical' and complained that 'Rumsfeld never missed an opportunity to fail to cooperate.", "The fact is, the Secretary of Defense is an obstacle.", "He has helped the terrorists.", "'In 2009, three years after Rumsfeld's tenure as Defense secretary ended, the United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations led an investigation into the Battle of Tora Bora in December 2001, during the early phase of the U.S-led coalition war in Afghanistan.", "They concluded that Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld and General Franks had not committed enough troops during the battle to secure the area around Tora Bora.", "They believed that Al-Qaeda's number one leader Osama bin Laden had likely been at Tora Bora and his escape prolonged the war in Afghanistan.", "Rumsfeld and Franks were apparently motivated by fear that a substantial American presence near Tora Bora could incite a rebellion by local Pashtuns, despite the latter's lack of organizational capability at the time and the fierce dissent voiced by many CIA analysts including Charles E. Allen (who warned Franks that \"the back door to Pakistan was open\") and Gary Berntsen (who called for army rangers to \"kill this baby in the crib\").", "Instead of rangers or marines, the U.S. assault on Tora Bora relied on the CIA-backed Afghan militias of Hazrat Ali and Zahir Qadeer, supplemented with B-52 bombardment.", "The resulting influx of hundreds of al-Qaeda fighters into Pakistan destabilized the country and damaged Pakistan–United States relations.", "The follow-up Operation Anaconda \"witnessed failures of planning and execution, the product of the fractured lines of command,\" as recounted by Steve Coll.", "In mid-2002, Rumsfeld announced that \"The war is over in Afghanistan,\" to the disbelief of State Department, CIA, and military officials in the country.", "As a result, Rumsfeld downplayed the need for an Afghan army of even 70,000 troops, far fewer than the 250,000 envisaged by Karzai.===Iraq War===Rumsfeld, accompanied by General Richard Myers and military representatives from the International Security Assistance Force, speaks to the press on March 11, 2002Rumsfeld (left) and General Tommy Franks (right), commander of United States Central Command, listen to a question at a Pentagon press conference on March 5, 2003Before and during the Iraq War, Rumsfeld claimed that Iraq had an active weapons of mass destruction program; in particular during his famous phrase \"there are known knowns\" in a press conference at the Pentagon on February 12, 2002,no stockpiles were ever found.", "Bush administration officials also claimed that there was an operational relationship between Al Qaeda and Saddam Hussein.", "A Pentagon Inspector General report found that Rumsfeld's top policy aide, Douglas J. Feith, \"developed, produced, and then disseminated alternative intelligence assessments on the Iraq and al-Qaeda relationship, which included some conclusions that were inconsistent with the consensus of the Intelligence Community, to senior decision-makers\".The job of finding WMD and providing justification for the attack fell to the intelligence services, but, according to Kampfner, \"Rumsfeld and Wolfowitz believed that, while the established security services had a role, they were too bureaucratic and too traditional in their thinking.\"", "As a result, \"they set up what came to be known as the 'cabal', a cell of eight or nine analysts in a new Office of Special Plans (OSP) based in the U.S. Defense Department.\"", "According to an unnamed Pentagon source quoted by Hersh, the OSP \"was created in order to find evidence of what Wolfowitz and his boss, Defense Secretary Rumsfeld, believed to be true—that Saddam Hussein had close ties to Al Qaeda, and that Iraq had an enormous arsenal of chemical, biological, and possibly even nuclear weapons that threatened the region and, potentially, the United States\".On January 22, 2003, after the German and French governments voiced opposition to invading Iraq, Rumsfeld labeled these countries as part of \"Old Europe\", implying that countries that supported the war were part of a newer, modern Europe.After the war in Afghanistan was launched, Rumsfeld participated in a meeting in regard to the review of the Department of Defense's Contingency Plan in the event of a war with Iraq.", "The plan, as it was then conceived, contemplated troop levels of up to 500,000, which Rumsfeld felt was far too many.", "Gordon and Trainor wrote:In a press conference at the Pentagon on February 27, 2003, Rumsfeld told reporters after being asked a question that Army Chief of Staff General Eric Shinseki suggested it would take several hundred thousand troops on the ground to secure Iraq and provide stability.", "Is he wrong?.", "Rumsfeld replied \"the idea that it would take several hundred thousand U.S. forces I think is far from the mark.", "The reality is that we already have a number of countries that have offered to participate with their forces in stabilization activities, in the event force has to be used.", "\"Rumsfeld addressed the nation in a press conference at the Pentagon on March 20, 2003, just hours after the launch of the 2003 Invasion of Iraq, where he announced the first strike of the war to liberate Iraq and that \"The days of the Saddam Hussein regime are numbered,\" and \"We continue to feel there is no need for a broader conflict if the Iraqi leaders act to save themselves and act to prevent such a conflict.", "\"Rumsfeld's role in directing the Iraq War included a plan that was the Shock and Awe campaign, which resulted in a lightning invasion with 145,000 soldiers on the ground that took Baghdad in well under a month with very few American casualties.", "Many government buildings, plus major museums, electrical generation infrastructure, and even oil equipment were looted and vandalized during the transition from the fall of Saddam Hussein's regime to the establishment of the Coalition Provisional Authority.", "A violent insurrection began shortly after the military operation started.On March 30, 2003, in an interview with George Stephanopoulos on ABC's ''This Week'' program, Rumsfeld answered a question by Stephanopoulos about finding weapons of mass destruction in Iraq, Rumsfeld stated \"We know where they are.", "They're in the area around Tikrit and Baghdad and east, west, south and north somewhat.", "\"On April 9, 2003, at a press conference at the Pentagon, Rumsfeld addressed reporters during the Fall of Baghdad, and stated \"The scenes of free Iraqis celebrating in the streets, riding American tanks, tearing down the statues of Saddam Hussein in the center of Baghdad are breathtaking.", "\"After the Iraq invasion, U.S. troops were criticized for not protecting the historical artifacts and treasures located at the National Museum of Iraq.", "On April 11, 2003, at a press conference at the Pentagon, when asked at the time why U.S. troops did not actively seek to stop the lawlessness, Rumsfeld replied, \"Stuff happens ... and it's untidy and freedom's untidy, and free people are free to make mistakes and commit crimes and do bad things.", "They're also free to live their lives and do wonderful things.", "And that's what's going to happen here.\"", "He further commented that, \"The images you are seeing on television you are seeing over, and over, and over, and it's the same picture of some person walking out of some building with a vase, and you see it 20 times, and you think, \"My goodness, were there that many vases?", "\"On July 24, 2003, at a press conference at the Pentagon, Rumsfeld commented on the release of photographs of the deceased sons of Saddam Hussein, Uday Hussein and Qusay Hussein.", "\"It is not a practice that the United States engages in on a normal basis,\" Rumsfeld said.", "\"I honestly believe that these two are particularly bad characters and that it's important for the Iraqi people to see them, to know they're gone, to know they're dead, and to know they're not coming back.\"", "Rumsfeld also said, \"I feel it was the right decision, and I'm glad I made it.", "\"In October 2003, Rumsfeld approved a secret Pentagon \"roadmap\" on public relations, calling for \"boundaries\" between information operations abroad and the news media at home.", "The Roadmap advances a policy according to which as long as the U.S. government does not intentionally target the American public, it does not matter that psychological operations reach the American public.On December 14, 2003, Rumsfeld in an interview with journalist Lesley Stahl on ''60 Minutes'' after U.S. forces captured Saddam Hussein in Operation Red Dawn, stated, \"Here was a man who was photographed hundreds of times shooting off rifles and showing how tough he was, and in fact, he wasn't very tough, he was cowering in a hole in the ground, and had a pistol and didn't use it, and certainly did not put up any fight at all.", "I think that ... he resulted in the death of an awful lot of Iraqi people, in the last analysis, he seemed not terribly brave.", "\"As Secretary of Defense, Rumsfeld was deliberate in crafting the public message from the Department of Defense.", "People will \"rally\" to the word \"sacrifice\", Rumsfeld noted after a meeting.", "\"They are looking for leadership.", "Sacrifice = Victory.\"", "In May 2004, Rumsfeld considered whether to redefine the war on terrorism as a fight against \"worldwide insurgency\".", "He advised aides \"to test what the results could be\" if the war on terrorism were renamed.", "Rumsfeld also ordered specific public Pentagon attacks on and responses to U.S. newspaper columns that reported the negative aspects of the war.During Rumsfeld's tenure, he regularly visited U.S. troops stationed in Iraq.The Australia Broadcasting Corporation reported that though Rumsfeld didn't specify a withdrawal date for troops in Iraq, \"He says it would be unrealistic to wait for Iraq to be peaceful before removing U.S. led forces from the country, adding that Iraq had never been peaceful and perfect.", "\"On August 2, 2006, at a press conference at the Pentagon, Rumsfeld commented on the sectarian violence in Iraq where he stated \"there's sectarian violence; people are being killed.", "Sunnis are killing Shi'a and Shi'a are killing Sunnis.", "Kurds seem not to be involved.", "It's unfortunate, and they need a reconciliation process.", "\"On October 26, 2006, at a press conference at the Pentagon after the failure of Operation Together Forward in Iraq, Rumsfeld stated \"Would defeat in Iraq be so bad?\"", "Well, the answer is: Yes, it would be.", "Those who are fighting against the Iraqi government want to seize power so that they can establish a new sanctuary and a base of operations for terrorists and any idea that U.S. military leaders are rigidly refusing to make adjustments in their approaches is just flat wrong.", "The military is continuing to adapt and to adjust as required.", "Yes, there are difficulties and problems to be sure.", "\"As a result, Rumsfeld stirred controversy as to whether the forces that did invade Iraq were enough in size.", "In 2006, Rumsfeld responded to a question by Brit Hume of Fox News as to whether he pressed General Tommy Franks to lower his request for 400,000 troops for the war:Rumsfeld told Hume that Franks ultimately decided against such a troop level.Throughout his tenure, Rumsfeld sought to remind the American people of the 9/11 attacks and threats against Americans, noting at one time in a 2006 memo to \"make the American people realize they are surrounded in the world by violent extremists\".", "According to a report by ''The Guardian'', Rumsfeld was allegedly including biblical quotes in top secret briefing papers to appeal George W Bush, known for his devout religious beliefs, to invade Iraq as more like \"holy war\" or \"a religious crusade\" against Muslims.In a September 2007 interview with ''The Daily Telegraph'', General Mike Jackson, the head of the British army during the invasion, criticized Rumsfeld's plans for the invasion of Iraq as \"intellectually bankrupt\", adding that Rumsfeld is \"one of those most responsible for the current situation in Iraq\", and that he felt that \"the US approach to combating global terrorism is 'inadequate' and too focused on military might rather than nation building and diplomacy.", "\"In December 2004, Rumsfeld was heavily criticized for using a signing machine instead of personally signing over 1000 letters of condolence to the families of soldiers killed in action in Iraq and Afghanistan.", "He promised to personally sign all letters in the future.===Prisoner abuse and torture concerns===File:Rumsfeld-4 hours a day.png|thumb|Comment from Rumsfeld: \"I stand for 8–10 hours a day.", "Why is standing by prisoners limited to 4 hours?", "\"The Department of Defense's preliminary concerns for holding, housing, and interrogating captured prisoners on the battlefield were raised during the military build-up prior to the Iraq War.", "Because Saddam Hussein's military forces surrendered when faced with military action, many within the DOD, including Rumsfeld and United States Central Command General Tommy Franks, decided it was in the best interest of all to hand these prisoners over to their respective countries.", "Additionally, it was determined that maintaining a large holding facility was, at the time, unrealistic.", "Instead, the use of many facilities such as Abu Ghraib to house prisoners of interest prior to handing them over, and Rumsfeld defended the Bush administration's decision to detain enemy combatants.", "Because of this, critics, including members of the U.S. Senate Armed Services Committee, held Rumsfeld responsible for the ensuing Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse scandal.", "Rumsfeld himself said: \"These events occurred on my watch as Secretary of Defense.", "I am accountable for them.\"", "He offered his resignation to President Bush in the wake of the scandal, but it was not accepted.Rumsfeld poses with Marines during one of his trips to Camp Fallujah, Iraq, on Christmas Eve 2004In a memo read by Rumsfeld detailing how Guantanamo Bay detention camp interrogators induced stress in prisoners by forcing them to remain standing in one position for a maximum of four hours, Rumsfeld scrawled a handwritten note on the memo reading: \"I stand for 8–10 hours a day.", "Why is standing by prisoners limited to 4 hours?", "D.R.", "\"Various organizations, such as Human Rights Watch, called for investigations of Rumsfeld regarding his involvement in managing the Iraq War and his support of the Bush administration's policies of \"enhanced interrogation techniques\", which are widely regarded as torture.", "Legal scholars have argued that Rumsfeld \"might be held criminally responsible if he would be prosecuted by the ICC\".", "In 2005 the ACLU and Human Rights First filed a lawsuit against Rumsfeld and other top government officials, \"on behalf of eight men who they say were subjected to torture and abuse by U.S. forces under the command of Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld\".", "In 2005, a suit was filed against Rumsfeld by several human rights organizations for allegedly violating U.S. and international law that prohibits \"torture and cruel, inhuman, or degrading punishment\".", "Donald Vance and Nathan Ertel filed suit against the U.S. government and Rumsfeld on similar grounds, alleging that they were tortured and their rights of ''habeas corpus'' were violated.", "In 2007, U.S. District Judge Thomas F. Hogan ruled that Rumsfeld could not \"be held personally responsible for actions taken in connection with his government job\".", "The ACLU tried to revive the case in 2011 with no success.In 2004, German prosecutor Wolfgang Kaleck filed a criminal complaint charging Rumsfeld and 11 other U.S. officials as war criminals who either ordered the torture of prisoners or drafted laws that legitimated its use.", "The charges based on breaches of the UN Convention against Torture and the German Code of Crimes against International Law.===Resignation===Rumsfeld with former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher alongside the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General Peter Pace, 2006Eight U.S. and other NATO-member retired generals and admirals called for Rumsfeld to resign in early 2006 in what was called the \"Generals Revolt\", accusing him of \"abysmal\" military planning and lack of strategic competence.", "Commentator Pat Buchanan reported at the time that ''Washington Post'' columnist David Ignatius, who traveled often to Iraq and supported the war, said the generals \"mirror the views of 75 percent of the officers in the field, and probably more\".", "Rumsfeld rebuffed these criticisms, stating, \"out of thousands and thousands of admirals and generals, if every time two or three people disagreed we changed the secretary of defense of the United States, it would be like a merry-go-round.\"", "Bush defended Rumsfeld throughout and responded by stating that Rumsfeld is \"exactly what is needed\".Rumsfeld shakes President Bush's hand as he announces his resignation, November 8, 2006.On November 1, 2006, Bush stated he would stand by Rumsfeld as defense secretary for the length of his term as president.", "Rumsfeld wrote a resignation letter dated November 6, 2006, and, per the stamp on the letter, Bush saw it on Election Day, November 7, 2006.In the elections, the House and the Senate shifted to Democratic control.", "After the elections on November 8, 2006, Bush announced Rumsfeld would resign his position as Secretary of Defense.", "Many Republicans were unhappy with the delay, believing they would have won more votes if voters had known Rumsfeld was resigning.Bush nominated Robert Gates to succeed Rumsfeld.", "On December 15, 2006, a farewell ceremony, with an armed forces full honor review and a 19-gun salute, was held at the Pentagon Mall Terrace in honor of the departing Rumsfeld." ], [ "Retirement and later life (2006–2021)", "Rumsfeld shares a laugh with his successor, Robert Gates, at a ceremony to unveil his official portrait as Secretary of Defense, June 25, 2010.Dedication ceremony of the Pentagon Memorial in 2008Rumsfeld greeting former president George W. Bush in 2019In the months after his resignation, Rumsfeld toured the New York City publishing houses in preparation for a potential memoir.", "After receiving what one industry source labeled \"big bids\", he reached an agreement with the Penguin Group to publish the book under its Sentinel HC imprint.", "Rumsfeld declined to accept an advance for the publication of his memoir, and said he was donating all proceeds from the work to veterans groups.", "His book, entitled ''Known and Unknown: A Memoir'', was released on February 8, 2011.In conjunction with the publication of ''Known and Unknown'', Rumsfeld established \"The Rumsfeld Papers\", a website with documents \"related to the endnotes\" of the book and his service during the George W. Bush administration; during the months that followed the book's publication, the website was expanded to include over 4,000 documents from his archive.", "As of June 2011, the topics included his Congressional voting record, the Nixon administration, documents and memos of meetings while he was part of the Ford, Reagan, and George W. Bush administrations, private sector documents, and NATO documents, among other items.In 2007, Rumsfeld established The Rumsfeld Foundation, which focuses on encouraging public service in the United States and supporting the growth of free political and free economic systems abroad.", "The educational foundation provides fellowships to talented individuals from the private sector who want to serve for some time in government.", "Rumsfeld personally financed the foundation.", "As of January 2014, the foundation had sponsored over 90 fellows from Central Asia, provided over  million in tuition and stipend support for graduate students, awarded over  million in microfinance grants, and donated over  million to charities for veterans' affairs.Rumsfeld was awarded the \"Defender of the Constitution Award\" at the 2011 Conservative Political Action Conference in Washington, D.C., on February 10, 2011.After his retirement from government, Rumsfeld criticized former fellow Cabinet member Condoleezza Rice, Secretary of State, in his memoir, asserting that she was basically unfit for office.", "In 2011, she responded, saying that Rumsfeld \"doesn't know what he's talking about.", "The reader may imagine what can be correct about the conflicted matter.", "\"In February 2011, Rumsfeld endorsed the repeal of the military's \"Don't ask, don't tell\" policy, saying that allowing gays and lesbians to openly serve \"is an idea whose time has come\".In March 2011, Rumsfeld spoke out on the 2011 military intervention in Libya, telling ABC News Senior White House Correspondent Jake Tapper that the Obama administration should \"recognize the mission has to determine the coalition.", "The coalition ought not determine the mission.\"", "Rumsfeld also used the word \"confusion\" six times to describe the United Nations-backed military effort in Libya.In October 2011, Rumsfeld conducted an interview with Al Jazeera's Washington, D.C., bureau chief Abderrahim Foukara.", "Foukara asked Rumsfeld whether, in hindsight, the Bush administration had sent enough troops into Iraq to secure the borders of the country, and whether that made the United States culpable in the death of innocent Iraqis.", "Foukara said people in the Pentagon told Rumsfeld the number of troops sent into Iraq was insufficient.", "Rumsfeld said, \"You keep making assertions which are fundamentally false.", "No one in the Pentagon said they were not enough.\"", "Foukara pressed Rumsfeld repeatedly.", "Rumsfeld then asked, \"Do you want to yell or do you want to have an interview?\"", "Foukara then asked, \"Do you think the numbers that you went to Iraq with did absolve you from the responsibility of tens, maybe hundreds of thousands of innocent Iraqis killed by the Coalition and those criminals that you talked about?\"", "Rumsfeld called the question \"pejorative\" and said Foukara was \"not being respectful\" (Foukara disagreed) and was \"just talking over, and over, and over again\".Rumsfeld was the subject of the 2013 Errol Morris documentary ''The Unknown Known'', the title a reference to his response to a question at a February 2002 press conference.", "In the film Rumsfeld \"discusses his career in Washington D.C. from his days as a congressman in the early 1960s to planning the invasion of Iraq in 2003\".In January 2016, in partnership with the literary and creative agency Javelin, which handled design and development, Rumsfeld released a mobile app game of solitaire called ''Churchill Solitaire'', emulating a variant of the card game as played by Winston Churchill.", "Rumsfeld and the Churchill family said that profits from the game would be donated to charity.In June 2016, Rumsfeld announced that he would vote for Donald Trump in the 2016 presidential election.On January 5, 2021, Rumsfeld was one of the ten living former Secretaries of Defense that sent a warning letter in order to warn President Trump not to involve the military in a 2020 presidential election dispute." ], [ "Death", "On June 29, 2021, Rumsfeld died from multiple myeloma at his home in Taos, New Mexico.", "He was buried in Arlington National Cemetery on August 24, 2021." ], [ "Electoral history", "Rumsfeld gives the command at the 2005 Pepsi 400, where he served as the grand marshal.During the four elections during which he ran to represent Illinois's 13th congressional district, Rumsfeld received shares of the popular vote that ranged from 58% (in 1964) to 76% (in 1966).", "In 1975 and 2001, Rumsfeld was overwhelmingly confirmed by the U.S. Senate after presidents Gerald Ford and George W. Bush, respectively, appointed him as U.S. Secretary of Defense." ], [ "Awards", "Rumsfeld in the Pentagon auditorium for his final meeting with Pentagon employees, December 8, 2006Rumsfeld was awarded 11 honorary degrees.", "Following his years as CEO, president, and later chairman of G. D. Searle & Company, he was recognized as Outstanding CEO in the pharmaceutical industry by ''The Wall Street Transcript'' (1980) and ''Financial World'' (1981).Some of his other awards included:* All Navy Wrestling Champion (1956)* Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement (1983)* George C. Marshall Medal by the Association of the U.S. Army (1984)* Woodrow Wilson Medal by Princeton University (1985)* Dwight D. Eisenhower Medal (1993)* Lone Sailor Award by the U.S. Navy Memorial Foundation (2002)* Statesmanship Award by the United States Association of Former Members of Congress (2003)* Ronald Reagan Freedom Award (2003)* James H. Doolittle Award by the Hudson Institute (2003)* Gerald R. Ford Medal presented by President Ford and the Ford Foundation (2004)* Distinguished Eagle Scout Award by the Boy Scouts of America (1976)* Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Supporting Actor (2004) for his appearance in ''Fahrenheit 9/11''* Union League of Philadelphia Gold Medal for Citizenship (2006)* Claremont Institute Statesmanship Award (2007)* Victory of Freedom Award from the Richard Nixon Foundation (2010)* Order of Anthony Wayne from Valley Forge Military Academy* National Flag award from Albania's President Bujar Nishani (2013)" ], [ "Honours", " Ribbon Country Honour Year 50px United States Presidential Medal of Freedom 1977 50px Japan Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun 2015 50px KSA Grand Cordon of the Order of King Abdulaziz 2002 50px Poland Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland 2005 50px Romania Grand Officer of the Order of the Star of Romania 2004 50px Rwanda Medal of the Royal Order of the Lion 2007 50px Taiwan Grand Cordon of the Order of Brilliant Star 2011" ], [ "Legacy and reputation", "Secretary of State Henry Kissinger described Rumsfeld as \"the most ruthless man\" he knew.", "George Packer of ''The Atlantic'' named Rumsfeld \"the worst secretary of defense in American history\" who \"lacked the wisdom to change his mind.” Bradley Graham, a ''Washington Post'' reporter and author of the book titled ''By His Own Rules: The Ambitions, Successes, and Ultimate Failures of Donald Rumsfeld'' released on June 23, 2009, stated \"Rumsfeld left office as one of the most controversial Defense Secretaries since Robert McNamara and widely criticized for his management of the Iraq war and for his difficult relationships with Congress, administration colleagues, and military officers.” Neoconservative commentator Bill Kristol was also critical of Rumsfeld, stating he \"breezily dodged responsibility\" for planning mistakes made in the Iraq War, including insufficient troop levels." ], [ "Affiliation history", "===Institutional affiliations===Rumsfeld's official portrait in 2001* Center for Security Policy: longtime associate; winner of the CSP's 1998 \"Keeper of the Flame\" award (5)* Hoover Institution: former member, board of trustees* Project for the New American Century: signed PNAC's founding statement of principles as well as two policy letters on Iraq* Freedom House: former board member* RAND Corporation: former chairman* Committee for the Free World: former chairman* National Park Foundation: former member* Eisenhower Exchange Fellowships: former chairman* Bohemian Club: member* Alfalfa Club: member* National Academy of Public Administration: member===Government posts, panels, and commissions===* Secretary of Defense (2001–06)* U.S. Commission to Assess National Security Space Management and Organization: chairman (2000)* U.S. Trade Deficit Reviews Commission: member (1999–2000)* Commission to Assess the Ballistic Missile Threat to the United States: chairman (1998)* National Commission on Public Service: member (1987–1990)* National Economic Commission: member (1988–1989)* President Reagan's General Advisory Committee on Arms Control: member (1982–1986)* U.S. Joint Advisory Commission on U.S./Japan Relations: member (1983–1984)* Presidential Envoy to the Middle East, Reagan administration (1983–1984)* Presidential Envoy on the Law of the Sea Treaty, Reagan administration (1982–1983)* Secretary of Defense (1975–77)* White House Chief of Staff in Ford administration (1974–75)* U.S.", "Ambassador to NATO (1973–74)* U.S. Congress: Representative from Illinois (1962–69)* United States Navy: Various posts, including aviator (1954–57); reserves (1957–1975); retired as a navy captain (1989)===Corporate connections and business interests===* Eastern Air Lines: former director – The annual reports of Eastern Air Lines disclose that Donald Rumsfeld was a member of Eastern Air Lines board of directors.", "* Gilead Sciences: Joined Gilead as a director in 1988, chairman (1997–2001)* General Instrument: chairman and CEO (1990–93)* G. D. Searle & Company: CEO/chairman/president (1977–1985)* Gulfstream Aerospace: director* Tribune Company: director* Metricom: director* Sears: director* ABB: director* Kellogg's: director 1985–1999 while Carlos Gutierrez (ex Cuba 1960) was president, CEO and chairman of Kellogg until named Secretary of Commerce under Bush from 2005.", "* RAND Corporation: chairman of the board from 1981 to 1986; 1995–1996* Amylin Pharmaceuticals: directorFile:Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General George S. Brown at a press conference in the Pentagon.jpg|Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General George S. Brown at The Pentagon, January 15, 1976.File:President Ford and Soviet General Secretary Leonid I. Brezhnev - NARA - 7162534 (crop).jpg|Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev, President Ford and Rumsfeld in Vladivostok, Soviet Union, November 1974.File:Defense.gov News Photo 040323-F-6655M-225.jpg|Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld with Chairman of The Joint Chiefs of Staff General Richard B. Myers and Deputy Secretary of Defense Paul Wolfowitz testifying before the 9/11 Commission in March 2004.File:Defense.gov News Photo 051024-F-5586B-016.jpg|Rumsfeld and Victoria Nuland at the NATO-Ukraine consultations in Vilnius, Lithuania, on October 24, 2005.===Education===* Princeton University: A.B.", "(1954)" ], [ "Gallery", "File:President Ford meets with Rumsfeld and Cheney - NARA - 7140637.jpg|Rumsfeld and Cheney with President Ford at The Oval OfficeFile:Photograph of President Gerald R. Ford and Chief of Staff Donald Rumsfeld in the Oval Office - NARA - 7140610.jpg|White House Chief of Staff Donald Rumsfeld with President Gerald Ford at the Oval Office, White HouseFile:Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld with Vice President Nelson Rockefeller.jpg|Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld with Vice President Nelson Rockefeller in 1976File:Rumsfeld, Brown, Bush and Scowcroft at The Oval Office, White House.jpg|Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld with Chairman of The Joint Chiefs of Staff General George S. Brown, National Security Advisor Lieutenant General Brent Scowcroft, and C.I.A.", "Director George H.W.", "Bush at The Oval Office, White House, March 11, 1976File:Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld testifying at a Senate hearing on the Defense Department budget.jpg|Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld testifying at Senate Armed Services Committee hearing on the Defense Department budget on March 9, 1976File:Rumsfeld Donald 1976 DD-SN-07-12483.JPEG|Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld speaking during a press conference at The Pentagon on October 6, 1976File:Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld during an Interview at The Pentagon Studio.jpg|Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld during an Interview with WMAL-TV reporter Jim Clark at The Pentagon Studio on November 4, 1976File:Reagan Contact Sheet C19174 (cropped).jpg|Donald Rumsfeld with President Ronald Reagan at The Oval Office in 1983File:Defense.gov News Photo 011001-D-2987S-004.jpg|Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld watches as General Richard B. Myers was sworn in as the 15th Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, October 1, 2001.File:Defense.gov News Photo 020110-D-2987S-170.jpg|Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld with President George W. Bush, following President Bush's visit to The Pentagon to address military and Department of Defense personnel and sign the Defense Appropriations Bill, January 10, 2002File:Defense.gov News Photo 011015-D-9880W-174.jpg|Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld, President George W. Bush, Chairman of The Joint Chiefs of Staff General Richard B. Myers, and Vice Chairman of The Joint Chiefs of Staff General Peter Pace watch troops pass in review at Fort Myer, Virginia, on October 15, 2001.File:Defense.gov News Photo 011216-D-2987S-241.jpg|U.S.", "Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld with troops at Bagram Air Base, December 2001File:Defense.gov News Photo 050629-D-9880W-076.jpg|Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld with Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General Richard B. Myers during the annual Pentagon Town Hall meeting at The Pentagon auditoriumFile:Defense.gov News Photo 050321-F-7203T-067.jpg|Secretary Rumsfeld during a visit to Buenos Aires, ArgentinaFile:Defense.gov News Photo 020427-D-9880W-126.jpg|U.S.", "Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld during a visit to Bagram Air Force BaseFile:Defense.gov News Photo 040107-D-9880W-003.jpg|Rumsfeld with UK Secretary of State for Defence Geoffrey Hoon" ], [ "Works", "* Speech given March 3, 1998, in Washington, D.C.* * *" ], [ "See also", "* ''Agathidium rumsfeldi''* Early association with liberal activist Allard Lowenstein* There are known knowns* Rumsfeld Doctrine* ''Known and Unknown: A Memoir'' by Donald Rumsfeld (2011)" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General and cited sources", "* * * Midge Decter.", "''Rumsfeld: A Personal Portrait''.", "(Regan Books, 2003).", ".", "* * * * *" ], [ "External links", "'''Works'''* * U.S. Department of Defense: Speeches ()* Rumsfeld's Rules advice on government, business and life, January 29, 2001* Donald Rumsfeld's Project Syndicate op/eds* Churchill Solitaire, an iOS and Android adaptation of Churchill's variant of Solitaire'''Government service'''* White House Biography* Department of Defense Biography* * * * * * * * Senate Armed Services Committee Inquiry into the Treatment of Detainees in U.S.", "Custody United States Senate Committee on Armed Services, 2008'''Documentary videos'''* * * * * * Rumsfeld's War PBS Frontline, October 2004* The Unknown Known – Interview with Rumsfeld by Academy Award-winning documentarian Errol Morris, December 2013* Video clip of Rumsfeld (as special U.S. envoy to Middle East) meeting Hussein'''Articles profiling Rumsfeld'''* The Life and Times of Donald Rumsfeld, PBS* Washington Post – Rumsfeld's War archives 2001–04* Rumsfeld revealed, Vivienne Heines.", "''Air Force Times'', March 3, 2003* Close-Up: Young Rumsfeld, James Mann, ''The Atlantic'', November 2003* The Donald Rumsfeld Library of Quotations, BBC Radio 4* Biographer Andrew Cockburn on Rumsfeld at London Frontline Club May 2007.", "* The Don: A Look at Former Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld, Carol Felsenthal, ''Chicago magazine''.", "* Lunch with the FT: Donald Rumsfeld by Gideon Rachman, ''Financial Times'', February 11, 2011" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Diego Garcia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Diego Garcia''' is an island of the British Indian Ocean Territory, a disputed overseas territory of the United Kingdom also claimed by Mauritius.", "It is a militarised atoll just south of the equator in the central Indian Ocean, and the largest of the 60 small islands of the Chagos Archipelago.", "Portuguese sailors under Pedro Mascarenhas were the first Europeans to discover the island, finding it uninhabited in 1512.After a 1786 British colony failed, the French began using the island as a leper colony and, starting in 1793, coconut cultivation by enslaved labor.", "It was transferred to British rule after the Napoleonic Wars.", "It was one of the \"Dependencies\" of the British Colony of Mauritius until the Chagos Islands were detached for inclusion in the newly created British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT) in 1965.In 1966, the population of the island was 924.These people were employed as contract farm workers primarily on copra plantations owned by the Chagos-Agalega company.", "Although local plantation managers commonly allowed pensioners and the disabled to remain in the islands and continue to receive housing and rations in exchange for light work, children after the age of 12 were required to work.", "In 1964, only 3 of a population of 963 were unemployed.", "In April 1967, the BIOT Administration bought out Chagos-Agalega for £600,000, thus becoming the sole property owner in the BIOT.", "The Crown immediately leased back the properties to Chagos-Agalega but the company terminated the lease at the end of 1967.Between 1968 and 1973, the Chagossian (Îlois) inhabitants were forcibly expelled from Diego Garcia by the UK Government so that a joint US/UK military base could be established on the island.", "Many were deported to Mauritius and the Seychelles, following which the United States built the large Naval Support Facility Diego Garcia, which has been in continuous operation since then.", "In 2019, this action and continued British administration of the archipelago were deemed illegal by the International Court of Justice in The Hague, a ruling the United Nations General Assembly supported.", "However, the British dismissed this ruling as not legally binding.", ", Diego Garcia is the only inhabited island of the BIOT; the population is composed of military personnel and supporting contractors.", "It is one of two critical US bomber bases in the Indo-Pacific region, along with Andersen Air Force Base in Guam.The atoll is located east of Tanzania's coast, south-southwest of the southern tip of India (at Kanyakumari), and west-northwest of the west coast of Australia (at Cape Range National Park, Western Australia).", "Diego Garcia lies at the southernmost tip of the Chagos-Laccadive Ridge, a vast underwater mountain range with peaks consisting of coral reefs, atolls, and islands comprising Lakshadweep, the Maldives, and the Chagos Archipelago.", "Local time is UTC+6 year-round." ], [ "History", "===Before European discovery===East Point (former main settlement)There is no tangible evidence for human contact with the BIOT prior to European arrival.", "According to Southern Maldivian oral tradition, traders and fishermen were occasionally lost at sea and got stranded on one of the islands of the Chagos.", "Eventually, they were rescued and brought back home.", "However, the different atolls of the Chagos have no individual names in the Maldivian oral tradition.Nothing is known of pre-European contact history of Diego Garcia.", "Speculations include visits during the Austronesian diaspora around AD 700, as some say the old Maldivian name for the islands originated from Malagasy.", "Arabs, who reached Lakshadweep and Maldives around AD 900, may have visited the Chagos.===European discovery===The uninhabited islands were discovered by the Portuguese navigator, explorer, and diplomat Pedro Mascarenhas in 1512, first named as Dom Garcia, in honour of his patron, Dom Garcia de Noronha when he was detached from the Portuguese India Armadas during his voyage of 1512–1513.Another Portuguese expedition with a Spanish explorer of Andalusian origin, Diego García de Moguer, rediscovered the island in 1544 and named it after himself.", "Garcia de Moguer died the same year on the return trip to Portugal in the Indian Ocean, off the South African coast.", "The misnomer \"Diego\" could have been made unwittingly by the British ever since, as they copied the Portuguese maps.", "It is assumed that the island was named after one of its first two discoverers—the one by the name of Garcia, the other with name Diego.", "Also, a cacography of the saying ''Deo Gracias'' () is eligible for the attribution of the atoll.", "Although the Cantino planisphere (1504) and the Ruysch map (1507) clearly delineate the Maldive Islands, giving them the same names, they do not show any islands to the south which can be identified as the Chagos archipelago.Chagossian photographed by a US National Geodetic Survey team in 1969The Sebastian Cabot map (Antwerp 1544) shows a number of islands to the south which may be the Mascarene Islands.", "The first map which identifies and names \"''Los Chagos''\" (in about the right position) is that of Pierre Desceliers (Dieppe 1550), although Diego Garcia is not named.", "An island called \"Don Garcia\" appears on the ''Theatrum Orbis Terrarum'' of Abraham Ortelius (Antwerp 1570), together with \"Dos Compagnos\", slightly to the north.", "It may be the case that \"Don Garcia\" was named after Garcia de Noronha, although no evidence exists to support this.", "The island is also labelled \"Don Garcia\" on Mercator's ''Nova et Aucta Orbis Terrae Descriptio ad Usum Navigatium Emendate'' (Duisburg 1569).", "However, on the ''Vera Totius Expeditionis Nauticae Description'' of Jodocus Hondius (London 1589), \"Don Garcia\" mysteriously changes its name to \"I. de Dio Gratia\", while the \"I. de Chagues\" appears close by.The first map to delineate the island under its present name, Diego Garcia, is the ''World Map'' of Edward Wright (London 1599), possibly as a result of misreading Dio (or simply \"D.\") as Diego, and Gratia as Garcia.", "The ''Nova Totius Terrarum Orbis Geographica'' of Hendrik Hondius II (Antwerp 1630) repeats Wright's use of the name, which is then proliferated on all subsequent Dutch maps of the period, and to the present day.===Settlement of the island===Diego Garcia and the rest of the Chagos islands were uninhabited until the late 18th century.", "In 1778, the French Governor of Mauritius granted Monsieur Dupuit de la Faye the island of Diego Garcia, and evidence exists of temporary French visits to collect coconuts and fish.", "Several Frenchmen living in \"a dozen huts\" abandoned Diego Garcia when the British East India Company attempted to establish a settlement there in April 1786.The supplies of the 275 settlers were overwhelmed by 250 survivors of the wreck of the British East Indian Ship ''Atlas'' in May, and the colony failed in October.", "Following the departure of the British, the French colony of Mauritius began marooning lepers on the island, and in 1793, the French established a coconut plantation using slave labour, which exported, too, cordage made from coir (coconut fibre), and sea cucumbers as a far-eastern delicacy.Diego Garcia became a colony of the UK after the Napoleonic Wars as part of the Treaty of Paris (1814), and from 1814 to 1965 it was administered from Mauritius; the main plantations were at East Point, the main settlement, Minni Minni, north of East Point, and Pointe Marianne, on the western rim, all on the lagoon side of the atoll.", "The workers lived at each and at villages scattered around the atoll.From 1881 until 1888, the atoll hosted two coaling stations for steamships crossing the Indian Ocean.In 1882, the French-financed, Mauritian-based Société Huilière de Diego et de Peros (the \"Oilmaking Company of Diego and Peros\"), consolidated all the plantations in the Chagos under its control.===20th century===Barachois Maurice, Diego GarciaCatalina wreck on the beachIn 1914, the island was visited by the German light cruiser halfway through its commerce-raiding cruise during the early months of World War I.In 1942, the British opened RAF Station Diego Garcia and established an advanced flying boat unit at the East Point Plantation, staffed and equipped by No.", "205 and No.", "240 Squadrons, then stationed on Ceylon.", "Both Catalina and Sunderland aircraft were flown during the course of World War II in search of Japanese and German submarines and surface raiders.", "At Cannon Point, two 6-inch naval guns were installed by a Royal Marines detachment.", "In February 1942, the mission was to protect the small Royal Navy base and Royal Air Force station located on the island from Japanese attack.", "Operation of the guns was later taken over by Mauritian and Indian Coastal Artillery troops.", "Following the conclusion of hostilities, the station was closed on 30 April 1946.In 1962, the Chagos Agalega Company of the British colony of Seychelles purchased the Société Huilière de Diego et Peros and moved company headquarters to Seychelles.In the early 1960s, the UK was withdrawing its military presence from the Indian Ocean, not including the airfield at RAF Gan to the north of Diego Garcia in the Maldives (which remained open until 1976), and agreed to permit the United States to establish a naval communication station on one of its island territories there.", "The United States requested an unpopulated island belonging to the UK to avoid political difficulties with newly independent countries, and ultimately the UK and United States agreed that Diego Garcia was a suitable location.===Purchase by the United Kingdom===An unpaved road in Diego Garcia in the eastern restricted zone, home to the former plantationsTo accomplish the UK–US mutual defence strategy, in November 1965, the UK purchased the Chagos Archipelago, which includes Diego Garcia, from the then self-governing colony of Mauritius for £3 million to create the British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT), with the intent of ultimately closing the plantations to provide the uninhabited British territory from which the United States would conduct its military activities in the region.In April 1966, the British government bought the entire assets of the Chagos Agalega Company in the BIOT for £600,000 and administered them as a government enterprise and immediately leased the plantations back to Chagos Agalega while awaiting United States funding of the proposed facilities, with an interim objective of paying for the administrative expenses of the new territory.", "However, the plantations, both under their previous private ownership and under government administration, proved consistently unprofitable due to the introduction of new oils and lubricants in the international marketplace, and the establishment of vast coconut plantations in the East Indies and the Philippines and the company terminated the lease at the end of 1967.On 30 December 1966, the United States and the UK executed an agreement through an Exchange of Notes which permitted the United States to use the BIOT for defence purposes for 50 years until December 2016, followed by a 20-year extension (to 2036) as long as neither party gave notice of termination in a two-year window (December 2014 – December 2016) and the UK may decide on what additional terms to extend the agreement.", "No monetary payment was made from the United States to the UK as part of this agreement or any subsequent amendment.", "Rather, the United Kingdom received a US$14-million discount from the United States on the acquisition of submarine-launched Polaris missiles per a now-declassified addendum to the 1966 agreement.===Arrival of the U.S. Navy===To the United States, Diego Garcia was a prime territory for setting up a foreign military base.", "According to Stuart Barber—a civilian working for the US Navy at the Pentagon—Diego Garcia was located far away from any potential threats, it was low in a native population and it was an island that was not sought after by other countries as it lacked economic interest.", "To Barber, Diego Garcia and other acquired islands would play a key role in maintaining US dominance.", "Here Barber designed the strategic island concept, where the US would obtain as many less populated islands as possible for military purposes.", "According to Barber, this was the only way to ensure security for a foreign base.", "Diego Garcia is often referred to as \"Fantasy Island\" for its seclusion.Sir Bruce Greatbatch, Governor of the Seychelles, oversaw the depopulation of Chagossians from the Chagos Archipelago.The key component in obtaining Diego Garcia was the perceived lack of a native population on the island.", "Uninhabited until the late 18th century, Diego Garcia had no indigenous population.", "Its only inhabitants were European overseers who managed the coconut plantations for their absentee landowners and contract workers mostly of African, Indian, and Malay ancestry, known as Chagossians, who had lived and worked on the plantations for several generations.", "Prior to setting up a military base, the United States government was informed by the British government—which owned the island—that Diego Garcia had a population of hundreds.", "The eventual number of Chagossians numbered around 1,000.Regardless of the size of the population, the Chagossians had to be removed from the island before the base could be constructed.", "In 1968, the first tactics were implemented to decrease the population of Diego Garcia.", "Those who left the island—either for vacation or medical purposes—were not allowed to return, and those who stayed could obtain only restricted food and medical supplies.", "This tactic was in hope that those that stayed would leave \"willingly\".", "One of the tactics used was that of killing Chagossian pets.In March 1971, United States Naval construction battalions arrived on Diego Garcia to begin the construction of the communications station and an airfield.", "To satisfy the terms of an agreement between the UK and the United States for an uninhabited island, the plantation on Diego Garcia was closed in October of that year.", "The plantation workers and their families were relocated to the plantations on Peros Bahnos and Salomon atolls to the northwest.", "The by-then-independent Mauritian government refused to accept the islanders without payment, and in 1974, the UK gave the Mauritian government an additional £650,000 to resettle the islanders.", "Those who still remained on the island of Diego Garcia between 1971 and 1973 were forced onto cargo ships that were heading to Mauritius and the Seychelles.By 1973, construction of the Naval Communications Station was completed.", "In the early 1970s, setbacks to United States military capabilities in the region including the fall of Saigon, victory of the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia, the closure of the Peshawar Air Station listening post in Pakistan and Kagnew Station in Eritrea, the ''Mayaguez'' incident, and the build-up of Soviet naval presence in Aden and a Soviet airbase at Berbera, Somalia, caused the United States to request, and the UK to approve, permission to build a fleet anchorage and enlarged airfield on Diego Garcia, and the Seabees doubled the number of workers constructing these facilities.This 1982 photo shows an unpaved road made of crushed coral common throughout the island and the officers' dining area at the Diego Garcia Naval Support Facility.Following the fall of the Shah of Iran and the Iran Hostage Crisis in 1979–1980, the West became concerned with ensuring the flow of oil from the Persian Gulf through the Strait of Hormuz, and the United States received permission for a $400-million expansion of the military facilities on Diego Garcia consisting of two parallel runways, expansive parking aprons for heavy bombers, 20 new anchorages in the lagoon, a deep-water pier, port facilities for the largest naval vessels in the U.S. and British fleets, aircraft hangars, maintenance buildings and an air terminal, a fuel storage area, and billeting and messing facilities for thousands of sailors and support personnel.", "The closure of the U.S. bases in the Philippines in the early 1990s brought many workers from Subic Bay and Clark Air Base to Diego Garcia.===21st century===On 23 June 2017, the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) voted in favour of referring the territorial dispute between Mauritius and the UK to the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in order to clarify the legal status of the Chagos Islands archipelago in the Indian Ocean.", "The motion was approved by a majority vote with 94 voting for and 15 against.In February 2019, the ICJ in The Hague ruled that the United Kingdom must transfer the islands to Mauritius as they were not legally separated from the latter in 1965.The UK Foreign Office said the ruling is not legally binding.", "In May 2019, the United Nations General Assembly affirmed the decision of the International Court of Justice and demanded that the United Kingdom withdraw its colonial administration from the Islands and cooperate with Mauritius to facilitate the resettlement of Mauritian nationals in the archipelago.", "In a written statement, the U.S. government said that neither the Americans nor the British have any plans to discontinue use of the military base on Diego Garcia.", "The statement said in a footnote: \"In 2016, there were discussions between the United Kingdom and the United States concerning the continuing importance of the joint base.", "Neither party gave notice to terminate and the agreement remains in force until 2036\".In June 2020, a Mauritian official offered to allow the United States to retain its military base on the island if Mauritius succeeded in regaining sovereignty over the Chagos archipelago.===Chagos Marine Protected Area===On 1 April 2010, the Chagos Marine Protected Area (MPA) was declared to cover the waters around the Chagos Archipelago.", "However, Mauritius objected, stating this was contrary to its legal rights, and on 18 March 2015, in light of the ''Mauritius v. United Kingdom'' case, the Permanent Court of Arbitration ruled that the Chagos Marine Protected Area was illegal under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea as Mauritius had legally binding rights to fish in the waters surrounding the Chagos Archipelago, to an eventual return of the Chagos Archipelago, and to the preservation of any minerals or oil discovered in or near the Chagos Archipelago prior to its return." ], [ "Inhabitants", "Diego Garcia had no permanent inhabitants when discovered by the Spanish explorer Diego García de Moguer in the 16th century, then in the service of Portugal, and this remained the case until it was settled as a French colony in 1793.===French settlement===Most inhabitants of Diego Garcia through the period 1793–1971 were plantation workers, but also included Franco-Mauritian managers, Indo-Mauritian administrators, Mauritian and Seychellois contract employees, and in the late 19th century, Chinese and Somali employees.A distinct Creole culture called the Îlois, which means \"islanders\" in French Creole, evolved from these workers.", "The Îlois, now called Chagos Islanders or Chagossians since the late-1990s, were descended primarily from slaves brought to the island from Madagascar by the French between 1793 and 1810, and Malay slaves from the slave market on Pulo Nyas, an island off the northwest coast of Sumatra, from around 1820 until the slave trade ended following the Slavery Abolition Act of 1833.The Îlois also evolved a French-based Creole dialect now called Chagossian Creole.Throughout their recorded history, the plantations of the Chagos Archipelago had a population of approximately 1,000 individuals, about two-thirds of whom lived on Diego Garcia.", "A peak population of 1,142 on all islands was recorded in 1953.The primary industry throughout the island's colonial period consisted of coconut plantations producing copra and/or coconut oil, until closure of the plantations and forced relocation of the inhabitants in October 1971.For a brief period in the 1880s, it served as a coaling station for steamships transiting the Indian Ocean from the Suez Canal to Australia.===Expulsion of 1971===All the inhabitants of Diego Garcia were forcibly resettled to other islands in the Chagos Archipelago, Mauritius or Seychelles by 1971 to satisfy the requirements of a UK/United States Exchange of Notes signed in 1966 to depopulate the island when the United States constructed a base upon it.", "No current agreement exists on how many of the evacuees met the criteria to be an Îlois, and thus be an indigenous person at the time of their removal, but the UK and Mauritian governments agreed in 1972 that 426 families, numbering 1,151 individuals, were due compensation payments as exiled Îlois.", "The total number of people certified as Îlois by the Mauritian Government's Îlois Trust Fund Board in 1982 was 1,579.Fifteen years after the last expulsion, the Chagossians received compensation from the British, totalling $6,000 per person; some Chagossians received nothing.", "The British expulsion action remains in litigation .", "Today, Chagossians remain highly impoverished and are living as \"marginalised\" outsiders on the island of Mauritius and the Seychelles.===After 1971===Between 1971 and 2001, the only residents on Diego Garcia were UK and US military personnel and civilian employees of those countries.", "These included contract employees from the Philippines and Mauritius, including some Îlois.", "During combat operations from the atoll against Afghanistan (2001–2006) and Iraq (2003–2006), a number of allied militaries were based on the island including Australian, Japanese, and the Republic of Korea.", "According to David Vine, \"Today, at any given time, 3,000 to 5,000 US troops and civilian support staff live on the island.\"", "The inhabitants today do not rely on the island and the surrounding waters for sustenance.", "Although some recreational fishing for consumption is permitted, all other food is shipped in by sea or air.In 2004, US Navy recruitment literature described Diego Garcia as being one of the world's best-kept secrets, boasting great recreational facilities, exquisite natural beauty, and outstanding living conditions.Since October 2021 there have been asylum seekers on Diego Garcia." ], [ "Politics", "A detailed map of Diego GarciaDiego Garcia is the only inhabited island in the British Indian Ocean Territory, an overseas territory of the United Kingdom, usually abbreviated as \"BIOT\".", "The Government of the BIOT consists of a commissioner appointed by King Charles III.", "The commissioner is based in London, resident in the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO), and is assisted by an administrator and small staff.Originally colonised by the French, Diego Garcia was ceded, along with the rest of the Chagos Archipelago, to the United Kingdom in the Treaty of Paris (1814) at the conclusion of a portion of the Napoleonic Wars.", "Diego Garcia and the Chagos Archipelago were administered by the colonial government on the island of Mauritius until 1965, when the UK purchased them from the self-governing colony of Mauritius for £3 million, and declared them to be a separate British Overseas Territory.", "The BIOT administration was moved to Seychelles following the independence of Mauritius in 1968 until the independence of Seychelles in 1976, and to a desk in the Foreign and Commonwealth Office in London since.===Military administration===The UK represents the territory internationally.", "A local government as normally envisioned does not exist.", "Rather, the administration is represented in the territory by the officer commanding British Forces on Diego Garcia, the \"Brit rep\".", "Laws and regulations are promulgated by the commissioner and enforced in the BIOT by Brit rep.Of major concern to the BIOT administration is the relationship with the United States military forces resident on Diego Garcia.", "An annual meeting called \"The Pol-Mil Talks\" (for \"political-military\") of all concerned is held at the Foreign and Commonwealth Office in London to resolve pertinent issues.", "These resolutions are formalised by an \"Exchange of Letters\".Neither the US nor the UK recognises Diego Garcia as being subject to the African Nuclear Weapons Free Zone Treaty, which lists BIOT as covered by the treaty.", "It is not publicly known whether nuclear weapons have ever been stored on the island.", "Noam Chomsky and Peter Sand have observed and emphasised that the US and UK stance is blocking the implementation of the treaty.===Transnational political issues===There are two transnational political issues which affect Diego Garcia and the BIOT, through the British government.", "*The island state of Mauritius claims the Chagos Archipelago (which is conterminous with the BIOT), including Diego Garcia.", "A subsidiary issue is the Mauritian opposition to the UK Government's declaration of 1 April 2010 that the BIOT is a marine protected area with fishing and extractive industry (including oil and gas exploration) prohibited.", "*The issue of compensation and repatriation of the former inhabitants, exiled since 1973, continues in litigation and as of August 2010 had been submitted to the European Court of Human Rights by a group of former residents.", "Some groups allege that Diego Garcia and its territorial waters out to have been restricted from public access without permission of the BIOT Government since 1971.On 3 November 2022, the British Foreign Secretary James Cleverly announced that the UK and Mauritius had decided to begin negotiations on sovereignty over the British Indian Ocean Territory, taking into account international legal proceedings.", "Both states had agreed to ensure the continued operation of the joint UK/US military base on Diego Garcia.===Prison site allegations===In 2015, U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell's former chief of staff, Lawrence Wilkerson, said Diego Garcia was used by the CIA for \"nefarious activities\".", "He said that he had heard from three US intelligence sources that Diego Garcia was used as \"a transit site where people were temporarily housed, let us say, and interrogated from time to time\" and, \"What I heard was more along the lines of using it as a transit location when perhaps other places were full or other places were deemed too dangerous or insecure, or unavailable at the moment\".In June 2004, the British Foreign Secretary Jack Straw stated that United States authorities had repeatedly assured him that no detainees had passed in transit through Diego Garcia or were disembarked there.Diego Garcia was rumoured to have been one of the locations of the CIA's black sites in 2005.Khalid Sheikh Mohammed is one of the \"high-value detainees\" suspected to have been held in Diego Garcia.", "In October 2007, the Foreign Affairs Select Committee of the British Parliament announced that it would launch an investigation of continued allegations of a prison camp on Diego Garcia, which it claimed were twice confirmed by comments made by retired U.S. Army general Barry McCaffrey.", "On 31 July 2008, an unnamed former White House official alleged that the United States had imprisoned and interrogated at least one suspect on Diego Garcia during 2002 and possibly 2003.Manfred Nowak, one of five United Nations special rapporteurs on torture, said that credible evidence exists supporting allegations that ships serving as black sites have used Diego Garcia as a base.", "The human rights group Reprieve alleged that United States-operated ships moored outside the territorial waters of Diego Garcia were used to incarcerate and torture detainees.===Rendition flight refuelling admission===Several groups claim that the military base on Diego Garcia has been used by the United States government for transport of prisoners involved in the controversial extraordinary rendition program, an allegation formally reported to the Council of Europe in June 2007.On 21 February 2008, British Foreign Secretary David Miliband admitted that two United States extraordinary rendition flights refuelled on Diego Garcia in 2002, and was \"very sorry\" that earlier denials were having to be corrected.===Leaked diplomatic cables===According to leaked diplomatic cables, in a calculated move planned in 2009, the UK proposed that the BIOT become a \"marine reserve\" with the aim of preventing the former inhabitants from returning to the islands.", "A summary of the diplomatic cable is as follows:HMG would like to establish a \"marine park\" or \"reserve\" providing comprehensive environmental protection to the reefs and waters of the British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT), a senior Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) official informed Polcouns on 12 May.", "The official insisted that the establishment of a marine park—the world's largest—would in no way impinge on USG use of the BIOT, including Diego Garcia, for military purposes.", "He agreed that the UK and United States should carefully negotiate the details of the marine reserve to assure that United States interests were safeguarded and the strategic value of BIOT was upheld.", "He said that the BIOT's former inhabitants would find it difficult, if not impossible, to pursue their claim for resettlement on the islands if the entire Chagos Archipelago were a marine reserve." ], [ "Natural history", "No species of plants, birds, amphibians, reptiles, molluscs, crustaceans, or mammals is endemic on Diego Garcia or in the surrounding waters.", "Several endemic fish and aquatic invertebrates are present, though.", "All plants, wildlife, and aquatic species are protected to one degree or another.", "In addition, much of the lagoon waters are protected wetlands as a designated Ramsar site, and large parts of the island are nature preserves.In 2004, the UK applied for, and received, Ramsar site wetlands conservation status for the lagoon and other waters of Diego Garcia.===Geography===A location map of Diego GarciaDiego Garcia is the largest land mass in the Chagos Archipelago (which includes Peros Banhos, the Salomon Islands, the Three Brothers, the Egmont Islands, and the Great Chagos Bank), being an atoll occupying approximately , of which is dry land.", "The continuous portion of the atoll rim stretches from one end to the other, enclosing a lagoon long and up to wide, with a pass opening at the north.", "Three small islands are located in the pass.The island consists of the largest continuous dryland rim of all atolls in the world.", "The dryland rim varies in width from a few hundred metres to 2.4 km.", "Typical of coral atolls, it has a maximum elevation on some dunes on the ocean side of the rim of 9 m (30 ft) above mean low water.", "The rim nearly encloses a lagoon about long and up to wide.", "The atoll forms a nearly complete rim of land around a lagoon, enclosing 90% of its perimeter, with an opening only in the north.", "The main island is the largest of about 60 islands which form the Chagos Archipelago.", "Besides the main island, three small islets are at the mouth of the lagoon: West Island (), Middle Island () and East Island ().", "A fourth, Anniversary Island, 1 km (1,100 yards) southwest of Middle Island, appears as just a sand bar on satellite images.", "Both Middle Island and Anniversary Island are part of the Spur Reef complex.The total area of the atoll is about .", "The lagoon area is roughly with depths ranging down to about .", "The total land area (excluding peripheral reefs) is around .", "The coral reef surrounding the seaward side of the atoll is generally broad, flat, and shallow around below mean sea level in most locations and varying from in width.", "This fringing seaward reef shelf comprises an area around .", "At the outer edge of the reef shelf, the bottom slopes very steeply into deep water, at some locations dropping to more than within of the shore.In the lagoon, numerous coral heads present hazards to navigation.", "The shallow reef shelf surrounding the island on the ocean side offers no ocean-side anchorage.", "The channel and anchorage areas in the northern half of the lagoon are dredged, along with the pre-1971 ship turning basin.", "Significant saltwater wetlands called barachois exist in the southern half of the lagoon.", "These small lagoons off of the main lagoon are filled with seawater at high tide and dry at low tide.", "Scientific expeditions in 1996 and 2006 described the lagoon and surrounding waters of Diego Garcia, along with the rest of the Chagos Archipelago, as \"exceptionally unpolluted\" and \"pristine\".Diego Garcia is frequently subject to earthquakes caused by tectonic plate movement along the Carlsberg Ridge located just to the west of the island.", "One was recorded in 1812; one measuring 7.6 on the Richter Scale hit on 30 November 1983, at 23:46 local time and lasted 72 seconds, resulting in minor damage including wave damage to a 50-m stretch of the southern end of the island, and another on 2 December 2002, an earthquake measuring 4.6 on the Richter scale struck the island at 12:21 am.In December 2004, a tsunami generated near Indonesia caused minor shoreline erosion on Barton Point (the northeast point of the atoll of Diego Garcia).===Oceanography===Diego Garcia lies within the influence of the South Equatorial Current year-round.", "The surface currents of the Indian Ocean also have a monsoonal regimen associated with the Asian Monsoonal wind regimen.", "Sea surface temperatures are in the range of year-round.===Fresh water supply===Diego Garcia is the above-water rim of a coral atoll composed of Holocene coral rubble and sand to the depth of about , overlaying Pleistocene limestone deposited at the then-sea level on top of a seamount rising about from the floor of the Indian Ocean.", "The Holocene sediments are porous and completely saturated with sea water.", "Any rain falling on the above-water rim quickly percolates through the surface sand and encounters the salt water underneath.", "Diego Garcia is of sufficient width to minimise tidal fluctuations in the aquifer, and the rainfall (in excess of 102.5 inches/260 cm per year on average) is sufficient in amount and periodicity for the fresh water to form a series of convex, freshwater, Ghyben-Herzberg lenses floating on the heavier salt water in the saturated sediments.The horizontal structure of each lens is influenced by variations in the type and porosity of the subsurface deposits, which on Diego Garcia are minor.", "At depth, the lens is globular; near the surface, it generally conforms to the shape of the island.", "When a Ghyben-Herzberg lens is fully formed, its floating nature will push a freshwater head above mean sea level, and if the island is wide enough, the depth of the lens below mean sea level will be 40 times the height of the water table above sea level.", "On Diego Garcia, this equates to a maximum depth of 20 m. However, the actual size and depth of each lens is dependent on the width and shape of the island at that point, the permeability of the aquifer, and the equilibrium between recharging rainfall and losses to evaporation to the atmosphere, transpiration by plants, tidal advection, and human use.In the plantation period, shallow wells, supplemented by rainwater collected in cisterns, provided sufficient water for the pastoral lifestyle of the small population.", "On Diego Garcia today, the military base uses over 100 shallow \"horizontal\" wells to produce over 560,000 L per day from the \"Cantonment\" lens on the northwest arm of the island—sufficient water for western-style usage for a population of 3,500.This 3.7 km2 lens holds an estimated 19 million m3 of fresh water and has an average daily recharge from rainfall over 10,000 m3, of which 40% remains in the lens and 60% is lost through evapotranspiration.Extracting fresh water from a lens for human consumption requires careful calculation of the sustainable yield of the lens by season because each lens is susceptible to corruption by saltwater intrusion caused by overuse or drought.", "In addition, overwash by tsunamis and tropical storms has corrupted lenses in the Maldives and several Pacific islands.", "Vertical wells can cause salt upcoming into the lens, and overextraction will reduce freshwater pressure resulting in lateral intrusion by seawater.", "Because the porosity of the surface soil results in virtually zero runoff, lenses are easily polluted by fecal waste, burials, and chemical spills.", "Corruption of a lens can take years to \"flush out\" and reform, depending on the ratio of recharge to losses.A few natural depressions on the atoll rim capture the abundant rainfall to form areas of freshwater wetlands.", "Two are of significance to island wildlife and to recharge their respective freshwater lenses.", "One of these is centred on the northwest point of the atoll; another is found near the Point Marianne Cemetery on the southeast end of the airfield.", "Other, smaller freshwater wetlands are found along the east side of the runway, and in the vicinity of the receiver antenna field on the northwest arm of the atoll.Also, several man-made freshwater ponds resulted from excavations made during construction of the airfield and road on the western half of the atoll rim.", "These fill from rainfall and from extending into the Ghyben-Herzberg lenses found on this island.===Climate===Eclipse PointDiego Garcia has an equatorial tropical rainforest climate (Köppen ''Af'').", "The surrounding sea surface temperature is the primary climatic control, and temperatures are generally uniform throughout the year, with an average maximum of by day during March and April, and from July to September.", "Diurnal variation is roughly , falling to the low by night.", "Humidity is high throughout the year.", "The almost constant breeze keeps conditions reasonably comfortable.From December through March, winds are generally westerly around .", "During April and May, winds are light and variable, ultimately backing to an east-southeasterly direction.", "From June through September, the influence of the Southeast trades is felt, with speeds of 10–15 knots.", "During October and November, winds again go through a period of light and variable conditions veering to a westerly direction with the onset of summer in the Southern Hemisphere.All precipitation falls as rain, characterised by air mass-type showers.", "Annual rainfall averages , with the heaviest precipitation from September to April.", "January is the wettest month with of mean monthly precipitation, and August the driest month, averaging of mean monthly precipitation.Thunderstorm activity is generally noticed during the afternoon and evenings during the summer months (December through March), when the Intertropical Convergence Zone is in the vicinity of the island.Diego Garcia is at minimum risk from tropical cyclones due to its proximity to the equator where the coriolis parameter required to organise circulation of the upper atmosphere is minimal.", "Low-intensity storms have hit the island, including one in 1901, which blew over 1,500 coconut trees; one on 16 September 1944, which caused the wreck of a Royal Air Force PBY Catalina; one in September 1990 which demolished the tent city then being constructed for United States Air Force bomber crews during Operation Desert Storm; and one on 22 July 2007, when winds exceeded and over of rain fell in 24 hours.Sunset at Cannon PointThe island was somewhat affected by the tsunami caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake.", "Service personnel on the western arm of the island reported only a minor increase in wave activity.", "The island was protected to a large degree by its favourable ocean topography.", "About east of the atoll lies the 650-km-long (400-mile) Chagos Trench, an underwater canyon plunging more than .", "The depth of the trench and its grade to the atoll's slope and shelf shore makes it more difficult for substantial tsunami waves to build before passing the atoll from the east.", "In addition, near-shore coral reefs and an algal platform may have dissipated much of the waves' impact.", "A biological survey conducted in early 2005 indicated erosional effects of the tsunami wave on Diego Garcia and other islands of the Chagos Archipelago.", "One stretch of shoreline was found to have been breached by the tsunami wave, representing about 10% of the eastern arm.", "A biological survey by the Chagos Conservation Trust reported that the resulting inundation additionally washed away shoreline shrubs and small to medium-sized coconut palms.===Vegetation===A mixed-species freshwater wetland on Diego GarciaThe first botanical observations of the island were made by Hume in 1883, when the coconut plantations had been in operation for a full century.", "Subsequent studies and collections during the plantation era were made in 1885, 1905, 1939, and 1967.Thus, very little of the nature of the precontact vegetation is known.The 1967 survey, published by the Smithsonian is used as the most authoritative baseline for more recent research.", "These studies indicate the vegetation of the island may be changing rapidly.", "For example, J. M. W. Topp collected data annually between 1993 and 2003 and found that on the average three new plant species arrived each year, mainly on Diego Garcia.", "His research added fully a third more species to Stoddart.", "Topp and Martin Hamilton of Kew Gardens compiled the most recent checklist of vegetation in 2009.A thick forest of coconuts on Diego GarciaIn 1967, Stoddart described the land area of Diego Garcia as having a littoral hedge of ''Scaevola taccada'', while inland, ''Cocos nucifera'' (coconut) was the most dominant tree, covering most of the island.", "The substory was either managed and park-like, with understory less than 0.5 m in height, or consisted of what he called \"Cocos Bon-Dieu\" – an intermediate story of juvenile trees and a luxuriant ground layer of self-sown seedlings – causing those areas to be relatively impenetrable.Also, areas of remnant tropical hardwood forest are at the sites of the plantation-era villages, as well as ''Casuarina equisetifolia'' (iron wood pines) woodlands.In 1997, the United States Navy contracted a vegetation survey that identified about 280 species of terrestrial vascular plants on Diego Garcia.", "None of these was endemic, and another survey in 2005 identified just 36 species as \"native\", meaning arriving without the assistance of humans, and found elsewhere in the world.", "No terrestrial plant species are of any conservation-related concern at present.A ''Hernandia''-dominated forest on Diego GarciaOf the 36 native vascular plants on Diego Garcia, 12 are trees, five are shrubs, seven are dicotyledon herbs, three are grasses, four are vines, and five are ferns.The 12 tree species are: ''Barringtonia asiatica'' (fish-poison tree), ''Calophyllum inophyllum'' (Alexandrian laurel), ''Cocos nucifera'', ''Cordia subcordata'', ''Guettarda speciosa'', ''Intsia bijuga'', ''Hernandia sonora'', ''Morinda citrifolia'', ''Neisosperma oppositifolium'', ''Pisonia grandis'', ''Terminalia catappa'', and ''Heliotropium foertherianum''.", "Another three tree species are common, and may be native, but they may also have been introduced by humans: ''Casuarina equisetifolia'', ''Hibiscus tiliaceus'', and ''Pipturus argenteus''.The five native shrubs are: ''Caesalpinia bonduc'', ''Pemphis acidula'', ''Premna serratifolia'', ''Scaevola taccada'' (often mispronounced \"Scaveola\"), and ''Suriana maritima''.A ''Premna''-dominated scrub land on Diego GarciaAlso, 134 species of plants are classified as \"weedy\" or \"naturalised alien species\", being those unintentionally introduced by man, or intentionally introduced as ornamentals or crop plants which have now \"gone native\", including 32 new species recorded since 1995, indicating a very rapid rate of introduction.", "The remainder of the species list consists of cultivated food or ornamental species, grown in restricted environments such as a planter's pot.A freshwater marsh composed entirely of cattails located on the eastern edge of the bomber ramp on Diego GarciaA typical oceanside littoral hedge with ''Casuarina'' fringeIn 2004, 10 plant communities were recognised on the atoll rim:* ''Calophyllum'' forest, dominated by ''Calophyllum inophyllum'', with trunks that can grow in excess of 2 m in diameter: This forest often contains other species such as ''Hernandia sonora'', ''Cocos nucifera'', and ''Guettarda speciosa'' with a ''Premna obtusifolia'' edge.", "When found on the beaches, ''Calophyllum'' often extends over the lagoon water and supports nesting red-footed boobies, as does ''Barringtonia asiatica'' found mostly on the eastern arm of the atoll.", "* ''Cocos'' forest, essentially monotypic (''Cocos bon Dieu''), with the understory consisting of coconut seedlings* ''Cocos-Hernandia'' forest, dominated by two canopy species—''C.", "nucifera'' and ''H.", "sonora''* ''Cocos-Guettarda'' forest, dominated by the canopy species ''C.", "nucifera'' and ''G.", "speciosa'': The understory consists of a mix of ''Neisosperma oppositifolium'', with ''Scaevola taccada'' and ''Tournefortia argentea'' on the beach edge.", "* ''Hernandia'' forest, dominated at the canopy level by ''H.", "sonora'': The most representative areas of this forest type are on the eastern, undeveloped part of the atoll.", "''Calophyllum inophyllum'' and ''C.", "nucifera'' are often present.", "Understory species in this forest are often ''Morinda citrifolia'', ''Cocos'' seedlings, and ''Asplenium nidus'' (bird's nest fern), and occasionally, ''N.", "oppositifolium'' and ''G.", "speciosa''.", "* ''Premna'' shrubland, occurring generally between marshy areas and forested areas: The most conspicuous vegetation is primarily ''P.", "obtusifolia'', with ''Casuarina equisetifolia'' and ''Scaevola taccada'' on the margins.", "The dense groundcover consists of species such as ''Fimbristylis cymosa'', ''Ipomoea pes-caprae'' (beach morning glory) and ''Triumfetta procumbens''.", "''Premna'' shrubland appears mostly adjacent to the developed areas of the atoll, particularly in the well fields.", "* Littoral scrub lines almost the entire seashore and lagoon shore of the island.", "It is dominated by ''S.", "taccada'', but it also contains scattered coconut trees, ''G.", "speciosa'' and ''Pisonia grandis''.", "On the seaward side, it also contains ''Tournefortia argentea'' and ''Suriana maritima''.", "On the lagoon side, it may also contain ''Lepturus repens'', ''Triumfetta procumbens'' and ''Cyperus ligularis''.", "Large pockets of ''Barringtonia asiatica'' are also on the eastern edge of the lagoon.", "* Maintained areas of grasses and sedges routinely mowed: Aerial photographs of the island clearly display large areas of grasslands and park-like savanna upon which the United States military has constructed large outdoor facilities such as antenna fields and the airport.", "* Mixed native forest, with no dominant canopy species* Marshes are divided into three different types: cattail (''Typha domingensis''), wetland, and mixed species.", "Cattail marshes contained almost entirely cattails.", "These areas are often man-made reservoirs or drainages that have been almost entirely monotypic.", "Wetlands were based upon vegetation that occurred in the area with fresh water.", "Mixed-species marshes were highly variable and usually had no standing water.===Wildlife===Coconut crabs are protected on Diego Garcia.All the terrestrial and aquatic fauna of Diego Garcia are protected, with the exception of certain game fish, rats, and cats; hefty fines are levied against violators.====Crustaceans====The island is a haven for several types of crustacean; \"warrior crabs\" (''Cardisoma carnifex'') overrun the jungle at night.", "The extremely large coconut crab or robber crab (''Birgus latro'') is found here in large numbers.", "Because of the protections provided the species on this atoll, and the isolation of the east rim of the atoll, the species is recorded in greater densities there than anywhere else in its range (339 crabs/ha).====Mammals====No mammal species are native on Diego Garcia, with no record of bats.", "Other than rats (''Rattus rattus''), all \"wild\" mammal species are feral descendants of domesticated species.", "During the plantation era, Diego Garcia was home to large herds of Sicilian donkeys (''Equus asinus''), dozens of horses (''Equus caballus''), hundreds of dogs (''Canis familiaris''), and house cats (''Felis catus'').", "In 1971, the BIOT Commissioner ordered the extermination of feral dogs following the departure of the last plantation workers, and the program continued through 1975, when the last feral dog was observed and shot.", "Donkeys, which numbered over 400 in 1972, were down to just 20 individuals in 2005.The last horse was observed in 1995, and by 2005, just two cats were thought to have survived an island-wide eradication program.====Native birds====Several pairs of red-tailed tropicbird nest near the cantonment area.The total bird list for the Chagos Archipelago, including Diego Garcia, consists of 91 species, with large breeding populations of 16 species.", "Although no birds are endemic, internationally important seabird colonies exist.", "Diego Garcia's seabird community includes thriving populations of species which are rapidly declining in other parts of the Indian Ocean.", "Large nesting colonies of brown noddies, bridled terns, the lesser noddy, red-footed booby and lesser frigatebirds exist on Diego Garcia.Other nesting native birds include red-tailed tropicbirds, wedge-tailed shearwaters, Audubon's shearwater, black-naped terns, white terns, striated herons, and white-breasted waterhens.", "The 680-hectare Barton Point Nature Reserve was identified as an Important Bird Area for its large breeding colony of red-footed boobies.====Introduced birds====The island hosts introduced bird species from many regions, including cattle egrets (''Bubulcus ibis''), Indian barred ground dove, also called the zebra dove (''Geopelia striata''), turtle dove (''Nesoenas picturata''), Indian mynah (''Acridotheres tristis''), Madagascar fody (''Foudia madagascariensis''), and chickens (''Gallus gallus'').====Terrestrial reptiles and freshwater amphibians====Currently, three lizards and one toad are known to inhabit Diego Garcia, and possibly one snake.", "All are believed to have been introduced by human activity.", "The house gecko (''Hemidactylus frenatus''), the mourning gecko (''Lepidodactylus lugubris''), the garden lizard (an agamid) (''Calotes versicolor''), and the cane toad (''Bufo marinus'').", "A viable population of a type of blind snake from the family Typhlopidae may be present, probably the brahminy blind snake (''Ramphotyphlops braminus'').", "This snake feeds on the larvae, eggs, and pupae of ants and termites, and is about the size of a large earthworm.====Sea turtles====Diego Garcia provides suitable foraging and nesting habitat for both the hawksbill turtle (''Eretmochelys imbricata'') and the green turtle (''Chelonia mydas'').", "Juvenile hawksbills are quite common in the lagoon and at Barachois Sylvane (also known as Turtle Cove) in the southern part of the lagoon.", "Adult hawksbills and greens are common in the surrounding seas and nest regularly on the ocean-side beaches of the atoll.", "Hawksbills have been observed nesting during June and July, and from November to March.", "Greens have been observed nesting in every month; the average female lays three clutches per season, each having an average clutch size of 113 eggs.", "Diurnal nesting is common in both species.", "An estimated 300–700 hawksbills and 400–800 greens nest in the Chagos.====Endangered species====Four reptiles and six cetaceans are endangered and may or may not be found on or around Diego Garcia:Hawksbill turtle (''Eretmocheyls imbricata'') – known; leatherback turtle (''Dermochelys coriacea'') – possible; green turtle (''Chelonia mydas'') – known; olive ridley turtle (''Lepidochelys oliveacea'') – possible; sperm whale (''Physeter macrocephalus'') – possible; sei whale (''Balaeonoptera borealis'') – possible;finback whale (''Balaeonoptera physalus'') – possible; Bryde's whale (''Balaeonoptera edeni'') – possible; blue whale (''Balaeonoptera musculus'') – possible; humpback whale (''Megaptera novaeangliae'') – possible; southern right whale (''Eubalaena australis'') – possible." ], [ "United Kingdom military activities", "British Forces British Indian Ocean Territories (BFBIOT) is the official name for the British Armed Forces deployment at the Permanent Joint Operating Base (PJOB) on Diego Garcia, in the British Indian Ocean Territory.", "While the naval and airbase facilities on Diego Garcia are leased to the United States, in practice, it operates as a joint UK-US base, with the UK retaining full and continual access.", "Diego Garcia is strategically located, offering access to East Africa, the Middle East and Southeast Asia.", "The base serves as a staging area for the buildup or resupply of military forces prior to an operation.", "There are approximately 40–50 British military personnel posted on Diego Garcia, most of them from Naval Party 1002 (NP1002).", "NP1002 forms the island's civil administration." ], [ "United States military activities", "A map of military installations on Diego Garcia in 2002During the Cold War era, following the British withdrawal from East of Suez, the United States was keen to establish a military base in the Indian Ocean to counter Soviet influence and establish American dominance in the region and protect its sea-lanes for oil transportation from the Middle East.", "The United States saw the atoll as the \"Malta of the Indian Ocean\" equidistant from all points.", "The value has been proven many times, with the island providing an \"unsinkable aircraft carrier\" for the United States during the Iranian revolution, the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, Operation Desert Fox, Operation Enduring Freedom, and Operation Iraqi Freedom.", "In the contemporary era, the atoll continues to play a key role in America's approach to the Indian Ocean as a flexible forward military hub that can facilitate a range of offensive activities.The United States military facilities on Diego Garcia have been known informally as Camp Justice and, after renaming in July 2006, as Camp Thunder Cove.", "Formally, the base is known as Naval Support Facility Diego Garcia (the US activity) or Permanent Joint Operating Base (PJOB) Diego Garcia (the UK's term).United States military activities in Diego Garcia have caused friction between India and the United States in the past.", "Political party CPI(m) in India has repeatedly called for the military base to be dismantled, as they saw the United States naval presence in Diego Garcia as a hindrance to peace in the Indian Ocean.", "In recent years, relations between India and the United States have improved dramatically.", "Diego Garcia was the site of several naval exercises between the United States and Indian navies held between 2001 and 2004.Recent construction in support of US military activities on Diego Garcia has included Black Construction/Mace International JV building a 34-metre antenna facility (expected completed by April 2021) and two new 13-metre radomes (expected completed by February 2021); and SJC-BVIL moving underground the overhead power and telephone lines that run from the Navy ammunition area to the Air Force ammunition area along DG1 (expected completed by September 2022).===Naval Support Facility Diego Garcia===B-1B Lancer bombers on Diego Garcia in November 2001 during the Afghanistan bombing campaignB-2 bomber take off, B-52 bombers on tarmac on Diego GarciaNaval Support Facility Diego Garcia provides Base Operating Services to tenant commands located on the island.", "The command's mission is \"To provide logistic support to operational forces forward deployed to the Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf AORs in support of national policy objectives.\"", "KBR has run base operations support services at Naval Support Facility Diego Garcia.===United States Air Force units based on Diego Garcia===*36 MSG, Pacific Air Force*Det 1, 730th Air Mobility Squadron, Air Mobility Command*Det 1, 21st Space Operations Squadron, a Satellite Control Network Remote Tracking Station, Space Operations Command*Det 2, a GEODSS facility, Space Operations Command===United States pre-positioned vessels===Camp Justice on Diego GarciaThe atoll shelters the ships of the United States Marine Pre-positioning Squadron Two.", "These ships carry equipment and supplies to support a major armed force with tanks, armoured personnel carriers, munitions, fuel, spare parts and even a mobile field hospital.", "This equipment was used during the Persian Gulf War, when the squadron transported equipment to Saudi Arabia.The ship composition of MPSRON TWO is dynamic.", "During August 2010 it was composed of the following:*MV ''Capt.", "Steven L. Bennett''*USNS ''SGT William R. Button'' (T-AK-3012),*MV ''SSG Edward A. Carter, Jr.'' (T-AK-4544),*MV ''Maj.", "Bernard F. Fisher''*USNS ''Lawrence H. Gianella''*USNS ''SGT Matej Kocak'' (T-AK-3005),*USNS ''1st LT Baldomero Lopez'' (T-AK-3010),*MV ''LTC John U. D. Page''*USNS ''GYSGT Fred W. Stockham''Five of these vessels carry supplies for the US Marine Corps sufficient to support a Marine Air-Ground Task Force for 30 days: USNS ''Button'', USNS ''Kocak'', USNS ''Lopez'', USNS ''Stockham'', and USNS ''Fisher''.Prior to 2001, COMPSRON 2 consisted of up to 20 ships, including four Combat Force Ships which provided rapid-response delivery of equipment to ground troops in the United States Army.", "Three are lighter aboard ships (LASH) which carry barges called lighters that contain Army ammunition to be ferried ashore: MV ''American Cormorant'', SS ''Green Harbour'', (LASH), SS ''Green Valley'', (LASH), MV ''Jeb Stuart'', (LASH).", "There were logistics vessels to service the rapid delivery requirements of the United States Air Force, United States Navy and Defense Logistics Agency.", "These included container ships for Air Force munitions, missiles and spare parts; a 500-bed hospital ship, and floating storage and offloading units assigned to Military Sealift Command supporting the Defense Logistics Agency, and an offshore petroleum discharge system (OPDS) tanker.", "Examples of ships are MV ''Buffalo Soldier'', MV ''Green Ridge'', pre-position tanker USNS ''Henry J. Kaiser'', and tanker USNS Potomac (T-AO-181).===HF global station===The United States Air Force operates a High Frequency Global Communications System transceiver site located on the south end of the atoll near the GEODSS station.", "The transceiver is operated remotely from Andrews Air Force Base and Grand Forks Air Force Base and is locally maintained by NCTS FE personnel.===Naval Computer and Telecommunications Station Far East Detachment Diego Garcia===Naval Computer and Telecommunications Station Far East Detachment Diego Garcia operates a detachment in Diego Garcia.", "This detachment provides base telephone communications, base network services (Local Network Services Center), pier connectivity services, and an AN/GSC-39C SHF satellite terminal, operates the Hydroacoustic Data Acquisition System, and performs on-site maintenance for the remotely operated Air Force HF-GCS terminal.", "In July 2023, Reuters confirmed an underwater fiber-optic cable spur from the Oman Australia Cable was constructed to Diego Garcia during 2022.===Naval Security Group Detachment Diego Garcia===Naval Security Group detachment Diego Garcia was disestablished on 30 September 2005.Remaining essential operations were transferred to a contractor.", "The large AN/AX-16 High Frequency Radio direction finding Circularly Disposed Antenna Array has been demolished, but the four satellite antenna radomes around the site remain ." ], [ "Space Shuttle", "The island was designated as one of the emergency landing sites worldwide for the NASA Space Shuttle.", "None of these facilities were ever used throughout the life of the shuttle program." ], [ "Cargo service", "MV ''Baffin Strait'' transited between Singapore and Diego Garcia once a month.All consumable food and equipment are brought to Diego Garcia by sea or air, and all non-biodegradable waste is shipped off the island as well.", "From 1971 to 1973, United States Navy LSTs provided this service.", "Beginning in 1973, civilian ships were contracted to provide these services.", "From 2004 to 2009, the US-flagged container ship MV ''Baffin Strait'', often referred to as the \"DGAR shuttle\", delivered 250 containers every month from Singapore to Diego Garcia.", "The ship delivered \"more than 200,000 tons of cargo to the island each year\".", "On the return trip to Singapore, it carried recyclable metals.In 2004, TransAtlantic Lines outbid Sealift Incorporated for the transport contract between Singapore and Diego Garcia.", "The route had previously been serviced by Sealift Inc.'s ''MV Sagamore'', crewed by members of American Maritime Officers and Seafarers' International Union.", "TransAtlantic Lines reportedly won the contract by approximately 10 per cent, representing a price difference of about US$2.7 million.", "The ''Baffin Straits'' charter ran from 10 January 2005, to 30 September 2008, at a daily rate of US$12,550." ], [ "See also", "*James Horsburgh*List of British Army installations*List of United States military bases*Robert Moresby*''Stealing a Nation''" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "***********" ], [ "Further reading", "** Ladwig III, Walter C., Andrew S. Erickson, and Justin D. Mikolay, \"Diego Garcia and American Security in the Indian Ocean,\" in Carnes Lord and Andrew Erickson ''Rebalancing US Forces: Basing and Forward Presence in the Asia Pacific'' Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2014, pp. 131–180.", "* Ladwig III, Walter C., *Pilger, John, ''Freedom Next Time'' (2007).", "*Urish, Daniel W., ''Coral, Copra, and Concrete: An Illustrated Memoir of Diego Garcia Atoll'' (2015).", "*US Naval Support Facility Diego Garcia \"Integrated Natural Resources Management Plan,\" September 2005.", "*Wenban-Smith, N. and Carter, M., ''Chagos: A History, Exploration, Exploitation, Expulsion'' Published by Chagos Conservation Trust, London (2016).", "*Winchester, Simon, ''Outposts: Journeys to the Surviving Relics of the British Empire'' (2004)." ], [ "External links", "* Chagos Islands Indigenous Population Support Internet Site* BBC News Exiles lose appeal over benefits 02/11/07* The Chagos Conservation Trust* The Chagos Environmental Network* CIA World Factbook: British Indian Ocean Territory*Jonathan Freedland, \"A Black and Disgraceful Site\", ''The New York Review of Books'', 28 May 2009.", "*Erickson, Andrew S., Walter C. Ladwig III and Justin D. Mikolay, \"Diego Garcia and the United States' Emerging Indian Ocean Strategy,\" ''Asian Security,'' Vol.", "6, No.", "3 (Autumn 2010), pp. 214–237.", "* Diego Garcia Online: Information for locals of Diego Garcia.", "* Recording of ''The Island'' , a jazz opera commissioned and broadcast in the 1960s on radio themed on events in Garcia Diego written by William Russo, words by Adrian Mitchell, performed by the Russo Orchestra sung by Cleo Laine and Denis Quilley.", "* Maritime Prepositioning Ship Squadron Two, Diego Garcia (Official Site)* Naval Support Facility, Diego Garcia (Official Site)* \"A Return from Exile in Sight?", "The Chagossians & their Struggle\" , from the ''Northwestern Journal of International Human Rights''* UK MOD website on Permanent Joint Operating Base Diego Garcia.", "* Diego Garcia Timeline of Diego Garican History, 1770–2008, posted the History Commons* US/UK BIOT defence agreements, 1966–1982, US court filing*James Rogers and Luis Simón.", "''The Status and Location of the Military Installations of the Member States of the European Union and Their Potential Role for the European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP)''.", "Brussels: European Parliament, 2009.25 pp." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dimmu Borgir" ], [ "Introduction", "Singer Stian Tomt \"Shagrath\" Thoresen at Rockharz Open Air 2019Lead guitarist Thomas Rune \"Galder\" Andersen at Rockharz Open Air 2019Rhythm guitarist Sven Atle \"Erkekjetter Silenoz\" Kopperud at Rockharz Open Air 2019'''Dimmu Borgir''' () is a Norwegian symphonic black metal band from Jessheim, formed in 1993.The name is derived from Dimmuborgir, a volcanic formation in Iceland, the name of which means \"dark cities\" or \"dark castles/fortresses\" in Icelandic, Faroese and Old Norse.", "The band has been through numerous lineup changes over the years; vocalist Shagrath and rhythm guitarist Silenoz are the only original members who still remain, with lead guitarist Galder being a longstanding member." ], [ "History", "=== ''For All Tid'' and ''Stormblåst'' period ===Dimmu Borgir performing in 2005Dimmu Borgir was founded in 1993 by Silenoz and Tjodalv.", "Shagrath, Brynjard Tristan and Stian Aarstad later joined Dimmu Borgir, and then released an EP in 1994 entitled ''Inn i evighetens mørke'' (\"''Into the Darkness of Eternity''\").", "This short EP sold out within weeks, and the band followed up with the 1994 full-length album ''For All Tid'' (\"''For All Time''\").", "This album featured vocal contributions by Vicotnik of Ved Buens Ende and Dødheimsgard and Aldrahn of Dødheimsgard and Zyklon-B.", "The initial line-up consisted of Shagrath playing drums with Tjodalv on guitar and Silenoz contributing lead vocals.", "This line-up changed before the release of ''Stormblåst'' (\"''Stormblown''\") on Cacophonous Records in 1996, an album considered by many to be their finest.", "It is also the last album which features all lyrics written and sung in Norwegian.=== ''Enthrone Darkness Triumphant'' period ===After ''Stormblåst'', keyboardist Stian Aarstad left the band due to his obligation to serve in the Norwegian army, thus being unable to participate in the 1996 recording of ''Devil's Path''.", "That period was also marked by the departure of bassist Brynjard Tristan and the arrival of Nagash.", "Stian Aarstad returned for the recording of 1997's ''Enthrone Darkness Triumphant''.", "He had trouble attending rehearsals and was unable to tour.", "He was then subsequently dismissed and replaced by Kimberly Goss for their 1997/1998 world tour.", "''Enthrone Darkness Triumphant'' was a huge success for the band, and was their first release signed to Nuclear Blast, a German record label.", "The album was recorded in the Abyss Studios, owned by Hypocrisy's frontman Peter Tägtgren.", "After the release of ''Enthrone Darkness Triumphant'', the band went on tour with In Flames, Dissection and other bands who were prominent in the scene at the time.=== ''Spiritual Black Dimensions'' and ''Puritanical Euphoric Misanthropia'' period ===After the tour for ''Enthrone Darkness Triumphant'', the band recruited new members Mustis on keyboards and Astennu on lead guitar.", "Dimmu Borgir's following full-length albums ''Spiritual Black Dimensions'' in 1999 and 2001's ''Puritanical Euphoric Misanthropia'', both met critical acclaim.", "However, another line-up change occurred between the two albums; Nagash quit and was replaced by new bassist/singer ICS Vortex, and Tjodalv left due to his family commitments, and to form the subsequent band Susperia, to be replaced with Nicholas Barker of Cradle of Filth.", "Astennu was fired from his guitar duties as well due to creative differences, and was replaced by Galder.=== ''Death Cult Armageddon'' and ''Stormblåst MMV'' period ===Despite the regular video play on MTV2 and Fuse that their follow-up album would receive, the band stated that they were not \"commercially-oriented\", and instead, they \"simply wished to spread their message to more people\".", "In 2003, Dimmu Borgir recorded ''Death Cult Armageddon''.", "''Death Cult Armageddon'' was recorded with the Prague Philharmonic Orchestra, conducted by Adam Klemens.", "All orchestrations were arranged by Gaute Storaas (who had previously worked with Dimmu Borgir on the album ''Puritanical Euphoric Misanthropia'').", "In 2004, Dimmu Borgir performed on the mainstage at Ozzfest.In 2005, the band did a complete re-recording of the ''Stormblåst'' album, featuring Hellhammer of Mayhem fame as the session drummer.", "The album also featured a DVD with a live performance from the 2004 Ozzfest tour.===''In Sorte Diaboli'' period===Dimmu Borgir's seventh studio album, ''In Sorte Diaboli'', was released on 24 April 2007.A special edition version was released in a boxed case with a DVD, backward-printed lyrics, and a mirror.", "The album artwork was released on 14 February 2007 on a promotional webpage for the album.", "This album features once more the drumming of Hellhammer of Mayhem.", "Blomberg left the band in mid-tour in 2007 because of a neck injury that resulted in limited movement of his right arm.", "With the release of this album, Dimmu Borgir became the first black metal band with a number one album on the charts in their native country.", "In October 2008, they released their second live DVD set titled The Invaluable Darkness, which was based on several shows during the world tour supporting \"In Sorte Diaboli\".Shagrath performing on Gods of Metal 2007In 2009, members ICS Vortex and Mustis independently announced their departure from Dimmu Borgir.", "Mustis released a statement claiming his disfavor with the band, stating that he was not properly credited for his writing contributions to the band's music, mentioning possibly taking legal action.Dimmu Borgir soon after confirmed the pair's dismissal from the band, releasing a statement explaining why the two were fired.", "Shagrath, Silenoz and Galder wrote: \"Funny then, how the new album is half-way finished written already by the rest of us without any of these guys' input, still having all those elements we're known for.\"", "Many fans were quite disappointed, however, without the composition of Mustis, and soaring signature voice of ICS Vortex.===''Abrahadabra'' period===Dimmu Borgir's eighth studio album, ''Abrahadabra'', was released on 24 September 2010 in Germany, 27 September 2010 for the rest of Europe and 12 October 2010 in North America.", "Silenoz explained that the growing periods of time between albums was because the band had stopped writing music while touring, which was affecting the quality of the music.", "He described the new album as having an \"eerie and haunting feel to it\", adding that the material is \"epic\", \"primal\", atmospheric and ambient.", "A promotional image released with the statement showed Shagrath returning to the keyboards.", "The album features an ensemble orchestra, the ''Kringkastingsorkestret'' (the Norwegian Broadcasting Orchestra), as well as the Schola Cantorum choir, totaling more than 100 musicians and singers.Gaute Storaas, composer of the orchestral arrangements, released a statement on his role in working on the album.", "\"Their music is epic, thematic and symphonic already from the creation; they are clearly having an orchestral approach to composing.", "My role in this is sometimes just to transcribe their themes, sometimes to take their ideas, tear them apart and build them back up in ways that are true to the band's intentions.", "The music must also be both interesting and playable for the musicians, and hopefully, meet the quality standards of the orchestral world.", "\"On 8 July the band confirmed that they had tapped Swedish multi-instrumentalist Snowy Shaw (Therion, Dream Evil) to replace bassist/clean vocalist ICS Vortex on their then-upcoming album, ''Abrahadabra'', and world tour.", "On 25 August it was announced that Snowy Shaw had left Dimmu Borgir to rejoin Therion.", "On 17 September 2010 Dimmu Borgir released the song \"Born Treacherous\" from ''Abrahadabra'' on their official Myspace page.", "Then on 24 September the band announced they would stream ''Abrahadabra'' in its entirety until 7 p.m. EST that evening.", "The keyboards and bass are currently played by Gerlioz from Apoptygma Berzerk and Cyrus of Susperia respectively, and the clean vocals are sampled.28 May 2011 saw Dimmu Borgir, for the first time in the band's career, perform live with a full symphony orchestra and choir in a one-off show with the Norwegian Broadcasting Orchestra and Schola Cantorum Choir (who collaborated on ''Abrahadabra'' the previous year) at the Oslo Spectrum entitled \"Forces of the Northern Night\".", "This was broadcast live on Norway's main national TV carrier NRK.", "The setlist for this show consisted of tracks from the band's recent transfiguration ''Abrahadabra'', leading tracks \"Vredysbyrd\" and \"Progenies of the Great Apocalypse\" from ''Death Cult Armageddon'', as well as newly updated versions of tracks from their standard back catalog; \"The Serpentine Offering\", \"Kings of the Carnival Creation\", and \"Mourning Palace\" which were re-orchestrated by Gaute Storaas.", "The band played a similar show the following year at the Wacken Open Air festival, having yet performed a second live show with a symphony orchestra and choir.", "This time, they were accompanied by the Czech National Orchestra with the same choir, being the second band in the festival's history to play with a live orchestra and choir (next to German power metal band Rage's 2007 performance).", "The show was broadcast live on Germany's Kultur TV arts channel.", "Silenoz has also said in several recent interviews that both live sets have been fully mixed and will be accompanied by a feature-length documentary and bonus material when released.", "In late 2011-2012 the band went on a special tour for fans in various European countries, including playing in some small, intimate venues celebrating their 1997 album Enthrone Darkness Triumphant by playing the album in its entirety, alongside an additional set of various fan favourite tracks, following a poll to fans directly, asking which of their first 3 albums would they want to see played in full on their next European tour.===''Forces of the Northern Night'' and ''Eonian''===The band originally announced in August 2013 that work had commenced on the band's next album.", "However, the production and release of the album has faced numerous delays.", "It will mark the longest-ever gap between each studio release.", "Following various delays, the Oslo and Wacken Orchestra performances, recorded between 2011 and 2012, were released on CD/DVD/Blu-ray format on 28 April 2017 worldwide as their third live video release titled ''Forces of the Northern Night''.", "Silenoz recently revealed that the band is in the mixing stage of the follow-up to ''Abrahadabra''.", "Ten songs will feature on the next album and they have said it has since been completed.", "On 18 December 2017 it was announced that the first single from the new album will be initially released on a 7-inch vinyl EP, and will be titled ''Interdimensional Summit'', and was released on 23 February 2018.The new album was titled ''Eonian'' and was released on 4 May through Nuclear Blast, and marked the band's first new release of original material in almost eight years.", "A second song from the new album, \"Council of Wolves and Snakes\", was made available for streaming online on 30 March.", "On 28 May, it was announced that Victor Brandt (Entombed A.D., Firespawn) had officially joined as the band's new bassist.===Upcoming tenth studio album===According to updates on the band member's Instagram accounts in September 2020, the band are in the process of writing and pre-production for their tenth studio album.", "Silenoz has stated in a recent interview that the band would not take as long to release their next album.A cover album was released on December 8, 2023, titled ''Inspiratio Profanus''.", "It contains all the covers the band has recorded up to ''Abrahadabra''." ], [ "Musical style and influences", "Dimmu Borgir's older releases (since 1994 to 1999) are, according to AllMusic journalist Bradley Torreano, strongly influenced by Darkthrone, Mayhem, Bathory, Emperor, Celtic Frost, Immortal, Venom, and Iron Maiden.", "The band became more progressive and symphonic through the years; many black metal purists consider the band's second album, ''Stormblåst'', to be \"the act's last true contribution to black metal\".", "''Enthrone Darkness Triumphant'', Dimmu Borgir's third album, \"distinguished itself in two important areas, firstly forgoing their native language for English and secondly for its dramatic increase in synthesizer content.\"", "Significant experimentation began with 1999's ''Spiritual Black Dimensions'' (due to the addition of Vortex's clean vocals, and the variety of musical ideas from then-new member Mustis), as well as ''Puritanical Euphoric Misanthropia'' due to addition of influences from composers such as Antonín Dvořák, Enya, Richard Wagner, and Frédéric Chopin.", "As the music strongly differed from the older, rawer black metal style, Jon \"Metalion\" Kristiansen called ''Spiritual Black Dimensions'' \"a fine case of melodic, over-produced symphonic metal.", "If you like this melodic style I can't really think of anyone doing it better .... No, I wouldn't call this black metal.", "Read the interview with Funeral Mist for the right definition of black metal.\"", "It is also notable that Silenoz and Galder have worked with ESP Guitars to create the latest additions to the company's LTD Signature Series line: the LTD Okkultist and the LTD Shadow." ], [ "Members", "===Current official members===*Silenoz – rhythm guitar , lead vocals , bass *Shagrath – lead vocals , drums , lead guitar , keyboards, synthesizers , bass *Galder – lead guitar , bass ===Current session/touring members===*Daray – drums *Gerlioz – keyboards, synthesizers *Victor Brandt – bass" ], [ "Discography", "Galder and ICS Vortex live on Gods of Metal Festival 2007*''For all tid'' (1995)*''Stormblåst'' (1996)*''Enthrone Darkness Triumphant'' (1997)*''Spiritual Black Dimensions'' (1999)*''Puritanical Euphoric Misanthropia'' (2001)*''Death Cult Armageddon'' (2003)*''In Sorte Diaboli'' (2007)*''Abrahadabra'' (2010)*''Eonian'' (2018)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "**" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Druze" ], [ "Introduction", " The '''Druze''' ( ; , '''' or '''', , ''''), who call themselves '''al-Muwaḥḥidūn''' (lit.", "'the monotheists' or 'the unitarians'), are an Arabic-speaking esoteric ethnoreligious group from Western Asia who adhere to the '''Druze faith''', an Abrahamic, monotheistic, syncretic, and ethnic religion whose main tenets are the unity of God and the belief in reincarnation and the eternity of the soul.", "Most Druze religious practices are kept secret.", "The Druze do not permit outsiders to convert to their religion.", "Marriage outside the Druze faith is rare and strongly discouraged.", "The Epistles of Wisdom is the foundational and central text of the Druze faith.", "The Druze faith incorporates elements of Isma'ili Shia, Christianity, Gnosticism, Neoplatonism, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Hinduism, Pythagoreanism, and other philosophies and beliefs, creating a distinct and secretive theology based on an esoteric interpretation of scripture, which emphasizes the role of the mind and truthfulness.", "Druze believe in theophany and reincarnation.", "Druze believe that at the end of the cycle of rebirth, which is achieved through successive reincarnations, the soul is united with the Cosmic Mind ().The Druze have a special reverence for Shuaib, who they believe is the same person as the biblical Jethro.", "The Druze believe that Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, Muhammad, and Imam Muhammad ibn Isma'il were prophets.", "Druze tradition also honors and reveres Salman the Persian, al-Khidr (whom they identify as Elijah, reborn as John the Baptist and Saint George), Job, Luke the Evangelist, and others as \"mentors\" and \"prophets\".Israel Channel 2 Israeli News Company showing Israeli Druze men in traditional clothing.", "The flags shown are Druze flags.Even though the faith originally developed out of Isma'ilism, the Druze are not Muslims.", "The Druze faith is one of the major religious groups in the Levant, with between 800,000 and a million adherents.", "They are found primarily in Lebanon, Syria, and Israel, with small communities in Jordan.", "They make up 5.5% of the population of Lebanon, 3% of Syria and 1.6% of Israel.", "The oldest and most densely-populated Druze communities exist in Mount Lebanon and in the south of Syria around Jabal al-Druze (literally the \"Mountain of the Druze\").", "The Druze community played a critically important role in shaping the history of the Levant, where it continues to play a significant political role.", "As a religious minority in every country in which they are found, they have frequently experienced persecution by different Muslim regimes, including contemporary Islamic extremism." ], [ "Etymology", "The name Druze is derived from the name of Muhammad bin Ismail Nashtakin ad-Darazī (from Persian '''', \"seamster\") who was an early preacher.", "Although the Druze consider ad-Darazī a heretic, the name has been used to identify them, possibly by their historical opponents as a way to attach their community with ad-Darazi's poor reputation.Before becoming public, the movement was secretive and held closed meetings in what was known as Sessions of Wisdom.", "During this stage a dispute occurred between ad-Darazi and Hamza bin Ali mainly concerning ad-Darazi's '''' (\"exaggeration\"), which refers to the belief that God was incarnated in human beings to ad-Darazi naming himself \"The Sword of the Faith\", which led Hamza to write an epistle refuting the need for the sword to spread the faith and several epistles refuting the beliefs of the ''''.In 1016 ad-Darazi and his followers openly proclaimed their beliefs and called people to join them, causing riots in Cairo against the Unitarian movement including Hamza bin Ali and his followers.", "This led to the suspension of the movement for one year and the expulsion of ad-Darazi and his supporters.Although the Druze religious books describe ad-Darazi as the \"insolent one\" and as the \"calf\" who is narrow-minded and hasty, the name \"Druze\" is still used for identification and for historical reasons.", "In 1018, ad-Darazi was assassinated for his teachings; some sources claim that he was executed by Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.Some authorities see in the name \"Druze\" a descriptive epithet, derived from Arabic '''' (\"she who studies\").", "Others have speculated that the word comes from the Persian word '''' ( \"bliss\") or from Shaykh Hussayn ad-Darazī, who was one of the early converts to the faith.", "In the early stages of the movement, the word \"Druze\" is rarely mentioned by historians, and in Druze religious texts only the word ''Muwaḥḥidūn'' (\"Unitarian\") appears.", "The only early Arab historian who mentions the Druze is the eleventh century Christian scholar Yahya of Antioch, who clearly refers to the heretical group created by ad-Darazī, rather than the followers of Hamza ibn 'Alī.", "As for Western sources, Benjamin of Tudela, the Jewish traveler who passed through Lebanon in or around 1165, was one of the first European writers to refer to the Druze by name.", "The word '''' (\"Druzes\") occurs in an early Hebrew edition of his travels, but it is clear that this is a scribal error.", "Be that as it may, he described the Druze as \"mountain dwellers, monotheists, who believe in 'soul eternity' and reincarnation\".", "He also stated that \"they loved the Jews\"." ], [ "Location", "The number of Druze people worldwide is between 800,000 and one million, with the vast majority residing in the Levant.", "Druze people reside primarily in Syria, Lebanon, Israel and Jordan.", "The Institute of Druze Studies estimates that in 1998 40–50% of Druze live in Syria, 30–40% in Lebanon, 6–7% in Israel, and 1–2% in Jordan.", "About 2% of the Druze population are also scattered within other countries in the Middle East, and according to The Institute of Druze Studies there were approximately 20,000 Druzes in the United States in 1998.According to scholar Colbert C. Held of University of Nebraska, Lincoln the number of Druze people worldwide is around one million, with about 45% to 50% live in Syria, 35% to 40% live in Lebanon, and less than 10% live in Israel, with recently there has been a growing Druze diaspora.Large communities of Druze also live outside the Middle East, in Australia, Canada, Europe, Latin America (mainly Venezuela, Colombia and Brazil), the United States, and West Africa.", "They are Arabs who speak the Arabic language and follow a social pattern very similar to those of the other peoples of the Levant (eastern Mediterranean).", "In 2021 the largest Druze communities outside the Middle East are in Venezuela (60,000) and in the United States (50,000).", "According to the ''Los Angeles Times'' in 2017 \"there are about 30,000 in the United States, with the largest concentration in Southern California\"." ], [ "History", "=== Early history ===The story of the creation of the Druze faith in the days between 1017 and 1018 is dominated by three men and their struggle for influence.", "* Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmad was an Ismaili mystic and scholar from Khorasan, who arrived in Fatimid Egypt in 1014 or 1016 and began to preach a ''Muwaḥḥidūn'' (\"Unitarian\") doctrine.", "* al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, the sixth Fātimid caliph, became a central figure in the faith being preached by Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmad.", "* Muhammad bin Ismail Nashtakin ad-Darazi arrived in Cairo in 1015 or 1017, possibly from Bukhara, joined the movement and became an important preacher.==== Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmad arrives in Cairo ====Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmad, an Ismaili mystic and scholar from Zozan, Khorasan, in the Samanid Empire.", "arrived in Fatimid Egypt in 1014 or 1016.He assembled a group of scholars that met regularly in the Raydan Mosque, near the Al-Hakim Mosque.", "In 1017, Hamza began to preach a ''Muwaḥḥidūn'' (Unitarian) doctrine.Sixth Fatimid caliph, al-Hakim bi-Amr AllahHamza gained the support of the Fātimid caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, who issued a decree promoting religious freedom and eventually became a central figure in the Druze faith.==== al-Darazi arrives in Cairo ====Little is known about the early life of al-Darazi.", "According to most sources, he was born in Bukhara.", "He is believed to have been of Persian origins and his title ''al-Darazi'' is Persian in origin, meaning \"the tailor\".", "He arrived in Cairo in 1015, or 1017, after which he joined the newly emerged Druze movement.Al-Darazi was converted early to the Unitarian faith and became one of its early preachers.", "At that time, the movement enlisted a large number of adherents.", "As the number of his followers grew, he became obsessed with his leadership and gave himself the title \"The Sword of the Faith\".", "Al-Darazi argued that he should be the leader of the daʻwah rather than Hamza ibn Ali and gave himself the title \"Lord of the Guides\" because Caliph al-Hakim referred to Hamza as \"Guide of the Consented\".", "It is said that al-Darazi allowed wine, forbidden marriages and taught metempsychosis although this may be exaggeration by contemporary and later historians and polemicists.This attitude led to disputes between Ad-Darazi and Hamza ibn Ali, who disliked his behavior and his arrogance.", "In the ''Epistles of Wisdom'', Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmad warns al-Darazi, saying, \"Faith does not need a sword to aid it\", but al-Darazi ignored Hamza's warnings and continued to challenge the Imam.==== al-Darazi issues the unitarian call ====The divine call or unitarian call is the Druze period of time that was opened at sunset on Thursday, 30 May 1017 by Ad-Darazi.", "The call summoned people to a true unitarian belief that removed all attributes (wise, just, outside, inside, etc.)", "from God.", "It promoted absolute monotheism and the concepts of supporting your fellow man, true speech and pursuit of oneness with God.", "These concepts superseded all ritual, law and dogma and requirements for pilgrimage, fasting, holy days, prayer, charity, devotion, creed and particular worship of any prophet or person was downplayed.", "Sharia was opposed and Druze traditions started during the call continue today, such as meeting for reading, prayer and social gathering on a Thursday instead of a Friday at Khalwats instead of mosques.", "Such gatherings and traditions were not compulsory and people were encouraged to pursue a state of compliance with the real law of nature governing the universe.", "Epistle thirteen of the ''Epistles of Wisdom'' called it \"A spiritual doctrine without any ritualistic imposition\".The time of the call was seen as a revolution of truth, with missionaries preaching its message all around the Middle East.", "These messengers were sent out with the Druze epistles and took written vows from believers, whose souls are thought to still exist in the Druze of today.", "The souls of those who took the vows during the call are believed to be continuously reincarnating in successive generations of Druze until the return of al-Hakim to proclaim a second Divine call and establish a Golden Age of justice and peace for all.==== al-Darazi is executed ====By 1018, al-Darazi had gathered around him partisans – \"Darazites\" – who believed that universal reason became incarnated in Adam at the beginning of the world, was then passed to the prophets, then into Ali, and then into his descendants, the Fatimid Caliphs.", "Al-Darazi wrote a book laying out this doctrine, but when he read from his book in the principal mosque in Cairo, it caused riots and protests against his claims and many of his followers were killed.", "Hamza ibn Ali rejected al-Darazi's ideology, calling him \"the insolent one and Satan\".", "The controversy led Caliph al-Hakim to suspend the Druze ''daʻwah'' in 1018.In an attempt to gain the support of al-Hakim, al-Darazi started preaching that al-Hakim and his ancestors were the incarnation of God.", "An inherently modest man, al-Hakim did not believe that he was God, and felt al-Darazi was trying to depict himself as a new prophet.", "In 1018 Al-Hakim had al-Darazi executed, leaving Hamza the sole leader of the new faith and al-Darazi considered to be a renegade.==== Disappearance of Al-Hakim ====Al-Hakim disappeared one night while on his evening ride – presumably assassinated, perhaps at the behest of his formidable elder sister Sitt al-Mulk.", "The Druze believe he went into Occultation with Hamza ibn Ali and three other prominent preachers, leaving the care of the \"Unitarian missionary movement\" to a new leader, al-Muqtana Baha'uddin.The call was suspended briefly between 19 May 1018 and 9 May 1019 during the apostasy of al-Darazi and again between 1021 and 1026 during a period of persecution by Ali az-Zahir for those who had sworn the oath to accept the call.", "Persecutions started forty days after the disappearance into Occultation of al-Hakim, who was thought to have been converting people to the Unitarian faith for over twenty years prior.", "Al-Hakim convinced some heretical followers such as al-Darazi of his soteriological divinity and officially declared the Divine call after issuing a decree promoting religious freedom.Al-Hakim was replaced by his underage son, ʻAlī al-Zahir.", "The Unitarian/Druze movement acknowledged al-Zahir as the caliph, but continued to regard Hamzah as its Imam.", "The young caliph's regent, Sitt al-Mulk, ordered the army to destroy the movement in 1021.At the same time, Bahāʼ al-Dīn was assigned the leadership of the Unitarians by Hamza.For the next seven years, the Druze faced extreme persecution by the new caliph, al-Zahir, who wanted to eradicate the faith.", "This was the result of a power struggle inside of the Fatimid empire in which the Druze were viewed with suspicion because of their refusal to recognize the new caliph as their Imam.", "Many spies, mainly the followers of al-Darazi, joined the Unitarian movement in order to infiltrate the Druze community.", "The spies set about agitating trouble and soiling the reputation of the Druze.", "This resulted in friction with the new caliph who clashed militarily with the Druze community.", "The clashes ranged from Antioch to Alexandria, where tens of thousands of Druze were slaughtered by the Fatimid army, \"this mass persecution known by the Druze as the period of the ''mihna''\".", "The largest massacre was at Antioch, where 5000 prominent Druze were killed, followed by that of Aleppo.", "As a result, the faith went underground, in hope of survival, as those captured were either forced to renounce their faith or be killed.", "Druze survivors \"were found principally in southern Lebanon and Syria\".", "In 1038, two years after the death of al-Zahir, the Druze movement was able to resume because the new leadership that replaced him had friendly political ties with at least one prominent Druze leader.==== Closing of the unitarian call ====In 1043, Baha al-Din al-Muqtana declared that the sect would no longer accept new pledges, and since that time proselytism has been prohibited awaiting al-Hakim's return at the Last Judgment to usher in a new Golden Age.Some Druze and non-Druze scholars like Samy Swayd and Sami Makarem state that this confusion is due to confusion about the role of the early preacher al-Darazi, whose teachings the Druze rejected as heretical.", "These sources assert that al-Hakim rejected al-Darazi's claims of divinity, and ordered the elimination of his movement while supporting that of Hamza ibn Ali.=== During the Crusades ===Wadi al-Taym, in Lebanon, was one of the two most important centers of Druze missionary activity in the 11th century and was the first area where the Druze appeared in the historical record under the name \"Druze\".", "It is generally considered the birthplace of the Druze faith.It was during the period of Crusader rule in Levant (1099–1291) that the Druze first emerged into the full light of history in the Gharb region of the Chouf Mountains.", "As powerful warriors serving the Muslim rulers of Damascus against the Crusades, the Druze were given the task of keeping watch over the crusaders in the seaport of Beirut, with the aim of preventing them from making any encroachments inland.", "Subsequently, the Druze chiefs of the Gharb placed their considerable military experience at the disposal of the Mamluk rulers of Egypt (1250–1516); first, to assist them in putting an end to what remained of Crusader rule in coastal Levant, and later to help them safeguard the Lebanese coast against Crusader retaliation by sea.In the early period of the Crusader era, the Druze feudal power was in the hands of two families, the Tanukhs and the Arslans.", "From their fortresses in the Gharb area (now in Aley District of southern Mount Lebanon Governorate), the Tanukhs led their incursions into the Phoenician coast and finally succeeded in holding Beirut and the marine plain against the Franks.", "Because of their fierce battles with the Crusaders, the Druze earned the respect of the Sunni Muslim caliphs and thus gained important political powers.", "After the middle of the twelfth century, the Ma'an family superseded the Tanukhs in Druze leadership.", "The origin of the family goes back to a Prince Ma'an who made his appearance in the Lebanon in the days of the 'Abbasid caliph al-Mustarshid (1118–35 CE).", "The Ma'ans chose for their abode the Chouf District in south-western Lebanon (southern Mount Lebanon Governorate), overlooking the maritime plain between Beirut and Sidon, and made their headquarters in Baaqlin, which is still a leading Druze village.", "They were invested with feudal authority by Sultan Nur ad-Din and furnished respectable contingents to the Muslim ranks in their struggle against the Crusaders.Ibn Taymiyyah believed that Druze had a high level of infidelity, besides being apostates.", "Thus, they were not trustworthy and should not be forgiven.", "He taught also that Muslims cannot accept Druze penitence nor keep them alive, and that Druze property should be confiscated and their women enslaved.", "Having cleared the holy land of the Franks, the Mamluk sultans of Egypt turned their attention to the schismatic Muslims of Syria.", "In 1305, after the issuing of a fatwa by the scholar Ibn Taymiyyah calling for jihad against all non-Sunni Muslims like the Druze, Alawites, Ismaili, and Twelver Shia Muslims, al-Malik al-Nasir inflicted a disastrous defeat on the Druze at Keserwan, and forced outward compliance on their part to Orthodox Sunni Islam.", "Later, under the Ottoman, they were severely attacked at Saoufar in the 1585 Ottoman expedition after the Ottomans claimed that they assaulted their caravans near Tripoli.", "As a result of the Ottoman experience with the rebellious Druze, the word ''Durzi'' in Turkish came, and continues, to mean someone who is the ultimate thug.", "One influential Islamic sage of that time labeled them ''infidels'' and argued that, even though they might behave like Muslims on the outside, this is no more than a pretense.", "He also declared that confiscation of Druze property and even the death sentence would comply with the laws of Islam.Consequently, the 16th and 17th centuries witnessed a succession of armed Druze rebellions against the Ottomans, countered by repeated Ottoman punitive expeditions against the Chouf, in which the Druze population of the area was severely depleted and many villages destroyed.", "These military measures, severe as they were, did not succeed in reducing the local Druze to the required degree of subordination.", "This led the Ottoman government to agree to an arrangement whereby the different nahiyes (districts) of the Chouf would be granted in ''iltizam'' (\"fiscal concession\") to one of the region's amirs, or leading chiefs, leaving the maintenance of law and order and the collection of taxes in the area in the hands of the appointed amir.", "This arrangement was to provide the cornerstone for the privileged status ultimately enjoyed by the whole of Mount Lebanon, Druze and Christian areas alike.=== Ma'an dynasty ===With the advent of the Ottoman Turks and the conquest of Syria by Sultan Selim I in 1516, the Ma'ans were acknowledged by the new rulers as the feudal lords of southern Lebanon.", "Druze villages spread and prospered in that region, which under Ma'an leadership so flourished that it acquired the generic term of ''Jabal Bayt-Ma'an'' (the mountain home of the Ma'an) or ''Jabal al-Druze''.", "The latter title has since been usurped by the Hawran region, which since the middle of the 19th century has proven a haven of refuge to Druze emigrants from Lebanon and has become the headquarters of Druze power.Under Fakhr-al-Dīn II (Fakhreddin II), the Druze dominion increased until it included Lebanon-Phoenicia and almost all Syria, extending from the edge of the Antioch plain in the north to Safad in the south, with a part of the Syrian desert dominated by Fakhr-al-Din's castle at Tadmur (Palmyra), the ancient capital of Zenobia.", "The ruins of this castle still stand on a steep hill overlooking the town.", "Fakhr-al-Din became too strong for his Turkish sovereign in Constantinople.", "He went so far in 1608 as to sign a commercial treaty with Duke Ferdinand I of Tuscany containing secret military clauses.", "The Sultan then sent a force against him, and he was compelled to flee the land and seek refuge in the courts of Tuscany and Naples in 1613 and 1615 respectively.In 1618, political changes in the Ottoman sultanate had resulted in the removal of many enemies of Fakhr-al-Din from power, signaling the prince's triumphant return to Lebanon soon afterwards.", "Through a clever policy of bribery and warfare, he extended his domains to cover all of modern Lebanon, some of Syria and northern Galilee.In 1632, Küçük Ahmed Pasha was named Lord of Damascus.", "Küçük Ahmed Pasha was a rival of Fakhr-al-Din and a friend of the sultan Murad IV, who ordered the pasha and the sultanate's navy to attack Lebanon and depose Fakhr-al-Din.This time the prince decided to remain in Lebanon and resist the offensive, but the death of his son Ali in Wadi al-Taym was the beginning of his defeat.", "He later took refuge in Jezzine's grotto, closely followed by Küçük Ahmed Pasha who eventually caught up with him and his family.Fakhr-al-Din was captured, taken to Istanbul, and imprisoned with two of his sons in the infamous Yedi Kule prison.", "The Sultan had Fakhr-al-Din and his sons killed on 13 April 1635 in Istanbul, bringing an end to an era in the history of Lebanon, which would not regain its current boundaries until it was proclaimed a mandate state and republic in 1920.One version recounts that the younger son was spared, raised in the harem and went on to become Ottoman Ambassador to India.Fakhr-al-Din II was the first ruler in modern Lebanon to open the doors of his country to foreign Western influences.", "Under his auspices the French established a khān (hostel) in Sidon, the Florentines a consulate, and Christian missionaries were admitted into the country.", "Beirut and Sidon, which Fakhr-al-Din II beautified, still bear traces of his benign rule.", "See the new biography of this Prince, based on original sources, by TJ Gorton: ''Renaissance Emir: a Druze Warlord at the Court of the Medici'' (London, Quartet Books, 2013), for an updated view of his life.Fakhr ad Din II was succeeded in 1635 by his nephew Mulhim Ma'n, who ruled through his death in 1658.", "(Fakhr ad Din's only surviving son, Husayn, lived the rest of his life as a court official in Constantinople.)", "Emir Mulhim exercised Iltizam taxation rights in the Shuf, Gharb, Jurd, Matn, and Kisrawan districts of Lebanon.", "Mulhim's forces battled and defeated those of Mustafa Pasha, Beylerbey of Damascus, in 1642, but he is reported by historians to have been otherwise loyal to Ottoman rule.Following Mulhim's death, his sons Ahmad and Korkmaz entered into a power struggle with other Ottoman-backed Druze leaders.", "In 1660, the Ottoman Empire moved to reorganize the region, placing the sanjaks (districts) of Sidon-Beirut and Safed in a newly formed province of Sidon, a move seen by local Druze as an attempt to assert control.", "Contemporary historian Istifan al-Duwayhi reports that Korkmaz was killed in act of treachery by the Beylerbey of Damascus in 1662.Ahmad however emerged victorious in the power struggle among the Druze in 1667, but the Maʿnīs lost control of Safad and retreated to controlling the iltizam of the Shuf mountains and Kisrawan.", "Ahmad continued as local ruler through his death from natural causes, without heir, in 1697.During the Ottoman–Habsburg War (1683–1699), Ahmad Ma'n collaborated in a rebellion against the Ottomans which extended beyond his death.", "Iltizam rights in Shuf and Kisrawan passed to the rising Shihab family through female-line inheritance.=== Shihab Dynasty ===Druze woman wearing a tantour during the 1870s in Chouf, Ottoman LebanonAs early as the days of Saladin, and while the Ma'ans were still in complete control over southern Lebanon, the Shihab tribe, originally Hijaz Arabs, but later settled in Ḥawran, advanced from Ḥawran, in 1172, and settled in Wadi al-Taym at the foot of mount Hermon.", "They soon made an alliance with the Ma'ans and were acknowledged as the Druze chiefs in ''Wadi al-Taym''.", "At the end of the 17th century (1697) the Shihabs succeeded the Ma'ans in the feudal leadership of Druze southern Lebanon, although they reportedly professed Sunni Islam, they showed sympathy with Druzism, the religion of the majority of their subjects.The Shihab leadership continued until the middle of the 19th century and culminated in the illustrious governorship of Amir Bashir Shihab II (1788–1840) who, after Fakhr-al-Din, was the most powerful feudal lord Lebanon produced.", "Though governor of the Druze Mountain, Bashir was a crypto-Christian, and it was he whose aid Napoleon solicited in 1799 during his campaign against Syria.Having consolidated his conquests in Syria (1831–1838), Ibrahim Pasha, son of the viceroy of Egypt, Muhammad Ali Pasha, made the fatal mistake of trying to disarm the Christians and Druze of the Lebanon and to draft the latter into his army.", "This was contrary to the principles of the life of independence which these mountaineers had always lived, and resulted in a general uprising against Egyptian rule.", "The Druze of Wadi al-Taym and Ḥawran, under the leadership of Shibli al-Aryan, distinguished themselves in their stubborn resistance at their inaccessible headquarters, ''al-Laja'', lying southeast of Damascus.=== Qaysites and the Yemenites ===Meeting of Druze and Ottoman leaders in Damascus, about the control of Jebel DruzeThe conquest of Syria by the Muslim Arabs in the middle of the seventh century introduced into the land two political factions later called the Qaysites and the Yemenites.", "The Qaysite party represented the Bedouin Arabs who were regarded as inferior by the Yemenites who were earlier and more cultured emigrants into Syria from southern Arabia.", "Druze and Christians grouped in political, rather than religious, parties; the party lines in Lebanon obliterated ethnic and religious lines and the people grouped themselves into one or the other of these two parties regardless of their religious affiliations.", "The sanguinary feuds between these two factions depleted, in course of time, the manhood of the Lebanon and ended in the decisive battle of Ain Dara in 1711, which resulted in the utter defeat of the Yemenite party.", "Many Yemenite Druze thereupon migrated to the Hauran region, laying the foundation of Druze power there.=== Civil conflict of 1860 ===The relationship between the Druze and Christians has been characterized by harmony and coexistence, with amicable relations between the two groups prevailing throughout history, with the exception of some periods, including 1860 civil conflict in Mount Lebanon and Damascus.", "In 1840, social disturbance started between Druze and their Christian Maronite neighbors, who had previously been on friendly terms.", "This culminated in the civil war of 1860.After the Shehab dynasty converted to Christianity, the Druze community and feudal leaders came under attack from the regime with the collaboration of the Maronite Catholic Church, and the Druze lost most of their political and feudal powers.", "Also, the Druze formed an alliance with Britain and allowed Protestant missionaries to enter Mount Lebanon, creating tension between them and the Catholic Maronites.The Maronite-Druze conflict in 1840–60 was an outgrowth of the Maronite independence movement, directed against the Druze, Druze feudalism, and the Ottoman-Turks.", "The civil war was not therefore a religious war, except in Damascus, where it spread and where the vastly non-Druze population was anti-Christian.", "The movement culminated with the 1859–60 massacre and defeat of the Maronites by the Druze.", "The civil war of 1860 cost the Maronites some ten thousand lives in Damascus, Zahlé, Deir al-Qamar, Hasbaya, and other towns of Lebanon.The European powers then determined to intervene, and authorized the landing in Beirut of a body of French troops under General Beaufort d'Hautpoul, whose inscription can still be seen on the historic rock at the mouth of Nahr al-Kalb.", "French intervention on behalf of the Maronites did not help the Maronite national movement, since France was restricted in 1860 by the British government, which did not want the Ottoman Empire dismembered.", "But European intervention pressured the Turks to treat the Maronites more justly.", "Following the recommendations of the powers, the Ottoman Porte granted Lebanon local autonomy, guaranteed by the powers, under a Maronite governor.", "This autonomy was maintained until World War I.=== Rebellion in Hauran ===The Hauran rebellion was a violent Druze uprising against Ottoman authority in the Syrian province, which erupted in May 1909.The rebellion was led by al-Atrash family, originated in local disputes and Druze unwillingness to pay taxes and conscript into the Ottoman Army.", "The rebellion ended in brutal suppression of the Druze by General Sami Pasha al-Farouqi, significant depopulation of the Hauran region and execution of the Druze leaders in 1910.In the outcome of the revolt, 2,000 Druze were killed, a similar number wounded, and hundreds of Druze fighters imprisoned.", "Al-Farouqi also disarmed the population, extracted significant taxes, and launched a census of the region." ], [ "Modern history", "In Lebanon, Syria, Israel, and Jordan, the Druzites have official recognition as a separate religious community with its own religious court system.", "Druzites are known for their loyalty to the countries they reside in, though they have a strong community feeling, in which they identify themselves as related even across borders of countries.Although most Druze no longer consider themselves Muslim, Al Azhar of Egypt recognized them in 1959 as one of the Islamic sects in the Al-Azhar Shia Fatwa due to political reasons, as Gamal Abdel Nasser saw it as a tool to spread his appeal and influence across the entire Arab world.Despite their practice of blending with dominant groups to avoid persecution, and because the Druze religion does not endorse separatist sentiments, but urges blending with the communities they reside in, the Druze have had a history of resistance to occupying powers, and they have at times enjoyed more freedom than most other groups living in the Levant.=== In Syria ===Druze warriors preparing to go to battle with Sultan Pasha al-Atrash in 1925In Syria, most Druzites live in the Jebel al-Druze, a rugged and mountainous region in the southwest of the country, which is more than 90 percent Druze inhabited; some 120 villages are exclusively so.", "Other notable communities live in the Harim Mountains, the Damascus suburb of Jaramana, and on the southeast slopes of Mount Hermon.", "A large Syrian Druze community historically lived in the Golan Heights, but following wars with Israel in 1967 and 1973, many of these Druze fled to other parts of Syria; most of those who remained live in a handful of villages in the disputed zone, while only a few live in the narrow remnant of Quneitra Governorate that is still under effective Syrian control.Druze celebrating their independence in 1925The Druze always played a far more important role in Syrian politics than its comparatively small population would suggest.", "With a community of little more than 100,000 in 1949, or roughly three percent of the Syrian population, the Druze of Syria's southwestern mountains constituted a potent force in Syrian politics and played a leading role in the nationalist struggle against the French.", "Under the military leadership of Sultan Pasha al-Atrash, the Druze provided much of the military force behind the Syrian Revolution of 1925–27.In 1945, Amir Hasan al-Atrash, the paramount political leader of the Jebel al-Druze, led the Druze military units in a successful revolt against the French, making the Jebel al-Druze the first and only region in Syria to liberate itself from French rule without British assistance.", "At independence the Druze, made confident by their successes, expected that Damascus would reward them for their many sacrifices on the battlefield.", "They demanded to keep their autonomous administration and many political privileges accorded them by the French and sought generous economic assistance from the newly independent government.Druze leaders meeting in Jebel al-Druze, Syria, 1926When a local paper in 1945 reported that President Shukri al-Quwatli (1943–49) had called the Druze a \"dangerous minority\", Sultan Pasha al-Atrash flew into a rage and demanded a public retraction.", "If it were not forthcoming, he announced, the Druze would indeed become \"dangerous\", and a force of 4,000 Druze warriors would \"occupy the city of Damascus\".", "Quwwatli could not dismiss Sultan Pasha's threat.", "The military balance of power in Syria was tilted in favor of the Druze, at least until the military build up during the 1948 War in Palestine.", "One advisor to the Syrian Defense Department warned in 1946 that the Syrian army was \"useless\", and that the Druze could \"take Damascus and capture the present leaders in a breeze\".During the four years of Adib Shishakli's rule in Syria (December 1949 to February 1954) (on 25 August 1952: Adib al-Shishakli created the Arab Liberation Movement (ALM), a progressive party with pan-Arabist and socialist views), the Druze community was subjected to a heavy attack by the Syrian government.", "Shishakli believed that among his many opponents in Syria, the Druze were the most potentially dangerous, and he was determined to crush them.", "He frequently proclaimed: \"My enemies are like a serpent: The head is the Jebel al-Druze, the stomach Homs, and the tail Aleppo.", "If I crush the head, the serpent will die.\"", "Shishakli dispatched 10,000 regular troops to occupy the Jebel al-Druze.", "Several towns were bombarded with heavy weapons, killing scores of civilians and destroying many houses.", "According to Druze accounts, Shishakli encouraged neighboring Bedouin tribes to plunder the defenseless population and allowed his own troops to run amok.Shishakli launched a brutal campaign to defame the Druze for their religion and politics.", "He accused the entire community of treason, at times claiming they were in the employ of the British and Hashimites, at others that they were fighting for Israel against the Arabs.", "He even produced a cache of Israeli weapons allegedly discovered in the Jabal.", "Even more painful for the Druze community was his publication of \"falsified Druze religious texts\" and false testimonials ascribed to leading Druze sheikhs designed to stir up sectarian hatred.", "This propaganda also was broadcast in the Arab world, mainly Egypt.", "Shishakli was assassinated in Brazil on 27 September 1964 by a Druze seeking revenge for Shishakli's bombardment of the Jebel al-Druze.He forcibly integrated minorities into the national Syrian social structure, his \"Syrianization\" of Alawite and Druze territories had to be accomplished in part using violence.", "To this end, al-Shishakli encouraged the stigmatization of minorities.", "He saw minority demands as tantamount to treason.", "His increasingly chauvinistic notions of Arab nationalism were predicated on the denial that \"minorities\" existed in Syria.After the Shishakli's military campaign, the Druze community lost much of its political influence, but many Druze military officers played important roles in the Ba'ath government currently ruling Syria.In 1967, a community of Druze in the Golan Heights came under Israeli control, today numbering 23,000 (in 2019).The Qalb Loze massacre was a reported massacre of Syrian Druze on 10 June 2015 in the village of Qalb Loze in Syria's northwestern Idlib Governorate in which 20–24 Druze were killed.", "On 25 July 2018, a group of ISIS-affiliated attackers entered the Druze city of As-Suwayda and initiated a series of gunfights and suicide bombings on its streets, killing at least 258 people, the vast majority of them civilians.=== In Lebanon ===Prophet Job shrine in Niha village in the Chouf region of Lebanon.A market in a Lebanese Druze town called Hasbaya, 1967The Druzite community in Lebanon played an important role in the formation of the modern state of Lebanon, and even though they are a minority they play an important role in the Lebanese political scene.", "Before and during the Lebanese Civil War (1975–90), the Druze were in favor of Pan-Arabism and Palestinian resistance represented by the PLO.", "Most of the community supported the Progressive Socialist Party formed by their leader Kamal Jumblatt and they fought alongside other leftist and Palestinian parties against the Lebanese Front that was mainly constituted of Christians.", "After the assassination of Kamal Jumblatt on 16 March 1977, his son Walid Jumblatt took the leadership of the party and played an important role in preserving his father's legacy after winning the Mountain War and sustained the existence of the Druze community during the sectarian bloodshed that lasted until 1990.In August 2001, Maronite Catholic Patriarch Nasrallah Boutros Sfeir toured the predominantly Druze Chouf region of Mount Lebanon and visited Mukhtara, the ancestral stronghold of Druze leader Walid Jumblatt.", "The tumultuous reception that Sfeir received not only signified a historic reconciliation between Maronites and Druze, who fought a bloody war in 1983–1984, but underscored the fact that the banner of Lebanese sovereignty had broad multi-confessional appeal and was a cornerstone for the Cedar Revolution in 2005.Jumblatt's post-2005 position diverged sharply from the tradition of his family.", "He also accused Damascus of being behind the 1977 assassination of his father, Kamal Jumblatt, expressing for the first time what many knew he privately suspected.", "The BBC describes Jumblatt as \"the leader of Lebanon's most powerful Druze clan and heir to a leftist political dynasty\".", "The second largest political party supported by Druze is the Lebanese Democratic Party led by Prince Talal Arslan, the son of Lebanese independence hero Emir Majid Arslan.=== In Israel===Israeli Druze Scouts march to Jethro's tomb.", "Today, thousands of Israeli Druze belong to such \"Druze Zionist\" movements.The Druzites form a religious minority in Israel of more than 100,000, mostly residing in the north of the country.", "In 2004, there were 102,000 Druze living in the country.", "In 2010, the population of Israeli Druze citizens grew to over 125,000.At the end of 2018, there were 143,000 in Israel and the Israeli-occupied portion of the Golan Heights.", "Most Israeli Druze identify ethnically as Arabs.", "Today, thousands of Israeli Druze belong to \"Druze Zionist\" movements.Some scholars maintain that Israel has tried to separate the Druze from other Arab communities, and that the effort has influenced the way Israel's Druze perceive their modern identity.In 1957, the Israeli government designated the Druze a distinct ethnic community at the request of its communal leaders.", "The Druze are Arabic-speaking citizens of Israel and serve in the Israel Defense Forces, just as most citizens do in Israel.", "Members of the community have attained top positions in Israeli politics and public service.", "The number of Druze parliament members usually exceeds their proportion in the Israeli population, and they are integrated within several political parties.=== In Jordan ===The Druzites form a religious minority in Jordan of around 32,000, mostly residing in the northwestern part of the country." ], [ "Beliefs", "=== God ===The Druze conception of the deity is declared by them to be one of strict and uncompromising unity.", "The main Druze doctrine states that God is both transcendent and immanent, in which he is above all attributes, but at the same time, he is present.In their desire to maintain a rigid confession of unity, they stripped from God all attributes (''tanzīh'').", "In God, there are no attributes distinct from his essence.", "He is wise, mighty, and just, not by wisdom, might, and justice, but by his own essence.", "God is \"the whole of existence\", rather than \"above existence\" or on his throne, which would make him \"limited\".", "There is neither \"how\", \"when\", nor \"where\" about him; he is incomprehensible.In this dogma, they are similar to the semi-philosophical, semi-religious body which flourished under Al-Ma'mun and was known by the name of Mu'tazila and the fraternal order of the Brethren of Purity (''Ikhwan al-Ṣafa'').Unlike the ''Mu'tazila'', and similar to some branches of Sufism, the Druze believe in the concept of ''Tajalli'' (meaning \"theophany\").", "''Tajalli'' is often misunderstood by scholars and writers and is usually confused with the concept of incarnation.Druze dignitaries celebrating the Nabi Shu'ayb festival at the tomb of the prophet in Hittin, Israel=== Scriptures ===Druze sacred texts include the Quran and the Epistles of Wisdom.", "Other ancient Druze writings include the ''Rasa'il al-Hind (Epistles of India)'' and the previously lost (or hidden) manuscripts such as ''al-Munfarid bi-Dhatihi'' and ''al-Sharia al-Ruhaniyya'' as well as others including didactic and polemic treatises.=== Reincarnation ===Reincarnation is a paramount principle in the Druze faith.", "Reincarnations occur instantly at one's death because there is an eternal duality of the body and the soul and it is impossible for the soul to exist without the body.", "A human soul will transfer only to a human body, in contrast to the Neoplatonic, Hindu and Buddhist belief systems, according to which souls can transfer to any living creature.", "Furthermore, a male Druze can be reincarnated only as another male Druze and a female Druze only as another female Druze.", "A Druze cannot be reincarnated in the body of a non-Druze.", "Additionally, souls cannot be divided and the number of souls existing in the universe is finite.", "The cycle of rebirth is continuous and the only way to escape is through successive reincarnations.", "When this occurs, the soul is united with the Cosmic Mind and achieves the ultimate happiness.=== Pact of Time Custodian ===The Pact of Time Custodian ('''') is considered the entrance to the Druze religion, and they believe that all Druze in their past lives have signed this Charter, and Druze believe that this Charter embodies with human souls after death.I rely on our Moula Al-Hakim the lonely God, the individual, the eternal, who is out of couples and numbers, (someone) the son of (someone) has approved recognition enjoined on himself and on his soul, in a healthy of his mind and his body, permissibility aversive is obedient and not forced, to repudiate from all creeds, articles and all religions and beliefs on the differences varieties, and he does not know something except obedience of almighty Moulana Al-Hakim, and obedience is worship and that it does not engage in worship anyone ever attended or wait, and that he had handed his soul and his body and his money and all he owns to almighty Maulana Al-Hakim.The Druze also use a similar formula, called al-'ahd, when one is initiated into the ʻUqqāl.=== Sanctuaries ===Druze clerics in Khalwat al-BayadaThe prayer-houses of the Druze are called ''khilwa,'' ''khalwa, khilwat'' or ''khalwat''.", "The primary sanctuary of the Druze is at Khalwat al-Bayada.=== Esotericism ===The Druze believe that many teachings given by prophets, religious leaders and holy books have esoteric meanings preserved for those of intellect, in which some teachings are symbolic and allegorical in nature, and divide the understanding of holy books and teachings into three layers.These layers, according to the Druze, are as follows:* The obvious or exoteric ''(zahir)'', accessible to anyone who can read or hear;* The hidden or esoteric ''(batin)'', accessible to those who are willing to search and learn through the concept of exegesis;* And the hidden of the hidden, a concept known as ''anagoge'', inaccessible to all but a few really enlightened individuals who truly understand the nature of the universe.Druze do not believe that the esoteric meaning abrogates or necessarily abolishes the exoteric one.", "Hamza bin Ali refutes such claims by stating that if the esoteric interpretation of ''taharah'' (purity) is purity of the heart and soul, it doesn't mean that a person can discard his physical purity, as ''salat'' (prayer) is useless if a person is untruthful in his speech and that the esoteric and exoteric meanings complement each other.=== Seven Druze precepts ===The Druze follow seven moral precepts or duties that are considered the core of the faith.The Seven Druze precepts are:# Veracity in speech and the truthfulness of the tongue.# Protection and mutual aid to the brethren in faith.# Renunciation of all forms of former worship (specifically, invalid creeds) and false belief.# Repudiation of the devil (Iblis), and all forces of evil (translated from Arabic ''Toghyan'', meaning \"despotism\").# Confession of God's unity.# Acquiescence in God's acts no matter what they be.# Absolute submission and resignation to God's divine will in both secret and public.=== Taqiyya ===Complicating their identity is the custom of ''''—concealing or disguising their beliefs when necessary—that they adopted from Ismailism and the esoteric nature of the faith, in which many teachings are kept secretive.", "This is done in order to keep the religion from those who are not yet prepared to accept the teachings and therefore could misunderstand it, as well as to protect the community when it is in danger.", "Some claim to be Muslim or Christian in order to avoid persecution; some do not.", "Druze in different states can have radically different lifestyles.=== Theophany ===Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmad is considered the founder of the Druze and the primary author of the Druze manuscripts.", "He proclaimed that God had become human and taken the form of man.", "Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah is an important figure in the Druze faith whose eponymous founder ad-Darazi proclaimed him as the incarnation of God in 1018.===Prophethood===Recognition of prophets in the Druze religion is divided into three sort-of subcategories, the prophet themselves (''natiq''), their disciples (''asas''), and witnesses to their message (''hujjah'').", "The number 5 contains an unstated significance within the Druze faith; it is believed in this area that great prophets come in groups of five.", "In the time of the ancient Greeks, these five were represented by Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle, Parmenides, and Empedocles.", "In the first century, the five were represented by Jesus Christ, John the Baptist, Saint Matthew, Saint Mark, and Saint Luke.", "In the time of the faith's foundation, the five were Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmad, Muḥammad ibn Wahb al-Qurashī, Abū'l-Khayr Salama ibn Abd al-Wahhab al-Samurri, Ismāʿīl ibn Muḥammad at-Tamīmī, and Al-Muqtana Baha'uddin.Druze tradition honors and reveres Hamza ibn Ali Ahmad and Salman the Persian as \"mentors\" and \"prophets\", believed to be reincarnations of the monotheistic idea.=== Other beliefs ===The Druze allow divorce, although it is discouraged, and circumcision is not necessary.", "Apostasy is forbidden, and they usually have religious services on Thursday evenings.", "Druze follow Sunni Hanafi law on issues which their own faith has no particular rulings about.Formal Druze worship is confined to weekly meeting on Thursday evenings, during which all members of community gather together to discuss local issues before those not initiated into the secrets of the faith (the juhhāl, or the ignorant) are dismissed, and those who are \"uqqāl\" or \"enlightened\" (those few initiated in the Druze holy books) remain to read and study." ], [ "Religious symbol {{anchor|Druze flag|flag|Druze star}}", "rightThe Druze strictly avoid iconography, but use five colors (\"Five Limits\" ) as a religious symbol: green, red, yellow, blue, and white.", "The five limits were listed by Ismail at-Tamimi (d. 1030) in the ''Epistle of the Candle'' (risalat ash-sham'a) as:* First limit: Hamza Ibn Ali () (or Jesus according to other sources)* Second limit: Ismail ibn Muhamed ibn Hamed at-Tamimi (Ismail at-Tamimi) ()* Third limit: Muhamed ibn Wahb ()* Fourth limit (''as-Sabiq'' the anterior): Salama ibn abd al-Wahhab ()* Fifth limit (''al-llahiq'' the posterior): Ali ibn Ahmed as-Samouqi ()Each of the colors representing the five limits pertains to a metaphysical power called '''', literally \"a limit\", as in the distinctions that separate humans from animals, or the powers that make humans the animalistic body.", "Each is color-coded in the following manner:* Green for \"the Universal Mind/Intelligence/Nous\",* Red for \"the Universal Soul/Anima mundi\",* Yellow for \"the Word/Logos\",* Blue for () \"the anterior/potentiality/cause/precedent\", the first intellect.", "* White for () \"the posterior/future/effect/Immanence\".The mind generates qualia and gives consciousness.", "The soul embodies the mind and is responsible for transmigration and the character of oneself.", "The word, which is the atom of language, communicates qualia between humans and represents the platonic forms in the sensible world.", "The and is the ability to perceive and learn from the past and plan for the future and predict it.rightThe colors can be arranged in vertically descending stripes (as a flag), or a five-pointed star.", "The stripes are a diagrammatic cut of the spheres in neoplatonic philosophy, while the five-pointed star embodies the golden ratio, phi, as a symbol of temperance and a life of moderation." ], [ "Prayer houses and holy places", "Jethro shrine and temple of Druze in Hittin, northern IsraelHoly places of the Druze are archaeological sites important to the community and associated with religious holidays; the most notable example being Nabi Shu'ayb, dedicated to Jethro, who is a central figure of the Druze religion.", "Druze make pilgrimages to this site on the holiday of Ziyarat al-Nabi Shu'ayb.Daliat al-Karmel, IsraelOne of the most important features of the Druze village having a central role in social life is the ''khilwa'' or ''''—a house of prayer, retreat and religious unity.", "The '''' may be known as '''' in local languages.The second type of religious shrine is one associated with the anniversary of a historic event or death of a prophet.", "If it is a mausoleum the Druze call it ''mazār'' and if it is a shrine they call it ''maqām''.", "The holy places become more important to the community in times of adversity and calamity.", "The holy places and shrines of the Druze are scattered in various villages, in places where they are protected and cared for.", "They are found in Syria, Lebanon and Israel." ], [ "Initiates and \"ignorant\" members", "Druze sheikh ('''') wearing religious dressThe Druze do not recognize any religious hierarchy.", "As such, there is no \"Druze clergy\".", "Those few initiated in the Druze holy books are called '''ʿuqqāl''', while the \"ignorant\", regular members of the group are called '''juhhāl'''.Given the strict religious, intellectual and spiritual requirements, most of the Druze are not initiated and might be referred to as '''' (), literally \"the Ignorant\", but in practice referring to the non-initiated Druze.", "However, that term is seldom used by the Druze.", "Those Druze are not granted access to the Druze holy literature or allowed to attend the initiated religious meetings of the ''''.", "The \"juhhāl\" are the vast majority of the Druze community.", "The cohesiveness and frequent inter-community social interaction, however, enables most Druze to have an idea about their broad ethical requirements and have some sense of what their theology consists of (albeit often flawed).The initiated religious group, which includes both men and women (less than 10% of the population), is called '''' ( \"the Knowledgeable Initiates\").", "They might or might not dress differently, although most wear a costume that was characteristic of mountain people in previous centuries.", "Women can opt to wear '''', a loose white veil, especially in the presence of other people.", "They wear '''' on their heads to cover their hair and wrap it around their mouths.", "They wear black shirts and long skirts covering their legs to their ankles.", "Male '''' often grow mustaches, and wear dark Levantine-Turkish traditional dresses, called the '''', with white turbans that vary according to the seniority of the ''''.", "Traditionally the Druze women have played an important role both socially and religiously inside the community.''''", "have equal rights to '''', but establish a hierarchy of respect based on religious service.", "The most influential of '''' become '''', recognized religious leaders, and from this group the spiritual leaders of the Druze are assigned.", "While the '''', which is an official position in Syria, Lebanon, and Israel, is elected by the local community and serves as the head of the Druze religious council, judges from the Druze religious courts are usually elected for this position.", "Unlike the spiritual leaders, the authority of the '''' is limited to the country he is elected in, though in some instances spiritual leaders are elected to this position.", "The Druze believe in the unity of God, and are often known as the \"People of Monotheism\" or simply \"Monotheists\".", "Their theology has a Neo-Platonic view about how God interacts with the world through emanations and is similar to some gnostic and other esoteric sects.", "Druze philosophy also shows Sufi influences.", "Druze principles focus on honesty, loyalty, filial piety, altruism, patriotic sacrifice, and monotheism.", "They reject nicotine, alcohol, and other drugs and often, the consumption of pork (to the Uqqāl and not necessarily to the Juhhāl).", "Druze reject polygamy, believe in reincarnation, and are not obliged to observe most of the religious rituals.", "The Druze believe that rituals are symbolic and have an individualistic effect on the person, for which reason Druze are free to perform them, or not.", "The community does celebrate Eid al-Adha, however, considered their most significant holiday; though their form of observance is different compared to that of most Muslims." ], [ "Culture", "Israeli Druze family visiting Gamla; wearing religious dressThe religious life of the average Druze (\"juhhāl\") revolves around a very small number of events – birth and circumcision, engagement and marriage, death and burial – and is devoid of special Druze prayers or worship.", "Marriage outside the Druze faith is forbidden, and if a Druze marries a non-Druze, the Druze may be ostracized and marginalized by their community.", "Because a non-Druze partner cannot convert to Druze faith, the couple cannot have Druze children, because the Druze faith can only be passed on through birth to two Druze parents.Circumcision is widely practiced by the Druze.", "The procedure is practiced as a cultural tradition, and has no religious significance in the Druze faith.", "There is no special date for this act in the Druze faith: male Druze infants are usually circumcised shortly after birth, however some remain uncircumcised until the age of ten or older.", "Some Druze do not circumcise their male children, and refuse to observe this \"common Muslim practice\".=== Language ===The mother tongue of Druze in Syria, Lebanon and Israel is Levantine Arabic, except those born and living in the Druze diaspora such as Venezuela, where Arabic was not taught or spoken at home.", "The Druze Arabic dialect, especially in the rural areas, is often different from the other regional Arabic dialects.", "Druze Arabic dialect is distinguished from others by retention of the phoneme /q/, the use of which by Druze is particularly prominent in the mountains and less so in urban areas.The Druze citizens of Israel are Arabic in language and culture, and linguistically speaking, the majority of them are fluently bilingual, speaking both a Central Northern Levantine Arabic dialect and Hebrew.", "In Druze Arab homes and towns in Israel, the primary language spoken is Arabic, while some Hebrew words have entered the colloquial Arabic dialect.", "They often use Hebrew characters to write their Arabic dialect online.=== Cuisine ===Druze women making ''Druze pita'' in Isfiya, IsraelDruze cuisine is similar to other Levantine cuisines and is rich in grains, meat, potato, cheese, bread, whole grains, fruits, vegetables, fresh fish and tomatoes.", "Perhaps the most distinctive aspect of Druze and Levantine cuisine is ''meze'' including ''tabbouleh'', ''hummus'' and ''baba ghanoush''.", "''Kibbeh nayyeh'' is also a popular mezze among Druzes.", "Other famous foods among Druzes include falafel, sfiha, shawarma, dolma, kibbeh, kusa mahshi, shishbarak, muhammara, and mujaddara.", "Druze pita is a Druze-styled pita filled with labneh (thick yoghurt) and topped with olive oil and za’atar, and a very popular bread in Israel.", "Al-Meleh a popular dish among Druze in Hauran region (As-Suwayda Governorate), cooked in a pressure cooker and served on huge special plates at weddings, holidays, and other special occasions.", "And consists of bulgur wheat immersed in ghee with lamb and yogurt, and served hot with fried kibbeh and vegetables.For reasons that remain unclear, the Mulukhiyah dish was banned by the Fatimid Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah sometime during his reign (996–1021).", "While the ban was eventually lifted after the end of his reign, the Druze, who hold Al-Hakim in high regard and give him quasi-divine authority, continue to respect the ban, and do not eat Mulukhiyah of any kind to this day.Mate (in Levantine Arabic, /mæte/) is a popular drink consumed by the Druze brought to the Levant by Syrian migrants from Argentina in the 19th century.", "Mate is made by steeping dried leaves of the South American plant yerba mate in hot water and is served with a metal straw ( ''bambīja'' or ''maṣṣāṣah'') from a gourd ( ''finjān'' or ''qarʻah'').", "Mate is often the first item served when entering a Druze home.", "It is a social drink and can be shared between multiple participants.", "After each drinker, the metal straw is cleaned with lemon rind.", "Traditional snacks eaten with mate include raisins, nuts, dried figs, biscuits, and chips." ], [ "Druze and other religions", "=== Relationship with Muslims ===The Druze faith is often classified as a branch of Isma'ili; although according to various scholars Druze faith \"diverge substantially from Islam, both Sunni and Shia\".", "Even though the faith originally developed out of Ismaili Islam, most Druze do not identify as Muslims, and they do not accept the five pillars of Islam.", "Historian David R. W. Bryer defines the Druzes as ''ghulat'' of Isma'ilism, since they exaggerated the cult of the caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah and considered him divine; he also defines the Druzes as a religion that deviated from Islam.", "He also added that as a result of this deviation, the Druze faith \"seems as different from Islam as Islam is from Christianity or Christianity is from Judaism\".Historically the relationship between the Druze and Muslims has been characterized by intense persecution.", "The Druze have frequently experienced persecution by different Muslim regimes such as the Shia Fatimid Caliphate, Mamluk, Sunni Ottoman Empire, and Egypt Eyalet.", "The persecution of the Druze included massacres, demolishing Druze prayer houses and holy places, and forced conversion to Islam.", "Those acts of persecution were meant to eradicate the whole community according to the Druze narrative.", "Most recently, the Syrian Civil War, which began in 2011, saw persecution of the Druze at the hands of Islamic extremists.Since Druze emerged from Islam and share certain beliefs with Islam, its position of whether it is a separate religion or a sect of Islam is sometimes controversial among Muslim scholars.", "Druze are not considered Muslims by those belonging to orthodox Islamic schools of thought.", "Ibn Taymiyya, a prominent Muslim scholar muhaddith, dismissed the Druze as non-Muslims, and his fatwa cited that Druze: \"Are not at the level of ′Ahl al-Kitāb (People of the Book) nor mushrikin (polytheists).", "Rather, they are from the most deviant kuffār (Infidel) ... Their women can be taken as slaves and their property can be seized ... they are to be killed whenever they are found and cursed as they described ...", "It is obligatory to kill their scholars and religious figures so that they do not misguide others\", which in that setting would have legitimized violence against them as apostates.", "The Ottoman Empire often relied on Ibn Taymiyya’s religious ruling to justify their persecution of Druze.", "In contrast, according to Ibn Abidin, whose work ''Radd al-Muhtar 'ala al-Durr al-Mukhtar'' is still considered the authoritative text of Hanafi fiqh today, the Druze are neither Muslims nor apostates.In 1959, in an ecumenical move driven by Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser's effort to broaden his political appeal after the establishment of the United Arab Republic between Egypt and Syria in 1958, the Islamic scholar Mahmud Shaltut at Al Azhar University in Cairo classified the Druze as Muslims, even though most Druze no longer consider themselves Muslim.", "The ''fatwa'' declares that the Druze are Muslims because they recite the twofold ''Shahada'', and believe in the Qur'an and monotheism and do not oppose Islam in word or deed.", "This ''fatwa'' was not accepted by all in the Islamic world, many dissenting scholars have argued the Druze recite the ''Shahada'' as a form of ''taqiya''; a precautionary dissimulation or denial of religious belief and practice in the face of persecution.", "Some sects of Islam, including all Shia denominations, don't recognize the religious authority of Al Azhar University, those that do sometimes challenge the religious legitimacy of Shaltut's fatwa because it was issued for political reasons, as Gamal Abdel Nasser saw it as a tool to spread his appeal and influence across the entire Arab world.In 2012, due to a drift towards Salafism in Al-Azhar, and the ascension of the Muslim Brotherhood into Egyptian political leadership, the dean of the Faculty of Islamic Studies at Al-Azhar issued a fatwa strongly opposed to the 1959 fatwa.", "Shuaib (Jethro) grave near Hittin, Israel: Both religions venerate Shuaib.Both religions venerate Shuaib and Muhammad: Shuaib (Jethro) is revered as the chief prophet in the Druze religion, and in Islam he is considered a prophet of God.", "Muslims regard Muhammad as the final and paramount prophet sent by God, to the Druze, Muhammad is exalted as one of the seven prophets sent by God in different periods of history.In terms of religious comparison, Islamic schools and branches do not believe in reincarnation, a paramount tenet of the Druze faith.", "Islam teaches ''dawah'', whereas the Druze do not accept converts to their faith.", "Marriage outside the Druze faith is rare and is strongly discouraged.", "Islamic schools and branches allow for divorce and permit men to be married to multiple women, contrary to the views of the Druze in monogamous marriage and not allowing divorce.", "Differences between Islamic schools and branches and Druze include their belief in the theophany, Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmad is considered the founder of the Druze and the primary author of the Druze manuscripts; he proclaimed that God had become human and taken the form of man, Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.", "Within Islam, however, such a concept of theophany is a denial of monotheism.The Druze faith incorporates some elements of Islam, and other religious beliefs.", "Druze Sacred texts include the Qur'an and the Epistles of Wisdom (''rasail al-hikma'' ) The Druze community does celebrate Eid al-Adha as their most significant holiday; though their form of observance is different compared to that of most Muslims.", "The Druze faith does not follow Sharia nor any of the Five Pillars of Islam save reciting the ''Shahada''.", "Scholars argue that Druze recite the ''Shahada'' in order to protect their religion and their own safety, and to avoid persecution by Muslims.=== Relationship with Christians === Christian Church and Druze Khalwa in Shuf: Historically; the Druzes and the Christians in the Shuf Mountains lived in complete harmony.Christianity and Druze are Abrahamic religions that share a historical traditional connection with some major theological differences.", "The two faiths share a common place of origin in the Middle East and consider themselves to be monotheistic.The relationship between Druze and Christians has been characterized largely by harmony and peaceful coexistence.", "Amicable relations between the two groups prevailed throughout most of history, though a few exceptions exist, including the 1860 civil conflict in Mount Lebanon and Damascus.", "Conversion of Druze to Christianity used to be common practice in the Levant region.", "Over the centuries, a number of Druze embraced Christianity, such as some of Shihab dynasty members, as well as the Abi-Lamma clan.Contact between Christian communities (members of the Maronites, Eastern Orthodox, Melkite, and other churches) and the Unitarian Druze led to the presence of mixed villages and towns in Mount Lebanon, Chouf, Jabal al-Druze, the Galilee region, Mount Carmel, and Golan Heights.", "The Maronite Catholic and the Druze founded modern Lebanon in the early Eighteenth Century, through a governing and social system known as the \"Maronite-Druze dualism\" in the Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate.Left to right: Christian mountain dweller from Zahlé, Christian mountain dweller of Zgharta, and a Lebanese Druze man in traditional attire (1873).Druze doctrine teaches that Christianity is to be \"esteemed and praised\" as the Gospel writers are regarded as \"carriers of wisdom\".", "The Druze faith incorporates some elements of Christianity, in addition to adoption of Christian elements on the Epistles of Wisdom.", "The full Druze canon or Druze scripture (Epistles of Wisdom) includes the Old Testament, the New Testament, the Quran and philosophical works by Plato and those influenced by Socrates among works from other religions and philosophers.", "The Druze faith shows influence of Christian monasticism, among other religious practices.", "In terms of religious comparison, mainstream Christian denominations do not believe in reincarnation or the transmigration of the soul, unlike the Druze.", "Evangelism is widely seen as central to the Christian faith, unlike the Druze who do not accept converts.", "Marriage outside the Druze faith is rare and is strongly discouraged.", "Similarities between the Druze and Christians include commonalities in their view of monogamous marriage, as well as the forbidding of divorce and remarriage, in addition to the belief in the oneness of God and theophany.", "Neither mainstream Christian denominations nor Druze require male circumcision, though male circumcision is commonly practiced in many predominantly Christian countries and many Christian communities, and it is practiced in Coptic Christianity, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, and the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church as a rite of passage.", "Male circumcision is also widely practiced by the Druze, but as a cultural tradition, since circumcision has no religious significance in the Druze faith.", "Maqam Al-Masih (Jesus) in As-Suwayda Governorate: Both religions revere Jesus.Both faiths give a prominent place to Jesus: In Christianity, Jesus is the central figure, seen as the messiah.", "To the Druze, Jesus is an important prophet of God, being among the seven prophets (including Muhammad) who appeared in different periods of history.", "The Druze revere Jesus \"the son of Joseph and Mary\" and his four disciples, who wrote the Gospels.", "According to the Druze manuscripts Jesus is the Greatest Imam and the incarnation of Ultimate Reason (''Akl'') on earth and the first cosmic principle (''Hadd''), and regards Jesus and Hamza ibn Ali as the incarnations of one of the five great celestial powers, who form part of their system.", "In the Druze tradition, Jesus is known under three titles: the True Messiah (''al-Masih al-Haq''), the Messiah of all Nations (''Masih al-Umam''), and the Messiah of Sinners.", "This is due, respectively, to the belief that Jesus delivered the true Gospel message, the belief that he was the Saviour of all nations, and the belief that he offers forgiveness.Both religions venerate John the Baptist, Saint George, Elijah, Luke the Evangelist, Job and other common figures.", "Figures in the Old Testament such as Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jethro are considered important prophets of God in the Druze faith, being among the seven prophets who appeared in different periods of history.=== Relationship with Jews ===Maqam Al-Khidr in Kafr YasifThe relationship between the Druze and Jews has been controversial, Antisemitic material is contained in the Druze literature such as the ''Epistles of Wisdom''; for example in an epistle ascribed to one of the founders of Druzism, Baha al-Din al-Muqtana, probably written sometime between AD 1027 and AD 1042, accused the Jews of crucifying Jesus.", "On the other hand, Benjamin of Tudela, a Jewish traveler from the 12th century, pointed out that the Druze maintained good commercial relations with the Jews nearby, and according to him this was because the Druze liked the Jewish people.", "Yet, the Jews and Druze lived isolated from each other, except in few mixed towns such as Deir al-Qamar and Peki'in.", "The Deir el Qamar Synagogue was built in 1638, during the Ottoman era in Lebanon, to serve the local Jewish population, some of whom were part of the immediate entourage of the Druze Emir Fakhr-al-Din II.The conflict between Druze and Jews occurs during the Druze power struggle in Mount Lebanon, Jewish settlements of Galilee such as Safad and Tiberias were destroyed by the Druze in 1660.During the Druze revolt against the rule of Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt, the Jewish community in Safad was attacked by Druze rebels in early July 1838, the violence against the Jews included plundering their homes and desecrating their synagogues.Oliphant house in Daliyat al-KarmelDuring the British Mandate for Palestine, the Druze did not embrace the rising Arab nationalism of the time or participate in violent confrontations with Jewish immigrants.", "In 1948, many Druze volunteered for the Israeli army and no Druze villages were destroyed or permanently abandoned.", "Since the establishment of the state of Israel, the Druze have demonstrated solidarity with Israel and distanced themselves from Arab and Islamic radicalism.", "Israeli Druze citizens serve in the Israel Defense Forces.", "The Jewish-Druze partnership was often referred as \"a covenant of blood\" (Hebrew: ברית דמים, ''brit damim'') in recognition of the common military yoke carried by the two peoples for the security of the country.From 1957, the Israeli government formally recognized the Druze as a separate religious community, and are defined as a distinct ethnic group in the Israeli Ministry of Interior's census registration.", "Israeli Druze do not consider themselves Muslim, and see their faith as a separate and independent religion.", "While compared to other Israeli Christians and Muslims, Druze place less emphasis on Arab identity and self-identify more as Israeli.", "However, they were less ready for personal relationships with Jews compared to Israeli Muslims and Christians.In terms of religious comparison, scholars consider Judaism and the Druze faith as ethnoreligious groups, both practicing endogamy, and both typically do not proselytize.", "Belief in reincarnation (''Gilgul'') exist in some strands of Judaism influenced by the Kabbalah, such as Hasidic Judaism, but is rejected by mainstream Jewish denominations (Reformed Judaism, Conservative Judaism and Orthodox Judaism).", "Figures in the Hebrew Bible such as Adam, Noah, Abraham, and Moses are considered important prophets of God in the Druze faith, being among the seven prophets who appeared in different periods of history.", "Both religions venerate Elijah, Job and other common figures.", "In the Hebrew Bible, Jethro was Moses' father-in-law, a Kenite shepherd and priest of Midian.", "Jethro of Midian is considered an ancestor of the Druze who revere him as their spiritual founder and chief prophet." ], [ "Origins", "=== Ethnic origins ======= Arabian hypothesis ====The Druze faith extended to many areas in the Middle East, but most of the modern Druze can trace their origin to the ''Wadi al-Taym'' in Southern Lebanon, which is named after an Arab tribe Taym Allah (or Taym Allat) which, according to Islamic historian al-Tabari, first came from the Arabian Peninsula into the valley of the Euphrates where they had been Christianized prior to their migration into Lebanon.", "Many of the Druze feudal families, whose genealogies have been preserved by the two modern Syrian chroniclers Haydar al-Shihabi and Ahmad Faris al-Shidyaq, seem also to point in the direction of this origin.", "Arabian tribes emigrated via the Persian Gulf and stopped in Iraq on their route that would later to lead them to Syria.", "The first feudal Druze family, the Tanukhids, which made for itself a name in fighting the Crusaders was, according to Haydar al-Shihabi, an Arab tribe from Mesopotamia where it occupied the position of a ruling family and apparently was Christianized.Travelers like Niebuhr, and scholars like Max von Oppenheim, undoubtedly echoing the popular Druze belief regarding their own origin, have classified them as Arabs.==== Druze as a mixture of Western Asian tribes ====The 1911 edition of Encyclopædia Britannica states that the Druze are \"a mixture of refugee stocks, in which the Arab largely predominates, grafted on to an original mountain population of Aramaic blood\".==== Iturean hypothesis ====According to Jewish contemporary literature, the Druze, who were visited and described in 1165 by Benjamin of Tudela, were pictured as descendants of the Itureans, an Ismaelite Arab tribe, which used to reside in the northern parts of the Golan plateau through Hellenistic and Roman periods.", "The word ''Druzes,'' in an early Hebrew edition of his travels, occurs as ''Dogziyin,'' but it is clear that this is a scribal error.Archaeological assessments of the Druze region have also proposed the possibility of Druze descending from Itureans, who had inhabited Mount Lebanon and Golan Heights in late classic antiquity, but their traces fade in the Middle Ages.=== Genetics ===Lebanese Christians and Druze became a genetic isolate in the predominantly Islamic world.2-\"The predominantly Muslim populations of Syrians, Palestinians and Jordanians cluster on branches with other Muslim populations as distant as Morocco and Yemen.", "\"3-Lebanese Christians and all Druze cluster together, and Lebanese Muslims are extended towards Syrians, Palestinians, and Jordanians, which are close to Saudis and Bedouins.", "\"In a 2005 study of ASPM gene variants, Mekel-Bobrov et al.", "found that the Israeli Druze people of the Mount Carmel region have among the highest rate of the newly evolved ASPM- Haplogroup D, at 52.2% occurrence of the approximately 6,000-year-old allele.", "While it is not yet known exactly what selective advantage is provided by this gene variant, the Haplogroup D allele is thought to be positively selected in populations and to confer some substantial advantage that has caused its frequency to rapidly increase.A 2004 DNA study has shown that Israeli Druze are remarkable for the high frequency (35%) of males who carry the Y-chromosomal haplogroup L, which is otherwise uncommon in the Middle East (Shen et al.", "2004).", "This haplogroup originates from prehistoric South Asia and has spread from Pakistan into southern Iran.", "A 2008 study done on larger samples showed that L-M20 averages 27% in Mount Carmel Druze, 2% in Galilee Druze, 8% in Lebanese Druze, and it was not found in a sample of 59 Syrian Druze (Slush et al.", "2008).Cruciani, in 2007, found E1b1b1a2 (E-V13) a subclade of E1b1b1a (E-M78) in high levels (>10% of the male population) in Cypriot and Druze lineages.", "Recent genetic clustering analyses of ethnic groups are consistent with the close ancestral relationship between the Druze and Cypriots, and also identified similarity to the general Syrian and Lebanese populations, as well as the major Jewish divisions (Ashkenazi, Sephardi, Iraqi, and Moroccan Jews) (Behar et al.", "2010).Also, a new study concluded that the Druze harbor a remarkable diversity of mitochondrial DNA lineages that appear to have separated from each other thousands of years ago.", "But instead of dispersing throughout the world after their separation, the full range of lineages can still be found within the Druze population.The researchers noted that the Druze villages contained a striking range of high frequency and high diversity of the X haplogroup, suggesting that this population provides a glimpse into the past genetic landscape of the Near East at a time when the X haplogroup was more prevalent.These findings are consistent with the Druze oral tradition that claims that the adherents of the faith came from diverse ancestral lineages stretching back tens of thousands of years.", "The Shroud of Turin analysis shows significant traces of mitochondrial DNA unique to the Druze community.A 2008 study published on the genetic background of Druze communities in Israel showed highly heterogeneous parental origins.", "A total of 311 Israeli Druze were sampled: 37 from the Golan Heights, 183 from the Galilee, and 35 from Mount Carmel, as well as 27 Druze immigrants from Syria and 29 from Lebanon (Slush et al.", "2008).", "The researchers found the following frequencies of Y-chromosomal and MtDNA haplogroups:* Mount Carmel: L 27%, R 27%, J 18%, E 15%, G 12%.", "* Galilee: J 31%, R 20%, E 18%, G 14%, K 11%, Q 4%, L 2%.", "* Golan Heights: J 54%, E 29%, I 8%, G 4%, C 4%.", "* Lebanon: J 58%, K 17%, Q 8%, R 8%, L 8%.", "* Syria: J 39%, E 29%, R 14%, G 14%, K 4%.", "*Maternal MtDNA haplogroup frequencies: H 32%, X 13%, K 12.5%, U 10 %, T 7.5%, HV 4.8 %, J 4.8%, I 3.5%, pre HV 3%, L2a3 2.25%, N1b 2.25%, M1 1.6%, W 1.29%.", "According to a 2015 study, Druze have a largely similar genome with Middle Eastern Arabs, but they have not married outside of their clans in 1000 years and Druze families from different regions share a similarity with each other that distinguishes them from other Middle Eastern populations.A 2016 study based on testing samples of Druze in the historic region of Syria, in comparison with ancient humans (including Anatolian and Armenian), and on Geographic Population Structure (GPS) tool by converting genetic distances into geographic distances, concluded that Druze might hail from the Zagros Mountains and the surroundings of Lake Van in eastern Anatolia, then they later migrated south to settle in the mountainous regions in Syria, Lebanon and Israel.A 2020 study on remains from Canaanaite (Bronze Age southern Levantine) populations suggests a significant degree of genetic continuity in currently Arabic-speaking Levantine populations (including the Druze, Lebanese, Palestinians, and Syrians), as well as in most Jewish groups (including Sephardi Jews, Ashkenazi Jews, Mizrahi Jews, and Maghrebi Jews) from the populations of the Bronze Age Levant, suggesting that the aforementioned groups all derive more than half of their overall ancestry (atDNA) from Canaanite / Bronze Age Levantine populations, albeit with varying sources and degrees of admixture from differing host or invading populations depending on each group.In a principal component analysis of a 2014 study, Druze were located between Lebanese people and Mizrahi Jews.", "In a PCA in a 2021 study, Druze were close to Lebanese people and a part of the larger Levant-Iraq cluster." ], [ "See also", "* Sword Battalion* Jaysh al-Muwahhideen* Jabal Druze State* List of Druze* Neoplatonism and Gnosticism* Religious syncretism* Christianity and Druze" ], [ "References", "===Citations====== Bibliography ===* * .", "* .", "* * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Jean-Marc Aractingi, La Face Cachée des Druzes \" Les Francs-Maçons de l'Orient\", 251 pages, Editeur : Independently published (6 juillet 2020), * Jean-Marc Aractingi, \"Les Druzes et la Franc-maçonnerie\", in ''Les Cahiers de l'Orient'', no.", "69, 1er trimestre 2003, Paris: L'Équerre et le Croissant, éditions Les Cahiers de l'Orient* Jean-Marc Aractingi, \"Points de convergence dans les rituels et symboles chez les Druzes et chez les francs-maçons\", in ''Les Cahiers'', Jean Scot Erigène, no 8, Franc-maçonnerie et Islamité, Paris: la Grande Loge de France.", "* Pinhas Inabri \"Pan-Arabism versus Pan-Islam – Where Do the Druze Fit?\"", "– Pan-Arabism versus Pan-Islam – Where Do the Druze Fit?", "* * .", "* Rabih Alameddine ''I, the Divine: A Novel in First Chapters'', Norton (2002).", ".", "* B. Destani, ed.", "''Minorities in the Middle East: Druze Communities 1840–1974'', 4 volumes, Slough: Archive Editions (2006).", ".", "* R. Scott Kennedy \"The Druze of the Golan: A Case of Non-Violent Resistance\" ''Journal of Palestine Studies'', Vol.", "13, No.", "2 (Winter, 1984), pp. 48–6.", "* Dr. Anis Obeid: ''The Druze & Their Faith in Tawhid'', Syracuse University Press (July 2006).", ".", "* * Samy Swayd ''The Druzes: An Annotated Bibliography'', Kirkland, Washington: ISES Publications (1998).", ".", "* Bashar Tarabieh \"Education, Control and Resistance in the Golan Heights\".", "''Middle East Report'', No.", "194/195, Odds against Peace (May–August 1995), pp. 43–47.", "* * Dr. Said Hany: Druze Trilogy 1 – Philosophy.", "USA.", "2020.ISBN 978-0-244-23549-9.Druze Trilogy 2 – Theology.", "USA.", "2020.ISBN 978-0-244-23701-1.Druze Trilogy 3 – Genealogy.", "USA.", "2020.ISBN 978-0-244-83701-3." ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "December 12" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 627 – Battle of Nineveh: A Byzantine army under Emperor Heraclius defeats Emperor Khosrau II's Persian forces, commanded by General Rhahzadh.", "*1388 – Maria of Enghien sells the lordship of Argos and Nauplia to the Republic of Venice.===1601–1900===*1787 – Pennsylvania becomes the second state to ratify the US Constitution.", "*1862 – American Civil War: sinks on the Yazoo River.", "*1866 – Oaks explosion: The worst mining disaster in England kills 361 miners and rescuers.", "*1870 – Joseph H. Rainey of South Carolina becomes the second black U.S. congressman.===1901–present===*1901 – Guglielmo Marconi receives the first transatlantic radio signal (the letter \"S\" ••• in Morse Code), at Signal Hill in St John's, Newfoundland.", "*1915 – Yuan Shikai declares the establishment of the Empire of China and proclaims himself Emperor.", "*1917 – Father Edward J. Flanagan founds Boys Town as a farm village for wayward boys.", "*1935 – The Lebensborn Project, a Nazi reproduction program, is founded by Heinrich Himmler.", "*1937 – Second Sino-Japanese War: USS ''Panay'' incident: Japanese aircraft bomb and sink U.S. gunboat on the Yangtze river in China.", "*1939 – sinks after a collision with off the coast of Scotland with the loss of 124 men.", "* 1939 – Winter War: The Battle of Tolvajärvi, also known as the first major Finnish victory in the Winter War, begins.", "*1941 – World War II: Fifty-four Japanese A6M Zero fighters raid Batangas Field, Philippines.", "Jesús Villamor and four Filipino fighter pilots fend them off; César Basa is killed.", "* 1941 – The Holocaust: Adolf Hitler declares the imminent extermination of the Jews at a meeting in the Reich Chancellery.", "*1945 – The People's Republic of Korea is outlawed in the South, by order of the United States Army Military Government in Korea.", "*1946 – United Nations Security Council Resolution 13 relating to acceptance of Siam (now Thailand) to the United Nations is adopted.", "*1956 – United Nations Security Council Resolution 121 relating to acceptance of Japan to the United Nations is adopted.", "*1963 – Kenya declares independence from Great Britain.", "*1969 – The Piazza Fontana bombing; a bomb explodes at the headquarters of Banca Nazionale dell'Agricoltura (the National Agricultural Bank) in Piazza Fontana in Milan, Italy, killing 17 people and wounding 88.The same afternoon, three more bombs are detonated in Rome and Milan, and another is found unexploded.", "*1979 – The 8.2 Tumaco earthquake shakes Colombia and Ecuador with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (''Violent''), killing 300–600, and generating a large tsunami.", "*1979 – Coup d'état of December Twelfth occurs in South Korea.", "*1985 – Arrow Air Flight 1285R, a McDonnell Douglas DC-8, crashes after takeoff in Gander, Newfoundland, killing all 256 people on board, including 236 members of the United States Army's 101st Airborne Division.", "*1988 – The Clapham Junction rail crash kills thirty-five and injures hundreds after two collisions of three commuter trains—one of the worst train crashes in the United Kingdom.", "*1999 – A magnitude 7.3 earthquake hits the Philippines's main island of Luzon, killing six people, injuring 40, and causing power outages that affected the capital Manila.", "*2000 – The United States Supreme Court releases its decision in ''Bush v.", "Gore''.", "*2001 – Prime Minister of Vietnam Phan Văn Khải announces the decision on upgrading the Phong Nha–Kẻ Bàng nature reserve to a national park, providing information on projects for the conservation and development of the park and revised maps.", "*2012 – North Korea successfully launches its first satellite, Kwangmyŏngsŏng-3 Unit 2.", "*2015 – The Paris Agreement relating to United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is adopted.", "*2021 – Dutch Formula One racing driver Max Verstappen wins the controversial 2021 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix, beating seven-time World Champion Lewis Hamilton to become the first Formula One World Champion to come from the Netherlands." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1526 – Álvaro de Bazán, 1st Marquis of Santa Cruz, Spanish admiral (d. 1588)===1601–1900===*1685 – Lodovico Giustini, Italian pianist and composer (d. 1743)*1724 – Samuel Hood, 1st Viscount Hood, English admiral and politician (d. 1816)*1786 – William L. Marcy, American lawyer, judge, and politician, 21st United States Secretary of State (d. 1857)*1799 – Karl Bryullov, Russian painter (d. 1852) *1805 – Henry Wells, American businessman, co-founded Wells Fargo and American Express (d. 1878)*1806 – Stand Watie, American general (d. 1871)*1812 – John Sandfield Macdonald, Canadian lawyer and politician, 1st Premier of Ontario (d. 1872)*1821 – Gustave Flaubert, French novelist (d. 1880)*1830 – Joseph Orville Shelby, Confederate general (d. 1897)*1842 – Adolf Bötticher, German journalist and historian (d. 1901)*1845 – Bruce Price, American architect, designed the American Surety Building and Bank of the Metropolis (d. 1903)*1863 – Edvard Munch, Norwegian painter (d. 1944)*1866 – Alfred Werner, Swiss chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1919)*1870 – Walter Benona Sharp, American businessman, co-founded Hughes Tool Company (d. 1912)*1876 – Alvin Kraenzlein, American hurdler and runner (d. 1928)*1881 – Louise Thuliez, French school teacher, resistance fighter during World War I and World War II and author (d. 1966)*1893 – Edward G. Robinson, American actor (d. 1973)===1901–present===*1901 – Harald Kaarmann, Estonian footballer (d. 1942)*1907 – Roy Douglas, English pianist and composer (d. 2015)*1912 – Henry Armstrong, American boxer (d. 1988)*1914 – Patrick O'Brian, English author (d. 2000)*1915 – Frank Sinatra, American singer, actor, and producer (d. 1998)*1918 – Joe Williams, American singer and pianist (d. 1999)*1920 – Josef Doležal, Czech race walker (d. 1999)*1923 – Bob Barker, American game show host and producer (d. 2023)* 1923 – Bob Dorough, American musician, composer, and producer (d. 2018)* 1923 – Emahoy Tsegué-Maryam Guèbrou, Ethiopian pianist, composer and nun (d. 2023)*1924 – Ed Koch, American politician, 105th Mayor of New York City (d. 2013)*1925 – Ted Kennedy, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2009)* 1925 – Dattu Phadkar, Indian cricketer (d. 1985)* 1925 – Vladimir Shainsky, Ukrainian-Russian pianist and composer (d. 2017)*1927 – Robert Noyce, American inventor and businessman, co-founded the Intel Corporation (d. 1990)*1928 – Helen Frankenthaler, American painter and academic (d. 2011)*1929 – Toshiko Akiyoshi, Japanese pianist and composer*1932 – Bob Pettit, American basketball player and coach*1933 – Christa Stubnick, German sprinter (d. 2021)*1934 – Miguel de la Madrid, Mexican lawyer and politician, 52nd President of Mexico (d. 2012)*1936 – Iolanda Balaș, Romanian high jumper and educator (d. 2016)*1937 – Connie Francis, American singer, musician, and actress* 1937 – Philip Ledger, English pianist, composer, and academic (d. 2012)*1940 – Sharad Pawar, Indian politician, Indian Minister of Agriculture* 1940 – Dionne Warwick, American singer*1943 – Dickey Betts, American musician and songwriter* 1943 – Grover Washington, Jr., American singer-songwriter, saxophonist, and producer (d. 1999)*1945 – Tony Williams, American drummer, composer, and producer (d. 1997)*1946 – Emerson Fittipaldi, Brazilian racing driver*1947 – Wings Hauser, American actor* 1947 – Don Keith, American writer* 1947 – Chris Mullin, English journalist and politician*1948 – Randy Smith, American basketball player (d. 2009)* 1948 – Colin Todd, English football player and coach*1949 – Bill Nighy, English actor* 1949 – Marc Ravalomanana, Malagasy businessman and politician, President of Madagascar*1950 – Pedro Ferriz de Con, Mexican journalist* 1950 – Heiner Flassbeck, German economist and academic* 1950 – Rajinikanth, Indian actor* 1950 – Billy Smith, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and manager* 1950 – Gorman Thomas, American baseball player*1951 – Rehman Malik, Pakistani politician, Pakistani Minister of Interior*1952 – Cathy Rigby, American gymnast*1953 – Martin Ferguson, Australian lawyer and politician* 1953 – Rafael Septién, Mexican-American football player*1955 – Eddy Schepers, Belgian cyclist* 1955 – Stephen Smith, Australian politician*1956 – Johan van der Velde, Dutch cyclist*1957 – Sheila E., American singer and musician*1958 – Sheree J. Wilson, American actress*1960 – Martina Hellmann, German discus thrower*1961 – Andrey Perlov, Russian race walker*1962 – Tracy Austin, American tennis player and sportscaster* 1962 – Arturo Barrios, Mexican-American runner* 1962 – Mike Golic, American football player and radio host*1963 – Eduardo Castro Luque, Mexican businessman and politician (d. 2012)*1964 – Haywood Jeffires, American football player and coach* 1964 – Sabu, American wrestler*1965 – Russell Batiste Jr., American funk and R&B drummer (d. 2023)*1967 – John Randle, American football player*1968 – Sašo Udovič, Slovenian footballer*1969 – Wilfred Kirochi, Kenyan runner* 1969 – Fiona May, English-Italian long jumper* 1969 – Michael Möllenbeck, German discus thrower*1970 – Mädchen Amick, American actress and director* 1970 – Jennifer Connelly, American actress* 1970 – Regina Hall, American actress*1971 – Sammy Korir, Kenyan runner*1972 – Nicky Eaden, English footballer and coach* 1972 – Craig Field, Australian rugby league player* 1972 – Wilson Kipketer, Kenyan-Danish runner* 1972 – Georgios Theodoridis, Greek sprinter*1974 – Bernard Lagat, Kenyan-American runner* 1974 – Nolberto Solano, Peruvian footballer and manager*1975 – Mayim Bialik, American actress, neuroscientist, and author* 1975 – Craig Moore, Australian footballer and manager*1977 – Yoel Hernández, Cuban hurdler* 1977 – Orlando Hudson, American baseball player* 1977 – Dean Macey, English decathlete and bobsledder* 1977 – Colin White, Canadian ice hockey player*1979 – Garrett Atkins, American baseball player* 1979 – Nate Clements, American football player* 1979 – John Salmons, American basketball player*1980 – Dejene Berhanu, Ethiopian runner (d. 2010)* 1980 – Dorin Goian, Romanian footballer*1981 – Eddie Kingston, American wrestler* 1981 – Pedro Ríos, Spanish footballer* 1981 – Yuvraj Singh, Indian cricketer* 1981 – Stephen Warnock, English footballer* 1981 – Andrew Whitworth, American football player and commentator*1982 – Ervin Santana, Dominican baseball player* 1982 – Dmitry Tursunov, Russian tennis player and coach*1983 – Roni Porokara, Finnish footballer*1984 – Daniel Agger, Danish footballer*1985 – Pat Calathes, Greek-American basketball player* 1985 – Andrew Ladd, Canadian ice hockey player*1986 – Daddy Birori, Rwandan footballer* 1986 – Përparim Hetemaj, Finnish footballer* 1986 – Nina Kolarič, Slovenian long jumper* 1986 – T. J.", "Ward, American football player*1988 – Isaac John, New Zealand rugby league player*1990 – Nixon Chepseba, Kenyan runner* 1990 – Dawin, American singer-songwriter* 1990 – Tyron Smith, American football player*1991 – Joseph Leilua, Australian-Samoan rugby league player*1993 – Zeli Ismail, English footballer*1994 – Otto Warmbier, American student imprisoned in North Korea (d. 2017)*1996 – Lucas Hedges, American actor*1997 – Ed Oliver, American football player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 884 – King Carloman II of the Franks (born c.866; hunting accident)*1296 – Isabella of Mar, first wife of Robert Bruce VII (b.", "1277)*1572 – Loredana Marcello, Dogaressa of Venice, botanist, author===1601–1900===*1751 – Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke, English philosopher and politician, Secretary at War (b.", "1678)*1766 – Johann Christoph Gottsched, German philosopher, author, and critic (b.", "1700)*1794 – Meshullam Feivush Heller, Ukrainian author (b.", "1742)*1803 – Prince Frederick Adolf of Sweden (b.", "1750)*1858 – Jacques Viger, Canadian archeologist and politician, 1st Mayor of Montreal (b.", "1787)*1889 – Viktor Bunyakovsky, Ukrainian-Russian mathematician and theorist (b.", "1804)*1894 – John Sparrow David Thompson, Canadian lawyer, judge, and politician, 4th Prime Minister of Canada (b.", "1845)===1901–present===*1913 – Menelik II, Ethiopian emperor (b.", "1844)*1921 – Henrietta Swan Leavitt, American astronomer and academic (b.", "1868)*1923 – Raymond Radiguet, French author and poet (b.", "1903)*1934 – Thorleif Haug, Norwegian skier (b.", "1894)*1939 – Douglas Fairbanks, Sr., American actor, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1883)*1941 – César Basa, Filipino lieutenant and pilot (b.", "1915)*1951 – Mildred Bailey, American singer (b.", "1907)*1958 – Albert Walsh, Canadian lawyer and politician, 1st Lieutenant Governor of Newfoundland (b.", "1900)*1966 – Karl Ruberl, Austrian-American swimmer (b.", "1880)*1968 – Tallulah Bankhead, American actress (b.", "1902)*1970 – Doris Blackburn, Australian politician (b.", "1889)*1975 – Richard Baggallay, English colonel and cricketer (b.", "1884)*1980 – Jean Lesage, Canadian lawyer and politician, 19th Premier of Quebec (b.", "1912)*1985 – Anne Baxter, American actress (b.", "1923)*1993 – József Antall, Hungarian historian and politician, 35th Prime Minister of Hungary (b.", "1932)*1994 – Stuart Roosa, American colonel, pilot, and astronaut (b.", "1933)*1996 – Vance Packard, American journalist, author, and critic (b.", "1914)*1997 – Evgenii Landis, Ukrainian-Russian mathematician and academic (b.", "1921)*1998 – Lawton Chiles, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 41st Governor of Florida (b.", "1930)* 1998 – Morris Udall, American captain and politician (b.", "1922)*1999 – Paul Cadmus, American painter and illustrator (b.", "1904)* 1999 – Joseph Heller, American novelist, short story writer, and playwright(b.", "1923)*2001 – Ardito Desio, Italian geologist and explorer (b.", "1897)*2002 – Dee Brown, American historian and author (b.", "1908)*2003 – Heydar Aliyev, Azerbaijani general and politician, 3rd President of Azerbaijan (b.", "1923)*2005 – Robert Newmyer, American actor and producer (b.", "1956)* 2005 – Annette Stroyberg, Danish actress (b.", "1936)* 2005 – Gebran Tueni, Lebanese journalist and politician (b.", "1957)*2006 – Paul Arizin, American basketball player (b.", "1928)* 2006 – Peter Boyle, American actor (b.", "1935)* 2006 – Alan Shugart, American engineer and businessman, co-founded Seagate Technology (b.", "1930)*2007 – François al-Hajj, Lebanese general (b.", "1953)* 2007 – Ike Turner, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b.", "1931)*2008 – Avery Dulles, American cardinal and theologian (b.", "1918)* 2008 – Van Johnson, American actor (b.", "1916)*2010 – Tom Walkinshaw, Scottish race car driver, founded Tom Walkinshaw Racing (b.", "1946)*2012 – Joe Allbritton, American banker, publisher, and philanthropist, founded the Allbritton Communications Company (b.", "1924)* 2012 – David Tait, English rugby player (b.", "1987)*2013 – Tom Laughlin, American actor, director, screenwriter, author, educator, and activist (b.", "1931)* 2013 – Abdul Quader Molla, Bangladeshi journalist and politician (b.", "1948)* 2013 – Audrey Totter, American actress (b.", "1917)*2014 – Norman Bridwell, American author and illustrator, created ''Clifford the Big Red Dog'' (b.", "1928)* 2014 – Ivor Grattan-Guinness, English mathematician, historian, and academic (b.", "1941)* 2014 – Herb Plews, American baseball player (b.", "1928)*2015 – Frans Geurtsen, Dutch footballer (b.", "1942)* 2015 – Evelyn S. Lieberman, American politician, White House Deputy Chief of Staff (b.", "1944)*2016 – Shirley Hazzard, Australian-American novelist, short story writer, and essayist (b.", "1931)*2017 – Ed Lee, American politician and attorney, 43rd Mayor of San Francisco (b.", "1952)* 2017 – Pat DiNizio, American singer and songwriter (b.", "1955)*2019 – Danny Aiello, American actor (b.", "1933)*2020 – John le Carré, English author (b.", "1931)* 2020 – Ann Reinking, American actress, dancer, and choreographer (b.", "1949)*2021 – Maʻafu Tukuiʻaulahi, Tongan politician and military officer, Deputy Prime Minister (b.", "1955)*2021 – Vicente Fernández, Mexican actor, ranchera singer, and film producer (b, 1940)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "* Christian feast day:** Corentin of Quimper** Jane Frances de Chantal** Edburga of Minster-in-Thanet** Finnian of Clonard** Thomas Holland** Ida of Nivelles** Peter the Aleut** Vicelinus** December 12 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Constitution Day (Russia)* Day of Neutrality (Turkmenistan)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on December 12" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Door" ], [ "Introduction", "alt=|thumb|A doorA '''door''' is a hinged or otherwise movable barrier that allows ingress (entry) into and egress (exit) from an enclosure.", "The created opening in the wall is a ''doorway'' or ''portal''.", "A door's essential and primary purpose is to provide security by controlling access to the doorway (portal).", "Conventionally, it is a panel that fits into the doorway of a building, room, or vehicle.", "Doors are generally made of a material suited to the door's task.", "They are commonly attached by hinges, but can move by other means, such as slides or counterbalancing.The door may be able to move in various ways (at angles away from the doorway/portal, by sliding on a plane parallel to the frame, by folding in angles on a parallel plane, or by spinning along an axis at the center of the frame) to allow or prevent ingress or egress.", "In most cases, a door's interior matches its exterior side.", "But in other cases (e.g., a vehicle door) the two sides are radically different.Many doors incorporate locking mechanisms to ensure that only some people can open them (such as with a key).", "Doors may have devices such as knockers or doorbells by which people outside announce their presence.", "(In some countries, such as Brazil, it is customary to clap from the sidewalk to announce one's presence.)", "Apart from providing access into and out of a space, doors may have the secondary functions of ensuring privacy by preventing unwanted attention from outsiders, of separating areas with different functions, of allowing light to pass into and out of a space, of controlling ventilation or air drafts so that interiors may be more effectively heated or cooled, of dampening noise, and of blocking the spread of fire.Doors can have aesthetic, symbolic, ritualistic purposes.", "Receiving the key to a door can signify a change in status from outsider to insider.", "Doors and doorways frequently appear in literature and the arts with metaphorical or allegorical import as a portent of change." ], [ "History", "The earliest recorded doors appear in the paintings of Egyptian tombs, which show them as single or double doors, each of a single piece of wood.", "People may have believed these were doors to the afterlife, and some include designs of the afterlife.", "In Egypt, where the climate is intensely dry, doors were not framed against warping, but in other countries required framed doors—which, according to Vitruvius (iv.", "6.)", "was done with stiles (sea/si) and rails ''(see: Frame and panel)'', the enclosed panels filled with tympana set in grooves in the stiles and rails.", "The stiles were the vertical boards, one of which, tenoned or hinged, is known as the hanging stile, the other as the middle or meeting stile.", "The horizontal cross pieces are the top rail, bottom rail, and middle or intermediate rails.The most ancient doors were made of timber, such as those referred to in the Biblical depiction of King Solomon's temple being in olive wood (I Kings vi.", "31–35), which were carved and overlaid with gold.", "The doors that Homer mentions appear to have been cased in silver or brass.", "Besides olive wood, elm, cedar, oak and cypress were used.", "Two doors over 5,000 years old have been found by archaeologists near Zürich, Switzerland.", "Ancient doors were hung by pintles at the top and bottom of the hanging stile, which worked in sockets in the lintel and sill, the latter in some hard stone such as basalt or granite.", "Those Hilprecht found at Nippur, dating from 2000 BC, were in dolerite.", "The tenons of the gates at Balawat were sheathed with bronze (now in the British Museum).", "These doors or gates were hung in two leaves, each about wide and high; they were encased with bronze bands or strips, high, covered with repoussé decoration of figures.", "The wood doors would seem to have been about thick, but the hanging stile was over diameter.", "Other sheathings of various sizes in bronze show this was a universal method adopted to protect the wood pivots.", "In the Hauran in Syria where timber is scarce, the doors were made of stone, and one measuring is in the British Museum; the band on the meeting stile shows that it was one of the leaves of a double door.", "At Kuffeir near Bostra in Syria, Burckhardt found stone doors, high, being the entrance doors of the town.", "In Etruria many stone doors are referred to by Dennis.Roman folding doors at Pompeii, from the first century AD, similar with Neoclassical doors from the 19th centuryAncient Greek and Roman doors were either single doors, double doors, triple doors, sliding doors or folding doors, in the last case the leaves were hinged and folded back.", "In the tomb of Theron at Agrigentum there is a single four-panel door carved in stone.", "In the Blundell collection is a bas-relief of a temple with double doors, each leaf with five panels.", "Among existing examples, the bronze doors in the church of SS.", "Cosmas and Damiano, in Rome, are important examples of Roman metal work of the best period; they are in two leaves, each with two panels, and are framed in bronze.", "Those of the Pantheon are similar in design, with narrow horizontal panels in addition, at the top, bottom and middle.", "Two other bronze doors of the Roman period are in the Lateran Basilica.The Greek scholar Heron of Alexandria created the earliest known automatic door in the first century AD during the era of Roman Egypt.", "The first foot-sensor-activated automatic door was made in China during the reign of Emperor Yang of Sui (r. 604–618), who had one installed for his royal library.", "Gates powered by water featured in illustrations of the automatons of the Arab inventor Al-Jazari.Copper and its alloys were integral in medieval architecture.", "The doors of the church of the Nativity at Bethlehem (6th century) are covered with plates of bronze, cut out in patterns.", "Those of Hagia Sophia at Constantinople, of the eighth and ninth century, are wrought in bronze, and the west doors of the cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle (9th century), of similar manufacture, were probably brought from Constantinople, as also some of those in St. Marks, Venice.", "The bronze doors on the Aachen Cathedral in Germany date back to about 800 AD.", "Bronze baptistery doors at the Cathedral of Florence were completed in 1423 by Ghiberti.", "''(For more information, see: Copper in architecture).", "''Roman wall painting of an ornate door, in the Villa Boscoreale (Italy), from the first century ADOf the 11th and 12th centuries there are numerous examples of bronze doors, the earliest being one at Hildesheim, Germany (1015).", "The Hildesheim design affected the concept of Gniezno door in Poland.", "Of others in South Italy and Sicily, the following are the finest: in Sant'Andrea, Amalfi (1060); Salerno (1099); Canosa di Puglia (1111); Troia, two doors (1119 and 1124); Ravello (1179), by Barisano of Trani, who also made doors for Trani cathedral; and in Monreale and Pisa cathedrals, by Bonano of Pisa.", "In all these cases the hanging stile had pivots at the top and bottom.", "The exact period when the builder moved to the hinge is unknown, but the change apparently brought about another method of strengthening and decorating doors—wrought-iron bands of various designs.", "As a rule, three bands with ornamental work constitute the hinges, with rings outside the hanging stiles that fit on vertical tenons set into the masonry or wooden frame.", "There is an early example of the 12th century in Lincoln.", "In France, the metalwork of the doors of Notre Dame at Paris is a beautiful example, but many others exist throughout France and England.In Italy, celebrated doors include those of the Battistero di San Giovanni (Florence), which are all in bronze—including the door frames.", "The modeling of the figures, birds and foliage of the south doorway, by Andrea Pisano (1330), and of the east doorway by Ghiberti (1425–1452), are of great beauty.", "In the north door (1402–1424), Ghiberti adopted the same scheme of design for the paneling and figure subjects as Andrea Pisano, but in the east door, the rectangular panels are all filled, with bas-reliefs that illustrate Scripture subjects and innumerable figures.", "These may the gates of Paradise of which Michelangelo speaks.Doors of the mosques in Cairo were of two kinds: those externally cased with sheets of bronze or iron, cut in decorative patterns, and incised or inlaid, with bosses in relief; and those of wood-framed with interlaced square and diamond designs.", "The latter design is Coptic in origin.", "The doors of the palace at Palermo, which were made by Saracenic workmen for the Normans, are fine examples in good preservation.", "A somewhat similar decorative class of door is found in Verona, where the edges of the stiles and rails are beveled and notched.Glass door decorated with Art Nouveau elements, from the Singer House (Saint Petersburg, Russia)In the Renaissance period, Italian doors are quite simple, their architects trusting more to the doorways for effect; but in France and Germany the contrary is the case, the doors being elaborately carved, especially in the Louis XIV and Louis XV periods, and sometimes with architectural features such as columns and entablatures with pediment and niches, the doorway being in plain masonry.", "While in Italy the tendency was to give scale by increasing the number of panels, in France the contrary seems to have been the rule; and one of the great doors at Fontainebleau, which is in two leaves, is entirely carried out as if consisting of one great panel only.The earliest Renaissance doors in France are those of the cathedral of St. Sauveur at Aix (1503).", "In the lower panels there are figures .", "high in Gothic niches, and in the upper panels a double range of niches with figures about .", "high with canopies over them, all carved in cedar.", "The south door of Beauvais Cathedral is in some respects the finest in France; the upper panels are carved in high relief with figure subjects and canopies over them.", "The doors of the church at Gisors (1575) are carved with figures in niches subdivided by classic pilasters superimposed.", "In St. Maclou at Rouen are three magnificently carved doors; those by Jean Goujon have figures in niches on each side, and others in a group of great beauty in the center.", "The other doors, probably about forty to fifty years later, are enriched with bas-reliefs, landscapes, figures and elaborate interlaced borders.NASA's Vehicle Assembly Building at the Kennedy Space Center contains the four largest doors.", "The Vehicle Assembly Building was originally built for the assembly of the Apollo missions' Saturn vehicles and was then used to support Space Shuttle operations.", "Each of the four doors are high.The oldest door in England can be found in Westminster Abbey and dates from 1050.In England in the 17th century the door panels were raised with bolection or projecting moldings, sometimes richly carved, around them; in the 18th century the moldings worked on the stiles and rails were carved with the egg-and-dart ornament.File:Fragment from a tomb door MET 23.3.174f-emf.jpg|Fragment from an Ancient Egyptian tomb door, circa 2150 –1981 BC, in the Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)File:The Hercules Sarcophagus depicting the Twelve Labors of Hercules, 150-160 AD, Kayseri Archaeological Museum, Turkey (26261172056) (lighter version).jpg|Ancient Greek door carved on the Hercules sarcophagus from the Kayseri Archaeology Museum (Kayseri, Turkey)File:Bronze door, Basilica di San Giovanni, 2013.jpg|Ancient Roman bronze doors of the Curia Julia, now in the Basilica of St. John Lateran (Rome)File:Gate, ash-Shibak Fort, Ibra (North ash-Sharqiyah Governorate) Origin- Surat, India (Mughal Empire) Teak wood and brass.jpg|Indian Mughal teak wood and brass doorFile:Tenghua Jiuguan 21 2015-04.JPG|Traditional Chinese folding doors in The Old Museum of Wisteria (Changzhou, China)File:Lateral door church Theotokos Gorgoepikoos Athens, Greece.jpg|Byzantine door of the Little Metropolis (Athens, Greece)File:Door in Morocco, 2010.jpg|Islamic door decorated with geometric patterns in MoroccoFile:'Berfrestone' (DB) door and tympanum arch St Nicholas Church Barfrestone Kent England 1.jpg|Romanesque door of the Saint Nicholas' Church in Barfrestone (Kent, England)File:Doorway detail, St Magnus Cathedral, Kirkwall, Orkney.jpg|Gothic door of the St Magnus Cathedral (Kirkwall, Scotland)File:Iconography - Saint Basil's Cathedral (19970306871).jpg|Russian door in Saint Basil's Cathedral (Moscow)File:The entrance of the Antim Monastery Church.jpg|Brâncovenesc door of the Antim Monastery (Bucharest, Romania), with a pisanie above itFile:Gdańsk (158).JPG|Renaissance door in Gdańsk (Poland)File:Chateau de Versailles Vestibule Haut 11 (lighter and fixed angles).jpg|Baroque door in the Palace of Versailles (Versailles, France)File:Porte rue Monsieur-le-Prince Paris.jpg|Rococo door on Rue Monsieur-le-Prince (Paris)File:P1210063 Paris III rue des Francs-Bourgeois n26 rwk.jpg|Louis XVI door of the Hôtel Mortier de Sandreville, on Rue des Francs-Bourgeois (Paris)File:Pierre Rousseau - Double-Leaf Doors - 1942.2.12 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|Neoclassical painted double-leaf door, 1790s, by Pierre Rousseau, in the Cleveland Museum of Art (US)File:Brooklyn Museum 1994.92 Door with Lock (2).jpg|African door with lock, late 19th or early 20th century, wood with iron, from Burkina Faso, in the Brooklyn Museum (New York City)File:Zespół klasztoru Gandan (39).jpg|A decorated door from the Gandantegchinlen Monastery (Mongolia)File:P1250574 Paris V rue Malebranche n3 porte gothique bis encours.jpg|Gothic Revival door on Rue Malebranche (Paris)File:Egyptian Revival mausoleum, Forest Home Cemetery.jpg|Egyptian Revival door of a mausoleum in the Forest Home Cemetery (Wisconsin, US)File:Armoiries de lIrlande à lambassade dIrlande à Paris.jpg|Rococo Revival door of the Hôtel de Breteuil (Paris)File:3-5, Strada Icoanei, Bucharest (Romania) 1.jpg|Romanian Revival door of the Școala Centrală National College on Strada Icoanei (Bucharest)File:Paris Porte cochère rue La Bruyère 2012.jpg|19th century Eclectic Classicist door on Rue La Bruyère (Paris)File:Entrance of the George Enescu Museum.jpg|Beaux-Arts door of the Cantacuzino Palace (Bucharest)File:Porte et marquise CCI Nancy.jpg|Art Nouveau metal and glass door in Nancy (France), with a big transparent awning above itFile:49-53, Calea Victoriei, Bucharest (Romania) 10.jpg|Stripped Classicist door of the Royal Palace of Bucharest, now the National Museum of Art of RomaniaFile:La Maison Bleue, porte d'entrée - Angers - 20110119.jpg|Art Deco door in Angers (France)" ], [ "Design and styles", "Door of the Florence Baptistery called ''The Gates of Paradise'', 1425–1452, gilded bronze, height: 5.2 mEntrance of the Kunsthistorisches Museum (Vienna, Austria)There are many kinds of doors, with different purposes.", "The most common type is the '''single-leaf door''', which consists of a single rigid panel that fills the doorway.", "There are many variations on this basic design, such as the '''double-leaf door''' or '''double door and French windows''', which have two adjacent independent panels hinged on each side of the doorway.", "* A '''half door''' or '''Dutch door''' or '''stable door''' is divided in half horizontally.", "Traditionally the top half opens so a worker can feed a horse or other animal while the bottom half remains closed to keep the animal inside.", "This style of door has been adapted for homes.", "* '''Saloon doors''' are a pair of lightweight swing doors often found in public bars, and especially associated with the American west.", "Saloon doors, also known as '''cafe doors''', often use bidirectional hinges that close the door regardless of which direction it opens by incorporating springs.", "Saloon doors that only extend from knee-level to chest-level are known as '''batwing doors'''.", "* A '''blind door''', '''Gibb door''', or '''jib door''' has no visible trim or operable components.", "It blends with the adjacent wall in all finishes, to appear as part of the wall—a disguised door.", "* A '''French door''' consists of a frame around one or more transparent or translucent panels (called lights or lites) that may be installed singly, in matching pairs, or even as series.", "A matching pair of these doors is called a '''French window''', as it resembles a door-height casement window.", "When a pair of French doors is used as a French window, the application does not generally include a central mullion (as do some casement window pairs), thus allowing a wider unobstructed opening.", "The frame typically requires a weather strip at floor level and where the doors meet to prevent water ingress.", "An espagnolette bolt may let the head and foot of each door be secured in one movement.", "The slender window joinery maximizes light into the room and minimizes the visual impact of the doorway joinery when considered externally.", "The doors of a French window often open outward onto a balconet, balcony, porch, or terrace and they may provide an entrance to a garden.", "* A '''louvered door''' has fixed or movable wooden fins (often called slats or louvers) which permit open ventilation while preserving privacy and preventing the passage of light to the interior.", "Being relatively weak structures, they are most commonly used for wardrobes and drying rooms, where security is of less importance than good ventilation, although a very similar structure is commonly used to form window shutters.", "Double louvred doors were introduced into ''Seagate'', built in Florida in 1929 by Gwendolyn and Powel Crosley, that provided the desired circulation of air with an added degree of privacy in that it is impossible to see through the fins in any direction.", "* A '''composite door''' is a single leaf door that can be solid or with glass, and is usually filled with high density foam.", "In the United Kingdom, composite doors are commonly certified to BS PAS 23/24 and be compliant with Secured by Design, an official UK police initiative.", "* A '''steel security door''' is one which is made from strong steel, often for use on vaults and safe rooms to withstand attack.", "These may also be fitted with wooden outer panels to resemble standard internal and external doors.", "* A '''flush door''' is a completely smooth door, having plywood or MDF fixed over a light timber frame, the hollow parts of which are often filled with a cardboard core material.", "Skins can also be made out of hardboards, the first of which was invented by William H Mason in 1924.Called Masonite, its construction involved pressing and steaming wood chips into boards.", "Flush doors are most commonly employed in the interior of a dwelling, although slightly more substantial versions are occasionally used as exterior doors, especially within hotels and other buildings containing many independent dwellings.", "* A '''moulded door''' has the same structure as that of flush door.", "The only difference is that the surface material is a moulded skin made of MDF.", "Skins can also be made out of hardboards.", "* A '''ledge and brace door''' often called board and batten doors are made from multiple vertical boards fixed together by two or more horizontal timbers called ledges (or battens) and sometimes kept square by additional diagonal timbers called braces.", "* A '''wicket door''' is a pedestrian door built into a much larger door allowing access without requiring the opening of the larger door.", "Examples might be found on the ceremonial door of a cathedral or in a large vehicle door in a garage or hangar.", "* A '''bifold door''' is a unit that has several sections, folding in pairs.", "Wood is the most common material, and doors may also be metal or glass.", "Bifolds are most commonly made for closets, but may also be used as units between rooms.", "Bi-fold doors are essentially now doors that let the outside in.", "They open in concert; where the panels fold up against one another and are pushed together when opened.", "The main door panel (often known as the traffic door) is accompanied by a stack of panels that fold very neatly against one another when opened fully, which almost look like room dividers.", "* A '''sliding glass door''', sometimes called an Arcadia door or patio door, is a door made of glass that slides open and sometimes has a screen (a removable metal mesh that covers the door).", "* '''Australian doors''' are a pair of plywood swinging doors often found in Australian public houses.", "These doors are generally red or brown in color and bear a resemblance to the more formal doors found in other British Colonies' public houses.", "* A '''false door''' is a wall decoration with the appearance of a window.", "In ancient Egyptian architecture, this was a common element in a tomb, the false door representing a gate to the afterlife.", "They can also be found in the funerary architecture of the desert tribes (e.g., Libyan Ghirza).", "* A '''doormat''' (also called door mat) is a mat placed typically in front of or behind a door of a home.", "This practice originated so that mud and dirt would be less prevalent on floors inside a building." ], [ "Types", "The main types of door mechanisms=== Hinged ===Most doors are hinged along one side to allow the door to pivot away from the doorway in one direction, but not the other.", "The axis of rotation is usually vertical.", "In some cases, such as hinged garage doors, the axis may be horizontal, above the door opening.Doors can be hinged so that the axis of rotation is not in the plane of the door to reduce the space required on the side to which the door opens.", "This requires a mechanism so that the axis of rotation is on the side other than that in which the door opens.", "This is sometimes the case in trains or airplanes, such as for the door to the toilet, which opens inward.A '''swing door''' has special single-action hinges that allow it to open either outward or inward, and is usually sprung to keep it closed.", "'''French doors''' are derived from the French design called the casement door.", "It is a door with lites where all or some panels would be in a casement door.", "A French door traditionally has a moulded panel at the bottom of the door.", "It is called a French window when used in a pair as double-leaved doors with large glass panels in each door leaf, and in which the doors may swing out (typically) as well as in.A '''double-acting door''', patented in 1880 by the Dutch-American engineer Lorenz Bommer, swings both ways.", "They are often used in areas where many people are likely to pass through, such as restaurant kitchens.A '''Dutch door''' or stable door consists of two halves.", "The top half operates independently from the bottom half.", "A variant exists in which opening the top part separately is possible, but because the lower part has a lip on the inside, closing the top part, while leaving the lower part open, is not.A '''garden door''' resembles a French window (with lites), but is more secure because only one door is operable.", "The hinge of the operating door is next to the adjacent fixed door and the latch is located at the wall opening jamb rather than between the two doors or with the use of an espagnolette bolt.=== Sliding ===It is often useful to have doors which slide along tracks, often for space or aesthetic considerations.A '''bypass door''' is a door unit that has two or more sections.", "The doors can slide in either direction along one axis on parallel overhead tracks, sliding past each other.", "They are most commonly used in closets to provide access one side of the closet at a time.", "Doors in a bypass unit overlap slightly when viewed from the front so they do not have a visible gap when closed.Doors which slide inside a wall cavity are called '''pocket doors'''.", "This type of door is used in tight spaces where privacy is also required.", "The door slab is mounted to roller and a track at the top of the door and slides inside a wall.Sliding glass doors are common in many houses, particularly as an entrance to the backyard.", "Such doors are also popular for use for the entrances to commercial structures, although they are not counted as fire exit doors.", "The door that moves is called the \"active leaf\", while the door that remains fixed is called the \"inactive leaf\".=== Rotating ===A '''revolving door''' has several wings or leaves, generally four, radiating from a central shaft, forming compartments that rotate about a vertical axis.", "A revolving door allows people to pass in both directions without colliding, and forms an airlock maintaining a seal between inside and out.A '''pivot door''', instead of hinges, is supported on a bearing some distance away from the edge, so that there is more or less of a gap on the pivot side as well as the opening side.", "In some cases the pivot is central, creating two equal openings.=== High-speed ===A '''high-speed door''' is a very fast door some with opening speeds of up to 4 m/s, mainly used in the industrial sector where the speed of a door has an effect on production logistics, temperature and pressure control.", "High-speed cleanroom doors, usually consisting of a transparent material on a stainless steel frame, are used in pharmaceutical industries to allow passage between work areas while admitting minimal contaminants.", "The powerful high-speed doors have a smooth surface structure and no protruding edges, allowing minimal particle retention and easy cleaning.High-speed doors are made to handle a high number of openings, generally more than 200,000 a year.", "They must be built with heavy-duty parts and counterbalance systems for speed enhancement and emergency opening function.", "The door curtain was originally made of PVC, but was later also developed in aluminium and acrylic glass sections.", "High-speed refrigeration and cold-room doors with excellent insulation values have also been introduced for green and energy-saving requirements.In North America, the Door and Access Systems Manufacturing Association (DASMA) defines high-performance doors as non-residential powered doors characterized by rolling, folding, sliding or swinging action, that are either high-cycle (minimum 100 cycles/day) or high-speed (minimum 20 inches (508 mm)/second), and two out of three of the following: made-to-order for exact size and custom features, able to withstand equipment impact (break-away if accidentally hit by vehicle), or able to sustain heavy use with minimal maintenance.=== Automatic ==='''Automatically opening doors''' are powered open and closed either by electricity, spring, or both.", "There are several methods by which an automatically opening door is activated:# A sensor detects traffic is approaching.", "Sensors for automatic doors are generally:#* A pressure sensor – e.g., a floor mat which reacts to the pressure of someone standing on it.#* An infrared curtain or beam which shines invisible light onto sensors; if someone or something blocks the beam the door is triggered open.#* A motion sensor which uses low-power microwave radar for the same effect.#* A remote sensor (e.g.", "based on infrared or radio waves) can be triggered by a portable remote control, or is installed inside a vehicle.", "These are popular for garage doors.# A switch is operated manually, perhaps after security checks.", "This can be a push button switch or a swipe card.# The act of pushing or pulling the door triggers the open and close cycle.", "These are also known as power-assisted doors.In addition to activation sensors, automatically opening doors are generally fitted with safety sensors.", "These are usually an infrared curtain or beam, but can be a pressure mat fitted on the swing side of the door.", "The safety sensor prevents the door from colliding with an object by stopping or slowing its motion.", "A mechanism in modern automatic doors ensures that the door can open in a power failure.=== Other ===Sectional doors for industry''Evolution Door'', 2013'''Up-and-over''' or '''overhead''' doors are often used in garages.", "Instead of hinges, it has a mechanism, often counterbalanced or sprung, so it can lift and rest horizontally above the opening.", "A roller shutter or '''sectional overhead door''' is one variant of this type.A '''tambour door''' or roller door is an up-and-over door made of narrow horizontal slats that rolls up and down by sliding along vertical tracks; it is typically found in entertainment centres and cabinets.", "'''Rebated doors''', a term chiefly used in Britain, are double doors with a lip or overlap (i.e.", "a rabbet) on the vertical edge(s) where they meet.", "Fire-rating can be achieved with an applied edge-guard or astragal molding on the meeting stile, in accordance with the American fire door.", "'''Evolution Door''' is a trackless door that moves in the same closure level as a sliding door.", "Invented by Austrian artist Klemens Torggler, is a further development of the '''''' that normally consists of two rotatable, connected panels which move to each other when opening." ], [ "Applications", "Transparent awning in Luxembourg, above a doorArchitectural doors have numerous general and specialized uses.", "Doors are generally used to separate interior spaces (closets, rooms, etc.)", "for convenience, privacy, safety, and security reasons.", "Doors are also used to secure passages into a building from the exterior, for reasons of climate control and safety.Doors also are applied in more specialized cases:* A '''blast-proof door''' is constructed to allow access to a structure as well as to provide protection from the force of explosions.", "* A '''garden door''' is any door that opens to a backyard or garden.", "This term is often used specifically for French windows, double French doors (with lites instead of panels), in place of a sliding glass door.", "The term also may refer to what is known as ''patio doors''.", "* A jib door is a concealed door, whose surface reflects the moldings and finishes of the wall.", "These were used in historic English houses, mainly as servants' doors.", "* A '''pet door''' (also known as a cat flap or dog door) is an opening in a door to allow pets to enter and exit without the main door's being opened.", "It may be simply covered by a rubber flap, or it may be an actual door hinged on the top that the pet can push through.", "Pet doors may be mounted in a sliding glass door as a new (permanent or temporary) panel.", "Pet doors may be unidirectional, only allowing pets to exit.", "Additionally, pet doors may be electronic, only allowing animals with a special electronic tag to enter.", "* A '''trapdoor''' is a door that is oriented horizontally in a ceiling or floor, often accessed via a ladder.", "* A '''water door''' or '''water entrance''', such as those used in Venice, Italy, is a door leading from a building built on the water, such as a canal, to the water itself where, for example, one may enter or exit a private boat or water taxi." ], [ "Construction and components", "Parts of a panel or glazed doorJoint between midrail, lockrail and a gunstock stileA frame and filled doorA hollow door with one face removed=== Paneling ===Panel doors, also called stile and rail doors, are built with frame and panel construction.", "EN 12519 is describing the terms which are officially used in European Member States.", "The main parts are listed below:* Stiles – Vertical boards that run the full height of a door and compose its right and left edges.", "The hinges are mounted to the fixed side (known as the \"hanging stile\"), and the handle, lock, bolt or latch are mounted on the swinging side (known as the \"latch stile\").", "* Rails – Horizontal boards at the top, bottom, and optionally in the middle of a door that join the two stiles and split the door into two or more rows of panels.", "The \"top rail\" and \"bottom rail\" are named for their positions.", "The bottom rail is also known as \"kick rail\".", "A middle rail at the height of the bolt is known as the \"lock rail\", other middle rails are commonly known as \"cross rails\".", "* Mullions – Smaller optional vertical boards that run between two rails, and split the door into two or more columns of panels, the term is used sometimes for verticals in doors, but more often (UK and Australia) it refers to verticals in windows.", "* Muntin – Optional vertical members that divide the door into smaller panels.", "* Panels – Large, wider boards used to fill the space between the stiles, rails, and mullions.", "The panels typically fit into grooves in the other pieces, and help to keep the door rigid.", "Panels may be flat, or in raised panel designs.", "Can be glued in or stay as a floating panel.", "* Light – a piece of glass used in place of a panel, essentially giving the door a window.=== Board battening ===Also known as ledges and braced, board and batten doors are an older design consisting primarily of vertical slats:* Planks – Boards wider than 9\" that extend the full height of the door, and are placed side by side filling the door's width.", "* Ledges and braces – Ledges extend horizontally across the door which the boards are affixed to.", "The ledges hold the planks together.", "When diagonally they are called braces which prevent the door from skewing.", "On some doors, especially antique ones, the ledges are replaced with iron bars that are often built into the hinges as extensions of the door-side plates.=== Ledging and bracing ===As board and Batten doors.=== Impact resistance ===Impact-resistant doors have rounded stile edges to dissipate energy and minimize edge chipping, scratching and denting.", "The formed edges are often made of an engineered material.", "Impact-resistant doors excel in high traffic areas such as hospitals, schools, hotels and coastal areas.=== Frame and fill ===This type consists of a solid timber frame, filled on one face, face with tongue and groove boards.", "Quite often used externally with the boards on the weather face.=== Flushing ===Flushing of a door means the door is flush with the face of the wall on either side.=== Moulding ===* Stiles and rails – As above, but usually smaller.", "They form the outside edges of the door.", "* '''Core material''': Material within the door used simply to fill space, provide rigidity and reduce druminess.", "** Hollow-core – Often consists of a lattice or honeycomb made of corrugated cardboard, extruded polystyrene foam, or thin wooden slats.", "Can also be built with staggered wooden blocks.", "Hollow-core molded doors are commonly used as interior doors.", "*** Lock block – A solid block of wood mounted within a hollow-core flush door near the bolt to provide a solid and stable location for mounting the door's hardware.", "** Stave-core – Consists of wooden slats stacked upon one another in a manner similar to a board & batten door (though the slats are usually thinner) or the wooden-block hollow-core (except that the space is entirely filled).", "** Solid-core – Can consist of low-density particle board or foam used to completely fill the space within the door.", "Solid-core flush doors (especially foam-core ones) are commonly used as exterior doors because they provide more insulation and strength.", "* Skin – The front and back faces of the door are covered with HDF/MDF skins.=== Swing direction ===Generally, '''door swings''', or handing, are determined while standing on the outside or less secure side of the door while facing the door (i.e., standing on the side requiring a key to open, going from outside to inside, or from public to private).It is important to get the hand and swing correct on exterior doors, as the transom is usually sloped and sealed to resist water entry, and properly drain.", "In some custom millwork (or with some master carpenters), the manufacture or installer bevels the leading edge (the first edge to meet the jamb as the door closes) so that the door fits tight without binding.", "Specifying an incorrect hand or swing can make the door bind, not close properly, or leak.", "Fixing this error is expensive or time-consuming.", "In North America, many doors now come with factory-installed hinges, pre-hung on the jamb and sills.While facing the door from the outside or less secure side, if the hinge is on the right side of the door, the door is \"right handed\"; or if the hinge is on the left, it is \"left handed\".", "If the door swings toward you, it is \"reverse swing\"; or if the door swings away from you, it is \"normal swing\".In other words:*In the United States:** '''Left hand hinge (LHH):''' Standing outside (or on the less secure side, or on the public side of the door), the hinges are on the left and the door opens in (away from you).", "** '''Right hand hinge (RHH):''' Standing outside (or on the less secure side), the hinges are on the right and the door opens in (away from you).", "** '''Left hand reverse (LHR):''' Standing outside the house (or on the less secure side), the hinges are on the left, knob on right, on opening the door it swings toward you (i.e.", "the door swings open toward the outside, or \"outswing\")** '''Right hand reverse (RHR):''' Standing outside the house (i.e.", "on the less secure side), the hinges are on the right, knob on left, opening the door by pulling the door toward you (i.e.", "open swings to the outside, or \"outswing\")*In Europe:** One of the oldest DIN standard applies: DIN 107 \"Building construction; identification of right and left side\" (first 1922–05, current 1974–04) defines that '''doors are categorized from the side where the door hinges can be seen'''.", "If the hinges are on the left, it is a DIN Left door (DIN links, DIN gauche), if the hinges are on the right, it is a DIN Right door (DIN rechts, DIN droite).", "The DIN Right and DIN Left marking are also used to categorize matching installation material such as mortise locks (referenced in DIN 107).", "The European Standard DIN EN 12519 \"Windows and pedestrian doors.", "Terminology\" includes these definitions of orientation.", "* In Australia:** The \"refrigerator rule\" applies, and a refrigerator door is not opened from the inside.", "If the hinges are on the right then it is a right hand (or right hung) door.", "(Australian Standards for Installation of Timber Doorsets, AS 1909–1984 pg 6.", ")** In public buildings, exterior doors open to the outside to comply with applicable fire codes.", "In a fire, a door that opens inward could cause a crush of people who cannot open it.=== Main materials ===New exterior doors are largely defined by the type of materials they are made from: wood, steel, fiberglass, UPVC/vinyl, aluminum, composite, glass (patio doors), etc.Palace of São Cristóvão, the former main residence of the Brazilian imperial family with gilded imperial cyphers of Emperor Pedro II of Brazil'''Wooden doors''' – including solid wood doors – are a top choice for many homeowners, largely because of the aesthetic qualities of wood.", "Many wood doors are custom-made, but they have several downsides: their price, their maintenance requirements (regular painting and staining) and their limited insulating value (R-5 to R-6, not including the effects of the glass elements of the doors).", "Wood doors often have an overhang requirement to maintain a warranty.", "An overhang is a roof, porch area or awning that helps to protect the door and its finish from UV rays.", "'''Steel doors''' are another major type of residential front doors; most of them come with a polyurethane or other type of foam insulation core – a critical factor in a building's overall comfort and efficiency.", "Steel doors mostly in default comes along with frame and lock system, which is a high cost efficiency factor compared to wooden doors.Most modern exterior walls provide thermal insulation and energy efficiency, which can be indicated by the Energy Star label or the Passive House standards.", "Premium '''composite''' (including steel doors with a thick core of polyurethane or other foam), '''fiberglass''' and '''vinyl doors''' benefit from the materials they are made from, from a thermal perspective.=== Insulation and weatherstripping ===But there are very few door models with an R-value close to 10 (the R-value measures how well a barrier resists the conductive flow of heat).", "This is far less than the R-40 walls or the R-50 ceilings of super-insulated buildings – Passive Solar and Zero Energy Buildings.", "Typical doors are not thick enough to provide very high levels of energy efficiency.Many doors may have good R-values at their center, but their overall energy efficiency is reduced because of the presence of glass and reinforcing elements, or because of poor weatherstripping and the way the door is manufactured.Door weatherstripping is particularly important for energy efficiency.", "German-made passive house doors use multiple weatherstrips, including magnetic strips, to meet higher standards.", "These weatherstrips reduce energy losses due to air leakage.=== Dimensions ======= United States ====Standard door sizes in the US run along 2\" increments.", "Customary sizes have a height of and a width of .", "Most residential passage (room to room) doors are .A standard US residential (exterior) door size is .", "Interior doors for wheelchair access must also have a minimum width of .", "Residential interior doors, as well as the doors of many small stores, offices, and other light commercial buildings, are often somewhat smaller than the doors of larger commercial buildings, public buildings, and grand homes.", "Older buildings often have smaller doors.", "'''Thickness:''' Most pre-fabricated doors are 1 3/8\" thick (for interior doors) or 1 3/4\" (exterior).", "'''Closets:''' small spaces such as closets, dressing rooms, half-baths, storage rooms, cellars, etc.", "often are accessed through doors smaller than passage doors in one or both dimensions but similar in design.", "'''Garages:''' Garage doors are generally 84\" (7 feet; 2134 mm) or 96\" (8 feet; 2438 mm) wide for a single-car opening.", "Two car garage doors (sometimes called double car doors) are a single door 192\" (16 feet; 4877 mm).", "Because of size and weight these doors are usually sectional.", "That is split into four or five horizontal sections so that they can be raised more easily and do not require a lot of additional space above the door when opening and closing.", "Single piece double garage doors are common in some older homes.==== Europe ====Standard DIN doors are defined in DIN 18101 (published 1955–07, 1985–01, 2014–08).", "Door sizes are also given in the construction standard for wooden door panels (DIN 68706–1).", "The DIN commission created the harmonized European standard DIN EN 14351-1 for exterior doors and DIN EN 14351-2 for interior doors (published 2006–07, 2010–08), which define requirements for the CE marking and provide standard sizes by examples in the appendix.The DIN 18101 standard has a normative size (Nennmaß) slightly larger than the panel size (Türblatt) as the standard derives the panel sizes from the normative size being different single door vs double door and molded vs unmolded doors.", "DIN 18101/1985 defines interior single molded doors to have a common panel height of 1985 mm (normativ height 2010 mm) at panel widths of 610 mm, 735 mm, 860 mm, 985 mm, 1110 mm, plus a larger door panel size of 1110 mm x 2110 mm.", "The newer DIN 18101/2014 drops the definition of just five standard door sizes in favor of a basic raster running along 125 mm increments where the height and width are independent.", "Panel width may be in the range 485 mm to 1360 mmm, and the height may be in the range of 1610 mm to 2735 mm.", "The most common interior door is .=== Doorways ===A diagram illustrating the components of a panel doorWhen framed in wood for snug fitting of a door, the doorway consists of two vertical ''jambs'' on either side, a ''lintel'' or ''head jamb'' at the top, and perhaps a ''threshold'' at the bottom.", "When a door has more than one movable section, one of the sections may be called a ''leaf''.", "See door furniture for a discussion of attachments to doors such as door handles, doorknobs, and door knockers.", "* Lintel – A horizontal beam above a door that supports the wall above it.", "(Also known as a ''header'')* Jambs or legs – The vertical posts that form the sides of a door frame, where the hinges are mounted, and with which the bolt interacts.", "* Door casing ''door casing'', door frame or chambranle – Is formed by the lintel and the two jambs.", "* Sill (for exterior doors) – A horizontal sill plate below the door that supports the door frame.", "Similar to a Window Sill but for a door* Threshold (for exterior doors) – A horizontal plate below the door that bridges the crack between the interior floor and the sill.", "* Doorstop – a thin slat built inside the frame to prevent a door from swinging through when closed, an act which might break the hinges.", "* Architrave – The decorative molding that outlines a door frame, called an Archivolt if the door is arched.", "Sometimes called ''brickmold'' in North America.Door lock.jpg|Front door of a house with typical door furniture: a letter box, door knocker, a latch and two locksParis Rue de Douai5134.JPG|A door knocker with putti holding a cartouche, in ParisGalerie dorée071.jpg|Pair of door knobs in the Galerie dorée de la Banque de France of the Hôtel de Toulouse (Paris)St. Pancras Station (door & hinge).", "Camden.JPG|Hinge of a door of the St Pancras railway station (London)=== Related hardware ===Door furniture or hardware refers to any of the items that are attached to a door or a drawer to enhance its functionality or appearance.", "This includes items such as hinges, handles, door stops, etc." ], [ "Safety", "'''Door safety''' relates to prevention of door-related accidents.", "Such accidents take place in various forms, and in a number of locations; ranging from car doors to garage doors.", "Accidents vary in severity and frequency.", "According to the National Safety Council in the United States, around 300,000 door-related injuries occur every year.The types of accidents vary from relatively minor cases where doors cause damage to other objects, such as walls, to serious cases resulting in human injury, particularly to fingers, hands, and feet.", "A closing door can exert up to 40 tons per square inch of pressure between the hinges.", "Because of the number of accidents taking place, there has been a surge in the number of lawsuits.", "Thus organisations may be at risk when car doors or doors within buildings are unprotected.According to the US General Services Administration, discussing child care centres:=== Opening direction ===Whenever a door is opened outward, there is a risk that it could strike another person.", "In many cases this can be avoided by architectural design which favors doors which open inward to rooms (from the perspective of a common area such as a corridor, the door opens outward).", "In cases where this is infeasible, it may be possible to avoid an accident by placing vision panels in the door.Inward-hinged doors can also escalate an accident by preventing people from escaping the building: people inside the building may press against the doors, and thus prevent the doors from opening.", "Related accidents include:* Grue Church fire: Grue, Norway in 1822* Victoria Hall Disaster: Sunderland, UK in 1883* Glen Cinema disaster: Paisley, UK in 1929* Cocoanut Grove fire: Boston, USA in 1942Today, the exterior doors of most large (especially public) buildings open outward, while interior doors such as doors to individual rooms, offices, suites, etc.", "open inward, as do many exterior doors of houses, particularly in North America.=== Stops ===Doorstops are simple devices that prevent a door from contacting and possibly damaging another object (typically a wall).", "They may either absorb the force of a moving door, or hold the door against unintended motion.=== Guards ===Door guards (hinge guards, anti-finger trapping devices, or finger guards) help prevent finger trapping accidents, as doors pose a risk to children, especially when closing.", "Door guards protect fingers in door hinges by covering the hinge-side gap of an open door, typically with a piece of rubber or plastic that wraps from the door frame to the door.", "Other door safety products eject the fingers from the push side of the door as it closes.There are various levels of door protection.", "Anti-finger trapping devices in front may leave the rear hinge pin side of doors unprotected.", "Full door protection uses front and rear anti-finger trapping devices and ensures the hinge side of a door is fully isolated.", "A risk assessment of the door determines the appropriate level of protection.There is also handle-side door protection, which prevents the door from slamming shut on the frame, which can cause injury to fingers/hands.=== Glass ===Glass doors pose the risk of unintentional collision if a person is unaware there is a door, or thinks it is open when it is not.", "This risk is greater with sliding glass doors because they often have large single panes that are hard to see.", "Stickers or other types of warnings on the glass surface make it more visible and help prevent injury.", "In the UK, Regulation 14 of the Workplace (Health and Safety Regulations) 1992 requires that builders mark windows and glass doors to make them conspicuous.", "Australian Standards: AS1288 and AS2208 require that glass doors be made of laminated, tempered, or toughened glass.=== Fire ===Buildings often have special purpose doors that automatically close to prevent the spread of fire and smoke.", "Fire doors that are improperly installed or tampered with can increase risk during a fire.", "Sometimes, door closer mechanisms ensure fire doors remain closed.An additional fire risk is that doors may prevent access to emergency services personnel coming to fight the fire and rescue occupants, etc.", "Fire fighters must use door breaching techniques in these situations to gain access.Doors in public buildings often have panic bars, which open the door in response to anyone pressing against the bar from the inside in the event of a fire or other emergency.=== Automobiles ===Vehicle doors present an increased risk of trapping hands or fingers due to the proximity of occupants.Bicyclists cycling on public roads risk dooring: collision with an abruptly opened vehicle door.", "Because cyclists often ride near parked cars alongside the road, they are particularly vulnerable.=== Aircraft ===In aircraft, doors in a pressurized cabin or cargo hold could pose risk if they open during flight, causing decompression.", "Air may rush out of the fuselage with sufficient velocity to eject unsecured occupants, cargo, and other items, and drastic pressure differences between compartments may cause aircraft floors or other interior partitions to fail.", "These concerns are typically mitigated with plug doors, which open inward.", "They are secured into their door frames by the difference in air pressure.", "Most cabin doors and emergency exits are of this type, but cargo doors typically open outward to maximise interior space.A number of aircraft accidents have involved outward-opening door failures, including:* American Airlines Flight 96 (1972) (design flaw)* Turkish Airlines Flight 981 (1974) (design flaw)* 1975 Tân Sơn Nhứt C-5 accident (poor maintenance)* United Airlines Flight 811 (1989) (design flaw)" ], [ "See also", "* Biometrics* Closed-circuit television* Coal hole* Door loop, a method for providing electric cabling to a door* Door security* Gibbs surround, a type of elaborate door (or window) surround* Double margin doors* Electronic lock* Hinge bender, a tool for adjusting door hinges* Identity document* IP camera* Janus, Roman god of doors* Keycards* Locksmithing* Lock picking* Logical security* Platform screen doors" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General references", "*" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Database normalization" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Database normalization''' is the process of structuring a relational database in accordance with a series of so-called '''''normal forms''''' in order to reduce data redundancy and improve data integrity.", "It was first proposed by British computer scientist Edgar F. Codd as part of his relational model.Normalization entails organizing the columns (attributes) and tables (relations) of a database to ensure that their dependencies are properly enforced by database integrity constraints.", "It is accomplished by applying some formal rules either by a process of ''synthesis'' (creating a new database design) or ''decomposition'' (improving an existing database design)." ], [ "Objectives", "A basic objective of the first normal form defined by Codd in 1970 was to permit data to be queried and manipulated using a \"universal data sub-language\" grounded in first-order logic.", "An example of such a language is SQL, though it is one that Codd regarded as seriously flawed.The objectives of normalisation beyond 1NF (first normal form) were stated by Codd as:An '''insertion anomaly'''.", "Until the new faculty member, Dr. Newsome, is assigned to teach at least one course, their details cannot be recorded.An '''update anomaly'''.", "Employee 519 is shown as having different addresses on different records.A '''deletion anomaly'''.", "All information about Dr. Giddens is lost if they temporarily cease to be assigned to any courses.When an attempt is made to modify (update, insert into, or delete from) a relation, the following undesirable side effects may arise in relations that have not been sufficiently normalized:;Insertion anomaly: There are circumstances in which certain facts cannot be recorded at all.", "For example, each record in a \"Faculty and Their Courses\" relation might contain a Faculty ID, Faculty Name, Faculty Hire Date, and Course Code.", "Therefore, the details of any faculty member who teaches at least one course can be recorded, but a newly hired faculty member who has not yet been assigned to teach any courses cannot be recorded, except by setting the Course Code to null.", ";Update anomaly: The same information can be expressed on multiple rows; therefore updates to the relation may result in logical inconsistencies.", "For example, each record in an \"Employees' Skills\" relation might contain an Employee ID, Employee Address, and Skill; thus a change of address for a particular employee may need to be applied to multiple records (one for each skill).", "If the update is only partially successful – the employee's address is updated on some records but not others – then the relation is left in an inconsistent state.", "Specifically, the relation provides conflicting answers to the question of what this particular employee's address is.", ";Deletion anomaly: Under certain circumstances, the deletion of data representing certain facts necessitates the deletion of data representing completely different facts.", "The \"Faculty and Their Courses\" relation described in the previous example suffers from this type of anomaly, for if a faculty member temporarily ceases to be assigned to any courses, the last of the records on which that faculty member appears must be deleted, effectively also deleting the faculty member, unless the Course Code field is set to null.=== Minimize redesign when extending the database structure ===A fully normalized database allows its structure to be extended to accommodate new types of data without changing existing structure too much.", "As a result, applications interacting with the database are minimally affected.Normalized relations, and the relationship between one normalized relation and another, mirror real-world concepts and their interrelationships." ], [ "Normal forms", "Codd introduced the concept of normalization and what is now known as the first normal form (1NF) in 1970.Codd went on to define the second normal form (2NF) and third normal form (3NF) in 1971, and Codd and Raymond F. Boyce defined the Boyce–Codd normal form (BCNF) in 1974.Informally, a relational database relation is often described as \"normalized\" if it meets third normal form.", "Most 3NF relations are free of insertion, updation, and deletion anomalies.The normal forms (from least normalized to most normalized) are: Constraint UNF 1NF 2NF 3NF EKNF BCNF 4NF ETNF 5NF DKNF 6NF Unique rows (no duplicate records) Scalar columns (columns cannot contain relations or composite values) Every non-prime attribute has a full functional dependency on a candidate key (attributes depend on the ''whole'' of every key) Every non-trivial functional dependency either begins with a superkey or ends with a prime attribute (attributes depend ''only'' on candidate keys) Every non-trivial functional dependency either begins with a superkey or ends with an elementary prime attribute (a stricter form of 3NF) Every non-trivial functional dependency begins with a superkey (a stricter form of 3NF) Every non-trivial multivalued dependency begins with a superkey Every join dependency has a superkey component Every join dependency has only superkey components Every constraint is a consequence of domain constraints and key constraints Every join dependency is trivial" ], [ "Example of a step-by-step normalization", "Normalization is a database design technique, which is used to design a relational database table up to higher normal form.", "The process is progressive, and a higher level of database normalization cannot be achieved unless the previous levels have been satisfied.That means that, having data in unnormalized form (the least normalized) and aiming to achieve the highest level of normalization, the first step would be to ensure compliance to first normal form, the second step would be to ensure second normal form is satisfied, and so forth in order mentioned above, until the data conform to sixth normal form.However, it is worth noting that normal forms beyond 4NF are mainly of academic interest, as the problems they exist to solve rarely appear in practice.", "''The data in the following example were intentionally designed to contradict most of the normal forms.", "In practice it is often possible to skip some of the normalization steps because the data is already normalized to some extent.", "Fixing a violation of one normal form also often fixes a violation of a higher normal form.", "In the example, one table has been chosen for normalization at each step, meaning that at the end, some tables might not be sufficiently normalized.", "''=== Initial data ===Let a database table exist with the following structure:TitleAuthorAuthor NationalityFormatPriceSubjectPagesThicknessPublisherPublisher CountryGenre IDGenre NameBeginning MySQL Database Design and OptimizationChad RussellAmericanHardcover49.99MySQLDatabase Design520ThickApressUSA1TutorialFor this example it is assumed that each book has only one author.A table that conforms to the relational model has a primary key which uniquely identifies a row.", "Two books could have the same title, but an ISBN uniquely identifies a book, so it can be used as the primary key:ISBNTitleAuthorAuthor NationalityFormatPriceSubjectPagesThicknessPublisherPublisher CountryGenre IDGenre Name1590593324Beginning MySQL Database Design and OptimizationChad RussellAmericanHardcover49.99MySQLDatabase Design520ThickApressUSA1Tutorial=== Satisfying 1NF ===In the first normal form each field contains a single value.", "A field may not contain a set of values or a nested record.", "'''Subject''' contains a set of subject values, meaning it does not comply.To solve the problem, the subjects are extracted into a separate '''Subject''' table:+BookISBNTitleAuthorAuthor NationalityFormatPricePagesThicknessPublisherPublisher CountryGenre IDGenre Name1590593324Beginning MySQL Database Design and OptimizationChad RussellAmericanHardcover49.99520ThickApressUSA1Tutorial+'''Subject''''''ISBN''''''Subject name'''1590593324MySQL1590593324Database1590593324DesignIn '''Subject''', '''ISBN''' is a foreign key: It refers to the primary key in '''Book''', and makes the relationship between these two tables explicit.Instead of one table in unnormalized form, there are now two tables conforming to the 1NF.=== Satisfying 2NF ===The '''Book''' table below has a composite key of '''{Title, Format}''' (indicated by the underlining), which will not satisfy 2NF if some subset of that key is a determinant.", "At this point in our design the '''key''' is not finalised as the primary key, so it is called a candidate key.", "Consider the following table: +BookTitleFormatAuthorAuthor NationalityPricePagesThicknessPublisherPublisher CountryGenre IDGenre NameBeginning MySQL Database Design and OptimizationHardcoverChad RussellAmerican49.99520ThickApressUSA1TutorialBeginning MySQL Database Design and OptimizationE-bookChad RussellAmerican22.34520ThickApressUSA1TutorialThe Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2E-bookE.F.CoddBritish13.88538ThickAddison-WesleyUSA2Popular scienceThe Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2PaperbackE.F.CoddBritish39.99538ThickAddison-WesleyUSA2Popular scienceAll of the attributes that are not part of the candidate key depend on ''Title'', but only ''Price'' also depends on ''Format''.", "To conform to 2NF and remove duplicates, every non-candidate-key attribute must depend on the whole candidate key, not just part of it.To normalize this table, make '''{Title}''' a (simple) candidate key (the primary key) so that every non-candidate-key attribute depends on the whole candidate key, and remove ''Price'' into a separate table so that its dependency on ''Format'' can be preserved:+BookTitleAuthorAuthor NationalityPagesThicknessPublisherPublisher CountryGenre IDGenre NameBeginning MySQL Database Design and OptimizationChad RussellAmerican520ThickApressUSA1TutorialThe Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2E.F.CoddBritish538ThickAddison-WesleyUSA2Popular science+PriceTitleFormatPriceBeginning MySQL Database Design and OptimizationHardcover49.99Beginning MySQL Database Design and OptimizationE-book22.34The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2E-book13.88The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2Paperback39.99Now, both the '''Book''' and '''Price''' tables conform to 2NF.=== Satisfying 3NF ===The '''Book''' table still has a transitive functional dependency ({Author Nationality} is dependent on {Author}, which is dependent on {Title}).", "Similar violations exist for publisher ({Publisher Country} is dependent on {Publisher}, which is dependent on {Title}) and for genre ({Genre Name} is dependent on {Genre ID}, which is dependent on {Title}).", "Hence, the '''Book''' table is not in 3NF.", "To make it in 3NF, let's use the following table structure, thereby eliminating the transitive functional dependencies by placing {Author Nationality}, {Publisher Country}, and {Genre Name} in their own respective tables:+BookTitleAuthorPagesThicknessPublisherGenre IDBeginning MySQL Database Design and OptimizationChad Russell520ThickApress1The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2E.F.Codd538ThickAddison-Wesley2+PriceTitleFormatPriceBeginning MySQL Database Design and OptimizationHardcover49.99Beginning MySQL Database Design and OptimizationE-book22.34The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2E-book13.88The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2Paperback39.99+AuthorAuthorAuthor NationalityChad RussellAmericanE.F.CoddBritish+PublisherPublisherCountryApressUSAAddison-WesleyUSA+GenreGenre IDName1Tutorial2Popular science=== Satisfying EKNF === The elementary key normal form (EKNF) falls strictly between 3NF and BCNF and is not much discussed in the literature.", "It is intended ''\"to capture the salient qualities of both 3NF and BCNF\"'' while avoiding the problems of both (namely, that 3NF is \"too forgiving\" and BCNF is \"prone to computational complexity\").", "Since it is rarely mentioned in literature, it is not included in this example.=== Satisfying 4NF ===Assume the database is owned by a book retailer franchise that has several franchisees that own shops in different locations.", "And therefore the retailer decided to add a table that contains data about availability of the books at different locations:'''Franchisee - Book - Location'''Franchisee IDTitleLocation1Beginning MySQL Database Design and OptimizationCalifornia1Beginning MySQL Database Design and OptimizationFlorida1Beginning MySQL Database Design and OptimizationTexas1The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2California1The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2Florida1The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2Texas2Beginning MySQL Database Design and OptimizationCalifornia2Beginning MySQL Database Design and OptimizationFlorida2Beginning MySQL Database Design and OptimizationTexas2The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2California2The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2Florida2The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2Texas3Beginning MySQL Database Design and OptimizationTexasAs this table structure consists of a compound primary key, it doesn't contain any non-key attributes and it's already in BCNF (and therefore also satisfies all the previous normal forms).", "However, assuming that all available books are offered in each area, the '''Title''' is not unambiguously bound to a certain '''Location''' and therefore the table doesn't satisfy 4NF.That means that, to satisfy the fourth normal form, this table needs to be decomposed as well:'''Franchisee - Book'''Franchisee IDTitle1Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization1The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 22Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization2The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 23Beginning MySQL Database Design and OptimizationFranchisee - LocationFranchisee IDLocation1California1Florida1Texas2California2Florida2Texas3TexasNow, every record is unambiguously identified by a superkey, therefore 4NF is satisfied.=== Satisfying ETNF ===Suppose the franchisees can also order books from different suppliers.", "Let the relation also be subject to the following constraint:* If a certain '''supplier''' supplies a certain '''title''' * and the '''title''' is supplied to the '''franchisee''' * and the '''franchisee''' is being supplied by the '''supplier,'''* then the '''supplier''' supplies the '''title''' to the '''franchisee'''.+Supplier - Book - FranchiseeSupplier IDTitleFranchisee ID1Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization12The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 223Learning SQL3This table is in 4NF, but the Supplier ID is equal to the join of its projections: '''.'''", "No component of that join dependency is a superkey (the sole superkey being the entire heading), so the table does not satisfy the ETNF and can be further decomposed: +Supplier - BookSupplier IDTitle1Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization2The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 23Learning SQL+Book - FranchiseeTitleFranchisee IDBeginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization1The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 22Learning SQL3+Franchisee - SupplierSupplier IDFranchisee ID112233The decomposition produces ETNF compliance.=== Satisfying 5NF ===To spot a table not satisfying the 5NF, it is usually necessary to examine the data thoroughly.", "Suppose the table from 4NF example with a little modification in data and let's examine if it satisfies 5NF: '''Franchisee - Book - Location'''Franchisee IDTitleLocation1Beginning MySQL Database Design and OptimizationCalifornia1Learning SQLCalifornia1The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2Texas2The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2CaliforniaDecomposing this table lowers redundancies, resulting in the following two tables:'''Franchisee - Book''' Franchisee IDTitle1Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization1Learning SQL1The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 22The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2'''Franchisee - Location'''Franchisee IDLocation1California1Texas2CaliforniaThe query joining these tables would return the following data:'''Franchisee - Book - Location JOINed'''Franchisee IDTitleLocation1Beginning MySQL Database Design and OptimizationCalifornia1Learning SQLCalifornia1The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2California1The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2Texas1Learning SQLTexas1Beginning MySQL Database Design and OptimizationTexas2The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2CaliforniaThe JOIN returns three more rows than it should; adding another table to clarify the relation results in three separate tables:'''Franchisee - Book'''Franchisee IDTitle1Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization1Learning SQL1The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 22The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2'''Franchisee - Location'''Franchisee IDLocation1California1Texas2California'''Location - Book'''LocationTitleCaliforniaBeginning MySQL Database Design and OptimizationCaliforniaLearning SQLCaliforniaThe Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2TexasThe Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2What will the JOIN return now?", "It actually is not possible to join these three tables.", "That means it wasn't possible to decompose the '''Franchisee - Book - Location''' without data loss, therefore the table already satisfies 5NF.C.J.", "Date has argued that only a database in 5NF is truly \"normalized\".=== Satisfying DKNF ===Let's have a look at the '''Book''' table from previous examples and see if it satisfies the domain-key normal form:+BookTitle'''Pages'''Thickness''Genre ID''''Publisher ID''Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization520Thick''1''''1''The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2538Thick''2''''2''Learning SQL338Slim''1''''3''SQL Cookbook636Thick''1''''3''Logically, '''Thickness''' is determined by number of pages.", "That means it depends on '''Pages''' which is not a key.", "Let's set an example convention saying a book up to 350 pages is considered \"slim\" and a book over 350 pages is considered \"thick\".This convention is technically a constraint but it is neither a domain constraint nor a key constraint; therefore we cannot rely on domain constraints and key constraints to keep the data integrity.In other words – nothing prevents us from putting, for example, \"Thick\" for a book with only 50 pages – and this makes the table violate DKNF.To solve this, a table holding enumeration that defines the '''Thickness''' is created, and that column is removed from the original table:+Thickness EnumThicknessMin pagesMax pagesSlim1350Thick351999,999,999,999+Book - Pages - Genre - PublisherTitlePages''Genre ID''''Publisher ID''Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization520''1''''1''The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2538''2''''2''Learning SQL338''1''''3''SQL Cookbook636''1''''3''That way, the domain integrity violation has been eliminated, and the table is in DKNF.=== Satisfying 6NF ===A simple and intuitive definition of the sixth normal form is that ''\"a table is in 6NF when '''the row contains the Primary Key, and at most one other attribute\"''''''''.", "'''That means, for example, the '''Publisher''' table designed while creating the 1NF:+PublisherPublisher IDNameCountry1ApressUSAneeds to be further decomposed into two tables:+PublisherPublisher IDName1Apress+Publisher countryPublisher IDCountry1USA The obvious drawback of 6NF is the proliferation of tables required to represent the information on a single entity.", "If a table in 5NF has one primary key column and N attributes, representing the same information in 6NF will require N tables; multi-field updates to a single conceptual record will require updates to multiple tables; and inserts and deletes will similarly require operations across multiple tables.", "For this reason, in databases intended to serve online transaction processing (OLTP) needs, 6NF should not be used.However, in data warehouses, which do not permit interactive updates and which are specialized for fast query on large data volumes, certain DBMSs use an internal 6NF representation – known as a columnar data store.", "In situations where the number of unique values of a column is far less than the number of rows in the table, column-oriented storage allow significant savings in space through data compression.", "Columnar storage also allows fast execution of range queries (e.g., show all records where a particular column is between X and Y, or less than X.", ")In all these cases, however, the database designer does not have to perform 6NF normalization manually by creating separate tables.", "Some DBMSs that are specialized for warehousing, such as Sybase IQ, use columnar storage by default, but the designer still sees only a single multi-column table.", "Other DBMSs, such as Microsoft SQL Server 2012 and later, let you specify a \"columnstore index\" for a particular table." ], [ "See also", "* Denormalization* Database refactoring* Lossless join decomposition" ], [ "Notes and references" ], [ "Further reading", "* Date, C. J.", "(1999), '' An Introduction to Database Systems'' (8th ed.).", "Addison-Wesley Longman.", ".", "* Kent, W. (1983) '' A Simple Guide to Five Normal Forms in Relational Database Theory'', Communications of the ACM, vol.", "26, pp.", "120–125* H.-J.", "Schek, P. Pistor Data Structures for an Integrated Data Base Management and Information Retrieval System" ], [ "External links", "* * Database Normalization Basics by Mike Chapple (About.com)* Database Normalization Intro , Part 2 * An Introduction to Database Normalization by Mike Hillyer.", "* A tutorial on the first 3 normal forms by Fred Coulson* Description of the database normalization basics by Microsoft* Normalization in DBMS by Chaitanya (beginnersbook.com)* A Step-by-Step Guide to Database Normalization* ETNF – Essential tuple normal form" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Desmothoracid" ], [ "Introduction", "Order '''Desmothoracida''', the '''desmothoracids''', are a group of heliozoan protists, usually sessile and found in freshwater environments.", "The adult is a spherical cell around 10-20 μm in diameter surrounded by a perforated organic lorica, or shell, with many radial pseudopods projecting through the holes to capture food.", "These are supported by small bundles of microtubules that arise near a point on the nuclear membrane.", "Unlike other heliozoans, the microtubules are not in any regular geometric array, there does not appear to be a microtubule organizing center, and there is no distinction between the outer and inner cytoplasm.Reproduction takes place by the budding-off of small motile cells, usually with two flagella.", "Later these are lost, and the pseudopods and lorica are formed.", "Typically, a single lengthened pseudopod will secrete a hollow stalk that attaches the cell to the substrate.", "The form of the flagella, the tubular cristae within the mitochondria, and other characters have led to the suggestion that the desmothoracids belong among what is now the Cercozoa.", "This was later confirmed by genetic studies.As of the year 2000, the order Desmothoracida contained five genera with a total of 10 species.", "* Order '''Desmothoracida''' Hartwig & Lesser 1874 emend.", "Honigberg et al.", "1964** Family '''Clathrulinidae''' Claus 1874*** Genus ''Clathrulina'' Cienkowski 1867 ''Podosphaera'' Archer 1868 non Kunze 1823; ''Elaster'' Grimm 1872; ''Eleaster'' (sic) Schmidt 1913; ''Orbulinella'' Entz 1877**** Species ''Clathrulina elegans'' Cienkowski 1867 ''Clathrulina ovalis'' (von Daday 1885) Deflandre, 1926; ''Clathrulina cienkowskii ovalis'' von Daday 1885; ''Clathrulina cienkowskii'' Mereschkowsky 1879; ''Clathrulina stuhlmanni'' Schaudinn 1897; ''Podosphaera haeckeliana'' Archer 1868; ''Elaster greeffi'' Grimm 1872**** Species ''Clathrulina smaragdea'' (Entz 1877) Mikrjukov 2000 ''Orbulinella smaragdea'' Entz 1877; ''Orbulinella salina'' Labbe 1924*** Genus ''Hedriocystis'' Hertwig & Lesser 1874**** Species ''Hedriocystis pellucida'' Hertwig & Lesser 1874**** Species ''Hedriocystis minor'' Siemensma 1991**** Species ''Hedriocystis zhadani'' Mikrjukov 2000*** Genus ''Penardiophrys'' Mikrjukov 2000**** Species ''Penardiophrys reticulata'' (Penard 1904) Mikrjukov 2000 ''Hedriocystis reticulata'' Penard 1904**** Species ''Penardiophrys spinifera'' (Brown 1918) Mikrjukov 2000 ''Hedriocystis spinifera'' Brown 1918*** Genus ''Cienkowskya'' Schaudinn 1896 non Regel & Rach 1859 non Solms 1867 ''Cienkowskia'' Weldon & Hickson 1909 non Rostafinski 1873 non Schweinfurth 1867 non Solms 1867; ''Wagneria'' Cienkowsky 1881 non Robineau-Desvoidy 1830 non Gistl 1848 non Alenitzin 1873 non Lemaire 1857 non Hesse 1912 non Heilprin 1887 non McCook 1895 non Jedlicka 1935 non Denier 1933 non Meladze 1967; ''Monomastigocystis'' de Saedeleer 1930**** Species ''Cienkowskya mereschkovckii'' (Cienkowsky 1881) Schaudinn 1896 ''Wagneria mereschkowskyi'' Cienkowsky 1881**** Species ''Cienkowskya brachypous'' (De Saedeleer 1930) Mikrjukov 2000 ''Monomastigocystis brachypous'' de Saedeleer 1930; ''Hedriocystis brachypous'' (De Saedeleer 1930) Siemensma 1991*** Genus ''Actinosphaeridium'' Zacharias 1893 ''Actinopshaeridium'' (sic)**** Species ''Actinosphaeridium pedatus'' Zacharias 1893 ''Nuclearia caulescens'' Penard 1903" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dalhousie University" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dalhousie University''' (commonly known as '''Dal''') is a large public research university in Nova Scotia, Canada, with three campuses in Halifax, a fourth in Bible Hill, and a second medical school campus in Saint John, New Brunswick.", "Dalhousie offers over 200 degree programs in 13 undergraduate, graduate, and professional faculties.", "The university is a member of the U15, a group of research-intensive universities in Canada.The institution was established as Dalhousie College, a nonsectarian institution established in 1818 by the eponymous Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia, George Ramsay, 9th Earl of Dalhousie, with education reformer, Thomas McCulloch, as its first principal.", "However, the college did not hold its first class until 1838, with operations remaining sporadic due to financial difficulties.", "The college was reorganized in 1863 and renamed The Governors of Dalhousie College and University.", "The university formally changed its name to Dalhousie University in 1997 through the same provincial legislation that merged the institution with the Technical University of Nova Scotia.Dalhousie's varsity teams, the Tigers, compete in the Atlantic University Sport conference of Canadian Interuniversity Sport.", "Dalhousie's Faculty of Agriculture varsity teams are called the Dalhousie Rams, and compete in the ACAA and CCAA.", "Dalhousie is a coeducational university with more than 20,000 students and 150,000 alumni around the world.", "The university's notable alumni include a Nobel Prize winner and 94 Rhodes Scholars." ], [ "History", "Dalhousie was founded, as the Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia George Ramsay, 9th Earl of Dalhousie, desired a non-denominational college in Halifax.", "Financing largely came from customs duties collected by a previous Lieutenant Governor, John Coape Sherbrooke, during the War of 1812 occupation of Castine, Maine; Sherbrooke invested £7,000 as an initial endowment and reserved £3,000 for the physical construction of the college.", "The college was established in 1818 though it faltered shortly after, as Ramsay left Halifax to serve as the Governor General of British North America.", "The school was structured upon the principles of the University of Edinburgh, located near Ramsay's home in Scotland, where lectures were open to male students, regardless of Christian religion or nationality.", "In 1821, Dalhousie College was officially incorporated by the Nova Scotia House of Assembly under the 1821 Act of Incorporation.", "The college did not hold its first class until 1838; operation of the college was intermittent and no degrees were awarded.", "In 1841, an Act of the Nova Scotia House of Assembly conferred university powers on Dalhousie.", "Dalhousie's first principal was Thomas McCulloch (1838 –1843).", "A Presbyterian minister and naturalist, he was the founder of Nova Scotia's second degree-granting institution (after King's College, now University of King's College), Pictou Academy in Pictou, Nova Scotia, which attracted students from PEI, Cape Breton, as well as the Caribbean due of McCulloch's views and the school's ecumenical stance.", "In 1838, the board of Dalhousie College was able to convince McCulloch leave Pictou Academy and take on the floundering Dalhousie.", "With a reputation as an anti-papal pamphleteer and firmly against the Church of England's hold on higher education in Nova Scotia (through King's College), McCulloch carried with him from Pictou his education theory and pedagogy, “If Dalhousie College acquires usefulness and eminence, it will be not by an imitation of Oxford, but as an institution of science, and practical intelligence.” His approach to education was radical: he firmly believed that all schools \"ought first to be ascertained, how far it is calculated to improve the community; and, if its general utility appear, it is, in proportion to its value and to the extent of the public funds, unquestionably entitled to the protection of Government, whether it belong to churchmen or Presbyterian dissenters, protestants or catholics, ought to be entirely disregarded!\"", "He was responsible for creating a chair of natural history at Dalhousie to teach \"geology, mineralogy, botany, and zoology.", "\"Following McCulloch's death, the college fell into decline once again and was reorganized as a high school in 1848.In 1863, the college opened for a third time and was reorganized by another legislative act, which added \"University\" to the school's name: \"The Governors of Dalhousie College and University\".", "Dalhousie reopened with six professors and one tutor.", "When it awarded its first degrees in 1866, the student body consisted of 28 male students working toward degrees and 28 occasional students.", "Grand Parade until it moved in 1886.|alt=Original Dalhousie University building circa 1871Despite the reorganization and an increase in students, money continued to be a problem for the institution.", "In 1879, amid talks of closure due to the university's dire financial situation, George Munro, a wealthy New York publisher with Nova Scotian roots, began to donate to the university; Munro was brother-in-law to Dalhousie's Board of Governors member John Forrest.", "As such, Munro is credited with rescuing Dalhousie from closure.", "In honour of his contributions, Dalhousie observes a university holiday called George Munro Day on the first Friday of each February.", "The first female graduate was Margaret Florence Newcombe from Grafton, Nova Scotia, who earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1885.Originally located at the space now occupied by Halifax City Hall, the college moved in 1886 to Carleton Campus and spread gradually to Studley Campus.", "Dalhousie grew steadily during the 20th century.", "From 1889 to 1962 the Halifax Conservatory was affiliated with and awarded degrees through Dalhousie.", "In 1920, several buildings were destroyed by fire on the campus of the University of King's College in Windsor, Nova Scotia.", "Through a grant from the Carnegie Foundation, King's College relocated to Halifax and entered into a partnership with Dalhousie that continues to this day.Dalhousie expanded on 1 April,1997 when provincial legislation mandated an amalgamation with the nearby Technical University of Nova Scotia.", "This merger saw reorganization of faculties and departments to create the Faculty of Engineering, Faculty of Computer Science and the Faculty of Architecture and Planning.", "From 1997 to 2000, the Technical University of Nova Scotia operated as a constituent college of Dalhousie called Dalhousie Polytechnic of Nova Scotia (DalTech) until the collegiate system was dissolved.", "The legislation that merged the two schools also formally changed the name of the institution to its present form, Dalhousie University.", "On 1 September 2012, the Nova Scotia Agricultural College merged into Dalhousie to form a new Faculty of Agriculture, located in Bible Hill, Nova Scotia." ], [ "Campuses", "The Faculty of Architecture and Planning building is located at Sexton Campus.", "Sexton was the former campus of the Technical University of Nova Scotia before its merger with Dalhousie in 1997.Dalhousie has three campuses within the Halifax Peninsula and a fourth, the Agricultural Campus, in Bible Hill, Nova Scotia.Studley Campus in Halifax serves as the primary campus; it houses the majority of the university's academic buildings such as faculties, athletic facilities, and the university's Student Union Building.", "The campus is largely surrounded by residential neighbourhoods.Robie Street divides it from the adjacent Carleton Campus, which houses the faculties of dentistry, medicine, and other health profession departments.", "The campus is adjacent to two large teaching hospitals affiliated with the school: the IWK Health Centre and the Queen Elizabeth II Health Sciences Centre.Sexton Campus in Downtown Halifax hosts the engineering, architecture and planning faculties.", "Sexton Campus served as the campus of the Technical University of Nova Scotia prior to amalgamation.", "The Agricultural Campus in Bible Hill, a suburban community of Truro, served as the campus for the Nova Scotia Agricultural College prior to its merger with Dalhousie in 2011.The university presently operates the largest academic library system in Atlantic Canada, and hosts the headquarters for the Ocean Tracking Network.The buildings at Dalhousie vary in age from Hart House, which was completed in 1864, to the Collaborative Health Education Building, completed in 2015.The original building of Dalhousie University was completed in 1824 on Halifax's Grand Parade.", "It was demolished in 1885 when the university outgrew the premises, and the City of Halifax sought possession of the entire Grand Parade.", "Halifax City Hall presently occupies the site of the original Dalhousie College.===Libraries and museums===The university has five libraries.", "The largest, Killam Memorial Library, opened in 1971 and claims to be the largest academic library in Atlantic Canada.", "The W. K. Kellogg Health Science Library provides services largely for the faculties of dentistry, medicine, and other health professions.", "The Sexton Design & Technology Library is located within Sexton Campus.", "Its collection largely serves those in the faculties of engineering, architecture and planning, and houses the university's rare books collection.", "The Sir James Dunn Law Library holds the university's collection of common law materials, legal periodicals, as well as books on international law, health law, and environmental law.", "MacRae Library is located at the university's Agricultural Campus, and has the largest collection of agricultural resource material in Atlantic Canada.", "The Dalhousie University Archives houses official records of, or relating to, or people/activities connected with Dalhousie University and its founding institutions.", "The archives also houses material related to theatre, business and labour in Nova Scotia.", "The collection consists of manuscripts, texts, photographs, audio-visual material, microfilm, music, and artifacts.", "The university's first library, Macdonald Memorial Library, was built after alumni raised funds on the death of professor Charles Macdonald, who had left the university $2,000 to buy books in English literature on his death in 1901.The biology department operates the Thomas McCulloch Museum in its Life Sciences Centre (LSC).", "The most notable of the museum's exhibits include its preserved birds collection.", "Other collections include its Lorenzen ceramic mushrooms, its coral and shell collection, and its butterfly and insect collection.", "The museum's namesake Thomas McCulloch was a Scottish Presbyterian minister who served as Dalhousie's first president and created the Audubon mounted bird collection which is now housed at the museum.The Dalhousie Art Gallery is both a public gallery and an academic support unit housed since 1971 on the lowest level of the Dalhousie Arts Centre.", "Admission is free of charge.", "It is host to a permanent collection of over 1000 works.", "Some of the outdoor sculptures around the campus are part of this collection, such as the distinctive ''Marine Venus'' which has sat in the median of University Avenue since 1969.A notable exhibition from the Dalhousie Art Gallery includes \"Archives of the Future\" (March – April 2016) exploring the relationship between art creation and commerce with work by artists Zachary Gough, Dawn Georg, Sharlene Bamboat, Katie Vida and Dana Claxton.===Sustainability===Dalhousie University is actively involved in sustainability issues and has received a number of sustainability awards and recognition for academic programs, university operations, and research.", "In 2022, Dalhousie received a GOLD rating from AASHE STARS (Version 2.2) In 2009, the university signed the University and College Presidents' Climate Change Statement of Action for Canada to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases.", "Dalhousie is also a signatory of UNEP's International Declaration on Cleaner Production.", "In 1999, the university signed the Talloires Declaration, which committed Dalhousie and other higher education institutions to developing, creating, supporting, and maintaining sustainability.In 2008, the College of Sustainability, the Office of Sustainability, and the Dalhousie Student Union Sustainability Office were formed.", "During 2008, the President's Advisory Council on Sustainability was also created.", "The council meets quarterly to discuss pan-university sustainability issues.", "Dalhousie's College of Sustainability offers an undergraduate Major in Environment, Sustainability and Society (ESS) integrating with seven bachelor's degrees and 40 subjects across five faculties." ], [ "Administration", "alt=Henry Hicks Academic Administration Building at Dalhousie UniversityUniversity governance is conducted through the Board of Governors and the Senate, both of which were given much of their present power in the Unofficial Consolidation of an Act for the Regulation and Support of Dalhousie College in Chapter 24 of the Acts of 1863.This statute replaced ones from 1820, 1823, 1838, 1841 and 1848, and has since been supplemented 11 times, most recently in 1995.The Board is responsible for conduct, management, and control of the university and of its property, revenues, business, and affairs.", "Board members, known as Governors of the Board, include the university's chancellor, president, and 25 other members.", "Members include people from within the university community such as four approved representatives from Dalhousie Student Union, and those in the surrounding community, such as the Mayor of Halifax.", "The Senate is responsible for the university's academics, including standards for admission and qualifications for degrees, diplomas, and certificates.", "The Senate consists of 73 positions granted to the various faculty representatives, academic administrators, and student representatives.The president acts as the chief executive officer and is responsible to the Board of Governors and to the Senate for the supervision of administrative and academic works.", "Kim Brooks is the 13th president of the university, and has served since August 2023.Thomas McCulloch served as the first president when the office was created in 1838.John Forrest was the longest-serving president, holding the office from 1885 to 1911.===Affiliated institutions===The campus of University of King's College, located adjacent to Dalhousie's Studley campus.", "The institution has been affiliated with Dalhousie since the 1920s.University of King's College is a post-secondary institution in Halifax affiliated with Dalhousie.", "The institution's campus is located adjacent to Dalhousie's Studley campus.", "Established in 1789, it was the first post-secondary institution in English Canada and the oldest English-speaking Commonwealth university outside the United Kingdom.", "The University of King's College was formerly an independent institution located in Windsor, Nova Scotia, until 1920, when a fire ravaged its campus.", "To continue operation, the University of King's College accepted a generous grant from the Carnegie Foundation, although the terms of the grant required that it move to Halifax and enter into association with Dalhousie.", "Under the agreement, King's agreed to pay the salaries of a number of Dalhousie professors, who in turn were to help in the management and academic life of the college.Students at King's have access to all of the amenities at Dalhousie, and academic programs at King's would fold into the College of Arts and Sciences at Dalhousie according to the agreement.", "Presently, students of both institutions are allowed to switch between the two throughout their enrolment.", "In spite of the shared academic programs and facilities, the University of King's College maintains its own scholarships, bursaries, athletics programs, and student residences.===Finances===The university completed the 2017–18 year with revenues of $697.354 million and expenses of $664.274 million, yielding a surplus of $33.08 million.", "The largest source of revenue for the university was provincial operational grants, followed by tuition fees.", "The total endowment revenue reported in fiscal 2017–2018 was $481.372 million.===Diversity===The university has attempted to increase the representation of under-represented groups at Dalhousie through inclusive recruitment strategies." ], [ "Academics", "Dalhousie is a publicly funded research university, and a member of the Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada, as well as the U15., there were 20,970 students enrolled at the university.", "Dalhousie offers more than 4,000 courses and over 200 degree programs in 13 undergraduate, graduate, and professional faculties.", "The requirements for admission differ between students from Nova Scotia, students from other provinces in Canada, and international students due to lack of uniformity in marking schemes.", "The requirements for admission also differ depending on the program.", "In 2011, the secondary school average for incoming first-year undergraduate students was 85 percent.Canadian students may apply for financial aid such as the Nova Scotia Student Assistance Program and Canada Student Loans and Grants through the federal and provincial governments.", "Financial aid may also be provided in the form of loans, grants, bursaries, scholarships, fellowships, debt reduction, interest relief, and work programs.", "The university's registrar provides scholarships for its students in order to provide financial assistance, or to reward academic merits or performances in another fields, such as community involvement and leadership.===Reputation===The 2022 Academic Ranking of World Universities ranked Dalhousie University 301–400 in the world and 13–17 in Canada.", "The 2023 QS World University Rankings ranked the university 308th in the world, and twelfth in Canada.", "The 2023 Times Higher Education World University Rankings placed Dalhousie 301–350 in the world.", "In the 2022–23 ''U.S.", "News & World Report Best Global University Ranking'', the university placed 314th in the world, and 11th in Canada.", "In terms of national rankings, ''Maclean's'' ranked Dalhousie seventh in their 2023 Medical-Doctoral university rankings.", "Dalhousie was ranked in spite of having opted out – along with several other universities in Canada – of participating in Maclean's graduate survey since 2006.Dalhousie also placed in a number of rankings that evaluated the employment prospects of its graduates.", "In the Times Higher Education's 2022 global employability ranking, Dalhousie placed 186th in the world, and eighth in Canada.", "In QS's 2020 graduate employability ranking, the university ranked 301–500 in the world, and 10–16 in Canada.===Research===In 2018, Research Infosource ranked Dalhousie as 15th on their list for top 50 research universities in Canada, with a sponsored research income (external sources of funding) of $150.038 million in 2017.In the same year, Dalhousie's faculty averaged a sponsored research income of $130,000, while its graduate students averaged a sponsored research income of $44,600.In 2003 and 2004, ''The Scientist'' placed Dalhousie among the top five places in the world outside the United States for postdoctoral work and conducting scientific research.", "In 2007 Dalhousie topped the list of ''The Scientist'''s \"Best Places to Work in Academia\".", "The annual list divides research and academic institutions into American and international lists; Dalhousie University ranked first in the international category.", "According to a survey conducted by ''The Scientist'', Dalhousie was the best non-commercial scientific institute in which to work in Canada.The Marine & Environmental Law Institute is housed at the university's Weldon Law Building.", "Conducting research and consultancy activities, it is one of several research institutes operated by the university.Dalhousie's research performance has been noted in several bibliometric university rankings, which use citation analysis to evaluate the impact a university has on academic publications.", "In 2019, the Performance Ranking of Scientific Papers for World Universities ranked Dalhousie 301st in the world, tied for 12th in Canada with the University of Manitoba; whereas the University Ranking by Academic Performance 2018–19 rankings placed the university 302nd in the world, and 13th in Canada.Marine research at Dalhousie has become a large focus of the university, with many of the university's faculty members involved in some form of marine research.", "Notably, Dalhousie is the headquarters of the Ocean Tracking Network, a research effort using implanted acoustic transmitters to study fish migration patterns.", "Dalhousie houses a number of marine research pools, a wet laboratory, and a benthic flume, which are collectively known as the Aquatron laboratory.", "Dalhousie is one of the founding members of the Halifax Marine Research Institute, founded on 2 June 2011.The institute, which is a partnership between a number of private industries, government, and post-secondary institutions, was designed to help increase the scale, quality, internationalization and impact of marine research in the region.", "In 2011, the university, along with WWF-Canada, created the Conservation Legacy For Oceans, which aimed at providing scholarships, funding, curriculum development, and work placements for students and academics dedicated to marine research, law, management, and policy making.", "In 2016, Dalhousie partnered with Memorial University of Newfoundland and the University of Prince Edward Island to form a collaborative research organization known as The Ocean Frontier Institute.Many of Dalhousie's faculties and departments focus on marine research.", "The Faculty of Engineering operates the Ocean Research Centre Atlantic, which is dedicated to research and tests in naval and off-shore engineering.", "Schulich School of Law also operates the Marine & Environmental Law Institute, which carries out research and conducts consultancy activities for governmental and non-governmental organizations.", "The school's Department of Political Science similarly operates the Centre for Foreign Policy Studies, which is primarily concerned with the fields of Canadian and American foreign, security, and defence policy, including maritime security policy." ], [ "Student life", "The Student Union Building is a hub of student extracurricular and social life on campus.", "It houses a number of student organizations and clubs including Dalhousie Student Union.The student body of Dalhousie is currently represented by two student unions; the Dalhousie Student Union, which represents the general student population, and the Dalhousie Association for Graduate Students, which represents the interests of graduate students specifically.", "Dalhousie Student Union began as the Dalhousie Student Government in 1863, and was renamed the University Student Council before taking its present name.", "As of 2011, there were three sororities and three fraternities.", "They operate as non-accredited organizations and are not recognized by the Dalhousie Student Union.The main student newspaper, ''The Dalhousie Gazette'', claims to be the oldest student-run newspaper in North America.", "It is published Thursdays and is distributed to over 100 locations around the Halifax area.", "The newspaper's offices are in the Student Union building.", "The radio station began as a radio club in 1964 and operated as CKDU in 1975; it began FM broadcasting in 1985.CKDU acquired its present frequency 88.1 in 2006 and upgraded its transmitting power.In 2021 and 2022, controversies arose around alcohol consumption at unsanctioned student gatherings on campus, specifically 'homecoming' in early October.", "Halifax Police urged the university to play a more active role in the issue.===Clubs and societies===In addition to the efforts made by the Dalhousie Student Union (DSU) Council, Dalhousie students have created and participated in over 320 clubs/societies.", "The Management Society, for example, is a group of students in the Faculty of Management who group together to enhance the experience of students in that faculty by hosting events, providing assistance and giving back.", "Until 25 July 2016, Dalhousie offered a website named \"Tiger Society\" which listed all current clubs and societies that were available for students to join.", "Through this website, students could request to join a society.", "Dalhousie also holds a Society Fair at the beginning of each fall and winter semester, in which all societies are given the opportunity to display their purpose/efforts and recruit new members.", "Student societies partake in a range of activities from simple gatherings, study groups, bake sales, intramural sports teams, to organizing larger scale fundraising events.===Athletics===Dalplex is the largest fitness and recreational centre operated by the university.Dalhousie's sports teams are called the Tigers.", "The Tigers varsity teams participate primarily in the Atlantic University Sport (AUS) of U Sports.", "There are teams for basketball, hockey, soccer, swimming, track and field, cross country running, and volleyball.", "The Tigers garnered a number of championships in the first decade of the 20th century, winning 63 AUS championships and two U Sports championships.", "More than 2,500 students participate in competitive clubs, intramural sport leagues, and tournaments.", "Opportunities are offered at multiple skill levels across a variety of sports.", "Dalhousie has six competitive sports clubs and 17 recreational clubs.", "Dalhousie's Agricultural Campus operates its own varsity team, called the Dalhousie Rams.", "The Rams varsity team participates in the Atlantic Collegiate Athletic Association, a member of the Canadian Collegiate Athletic Association.", "The Rams varsity teams include badminton, basketball, rugby, soccer, volleyball, and woodsmen.Dalhousie has a number of athletic facilities open to varsity teams and students.", "Dalplex is the largest main fitness and recreational facility.", "It houses a large fieldhouse, an Olympic-sized swimming pool, an indoor running track, weight rooms, courts and other facilities.", "Wickwire Field, with a seating capacity of up to 1,200, is the university's main outdoor field and is host to the varsity football, soccer, field hockey, lacrosse and rugby teams.", "Other sporting facilities include the Studley Gymnasium, and the Sexton Gymnasium and field.", "The Memorial Arena, home to the varsity hockey team, was demolished in 2012.The school is working to build a new arena jointly with nearby Saint Mary's University, whose facility is also aging.", "The Agricultural Campus has one athletic facility, the Langille Athletic Centre.The Sexton Gymnasium is one of five athletic facilities operated by the university.As of 2010, through the efforts of alumni and devoted volunteers, the Dalhousie Football Club was reinstated.", "Playing in the Atlantic Football League (AFL), the team operates on donations from alumni.", "The team plays its home games at Wickwire Field." ], [ "Insignia and other representations", "===Seal===The Dalhousie seal is based on the heraldic achievement of the Clan Ramsay of Scotland, of which founder George Ramsay was clan head.", "The heraldic achievement consists of five parts: shield, coronet, crest, supporters, and motto.", "One major difference between the Ramsay coat of arms and the university seal is that the Ramsay seal features a griffin and greyhound, and the Dalhousie seal has two dragons supporting the eagle-adorned shield.", "Initially, the Ramsay coat of arms was used to identify Dalhousie, but the seal has evolved with the amalgamations the university has undergone.", "The seal was originally silver-coloured, but in 1950, the university's Board of Governors changed it to gold to match the university's colours, gold and black.", "These colours were adopted in 1887, after the rugby team led the debate about college colours for football jerseys.", "The shield and eagle of Dalhousie's seal have been used as the logo since 1987, with the present incarnation in use since 2003, which includes the tagline \"inspiring minds\".===Motto and song===The university motto translates from Latin as \"pray and work\"; it adopted in 1870 from the Earl of Dalhousie's motto to replace the university's original one, which the administration believed did not convey confidence.", "The original motto was (Latin for \"perhaps\"), and first appeared in the first ''Dalhousie Gazette'' of 1869.It was from Virgil's epic poem ''Aeneid'', Book 1, line 203, , which translates as \"Perhaps the time may come when these difficulties will be sweet to remember.\"", "In 2020, students and staff representatives sought to remove to inherently religious tone of the current motto and return to the first.A number of songs are commonly played and sung at various events such as commencement, convocation, and athletic contests, including \"Carmina Dalhousiana\", written in Halifax in 1882.The Dalhousie University songbook was compiled by Charles B. Weikel in 1904." ], [ "Notable alumni", "File:Richard Bedford Bennett.jpg|R.", "B. Bennett, 1st Viscount Bennett, 11th Prime Minister of Canada.File:JoeClark.jpg|Joe Clark, 16th Prime Minister of Canada.File:Mulroney.jpg|Brian Mulroney, 18th Prime Minister of Canada.File:Frank Bainimarama November 2014.jpg|Frank Bainimarama, 8th Prime Minister of FijiFile:Arthur B. McDonald 5193-2015.jpg|Arthur B. McDonald, awarded the Nobel Prize in physics for his work with solar neutrino.File:Kathryn D. Sullivan.jpg|Kathryn D. Sullivan, first American woman to walk in space.File:C. Peter McColough, Xerox Corp..jpg|Charles Peter McColough, former chairman, CEO, and president of XeroxFile:LMM signed photo.jpg|Lucy Maud Montgomery, author, best known for the ''Anne of Green Gables'' seriesDalhousie graduates have found success in a variety of fields, serving as heads of a diverse array of public and private institutions.", "Dalhousie University has over 130,000 alumni.", "Throughout Dalhousie's history, faculty, alumni, and former students have played prominent roles in many fields, and include 91 Rhodes Scholars.Dalhousie has also educated Nobel laureates.", "Astrophysicist and Dalhousie alumni Arthur B. McDonald (BSc 1964, MSc 1965) received the 2015 Nobel Prize in Physics for identifying neutrino change identities and mass.", "McDonald was also previously awarded the Herzberg Prize and the Benjamin Franklin Prize in physics.", "Other notable graduates of Dalhousie includes Donald O. Hebb, who helped advance the field of neuropsychology, Kathryn D. Sullivan, the first American woman to walk in space and Jeff Dahn, one of the world's foremost researchers in lithium battery chemistry and aging.", "E. Elizabeth Patton , elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (2021) and Personal Chair in Melanoma Genetics and Drug Discovery, MRC Human Genetics Unit, Edinburgh.Notable politicians who have attended Dalhousie include three Prime Ministers of Canada, R. B. Bennett, Joe Clark, and Brian Mulroney.", "Eight graduates have served as Lieutenant Governors: John Crosbie, Myra Freeman, Clarence Gosse, John Keiller MacKay, Henry Poole MacKeen, John Robert Nicholson, Fabian O'Dea, and Albert Walsh.", "Twelve graduates have served as provincial premiers: Allan Blakeney, John Buchanan, Alex Campbell, Amor De Cosmos, Darrell Dexter, Joe Ghiz, John Hamm, Angus Lewis Macdonald, Russell MacLellan, Gerald Regan, Robert Stanfield, Clyde Wells, and Danny Williams.", "The first woman appointed to the Supreme Court of Canada, Bertha Wilson, was a graduate from Dalhousie Law School.Other notable alumni from the Dalhousie include Lucy Maud Montgomery, an author that wrote a series of novels, including ''Anne of Green Gables''.", "Prominent business leaders who studied at Dalhousie include Jamie Baillie, former CEO of Credit Union Atlantic, Graham Day, former CEO of British Shipbuilders, Sean Durfy, former CEO of WestJet, and Charles Peter McColough, former president and CEO of Xerox." ], [ "See also", "* Higher education in Nova Scotia* List of Canadian universities by endowment* List of colleges and universities named after people* List of fraternities and sororities at Dalhousie University* List of universities in Nova Scotia" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", "'''Bibliography'''* * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Molecular diffusion" ], [ "Introduction", "Diffusion from a microscopic and macroscopic point of view.", "Initially, there are solute molecules on the left side of a barrier (purple line) and none on the right.", "The barrier is removed, and the solute diffuses to fill the whole container.", "Top: A single molecule moves around randomly.", "Middle: With more molecules, there is a clear trend where the solute fills the container more and more uniformly.", "Bottom: With an enormous number of solute molecules, all randomness is gone: The solute appears to move smoothly and systematically from high-concentration areas to low-concentration areas, following Fick's laws.", "'''Molecular diffusion''', often simply called '''diffusion''', is the thermal motion of all (liquid or gas) particles at temperatures above absolute zero.", "The rate of this movement is a function of temperature, viscosity of the fluid and the size (mass) of the particles.", "Diffusion explains the net flux of molecules from a region of higher concentration to one of lower concentration.", "Once the concentrations are equal the molecules continue to move, but since there is no concentration gradient the process of molecular diffusion has ceased and is instead governed by the process of self-diffusion, originating from the random motion of the molecules.", "The result of diffusion is a gradual mixing of material such that the distribution of molecules is uniform.", "Since the molecules are still in motion, but an equilibrium has been established, the result of molecular diffusion is called a \"dynamic equilibrium\".", "In a phase with uniform temperature, absent external net forces acting on the particles, the diffusion process will eventually result in complete mixing.Consider two systems; S1 and S2 at the same temperature and capable of exchanging particles.", "If there is a change in the potential energy of a system; for example μ1>μ2 (μ is Chemical potential) an energy flow will occur from S1 to S2, because nature always prefers low energy and maximum entropy.Molecular diffusion is typically described mathematically using Fick's laws of diffusion." ], [ "Applications", "Diffusion is of fundamental importance in many disciplines of physics, chemistry, and biology.", "Some example applications of diffusion:* Sintering to produce solid materials (powder metallurgy, production of ceramics)* Chemical reactor design* Catalyst design in chemical industry* Steel can be diffused (e.g., with carbon or nitrogen) to modify its properties* Doping during production of semiconductors." ], [ "Significance", "Schematic representation of mixing of two substances by diffusionDiffusion is part of the transport phenomena.", "Of mass transport mechanisms, molecular diffusion is known as a slower one.=== Biology ===In cell biology, diffusion is a main form of transport for necessary materials such as amino acids within cells.", "Diffusion of solvents, such as water, through a semipermeable membrane is classified as osmosis.Metabolism and respiration rely in part upon diffusion in addition to bulk or active processes.", "For example, in the alveoli of mammalian lungs, due to differences in partial pressures across the alveolar-capillary membrane, oxygen diffuses into the blood and carbon dioxide diffuses out.", "Lungs contain a large surface area to facilitate this gas exchange process." ], [ "Tracer, self- and chemical diffusion", "Self diffusion, exemplified with an isotopic tracer of radioactive isotope 22NaExample of chemical (classical, Fick's, or Fickian) diffusion of sodium chloride in waterFundamentally, two types of diffusion are distinguished:* ''Tracer diffusion'' and ''Self-diffusion'', which is a spontaneous mixing of molecules taking place in the absence of concentration (or chemical potential) gradient.", "This type of diffusion can be followed using isotopic tracers, hence the name.", "The tracer diffusion is usually assumed to be identical to self-diffusion (assuming no significant isotopic effect).", "This diffusion can take place under equilibrium.", "An excellent method for the measurement of self-diffusion coefficients is pulsed field gradient (PFG) NMR, where no isotopic tracers are needed.", "In a so-called NMR spin echo experiment this technique uses the nuclear spin precession phase, allowing to distinguish chemically and physically completely identical species e.g.", "in the liquid phase, as for example water molecules within liquid water.", "The self-diffusion coefficient of water has been experimentally determined with high accuracy and thus serves often as a reference value for measurements on other liquids.", "The self-diffusion coefficient of neat water is: 2.299·10−9 m2·s−1 at 25 °C and 1.261·10−9 m2·s−1 at 4 °C.", "* ''Chemical diffusion'' occurs in a presence of concentration (or chemical potential) gradient and it results in net transport of mass.", "This is the process described by the diffusion equation.", "This diffusion is always a non-equilibrium process, increases the system entropy, and brings the system closer to equilibrium.The diffusion coefficients for these two types of diffusion are generally different because the diffusion coefficient for chemical diffusion is binary and it includes the effects due to the correlation of the movement of the different diffusing species." ], [ "Non-equilibrium system", "Illustration of low entropy (top) and high entropy (bottom)Because chemical diffusion is a net transport process, the system in which it takes place is not an equilibrium system (i.e.", "it is not at rest yet).", "Many results in classical thermodynamics are not easily applied to non-equilibrium systems.", "However, there sometimes occur so-called quasi-steady states, where the diffusion process does not change in time, where classical results may locally apply.", "As the name suggests, this process is a not a true equilibrium since the system is still evolving.Non-equilibrium fluid systems can be successfully modeled with Landau-Lifshitz fluctuating hydrodynamics.", "In this theoretical framework, diffusion is due to fluctuations whose dimensions range from the molecular scale to the macroscopic scale.Chemical diffusion increases the entropy of a system, i.e.", "diffusion is a spontaneous and irreversible process.", "Particles can spread out by diffusion, but will not spontaneously re-order themselves (absent changes to the system, assuming no creation of new chemical bonds, and absent external forces acting on the particle)." ], [ "Concentration dependent \"collective\" diffusion", "''Collective diffusion'' is the diffusion of a large number of particles, most often within a solvent.Contrary to brownian motion, which is the diffusion of a single particle, interactions between particles may have to be considered, unless the particles form an ideal mix with their solvent (ideal mix conditions correspond to the case where the interactions between the solvent and particles are identical to the interactions between particles and the interactions between solvent molecules; in this case, the particles do not interact when inside the solvent).In case of an ideal mix, the particle diffusion equation holds true and the diffusion coefficient ''D'' the speed of diffusion in the particle diffusion equation is independent of particle concentration.", "In other cases, resulting interactions between particles within the solvent will account for the following effects:* the diffusion coefficient ''D'' in the particle diffusion equation becomes dependent of concentration.", "For an attractive interaction between particles, the diffusion coefficient tends to decrease as concentration increases.", "For a repulsive interaction between particles, the diffusion coefficient tends to increase as concentration increases.", "* In the case of an attractive interaction between particles, particles exhibit a tendency to coalesce and form clusters if their concentration lies above a certain threshold.", "This is equivalent to a precipitation chemical reaction (and if the considered diffusing particles are chemical molecules in solution, then it is a precipitation)." ], [ "Molecular diffusion of gases", "Transport of material in stagnant fluid or across streamlines of a fluid in a laminar flow occurs by molecular diffusion.", "Two adjacent compartments separated by a partition, containing pure gases A or B may be envisaged.", "Random movement of all molecules occurs so that after a period molecules are found remote from their original positions.", "If the partition is removed, some molecules of A move towards the region occupied by B, their number depends on the number of molecules at the region considered.", "Concurrently, molecules of B diffuse toward regimens formerly occupied by pure A.Finally, complete mixing occurs.", "Before this point in time, a gradual variation in the concentration of A occurs along an axis, designated x, which joins the original compartments.", "This variation, expressed mathematically as -dCA/dx, where CA is the concentration of A.", "The negative sign arises because the concentration of A decreases as the distance x increases.", "Similarly, the variation in the concentration of gas B is -dCB/dx.", "The rate of diffusion of A, NA, depend on concentration gradient and the average velocity with which the molecules of A moves in the x direction.", "This relationship is expressed by Fick's Law: (only applicable for no bulk motion)where D is the diffusivity of A through B, proportional to the average molecular velocity and, therefore dependent on the temperature and pressure of gases.", "The rate of diffusion NA, is usually expressed as the number of moles diffusing across unit area in unit time.", "As with the basic equation of heat transfer, this indicates that the rate of force is directly proportional to the driving force, which is the concentration gradient.", "This basic equation applies to a number of situations.", "Restricting discussion exclusively to steady state conditions, in which neither dCA/dx or dCB/dx change with time, equimolecular counterdiffusion is considered first." ], [ "Equimolecular counterdiffusion", "If no bulk flow occurs in an element of length dx, the rates of diffusion of two ideal gases (of similar molar volume) A and B must be equal and opposite, that is .", "The partial pressure of A changes by dPA over the distance dx.", "Similarly, the partial pressure of B changes dPB.", "As there is no difference in total pressure across the element (no bulk flow), we have:.For an ideal gas the partial pressure is related to the molar concentration by the relation :where nA is the number of moles of gas ''A'' in a volume ''V''.", "As the molar concentration ''CA'' is equal to ''nA/ V'' therefore : Consequently, for gas A,:where DAB is the diffusivity of A in B.", "Similarly,:Considering that dPA/dx=-dPB/dx, it therefore proves that DAB=DBA=D.", "If the partial pressure of A at x1 is PA1 and x2 is PA2, integration of above equation,:A similar equation may be derived for the counterdiffusion of gas B." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Some pictures that display diffusion and osmosis* An animation describing diffusion.", "* A tutorial on the theory behind and solution of the Diffusion Equation.", "* NetLogo Simulation Model for Educational Use (Java Applet)* Short movie on brownian motion (includes calculation of the diffusion coefficient)* A basic introduction to the classical theory of volume diffusion (with figures and animations)* Diffusion on the nanoscale (with figures and animations)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Declension" ], [ "Introduction", "In linguistics, '''declension''' (verb: ''to decline'') is the changing of the form of a word, generally to express its syntactic function in the sentence, by way of some inflection.", "Declensions may apply to nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, and articles to indicate number (e.g.", "singular, dual, plural), case (e.g.", "nominative case, accusative case, genitive case, dative case), gender (e.g.", "masculine, neuter, feminine), and a number of other grammatical categories.", "Meanwhile, the inflectional change of verbs is called ''conjugation''.Declension occurs in many of the world's languages.", "It is an important aspect of language families like Quechuan (i.e., languages native to the Andes), Indo-European (e.g.", "German, Icelandic, Lithuanian, Latvian, Slavic, Sanskrit, Latin, Ancient Greek, Modern Greek, Albanian, Classical Armenian and Modern Armenian and Kurdish), Bantu (e.g.", "Zulu, Kikuyu), Semitic (e.g.", "Modern Standard Arabic), Finno-Ugric (e.g.", "Hungarian, Finnish, Estonian), and Turkic (e.g.", "Turkish).Old English was an inflectional language, but largely abandoned inflectional changes as it evolved into Modern English.", "Though traditionally classified as synthetic, Modern English has moved towards a mostly analytic language." ], [ "English-speaking perspective", "Unlike English, many languages use suffixes to specify subjects and objects and word cases in general.", "Inflected languages have a freer word order than modern English, an analytic language in which word order identifies the subject and object.", "As an example, even though both of the following sentences consist of the same words, the meaning is different:* \"The dog chased a cat.", "\"* \"A cat chased the dog.", "\"Hypothetically speaking, suppose English were a language with a more complex declension system in which cases were formed by adding the suffixes:: - (for nominative singular), - (genitive), - (dative), - (accusative), - (locative), - (instrumental), - (vocative), - (ablative)The above sentence could be formed with any of the following word orders and would have the same meaning:* \"The dog chased a cat.\"", "* \"A cat chased the dog.", "\"* \"Chased a cat the dog.", "\"As a more complex example, the sentence: * Mum, this little boy's dog was chasing a cat down our street!becomes nonsensical in English if the words are rearranged (because there are no cases):* A cat was down our street chasing dog this little boy's mum!But if English were a highly inflected language, like Latin or some Slavic languages such as Croatian, both sentences could mean the same thing.", "They would both contain five nouns in five different cases: ''mum'' – vocative (hey!", "), ''dog'' – nominative (who?", "), ''boy'' – genitive (of whom?", "), ''cat'' – accusative (whom?", "), ''street'' – locative (where?", "); the adjective ''little'' would be in the same case as the noun it modifies (''boy''), and the case of the determiner ''our'' would agree with the case of the noun it determines (''street'').Using the case suffixes invented for this example, the original sentence would read:* Mum, this little boy dog was chasing a cat down our street!And like other inflected languages, the sentence rearranged in the following ways would mean virtually the same thing, but with different expressiveness:* A cat was down our street chasing dog this little boy, mum!", "* Mum, down street our a cat was chasing this little boy dog!Instead of the ''locative'', the ''instrumental form'' of \"down our street\" could also be used:* Mum, this little boy dog our street was chasing a cat!", "* A cat was, mum, our street chasing dog this little boy* Our street a cat was chasing dog this little boy, mum!Different word orders preserving the original meaning are possible in an inflected language, while modern English relies on word order for meaning, with a little flexibility.", "This is one of the advantages of an inflected language.", "The English sentences above, when read without the made-up case suffixes, are confusing.These contrived examples are relatively simple, whereas actual inflected languages have a far more complicated set of declensions, where the suffixes (or prefixes, or infixes) change depending on the gender of the noun, the quantity of the noun, and other possible factors.", "This complexity and the possible lengthening of words is one of the disadvantages of inflected languages.", "Notably, many of these languages lack articles.", "There may also be ''irregular nouns'' where the declensions are unique for each word (like irregular verbs with conjugation).", "In inflected languages, other parts of speech such as numerals, demonstratives, adjectives, and articles are also declined." ], [ "History", "It is agreed that Ancient Greeks had a \"vague\" idea of the forms of a noun in their language.", "A fragment of Anacreon seems to confirm this idea.", "Nevertheless, it cannot be concluded that the Ancient Greeks actually knew what the cases were.", "The Stoics developed many basic notions that today are the rudiments of linguistics.", "The idea of grammatical cases is also traced back to the Stoics, but it is still not completely clear what the Stoics exactly meant with their notion of cases." ], [ "Modern English", "In Modern English, the system of declensions is so simple compared to some other languages that the term ''declension'' is rarely used.", "===Nouns===Most nouns in English have distinct ''singular'' and ''plural'' forms.", "Nouns and most noun phrases can form a ''possessive'' construction.", "Plurality is most commonly shown by the ending ''-s'' (or ''-es''), whereas possession is always shown by the enclitic ''-'s'' or, for plural forms ending in ''s'', by just an apostrophe.Consider, for example, the forms of the noun ''girl''.", "Most speakers pronounce all forms other than the singular plain form (''girl'') exactly the same.", "Singular Plural Plain girl girls Possessive girl's girls'By contrast, a few irregular nouns (like man/men) are slightly more complex in their forms.", "In this example, all four forms are pronounced distinctly.", "Singular Plural Plain man men Possessive man's men'sFor nouns, in general, gender is not declined in Modern English.", "There are isolated situations where certain nouns may be modified to reflect gender, though not in a systematic fashion.", "Loan words from other languages, particularly Latin and the Romance languages, often preserve their gender-specific forms in English, e.g.", "''alumnus'' (masculine singular) and ''alumna'' (feminine singular).", "Similarly, names borrowed from other languages show comparable distinctions: ''Andrew'' and ''Andrea'', ''Paul'' and ''Paula'', etc.", "Additionally, suffixes such as ''-ess'', ''-ette'', and ''-er'' are sometimes applied to create overtly gendered versions of nouns, with marking for feminine being much more common than marking for masculine.", "Many nouns can actually function as members of two genders or even all three, and the gender classes of English nouns are usually determined by their agreement with pronouns, rather than marking on the nouns themselves.There can be other derivations from nouns that are not considered declensions.", "For example, the proper noun ''Britain'' has the associated descriptive adjective ''British'' and the demonym ''Briton''.", "Though these words are clearly related, and are generally considered cognates, they are not specifically treated as forms of the ''same word'', and thus are not declensions.===Pronouns===Pronouns in English have more complex declensions.", "For example, the first person \"I\": Singular Plural Subjective I we Objective me us Dependent possessive my our Independent possessive mine oursWhereas nouns do not distinguish between the subjective (nominative) and objective (oblique) cases, some pronouns do; that is, they decline to reflect their relationship to a verb or preposition, or case.", "Consider the difference between ''he'' (subjective) and ''him'' (objective), as in \"He saw it\" and \"It saw him\"; similarly, consider ''who'', which is subjective, and the objective ''whom'' (although it is increasingly common to use ''who'' for both).The one situation where gender is still clearly part of the English language is in the pronouns for the third person singular.", "Consider the following: Masculine Feminine Neuter non-person person Subjective he she it they Objective him her them Dependent possessive his its their Independent possessive hers theirsThe distinguishing of neuter for persons and non-persons is peculiar to English.", "This has existed since the 14th century.", "However, the use of ''singular they'' is often restricted to specific contexts, depending on the dialect or the speaker.", "It is most typically used to refer to a single person of unknown gender (e.g.", "\"someone left their jacket behind\") or a hypothetical person where gender is insignificant (e.g.", "\"If someone wants to, then they should\").", "Its use has expanded in recent years due to increasing social recognition of persons who do not identify themselves as male or female.", "(see gender-nonbinary) The ''singular they'' still uses plural verb forms, reflecting its origins.===Adjectives and adverbs===Some English adjectives and adverbs are declined for degree of comparison.", "The unmarked form is the positive form, such as ''quick''.", "Comparative forms are formed with the ending ''-er'' (''quicker''), while superlative forms are formed with ''-est'' (''quickest'').", "Some are uncomparable; the remainder are usually periphrastic constructions with ''more'' (''more beautiful'') and ''most'' (''most modestly'').", "See degree of comparison for more.Adjectives are not declined for case in Modern English (though they were in Old English), nor number nor gender.===Determiners===The demonstrative determiners ''this'' and ''that'' are declined for number, as ''these'' and ''those''.", "The article is never regarded as declined in Modern English, although formally, the words ''that'' and possibly ''she'' correspond to forms of the predecessor of ''the'' (''sē'' m., ''þæt'' n., ''sēo'' f.) as it was declined in Old English." ], [ "Latin", "Just as verbs in Latin are conjugated to indicate grammatical information, Latin nouns and adjectives that modify them are declined to signal their roles in sentences.", "There are five important cases for Latin nouns: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative.", "Since the vocative case usually takes the same form as the nominative, it is seldom spelt out in grammar books.", "Yet another case, the locative, is limited to a small number of words.The usual basic functions of these cases are as follows:*Nominative case indicates the subject.", "*Genitive case indicates possession and can be translated with 'of'.", "*Dative case marks the indirect object and can be translated with 'to' or 'for'.", "*Accusative case marks the direct object.", "*Ablative case is used to modify verbs and can be translated as 'by', 'with', 'from', etc.", "*Vocative case is used to address a person or thing.The genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative also have important functions to indicate the object of a preposition.Given below is the declension paradigm of Latin ''puer'' 'boy' and ''puella'' 'girl': Case Singular Plural Singular Plural Nominative puer puer'''ī''' puell'''a''' puell'''ae''' Genitive puer'''ī''' puer'''ōrum''' puell'''ae''' puell'''ārum''' Dative puer'''ō''' puer'''īs''' puell'''ae''' puell'''īs''' Accusative puer'''um''' puer'''ōs''' puell'''am''' puell'''ās''' Ablative puer'''ō''' puer'''īs''' puell'''ā''' puell'''īs'''Vocativepuerpuer'''ī'''puell'''a'''puell'''ae'''From the provided examples we can see how cases work:" ], [ "Sanskrit", "Sanskrit, another Indo-European language, has eight cases: nominative, vocative, accusative, genitive, dative, ablative, locative and instrumental.", "Some do not count vocative as a separate case, despite it having a distinctive ending in the singular, but consider it as a different use of the nominative.Sanskrit grammatical cases have been analyzed extensively.", "The grammarian Pāṇini identified six semantic roles or ''karaka'', which correspond closely to the eight cases:* agent (, related to the nominative)* patient (, related to the accusative)* means (, related to the instrumental)* recipient (, related to the dative)* source (, related to the ablative)*relation (, related to genitive)* locus (, related to the locative)* address (, related to the vocative)For example, consider the following sentence:Here ''leaf'' is the agent, ''tree'' is the source, and ''ground'' is the locus.", "The endings ''-aṁ'', ''-at'', ''-āu'' mark the cases associated with these meanings.Verse 37 of the Rāmarakṣāstotram gives an example of all 8 types of declensions in Sanskrit for the singular proper noun Rāma.VerseCaseTranslation and remarks'''Rāmo''' rājamaṇiḥNominative''Rāma is a jewel among kings''The case declension here is ''Rāmaḥ'' but the visarga has undergone sandhi.", "sadā vijayate '''Rāmaṃ''' rameśaṃ bhajeAccusative''Ever victorious, I worship that Rāma who is Ramā's lord.", "''Both words '''Rāma Rameśa''' are individually declined as '''rāmaṃ rameśaṃ'''''Rāmeṇā'''bhihatā niśācaracamūInstrumental''Rāma, by whose hands are the armies of demons annhiliated''''Rāmeṇa'' is the declension that underwent sandhi with the word ''abhihatā'''''Rāmāya''' tasmai namaḥDative''I bow to that Rāma.", "''Dative case is used here to show that ''Rāma'' is the receiver of the reverence.", "'''Rāmā'''nnāsti parāyaṇaṃ parataraṃAblative''There is no better support than Rāma''The declension here is ''Rāmāt'' that has undergone sandhi with ''nāsti.", "''Ablative case is also used for comparisions in Sanskrit'''Rāmasya''' dāso’smyahaṃGenitive''I am a servant of Rāma.", "''Normal declension without sandhi.", "'''Rāme''' cittalayaḥ sadā bhavatu meLocative''Let my thoughts always be focused on Rāma.", "''Locative case to indicate the 'focus of thoughts''''Bho Rāma''' māmuddhara!Vocative''O'' ''Rāma save me!", "''Vocative case uses the plain form.", "Unlike Nominative which adds a visarga.Some times vocative is considered to be a different use of nominative." ], [ "Declension in specific languages", "*Albanian declension*Arabic ʾIʿrab*Basque declension*Hindi declension=== Greek and Latin ===*Ancient Greek and Latin First declension*Ancient Greek and Latin Second declension*Ancient Greek and Latin Third declension*Greek declension*Latin declension=== Celtic languages ===*Irish declension=== Germanic languages ===*Dutch declension system*German declension*Gothic declension*Icelandic declension*Middle English declension=== Baltic languages ===*Latvian declension*Lithuanian declension=== Slavic languages ===*Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin and Serbian declension*Czech declension*Polish declension*Russian declension*Slovak declension*Slovene declension*Ukrainian declension=== Uralic languages ===*Finnish language noun cases" ], [ "See also", "* Grammatical conjugation* Grammatical case* Strong inflection* Weak inflection" ], [ "Notes and references", "=== Notes ====== Citations ===" ], [ "External links", "* The Status of Morphological Case in the Icelandic Lexicon by Eiríkur Rögnvaldsson.", "Discussion of whether cases convey any inherent syntactic or semantic meaning.", "* Optimal Case: The Distribution of Case in German and Icelandic by Dieter Wunderlich* Lexicon of Linguistics: Declension* Lexicon of Linguistics: Base, Stem, Root* Lexicon of Linguistics: Defective Paradigm* Lexicon of Linguistics: Strong Verb* Lexicon of Linguistics: Inflection Phrase (IP), INFL, AGR, Tense* Lexicon of Linguistics: Lexicalist Hypothesis* classical Greek declension" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Daffynition" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''daffynition''' (a portmanteau blend of ''daffy'' and ''definition'') is a form of pun involving the reinterpretation of an existing word, on the basis that it sounds like another word (or group of words).", "Presented in the form of dictionary definitions, they are similar to transpositional puns, but often much less complex and easier to create.Under the name '''Uxbridge English Dictionary''', making up daffynitions is a popular game on the BBC Radio 4 comedy quiz show ''I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue''.A lesser-known subclass of daffynition is the ''goofinition'', which relies strictly on literal associations and correct spellings, such as \"lobster = a weak tennis player\".", "This play on words is similar to Cockney rhyming slang." ], [ "Examples", "*apéritif: A set of dentures.", "(a-pair-of-teeth)*avoidable: What a bullfighter tries to do.", "(avoid-a-bull)*buccaneer: too much to pay for corn (a-buck-an-ear)*dandelion: A fashionably dressed big cat (dandy-lion)*decadent: Possessing only ten teeth.", "(deca-dent)*devastation: Where people wait for buses.", "(the-bus-station)*dilate: live long (die-late)*euthanasia: Teenagers in the world's largest continent.", "(youth-in-Asia)*fortunate: Consumption of an expensive meal.", "(fortune-ate)*impolite: A flaming goblin.", "(imp-alight)*indistinct: where one places dirty dishes (in-the-sink)*information: how geese fly (in-formation)*innuendoes: Italian suppositories.", "(in-you-end-os)*insolent: Fallen off the Isle of Wight ferry.", "(in-Solent)*isolate: Me not on time.", "(I-(am)-so-late)*legend: A foot.", "(leg-end)*oboe: A French tramp.", "(hobo)*paradox: Two doctors.", "(pair-of-docs) or where one ties two boats.", "(Pair of docks)*pasteurise: Too far to see.", "(past-your-eyes)*protein: In favour of youth.", "(pro-teen)*propaganda: A gentlemanly goose.", "(proper-gander) or to look at something very carefully (proper-gander, where gander is slang for looking)*recycle: To repair a bicycle, or obtain a replacement bicycle.", "(re-cycle)*relief: What trees do in Spring.", "(re-leaf)*specimen: An Italian astronaut.", "(spaceman)*symmetry: A South African or New Zealand graveyard.", "(cemetery)" ], [ "See also", "* Sniglet* ''The Meaning of Liff''* ''The Devil's Dictionary''" ], [ "External links", "* The Odford English Dictionary (Daffynitions)* Fuller's Dictionary of Daffynitions" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "List of football clubs in the Netherlands" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Dutch Football League''' is organized by the Royal Dutch Football Association (KNVB, Koninklijke Nederlandse Voetbalbond).The most successful teams are Ajax (36), PSV (24) and Feyenoord (16).", "Important teams of the past are HVV (10 titles), Sparta Rotterdam (6 titles) and Willem II (3 titles).The annual match that marks the beginning of the season is called the Johan Cruijff Schaal (Johan Cruyff Shield).", "Contenders are the champions and the cup winners of the previous season." ], [ "Dutch professional clubs", " Club Location Venue Capacity Manager ADO Den Haag The Hague Cars Jeans Stadion 15,000 Aleksandar Ranković Ajax Amsterdam Johan Cruyff Arena 53,490 John van 't Schip AZ Alkmaar AFAS Stadion 17,023 Arne Slot Excelsior Rotterdam Stadion Woudestein 4,400 Marinus Dijkhuizen Feyenoord Rotterdam Stadion Feijenoord 51,177 Dick Advocaat Go Ahead Eagles Deventer Adelaarshorst 10,400 Kees van Wonderen Groningen Groningen Noordlease Stadion 22,550 Danny Buijs Heerenveen Heerenveen Abe Lenstra Stadion 27,224 Johnny Jansen Heracles Almelo Almelo Polman Stadion 13,500 Frank Wormuth NEC Nijmegen Stadion de Goffert 12,500 Rogier Meijer PEC Zwolle Zwolle MAC³PARK Stadion 13,250 Dick Schreuder PSV Eindhoven Philips Stadion 36,500 Peter Bosz Roda JC Kerkrade Parkstad Limburg Stadion 19,979 Jurgen Streppel Sparta Rotterdam Rotterdam Het Kasteel 11,026 Henk Fräser Twente Enschede De Grolsch Veste 30,205 Ron Jans Utrecht Utrecht Stadion Galgenwaard 23,750 René Hake Vitesse Arnhem GelreDome 25,500 Thomas Letsch Willem II Tilburg Koning Willem II Stadion 14,500 Fred Grim Almere City Almere Yanmar Stadion 3,000 Ole Tobiasen Cambuur Leeuwarden Cambuur Stadion 10,500 Henk de Jong De Graafschap Doetinchem Stadion De Vijverberg 12,600 Mike Snoei Den Bosch 's-Hertogenbosch De Vliert 9,000 Erik van der Ven Dordrecht Dordrecht GN Bouw Stadion 4,088 Harry van den Ham FC Eindhoven Eindhoven Jan Louwers Stadion 4,600 Ernie Brandts Emmen Emmen Univé Stadion 8,600 Dick Lukkien Fortuna Sittard Sittard Fortuna Sittard Stadion 12,500 Sjors Ultee Helmond Sport Helmond Stadion De Braak 4,100 Wil Boessen MVV Maastricht De Geusselt 10,000 Darije Kalezić NAC Breda Breda Rat Verlegh Stadion 19,000 Maurice Steijn TOP Oss Oss Heesen Yachts Stadion 4,700 Klaas Wels RKC Waalwijk Waalwijk Mandemakers Stadion 7,508 Fred Grim Telstar Velsen TATA Steel Stadion 3,625 Andries Jonker Volendam Volendam Kras Stadion 6,260 Wim Jonk VVV-Venlo Venlo De Koel 8,000 Hans de Koning" ], [ "Former Dutch league teams", "* Koninklijke HFC* AVV RAP (of Amsterdam) were the first official champions of the Netherlands in 1899.The club however became a Cricket club in 1916 following a total of 5 national football titles.", "* Fortuna 54 (of Geleen) and Sittardia (of Sittard) merged to form Fortuna Sittard in 1968.", "* Blauw Wit, DWS and De Volewijckers merged to form FC Amsterdam in 1972, which ceased to exist in 1982.", "* PEC and the Zwolsche Boys merged to form PEC Zwolle in 1971, which became FC Zwolle in 1990.", "* Sportclub Enschede and the Enschedese Boys merged to form FC Twente in 1965.", "* DOS, Elinkwijk and Velox merged to form FC Utrecht in 1970.", "* GVAV became FC Groningen in 1971.", "* Alkmaar 54 and FC Zaanstreek merged to form AZ in 1967.", "* Roda Sport and Rapid JC merged to form Roda JC in 1962.", "* BVC Rotterdam and BVC Flamingos merged to form Scheveningen Holland Sport in 1954, which merged with ADO in 1971 to form FC Den Haag, and became ADO Den Haag in 1996.", "* SVV and Dordrecht '90 merged to form SVV/Dordrecht '90 in 1991.The club has since been renamed FC Dordrecht.", "* VC Vlissingen (from Flushing) became a professional club in 1990, changed its name to VCV Zeeland a year later, and became an amateur club again in 1992.", "* FC Wageningen (founded in 1911) won the Dutch cup in 1939 and 1948, joined the Dutch professional league when it was formed in 1954, and remained professional until the club went bankrupt in 1992.", "* HVC of Amersfoort was formed in 1905, joined the league in 1954, was renamed to SC Amersfoort in 1973 and went bankrupt in 1982.", "* Fortuna Vlaardingen (formed in 1904) joined the professional league in 1955, was renamed to FC Vlaardingen in 1974 and went bankrupt in 1981.", "* HFC Haarlem (formed in 1889) joined the professional league in 1954 and remained professional until the club went bankrupt in 2010.", "* RBC Roosendaal (formed in 1927) joined the professional league in 1955 till 1971 and 1983 and remained professional until the club went bankrupt in 2011.", "* AGOVV Apeldoorn (formed in 1913) joined the professional league in 1954 till 1971, returned to professional soccer on 1 July 2003, and went bankrupt in 2013.", "* SC Veendam (formed in 1894) joined the professional league in 1954, and went bankrupt in 2013.", "* Zwart-Wit '28 won the national amateur championship in 1971 and the national cup for women in 2000.Went bankrupt in 2004." ], [ "See also", "* Eerste Divisie* Eredivisie* List of football stadiums in the Netherlands" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Midfield Dynamo's list of the Dutch football league's 'Big 3' and 'Best of the Rest' of the other clubs, midfielddynamo.com* Orange Football Blog - Weekly summaries from the Eredivisie and other articles, nlplanet.com* Official Eredivisie site* Official Eerste Divisie website* League321.com - Club stats records." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dragon 32/64" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Dragon 32''' and '''Dragon 64''' are home computers that were built in the 1980s.", "The Dragons are very similar to the TRS-80 Color Computer, and were produced for the European market by Dragon Data, Ltd., initially in Swansea, Wales before moving to Port Talbot, Wales (until 1984) and by Eurohard S.A. in Casar de Cáceres, Spain (from 1984 to 1987), and for the US market by '''Tano Corporation''' of New Orleans, Louisiana.", "The model numbers reflect the primary difference between the two machines, which have 32 and 64 kilobytes of RAM, respectively.Dragon Data introduced the Dragon 32 microcomputer in August 1982, followed by the Dragon 64 a year later.", "Despite initial success, the Dragon faced technical limitations in graphics capabilities and hardware-supported text modes, which restricted its appeal in the gaming and educational markets.", "Dragon Data collapsed in 1984 and was acquired by Spanish company Eurohard S.A.", "However, Eurohard filed for bankruptcy in 1987.The Dragon computers were built around the Motorola MC6809E processor and featured a composite monitor port, allowing connection to (at the time) modern TVs.", "They used analog joysticks and had a range of peripherals and add-ons available.", "The Dragon had several high-resolution display modes, but limited graphics capabilities compared to other home computers of the time.The Dragon came with a Microsoft BASIC interpreter in ROM, which allowed instant system start-up.", "The Dragon 32/64 was capable of running multiple disk operating systems, and a range of popular games were ported to the system.", "Overall, the Dragon computers were initially well-received but faced limitations that hindered their long-term success." ], [ "Dragon 32 vs. Dragon 64", "Aside from the amount of RAM, the Dragon 64 also has a functional RS-232 serial port which was not included on the Dragon 32.A minor difference between the two Dragon models is the outer case colour; the Dragon 32 is beige and the Dragon 64 is light grey.", "Besides the case, branding and the Dragon 64's serial port, the two machines look the same.", "The Dragon 32 is upgradable to Dragon 64.In some cases, buyers of the Dragon 32 found that they actually received a Dragon 64 unit." ], [ "Product history", "Dragon logoDragon Data entered the market in August 1982 with the Dragon 32.The Dragon 64 followed a year later.", "The computers sold well initially and attracted the interest of independent software developers including Microdeal.", "A companion magazine, ''Dragon User'', began publication shortly after the microcomputer's launch.Despite this initial success, there were two technical impediments to the Dragon's acceptance.", "The graphics capabilities trailed behind other computers such as the ZX Spectrum and BBC Micro, a significant shortcoming for the games market.", "Additionally, as a cost-cutting measure, the hardware-supported text modes only included upper case characters; this restricted the system's appeal to the educational market.Dragon Data collapsed in June 1984.It was acquired by the Spanish company Eurohard S.A., which moved the factory from Wales to Cáceres and released the '''Dragon 200''' (a Dragon 64 with a new case that allowed a monitor to be placed on top) and the '''Dragon 200-E''' (an enhanced Dragon 200 with both upper and lower case characters and a Spanish keyboard), but ultimately filed for bankruptcy in 1987.The remaining stock from Eurohard was purchased by a Spanish electronics hobbyist magazine and given away to those who paid for a three-year subscription, until 1992.In the United States it was possible to purchase the Tano Dragon new in box until early 2017 from California Digital, a retailer that purchased the remaining stock.File:PIC 0119 Dragon 32-2.jpg|Dragon 32 front viewFile:Dragon 32 Trasera.jpg|Dragon 32 back viewFile:Dragon 32 laterales-3.jpg|Dragon 32 side viewsFile:Dragon 64 top view.jpg|Dragon 64 top viewFile:Dragon 64 trasera.JPG|Dragon 64 back viewFile:Dragon 64 laterales.jpg|Dragon 64 side viewsFile:Dragon by Tano 64K computer.jpg|Dragon by TanoFile:Dragon200Box.jpg|Dragon 200 boxFile:Dragon200-4.jpg|Dragon 200 top viewFile:Dragon200-5.jpg|Dragon 200 back viewFile:Dragon200E Top.jpg|Dragon 200-E top viewFile:Dragon200E Back.jpg|Dragon 200-E back viewFile:Dragon200E Left.jpg|Dragon 200-E left side viewFile:Dragon200E Right.jpg|Dragon 200-E right side viewFile:MC6847 Dragon200E Charset.png|Dragon 200-E upper and lower case Spanish character set" ], [ "Reception", "''BYTE'' wrote in January 1983 that the Dragon 32 \"offers more feature for the money than most of its competitors\", but \"there's nothing exceptional about it\".", "The review described it as a redesigned, less-expensive Color Computer with 32K RAM and better keyboard." ], [ "Technical notes", "===Hardware and peripherals===The Dragon is built around the Motorola MC6809E processor running at 0.89 MHz.", "It was an advanced 8-bit CPU design, with limited 16-bit capabilities.It was possible to increase the speed of the computer by using POKE 65495,0 which accelerated the ROM-resident BASIC interpreter, but temporarily disabled proper functioning of the cassette/printer ports.", "Manufacturing variances mean that not all Dragons were able to function at this higher speed, and use of this POKE could cause some units to crash or be unstable, though with no permanent damage.", "POKE 65494,0 returned the speed to normal.", "POKE 65497,0 pushed the speed yet higher but the display was lost until a slower speed was restored.The Dragon used the SN74LS783/MC6883 Synchronous Address Multiplexer (SAM) and the MC6847 Video Display Generator (VDG).", "I/O was provided by two MC6821 Peripheral Interface Adapters (PIAs).", "Many Dragon 32s were upgraded by their owners to 64 KB of memory.", "A few were further expanded to 128 KB, 256 KB, or 512 KB with home-built memory controllers/memory management units (MMUs).A broad range of peripherals exist for the Dragon 32/64, and there are add-ons such as the Dragon's Claw which give the Dragons a port that is hardware-compatible with the BBC Micro's user port, though separate software drivers for connected devices must be developed.", "Although neither machine has a built-in disk operating system (Compact Cassettes being the standard storage mechanism commonly used for machines of the time), DragonDOS was supplied as part of the disk controller interface from Dragon Data Ltd.", "The versatile external ports, including the standard RS-232 on the 64, also allows hobbyists to attach a diverse range of equipment.The computer featured a composite monitor port as an alternative to the TV RF output which can be used to connect the Dragon 32 to most modern TVs to deliver a much better picture.The Dragon used analogue joysticks, unlike most systems of the time which used simpler and cheaper digital systems.", "Other uses for the joystick ports included light pens.Tony Clarke and Richard Wadman established the specifications for the Dragon.The units had a robust motherboard in a spacious case, reminiscent of the BBC Micro, and so were more tolerant of aftermarket modification than some of their contemporaries, which often had their components crammed into the smallest possible space.===Video modes===The Dragon's main display mode is 'black on green' text (the black was, in actuality, a deeper, muddier green).", "The only graphics possible in this mode are quarter-tile block based.It also has a selection of five high-resolution modes, named PMODEs 0–4, which alternate monochrome and four-colour in successively higher resolutions, culminating in the black-and-white 256×192 PMODE 4.Each mode has two possible colour palettes – these are rather garish and cause the system to fare poorly in visual comparisons with other home computers of the time.", "It is also impossible to use standard printing commands to print text in the graphical modes, causing software development difficulties.Full-colour, scanline-based 64×192 semi-graphics modes are also possible, though their imbalanced resolution and programming difficulty (not being accessible via BASIC) meant they were not often utilised.===Disk systems===Delta DOS Interface First to market was a complete disk operating system produced by Premier Microsystems, located near Croydon.", "The system was sold as the \"Delta\" disk operating system; there was a proposal for Dragon to market this as an addon.", "Dragon did not enter into such an agreement and instead produced the DragonDOS system.", "The two systems were incompatible.Delta's lead in availability ensured that software was released in the format, whilst Dragon's \"official\" status ensured that it, too, gained software published in its format.", "This led to confusion and frustration, with customers finding they had either purchased a version incompatible with their setup, or that the software was only available for the competing standard.=== System software ===The Dragon comes with a Microsoft BASIC interpreter in 16 KB of ROM.", "The BASIC appears to be nearly identical to Tandy Color Computer's Extended Basic with a few changes necessary to interact with the Dragon system.In common with home computers of the time, the entire operating software was included on a ROM chip; therefore, the system starts instantly when powered up.Some software providers also produced compilers for BASIC and other languages to produce binary (or \"machine\") code which would run many times faster and make better use of the small system RAM.", "Towards the end of its life, Dragon Data produced an assembler/disassembler/editor suite called ''Dream''.In addition to the DragonDOS disk operating system, the Dragon 32/64 is capable of running several others, including FLEX, and even OS-9 which brought UNIX-like multitasking to the platform.", "Memory-expanded and MMU-equipped Dragons are able to run OS-9 Level 2." ], [ "Games", "''Manic Miner'' (Software Projects) had to run in black and white.Initially, the Dragon was reasonably well supported by the major UK software companies, with versions of popular games from other systems being ported to the Dragon.", "Top-selling games available for the Dragon include ''Arcadia'' (Imagine), ''Chuckie Egg'' (A&F), ''Manic Miner'' and sequel ''Jet Set Willy'' (Software Projects), ''Hunchback'' (Ocean) and ''Football Manager'' (Addictive).", "There were also companies that concentrated on the Dragon, such as Microdeal.", "Their character Cuthbert appeared in several games, with ''Cuthbert Goes Walkabout'' also being converted for Atari 8-bit and Commodore 64 systems.Due to the limited graphics modes of the Dragon, converted games had a distinctive appearance, with colour games being usually played on a green or white background (rather than the more common black on other systems) or games with high-definition graphics having to run in black and white.When the system was discontinued, support from software companies also effectively ended.", "However, Microdeal continued supporting the Dragon until January 1988.Some of their final games developed for the Dragon in 1987 such as ''Tanglewood'' and ''Airball'' were also converted for 16-bit machines such as the Atari ST and Amiga." ], [ "Differences from the TRS-80 Color Computer", "Both the Dragon and the TRS-80 Color Computer are based on a Motorola data sheet design for the MC6883 SAM (MMU) chip for memory management and peripheral control.The systems are sufficiently similar that a significant fraction of the compiled software produced for one machine will run on the other.", "Software running via the built-in Basic interpreters also has a high level of compatibility, but only after they are re-tokenized, which can be achieved fairly easily by transferring via cassette tape with appropriate options.It is possible to permanently convert a Color Computer into a Dragon by swapping the original Color Computer ROM and rewiring the keyboard cable.The Dragon has additional circuitry to make the MC6847 VDG compatible with European 625-line television standards, rather than the US 525-line NTSC standard, and a Centronics parallel printer port not present on the TRS-80.Some models were manufactured with NTSC video for the US and Canadian markets." ], [ "References", ";Notes* Vander Reyden, John (1983).", "''Dragon 32 programmer's reference guide''.", "Beam Software/Melbourne House.", ".", "* Smeed, D.; Sommerville, I.", "(1983).", "''Inside the Dragon''.", "Addison-Wesley." ], [ "External links", "* The Dragon 32/64 Computers – at website www.6809.org.uk* The Dragon Archive – An archive of everything related to the Dragon 32/64 and its clones and prototypes* Dragon 32 Universe (Archived since April 25th, 2019) – A primarily games-based archive of Dragon 32 games, reviews and instructions* A Slayed Beast - History of the Dragon Computer at dragon-archive-online.co.uk.", "* The International Dragon Users Group – The Yahoo!", "group for Dragon Users* Manuals of Dragon 32, Dragon 64 and DragonDOS (DOS 437 character set) at www.museo8bits.es* Dragon Update - National Users Group Magazine Library at the Centre for Computing History* The Dragon 32/64 Inlay Artwork and Game Archive at dragon32.co.uk - Archive of Dragon 32/64 inlay artwork and playable games" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dark matter" ], [ "Introduction", "In astronomy, '''dark matter''' is a hypothetical form of matter that appears not to interact with light or the electromagnetic field.", "Dark matter is implied by gravitational effects which cannot be explained by general relativity unless more matter is present than can be seen.", "Such effects occur in the context of formation and evolution of galaxies, gravitational lensing, the observable universe's current structure, mass position in galactic collisions, the motion of galaxies within galaxy clusters, and cosmic microwave background anisotropies.In the standard lambda-CDM model of cosmology, the mass–energy content of the universe is 5% ordinary matter, 26.8% dark matter, and 68.2% a form of energy known as dark energy.", "Thus, dark matter constitutes 85% of the total mass, while dark energy and dark matter constitute 95% of the total mass–energy content.Dark matter is not known to interact with ordinary baryonic matter and radiation except through gravity, making it difficult to detect in the laboratory.", "The most prevalent explanation is that dark matter is some as-yet-undiscovered subatomic particle, such as weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs) or axions.", "The other main possibility is that dark matter is composed of primordial black holes.Dark matter is classified as \"cold\", \"warm\", or \"hot\" according to its velocity (more precisely, its free streaming length).", "Recent models have favored a cold dark matter scenario, in which structures emerge by the gradual accumulation of particles, but after a half century of fruitless dark matter particle searches, more recent gravitational wave and James Webb Space Telescope observations have considerably strengthened the case for primordial and direct collapse black holes.Although the astrophysics community generally accepts dark matter's existence, a minority of astrophysicists, intrigued by specific observations that are not well-explained by ordinary dark matter, argue for various modifications of the standard laws of general relativity.", "These include modified Newtonian dynamics, tensor–vector–scalar gravity, or entropic gravity.", "So far none of the proposed modified gravity theories can successfully describe every piece of observational evidence at the same time, suggesting that even if gravity has to be modified, some form of dark matter will still be required." ], [ "History", "=== Early history ===The hypothesis of dark matter has an elaborate history.", "In the appendices of the book ''Baltimore lectures on molecular dynamics and the wave theory of light'' where the main text was based on a series of lectures given in 1884, Lord Kelvin discussed the potential number of stars around the Sun from the observed velocity dispersion of the stars near the Sun, assuming that the Sun was 20 to 100 million years old.", "He posed what would happen if there were a thousand million stars within 1 kilo-parsec of the Sun (at which distance their parallax would be 1 milli-arcsec).", "Lord Kelvin concluded \"Many of our supposed thousand million stars, perhaps a great majority of them, may be dark bodies\".", "In 1906, Henri Poincaré in \"The Milky Way and Theory of Gases\" used the French term (\"dark matter\") in discussing Kelvin's work.", "He found that the amount of dark matter would need to be less than that of visible matter.The second to suggest the existence of dark matter using stellar velocities was Dutch astronomer Jacobus Kapteyn in 1922.A publication from 1930 points to Swedish Knut Lundmark being the first to realise that the universe must contain much more mass than can be observed.", "Dutchman and radio astronomy pioneer Jan Oort also hypothesized the existence of dark matter in 1932.Oort was studying stellar motions in the local galactic neighborhood and found the mass in the galactic plane must be greater than what was observed, but this measurement was later determined to be erroneous.In 1933, Swiss astrophysicist Fritz Zwicky, who studied galaxy clusters while working at the California Institute of Technology, made a similar inference.", "Zwicky applied the virial theorem to the Coma Cluster and obtained evidence of unseen mass he called ''dunkle Materie'' ('dark matter').", "Zwicky estimated its mass based on the motions of galaxies near its edge and compared that to an estimate based on its brightness and number of galaxies.", "He estimated the cluster had about 400 times more mass than was visually observable.", "The gravity effect of the visible galaxies was far too small for such fast orbits, thus mass must be hidden from view.", "Based on these conclusions, Zwicky inferred some unseen matter provided the mass and associated gravitation attraction to hold the cluster together.", "Zwicky's estimates were off by more than an order of magnitude, mainly due to an obsolete value of the Hubble constant; the same calculation today shows a smaller fraction, using greater values for luminous mass.", "Nonetheless, Zwicky did correctly conclude from his calculation that the bulk of the matter was dark.Further indications of mass-to-light ratio anomalies came from measurements of galaxy rotation curves.", "In 1939, Horace W. Babcock reported the rotation curve for the Andromeda nebula (known now as the Andromeda Galaxy), which suggested the mass-to-luminosity ratio increases radially.", "He attributed it to either light absorption within the galaxy or modified dynamics in the outer portions of the spiral and not to the missing matter he had uncovered.", "Following Babcock's 1939 report of unexpectedly rapid rotation in the outskirts of the Andromeda galaxy and a mass-to-light ratio of 50; in 1940 Jan Oort discovered and wrote about the large non-visible halo of NGC 3115.=== 1960s ===Early radio astronomy observations, performed by Seth Shostak, later SETI Institute Senior Astronomer, showed a half-dozen galaxies spun too fast in their outer regions, pointing to the existence of dark matter as a means of creating the gravitational pull needed to keep the stars in their orbits.=== 1970s ===Vera Rubin, Kent Ford, and Ken Freeman's work in the 1960s and 1970s provided further strong evidence, also using galaxy rotation curves.", "Rubin and Ford worked with a new spectrograph to measure the velocity curve of edge-on spiral galaxies with greater accuracy.", "This result was confirmed in 1978.An influential paper presented Rubin and Ford's results in 1980.They showed most galaxies must contain about six times as much dark as visible mass; thus, by around 1980 the apparent need for dark matter was widely recognized as a major unsolved problem in astronomy.At the same time Rubin and Ford were exploring optical rotation curves, radio astronomers were making use of new radio telescopes to map the 21 cm line of atomic hydrogen in nearby galaxies.", "The radial distribution of interstellar atomic hydrogen (H) often extends to much greater galactic distances than can be observed as collective starlight, expanding the sampled distances for rotation curves – and thus of the total mass distribution – to a new dynamical regime.", "Early mapping of Andromeda with the 300 foot telescope at Green Bank and the 250 foot dish at Jodrell Bank already showed the H rotation curve did not trace the expected Keplerian decline.", "As more sensitive receivers became available, Roberts & Whitehurst (1975) were able to trace the rotational velocity of Andromeda to 30 kpc, much beyond the optical measurements.", "Illustrating the advantage of tracing the gas disk at large radii; that paper's ''Figure 16'' combines the optical data (the cluster of points at radii of less than 15 kpc with a single point further out) with the H data between 20 and 30 kpc, exhibiting the flatness of the outer galaxy rotation curve; the solid curve peaking at the center is the optical surface density, while the other curve shows the cumulative mass, still rising linearly at the outermost measurement.", "In parallel, the use of interferometric arrays for extragalactic H spectroscopy was being developed.", "Rogstad & Shostak (1972) published H rotation curves of five spirals mapped with the Owens Valley interferometer; the rotation curves of all five were very flat, suggesting very large values of mass-to-light ratio in the outer parts of their extended H disks.=== 1980s ===A stream of observations in the 1980s supported the presence of dark matter, including gravitational lensing of background objects by galaxy clusters, the temperature distribution of hot gas in galaxies and clusters, and the pattern of anisotropies in the cosmic microwave background.", "According to consensus among cosmologists, dark matter is composed primarily of a not-yet-characterized type of subatomic particle.", "The search for this particle, by a variety of means, is one of the major efforts in particle physics.=== Twenty-first century ===While primordial black holes were long considered possibly important if not nearly exclusive components of dark matter, the latter perspective was strengthened by both LIGO/Virgo interferometer gravitational wave and James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) observations.", "Early constraints on PBHs as dark matter usually assumed most black holes would have similar or identical (\"monochromatic\") mass, which was disproven by LIGO/Virgo results, and further suggestions that the actual black hole mass distribution is broadly platykurtic were evident from JWST observations of early large galaxies." ], [ "Technical definition", "In standard cosmological calculations, ''\"matter\"'' means any constituent of the universe whose energy density scales with the inverse cube of the scale factor, i.e., This is in contrast to ''\"radiation\"'', which scales as the inverse fourth power of the scale factor and a cosmological constant, which does not change with respect to ().", "The different scaling factors for matter and radiation are a consequence of radiation redshift: For example, after gradually doubling the diameter of the observable Universe via cosmic expansion of General Relativity, the scale, , has doubled.", "The energy of the cosmic microwave background radiation has been halved (because the wavelength of each photon has doubled); the energy of ultra-relativistic particles, such as early-era standard-model neutrinos, is similarly halved.The cosmological constant, as an intrinsic property of space, has a constant energy density regardless of the volume under consideration.In principle, \"dark matter\" means all components of the universe which are not visible but still obey In practice, the term \"dark matter\" is often used to mean only the non-baryonic component of dark matter, i.e., excluding \"missing baryons\".", "Context will usually indicate which meaning is intended." ], [ "Observational evidence", "=== Galaxy rotation curves ===Animation of rotating disc galaxies.", "Dark mattershown in redis more concentrated near the center and it rotates more rapidly.The arms of spiral galaxies rotate around the galactic center.", "The luminous mass density of a spiral galaxy decreases as one goes from the center to the outskirts.", "If luminous mass were all the matter, then we can model the galaxy as a point mass in the centre and test masses orbiting around it, similar to the Solar System.", "From Kepler's Third Law, it is expected that the rotation velocities will decrease with distance from the center, similar to the Solar System.", "This is not observed.", "Instead, the galaxy rotation curve remains flat as distance from the center increases.If Kepler's laws are correct, then the obvious way to resolve this discrepancy is to conclude the mass distribution in spiral galaxies is not similar to that of the Solar System.", "In particular, there is a lot of non-luminous matter (dark matter) in the outskirts of the galaxy.=== Velocity dispersions ===Stars in bound systems must obey the virial theorem.", "The theorem, together with the measured velocity distribution, can be used to measure the mass distribution in a bound system, such as elliptical galaxies or globular clusters.", "With some exceptions, velocity dispersion estimates of elliptical galaxies do not match the predicted velocity dispersion from the observed mass distribution, even assuming complicated distributions of stellar orbits.As with galaxy rotation curves, the obvious way to resolve the discrepancy is to postulate the existence of non-luminous matter.=== Galaxy clusters ===Galaxy clusters are particularly important for dark matter studies since their masses can be estimated in three independent ways:* From the scatter in radial velocities of the galaxies within clusters* From X-rays emitted by hot gas in the clusters.", "From the X-ray energy spectrum and flux, the gas temperature and density can be estimated, hence giving the pressure; assuming pressure and gravity balance determines the cluster's mass profile.", "* Gravitational lensing (usually of more distant galaxies) can measure cluster masses without relying on observations of dynamics (e.g., velocity).Generally, these three methods are in reasonable agreement that dark matter outweighs visible matter by approximately 5 to 1.=== Gravitational lensing ===One of the consequences of general relativity is massive objects (such as a cluster of galaxies) lying between a more distant source (such as a quasar) and an observer should act as a lens to bend light from this source.", "The more massive an object, the more lensing is observed.Strong lensing is the observed distortion of background galaxies into arcs when their light passes through such a gravitational lens.", "It has been observed around many distant clusters including Abell 1689.By measuring the distortion geometry, the mass of the intervening cluster can be obtained.", "In the dozens of cases where this has been done, the mass-to-light ratios obtained correspond to the dynamical dark matter measurements of clusters.", "Lensing can lead to multiple copies of an image.", "By analyzing the distribution of multiple image copies, scientists have been able to deduce and map the distribution of dark matter around the MACS J0416.1-2403 galaxy cluster.Weak gravitational lensing investigates minute distortions of galaxies, using statistical analyses from vast galaxy surveys.", "By examining the apparent shear deformation of the adjacent background galaxies, the mean distribution of dark matter can be characterized.", "The mass-to-light ratios correspond to dark matter densities predicted by other large-scale structure measurements.", "Dark matter does not bend light itself; mass (in this case the mass of the dark matter) bends spacetime.", "Light follows the curvature of spacetime, resulting in the lensing effect.In May 2021, a new detailed dark matter map was revealed by the Dark Energy Survey Collaboration.", "In addition, the map revealed previously undiscovered filamentary structures connecting galaxies, by using a machine learning method.An April 2023 study in ''Nature Astronomy'' examined the inferred distribution of the dark matter responsible for the lensing of the elliptical galaxy HS 0810+2554, and found tentative evidence of interference patterns within the dark matter.", "The observation of interference patterns is incompatible with WIMPs, but would be compatible with simulations involving 10−22 eV axions.", "While acknowledging the need to corroborate the findings by examining other astrophysical lenses, the authors argued that \"The ability of (axion-based dark matter) to resolve lensing anomalies even in demanding cases such as HS 0810+2554, together with its success in reproducing other astrophysical observations, tilt the balance toward new physics invoking axions.", "\"=== Cosmic microwave background ===Although both dark matter and ordinary matter are matter, they do not behave in the same way.", "In particular, in the early universe, ordinary matter was ionized and interacted strongly with radiation via Thomson scattering.", "Dark matter does not interact directly with radiation, but it does affect the cosmic microwave background (CMB) by its gravitational potential (mainly on large scales) and by its effects on the density and velocity of ordinary matter.", "Ordinary and dark matter perturbations, therefore, evolve differently with time and leave different imprints on the CMB.The cosmic microwave background is very close to a perfect blackbody but contains very small temperature anisotropies of a few parts in 100,000.A sky map of anisotropies can be decomposed into an angular power spectrum, which is observed to contain a series of acoustic peaks at near-equal spacing but different heights.The series of peaks can be predicted for any assumed set of cosmological parameters by modern computer codes such as CMBFAST and CAMB, and matching theory to data, therefore, constrains cosmological parameters.", "The first peak mostly shows the density of baryonic matter, while the third peak relates mostly to the density of dark matter, measuring the density of matter and the density of atoms.The CMB anisotropy was first discovered by COBE in 1992, though this had too coarse resolution to detect the acoustic peaks.After the discovery of the first acoustic peak by the balloon-borne BOOMERanG experiment in 2000, the power spectrum was precisely observed by WMAP in 2003–2012, and even more precisely by the ''Planck'' spacecraft in 2013–2015.The results support the Lambda-CDM model.The observed CMB angular power spectrum provides powerful evidence in support of dark matter, as its precise structure is well fitted by the lambda-CDM model, but difficult to reproduce with any competing model such as modified Newtonian dynamics (MOND).=== Structure formation ===Dark matter map for a patch of sky based on gravitational lensing analysis of a Kilo-Degree survey.Structure formation refers to the period after the Big Bang when density perturbations collapsed to form stars, galaxies, and clusters.", "Prior to structure formation, the Friedmann solutions to general relativity describe a homogeneous universe.", "Later, small anisotropies gradually grew and condensed the homogeneous universe into stars, galaxies and larger structures.", "Ordinary matter is affected by radiation, which is the dominant element of the universe at very early times.", "As a result, its density perturbations are washed out and unable to condense into structure.", "If there were only ordinary matter in the universe, there would not have been enough time for density perturbations to grow into the galaxies and clusters currently seen.Dark matter provides a solution to this problem because it is unaffected by radiation.", "Therefore, its density perturbations can grow first.", "The resulting gravitational potential acts as an attractive potential well for ordinary matter collapsing later, speeding up the structure formation process.=== Bullet Cluster ===If dark matter does not exist, then the next most likely explanation must be that general relativity – the prevailing theory of gravity – is incorrect and should be modified.", "The Bullet Cluster, the result of a recent collision of two galaxy clusters, provides a challenge for modified gravity theories because its apparent center of mass is far displaced from the baryonic center of mass.", "Standard dark matter models can easily explain this observation, but modified gravity has a much harder time, especially since the observational evidence is model-independent.=== Type Ia supernova distance measurements ===Type Ia supernovae can be used as standard candles to measure extragalactic distances, which can in turn be used to measure how fast the universe has expanded in the past.", "Data indicates the universe is expanding at an accelerating rate, the cause of which is usually ascribed to dark energy.", "Since observations indicate the universe is almost flat, it is expected the total energy density of everything in the universe should sum to 1 ().", "The measured dark energy density is ; the observed ordinary (baryonic) matter energy density is and the energy density of radiation is negligible.", "This leaves a missing which nonetheless behaves like matter (see technical definition section above)dark matter.=== Sky surveys and baryon acoustic oscillations ===Baryon acoustic oscillations (BAO) are fluctuations in the density of the visible baryonic matter (normal matter) of the universe on large scales.", "These are predicted to arise in the Lambda-CDM model due to acoustic oscillations in the photon–baryon fluid of the early universe, and can be observed in the cosmic microwave background angular power spectrum.", "BAOs set up a preferred length scale for baryons.", "As the dark matter and baryons clumped together after recombination, the effect is much weaker in the galaxy distribution in the nearby universe, but is detectable as a subtle (≈1 percent) preference for pairs of galaxies to be separated by 147 Mpc, compared to those separated by 130–160 Mpc.", "This feature was predicted theoretically in the 1990s and then discovered in 2005, in two large galaxy redshift surveys, the Sloan Digital Sky Survey and the 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey.", "Combining the CMB observations with BAO measurements from galaxy redshift surveys provides a precise estimate of the Hubble constant and the average matter density in the Universe.", "The results support the Lambda-CDM model.=== Redshift-space distortions ===Large galaxy redshift surveys may be used to make a three-dimensional map of the galaxy distribution.", "These maps are slightly distorted because distances are estimated from observed redshifts; the redshift contains a contribution from the galaxy's so-called peculiar velocity in addition to the dominant Hubble expansion term.", "On average, superclusters are expanding more slowly than the cosmic mean due to their gravity, while voids are expanding faster than average.", "In a redshift map, galaxies in front of a supercluster have excess radial velocities towards it and have redshifts slightly higher than their distance would imply, while galaxies behind the supercluster have redshifts slightly low for their distance.", "This effect causes superclusters to appear squashed in the radial direction, and likewise voids are stretched.", "Their angular positions are unaffected.", "This effect is not detectable for any one structure since the true shape is not known, but can be measured by averaging over many structures.", "It was predicted quantitatively by Nick Kaiser in 1987, and first decisively measured in 2001 by the 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey.", "Results are in agreement with the lambda-CDM model.=== Lyman-alpha forest ===In astronomical spectroscopy, the Lyman-alpha forest is the sum of the absorption lines arising from the Lyman-alpha transition of neutral hydrogen in the spectra of distant galaxies and quasars.", "Lyman-alpha forest observations can also constrain cosmological models.", "These constraints agree with those obtained from WMAP data." ], [ "Theoretical classifications", "=== Composition ===Different dark matter candidates as a function of their mass in units of electronvolt (eV).The exact identity of dark matter is unknown, but there are many hypotheses about what dark matter could consist of, as set out in the table below.+ Some dark matter hypotheses Light bosons quantum chromodynamics axions axion-like particles fuzzy cold dark matter neutrinos Standard Model sterile neutrinos weak scale supersymmetry extra dimensions little Higgs effective field theory simplified models other particles weakly interacting massive particle self-interacting dark matter atomic dark matter strangelet superfluid vacuum theory dynamical dark matter macroscopic primordial black holes massive compact halo objects (MACHOs) macroscopic dark matter (Macros) modified gravity (MOG) modified Newtonian dynamics (MoND) tensor–vector–scalar gravity (TeVeS) entropic gravityFermi-LAT observations of dwarf galaxies provide new insights on dark matter.==== Baryonic matter ====Dark matter can refer to any substance which interacts predominantly via gravity with visible matter (e.g., stars and planets).", "Hence in principle it need not be composed of a new type of fundamental particle but could, at least in part, be made up of standard baryonic matter, such as protons or neutrons.", "Most of the ordinary matter familiar to astronomers, including planets, brown dwarfs, red dwarfs, visible stars, white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes, fall into this category.", "Solitary black holes, neutron stars, burnt-out dwarfs, and other massive objects that that are hard to detect are collectively known as MACHOs; some scientists initially hoped that baryonic MACHOs could account for and explain all the dark matter.However, multiple lines of evidence suggest the majority of dark matter is not baryonic:* Sufficient diffuse, baryonic gas or dust would be visible when backlit by stars.", "* The theory of Big Bang nucleosynthesis predicts the observed abundance of the chemical elements.", "If there are more baryons, then there should also be more helium, lithium and heavier elements synthesized during the Big Bang.", "Agreement with observed abundances requires that baryonic matter makes up between 4–5% of the universe's critical density.", "In contrast, large-scale structure and other observations indicate that the total matter density is about 30% of the critical density.", "* Astronomical searches for gravitational microlensing in the Milky Way found at most only a small fraction of the dark matter may be in dark, compact, conventional objects (MACHOs, etc.", "); the excluded range of object masses is from half the Earth's mass up to 30 solar masses, which covers nearly all the plausible candidates.", "* Detailed analysis of the small irregularities (anisotropies) in the cosmic microwave background.", "Observations by WMAP and Planck indicate that around five-sixths of the total matter is in a form that interacts significantly with ordinary matter or photons only through gravitational effects.==== Non-baryonic matter ====There are two main candidates for non-baryonic dark matter: hypothetical particles such as axions, sterile neutrinos, weakly interacting massive particle (WIMPs), supersymmetric particles, atomic dark matter, or geons; and primordial black holes.", "Once a black hole ingests either kind of matter, baryonic or not, the distinction is lost.Unlike baryonic matter, nonbaryonic particles do not contribute to the formation of the elements in the early universe (Big Bang nucleosynthesis) and so its presence is revealed only via its gravitational effects, or weak lensing.", "In addition, if the particles of which it is composed are supersymmetric, they can undergo annihilation interactions with themselves, possibly resulting in observable by-products such as gamma rays and neutrinos (indirect detection).In 2015, the idea that dense dark matter was composed of primordial black holes made a comebackfollowing results of gravitational wave measurements which detected the merger of intermediate-mass black holes.", "Black holes with about 30 solar masses are not predicted to form by either stellar collapse (typically less than 15 solar masses) or by the merger of black holes in galactic centers (millions or billions of solar masses).", "It was proposed that the intermediate-mass black holes causing the detected merger formed in the hot dense early phase of the universe due to denser regions collapsing.", "A later survey of about a thousand supernovae detected no gravitational lensing events, when about eight would be expected if intermediate-mass primordial black holes above a certain mass range accounted for over 60% of dark matter.However, that study assumed a monochromatic distribution to represent the LIGO/Virgo mass range, which is inapplicable to the broadly platykurtic mass distribution suggested by subsequent James Webb Space Telescope observations.The possibility that atom-sized primordial black holes account for a significant fraction of dark matter was ruled out by measurements of positron and electron fluxes outside the Sun's heliosphere by the Voyager 1 spacecraft.", "Tiny black holes are theorized to emit Hawking radiation.", "However the detected fluxes were too low and did not have the expected energy spectrum, suggesting that tiny primordial black holes are not widespread enough to account for dark matter.", "Nonetheless, research and theories proposing dense dark matter accounts for dark matter continue as of 2018, including approaches to dark matter cooling,and the question remains unsettled.", "In 2019, the lack of microlensing effects in the observation of Andromeda suggests that tiny black holes do not exist.However, there still exists a largely unconstrained mass range smaller than that which can be limited by optical microlensing observations, where primordial black holes may account for all dark matter.=== Free streaming length ===Dark matter can be divided into ''cold'', ''warm'', and ''hot'' categories.", "These categories refer to velocity rather than an actual temperature, indicating how far corresponding objects moved due to random motions in the early universe, before they slowed due to cosmic expansion – this is an important distance called the ''free streaming length'' (FSL).", "Primordial density fluctuations smaller than this length get washed out as particles spread from overdense to underdense regions, while larger fluctuations are unaffected; therefore this length sets a minimum scale for later structure formation.The categories are set with respect to the size of a protogalaxy (an object that later evolves into a dwarf galaxy): Dark matter particles are classified as cold, warm, or hot according to their FSL; much smaller (cold), similar to (warm), or much larger (hot) than a protogalaxy.", "Mixtures of the above are also possible: a theory of mixed dark matter was popular in the mid-1990s, but was rejected following the discovery of dark energy.Cold dark matter leads to a bottom-up formation of structure with galaxies forming first and galaxy clusters at a latter stage, while hot dark matter would result in a top-down formation scenario with large matter aggregations forming early, later fragmenting into separate galaxies; the latter is excluded by high-redshift galaxy observations.==== Fluctuation spectrum effects ====These categories also correspond to fluctuation spectrum effects and the interval following the Big Bang at which each type became non-relativistic.", "Davis ''et al.''", "wrote in 1985:==== Alternative definitions ====Another approximate dividing line is warm dark matter became non-relativistic when the universe was approximately 1 year old and 1 millionth of its present size and in the radiation-dominated era (photons and neutrinos), with a photon temperature 2.7 million Kelvins.", "Standard physical cosmology gives the particle horizon size as 2 ''c t'' (speed of light multiplied by time) in the radiation-dominated era, thus 2 light-years.", "A region of this size would expand to 2 million light-years today (absent structure formation).", "The actual FSL is approximately 5 times the above length, since it continues to grow slowly as particle velocities decrease inversely with the scale factor after they become non-relativistic.", "In this example the FSL would correspond to 10 million light-years, or 3 megaparsecs, today, around the size containing an average large galaxy.The 2.7 million K photon temperature gives a typical photon energy of 250 electronvolts, thereby setting a typical mass scale for warm dark matter: particles much more massive than this, such as GeV–TeV mass WIMPs, would become non-relativistic much earlier than one year after the Big Bang and thus have FSLs much smaller than a protogalaxy, making them cold.", "Conversely, much lighter particles, such as neutrinos with masses of only a few eV, have FSLs much larger than a protogalaxy, thus qualifying them as hot.==== Cold dark matter ====Cold dark matter offers the simplest explanation for most cosmological observations.", "It is dark matter composed of constituents with an FSL much smaller than a protogalaxy.", "This is the focus for dark matter research, as hot dark matter does not seem capable of supporting galaxy or galaxy cluster formation, and most particle candidates slowed early.The constituents of cold dark matter are unknown.", "Possibilities range from large objects like MACHOs (such as black holes and Preon stars) or RAMBOs (such as clusters of brown dwarfs), to new particles such as WIMPs and axions.The 1997 DAMA/NaI experiment and its successor DAMA/LIBRA in 2013, claimed to directly detect dark matter particles passing through the Earth, but many researchers remain skeptical, as negative results from similar experiments seem incompatible with the DAMA results.Many supersymmetric models offer dark matter candidates in the form of the WIMPy Lightest Supersymmetric Particle (LSP).", "Separately, heavy sterile neutrinos exist in non-supersymmetric extensions to the standard model which explain the small neutrino mass through the seesaw mechanism.==== Warm dark matter ====Warm dark matter comprises particles with an FSL comparable to the size of a protogalaxy.", "Predictions based on warm dark matter are similar to those for cold dark matter on large scales, but with less small-scale density perturbations.", "This reduces the predicted abundance of dwarf galaxies and may lead to lower density of dark matter in the central parts of large galaxies.", "Some researchers consider this a better fit to observations.", "A challenge for this model is the lack of particle candidates with the required mass ≈ 300 eV to 3000 eV.No known particles can be categorized as warm dark matter.", "A postulated candidate is the sterile neutrino: a heavier, slower form of neutrino that does not interact through the weak force, unlike other neutrinos.", "Some modified gravity theories, such as scalar–tensor–vector gravity, require \"warm\" dark matter to make their equations work.==== Hot dark matter ====Hot dark matter consists of particles whose FSL is much larger than the size of a protogalaxy.", "The neutrino qualifies as such a particle.", "They were discovered independently, long before the hunt for dark matter: they were postulated in 1930, and detected in 1956.Neutrinos' mass is less than 10 that of an electron.", "Neutrinos interact with normal matter only via gravity and the weak force, making them difficult to detect (the weak force only works over a small distance, thus a neutrino triggers a weak force event only if it hits a nucleus head-on).", "This makes them \"weakly interacting slender particles\" (WISPs), as opposed to WIMPs.The three known flavours of neutrinos are the ''electron'', ''muon'', and ''tau''.", "Their masses are slightly different.", "Neutrinos oscillate among the flavours as they move.", "It is hard to determine an exact upper bound on the collective average mass of the three neutrinos (or for any of the three individually).", "For example, if the average neutrino mass were over 50 eV/c (less than 10 of the mass of an electron), the universe would collapse.", "CMB data and other methods indicate that their average mass probably does not exceed 0.3 eV/c.", "Thus, observed neutrinos cannot explain dark matter.Because galaxy-size density fluctuations get washed out by free-streaming, hot dark matter implies the first objects that can form are huge supercluster-size pancakes, which then fragment into galaxies.", "Deep-field observations show instead that galaxies formed first, followed by clusters and superclusters as galaxies clump together.===Dark matter aggregation and dense dark matter objects===If dark matter is composed of weakly-interacting particles, then an obvious question is whether it can form objects equivalent to planets, stars, or black holes.", "Historically, the answer has been it cannot,because of two factors:; It lacks an efficient means to lose energy : Ordinary matter forms dense objects because it has numerous ways to lose energy.", "Losing energy would be essential for object formation, because a particle that gains energy during compaction or falling \"inward\" under gravity, and cannot lose it any other way, will heat up and increase velocity and momentum.", "Dark matter appears to lack a means to lose energy, simply because it is not capable of interacting strongly in other ways except through gravity.", "The virial theorem suggests that such a particle would not stay bound to the gradually forming object – as the object began to form and compact, the dark matter particles within it would speed up and tend to escape.", "; It lacks a diversity of interactions needed to form structures: Ordinary matter interacts in many different ways, which allows the matter to form more complex structures.", "For example, stars form through gravity, but the particles within them interact and can emit energy in the form of neutrinos and electromagnetic radiation through fusion when they become energetic enough.", "Protons and neutrons can bind via the strong interaction and then form atoms with electrons largely through electromagnetic interaction.", "There is no evidence that dark matter is capable of such a wide variety of interactions, since it seems to only interact through gravity (and possibly through some means no stronger than the weak interaction, although until dark matter is better understood, this is only speculation).However, there are theories of atomic dark matter similar to normal matter that overcome these problems." ], [ "Detection of dark matter particles", "If dark matter is made up of subatomic particles, then millions, possibly billions, of such particles must pass through every square centimeter of the Earth each second.", "Many experiments aim to test this hypothesis.", "Although WIMPs have been the main search candidates, axions have drawn renewed attention, with the Axion Dark Matter Experiment (ADMX) searches for axions and many more planned in the future.", "Another candidate is heavy hidden sector particles which only interact with ordinary matter via gravity.These experiments can be divided into two classes: direct detection experiments, which search for the scattering of dark matter particles off atomic nuclei within a detector; and indirect detection, which look for the products of dark matter particle annihilations or decays.=== Direct detection ===Direct detection experiments aim to observe low-energy recoils (typically a few keVs) of nuclei induced by interactions with particles of dark matter, which (in theory) are passing through the Earth.", "After such a recoil the nucleus will emit energy in the form of scintillation light or phonons, as they pass through sensitive detection apparatus.", "To do so effectively, it is crucial to maintain an extremely low background, which is the reason why such experiments typically operate deep underground, where interference from cosmic rays is minimized.", "Examples of underground laboratories with direct detection experiments include the Stawell mine, the Soudan mine, the SNOLAB underground laboratory at Sudbury, the Gran Sasso National Laboratory, the Canfranc Underground Laboratory, the Boulby Underground Laboratory, the Deep Underground Science and Engineering Laboratory and the China Jinping Underground Laboratory.These experiments mostly use either cryogenic or noble liquid detector technologies.", "Cryogenic detectors operating at temperatures below 100 mK, detect the heat produced when a particle hits an atom in a crystal absorber such as germanium.", "Noble liquid detectors detect scintillation produced by a particle collision in liquid xenon or argon.", "Cryogenic detector experiments include: CDMS, CRESST, EDELWEISS, EURECA.", "Noble liquid experiments include LZ, XENON, DEAP, ArDM, WARP, DarkSide, PandaX, and LUX, the Large Underground Xenon experiment.", "Both of these techniques focus strongly on their ability to distinguish background particles (which predominantly scatter off electrons) from dark matter particles (that scatter off nuclei).", "Other experiments include SIMPLE and PICASSO.Currently there has been no well-established claim of dark matter detection from a direct detection experiment, leading instead to strong upper limits on the mass and interaction cross section with nucleons of such dark matter particles.", "The DAMA/NaI and more recent DAMA/LIBRA experimental collaborations have detected an annual modulation in the rate of events in their detectors, which they claim is due to dark matter.", "This results from the expectation that as the Earth orbits the Sun, the velocity of the detector relative to the dark matter halo will vary by a small amount.", "This claim is so far unconfirmed and in contradiction with negative results from other experiments such as LUX, SuperCDMS and XENON100.A special case of direct detection experiments covers those with directional sensitivity.", "This is a search strategy based on the motion of the Solar System around the Galactic Center.", "A low-pressure time projection chamber makes it possible to access information on recoiling tracks and constrain WIMP-nucleus kinematics.", "WIMPs coming from the direction in which the Sun travels (approximately towards Cygnus) may then be separated from background, which should be isotropic.", "Directional dark matter experiments include DMTPC, DRIFT, Newage and MIMAC.=== Indirect detection ===Collage of six cluster collisions with dark matter maps.", "The clusters were observed in a study of how dark matter in clusters of galaxies behaves when the clusters collide.gamma-ray detection of dark matter annihilation around supermassive black holes.", "''(Duration 0:03:13, also see file description.", ")''Indirect detection experiments search for the products of the self-annihilation or decay of dark matter particles in outer space.", "For example, in regions of high dark matter density (e.g., the centre of our galaxy) two dark matter particles could annihilate to produce gamma rays or Standard Model particle–antiparticle pairs.", "Alternatively, if a dark matter particle is unstable, it could decay into Standard Model (or other) particles.", "These processes could be detected indirectly through an excess of gamma rays, antiprotons or positrons emanating from high density regions in our galaxy or others.", "A major difficulty inherent in such searches is that various astrophysical sources can mimic the signal expected from dark matter, and so multiple signals are likely required for a conclusive discovery.A few of the dark matter particles passing through the Sun or Earth may scatter off atoms and lose energy.", "Thus dark matter may accumulate at the center of these bodies, increasing the chance of collision/annihilation.", "This could produce a distinctive signal in the form of high-energy neutrinos.", "Such a signal would be strong indirect proof of WIMP dark matter.", "High-energy neutrino telescopes such as AMANDA, IceCube and ANTARES are searching for this signal.The detection by LIGO in September 2015 of gravitational waves opens the possibility of observing dark matter in a new way, particularly if it is in the form of primordial black holes.Many experimental searches have been undertaken to look for such emission from dark matter annihilation or decay, examples of which follow.The Energetic Gamma Ray Experiment Telescope observed more gamma rays in 2008 than expected from the Milky Way, but scientists concluded this was most likely due to incorrect estimation of the telescope's sensitivity.The Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope is searching for similar gamma rays.", "In 2009, an as yet unexplained surplus of gamma rays from the Milky Way's galactic center was found in Fermi data.", "This Galactic Center GeV excess might be due to dark matter annihilation or to a population of pulsars.", "In April 2012, an analysis of previously available data from Fermi's Large Area Telescope instrument produced statistical evidence of a 130 GeV signal in the gamma radiation coming from the center of the Milky Way.", "WIMP annihilation was seen as the most probable explanation.At higher energies, ground-based gamma-ray telescopes have set limits on the annihilation of dark matter in dwarf spheroidal galaxies and in clusters of galaxies.The PAMELA experiment (launched in 2006) detected excess positrons.", "They could be from dark matter annihilation or from pulsars.", "No excess antiprotons were observed.In 2013, results from the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer on the International Space Station indicated excess high-energy cosmic rays which could be due to dark matter annihilation.=== Collider searches for dark matter ===An alternative approach to the detection of dark matter particles in nature is to produce them in a laboratory.", "Experiments with the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) may be able to detect dark matter particles produced in collisions of the LHC proton beams.", "Because a dark matter particle should have negligible interactions with normal visible matter, it may be detected indirectly as (large amounts of) missing energy and momentum that escape the detectors, provided other (non-negligible) collision products are detected.", "Constraints on dark matter also exist from the LEP experiment using a similar principle, but probing the interaction of dark matter particles with electrons rather than quarks.", "Any discovery from collider searches must be corroborated by discoveries in the indirect or direct detection sectors to prove that the particle discovered is, in fact, dark matter." ], [ "Alternative hypotheses", "Because dark matter has not yet been identified, many other hypotheses have emerged aiming to explain the same observational phenomena without introducing a new unknown type of matter.", "The theory underpinning most observational evidence for dark matter, General Relativity, is well-tested on solar system scales, but its validity on galactic or cosmological scales has not been well proven.", "A suitable modification to general relativity can in principle conceivably eliminate the need for dark matter.", "The best-known theories of this class are MOND and its relativistic generalization tensor–vector–scalar gravity (TeVeS), f(R) gravity, negative mass, dark fluid, and entropic gravity.", "Alternative theories abound.A problem with alternative hypotheses is that observational evidence for dark matter comes from so many independent approaches (see the \"observational evidence\" section above).", "Explaining any individual observation is possible but explaining all of them in the absence of dark matter is very difficult.", "Nonetheless, there have been some scattered successes for alternative hypotheses, such as a 2016 test of gravitational lensing in entropic gravity and a 2020 measurement of a unique MOND effect.The prevailing opinion among most astrophysicists is that while modifications to general relativity can conceivably explain part of the observational evidence, there is probably enough data to conclude there must be some form of dark matter present in the Universe." ], [ "In popular culture", "Dark matter regularly appears as a topic in hybrid periodicals that cover both factual scientific topics and science fiction,and dark matter itself has been referred to as \"the stuff of science fiction\".Mention of dark matter is made in works of fiction.", "In such cases, it is usually attributed extraordinary physical or magical properties, thus becoming inconsistent with the hypothesized properties of dark matter in physics and cosmology.", "For example:* Dark matter serves as a plot device in the ''X-Files'' episode \"Soft Light.\"", "* A dark-matter-inspired substance known as ''\"Dust\"'' features prominently in Philip Pullman's ''His Dark Materials'' trilogy.", "* Beings made of dark matter are antagonists in Stephen Baxter's Xeelee Sequence.More broadly, the phrase \"dark matter\" is used metaphorically in fiction to evoke the unseen or invisible." ], [ "Gallery" ], [ "See also", ";Related theories* * * Density wave theory – A theory in which waves of compressed gas, which move slower than the galaxy, maintain galaxy's structure* * * * ;Experiments* , a search apparatus* , large underground dark matter detector* , a space mission* * , a research program* , astrophysical simulations* , a particle accelerator research infrastructure;Dark matter candidates* * * * * * * * * * Weakly interacting slim particle (WISP)Low-mass counterpart to WIMP* * ;Other* * Luminiferous aether – A once theorized invisible and infinite material with no interaction with physical objects, used to explain how light could travel through a vacuum (now disproven)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Works cited===*" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Weiss, Rainer, \"The Dark Universe Comes into Focus: The LIGO experiment opened a whole new window to the universe.", "We asked 2017 Nobel laureate Rainer Weiss, one of LIGO's lead architects, what gravitational-wave astronomy could reveal next\" (sponsor feature), ''Scientific American'', vol.", "329, no.", "1 (July/August 2023), between p. 7 and p. 8.\"I...", "think that dark matter is made of black holes – really small black holes, a tiny fraction of a solar mass, that don't interact much with light so you can't see them....", "According to cosmic inflation theory, the universe was created by a fluctuation in the vacuum.", "That kind of fluctuation will have instabilities and explode asymmetrically – which will generate gravitational waves.\"" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ducati" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ducati''' () is an Italian motorcycle manufacturing company headquartered in Bologna, Italy.", "The company is directly owned by Italian automotive manufacturer Lamborghini, whose German parent company is Audi, itself owned by the Volkswagen Group." ], [ "History", "In 1926 Antonio Cavalieri Ducati and his three sons, Adriano, Marcello, and Bruno, founded ''Società Scientifica Radiobrevetti Ducati'' (SSR Ducati) in Bologna to produce vacuum tubes, condensers and other radio components.", "In 1935 they had become successful enough to enable construction of a new factory in the Borgo Panigale area of the city.", "Production was maintained during World War II, despite the Ducati factory being a repeated target of Allied bombing.", "It was finally destroyed by around 40 Consolidated B-24 Liberators on 12 October 1944 as part of the United States Army Air Forces's Operation Pancake, which involved some 700 aircraft flying from airfields in the Province of Foggia.Ducati FactoryDucati \"Cucciolo\", 1950 Nonetheless it maintained production.Meanwhile, at the small Turinese firm SIATA (''Società Italiana per Applicazioni Tecniche Auto-Aviatorie''), Aldo Farinelli began developing a small pushrod engine for mounting on bicycles.", "Barely a month after the official liberation of Italy in 1944, SIATA announced its intention to sell this engine, called the \"Cucciolo\" (Italian for \"puppy,\" in reference to the distinctive exhaust sound) to the public.", "The first Cucciolos were available alone, to be mounted on standard bicycles, by the buyer; however, businessmen soon bought the little engines in quantity, and offered complete motorized-bicycle units for sale.In 1950, after more than 200,000 Cucciolos had been sold, in collaboration with SIATA, the Ducati firm finally offered its own Cucciolo-based motorcycle.", "This first Ducati motorcycle was a 48 cc bike weighing , with a top speed of , and had a giving just under .", "Ducati soon dropped the Cucciolo name in favor of \"55M\" and \"65TL\".Ducati 175 Cruiser, 1952Ducati Brio 100, 1968Ducati Mach 1When the market moved toward larger motorcycles, Ducati management decided to respond, making an impression at an early-1952 Milan show, introducing their 65TS cycle and Cruiser (a four-stroke motor scooter).", "Despite being described as the most interesting new machine at the 1952 show, the Cruiser was not a great success, and only a few thousand were made over a two-year period before the model ceased production.In 1953, management split the company into two separate entities, Ducati Meccanica SpA and Ducati Elettronica, in acknowledgment of its diverging motorcycle and electronics product lines.", "Dr. Giuseppe Montano took over as head of Ducati Meccanica SpA and the Borgo Panigale factory was modernized with government assistance.", "By 1954, Ducati Meccanica SpA had increased production to 120 bikes a day.In the 1960s, Ducati earned its place in motorcycling history by producing the fastest 250 cc road bike then available, the Mach 1.In the 1970s Ducati began producing motorcycles with large-displacement V-twin engines, which Ducati branded as \"L-twin\" for their 90° angle, and in 1973, introduced their trademarked desmodromic valve design.", "In 1985, Cagiva bought Ducati and planned to rebadge Ducati motorcycles with the \"Cagiva\" name.", "By the time the purchase was completed, Cagiva kept the \"Ducati\" name on its motorcycles.", "Eleven years later, in 1996, Cagiva accepted the offer from Texas Pacific Group and sold a 51% stake in the company for US$325 million; then, in 1998, Texas Pacific Group bought most of the remaining 49% to become the sole owner of Ducati.", "In 1999, TPG issued an initial public offering of Ducati stock and renamed the company \"Ducati Motor Holding SpA\".", "TPG sold over 65% of its shares in Ducati, leaving TPG the majority shareholder.", "In December 2005, Ducati returned to Italian ownership with the sale of Texas Pacific's stake (minus one share) to Investindustrial Holdings, the investment fund of Carlo and Andrea Bonomi.Ducati 899 PanigaleIn April 2012, Volkswagen Group's Audi subsidiary announced its intention to buy Ducati for € (US$).", "Volkswagen chairman Ferdinand Piëch, a motorcycle enthusiast, had long coveted Ducati, and had regretted that he passed up an opportunity to buy the company from the Italian government in 1984.Analysts doubted a tiny motorcycle maker would have a meaningful effect on a company the size of Volkswagen, commenting that the acquisition has \"a trophy feel to it,\" and, \"is driven by VW's passion for nameplates rather than industrial or financial logic\".", "Italian luxury car brand Lamborghini was strengthened under VW ownership.", "AUDI AG's Automobili Lamborghini S.p.A. subsidiary acquired 100 percent of the shares of Ducati Motor Holding S.p.A. on 19 July 2012 for € (US$).=== Ownership ===Since 1926, Ducati has been owned by a number of groups and companies.", "* 1926–1950 – Ducati family* 1950–1967 – Government Istituto per la Ricostruzione Industriale (IRI) management* 1967–1978 – Government EFIM management (control over day-to-day factory operations)** 1967–1973 – Headed By Giuseppe Montano** 1973–1978 – Headed by Cristiano de Eccher* 1978–1985 – VM Group* 1985–1996 – Cagiva Group* 1996–2005 – Texas-Pacific Group (US-based) ownership and going public** Headed by CEO Federico Minoli, 1996–2001; returning for 2003–2007* 2005–2008 – Investindustrial Holdings S.p.A.* 2008–2012 – Performance Motorcycles S.p.A.::An investment vehicle formed by Investindustrial Holdings, BS Investimenti and Hospitals of Ontario Pension Plan* 19 July 2012 – present – Automobili Lamborghini S.p.A.::AUDI AG acquired 100% of the voting rights of Ducati Motor Holding S.p.A. via Audi's Automobili Lamborghini S.p.A. subsidiaryDucati's old logo used from 1997 to 2008 From the 1960s to the 1990s, the Spanish company MotoTrans licensed Ducati engines and produced motorcycles that, although they incorporated subtle differences, were clearly Ducati-derived.", "MotoTrans's most notable machine was the 250 cc ''24 Horas'' (Spanish for \"24 hours\")." ], [ "Motorcycle designs", "2006 Ducati PaulSmart 1000 LEDucati is best known for high-performance motorcycles characterized by large-capacity four-stroke, 90° V-twin engines, with a desmodromic valve design.", "Ducati branded his configuration as L-twin because one cylinder is vertical while the other is horizontal, making it look like a letter \"L\".", "Ducati's desmodromic valve design is nearing its 50th year of use.", "Desmodromic valves are closed with a separate, dedicated cam lobe and lifter instead of the conventional valve springs used in most internal combustion engines in consumer vehicles.", "This allows the cams to have a more radical profile, thus opening and closing the valves more quickly without the risk of valve-float, which causes a loss of power that is likely when using a \"passive\" closing mechanism under the same conditions.While most other manufacturers use wet clutches (with the spinning parts bathed in oil) Ducati previously used multiplate dry clutches in many of their motorcycles.", "The dry clutch eliminates the power loss from oil viscosity drag on the engine, even though the engagement may not be as smooth as the oil-bath versions, but the clutch plates can wear more rapidly.", "Ducati has converted to wet clutches across their current product lines.Ducati also extensively uses a trellis frame, although Ducati's MotoGP project broke with this tradition by introducing a revolutionary carbon fibre frame for the Ducati Desmosedici GP9." ], [ "Product history", "The chief designer of most Ducati motorcycles in the 1950s was Fabio Taglioni (1920–2001).", "His designs ranged from the small single-cylinder machines that were successful in the Italian 'street races' to the large-capacity twins of the 1980s.", "Ducati introduced the Pantah in 1979; its engine was updated in the 1990s in the Ducati SuperSport (SS) series.", "All modern Ducati engines are derivatives of the Pantah, which uses a toothed belt to actuate the engine's valves.", "Taglioni used the Cavallino Rampante (identified with the Ferrari brand) on his Ducati motorbikes.", "Taglioni chose this emblem of courage and daring as a sign of respect and admiration for Francesco Baracca, a World War I fighter pilot who died during an air raid in 1918.===1950s======1960s===In addition to manufacturing two-wheelers, Ducati also assembled Triumph Heralds for sale in the Italian market in their Borgo Panigale plant beginning in early 1963.===1970s===In 1973, Ducati commemorated its 1972 win at the Imola 200 with the production model green frame Ducati 750 SuperSport.Ducati also targeted the offroad market with the two-stroke Regolarità 125, building 3,486 models from 1975 to 1979, but the bike was not successful.In 1975, the company introduced the 860 GT, designed by noted car stylist Giorgetto Giugiaro.", "Its angular lines were unique, but raised handlebars made for an uncomfortable seating position at high speeds and also caused steering issues.", "The 860GT's angular styling was a sales disaster, and it was hurriedly re-designed for the 1976 season with a more rounded fuel tank.In 1975 Ducati offered hand-built production racers, the 'square case' 750SS and later 900SS models, built in limited numbers.", "Sales of the 900SS proved so strong, and sales of the 860GT/GTE/GTS so weak, that production of the 900SS was ramped up, and it became Ducati's #1 selling model.===1980s===Ducati's liquid-cooled, multi-valve 90° V-twins, made from 1985 on, are known as ''Desmoquattro'' (\"desmodromic valve four\").", "These include the 851, 916 and 996, 999 and a few predecessors and derivatives.1993 Ducati 907 i.e.The Ducati Paso was introduced in 1986 with the Paso 750, followed in 1989 with the Paso 906.The final version came in 1991 with the 907IE (Iniezione Elettronica), now without the name \"Paso\".", "The design was from the hand of Massimo Tamburini, who also designed the Ducati 916 and MV Agusta F4.The Paso was a typical \"you love it, you hate it\" bike.", "However, at that time it looked like that all-enclosed bodywork would be the future for all motorcycles.", "The Paso design was copied for the Moto Morini Dart 400 and Cagiva Freccia 125.Together with Tamburini's Bimota DB1, they were enormously influential in terms of styling.===1990s===In 1993, Miguel Angel Galluzzi introduced the Ducati Monster, a naked bike with exposed trellis and engine.", "Today the Monster accounts for almost half of the company's worldwide sales.", "The Monster has undergone the most changes of any motorcycle that Ducati has ever produced.In 1993, Pierre Terblanche, Massimo Bordi and Claudio Domenicali designed the Ducati Supermono.", "A 550 cc single-cylinder lightweight \"Catalog Racer\".", "Only 67 were built between 1993 and 1997.In 1994, the company introduced the Ducati 916 model designed by Massimo Tamburini, a water-cooled version that allowed for higher output levels and a striking new bodywork that had aggressive lines, an underseat exhaust, and a single-sided swingarm.", "Ducati has since ceased production of the 916, supplanting it (and its progeny, the 748, 996 and 998) with the 749 and 999.===2000s===In 2006, the retro-styled Ducati PaulSmart 1000 LE was released, which shared styling cues with the 1973 750 SuperSport (itself a production replica of Paul Smart's 1972 race winning 750 Imola Desmo), as one of a SportClassic series representing the 750 GT, 750 Sport, and 750 SuperSport Ducati motorcycles.", "* Monster: 620, 695, 696, 750, 796, 900, S2R, S4R* Streetfighter S* ST2, ST3, ST4* Paul Smart 1000LE and SportClassic variants* SuperSport 750, 900, 1000* 748, 749, 848* 996, 998, 999, 1098, 1098S, 1098R, 1198* Desmosedici RRDucati TK01RR 2021 at Sredniy Peninsula (Russia)Test ride of Ducati DesertX in Barcelona===Current lineup===Ducati HypermotardDucati Desmosedici RRDucati 1098 S TricoloreDucati Multistrada 950 S, Scrambler Desert Sled, Multistrada 1260 Enduro have conquered Kola, Rybachiy & Sredniy peninsulas, Russia; Monster* Monster* Monster+* Monster 821* Monster 821 Stealth* Monster 1200* Monster 1200 S; Multistrada* Multistrada 950* Multistrada 950S* Multistrada V4* Multistrada V4 S* Multistrada V4 S Sport* Multistrada 1260 Enduro; Diavel* Diavel 1260* Diavel 1260 S* Diavel 1260 Lamborghini* XDiavel* XDiavel S* XDiavel Black Star; Panigale* Panigale 899* Panigale 959* Panigale 1199* Panigale 1299* Panigale V2* Panigale V4* Panigale V4 S* Panigale V4 SP* Panigale V4 R* Superleggera V4; Streetfighter* Streetfighter V4* Streetfighter V4 S* Streetfighter V2; SuperSport* SuperSport* SuperSport S; Hypermotard* Hypermotard 950* Hypermotard 950 SP* Hypermotard 950 RVE; Scrambler* Scrambler 1100 Pro* Scrambler 1100 Sport Pro* Scrambler 1100 Dark Pro* Scrambler Nightshift* Scrambler Full Throttle* Scrambler Café Racer* Scrambler Desert Sled* Scrambler Icon* Scrambler Icon Dark* Scrambler Sixty2===Current engines===* '''Desmodue''': Desmodromic two-valve, air-cooled, 90° V-twin, 60° included valve angle (Scrambler, Monster 695, 797)* '''Desmodue Evoluzione''': Desmo two-valve, air-cooled (Hypermotard 1100 Evo, Monster 1100 Evo, Scrambler 1100)* '''Testastretta 11°''': Desmo four-valve, liquid-cooled, 90° V-twin, 11° valve overlap angle (Supersport/Supersport S, Hypermotard/Hyperstrada 939, Multistrada 950, Monster 821)* '''Testastretta 11° DS''': Desmo four-valve, liquid-cooled, 90° V-twin, 11° valve overlap angle, dual ignition (Monster 1200, Diavel)* '''Testastretta 1262 DVT''': Desmo four-valve, liquid-cooled, 90° V-twin, variable valve timing, longer stroke, smaller bore, re-tuned for high torque@lower 5000rpm peak 152-162 hp - 126-135Nm Torque dual ignition (XDiavel, Diavel 1260 2019–Present, Multistrada1260 DVT)* '''Superquadro''': Desmo four-valve, liquid cooled, 90° V-twin, (Panigale 959, 1299, V2 & Streetfighter V2)*'''Desmosedici Stradale''': Desmo four-valve, liquid cooled, 90° V4 with a displacement of 1,103 cm³ and counter-rotating crankshaft (214–226 hp) (Panigale V4/S/S Corse/Speciale)*'''Desmosedici Stradale R''': Desmo four-valve, liquid cooled, 90° V4 with a displacement of 998 cm³ and counter-rotating crankshaft (221–234 hp) (Panigale V4R)*'''V4 Granturismo''': Four-valve, liquid-cooled, 90° V4 with a displacement of 1,158 cm³ and counter-rotating crankshaft (170 hp) (Multistrada V4)===Past engines===* '''Desmodue DS''': Desmo two-valve, air-cooled, 56° included valve angle, dual ignition (Hypermotard 1100, Multistrada 1000/1100, Monster 1100, Monster S2R 1000, SportClassic GT 1000, SuperSport 1000)* '''Desmodue LC''': Desmo two-valve, liquid-cooled (ST2)* '''Desmotre DS''': Desmo three-valve, liquid-cooled, 40° included valve angle, dual ignition (ST3)* '''Desmoquattro''': Desmo four-valve, liquid-cooled, 40° included valve angle, (851, 888, 916, 996, 748, Monster S4, Monster S4R, ST4, ST4s)* '''Testastretta''': Desmo four-valve, liquid-cooled, 25° included valve angle, (996R, 998, 999, 749, Monster S4R Testastretta)* '''Testastretta Evoluzione''': Desmo four-valve, liquid-cooled, 24.3° included valve angle, 41° valve overlap angle (848, 1098/1198, Streetfighter 1098)* '''Testastretta 11° DVT''': Desmo four-valve, liquid-cooled, 90° V-twin, variable valve timing, dual ignition (Multistrada 1200 DVT)" ], [ "Motorcycle design history", "Ducati has produced several styles of motorcycle engines, including varying the number of cylinders, type of valve actuation and fuel delivery.", "Ducati is best known for its 90° V-twin engine, used on nearly all Ducatis since the 1970s.", "Ducati brands its engine as \"L-twin\", emphasizing the 90° V angle, to create product differentiation from competing V-twin motorcycles.", "Ducati has also made other engine types, mostly before the 1970s, with one, two, three, or four cylinders; operated by pull rod valves and push rod valves; single, double and triple overhead camshafts; two-stroke and even at one stage manufactured small diesel engines, many of which were used to power boats, generators, garden machinery and emergency pumps (for example, for fire fighting).", "The engines were the IS series from air-cooled and the larger twin DM series water- and air-cooled.", "The engines have been found in all parts of the globe.", "Wisconsin Diesel even assembled and \"badge engineered\" the engines in the USA.", "They have also produced outboard motors for marine use.", "Currently, Ducati makes no other engines except for its motorcycles.On current Ducati motors, except for the Desmosedici and 1199 Panigale, the valves are actuated by a standard valve cam shaft which is rotated by a timing belt driven by the motor directly.", "The teeth on the belt keep the camshaft drive pulleys indexed.", "On older Ducati motors, prior to 1986, drive was by solid shaft that transferred to the camshaft through bevel-cut gears.", "This method of valve actuation was used on many of Ducati's older single-cylinder motorcycles — the shaft tube is visible on the outside of the cylinder.Ducati is also famous for using the desmodromic valve system championed by engineer and designer Fabio Taglioni, though the firm has also used engines that use valve springs to close their valves.", "In the early days, Ducati reserved the desmodromic valve heads for its higher performance bikes and its race bikes.", "These valves do not suffer from valve float at high engine speeds, thus a desmodromic engine is capable of far higher revolutions than a similarly configured engine with traditional spring-valve heads.In the 1960s and 1970s, Ducati produced a wide range of small two-stroke bikes, mainly sub-100 cc capacities.", "Large quantities of some models were exported to the United States.Ducati has produced the following motorcycle engine types:* Single-cylinder,**pullrod actuated, 48 cc and 65 cc (Cucciolo)**pushrod actuated, 98 and 125 cc**two-stroke, 50, 80, 90, 100, 125 cc**bevel actuated, spring valved: 98 cc, 100 cc, 125 cc, 160 cc, 175 cc, 200 cc, 239 cc, 250 cc, 350 cc, 450 cc**bevel actuated, desmodromic valved: 125 cc, 239 cc, 250 cc, 350 cc and 450 cc**belt actuated, desmodromic valved: 549/572 cc Supermono, only 65 made.", "* Two-cylinder,**bevel actuated, spring valved 90 ° V-twin: 750 cc, 860 cc**bevel actuated, desmo valved 90 ° V-twin: 750 cc, 860 cc, 900 cc, 973 cc (Mille)**bevel actuated, desmo valved parallel twin: 125 cc**chain actuated, spring valved parallel twin: 350 cc, 500 cc (GTL)**chain actuated, desmo valved parallel twin): 500 cc (500SD)**belt actuated, desmo valved 90 ° V-twin: Almost all engines since 1986.", "* Four-cylinder,**gear actuated, desmo valved (V4): Prototype Desmosedici, and Low volume Production Desmosedici RR, 1,500 made**pushrod actuated, spring valved (V4): Prototype Apollo, only two made." ], [ "Enthusiasts groups", "A key part of Ducati's marketing strategy since the 1990s has been fostering a distinct community identity in connection with branding efforts including online communities and local, regional and national Ducati enthusiast clubs.", "There are more than 400 Ducati clubs worldwide and 20,000 registered users of the Ducati Owners Club web site and 17,000 subscribers to the racing web site.", "Enthusiasts and riders are informally referred to in the motorcycling community as Ducatista (singular) or Ducatisti (plural).In North America there are several Ducati enthusiasts organizations with varying degrees of factory sponsorship, such as the Bay Area Desmo Owners Club (BADOC) located in and around the city of San Francisco, CA.", "Ducati Riders of Illinois (DRILL) located in Chicago, IL.", "DESMO, the Ducati Enthusiast Sport Motorcycle Organization, is a North American group affiliated with the factory Desmo Owners Club.", "Some groups are focused on vintage Ducatis while several are based primarily or entirely on email discussion lists or web forums." ], [ "Merchandising", "Ducati has a wide range of accessories, lifestyle products and co-branded merchandise bearing their logos and designs.", "The company has a licensing agreement with Tumi Inc., launching a collection of eight co-branded luggage pieces in 2006, sold through both of the brands' retail outlets." ], [ "Racing history", "A Ducati racing motorcycle from 1968Ducati's history with motorsport began with speed records on Cucciolo motorized bicycle factory racers in 1951, followed in 1954 with bringing in Fabio Taglioni to found a road-racing program with the 100 Gran Sport.", ", Ducati was still pursuing the \"win on Sunday, sell on Monday\" business model and spending 10% of company revenues, €, on its racing business.===MotoGP World Championship===Ducati rejoined Grand Prix motorcycle racing in , after a 30-year absence.", "On 23 September 2007, Casey Stoner clinched his and Ducati's first Grand Prix World Championship.When Ducati re-joined MotoGP in , MotoGP had changed its rules to allow four-stroke 990 cc engines to race.", "At the time Ducati was the fastest bike.", "In , MotoGP reduced the engine size to '''', and Ducati continued to be the fastest with a bike that was markedly quicker than its rivals as was displayed by Casey Stoner on tracks with long straights.For , Ducati Marlboro Team campaigned their Desmosedici GP9 with former World Champions Casey Stoner and Nicky Hayden.", "Ducati also supplied customer bikes to Pramac Racing, with Mika Kallio and Niccolò Canepa riding for the team in 2009.Nine-time world champion Valentino Rossi rode for Ducati Corse for the and seasons.Rossi returned to the Yamaha team for the 2013 season.For , Ducati Team raced with Nicky Hayden and the Italian rider Andrea Dovizioso.", "In 2014 Cal Crutchlow teamed up with Dovizioso for the season, and he left at the end of the year.In , Ducati Team, under the control of the new race team director Gigi Dall'Igna and the new Desmosedici GP15, raced with two Italian riders: Andrea Dovizioso and Andrea Iannone.", "Dovizioso and Iannone returned for another season in with Michele Pirro as official tester.", "As well as this, Casey Stoner also tested Ducati machinery during the season.In and , Ducati Team rider Andrea Dovizioso raced with his new teammate Jorge Lorenzo, who joined the Ducati team from Yamaha Factory Racing with a two seasons contract.", "In 2019, Danilo Petrucci joined Dovizioso at the factory team.In , Despite suffering five DNF's, four of which were individual errors throughout the 2022 season, Bagnaia became the newest MotoGP world champion today in Valencia.", "The Ducati rider also became the Italian manufacturer's second-ever MotoGP champion after Casey Stoner, and first in 15 years.Year Champion Motorcycle Casey Stoner Ducati Desmosedici GP7 Francesco Bagnaia Ducati Desmosedici GP22 Francesco Bagnaia Ducati Desmosedici GP23===Superbike World Championship (SBK)===The company has won 16 riders world championships and 19 manufacturers world championships, competing since the series' inception in 1988.At the end of 2015, Ducati has amassed 318 wins, more than any other manufacturer involved in the championship.", "Year Champion Motorcycle  Raymond Roche Ducati 851  Doug Polen Ducati 888  Doug Polen Ducati 888  Carl Fogarty Ducati 916  Carl Fogarty Ducati 916  Troy Corser Ducati 916  Carl Fogarty Ducati 916  Carl Fogarty Ducati 996  Troy Bayliss Ducati 996R F01  Neil Hodgson Ducati 999 F03  James Toseland Ducati 999 F04  Troy Bayliss Ducati 999 F06  Troy Bayliss Ducati 1098 F08  Carlos Checa Ducati 1098 R  Álvaro Bautista Panigale V4 R  Álvaro Bautista Panigale V4 R===Supersport World Championship=== Year Champion Motorcycle 1997  Paolo Casoli Ducati 748 2023  Nicolò Bulega Panigale V2===FIM Superstock 1000 Cup=== Year Champion Motorcycle 2007 Niccolò Canepa Ducati 1098S 2008 Brendan Roberts Ducati 1098R 2009 Xavier Siméon Ducati 1098R 2011  Davide Giugliano Ducati 1098R 2014 Leandro Mercado Ducati 1199 Panigale R 2017 Michael Ruben Rinaldi Ducati Panigale RDucati has also won the manufacturers' championship for years 2008–2009, 2011 and 2016.===British Superbike Championship===Ducati has won the British Superbike Championship twelve times.", "Year Champion Motorcycle 1995 Steve Hislop Ducati 916 1999 Troy Bayliss Ducati 996 2000 Neil Hodgson Ducati 996 2001 John Reynolds Ducati 996 2002 Steve Hislop Ducati 998 RS 2003 Shane Byrne Ducati 998 F02 2005 Gregorio Lavilla Ducati 999 F04 2008 Shane Byrne Ducati 1098 RS 2016 Shane Byrne Ducati Panigale R 2017 Shane Byrne Ducati Panigale R 2019 Scott Redding Ducati Panigale V4 R 2020 Josh Brookes Ducati Panigale V4 R 2023 Tommy Bridewell Ducati Panigale V4 R===AMA Superbike Championship===In the AMA Superbike Championship, Ducati has had its share of success, with Doug Polen winning the title in 1993 and Troy Corser the following year in 1994.Ducati has entered a bike in every AMA Superbike season since 1986, but withdrew from the series after the 2006 season.", "Year Champion Motorcycle 1993 Doug Polen Ducati 888 1994 Troy Corser Ducati 888Ducati had an important place in early Superbike racing history in the United States and vice versa: In 1977, ''Cycle'' magazine editors Cook Neilson and Phil Schilling took a Ducati 750SS to first place at Daytona in the second-ever season of AMA Superbike racing.", "\"Neilson retired from racing at the end of the year, but the bike he and Schilling built — nicknamed Old Blue for its blue livery — became a legend,\" says Richard Backus from Motorcycle Classics: \"How big a legend?", "Big enough for Ducati to team with Italian specialty builder NCR to craft a limited-edition update, New Blue, based on the 2007 Sport 1000S, and big enough to inspire the crew at the Barber Vintage Motorsports Museum (see Barber Motorsports Park), arguably one of the most important motorcycle museums in the world, to commission Ducati specialist Rich Lambrechts to craft a bolt-by-bolt replica for its collection.", "The finished bike's name?", "Deja Blue.", "\"===Australian Superbike Championship=== Year Champion Motorcycle 1999 Steve Martin Ducati 996RS 2019 Mike Jones Ducati 1289 Panigale R Final Edition 2020 Wayne Maxwell Ducati Panigale V4R 2021 Wayne Maxwell Ducati Panigale V4R===Formula TT===Ducati's first ever world title was the 1978 TT Formula 1 World Championship, achieved thanks to Mike Hailwood's victory at the Isle of Man TT.", "Between 1981 and 1984 Tony Rutter won four TT Formula 2 World Championships riding Ducati bikes.", "Year Class Champion Motorcycle 1978 F1 Mike Hailwood Ducati NCR 900 SS TT1 1981 F2 Tony Rutter Ducati 600 TT2 1982 F2 Tony Rutter Ducati 600 TT2 1983 F2 Tony Rutter Ducati 600 TT2 1984 F2 Tony Rutter Ducati 600 TT2" ], [ "See also", "* List of Italian companies* List of motorcycle manufacturers" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Data General Nova" ], [ "Introduction", "A Nova system (beige and yellow, center bottom) and a cartridge hard disk system (opened, below Nova) in a mostly empty rack mountCT scanner.The '''Data General Nova''' is a series of 16-bit minicomputers released by the American company Data General.", "The Nova family was very popular in the 1970s and ultimately sold tens of thousands of units.The first model, known simply as \"Nova\", was released in 1969.The Nova was packaged into a single 3U rack-mount case and had enough computing power to handle most simple tasks.", "The Nova became popular in science laboratories around the world.", "It was followed the next year by the '''SuperNOVA''', which ran roughly four times as fast.Introduced during a period of rapid progress in integrated circuit (or \"microchip\") design, the line went through several upgrades over the next five years, introducing the 800 and 1200, the Nova 2, Nova 3, and ultimately the Nova 4.A single-chip implementation was also introduced as the '''microNOVA''' in 1977, but did not see widespread use as the market moved to new microprocessor designs.", "Fairchild Semiconductor also introduced a microprocessor version of the Nova in 1977, the Fairchild 9440, but it also saw limited use in the market.The Nova line was succeeded by the Data General Eclipse, which was similar in most ways but added virtual memory support and other features required by modern operating systems.", "A 32-bit upgrade of the Eclipse resulted in the Eclipse MV series of the 1980s." ], [ "History", "===Edson de Castro and the PDP-X===Edson de Castro was the Product Manager of the pioneering Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) PDP-8, a 12-bit computer widely referred to as the first true minicomputer.", "He also led the design of the upgraded PDP-8/I, which used early integrated circuits in place of individual transistors.During the PDP-8/I process, de Castro had been visiting circuit board manufacturers who were making rapid advances in the complexity of the boards they could assemble.", "de Castro concluded that the 8/I could be produced using fully automated assembly on large boards, which would have been impossible only a year earlier.", "Others within DEC had become used to the smaller boards used in earlier machines and were concerned about tracking down problems when there were many components on a single board.", "For the 8/I, the decision was made to stay with small boards, using the new \"flip-chip\" packaging for a modest improvement in density.During the period when the PDP-8 was being developed, the introduction of ASCII and its major update in 1967 led to a new generation of designs with word lengths that were multiples of 8 bits rather than multiples of 6 bits as in most previous designs.", "This led to mid-range designs working at 16-bit word lengths instead of DEC's current 12- and 18-bit lineups.", "de Castro was convinced that it was possible to improve upon the PDP-8 by building a 16-bit minicomputer CPU on a single 15-inch square board.In 1967, de Castro began a new design effort known as \"PDP-X\" which included several advanced features.", "Among these was a single underlying design that could be used to build 8-, 16-, and 32-bit platforms.", "This progressed to the point of producing several detailed architecture documents.", "Ken Olsen was not supportive of this project, feeling it did not offer sufficient advantages over the 12-bit PDP-8 and the 18-bit PDP-9.It was eventually canceled in the spring of 1968.===Design of the Nova===Cancelation of the PDP-X prompted de Castro to consider leaving DEC to build a system on his own.", "He was not alone; in late 1967 a group of like-minded engineers formed to consider such a machine.", "The group included Pat Green, a divisional manager; Richard Sogge, another hardware engineer; and Henry Burkhardt III, a software engineer.", "In contrast to the PDP-X, the new effort focused on a single machine that could be brought to market quickly, as de Castro felt the PDP-X concept was far too ambitious for a small startup company.Discussing it with the others at DEC, the initial concept led to an 8-bit machine which would be less costly to implement.", "The group began talking with Herbert Richman, a salesman for Fairchild Semiconductor who knew the others through his contacts with DEC. At the time, Fairchild was battling with Texas Instruments and Signetics in the rapidly growing TTL market and were introducing new fabs that allowed more complex designs.", "Fairchild's latest 9300 series allowed up to 96 gates per chip, and they had used this to implement a number of 4-bit chips like binary counters and shift registers.Using these ICs reduced the total IC count needed to implement a complete arithmetic logic unit (ALU), the core mathematical component of a CPU, allowing the expansion from an 8-bit design to 16-bit.", "This did require the expansion of the CPU from a single printed circuit board to two, but such a design would still be significantly cheaper to produce than the 8/I while still being more powerful and ASCII-based.", "A third board held the input/output circuitry and a complete system typically included another board with 4 kB of random-access memory.", "A complete four-card system fit in a single rackmount chassis.The boards were designed so they could be connected together using a printed circuit backplane, with minimal manual wiring, allowing all the boards to be built in an automated fashion.", "This greatly reduced costs over 8/I, which consisted of many smaller boards that had to be wired together at the backplane, which was itself connected together using wire wrap.", "The larger-board construction also made the Nova more reliable, which made it especially attractive for industrial or lab settings.The new design used a simple load–store architecture which would reemerge in the RISC designs in the 1980s.", "Because the complexity of a flip-flop was being rapidly reduced as they were implemented in chips, the design offset the lack of addressing modes of the load–store design by adding four general-purpose accumulators, instead of the single register that would be found in similar low-cost offerings like the PDP series.===Nova introduction===Late in 1967, Richman introduced the group to New York-based lawyer Fred Adler, who began canvassing various funding sources for seed capital.", "By 1968, Adler had arranged a major funding deal with a consortium of venture capital funds from the Boston area, who agreed to provide an initial investment with a second available for production ramp-up.", "de Castro, Burkhart and Sogge quit DEC and started Data General (DG) on 15 April 1968.Green did not join them, considering the venture too risky, and Richman did not join until the product was up and running later in the year.Work on the first system took about nine months, and the first sales efforts started that November.", "They had a bit of luck because the Fall Joint Computer Conference had been delayed until December that year, so they were able to bring a working unit to the Moscone Center where they ran a version of ''Spacewar!''.", "DG officially released the Nova in 1969 at a base price of , advertising it as \"the best small computer in the world.\"", "The basic model was not very useful out of the box, and adding () RAM in the form of core memory typically brought the price up to .", "In contrast, an 8/I with () was priced at .The first sale was to a university in Texas, with the team hand-building an example which shipped out in February.", "However, this was in the midst of a strike in the airline industry and the machine never arrived.", "They sent a second example, which arrived promptly as the strike had ended by that point, and in May the original one was finally delivered as well.The system was successful from the start, with the 100th being sold after six months, and the 500th after 15 months.", "Sales accelerated as newer versions were introduced, and by 1975 the company had annual sales of .===SuperNOVA===Ken Olsen had publicly predicted that DG would fail, but with the release of the Nova it was clear that was not going to happen.", "By this time a number of other companies were talking about introducing 16-bit designs as well.", "Olsen decided these presented a threat to their 18-bit line as well as 12-bit, and began a new 16-bit design effort.", "This emerged in 1970 as the PDP-11, a much more complex design that was as different from the PDP-X as the Nova was.", "The two designs competed heavily in the market.Rumors of the new system from DEC reached DG shortly after the Nova began shipping.", "In the spring of 1970 they hired a new designer, Larry Seligman, to leapfrog any possible machine in the making.", "Two major changes had taken place since the Nova was designed; one was that Signetics had introduced the 8260, a 4-bit IC that combined an adder, XNOR and AND, meaning the number of chips needed to implement the basic logic was reduced by about three times.", "Another was that Intel was aggressively talking up semiconductor-based memories, promising 1024 bits on a single chip and running at much higher speeds than core memory.Seligman's new design took advantage of both of these improvements.", "To start, the new ICs allowed the ALU to be expanded to full 16-bit width on the same two cards, allowing it to carry out math and logic operations in a single cycle and thereby making the new design four times as fast as the original.", "In addition, new smaller core memory was used that improved the cycle time from the original's 1,200 ns to 800 ns, offering a further improvement.", "Performance could be further improved by replacing the core with read-only memory; lacking core's read–write cycle, this could be accessed in 300 ns for a dramatic performance boost.The resulting machine, known as the '''SuperNOVA''', was released in 1970.Although the initial models still used core, the entire design was based on the premise that faster semiconductor memories would become available and the platform could make full use of them.", "This was introduced later the same year as the '''SuperNOVA SC''', featuring semiconductor (SC) memory.", "The much higher performance memory allowed the CPU, which was synchronous with memory, to be further increased in speed to run at a 300 ns cycle time (3.3 MHz).", "This made it the fastest available minicomputer for many years.", "Initially the new memory was also very expensive and ran hot, so it was not widely used.===1200 and 800===Nova 1200 CPU printed circuit board.", "The 74181 ALU is the large IC center-right.As a demonstration of the power of their Micromatrix gate array technology, in 1968 Fairchild prototyped the 4711, a single-chip 4-bit ALU.", "The design was never intended for mass production and was quite expensive to produce.", "The introduction of the Signetics 8260 in 1969 forced their hand; both Texas Instruments and Fairchild introduced 4-bit ALUs of their own in 1970, the 74181 and 9341, respectively.", "In contrast to the 8260, the new designs offered all common logic functions and further reduced the chip count.This led DG to consider the design of a new CPU using these more integrated ICs.", "At a minimum, this would reduce the CPU to a single card for either the basic Nova or the SuperNOVA.", "A new concept emerged where a single chassis would be able to host either machine simply by swapping out the CPU circuit board.", "This would allow customers to purchase the lower-cost system and then upgrade at any time.While Seligman was working on the SuperNOVA, the company received a letter from Ron Gruner stating \"I've read about your product, I've read your ads, and I'm going to work for you.", "And I'm going to be at your offices in a week to talk to you about that.\"", "He was hired on the spot.", "Gruner was put in charge of the low-cost machine while Seligman designed a matching high-performance version.Gruner's low-cost model launched in 1970 as the '''Nova 1200''', the 1200 referring to the use of the original Nova's 1,200 ns core memory.", "It featured a 4-bit ALU based on a single 74181 chip, and was thus essentially a repackaged Nova.", "Seligman's repackaged four-ALU SuperNOVA was released in 1971 as the '''Nova 800''', resulting in the somewhat confusing naming where the lower-numbered model has higher performance.", "Both models were offered in a variety of cases, the 1200 with seven slots, the 1210 with four and the 1220 with fourteen.===Later models===By this time the PDP-11 was finally shipping.", "It offered a much richer instruction set architecture than the deliberately simple one in the Nova.", "Continuing improvement in IC designs, and especially their price–performance ratio, was eroding the value of the original simplified instructions.", "Seligman was put in charge of designing a new machine that would be compatible with the Nova while offering a much richer environment for those who wanted it.", "This concept shipped as the Data General Eclipse series, which offered the ability to add additional circuitry to tailor the instruction set for scientific or data processing workloads.", "The Eclipse was successful in competing with the PDP-11 at the higher end of the market.Around the same time, rumors of a new 32-bit machine from DEC began to surface.", "DG decided they had to have a similar product, and Gruner was put in charge of what became the Fountainhead Project.", "Given the scope of the project, they agreed that the entire effort should be handled off-site, and Gruner selected a location at Research Triangle Park in North Carolina.", "This design became very complex and was ultimately canceled years later.While these efforts were underway, work on the Nova line continued.====840====Running Nova 840 (The front panel has been replaced with one from a 1220)The 840, first offered in 1973, also included a new paged memory system allowing for addresses of up to 17-bits.", "An index offset the base address into the larger 128 kword memory.", "Actually installing this much memory required considerable space; the 840 shipped in a large 14-slot case.====Nova 2====The next version was the '''Nova 2''', with the first versions shipping in 1973.The Nova 2 was essentially a simplified version of the earlier machines as increasing chip densities allowed the CPU to be reduced in size.", "While the SuperNOVA used three 15×15\" boards to implement the CPU and its memory, the Nova 2 fitted all of this onto a single board.", "ROM was used to store the boot code, which was then copied into core when the \"program load\" switch was flipped.", "Versions were available with four (\"2/4\"), seven and ten (\"2/10\") slots.====Nova 3====Data General Nova 3The '''Nova 3''' of 1975 added two more registers, used to control access to a built-in stack.", "The processor was also re-implemented using TTL components, further increasing the performance of the system.", "The Nova 3 was offered in four-slot (the Nova 3/4) and twelve-slot (the Nova 3/12) versions.====Nova 4====It appears that Data General originally intended the Nova 3 to be the last of its line, planning to replace the Nova with the later Eclipse machines.", "However, continued demand led to a '''Nova 4''' machine, this time based on four AMD Am2901 bit-slice ALUs.", "This machine was designed from the start to be both the Nova 4 and the Eclipse S/140, with different microcode for each.", "A floating-point co-processor was also available, taking up a separate slot.", "An additional option allowed for memory mapping, allowing programs to access up to 128 kwords of memory using bank switching.", "Unlike the earlier machines, the Nova 4 did not include a front panel console and instead relied on the terminal to emulate a console when needed.There were three different versions of the Nova 4, the Nova 4/C, the Nova 4/S and the Nova 4/X.", "The Nova 4/C was a single-board implementation that included all of the memory (16 or 32 kwords).", "The Nova 4/S and 4/X used separate memory boards.", "The Nova 4/X had the on-board memory management unit (MMU) enabled to allow up to 128 kwords of memory to be used.", "The MMU was also installed in the Nova 4/S, but was disabled by firmware.", "Both the 4/S and the 4/X included a \"prefetcher\" to increase performance by fetching up to two instructions from memory before they were needed.===microNOVA===Data General ''mN601'' microprocessorData General also produced a series of '''microNOVA''' single-chip implementations of the Nova processor.", "To allow it to fit into a 40-pin dual in-line package (DIP) chip, the address bus and data bus shared a set of 16 pins.", "This meant that reads and writes to memory required two cycles, and that the machine ran about half the speed of the original Nova as a result.The first chip in the series was the ''mN601'', of 1977.This was sold both as a CPU for other users, a complete chipset for those wanting to implement a computer, a complete computer on a single board with 4 kB of RAM, and as a complete low-end model of the Nova.", "An upgraded version of the design, 1979's '''mN602''', reduced the entire chipset to a single VLSI.", "This was offered in two machines, the '''microNOVA MP/100''' and larger '''microNOVA MP/200'''.The microNOVA was later re-packaged with a monitor in a PC-style case with two floppy disks as the '''Enterprise'''.", "Enterprise shipped in 1981, running RDOS, but the introduction of the IBM PC the same year made most other machines disappear under the radar.===Nova's legacy===The Nova influenced the design of both the Xerox Alto (1973) and Apple I (1976) computers, and its architecture was the basis for the Computervision CGP (Computervision Graphics Processor) series.", "Its external design has been reported to be the direct inspiration for the front panel of the MITS Altair (1975) microcomputer.Data General followed up on the success of the original Nova with a series of faster designs.", "The Eclipse family of systems was later introduced with an extended upwardly compatible instruction set, and the MV-series further extended the Eclipse into a 32-bit architecture to compete with the DEC VAX.", "The development of the MV-series was documented in Tracy Kidder's popular 1981 book, ''The Soul of a New Machine''.", "Data General itself would later evolve into a vendor of Intel processor-based servers and storage arrays, eventually being purchased by EMC.There is a diverse but ardent group of people worldwide who restore and preserve original 16-bit Data General systems." ], [ "Technical description", "===Processor design===+ Data General Nova registers 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00 ''(bit position)'' '''Accumulator registers''' 0 Register 0 1 Register 1 '''Index registers''' 2 Index Register 2 3 Index Register 3 '''Program counter'''   PC '''P'''rogram '''C'''ounter '''Status register'''   C '''C'''arry flagThe Nova, unlike the PDP-8, was a load–store architecture.", "It had four 16-bit accumulator registers, two of which (2 and 3) could be used as index registers.", "There was a 15-bit program counter and a single-bit carry register.", "As with the PDP-8, current + zero page addressing was central.", "There was no stack register, but later Eclipse designs would utilize a dedicated hardware memory address for this function.The earliest models of the Nova processed math serially in 4-bit packets, using a single 74181 bitslice ALU.", "A year after its introduction, this design was improved to include a full 16-bit parallel math unit using four 74181s, this design being referred to as the SuperNova.", "Future versions of the system added a stack unit and hardware multiply/divide.The Nova 4 / Eclipse S/140 was based on four AMD 2901 bit-slice ALUs, with microcode in read-only memory, and was the first Nova designed for DRAM main memory only, without provision for magnetic core memory.===Memory and I/O===The first models were available with 8 K words of magnetic core memory as an option, one that practically everyone had to buy, bringing the system cost up to $7,995.This core memory board was organized in planar fashion as four groups of four banks, each bank carrying two sets of core in a 64 by 64 matrix; thus there were 64 x 64 = 4096 bits per set, x 2 sets giving 8,192 bits, x 4 banks giving 32,768 bits, x 4 groups giving a total of 131,072 bits, and this divided by the machine word size of 16 bits gave 8,192 words of memory.The core on this 8K word memory board occupied a centrally located \"board-on-a-board\", 5.25\" wide by 6.125\" high, and was covered by a protective plate.", "It was surrounded by the necessary support driver read-write-rewrite circuitry.", "All of the core and the corresponding support electronics fit onto a single standard 15 x board.", "Up to 32K of such core RAM could be supported in one external expansion box.", "Semiconductor ROM was already available at the time, and RAM-less systems (i.e.", "with ROM only) became popular in many industrial settings.", "The original Nova machines ran at approximately 200 kHz, but its SuperNova was designed to run at up to 3 MHz when used with special semiconductor main memory.The standardized backplane and I/O signals created a simple, efficient I/O design that made interfacing programmed I/O and Data Channel devices to the Nova simple compared to competing machines.", "In addition to its dedicated I/O bus structure, the Nova backplane had wire wrap pins that could be used for non-standard connectors or other special purposes.===Programming model===The instruction format could be broadly categorized into one of three functions: input/output.", "Each instruction was contained in one word.", "The register-to-register manipulation was almost RISC-like in its bit-efficiency; and an instruction that manipulated register data could also perform tests, shifts and even elect to discard the result.", "Hardware options included an integer multiply and divide unit, a floating-point unit (single and double precision), and memory management.Data General software on punched tapeThe earliest Nova came with a BASIC interpreter on punched tape.", "As the product grew, Data General developed many languages for the Nova computers, running under a range of consistent operating systems.", "FORTRAN IV, ALGOL, Extended BASIC, Data General Business Basic, Interactive COBOL, and several assemblers were available from Data General.", "Third party vendors and the user community expanded the offerings with Forth, Lisp, BCPL, C, ALGOL, and other proprietary versions of COBOL and BASIC.===Instruction set===The machine instructions implemented below are the common set implemented by all of the Nova series processors.", "Specific models often implemented additional instructions, and some instructions were provided by optional hardware.====Arithmetic instructions====All arithmetic instructions operated between accumulators.", "For operations requiring two operands, one was taken from the source accumulator, and one from the destination accumulator, and the result was deposited in the destination accumulator.", "For single-operand operations, the operand was taken from the source register and the result replaced the destination register.", "For all single-operand opcodes, it was permissible for the source and destination accumulators to be the same, and the operation functioned as expected.All arithmetic instructions included a \"no-load\" bit which, when set, suppressed the transfer of the result to the destination register; this was used in conjunction with the test options to perform a test without losing the existing contents of the destination register.", "In assembly language, adding a '#' to the opcode set the no-load bit.The CPU contained a single-bit register called the carry bit, which after an arithmetic operation would contain the carry out of the most significant bit.", "The carry bit could be set to a desired value prior to performing the operation using a two-bit field in the instruction.", "The bit could be set, cleared, or complemented prior to performing the instruction.", "In assembly language, these options were specified by adding a letter to the opcode: 'O' — set the carry bit; 'Z' — clear the carry bit, 'C' — complement the carry bit, nothing — leave the carry bit alone.", "If the no-load bit was also specified, the specified carry value would be used for the computation, but the actual carry register would remain unaltered.All arithmetic instructions included a two-bit field which could be used to specify a shift option, which would be applied to the result before it was loaded into the destination register.", "A single-bit left or right shift could be specified, or the two bytes of the result could be swapped.", "Shifts were 17-bit circular, with the carry bit \"to the left\" of the most significant bit.", "In other words, when a left shift was performed, the most significant bit of the result was shifted into the carry bit, and the previous contents of the carry bit were shifted into the least significant bit of the result.", "Byte swaps did not affect the carry bit.", "In assembly language, these options were specified by adding a letter to the opcode: 'L' — shift left; 'R' — shift right, 'S' — swap bytes; nothing — do not perform a shift or swap.All arithmetic instructions included a three-bit field that could specify a test which was to be applied to the result of the operation.", "If the test evaluated to true, the next instruction in line was skipped.", "In assembly language, the test option was specified as a third operand to the instruction.", "The available tests were:* — skip on zero result* — skip on nonzero result* — skip on zero carry* — skip on nonzero carry* — skip if both carry and result are nonzero* — skip if either carry or result, or both, is zero* — always skip* Nothing — never skipThe actual arithmetic instructions were:* — move the contents of the source accumulator to the destination accumulator* — move the bitwise complement of the source accumulator to the destination accumulator* — add source accumulator to destination accumulator* — take the bitwise complement of the source accumulator and add it to the destination accumulator* — move the negative of the source accumulator to the destination accumulator* — subtract the contents source accumulator from the destination accumulator* — add 1 to the contents of the source accumulator and move to the destination accumulator* — perform the bitwise AND of the two accumulators and place the result in the destination accumulatorAn example arithmetic instructions, with all options utilized, is:This decoded as: clear the carry bit; add the contents of AC2 (accumulator 2) to AC0; circularly shift the result one bit to the right; test the result to see if the carry bit is set and skip the next instruction if so.", "Discard the result after performing the test.", "In effect, this adds two numbers and tests to see if the result is odd or even.====Memory reference instructions====The Nova instruction set contained a pair of instructions that transferred memory contents to accumulators and vice versa, two transfer-of-control instructions, and two instructions that tested the contents of a memory location.", "All memory reference instructions contained an eight-bit address field, and a two-bit field that specified the mode of memory addressing.", "The four modes were:* Mode 0 — absolute addressing.", "The contents of the address field of the instruction is zero-filled on the left and used as the target address.", "* Mode 1 — relative addressing.", "The contents of the address field of the instruction is sign extended to the left and added to the current value of the program counter (which, by the time the instruction executes, points to the next instruction).", "The result is used as the target address.", "* Mode 2 — indexed addressing.", "The contents of the address field of the instruction is sign extended to the left and added to the current value of accumulator 2.The result is used as the target address.", "* Mode 3 — indexed addressing.", "The contents of the address field of the instruction is sign extended to the left and added to the current value of accumulator 3.The result is used as the target address.Obviously, mode 0 was only capable of addressing the first 256 memory words, given the eight-bit address field.", "This portion of memory was referred to as \"page zero\".", "Page zero memory words were considered precious to Nova assembly language programmers because of the small number available; only page zero locations could be addressed from anywhere in the program without resorting to indexed addressing, which required tying up accumulator 2 or 3 to use as an index register.", "In assembly language, a \".ZREL\" directive caused the assembler to place the instructions and data words that followed it in page zero; an \".NREL\" directive placed the following instructions and data words in \"normal\" memory.", "Later Nova models added instructions with extended addressing fields, which overcame this difficulty (at a performance penalty).The assembler computed relative offsets for mode 1 automatically, although it was also possible to write it explicitly in the source.", "If a memory reference instruction referenced a memory address in .NREL space but no mode specifier, mode 1 was assumed and the assembler calculated the offset between the current instruction and the referenced location, and placed this in the instruction's address field (provided that the resulting value fit into the 8-bit field).The two load and store instructions were:* — load the contents of a memory location into the specified accumulator.", "* — store the contents of the specified accumulator into a memory location.Both of these instructions included an \"indirect\" bit.", "If this bit was set (done in assembly language by adding a '@' to the opcode), the contents of the target address were assumed to be a memory address itself, and that address would be referenced to do the load or store.The two transfer-of-control instructions were:* — transfers control to the specified memory location* (\"jump subroutine\") — Does the same as the JMP instruction, but additionally loads the return address (the instruction following the JSR instruction in line) into accumulator 3 before jumping.As in the case of the load and store instructions, the jump instructions contained an indirect bit, which likewise was specified in assembly using the '@' character.", "In the case of an indirect jump, the processor retrieved the contents of the target location, and used the value as the memory address to jump to.", "However, unlike the load and store instructions, if the indirect address had the most significant bit set, it would perform a further cycle of indirection.", "On the Nova series processors prior to the Nova 3, there was no limit on the number of indirection cycles; an indirect address that referenced itself would result in an infinite indirect addressing loop, with the instruction never completing.", "(This could be alarming to users, since when in this condition, pressing the STOP switch on the front panel did nothing.", "It was necessary to reset the machine to break the loop.", ")The two memory test instructions were:* — increment the memory location, and skip the next instruction if the result is zero.", "* — decrement the memory location, and skip the next instruction if the result is zero.As in the case of the load and store instructions, there was an indirect bit that would perform a single level of indirect addressing.", "These instructions were odd in that, on the Novas with magnetic core memory, the instruction was executed within the memory board itself.", "As was common at the time, the memory boards contained a \"write-back\" circuit to solve the destructive-read problem inherent to magnetic core memory.", "But the write-back mechanism also contained a mini arithmetic unit, which the processor used for several purposes.", "For the ISZ and DSZ instructions, the increment or decrement occurred between the memory location being read and the write-back; the CPU simply waited to be told if the result was zero or nonzero.", "These instructions were useful because they allowed a memory location to be used as a loop counter without tying up an accumulator, but they were slower than performing the equivalent arithmetic instructions.Some examples of memory reference instructions:Transfers the contents of the memory location labeled COUNT into accumulator 1.Assuming that COUNT is in .NREL space, this instruction is equivalent to: LDA 1,1,(COUNT-(.+1))where '.'", "represents the location of the LDA instruction.Jump indirect to the memory address specified by the contents of location 17, in page zero space, and deposit the return address in accumulator 3.This was the standard method for making an RDOS system call on early Nova models; the assembly language mnemonic \".SYSTM\" translated to this.Jump to the memory location whose address is contained in accumulator 3.This was a common means of returning from a function or subroutine call, since the JSR instruction left the return address in accumulator 3.Store the contents of accumulator 0 in the location that is one less than the address contained in accumulator 3.Decrement the value in the location labeled COUNT, and skip the next instruction if the result is zero.", "As in the case above, if COUNT is assumed to be in .NREL space, this is equivalent to: DSZ 1,(COUNT-(.+1))====I/O Instructions====The Novas implemented a channelized model for interfacing to I/O devices.", "In the model, each I/O device was expected to implement two flags, referred to as \"Busy\" and \"Done\", and three data and control registers, referred to as A, B, and C. I/O instructions were available to read and write the registers, and to send one of three signals to the device, referred to as \"start\", \"clear\", and \"pulse\".", "In general, sending a start signal initiated an I/O operation that had been set up by loading values into the A/B/C registers.", "The clear signal halted an I/O operation and cleared any resulting interrupt.", "The pulse signal was used to initiate ancillary operations on complex subsystems, such as seek operations on disk drives.", "Polled devices usually moved data directly between the device and the A register.", "DMA devices generally used the A register to specify the memory address, the B register to specify the number of words to be transferred, and the C register for control flags.", "Channel 63 referred to the CPU itself and was used for various special functions.Each I/O instruction contained a six-bit channel number field, a four-bit to specify which register to read or write, and a two-bit field to specify which signal was to be sent.", "In assembly language, the signal was specified by adding a letter to the opcode: 'S' for start, 'C' for clear, 'P' for pulse, and nothing for no signal.", "The opcodes were:* — move the contents of the device's A register to the specified accumulator* — send the contents of the specified accumulator to the A register of the device on the specified channel* — move the contents of the device's B register to the specified accumulator* — send the contents of the specified accumulator to the B register of the device on the specified channel* — move the contents of the device's C register to the specified accumulator* — send the contents of the specified accumulator to the C register of the device on the specified channel* — \"no I/O\", a misnomer.", "The instruction was used to send a signal to a device without doing a register transfer.In addition, four instructions were available to test the status of a device:* — skip the next instruction if the device's busy flag is set* — skip the next instruction if the device's busy flag is clear* — skip the next instruction if the device's done flag is set* — skip the next instruction if the device's done flag is clearStarting a device caused it to set its busy flag.", "When the requested operation was completed, conventionally the device cleared its busy flag and set its done flag; most devices had their interrupt request mechanism wired to the done flag, so setting the done flag caused an interrupt (if interrupts were enabled and the device wasn't masked).====Special Instructions====These instructions performed various CPU control and status functions.", "All of them were actually shorthand mnemonics for I/O instructions on channel 63, the CPU's self-referential I/O channel.", "* — interrupt acknowledge.", "Transferred the channel number of the interrupting device to the specified accumulator.", "* — disabled all interrupts* — enabled all interrupts* — I/O reset.", "Sent a reset signal on the I/O bus, which stopped all I/O, disabled interrupts and cleared all pending interrupts.", "* — mask out.", "Used the contents of the specified accumulator to set up the interrupt mask.", "How the mask was interpreted was up to the implementation of each I/O device.", "Some devices could not be masked.", "* — transferred the contents of the 16 front panel data switches to the specified accumulator.", "* — stopped the CPU.", "Once halted, the CPU could be made to start again only by manual intervention at the front panel.===Interrupts and interrupt handling===From the hardware standpoint, the interrupt mechanism was relatively simple, but also less flexible, than current CPU architectures.", "The backplane supported a single interrupt request line, which all devices capable of interrupting connected to.", "When a device needed to request an interrupt, it raised this line.", "The CPU took the interrupt as soon as it completed the current instruction.", "As stated above, a device was expected to raise its \"done\" I/O flag when it requested an interrupt, and the convention was that the device would clear its interrupt request when the CPU executed a I/O clear instruction on the device's channel number.The CPU expected the operating system to place the address of its interrupt service routine into memory address 1.When a device interrupted, the CPU did an indirect jump through address 1, placing the return address into memory address 0, and disabling further interrupts.", "The interrupt handler would then perform an INTA instruction to discover the channel number of the interrupting device.", "This worked by raising an \"acknowledge\" signal on the backplane.", "The acknowledge signal was wired in a daisy-chain format across the backplane, such that it looped through each board on the bus.", "Any device requesting an interrupt was expected to block the further propagation of the acknowledge signal down the bus, so that if two or more devices had pending interrupts simultaneously, only the first one would see the acknowledge signal.", "That device then responded by placing its channel number on the data lines on the bus.", "This meant that, in the case of simultaneous interrupt requests, the device that had priority was determined by which one was physically closest to the CPU in the card cage.After the interrupt had been processed and the service routine had sent the device an I/O clear, it resumed normal processing by enabling interrupts and then returning via an indirect jump through memory address 0.In order to prevent a pending interrupt from interrupting immediately before the return jump (which would cause the return address to be overwritten), the INTEN instruction had a one-instruction-cycle delay.", "When it was executed, interrupts would not be enabled until after the following instruction, which was expected to be the JMP@ 0 instruction, was executed.The operating system's interrupt service routine then typically performed an indexed jump using the received channel number, to jump to the specific interrupt handling routine for the device.", "There were a few devices, notably the CPU's power-failure detection circuit, which did not respond to the INTA instruction.", "If the INTA returned a result of zero, the interrupt service routine had to poll all of the non-INTA-responding devices using the SKPDZ/SKPDN instructions to see which one interrupted.The operating system could somewhat manage the ordering of interrupts by setting an interrupt mask using the MSKO instruction.", "This was intended to allow the operating system to determine which devices were permitted to interrupt at a given time.", "When this instruction was issued, a 16-bit interrupt mask was transmitted to all devices on the backplane.", "It was up to the device to decide what the mask actually meant to it; by convention, a device that was masked out was not supposed to raise the interrupt line, but the CPU had no means of enforcing this.", "Most devices that were maskable allowed the mask bit to be selected via a jumper on the board.", "There were devices that ignored the mask altogether.On the systems having magnetic core memory (which retained its contents without power), recovery from a power failure was possible.", "A power failure detection circuit in the CPU issued an interrupt when loss of the main power coming into the computer was detected; from this point, the CPU had a short amount of time until a capacitor in the power supply lost its charge and the power to the CPU failed.", "This was enough time to stop I/O in progress, by issuing an IORST instruction, and then save the contents of the four accumulators and the carry bit to memory.", "When the power returned, if the CPU's front panel key switch was in the LOCK position, the CPU would start and perform an indirect jump through memory address 2.This was expected to be the address of an operating system service routine that would reload the accumulators and carry bit, and then resume normal processing.", "It was up to the service routine to figure out how to restart I/O operations that were aborted by the power failure.===Front panel layout===As was the convention of the day, most Nova models provided a front panel console to control and monitor CPU functions.", "Models prior to the Nova 3 all relied on a canonical front panel layout, as shown in the Nova 840 panel photo above.", "The layout contained a keyed power switch, two rows of address and data display lamps, a row of data entry switches, and a row of function switches that activated various CPU functions when pressed.", "The address lamps always displayed the current value of the program counter, in binary.", "The data lamps displayed various values depending on which CPU function was active at the moment.", "To the left of the leftmost data lamp, an additional lamp displayed the current value of the carry bit.", "On most models the lamps were incandescent lamps which were soldered to the panel board; replacing burned-out lamps was a bane of existence for Data General field service engineers.Each of the data switches controlled the value of one bit in a 16-bit value, and per Data General convention, they were numbered 0-15 from left to right.", "The data switches provided input to the CPU for various functions, and could also be read by a running program using the READS assembly language instruction.", "To reduce panel clutter and save money, the function switches were implemented as two-way momentary switches.", "When a function switch lever was lifted, it triggered the function whose name was printed above the switch on the panel; when the lever was pressed down, it activated the function whose name appeared below the switch.", "The switch lever returned to a neutral position when released.Referencing the Nova 840 photo, the first four switches from the left performed the EXAMINE and DEPOSIT functions for the four accumulators.", "Pressing EXAMINE on one of these caused the current value of the accumulator to be displayed in binary by the data lamps.", "Pressing DEPOSIT transferred the binary value represented by the current settings of the data switches to the accumulator.Going to the right, the next switch was the RESET/STOP switch.", "Pressing STOP caused the CPU to halt after completing the current instruction.", "Pressing RESET caused the CPU to halt immediately, cleared a number of CPU internal registers, and sent an I/O reset signal to all connected devices.", "The switch to the right of that was the START/CONTINUE switch.", "Pressing CONTINUE caused the CPU to resume executing at the instruction currently pointed at by the program counter.", "Pressing START transferred the value currently set in data switches 1-15 to the program counter, and then began executing from there.The next two switches provided read and write access to memory from the front panel.", "Pressing EXAMINE transferred the value set in data switches 1-15 to the program counter, fetched the value in the corresponding memory location, and displayed its value in the data lamps.", "Pressing EXAMINE NEXT incremented the program counter and then performed an examine operation on that memory location, allowing the user to step through a series of memory locations.", "Pressing DEPOSIT wrote the value contained in the data switches to the memory location pointed at by the program counter.", "Pressing DEPOSIT NEXT first incremented the program counter and then deposited to the pointed-to memory location.The INST STEP function caused the CPU to execute one instruction, at the current program counter location, and then halt.", "Since the program counter would be incremented as part of the instruction execution, this allowed the user to single-step through a program.", "MEMORY STEP, a misnomer, caused the CPU to run through a single clock cycle and halt.", "This was of little use to users and was generally only used by field service personnel for diagnostics.PROGRAM LOAD was the mechanism usually used to boot a Nova.", "When this switch was triggered, it caused the 32-word boot ROM to be mapped over the first 32 words of memory, set the program counter to 0, and started the CPU.", "The boot ROM contained code that would read 256 words (512 bytes) of code from a selected I/O device into memory and then transfer control to the read-in code.", "The data switches 8-15 were used to tell the boot ROM which I/O channel to boot from.", "If switch 0 was off, the boot ROM would assume the device was a polled device (e.g., the paper tape reader) and run a polled input loop until 512 bytes had been read.", "If switch 0 was on, the boot ROM assumed the device was a DMA-capable device and it initiated a DMA data transfer.", "The boot ROM was not smart enough to position the device prior to initiating the transfer.", "This was a problem when rebooting after a crash; if the boot device was a disk drive, its heads had likely been left on a random cylinder.", "They had to be repositioned to cylinder 0, where RDOS wrote the first-level boot block, in order for the boot sequence to work.", "Conventionally this was done by cycling the drive through its load sequence, but users who got frustrated with the wait time (up to 5 minutes depending on the drive model) learned how to input from the front panel a drive \"recalibrate\" I/O code and single-step the CPU through it, an operation that took an experienced user only a few seconds.The power switch was a 3-way keyed switch with positions marked OFF, ON, and LOCK.", "In the OFF position all power was removed from the CPU.", "Turning the key to ON applied power to the CPU.", "However, unlike current CPUs, the CPU did not start automatically when power was applied; the user had to use PROGRAM LOAD or some other method to start the CPU and initiate the boot sequence.", "Turning the switch to LOCK disabled the front panel function switches; by turning the switch to LOCK and removing the key, the user could render the CPU resistant to tampering.", "On systems with magnetic core memory, the LOCK position also enabled the auto power failure recovery function.", "The key could be removed in the OFF or LOCK positions.===Performance===The Nova 1200 executed core memory access instructions (LDA and STA) in 2.55 microseconds (μs).", "Use of read-only memory saved 0.4 μs.", "Accumulator instructions (ADD, SUB, COM, NEG, etc.)", "took 1.55 μs, MUL 2.55 μs, DIV 3.75 μs, ISZ 3.15-4.5 μs.", "On the later Eclipse MV/6000, LDA and STA took 0.44 μs, ADD, etc.", "took 0.33 μs, MUL 2.2 μs, DIV 3.19 μs, ISZ 1.32 μs, FAD 5.17 μs, FMMD 11.66 μs." ], [ "Assembly language examples", "===Hello world program===This is a minimal programming example in Nova assembly language.", "It is designed to run under RDOS and prints the string “Hello, world.” on the console.", "; a \"hello, world\" program for Nova running RDOS ; uses PCHAR system call .titl hello .nrel .ent start start: dochar: lda 0,@pmsg ; load ac0 with next character, mov# 0,0,snr ; test ac0; skip if nonzero (don't load result) jmp done .systm .pchar ; print first jmp er ; skipped if OK movs 0,0 ; swap bytes .systm .pchar ; print second jmp er ; skipped if OK isz pmsg ; point to next character jmp dochar ; go around again done: .systm ; normal exit .rtn er: .systm ; error exit .ertn halt pmsg: .+1 ; pointer to first character of string ; note bytes are packed right-to-left by default ; denotes a CR LF pair.", ".txt /Hello, world./ 0 ; flag word to end string .end start===16-bit multiplication===Basic models of the Nova came without built-in hardware multiply and divide capability, to keep prices competitive.", "The following routine multiplies two 16-bit words to produce a 16-bit word result (overflow is ignored).", "It demonstrates combined use of ALU op, shift, and test (skip).", "Note that when this routine is called by jsr, AC3 holds the return address.", "This is used by the return instruction jmp 0,3.An idiomatic way to clear an accumulator is sub 0,0.Other single instructions can be arranged to load a specific set of useful constants (e.g.", "-2, -1, or +1).", "mpy:\t; multiply AC0 ===Binary print accumulator===The following routine prints the value of AC1 as a 16-digit binary number, on the RDOS console.", "It reveals further quirks of the Nova instruction set.", "For instance, there is no instruction to load an arbitrary \"immediate\" value into an accumulator (although memory reference instructions do encode such a value to form an effective address).", "Accumulators must generally be loaded from initialized memory locations (e.g.", "n16).", "Other contemporary machines such as the PDP-11, and practically all modern architectures, allow for immediate loads, although many such as ARM restrict the range of values that can be loaded immediately.Because the RDOS .systm call macro implements a jsr, AC3 is overwritten by the return address for the .pchar function.", "Therefore, a temporary location is needed to preserve the return address of the caller of this function.", "For a recursive or otherwise re-entrant routine, a stack, hardware if available, software if not, must be used instead.", "The return instruction becomes jmp @ retrn which exploits the Nova's indirect addressing mode to load the return PC.The constant definitions at the end show two assembler features: the assembler radix is octal by default (20 = sixteen), and character constants could be encoded as e.g.", "\"0.pbin: ; print AC1 on console as 16 binary digits, by Toby Thain sta 3,retrn ; save return addr lda 2,n16 ; set up bit counter loop: lda 0,chr0 ; load ASCII '0' movzl 1,1,szc ; get next bit in carry inc 0,0 ; bump to '1' .systm .pchar ; AC0-2 preserved jmp err ; if error inc 2,2,szr ; bump counter jmp loop ; loop again if not zero lda 0,spc ; output a space .systm .pchar jmp err ; if error jmp @retrn spc: \" ;that's a space chr0: \"0 n16: -20 retrn: 0" ], [ "Applications", "The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation in Montreal used the Nova 1200 for channel play-out automation up until the late 1980s.", "It was then replaced with refurbished Nova 4 units and these were in use until the mid 1990s." ], [ "See also", "* Fairchild 9440 – a single-chip implementation of the Nova 2 and 3* National Semiconductor IMP-16 – 5-chip PMOS processor inspired by the original Nova* National Semiconductor PACE and INS8900 – single-chip implementations of the IMP-16 with the ability to handle bytes." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography===* *" ], [ "External links", "* Bob Supnik's SimH project – Includes a basic Nova emulator in a user-modifiable package* The portable C compiler includes a NOVA target.", "* Novas Are Forever (SimuLogic's) website – Attempts to archive everything DG plus provide free and commercial products* A portable PDP-8 and DG Nova cross-assembler* Carl Friend's Minicomputer Museum – Describes the Nova instruction set in detail" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Protestant Church in the Netherlands" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Protestant Church in the Netherlands''' (, abbreviated '''PKN''') is the largest Protestant denomination in the Netherlands, being both Calvinist and Lutheran.It was founded on 1 May 2004 as the merger of the vast majority of the Dutch Reformed Church, the vast majority of the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands, and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the Kingdom of the Netherlands.", "The merger was the culmination of an organizational process started in 1961.Several orthodox Reformed and liberal churches did not merge into the new church.The Protestant Church in the Netherlands (PKN) forms the country's second largest Christian denomination after the Catholic Church, with approximately 1.5 million members as per the church official statistics or some 8.6% of the population in 2021.It is the traditional faith of the Dutch Royal Family – a remnant of historical dominance of the Dutch Reformed Church, the main predecessor of the Protestant Church." ], [ "Doctrine and practice", "Westerkerk in AmsterdamThe doctrine of the Protestant Church in the Netherlands is expressed in its creeds.", "In addition to holding the Apostles', the Nicene, and the Athanasian creeds of the universal Church, it also holds to the confessions of its predecessor bodies.", "From the Lutheran tradition are the unaltered Augsburg Confession and Luther's Catechism, and from the Calvinist tradition are the Heidelberg and Genevan Catechisms along with the Belgic Confession with the Canons of Dordt.", "The Church also acknowledges the Theological Declaration of Barmen and the Leuenberg Agreement.", "Ordination of women and blessings of same-sex marriages are allowed.The PKN contains both liberal and conservative movements, although the liberal Remonstrants left talks when they could not agree with the unaltered adoption of the Canons of Dordt.", "Local congregations have far-reaching powers concerning \"controversial\" matters (such as admittance to holy communion or whether women are admitted as members of the congregation's consistory)." ], [ "Organization", "The polity of the Protestant Church in the Netherlands is a hybrid of presbyterian and congregationalist church governance.", "Church governance is organised along local, regional, and national lines.", "At the local level is the congregation.", "An individual congregation is led by a church council made of the minister along with elders and deacons elected by the congregation.", "At the regional level were 75 classical assemblies whose members are chosen by the church councils.", "As of May 1, 2018, these 75 classical assemblies are reorganized into 11 larger ones.", "At the national level is the General Synod which directs areas of common interest, such as theological education, ministry training and ecumenical cooperation.The PKN has four different types of congregations:# Protestant congregations: local congregations from different church bodies that have merged# Dutch Reformed congregations# Reformed congregations (congregations of the former Reformed Churches in the Netherlands)# Lutheran congregations (congregations of the former Evangelical-Lutheran Church)Lutherans are a minority (about 1 percent) of the PKN's membership.", "To ensure that Lutherans are represented in the Church, the Lutheran congregations have their own synod.", "The Lutheran Synod also has representatives in the General Synod." ], [ "Statistical details", "The Protestant Church in the Netherlands issues yearly reports regarding its membership and finances.Its make-up by former affiliation of its congregations was as follows in 2017:Members of the Protestant Church in the Netherlands by type of congregation (2017) Former affiliation of the congregation% of members in the Protestant Church in the Netherlands no former affiliation, merged, or simply identifying as Protestant (''Protestants'') former Dutch Reformed Church (''Hervormd'') former Reformed Churches in the Netherlands (''Gereformeerd'') former Evangelical Lutheran Church in the Kingdom of the Netherlands (''Luthers'') Trend shows that since 2011 identification with former denominations has been falling in favor of simply identifying as \"Protestant\"." ], [ "Secularization", "Secularization, or the decline in religiosity, first became noticeable after 1960 in the Protestant rural areas of Friesland and Groningen.", "Then, it spread to Amsterdam, Rotterdam, and the other large cities in the west.", "Finally, the southern Catholic areas showed religious declines.", "Research in 2007 concluded that 42% of the members of the PKN were non-theists.", "Furthermore, in the PKN and several other smaller denominations of the Netherlands, one in six clergy were either agnostic or atheist.", "A Dutch minister of the PKN, Klaas Hendrikse once described God as \"a word for experience, or human experience\" and said that Jesus may have never existed.A countervailing trend is produced by a religious revival in the Dutch Bible Belt." ], [ "Separations", "History of the churches in the NetherlandsOnly those congregations belonging to the former Reformed Churches in the Netherlands have the legal right to secede from the PKN without losing its property and church during a transition period of 10 years.", "Seven congregations have so far decided to form the Continued Reformed Churches in the Netherlands.", "Two congregations have joined one of the other smaller Calvinist churches in the Netherlands.", "Some minorities within congregations that joined the PKN decided to leave the church and associated themselves individually with one of the other Reformed churches.Some congregations and members in the Dutch Reformed Church did not agree with the merger and have separated.", "They have organized themselves in the Restored Reformed Church.", "Estimations of their membership vary from 35,000 up to 70,000 people in about 120 local congregations.", "They disagree with the pluralism of the merged church which maintains, as they see it, contradicting Calvinist and Lutheran confessions.", "This group also considers same-sex marriages and female clergy unbiblical.", "'''Chart of splits and mergers of the Dutch Reformed churches'''" ], [ "Involvement in the Middle East", "In a meeting of eight Jewish and eight Protestant Dutch leaders in Israel in May 2011, a statement of cooperation was issued, indicating, for the most part, that the Protestant Church recognizes the issues involved with the Palestinian Christians and that this is sometimes at odds with support for the State of Israel, but standing up for the rights of the Palestinians does not detract from the emphasis on the safety of the State of Israel and vice versa." ], [ "See also", "* Bible Belt (Netherlands)* History of religion in the Netherlands* United and uniting churches* Religion in the Netherlands* Reformed Association in the Protestant Church in the Netherlands* Catholic Church in the Netherlands" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* (in Dutch)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)''' is a mainline Protestant Christian denomination in the United States and Canada.", "The denomination started with the Restoration Movement during the Second Great Awakening, first existing during the 19th century as a loose association of churches working towards Christian unity, then slowly forming quasi-denominational structures through missionary societies, regional associations, and an international convention.", "In 1968, the Disciples of Christ officially adopted a denominational structure at which time a group of churches left to remain nondenominational.The denomination is referred to by several versions of its full name, including \"'''Disciples of Christ'''\", \"'''Disciples'''\", \"'''Christian Church'''\", and \"'''DOC'''\".", "The Christian Church was a charter participant in the formation of the World Council of Churches (WCC) and of the Federal Council of Churches (now the National Council of Churches), and it continues to be engaged in ecumenical conversations.The Disciples' local churches are congregationally governed.", "In 2008 there were 679,563 members in 3,714 congregations in the United States and Canada.", "By 2015, this number had declined to a baptized membership of 497,423 in 3,267 congregations, of whom about 306,905 were active members, while approximately 177,000 attended Sunday services each week.", "In 2018, the denomination reported 380,248 members with 124,437 people in average worship attendance.", "By 2022, membership had dropped to 277,864 members, 89,894 of whom attended worship on average." ], [ "History", "The Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) traces its roots to the Stone-Campbell Movement on the American frontier.", "The Movement is so named because it started as two distinct but similar movements, each without knowledge of the other, during the Second Great Awakening in the early 19th century.", "The first of these two groups, led by Barton W. Stone, began at Cane Ridge, Bourbon County, Kentucky.", "The group called themselves simply ''Christians''.", "The second began in western Pennsylvania and Virginia (now West Virginia), led by Thomas Campbell and his son, Alexander Campbell.", "Because the founders wanted to abandon all denominational labels, they used the biblical names for the followers of Jesus that they found in the Bible.===Stone===Barton W. StoneIn 1801, the Cane Ridge Revival in Kentucky planted the seed for a movement in Kentucky and the Ohio River Valley to disassociate from denominationalism.", "In 1803 Stone and others withdrew from the Kentucky Presbytery and formed the Springfield Presbytery.", "The defining event of the Stone wing of the movement was the publication of the ''Last Will and Testament of the Springfield Presbytery'', at Cane Ridge, Kentucky, in 1804.", "\"The Last Will\" is a brief document in which Stone and five others announced their withdrawal from Presbyterianism and their intention to be solely part of the body of Christ.", "The writers appealed for the unity of all who follow Jesus, suggested the value of congregational self-governance, and lifted the Bible as the source for understanding the will of God.", "They denounced the use of the Westminster Confession of Faith as divisive.Soon, they adopted the name \"Christian\" to identify their group.", "Thus, the remnants of the Springfield Presbytery became the Christian Church.", "It is estimated that the Christian Church numbered about 12,000 by 1830.===Campbells===Thomas CampbellIndependently of Stone, Thomas Campbell published the ''Declaration and Address of the Christian Association of Washington,'' (Pennsylvania) in 1809.In ''The Declaration and Address,'' he set forth some of his convictions about the church of Jesus Christ, emphasizing Christian unity and the restoration of the New Testament church.", "He organized the Christian Association of Washington, not as a church but as an association of persons seeking to grow in faith.", "On May 4, 1811, however, the Christian Association constituted itself as a congregationally governed church.", "With the building it then constructed at Brush Run, it became known as Brush Run Church.Young Alexander CampbellWhen their study of the New Testament led the reformers to begin to practice baptism by immersion, the nearby Redstone Baptist Association invited Brush Run Church to join with them for the purpose of fellowship.", "The reformers agreed provided that they would be \"allowed to preach and to teach whatever they learned from the Scriptures.", "\"Thus began a sojourn for the reformers among the Baptists within the Redstone Baptist Association (1815–1824).", "While the reformers and the Baptists shared the same beliefs in baptism by immersion and congregational polity, it was soon clear that the reformers were not traditional Baptists.", "Within the Redstone Association, the differences became intolerable to some of the Baptist leaders, when Alexander Campbell began publishing a journal, ''The Christian Baptist,'' promoting reform.", "Campbell anticipated the conflict and moved his membership to a congregation of the Mahoning Baptist Association in 1824.Walter ScottIn 1827, the Mahoning Association appointed reformer Walter Scott as an Evangelist.", "Through Scott's efforts, the Mahoning Association grew rapidly.", "In 1828, Thomas Campbell visited several of the congregations formed by Scott and heard him preach.", "The elder Campbell realized that Scott was bringing an important new dimension to the movement with his approach to evangelism.Several Baptist associations began disassociating from congregations that refused to subscribe to the Philadelphia Confession.", "The Mahoning Association came under attack.", "In 1830, the Mahoning Baptist Association disbanded.", "Alexander ceased publication of ''The Christian Baptist''.", "In January 1831, he began publication of the ''Millennial Harbinger''.===1832 Merger===\"Raccoon\" John SmithThe two groups united at High Street Meeting House, Lexington, Kentucky, with a handshake between Barton W. Stone and \"Raccoon\" John Smith, on Saturday, December 31, 1831.Smith had been chosen by those present to speak on behalf of the followers of the Campbells.", "While contemporaneous accounts are clear that the handshake took place on Saturday, some historians have changed the date of the merger to Sunday, January 1, 1832.The 1832 date has become generally accepted.", "The actual difference is about 20 hours.Two representatives of those assembled were appointed to carry the news of the union to all the churches: John Rogers for the Christians and \"Raccoon\" John Smith for the reformers.", "Despite some challenges, the merger succeeded.With the merger, there was the challenge of what to call the new movement.", "Clearly, finding a Biblical, non-sectarian name was important.", "Stone wanted to continue to use the name \"Christians.\"", "Alexander Campbell insisted upon \"Disciples of Christ\".", "Walter Scott and Thomas Campbell sided with Stone, but the younger Campbell had strong reasons and would not yield.", "As a result, both names were used.===National Conventions===Alexander Campbell, age 65In 1849, the first National Convention was held at Cincinnati, Ohio.", "Alexander Campbell had concerns that holding conventions would lead the movement into divisive denominationalism.", "He did not attend the gathering.", "Among its actions, the convention elected Alexander Campbell its President and created the American Christian Missionary Society (ACMS).The formation of a missionary society set the stage for further \"co-operative\" efforts.", "By the end of the century, the Foreign Christian Missionary Society and the Christian Women's Board of Missions were also engaged in missionary activities.", "Forming the ACMS did not reflect a consensus of the entire movement.", "Sponsorship of missionary activities became a divisive issue.", "In the succeeding decades, for some congregations and their leaders, co-operative work through missionary societies and the adoption of instrumental music in church worship was straying too far from their conception of the early church.", "After the American Civil War, the schism grew.", "While there was no disagreement over the need for evangelism, many believed that missionary societies were not authorized by scripture and would compromise the autonomy of local congregations.", "This became one important factor leading to the separation of the Churches of Christ from the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ).===Journals===From the beginning of the movement, the free exchange of ideas among the people was fostered by the journals published by its leaders.", "Alexander Campbell published ''The Christian Baptist'' and ''The Millennial Harbinger''.", "Barton W. Stone published ''The Christian Messenger''.", "In a respectful way, both men routinely published the contributions of others whose positions were radically different from their own.Following Campbell's death in 1866, journals continued to keep the discussion and conversation alive.", "Between 1870 and 1900, two journals emerged as the most prominent.", "The ''Christian Standard'' was edited and published by Isaac Errett of Cincinnati.", "''The Christian Evangelist'' was edited and published by J. H. Garrison from St. Louis.", "The two men enjoyed a friendly rivalry, and kept the dialog going within the movement.", "A third journal became part of the conversation with the publication in 1884 of ''The Christian Oracle'', later to become ''The Christian Century'', with an interdenominational appeal.", "In 1914, Garrison's Christian Publishing company was purchased by R. A.", "Long, who then established a non-profit corporation, \"The Christian Board of Publication\" as the Brotherhood publishing house.===First Division===In 1906, the U.S.", "Religious Census listed Churches of Christ for the first time as a group which was separate and distinct from the Disciples of Christ.", "However, the division had been growing for years, with published reports as early as 1883.The most obvious distinction between the two groups was the Churches of Christ rejecting the use of musical instruments in worship.", "The controversy over musical instruments began in 1860, when some congregations introduced organs, traditionally associated with wealthier, denominational churches.", "More basic were the underlying approaches to Biblical interpretation.", "The Churches of Christ permitted only those practices found in accounts of New Testament worship.", "They could find no New Testament documentation of the use of instrumental music in worship.", "The Disciples, by contrast, considered permissible any practices that the New Testament did not expressly forbid.", "While music and the approach to missionary work were the most visible issues, there were also some deeper ones.", "The process that led to the separation had begun prior to the American Civil War.=== The Brotherhood ===In the early 20th century, a central point of conflict for the remaining Christian Churches was cooperative missionary efforts, both nationally and internationally.", "Several missionary societies had already been established, and the congregations that contributed to these societies and attended the national convention became known as \"cooperative\" and began referring to the larger grouping of these congregations as \"the Brotherhood.\"", "In 1917 the National Convention became the International Convention of Christian Churches (Disciples of Christ) with the incorporation of Canadian Disciples.", "In 1920, three separate missionary societies merged into the United Christian Missionary Society in 1920, which undertook missions work both in the \"homeland\" and abroad.", "Over the next fifty years, the UCMS was the largest agency of the Brotherhood.", "The National Benevolent Association was also established during the early 20th century as a social services ministry providing assistance to orphans, the elderly and the disabled.The congregations that did not participate were known as \"independents.\"", "Until the cooperative churches underwent the process of restructure in the 1960s, the cooperatives and independents coexisted together under the same identity, but were following different paths by the 1940s, with the independents forming the North American Christian Convention in 1947.While issues of ecclesiology were at the forefront of the growing division, theological issues also divided the two groups, with the cooperative churches largely adopting the new methods of Biblical analysis developed in the late 19th century.===Restructure===Following World War II, it became obvious that the organizations that had been developed in previous decades no longer effectively met the needs of the postwar era.", "After a number of discussions throughout the 1950s, the 1960 International Convention of Christian Churches adopted a process to \"restructure\" the entire organization.", "The Commission on Restructure, chaired by Granville T. Walker, held its first meeting on October 30 & November 1, 1962.In 1968, the International Convention of Christian Churches (Disciples of Christ) adopted the commission's proposed ''Provisional Design of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)''.", "Soon ''The Provisional Design'' became ''The Design.", "''The Brotherhood's adoption of ''The Design'' made the earlier split between the cooperative and independent churches official.", "Under ''The Design'', all churches in the 1968 yearbook of Christian Churches (Disciples of Christ) were automatically recognized as part of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ).", "In the years that followed, many of the Independent Christian Church Congregations requested formal withdrawal from the yearbook.", "Many of those congregations were already part of the North American Christian Convention; this group would become known as the Christian churches and churches of Christ and became the third primary group of the Stone-Campbell Movement.==== Logo ====In 1971, the General Assembly adopted a logo for the denomination.", "The logo depicts a red chalice with a white St. Andrew's Cross.", "Symbolically the chalice is said to represent the Lord's Supper, which is central to Disciples practice, and the cross of St. Andrew is said to represent the denomination's roots in Scottish Presbyterian and the ministry of all people.", "The logo was designed by Ronald E. Osborn who drew the logo with a red pen, leading to the red color of the logo, and refined by Bruce Tilsley.", "The logo can be used by all Disciples congregations, ministries, and other affiliated institutions and provides clarity among confusion from the \"Christian Church\" moniker many Disciple and non-Disciple congregations use." ], [ "Beliefs and practices", "As a congregational denomination, each Disciple congregation determines the nature of its worship, study, Christian service, and witness to the world.", "Through belief in the priesthood of all believers, Disciples also practice freedom of interpretation among its members, with only baptism and confession of Christ as Lord required.===Doctrine and interpretation===Early members of the Stone-Campbell Movement adopted the slogan \"In essentials, Unity; In non-essentials, Liberty; and in all things, Charity.\"", "For modern disciples the one essential is the acceptance of Jesus Christ as Lord and Savior, and obedience to him in baptism.", "There is no requirement to give assent to any other statement of belief or creed.", "Nor is there any official interpretation of the Bible.", "Hierarchical doctrine was traditionally rejected by Disciples as human-made and divisive, and subsequently, freedom of belief and scriptural interpretation allows many Disciples to question or even deny beliefs common in doctrinal churches such as the Incarnation, the Trinity, and the Atonement.", "Beyond the essential commitment to follow Jesus, there is a tremendous freedom of belief and interpretation.", "As the basic teachings of Jesus are studied and applied to life, there is the freedom to interpret Jesus' teaching in different ways.", "As would be expected from such an approach, there is a wide diversity among Disciples in what individuals and congregations believe.", "It is not uncommon to find individuals who seemingly hold diametrically opposed beliefs within the same congregation affirming one another's journeys of faith as sisters and brothers in Christ.Modern Disciples reject the use of creeds as \"tests of faith\", that is, as required beliefs, necessary to be accepted as a follower of Jesus.", "Although Disciples respect the great creeds of the church as informative affirmations of faith, they are never seen as binding.", "Since the adoption of The Design of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), in 1968, Disciples have celebrated a sense of unity in reading the preamble to the Design publicly.===Worship and Communion===Most congregations sing hymns, read from the Old and New Testaments, hear the word of God proclaimed through sermon or other medium and extend an invitation to become Christ's Disciples.Most Disciple congregations practice weekly celebrations of the Lord's Supper, often referred to by Disciples as Communion, as an integral part of worship.", "Through the observance of Communion, individuals are invited to acknowledge their faults and sins, to remember the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ, to remember their baptism, and to give thanks for God's redeeming love.", "Because Disciples believe that the invitation to the table comes from Jesus Christ, Communion is open to all who confess that Jesus Christ is Lord, regardless of their denominational affiliation.===Baptism===Most Disciple congregations practice believer's baptism in the form of immersion, believing it to be the form used in the New Testament.", "The experiences of yielding to Christ in being buried with him in the waters of baptism and rising to a new life have profound meaning for the church.", "While most congregations exclusively practice baptism by immersion, Disciples also accept other forms of baptism including infant baptism.===Ecumenical efforts===The Disciples celebrate their oneness with all who seek God through Jesus Christ, throughout time and regardless of location.", "In local communities, congregations share with churches of other denominations in joint worship and in community Christian service.", "Ecumenical cooperation and collaboration with other Christian Communions has long been practiced by the Regions.At the General Church level, the Christian Unity and Interfaith Ministries Unity (CUIM) coordinates the ecumenical and interfaith activities of the church.", "The Disciples continues to relate to the National Council of Churches and Canadian Council of Churches, both of which it was a founding member.", "It shares in the dialog and in the theological endeavors of the World Council of Churches.", "The Disciples has been a full participant in the Consultation on Church Union since it began in the 1960s.", "It continues to support those ongoing conversations which have taken on the title Churches Uniting in Christ.The Disciples have two full communion partners: the United Church of Christ, since 1989, and the United Church of Canada, since 2019.These three denominations all share mutual full communion with each other.", "CUIM describes these partnerships as the proclamation of \"mutual recognition of their sacraments and ordained ministry.\"", "Ordained Disciple ministers are able to directly serve in the United Church of Christ without having to seek additional qualifications.", "Additionally, the Disciples combined their overseas ministries with the United Church of Christ in 1996.Known as Global Ministries, it is a common agency of both denominations with a joint staff and is a continuance of decades of cooperative work in global missions.While the Disciples of Christ and United Church of Canada have entered full communion, the recentness of the agreement means that the provisions for mutual recognition of clergy are not yet finalized and adopted.===Ordained ministry===The Disciples believe in the priesthood of all believers, in that all people baptized are called to minister to others with diverse spiritual gifts.", "The Disciples view their Order of Ministry as a specific subset of all believers who are called with spiritual gifts specifically suited for pastoral ministry.", "Congregations use different terms to refer to persons in the Order of Ministry including Pastor and Reverend but most call them Ministers, including the denomination's governing documents.Congregations sponsor members seeking ordination or commissioning as a Minister, and Regional Ministries organize committees to oversee the process.", "Ordination can be achieved by obtaining a Master of Divinity from a theological institution, which does not have to be an institution associated with the Disciples.", "Ordination can also be achieved through an \"Apprentice\" track which has candidates shadow ordained ministers.", "Finally, Ministers can be Commissioned, a shorter process for seminary students and those seeking short-term ministry in a Region.", "Regional requirements for ministry vary.", "Ordination is made official through a service which includes members of the church, clergy, and Regional Minister laying their hands on the candidate as the ordaining act.", "Ecumenical representatives are often included to emphasize the Disciples' desire for Christian unity.Disciples recognize the ordinations of the United Church of Christ as do they for Disciples.A General Commission on the Order of Ministry exists to interpret and review definitions of ministry, give oversight to Regions and congregations, provide other support, and maintain the standing of Regional Ministers and Ministers of General (National) Ministries.=== LGBTQ inclusion ===In 1977, the General Assembly of the denomination debated resolutions about homosexuality for the first time; a resolution condemning the \"homosexual lifestyle\" was defeated by the Assembly and a resolution to ban gay people from the ordained ministry was referred to the General Minister and President for further study.", "At the next General Assembly two years later, the Assembly approved a resolution that declared \"The ordination of persons who engage in homosexual practices is not in accord with God's will,\" but concurrently declared that \"The Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) intends to continue the current pattern of assigning responsibility to the regions with respect to the nurture, certification, and ordination of ministers.\"", "Since then, some regions have ordained LGBTQ ministers before the denomination officially supported it.", "Concerns about LGBTQ people continued to be an issue at the General Assembly, but resolutions that called on more civil rights protections for LGBTQ people were passed with overwhelming majorities and resolutions to ban the \"homosexual lifestyle\" continued to be rejected.In 2011, the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) stated that \"Disciples do not have a formal policy on same-sex marriage.", "Different congregations have the autonomy to discern on issues such as this one\".", "In 2013, the Disciples of Christ voted in favor of a resolution affirming all members regardless of sexual orientation.", "After same-sex marriage was legalized in the US, the denomination reiterated that it leaves \"all decisions of policy on same-sex marriage to local congregations\".In 2019, the General Assembly passed a resolution specifically affirming that transgender and gender non-conforming people are welcome in the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ).Disciples LGBTQ+ Alliance provides resources to congregations that want to be certified as \"Open and Affirming\" to show that they are accepting of all gender identities and sexual orientations.", "The Alliance was founded as the Gay, Lesbian, and Affirming Disciples Alliance (GLAD) during the 1979 General Assembly.", "The Disciples of Christ supports the right to an abortion." ], [ "Structure", "The structure of the Disciples is unique among Mainline Protestant churches.", "''The Design'', the governing document of the denomination, describes three \"expressions\" of the church: congregational, regional, and general.", "Each of these expressions are \"characterized by its integrity, self-governance, authority, rights, and responsibilities.\"", "In relating to each other, they work in covenant and not authority to support the ministry and work of the church.===Congregations===Congregations of the Disciples are self-governing in the tradition of congregational polity.", "They call their own Ministers, select their own leadership, own their own property, and manage their own affairs.In Disciples congregations, the priesthood of all believers finds its expression in worship and Christian service.", "Congregations elect and ordain lay persons as Elders to share in duties of congregational ministry with the staff ministers, including visiting the sick and administering communion to them, providing spiritual guidance for the congregation, and presiding over Communion during worship, either with or without the staff ministers.===Regional Ministries===Regional churches consist of all Disciples in a given area, usually a state or group of states.", "As of 2023, the denomination has 31 regions, which includes the region of Canada that also acts as a national church in relation to other churches in Canada.Regions meet in a Regional Assembly every two to three years to conduct business.", "Each Region calls a Regional Minister to serve as its primary pastor and chief executive; most regions also have Associate Regional Ministers and other staff to serve specific aspects of its ministries.", "Canada calls a national pastor instead of a Regional Minister.", "Regions are analogous to the middle judicatories of other denominations, and Regional Ministers are analogous to Bishops.One of the primary responsibilities of the Regions is the care for and oversight of clergy.", "The Design places primary responsibility for ordination and licensing of ministers with the region.", "Candidates seeking ordination are sponsored by a congregation but must be approved by their region, which usually entails a process of interviews and other evaluations by a committee made up of clergy and lay people.", "The Regional Minister usually officiates the ordination service in the sponsoring congregation.", "After ordination, regions continue to oversee clergy through a process known as standing, which requires ministers to undergo certain trainings periodically and maintain membership in a Disciples congregation.", "Ministers can lose their standing for violating the ministerial code of ethics the denomination maintains.", "Finally, Regional Ministers often provide pastoral care to ministers in their region.Regions also nurture congregations in their region, including planting new churches, providing guidance, supporting struggling congregations, and helping congregations hire their ministers.", "This latter process consists of a system known as Search and Call, in which ministers seeking a church declare which regions they would like to serve in and the region then suggests those candidates to congregations seeking a minister.", "Regional Ministers usually provides congregations with a set of candidates that they feel will meet the congregation's particular needs.Regions also provide fellowship and education opportunities for its members.", "Many regions have summer camping experiences for children and youth.As with all parts of the Disciples, Regions do not have authority to control congregations and congregations are not required to use regional programming, including the search and call system.===General Ministries===The Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) at the \"General Church\" level consists of a number of self-governing agencies, which focus upon specific Christian witnesses to the world.", "The church agencies report to the General Assembly, which meets biennially in odd-numbered years and is an assembly of representatives selected by congregations and ordained ministers with standing in the denomination.", "The General Minister and President (GMP) is the lead pastor for the denomination and the chief executive officer of the legal corporation.", "Following the covenantal understanding of the denomination, the GMP does not have direct executive power over the General Ministries, regions, or congregations.", "The GMP is elected to a six-year term by the General Assembly, with the option for a second term.The current General Minister and President is Teresa Hord Owens.", "When she was elected in 2017, Owens was the first black woman to lead a mainline denomination as their chief executive.", "Her presidency followed the presidency of Sharon E. Watkins, the first woman to lead a mainline denomination as their chief executive.The General Ministries are:* Office of the General Minister and President: executive office for the denomination and includes communications, fundraising for the denominational mission fund, Week of Compassion, and anti-racist/pro-reconciliation efforts* Central Pastoral Office for Hispanic Ministries-Obra Hispana: promotes, undergirds, and coordinates work of Disciples Hispanic Ministries and Spanish speaking and bilingual congregations* Christian Board of Publication-Chalice Press: denominational publishing house* Christian Church Foundation: provides assistance on giving and endowments* Christian Unity and Interfaith Ministry (formerly the Council on Christian Unity): ecumenical and interfaith engagement and dialogue* Disciples Church Extension Fund: support for congregational finances, new church ministry, and congregational renewal* Disciples Home Missions: provides support for congregational and local ministries including education and faith formation, church vocations, environmental justice, immigration and refugee ministries, families and children, youth, young adults, men's and women's ministries, and volunteering.", "* Disciples of Christ Historical Society: maintains archives for the denomination and the larger Stone-Campbell Movement* Division of Overseas Ministries-Global Ministries: global mission and volunteer work in joint partnership with the United Church of Christ* Higher Education and Leadership Ministries: works with higher education partners and theological education partners and provides leadership development* National Benevolent Association: partners with and connects independent health and social service ministries to Disciples and each other* National Convocation: historical association of Black Disciple congregations that merged with the White Disciples in 1968, now continues as an association connecting and supporting black members and congregations* North American Pacific/Asian Disciples: association of Pacific and Asian-American Disciples members and congregations* Pension Fund of the Christian Church: provides pensions and investment/savings products to clergy and lay employees of Stone-Campbell/Restoration Movement churches and organizations.One highly popular and respected General Agency program is the \"Week of Compassion,\" named for the special offering to fund the program when it began in the 1950s.", "The Week of Compassion is the disaster relief and Third World development agency.", "It works closely with Church World Service and church-related organizations in countries around the world where disasters strike, providing emergency aid.The General Church has challenged the entire denomination to work for a 2020 Vision for the first two decades of the 21st Century.", "Together the denomination is well on the way to achieving its four foci:* Seeking racial justice, which it describes as becoming a pro-reconciling/anti-racist church.", "* Forming 1,000 new congregations across the United States and Canada by 2020.", "* Seeking God's transformation of 1,000 existing Congregations in ways that will renew their witness.", "* Working to nurture leadership for newly formed and transformed congregations." ], [ "Membership trends", "The Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) has experienced a very significant loss of membership since the middle of the 20th century.", "Membership peaked in 1958 at just under 2 million.", "In 1993, membership dropped below 1 million.", "In 2009, the denomination reported 658,869 members in 3,691 congregations.", "In 2010, the five states with the highest adherence rates were Kansas, Missouri, Iowa, Kentucky and Oklahoma.", "The states with the largest absolute number of adherents were Missouri, Texas, Indiana, Kentucky and Ohio.", "In 2017, membership had declined to 450,425 members." ], [ "Affiliated academic institutions", "From the very beginnings of the movement, Disciples have founded institutions of higher learning.", "Alexander Campbell taught young leaders and founded Bethany College.", "The movement established similar schools, especially in the years following the American Civil War.Because intellectual and religious freedom are important values for the Disciples of Christ, the colleges, universities, and seminaries founded by its congregations do not seek to indoctrinate students or faculty with a sectarian point of view.In the 21st century, the relationship between the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) and its affiliated universities is the purview of Higher Education and Leadership Ministries (HELM), an agency of the General Church.===Universities and colleges===* Barton College – Wilson, North Carolina* Bethany College – Bethany, West Virginia* Chapman University – Orange, California* Columbia College – Columbia, Missouri* Culver-Stockton College – Canton, Missouri* Drury University – Springfield, Missouri* Eureka College – Eureka, Illinois* Hiram College – Hiram, Ohio* Jarvis Christian College – Hawkins, Texas* University of Lynchburg – Lynchburg, Virginia* Midway University – Midway, Kentucky* Texas Christian University – Fort Worth, Texas* Tougaloo College – Tougaloo, Mississippi* Transylvania University – Lexington, Kentucky* William Woods University – Fulton, Missouri===Seminaries and theological institutions===The Disciples have four seminaries and divinity schools directly affiliated with the denomination.", "These institutions have an ecumenical student body, a reflection of the Disciples' focus on church unity.", "They are:* Brite Divinity School – Fort Worth, Texas* Christian Theological Seminary – Indianapolis, Indiana* Lexington Theological Seminary – Lexington, Kentucky* Phillips Theological Seminary – Tulsa, OklahomaThe Disciples have three additional institutions that provide supplementary education and community living for ecumenical theological institutions.", "They are:* Disciples Divinity House of the University of Chicago, affiliated with the University of Chicago Divinity School – Chicago, Illinois* Disciples Divinity House at Vanderbilt, affiliated with the Vanderbilt Divinity School – Nashville, Tennessee* Disciples Seminary Foundation, affiliated with Claremont School of Theology, Iliff School of Theology, Pacific School of Religion, and San Francisco Theological Seminary – Claremont, California" ], [ "Ecumenical relations", "The Disciples of Christ maintains ecumenical relations with the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity.", "It is also affiliated with other ecumenical organizations such as Churches Uniting in Christ, Christian Churches Together, the National Council of Churches and the World Council of Churches.", "It maintains Ordained Ministerial Partner Standing with the United Church of Christ, which means that clergy ordained in the Disciples of Christ may also serve in the United Church of Christ.", "Since 2019, it has been a full Communion partner and had an agreement for mutual recognition of ministerial credentials with the United Church of Canada.", "It is affiliated with the Disciples Ecumenical Consultative Council and the World Communion of Reformed Churches." ], [ "Prominent members", "* Jesse Moren Bader, evangelist* William Barber II, Disciples pastor and President of North Carolina NAACP* Andy Beshear, current Governor of Kentucky* Edgar Cayce, American mystic* Fred Craddock, professor and preacher* Elmira J. Dickinson, American missionary and advocate for temperance* J. William Fulbright, U.S.", "Senator from Arkansas* James A. Garfield, 20th President of the United States, ordained Disciples minister, Principal (President) of Western Reserve Eclectic Institute (now named Hiram College) in Hiram, Ohio* Murry Hammond, singer * Grey DeLisle, voice actress* Dean Hess, US Air Force Pilot* Ben Hogan, professional golfer, tied for fourth all-time with nine career professional major championships* Archie Ijames, assistant pastor of Jim Jones' Peoples Temple.", "* Lyndon Baines Johnson, 36th President of the United States* Jim Jones, cult leader, who was ordained as a Disciples minister before the denomination was organized in 1968; at that time requirements for ordination varied greatly in different regions and congregations.", "Two investigations were undertaken in 1974 and 1977 by the denomination that did not find any wrongdoings.", "No rules or precedent existed for the Disciples for removing ministers, and the Disciples responded to the Jonestown mass killings with significant changes for ministerial ethics and the process to remove ministers from the list of ordained.", "* Marinda Lemert (1811–1891), religious writer who argued for the ordination of women* Frances McDormand, actress; winner of the Triple Crown of Acting* James Clark McReynolds, United States Supreme Court Justice (1914–1941)* Harold Bell Wright, early 20th century author; pastor at churches in the association prior to becoming an author.", "The author is best known for the novel ''The Shepherd of the Hills'', and is the first fiction author to sell 1 million copies.", "* John Muir, Scottish founder of the environmental movement.", "Raised in the church, but later left it.", "* Francis Gary Powers, American CIA U-2 spy plane pilot shot down while flying a reconnaissance mission in Soviet Union airspace* Betsy Price, former mayor of Fort Worth, Texas (2011–2021), the 16th most populous city in the United States* Ronald Reagan, 40th President of the United States, baptized into the Disciples as a youth, and graduated from the Disciples' Eureka College, but a member of Bel Air Presbyterian Church in his later years.", "He married Nancy at The Little Brown Church in Studio City, California, a Disciples Church.", "* Susanna Carson Rijnhart, Tibetan explorer, missionary* Gene Robinson, raised in a Disciples church, later joined the Episcopal Church in the United States of America and became the first openly gay priest to be consecrated as a bishop in a major Christian denomination believing in the historic episcopate* Colonel Harlan Sanders, founder of Kentucky Fried Chicken* Tom Selleck, actor* John Stamos, actor* Preston Taylor, African American minister, businessperson and philanthropist; founder of the National Christian Missionary Convention* William Thomas Jr., actor* Marion Tinsley, considered the all-time greatest human checkers player* Jessie Trout, Canadian missionary in Japan, author, Japanese-American internment camp worker, co-founder of the Christian Women's Fellowship (1950) and the International Christian Women's Fellowship (1953)* Emily Harvie Thomas Tubman, businesswoman and philanthropist from Augusta, Georgia, early supporter of the Restoration Movement and correspondent of Alexander Campbell.", "She financed the construction of many Christian churches in the United States and donated to several Disciples-affiliated colleges.", "* Roger Williams (U.S. politician), Congressman representing Texas' 25th District in the U.S. House of Representatives.", "Former Secretary of State of Texas (2004–2007)* John Wooden, legendary UCLA basketball coach, raised in a Disciples Church in Martinsville, Indiana" ], [ "See also", "* First Christian Church, a typical name for many Disciples congregations, links to a disambiguation page with a list of congregations* National City Christian Church, the Disciples' main congregation in Washington, D.C.* DisciplesWorld, now-defunct magazine that covered the denomination*Restoration Movement*Churches of Christ, separated officially in 1906*Christian churches and churches of Christ, separated officially in 1968* World Convention of Churches of Christ" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * Campbell, Thomas (1809).", "The Declaration and Address* * Challen, James (editor), ''Biographical Sketch of Alexander Campbell'', Ladies' Christian Annual, March, 1857 (Volume VI, No.", "3), Philadelphia: James Challen, Publisher.", "Pages 81–90.Online Edition* Corey, Stephen (1953).", "''Fifty Years of Attack and Controversy'' St. Louis, MO: Committee on the publication of the Corey manuscript* * Davis, M. M. (1915).", "''How the Disciples Began and Grew, A Short History of the Christian Church'', Cincinnati: The Standard Publishing Company* Garrison, Winfred Earnest and DeGroot, Alfred T. (1948).", "''The Disciples of Christ, A History'', St Louis, Missouri: The Bethany Press* * * Marshall, Robert; Dunlavy, John; M'Nemar, Richard; Stone, B. W.; Thompson, John; and Purviance, David (1804).", "''The Last Will and Testament of the Springfield Presbytery''* McAlister, Lester G. and Tucker, William E. (1975), Journey in Faith: A History of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) - St. Louis, Chalice Press, * * * Watkins, Sharon E. (publisher) (2006).", "''Yearbook & Directory of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) - 2006'', Indianapolis: The Office of The General Minister and President* Williams, D. Newell (2008).", "''The Christian Church (Disciples of Christ): A Reformed North American Mainstream Moderate Denomination'', presentation given during the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) Consultation on \"Becoming a Multicultural and Inclusive Church,\" March 27, 2008.Retrieved January 4, 2010." ], [ "Further reading", "* Butchart, Reuben.", "''The Disciples of Christ in Canada Since 1930''... in series, ''Canadian Headquarters' Publications''.", "Toronto, Ont.", ": Churches of Christ (Disciples), 1949.xv, 674 p." ], [ "External links", "* Official website* Disciples of Christ Historical Society* Profile of Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) on the Association of Religion Data Archives website" ] ]
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[ [ "David Rice Atchison" ], [ "Introduction", "Portrait by George Caleb BinghamClinton County Courthouse, Plattsburg, Missouri'''David Rice Atchison''' (August 11, 1807January 26, 1886) was a mid-19th century Democratic United States Senator from Missouri.", "He served as President pro tempore of the United States Senate for six years.", "Atchison served as a major general in the Missouri State Militia in 1838 during Missouri's Mormon War and as a Confederate brigadier general during the American Civil War under Major General Sterling Price in the Missouri Home Guard.", "Some of Atchison's associates claimed that for 24 hours—Sunday, March 4, 1849, through noon on Monday—he may have been Acting President of the United States.", "This belief, however, is dismissed by nearly all scholars.Atchison, who owned a plantation and many enslaved African Americans, was a prominent pro-slavery activist and Border Ruffian leader, deeply involved with violence against abolitionists and other free-staters during the \"Bleeding Kansas\" events that preceded admission of the state to the Union." ], [ "Early life", "Atchison was born to William Atchison and his wife in Frogtown (later Kirklevington), which is now part of Lexington, Kentucky.", "He was educated at Transylvania University in Lexington.", "Classmates included five future Democratic senators (Solomon Downs of Louisiana, Jesse Bright of Indiana, George Wallace Jones of Iowa, Edward Hannegan of Indiana, and Jefferson Davis of Mississippi).", "Atchison completed law studies and was admitted to the Kentucky bar in 1829." ], [ "Missouri lawyer and politician", "In 1830 he moved to Liberty in Clay County in western Missouri, and set up practice there.", "He also acquired a farm or plantation, with labor provided by enslaved African Americans.", "Atchison's law practice flourished, and his best-known client was Joseph Smith, founder of the Latter Day Saint Movement.", "Atchison represented Smith in land disputes with non-Mormon settlers in Caldwell County and Daviess County.Alexander William Doniphan joined Atchison's law practice in Liberty in May 1833.The two became fast friends and spent many leisure time hours playing cards, going to horse races, hunting, fishing, and attending social functions and political events.", "Atchison, already a member of the Liberty Blues, a volunteer militia in Missouri, got Doniphan to join.Atchison was elected to the Missouri House of Representatives in 1834.He worked hard for the Platte Purchase, which required Native American tribes to cede land to the United States and extended the northwestern boundary of Missouri to the Missouri River in 1837.When early disputes broke out into the Mormon War of 1838, Atchison was appointed a major general in the state militia.", "He took part in suppressing violence by both sides.Active in the Democratic Party, in 1838 Atchison was re-elected to the Missouri State House of Representatives.", "In 1841, he was appointed a circuit court judge for the six-county area of the Platte Purchase.", "In 1843 he was named a county commissioner in Platte County, where he then lived." ], [ "Senate career", "In October 1843, Atchison was appointed to the U.S. Senate to fill the vacancy left by the death of Lewis F. Linn.", "He was the first senator from western Missouri to serve in this position.", "At age 36, he was the youngest senator from Missouri up to that time.", "Atchison was re-elected to a full term on his own account in 1849.Atchison was very popular with his fellow Senate Democrats.", "When the Democrats took control of the US Senate in December 1845, they chose Atchison as President pro tempore, placing him second in succession for the Presidency.", "He also was responsible for presiding over the Senate when the Vice President was absent.", "At 38, he was a young man with low seniority in the Senate after two years to gain such a position.In 1849 Atchison stepped down as President pro tempore in favor of William R. King.", "King in turn yielded the office back to Atchison in December 1852, after being elected Vice President of the United States.", "Atchison continued as President pro tempore until December 1854.As a Senator, Atchison was a fervent advocate of slavery and territorial expansion.", "He supported the annexation of Texas and the U.S.-Mexican War.", "Atchison and Thomas Hart Benton, Missouri's other Senator, became rivals and finally enemies, although both were Democrats.", "Benton declared himself to be against slavery in 1849.In 1851 Atchison allied with the Whigs to defeat incumbent Benton for re-election.Benton, intending to challenge Atchison in 1854, began to agitate for territorial organization of the area west of Missouri (now the states of Kansas and Nebraska) so that it could be opened to settlement.", "To counter this, Atchison proposed that the area be organized ''and'' that the section of the Missouri Compromise banning slavery there be repealed in favor of popular sovereignty.", "Under this plan, settlers in each territory would vote to decide whether they would allow slavery.At Atchison's request, Senator Stephen Douglas of Illinois introduced the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which embodied this idea, in November 1853.The Act was passed and became law in May 1854, establishing the Territories of Kansas and Nebraska.===Border Ruffians===Both Douglas and Atchison had believed that Nebraska would be settled by Free-State men from Iowa and Illinois, and Kansas by pro-slavery Missourians and other Southerners, thus preserving the numerical balance between free states and slave states in the nation.", "In 1854 Atchison helped found the town of Atchison, Kansas, as a pro-slavery settlement.", "The town (and county) were named for him.While Southerners supported the idea of settling Kansas, few migrated there.", "Most free-soilers preferred Kansas to Nebraska.", "Furthermore, anti-slavery activists throughout the North came to view Kansas as a battleground and formed societies to encourage free-soil settlers to go to Kansas, to ensure there would be enough voters in both Kansas and Nebraska to approve their entry as free states.It appeared as if the Kansas Territorial legislature to be elected in March 1855 would be controlled by free-soilers and ban slavery.", "This was viewed as a breach of faith by Atchison and his supporters.", "An angry Atchison called on pro-slavery Missourians to uphold slavery by force and \"to kill every God-damned abolitionist in the district\" if necessary.", "He recruited an immense mob of heavily armed Missourians, the infamous \"Border Ruffians\".", "On the election day, March 30, 1855, Atchison led 5,000 Border Ruffians into Kansas.", "They seized control of all polling places at gunpoint, cast tens of thousands of fraudulent votes for pro-slavery candidates, and elected a pro-slavery legislature.The outrage was nonetheless accepted by the Federal government.", "When Territorial Governor Andrew Reeder objected, he was fired by President Franklin Pierce.Despite this show of force, far more free-soilers than pro-slavery settlers migrated to Kansas.", "There were continual raids and ambushes by both sides in \"Bleeding Kansas\".", "In spite of the best efforts of Atchison and the Ruffians, Kansas rejected slavery and finally became a free state in 1861.Charles Sumner, in the epic \"Crimes Against Kansas\" speech on May 19, 1856, exposed Atchison's role in the invasion, tortures, and killings in Kansas.", "Speaking in the flamboyant style he and others used, lacing his prose with references to Roman history, Sumner compared Atchison to Roman Senator Catiline, who betrayed his country in a plot to overthrow the existing order.", "For two days, Sumner listed crime, after crime, in detail, complete with documentation by newspapers and letters of the time, showing the tortures and violence by Atchison and his men.Two days later, Atchison gave his own speech, totally unaware as yet that he was exposed on Senate floor in such a fashion.", "Atchison's speech was to the Texas men he just met, hired and paid for, Atchison reveals in his speech, by \"authorities in Washington\".", "They are about to invade Lawrence, Kansas.", "Atchison makes the men promise to kill and \"draw blood,\" and boasts of his flag, which was red in color for \"Southern Rights\" and the color of blood.", "They would press \"to blood\" the spread of slavery into Kansas.", "He revealed in this speech that the immediate goal of the invasion was to stop the newspaper in Lawrence from publishing anti-slavery material.", "Atchison's men had made it a crime to publish anti-slavery newspapers in Kansas.Atchison made it clear the men are to kill and draw blood, told the men they will be \"well paid,\" and encouraged them to plunder from the homes that they invaded.", "That was after the hundreds of dozens of tortures and killings that Sumner had detailed in his Crimes Against Kansas speech.", "In other words, things were about to get much worse since Atchison had his hired men from Texas.===Defeated for re-election===Atchison's Senate term expired on March 3, 1855.He sought election to another term, but the Democrats in the Missouri legislature were split between him and Benton, while the Whig minority put forward their own man.", "No Senator was elected until January 1857, when James S. Green was chosen.===Railroad proposal===When the first transcontinental railroad was proposed in the 1850s, Atchison called for it to be built along the central route (from St. Louis through Missouri, Kansas, and Utah), rather than the southern route (from New Orleans through Texas and New Mexico).", "Naturally, his suggested route went through Atchison." ], [ "American Civil War", "Atchison and his law partner Doniphan fell out over politics in 1859–1861, disagreeing on how Missouri should proceed.", "Atchison favored secession, while Doniphan was torn and would remain for the most part non-committal.", "Privately Doniphan favored the Union, but found it difficult to oppose his friends and associates.During the secession crisis in Missouri at the beginning of the American Civil War, Atchison sided with Missouri's pro-Confederate governor, Claiborne Jackson.", "He was appointed a major general in the Missouri State Guard.", "Atchison actively recruited State Guardsmen in northern Missouri and served with Guard commander General Sterling Price in the summer campaign of 1861.In September 1861, Atchison led 3,500 State Guard recruits across the Missouri River to reinforce Price, and defeated Union troops that tried to block his force in the Battle of Liberty.Atchison served in the State Guard through the end of 1861.In March 1862, Union forces in the Trans-Mississippi theater won a decisive victory at Pea Ridge in Arkansas and secured Union control of Missouri.", "Atchison then resigned from the army over reported strategy arguments with Price and moved to Texas for the duration of the war.", "After the war he retired to his farm near Gower.", "He denied many of his pro-slavery public statements made prior to the Civil War.", "Then, his retirement cottage outside of Plattsburg, Missouri burned to the ground before his death in 1886.This entailed the complete loss of his library containing books, documents, and letters which documented his role in the Mormon War, Indian affairs, pro-slavery activities, Civil War activities, and other legislation covering his career as a lawyer, senator, and soldier." ], [ "Purported one-day presidency", "Inauguration Day—March 4—fell on a Sunday in 1849, and so president-elect Zachary Taylor did not take the presidential oath of office until the next day.", "Even so, the term of the outgoing president, James K. Polk, ended at noon on March 4.On March 2, outgoing vice president George M. Dallas relinquished his position as president of the Senate.", "Congress had previously chosen Atchison as president pro tempore.", "In 1849, according to the Presidential Succession Act of 1792, the Senate president pro tempore immediately followed the vice president in the presidential line of succession.", "As Dallas's term also ended at noon on the 4th, and as neither Taylor nor vice president-elect Millard Fillmore had been sworn in to office on that day, it was claimed by some of Atchison's friends and colleagues that on March 4–5, 1849, Atchison was acting president of the United States.Historians, constitutional scholars and biographers all dismiss the claim.", "They point out that Atchison's Senate term had also ended on March 4.When the Senate of the new Congress convened on March 5 to allow new senators and the new vice president to take the oath of office, the secretary of the Senate called members to order, as the Senate had no president pro tempore.", "Although an incoming president must take the oath of office before any official acts, the prevailing view is that presidential succession does not depend on the oath.", "Even supposing that an oath were necessary, Atchison never took it, so he was no more the president than Taylor.In September 1872, Atchison, who never himself claimed that he was technically president, told a reporter for the ''Plattsburg Lever'':" ], [ "Death", "David Rice Atchison's tombstoneAtchison died on January 26, 1886, at his home near Gower, Missouri at the age of 78.He was buried at Greenlawn Cemetery in Plattsburg, Missouri.", "His grave marker reads \"President of the United States for One Day.\"" ], [ "Legacy", "*Atchison, Kansas county seat of Atchison County, Kansas*Atchison County, Missouri*USS ''Atchison County'' (LST-60) ship*In 1991, Atchison was inducted into the Hall of Famous Missourians, and a bronze bust depicting him is on permanent display in the rotunda of the Missouri State Capitol.", "*Atchison County Historical Museum in Atchison, Kansas includes a museum exhibit, jokingly titled the \"World's Smallest Presidential Library\" devoted to Atchison.", "*A historical marker designating the approximate site of Atchison's birth is located along Highway 1974 in the Landsdowne neighborhood of Lexington, Kentucky." ], [ "See also", "*List of American Civil War generals (Confederate)*List of United States senators from Missouri" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* David Rice Atchinson: On Being President For A Day - Original Letters Shapell Manuscript Foundation* Urban Legends: President for a Day* Another view of the President for a Day claim* Useless Information: David Rice Atchison* U.S. Senate Historical Minute Essay*" ] ]
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[ [ "Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit''' FRS (; ; 24 May 1686 – 16 September 1736) was a physicist, inventor, and scientific instrument maker, born in Poland to a family of German extraction.", "Fahrenheit invented thermometers accurate and consistent enough to allow the comparison of temperature measurements between different observers using different instruments.", "Fahrenheit is also credited with inventing mercury-in-glass thermometers more accurate and superior to spirit-filled thermometers at the time.", "The popularity of his thermometers led to the widespread adoption of his Fahrenheit scale attached to his instruments." ], [ "Biography", "=== Early life ===Location of Fahrenheit's birth in GdańskFahrenheit was born in Danzig (Gdańsk), then in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.", "The Fahrenheits were a German Hanse merchant family who had lived in several Hanseatic cities.", "Fahrenheit's great-grandfather had lived in Rostock, and research suggests that the Fahrenheit family originated in Hildesheim.", "Daniel's grandfather moved from Kneiphof in Königsberg (present-day Kaliningrad) to Danzig and settled there as a merchant in 1650.His son, Daniel Fahrenheit (the father of Daniel Gabriel), married Concordia Schumann, the daughter of a well-known Danzig business family.", "Daniel was the eldest of the five Fahrenheit children (two sons, three daughters) who survived childhood.", "His sister, Virginia Elisabeth Fahrenheit, married Benjamin Krüger and was the mother of Benjamin Ephraim Krüger, a clergyman and playwright.As a young adult, Fahrenheit \"showed a particular desire for studying,\" and was scheduled to enroll in the Danzig Gymnasium.", "But on 14 August 1701, his parents died after eating poisonous mushrooms.", "Fahrenheit, along with two brothers and sisters, was placed under guardianship.", "In 1702, Fahrenheit's guardians enrolled him in a bookkeeping course and sent him to a four-year merchant trade apprenticeship in Amsterdam.Upon completing his apprenticeship, Fahrenheit ran off and began a period of travel through Germany, Sweden, and Denmark in 1707.At the request of his guardians, a warrant was issued for his arrest with the intention of placing him into the service of the Dutch East India company.===Work with thermometers, Fahrenheit scale===By around 1706, Fahrenheit was manufacturing and shipping barometers and spirit-filled thermometers using the Florentine temperature scale.", "In 1708, Fahrenheit met with the mayor of Copenhagen and astronomer, Ole Rømer, and was introduced to Rømer's temperature scale and his methods for making thermometers.", "Rømer told Fahrenheit that demand for accurate thermometers was high.", "The visit inspired Fahrenheit to try to improve his own offerings.", "Perhaps not coincidentally, Fahrenheit's arrest warrant was dropped around the time of his meeting with Rømer.In 1709, Fahrenheit returned to Danzig and took observations using his barometers and thermometers, traveled more in 1710 and returned to Danzig in 1711 to settle his parent's estate.", "After additional travel to Königsberg and Mitau in 1711, he returned to Danzig in 1712 and stayed there for two years.", "During this period he worked on solving technical problems with his thermometers.Fahrenheit began experimenting with mercury thermometers in 1713.Also by this time, Fahrenheit was using a modified version of Rømer's scale for his thermometers which would later evolve into his own Fahrenheit scale.", "In 1714, Fahrenheit left Danzig for Berlin and Dresden to work closely with the glass-blowers there.", "In that year Christian Wolff wrote about Fahrenheit's thermometers in a journal after receiving a pair of his alcohol-based devices, helping to boost Fahrenheit's reputation in the scientific community.In addition to his interest in meteorological instruments, Fahrenheit also worked on his ideas for a mercury clock, a perpetual motion machine, and a heliostat around 1715.He struck up a correspondence with Leibniz about some of these projects.", "From the exchange of letters, we learn that Fahrenheit was running out of money while working on his projects and asked Leibniz for help obtaining a paid post so he could continue his work.In 1717 or 1718, Fahrenheit returned to Amsterdam and began selling barometers, areometers, and his mercury and alcohol-based thermometers commercially.", "By 1721, Fahrenheit had perfected the process of crafting and standardizing his thermometers.", "The superiority of his mercury thermometers over alcohol-based thermometers made them very popular, leading to the widespread adoption of his Fahrenheit scale, the measurement system he developed and used for his thermometers.===Later life and controversy ===Fahrenheit spent the remainder of his life in Amsterdam.", "From 1718 onward, he lectured in chemistry in Amsterdam.", "He visited England in 1724 and was elected into the Fellow of the Royal Society on May 5.In August of that year, he published five papers in Latin for the Royal Society's scientific journal, Philosophical Transactions, on various topics.", "In his second paper, ''Experimenta et observationes de congelatione aquae in value factae,'' he provides a description of his thermometers and the reference points he used for calibrating them.", "For two centuries, this document was the only description of Fahrenheit's process for making thermometers.", "In the 20th century, Ernst Cohen uncovered correspondences between Fahrenheit and Herman Boerhaave which cast considerable doubt on the veracity of Fahrenheit's article explaining the reference points for his scale and that, in fact, Fahrenheit's scale was largely derived from Rømer's scale.", "In his book, ''The History of the Thermometer and Its Use in Meteorology'', W. E. Knowles Middleton writes,From August 1736 to his death, Fahrenheit stayed in the house of Johannes Frisleven at Plein Square in The Hague in connection with an application for a patent at the States of Holland and West Friesland.", "At the beginning of September, he became ill and on the 7th his health had deteriorated to such an extent that he had notary Willem Ruijsbroek come to draw up his will.", "On the 11th, the notary came by again to make some changes.", "Five days after that, Fahrenheit died at the age of fifty.", "Four days later, he received the fourth-class funeral of one who is classified as destitute, in the Kloosterkerk in The Hague (the Cloister or Monastery Church).House where Gabriel Fahrenheit died in 1736, at Plein square, The Hague" ], [ "Fahrenheit scale", "According to Fahrenheit's 1724 article, he determined his scale by reference to three fixed points of temperature.", "The lowest temperature was achieved by preparing a frigorific mixture of ice, water, and a salt (\"ammonium chloride or even sea salt\"), and waiting for the eutectic system to reach equilibrium temperature.", "The thermometer then was placed into the mixture and the liquid in the thermometer allowed to descend to its lowest point.", "The thermometer's reading there was taken as .", "The second reference point was selected as the reading of the thermometer when it was placed in still water when ice was just forming on the surface.", "This was assigned as .", "The third calibration point, taken as , was selected as the thermometer's reading when the instrument was placed under the arm or in the mouth.Fahrenheit came up with the idea that mercury boils around 300 degrees on this temperature scale.", "Work by others showed that water boils about 180 degrees above its freezing point.", "The Fahrenheit scale later was redefined to make the freezing-to-boiling interval exactly 180 degrees, a convenient value as 180 is a highly composite number, meaning that it is evenly divisible into many fractions.", "It is because of the scale's redefinition that normal mean body temperature today is taken as 98.6 degrees, whereas it was 96 degrees on Fahrenheit's original scale.The Fahrenheit scale was the primary temperature standard for climatic, industrial and medical purposes in English-speaking countries until the 1970s, presently mostly replaced by the Celsius scale long used in the rest of the world, apart from the United States, where temperatures and weather reports are still broadcast in Fahrenheit." ], [ "See also", "* Fahrenheit hydrometer* People from Gdańsk (Danzig)* Anders Celsius" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * (Latin)* * (Czech)* * * * (Russian)*" ], [ "External links", "* Letter from Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit ( scan) to Carl Linnaeus, 7 May 1736 n.s., * * * Fahrenheit's papers in the Royal Society Publishing" ] ]
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[ [ "Freescale DragonBall" ], [ "Introduction", "Motorola DragonBall EZ MicroprocessorMotorola/Freescale Semiconductor's '''DragonBall''', or '''MC68328''', is a microcontroller design based on the famous 68000 core, but implemented as an all-in-one low-power system for handheld computer use.", "It is supported by μClinux.", "It was designed by Motorola in Hong Kong and released in 1995.The DragonBall's major design win was in numerous devices running the Palm OS platform.", "However, from Palm OS 5 onwards their use was superseded by ARM-based processors from Texas Instruments and Intel.", "The processor is capable of speeds of up to 16.58 MHz and can run up to 2.7 MIPS (million instructions per second), for the base 68328 and '''DragonBall EZ''' (MC68EZ328) model.", "It was extended to 33 MHz, 5.4 MIPS for the '''DragonBall VZ''' (MC68VZ328) model, and 66 MHz, 10.8 MIPS for the '''DragonBall Super VZ''' (MC68SZ328).It is a 32-bit processor with 32-bit internal and external address bus (24-bit external address bus for EZ and VZ variants) and 32-bit data bus (8/16-bit external data bus).", "It has many built-in functions, like a color and grayscale display controller, PC speaker sound, serial port with UART and IRDA support, UART bootstrap, real time clock, is able to directly access DRAM, Flash ROM, mask ROM, and has built-in support for touch screens.The more recent '''DragonBall MX''' series microcontrollers, later renamed the Freescale i.MX (MC9328MX/MCIMX) series, are intended for similar application to the earlier DragonBall devices but are based on an ARM processor core instead of a 68000 core." ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Double-slit experiment" ], [ "Introduction", "In modern physics, the '''double-slit experiment''' demonstrates that light and matter can satisfy the seemingly incongruous classical definitions for both waves ''and'' particles.", "This ambiguity is considered evidence for the fundamentally probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics.", "This type of experiment was first performed by Thomas Young in 1801, as a demonstration of the wave behavior of visible light.", "In 1927, Davisson and Germer and, independently George Paget Thomson and his research student Alexander Reid demonstrated that electrons show the same behavior, which was later extended to atoms and molecules.", "Thomas Young's experiment with light was part of classical physics long before the development of quantum mechanics and the concept of wave–particle duality.", "He believed it demonstrated that Christiaan Huygens' wave theory of light was correct, and his experiment is sometimes referred to as Young's experiment or Young's slits.The experiment belongs to a general class of \"double path\" experiments, in which a wave is split into two separate waves (the wave is typically made of many photons and better referred to as a wave front, not to be confused with the wave properties of the individual photon) that later combine into a single wave.", "Changes in the path-lengths of both waves result in a phase shift, creating an interference pattern.", "Another version is the Mach–Zehnder interferometer, which splits the beam with a beam splitter.In the basic version of this experiment, a coherent light source, such as a laser beam, illuminates a plate pierced by two parallel slits, and the light passing through the slits is observed on a screen behind the plate.", "The wave nature of light causes the light waves passing through the two slits to interfere, producing bright and dark bands on the screen – a result that would not be expected if light consisted of classical particles.", "However, the light is always found to be absorbed at the screen at discrete points, as individual particles (not waves); the interference pattern appears via the varying density of these particle hits on the screen.", "Furthermore, versions of the experiment that include detectors at the slits find that each detected photon passes through one slit (as would a classical particle), and not through both slits (as would a wave).", "However, such experiments demonstrate that particles do not form the interference pattern if one detects which slit they pass through.", "These results demonstrate the principle of wave–particle duality.Other atomic-scale entities, such as electrons, are found to exhibit the same behavior when fired towards a double slit.", "Additionally, the detection of individual discrete impacts is observed to be inherently probabilistic, which is inexplicable using classical mechanics.The experiment can be done with entities much larger than electrons and photons, although it becomes more difficult as size increases.", "The largest entities for which the double-slit experiment has been performed were molecules that each comprised 2000 atoms (whose total mass was 25,000 atomic mass units).The double-slit experiment (and its variations) has become a classic for its clarity in expressing the central puzzles of quantum mechanics.", "Because it demonstrates the fundamental limitation of the ability of the observer to predict experimental results, Richard Feynman called it \"a phenomenon which is impossible … to explain in any classical way, and which has in it the heart of quantum mechanics.", "In reality, it contains the only mystery of quantum mechanics.\"" ], [ "Overview", "Same double-slit assembly (0.7 mm between slits); in top image, one slit is closed.", "In the single-slit image, a diffraction pattern (the faint spots on either side of the main band) forms due to the nonzero width of the slit.", "This diffraction pattern is also seen in the double-slit image, but with many smaller interference fringes.If light consisted strictly of ordinary or classical particles, and these particles were fired in a straight line through a slit and allowed to strike a screen on the other side, we would expect to see a pattern corresponding to the size and shape of the slit.", "However, when this \"single-slit experiment\" is actually performed, the pattern on the screen is a diffraction pattern in which the light is spread out.", "The smaller the slit, the greater the angle of spread.", "The top portion of the image shows the central portion of the pattern formed when a red laser illuminates a slit and, if one looks carefully, two faint side bands.", "More bands can be seen with a more highly refined apparatus.", "Diffraction explains the pattern as being the result of the interference of light waves from the slit.If one illuminates two parallel slits, the light from the two slits again interferes.", "Here the interference is a more pronounced pattern with a series of alternating light and dark bands.", "The width of the bands is a property of the frequency of the illuminating light.", "(See the bottom photograph to the right.", ")Young's drawing of diffractionWhen Thomas Young (1773–1829) first demonstrated this phenomenon, it indicated that light consists of waves, as the distribution of brightness can be explained by the alternately additive and subtractive interference of wavefronts.", "Young's experiment, performed in the early 1800s, played a crucial role in the understanding of the wave theory of light, vanquishing the corpuscular theory of light proposed by Isaac Newton, which had been the accepted model of light propagation in the 17th and 18th centuries.However, the later discovery of the photoelectric effect demonstrated that under different circumstances, light can behave as if it is composed of discrete particles.", "These seemingly contradictory discoveries made it necessary to go beyond classical physics and take into account the quantum nature of light.Feynman was fond of saying that all of quantum mechanics can be gleaned from carefully thinking through the implications of this single experiment.", "He also proposed (as a thought experiment) that if detectors were placed before each slit, the interference pattern would disappear.The Englert–Greenberger duality relation provides a detailed treatment of the mathematics of double-slit interference in the context of quantum mechanics.A low-intensity double-slit experiment was first performed by G. I. Taylor in 1909, by reducing the level of incident light until photon emission/absorption events were mostly non-overlapping.A slit interference experiment was not performed with anything other than light until 1961, when Claus Jönsson of the University of Tübingen performed it with coherent electron beams and multiple slits.", "In 1974, the Italian physicists Pier Giorgio Merli, Gian Franco Missiroli, and Giulio Pozzi performed a related experiment using single electrons from a coherent source and a biprism beam splitter, showing the statistical nature of the buildup of the interference pattern, as predicted by quantum theory.", "In 2002, the single-electron version of the experiment was voted \"the most beautiful experiment\" by readers of ''Physics World.''", "Since that time a number of related experiments have been published, with a little controversy.In 2012, Stefano Frabboni and co-workers sent single electrons onto nanofabricated slits (about 100 nm wide) and, by detecting the transmitted electrons with a single-electron detector, they could show the build-up of a double-slit interference pattern.", "Many related experiments involving the coherent interference have been performed; they are the basis of modern electron diffraction, microscopy and high resolution imaging.In 2018, single particle interference was demonstrated for antimatter in the Positron Laboratory (L-NESS, Politecnico di Milano) of Rafael Ferragut in Como (Italy), by a group led by Marco Giammarchi." ], [ "Variations of the experiment", "===Interference from individual particles===An important version of this experiment involves single particle detection.", "Sending coherent particles through a double-slit apparatus one at a time results in single particles being detected as white dots on the screen, as expected.", "Remarkably, however, an interference pattern emerges when these particles are allowed to build up one by one (see the image below).This demonstrates the wave–particle duality, which states that all matter exhibits both wave and particle properties: The particle is measured as a single pulse at a single position, while the modulus squared of the wave describes the probability of detecting the particle at a specific place on the screen giving a statistical interference pattern.", "This phenomenon has been shown to occur with photons, electrons, atoms, and even some molecules: with buckminsterfullerene () in 2001, with 2 molecules of 430 atoms ( and ) in 2011, and with molecules of up to 2000 atoms in 2019.===Mach-Zehnder interferometer===Photons in a Mach–Zehnder interferometer exhibit wave-like interference and particle-like detection at single-photon detectors.The Mach–Zehnder interferometer can be seen as a simplified version of the double-slit experiment.", "Instead of propagating through free space after the two slits, and hitting any position in an extended screen, in the interferometer the photons can only propagate via two paths, and hit two discrete photodetectors.", "This makes it possible to describe it via simple linear algebra in dimension 2, rather than differential equations.A photon emitted by the laser hits the first beam splitter and is then in a superposition between the two possible paths.", "In the second beam splitter these paths interfere, causing the photon to hit the photodetector on the right with probability one, and the photodetector on the bottom with probability zero.", "It is interesting to consider what would happen if the photon were definitely in either of paths between the beam splitters.", "This can be accomplished by blocking one of the paths, or equivalently by detecting the presence of a photon there.", "In both cases there will be no interference between the paths anymore, and both photodetectors will be hit with probability 1/2.From this we can conclude that the photon does not take one path or another after the first beam splitter, but rather that it is in a genuine quantum superposition of the two paths.===\"Which-way\" experiments and the principle of complementarity===A well-known thought experiment predicts that if particle detectors are positioned at the slits, showing through which slit a photon goes, the interference pattern will disappear.", "This which-way experiment illustrates the complementarity principle that photons can behave as either particles or waves, but cannot be observed as both at the same time.Despite the importance of this thought experiment in the history of quantum mechanics (for example, see the discussion on Einstein's version of this experiment), technically feasible realizations of this experiment were not proposed until the 1970s.", "(Naive implementations of the textbook thought experiment are not possible because photons cannot be detected without absorbing the photon.)", "Currently, multiple experiments have been performed illustrating various aspects of complementarity.An experiment performed in 1987 produced results that demonstrated that partial information could be obtained regarding which path a particle had taken without destroying the interference altogether.", "This \"wave-particle trade-off\" takes form of an inequality relating the visibility of the interference pattern and the distinguishability of the which-way paths.===Delayed choice and quantum eraser variations===A diagram of Wheeler's delayed choice experiment, showing the principle of determining the path of the photon after it passes through the slitWheeler's delayed-choice experiments demonstrate that extracting \"which path\" information after a particle passes through the slits can seem to retroactively alter its previous behavior at the slits.Quantum eraser experiments demonstrate that wave behavior can be restored by erasing or otherwise making permanently unavailable the \"which path\" information.A simple do-it-at-home illustration of the quantum eraser phenomenon was given in an article in ''Scientific American''.", "If one sets polarizers before each slit with their axes orthogonal to each other, the interference pattern will be eliminated.", "The polarizers can be considered as introducing which-path information to each beam.", "Introducing a third polarizer in front of the detector with an axis of 45° relative to the other polarizers \"erases\" this information, allowing the interference pattern to reappear.", "This can also be accounted for by considering the light to be a classical wave, and also when using circular polarizers and single photons.", "Implementations of the polarizers using entangled photon pairs have no classical explanation.===Weak measurement===In a highly publicized experiment in 2012, researchers claimed to have identified the path each particle had taken without any adverse effects at all on the interference pattern generated by the particles.", "In order to do this, they used a setup such that particles coming to the screen were not from a point-like source, but from a source with two intensity maxima.", "However, commentators such as Svensson have pointed out that there is in fact no conflict between the weak measurements performed in this variant of the double-slit experiment and the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.", "Weak measurement followed by post-selection did not allow simultaneous position and momentum measurements for each individual particle, but rather allowed measurement of the average trajectory of the particles that arrived at different positions.", "In other words, the experimenters were creating a statistical map of the full trajectory landscape.===Other variations===A laboratory double-slit assembly; distance between top posts is approximately 2.5 cm (one inch).Near-field intensity distribution patterns for plasmonic slits with equal widths (A) and non-equal widths (B).In 1967, Pfleegor and Mandel demonstrated two-source interference using two separate lasers as light sources.It was shown experimentally in 1972 that in a double-slit system where only one slit was open at any time, interference was nonetheless observed provided the path difference was such that the detected photon could have come from either slit.", "The experimental conditions were such that the photon density in the system was much less than unity.In 1991, Carnal and Mlynek performed the classic Young's double slit experiment with metastable helium atoms passing through micrometer-scale slits in gold foil.In 1999, a quantum interference experiment (using a diffraction grating, rather than two slits) was successfully performed with buckyball molecules (each of which comprises 60 carbon atoms).", "A buckyball is large enough (diameter about 0.7 nm, nearly half a million times larger than a proton) to be seen in an electron microscope.In 2002, an electron field emission source was used to demonstrate the double-slit experiment.", "In this experiment, a coherent electron wave was emitted from two closely located emission sites on the needle apex, which acted as double slits, splitting the wave into two coherent electron waves in a vacuum.", "The interference pattern between the two electron waves could then be observed.", "In 2017, researchers performed the double-slit experiment using light-induced field electron emitters.", "With this technique, emission sites can be optically selected on a scale of ten nanometers.", "By selectively deactivating (closing) one of the two emissions (slits), researchers were able to show that the interference pattern disappeared.In 2005, E. R. Eliel presented an experimental and theoretical study of the optical transmission of a thin metal screen perforated by two subwavelength slits, separated by many optical wavelengths.", "The total intensity of the far-field double-slit pattern is shown to be reduced or enhanced as a function of the wavelength of the incident light beam.In 2012, researchers at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln performed the double-slit experiment with electrons as described by Richard Feynman, using new instruments that allowed control of the transmission of the two slits and the monitoring of single-electron detection events.", "Electrons were fired by an electron gun and passed through one or two slits of 62 nm wide × 4 μm tall.In 2013, a quantum interference experiment (using diffraction gratings, rather than two slits) was successfully performed with molecules that each comprised 810 atoms (whose total mass was over 10,000 atomic mass units).", "The record was raised to 2000 atoms (25,000 amu) in 2019.====Hydrodynamic pilot wave analogs====Hydrodynamic analogs have been developed that can recreate various aspects of quantum mechanical systems, including single-particle interference through a double-slit.", "A silicone oil droplet, bouncing along the surface of a liquid, self-propels via resonant interactions with its own wave field.", "The droplet gently sloshes the liquid with every bounce.", "At the same time, ripples from past bounces affect its course.", "The droplet's interaction with its own ripples, which form what is known as a pilot wave, causes it to exhibit behaviors previously thought to be peculiar to elementary particles – including behaviors customarily taken as evidence that elementary particles are spread through space like waves, without any specific location, until they are measured.Behaviors mimicked via this hydrodynamic pilot-wave system include quantum single particle diffraction, tunneling, quantized orbits, orbital level splitting, spin, and multimodal statistics.", "It is also possible to infer uncertainty relations and exclusion principles.", "Videos are available illustrating various features of this system.", "(See the External links.", ")However, more complicated systems that involve two or more particles in superposition are not amenable to such a simple, classically intuitive explanation.", "Accordingly, no hydrodynamic analog of entanglement has been developed.", "Nevertheless, optical analogs are possible.==== Double-slit experiment on time ====In 2023, an experiment was reported recreating an interference pattern in time by shining a pump laser pulse at a screen coated in indium tin oxide (ITO) which would alter the properties of the electrons within the material due to the Kerr effect, changing it from transparent to reflective for around 200 femtoseconds long where a subsequent probe laser beam hitting the ITO screen would then see this temporary change in optical properties as a slit in time and two of them as a double slit with a phase difference adding up destructively or constructively on each frequency component resulting in an interference pattern.", "Similar results have been obtained classically on water waves." ], [ "Classical wave-optics formulation", "Two-slit diffraction pattern with an incident a plane wavePhoto of the double-slit interference of sunlight.Two slits are illuminated by a plane wave, showing the path difference.Much of the behaviour of light can be modelled using classical wave theory.", "The Huygens–Fresnel principle is one such model; it states that each point on a wavefront generates a secondary wavelet, and that the disturbance at any subsequent point can be found by summing the contributions of the individual wavelets at that point.", "This summation needs to take into account the phase as well as the amplitude of the individual wavelets.", "Only the intensity of a light field can be measured—this is proportional to the square of the amplitude.In the double-slit experiment, the two slits are illuminated by the quasi-monochromatic light of a single laser.", "If the width of the slits is small enough (much less than the wavelength of the laser light), the slits diffract the light into cylindrical waves.", "These two cylindrical wavefronts are superimposed, and the amplitude, and therefore the intensity, at any point in the combined wavefronts depends on both the magnitude and the phase of the two wavefronts.", "The difference in phase between the two waves is determined by the difference in the distance travelled by the two waves.If the viewing distance is large compared with the separation of the slits (the far field), the phase difference can be found using the geometry shown in the figure below right.", "The path difference between two waves travelling at an angle is given by::Where d is the distance between the two slits.", "When the two waves are in phase, i.e.", "the path difference is equal to an integral number of wavelengths, the summed amplitude, and therefore the summed intensity is maximum, and when they are in anti-phase, i.e.", "the path difference is equal to half a wavelength, one and a half wavelengths, etc., then the two waves cancel and the summed intensity is zero.", "This effect is known as interference.", "The interference fringe maxima occur at angles:where λ is the wavelength of the light.", "The angular spacing of the fringes, , is given by:The spacing of the fringes at a distance from the slits is given by:For example, if two slits are separated by 0.5 mm (), and are illuminated with a 0.6 μm wavelength laser (), then at a distance of 1 m (), the spacing of the fringes will be 1.2 mm.If the width of the slits is appreciable compared to the wavelength, the Fraunhofer diffraction equation is needed to determine the intensity of the diffracted light as follows::where the sinc function is defined as sinc(''x'') = sin(''x'')/''x'' for ''x'' ≠ 0, and sinc(0) = 1.This is illustrated in the figure above, where the first pattern is the diffraction pattern of a single slit, given by the function in this equation, and the second figure shows the combined intensity of the light diffracted from the two slits, where the function represents the fine structure, and the coarser structure represents diffraction by the individual slits as described by the function.Similar calculations for the near field can be made by applying the Fresnel diffraction equation, which implies that as the plane of observation gets closer to the plane in which the slits are located, the diffraction patterns associated with each slit decrease in size, so that the area in which interference occurs is reduced, and may vanish altogether when there is no overlap in the two diffracted patterns." ], [ "Path-integral formulation", "One of an infinite number of equally likely paths used in the Feynman path integral (see also: Wiener process)The double-slit experiment can illustrate the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics provided by Feynman.", "The path integral formulation replaces the classical notion of a single, unique trajectory for a system, with a sum over all possible trajectories.", "The trajectories are added together by using functional integration.Each path is considered equally likely, and thus contributes the same amount.", "However, the phase of this contribution at any given point along the path is determined by the action along the path:All these contributions are then added together, and the magnitude of the final result is squared, to get the probability distribution for the position of a particle:As is always the case when calculating probability, the results must then be normalized by imposing:The probability distribution of the outcome is the normalized square of the norm of the superposition, over all paths from the point of origin to the final point, of waves propagating proportionally to the action along each path.", "The differences in the cumulative action along the different paths (and thus the relative phases of the contributions) produces the interference pattern observed by the double-slit experiment.", "Feynman stressed that his formulation is merely a mathematical description, not an attempt to describe a real process that we can measure." ], [ "Interpretations of the experiment", "Like the Schrödinger's cat thought experiment, the double-slit experiment is often used to highlight the differences and similarities between the various interpretations of quantum mechanics.===Copenhagen interpretation===The Copenhagen interpretation is a collection of views about the meaning of quantum mechanics, stemming from the work of Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg, Max Born, and others.", "The term \"Copenhagen interpretation\" was apparently coined by Heisenberg during the 1950s to refer to ideas developed in the 1925–1927 period, glossing over his disagreements with Bohr.", "Consequently, there is no definitive historical statement of what the interpretation entails.", "Features common across versions of the Copenhagen interpretation include the idea that quantum mechanics is intrinsically indeterministic, with probabilities calculated using the Born rule, and the principle of complementarity, which states that objects have certain pairs of complementary properties that cannot all be observed or measured simultaneously.", "Moreover, the act of \"observing\" or \"measuring\" an object is irreversible, and no truth can be attributed to an object, except according to the results of its measurement.", "A particular experiment can demonstrate particle behavior (passing through a definite slit) or wave behavior (interference), but not both at the same time.", "Copenhagen-type interpretations hold that quantum descriptions are objective, in that they are independent of physicists' personal beliefs and other arbitrary mental factors.The results from the most basic double slit experiment, the observation of an interference pattern, is explained by wave interference from the two paths to the screen from each of the two slits.", "The single-particle results show that the waves are probability amplitudes which square to produce a probability distribution.", "The particles are discrete and identical; many are needed to build up the full interference pattern.", "The results from some of the which-way experiments are described as observations of complementarity: modifying the experiment to monitor the slit suppresses the interference pattern.", "Other which-way experiments make no mention of complementarity in their analysis.===Relational interpretation===According to the relational interpretation of quantum mechanics, first proposed by Carlo Rovelli, observations such as those in the double-slit experiment result specifically from the interaction between the observer (measuring device) and the object being observed (physically interacted with), not any absolute property possessed by the object.", "In the case of an electron, if it is initially \"observed\" at a particular slit, then the observer–particle (photon–electron) interaction includes information about the electron's position.", "This partially constrains the particle's eventual location at the screen.", "If it is \"observed\" (measured with a photon) not at a particular slit but rather at the screen, then there is no \"which path\" information as part of the interaction, so the electron's \"observed\" position on the screen is determined strictly by its probability function.", "This makes the resulting pattern on the screen the same as if each individual electron had passed through both slits.===Many-worlds interpretation===As with Copenhagen, there are multiple variants of the many-worlds interpretation.", "The unifying theme is that physical reality is identified with a wavefunction, and this wavefunction always evolves unitarily, i.e., following the Schrödinger equation with no collapses.", "Consequently, there are many parallel universes, which only interact with each other only through interference.", "David Deutsch argues that the way to understand the double-slit experiment is that in each universe the particle travels through a specific slit, but its motion is affected by the interference with particles in other universes.", "This creates the observable fringes.", "David Wallace, another advocate of the many-worlds interpretation, writes that in the familiar setup of the double-slit experiment the two paths are not sufficiently separated for a description in terms of parallel universes to make sense.===De Broglie–Bohm theory===An alternative to the standard understanding of quantum mechanics, the De Broglie–Bohm theory states that particles also have precise locations at all times, and that their velocities are defined by the wave-function.", "So while a single particle will travel through one particular slit in the double-slit experiment, the so-called \"pilot wave\" that influences it will travel through both.", "The two slit de Broglie-Bohm trajectories were first calculated by Chris Dewdney while working with Chris Philippidis and Basil Hiley at Birkbeck College (London).", "The de Broglie-Bohm theory produces the same statistical results as standard quantum mechanics, but dispenses with many of its conceptual difficulties by adding complexity through an ''ad hoc'' quantum potential to guide the particles.While the model is in many ways similar to Schrödinger equation, it is known to fail for relativistic cases and does not account for features such as particle creation or annihilation in quantum field theory.", "Many authors such as nobel laureates Werner Heisenberg, Sir Anthony James Leggett and Sir Roger Penrose have criticized it for not adding anything new.More complex variants of this type of approach have appeared, for instance the ''three wave hypothesis'' of Ryszard Horodecki as well as other complicated combinations of de Broglie and Compton waves.", "To date there is no evidence that these are useful." ], [ "See also", "* Aharonov-Bohm effect* Complementarity (physics)* Delayed-choice quantum eraser* Diffraction from slits* Dual-polarization interferometry* Elitzur–Vaidman bomb tester* N-slit interferometer* Matter wave* Photon polarization* Quantum coherence* Schrödinger's cat* Young's interference experiment* Measurement problem* Hydrodynamic quantum analogs* Pilot wave theory" ], [ "References", "===Further reading===***********" ], [ "External links", "* Double slit interference lecture by Walter Lewin of MIT===Interactive animations===* Huygens and interference ===Single particle experiments===* Website with the movie and other information from the first single electron experiment by Merli, Missiroli, and Pozzi.", "* Movie showing single electron events build up to form an interference pattern in double-slit experiments.", "Several versions with and without narration (File size = 3.6 to 10.4 MB) (Movie Length = 1m 8s)* Freeview video 'Electron Waves Unveil the Microcosmos' A Royal Institution Discourse by Akira Tonomura provided by the Vega Science Trust* Hitachi website that provides background on Tonomura video and link to the video===Hydrodynamic analog===* \"Single-particle interference observed for macroscopic objects\"* Pilot-Wave Hydrodynamics: Supplemental Video* ''Through the Wormhole'': Yves Couder .", "Explains Wave/Particle Duality via Silicon Droplets===Computer simulations===* Java demonstration of Young's double slit interference* A simulation that runs in Mathematica Player, in which the number of quantum particles, the frequency of the particles, and the slit separation can be independently varied" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dan Bricklin" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Daniel Singer Bricklin''' (born July 16, 1951) is an American businessman and engineer who is the co-creator, with Bob Frankston, of the VisiCalc spreadsheet program.", "He also founded Software Garden, Inc., of which he is currently president, and Trellix, which he left in 2004.He currently serves as the chief technology officer of Alpha Software.His book, ''Bricklin on Technology'', was published by Wiley in May 2009.For his work with VisiCalc, Bricklin is often referred to as “the father of the Spreadsheet.” He was one of 6 people spotlighted when the Computer was denoted \"Machine of the Year\" by ''Time'' magazine in 1982." ], [ "Early life and education", "Bricklin was born in a Jewish family in Philadelphia, where he attended Akiba Hebrew Academy.", "He began his college as a mathematics major, but soon switched to computer science.", "He earned a Bachelor of Science in electrical engineering and computer science from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1973, where he was a resident of Bexley Hall.Upon graduating from MIT, Bricklin worked for Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) where he was part of the team that worked on WPS-8 until 1976, when he began working for FasFax, a cash register manufacturer.", "In 1977, he returned to education, and was awarded a Master of Business Administration from Harvard University in 1979.While a student at Harvard Business School, Bricklin co-developed VisiCalc in 1979, making it the first electronic spreadsheet readily available for home and office use.", "It ran on an Apple II computer, and was considered a fourth generation software program.", "VisiCalc is widely credited for fueling the rapid growth of the personal computer industry.", "Instead of doing financial projections with manually calculated spreadsheets, and having to recalculate with every single cell in the sheet, VisiCalc allowed the user to change any cell, and have the entire sheet automatically recalculated.", "This could turn 20 hours of work into 15 minutes and allowed for more creativity." ], [ "Career", "===Software Arts===In 1979, Bricklin and Frankston founded Software Arts, Inc., and began selling VisiCalc, via a separate company named VisiCorp.", "Along with co-founder Bob Frankston, he started writing versions of the program for the Tandy TRS-80, Commodore PET and the Atari 800.Soon after its launch, VisiCalc became a fast seller at $100.Software Arts also published TK/Solver and \"and ''Spotlight'',\"a desktop organizer for the IBM Personal Computer.", "\"Bricklin was awarded the Grace Murray Hopper Award in 1981 for VisiCalc.", "Bricklin could not patent VisiCalc, since software inventions were not eligible for patent protection at the time.Bricklin was chairman of Software Arts until 1985, the year that Software Arts was acquired by Lotus.", "He left and founded Software Garden.===Software Garden===Dan Bricklin founded Software Garden, a small consulting firm and developer of software applications, in 1985.The company's focus was to produce and market “Dan Bricklin's Demo Program”.", "The program allowed users to create demonstrations of their programs before they were even written, and was also used to create tutorials for Windows-based programs.", "Other versions released soon after included demo-it!.", "He remained the president of the company until he co-founded Slate Corporation in 1990.In 1992, he became the vice president of Phoenix-based Slate corporation, and developed ''At Hand'', a pen-based spreadsheet.", "When Slate closed in 1994, Bricklin returned to Software Garden.His \"''Dan Bricklin's Overall Viewer''\" (described by ''The New York Times'' as \"a visual way to display information in Windows-based software\") was released in November 1994.=== Corporation===In 1995 Bricklin founded Trellix Corporation, named for ''Trellix Site Builder''.Trellix was bought by Interland (now Web.com) in 2003, and Bricklin became Interland's chief technology officer until early 2004.===Current work===Bricklin continues to serve as president of Software Garden, a small company that develops and markets software tools he creates, as well as providing speaking and consulting services.He has released Note Taker HD, an application that integrates handwritten notes on the Apple iPad tablet.He is also developing wikiCalc, a collaborative, basic spreadsheet running on the Web.He is currently the chief technology officer of Alpha Software in Burlington, Massachusetts, a company that creates tools to easily develop cross-platform mobile business applications." ], [ "Affiliations", "In 1994, Bricklin was inducted as a Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery.", "He is a founding trustee of the Massachusetts Technology Leadership Council and has served on the boards of the Software Publishers Association and the Boston Computer Society.He was elected a member of the National Academy of Engineering in 2003 for the invention and creation of the electronic spreadsheet." ], [ "Awards", "In 1981, Bricklin was given a Grace Murray Hopper Award for VisiCalc.In 1996, Bricklin was awarded by the IEEE Computer Society with the Computer Entrepreneur Award for pioneering the development and commercialization of the spreadsheet and the profound changes it fostered in business and industry.In 2003, Bricklin was given the Wharton Infosys Business Transformation Award for being a technology change leader.", "He was recognized for having used information technology in an industry-transforming way.", "He has received an Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters from Newbury College.", "He also became a member of the National Academy of Engineering.In 2004, he was made a Fellow of the Computer History Museum \"for advancing the utility of personal computers by developing the VisiCalc electronic spreadsheet.", "\"Bricklin:* appeared in the 1996 documentary ''Triumph of the Nerds'', as well as the 2005 documentary ''Aardvark'd: 12 Weeks with Geeks'', in both cases discussing the development of VisiCalc.", "* introduced the term \"friend-to-friend networking\" on August 11, 2000.", "* also introduced the term cornucopia of the commons about the same time." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Dan Bricklin interview on lowendmac.com* Bricklin.com* * I'm working on a new product called wikiCalc, from Dan Bricklin's weblog on November 9, 2005, introducing wikiCalc* This page has a link to Dan's interview conducted by Robert Cringely* Bricklin On Technology book* TED Talk – \"Dan Bricklin: Meet the inventor of the electronic spreadsheet\"* TEDx Talk – \"A Problem That Changed The World | Dan Bricklin | TEDxBeaconStreet\"" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Digital enhanced cordless telecommunications" ], [ "Introduction", "Motorola IT.6 cordless telephone'''Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications''', usually known by the acronym '''DECT''', is a standard used for creating cordless telephone systems and for IoT systems.", "It originated in Europe, where it is the common standard, replacing earlier cordless phone standards, such as 900 MHz CT1 and CT2.The IoT usage relies on the new DECT-2020 standard.Beyond Europe, it has been adopted by Australia and most countries in Asia and South America.", "North American adoption was delayed by United States radio-frequency regulations.", "This forced development of a variation of DECT called '''DECT 6.0''', using a slightly different frequency range, which makes these units incompatible with systems intended for use in other areas, even from the same manufacturer.", "DECT has almost completely replaced other standards in most countries where it is used, with the exception of North America.DECT was originally intended for fast roaming between networked base stations, and the first DECT product was Net3 wireless LAN.", "However, its most popular application is single-cell cordless phones connected to traditional analog telephone, primarily in home and small-office systems, though gateways with multi-cell DECT and/or DECT repeaters are also available in many private branch exchange (PBX) systems for medium and large businesses, produced by Panasonic, Mitel, Gigaset, Ascom, Cisco, Grandstream, Snom, Spectralink, and RTX.", "DECT can also be used for purposes other than cordless phones, such as baby monitors and industrial sensors.", "The ULE Alliance's DECT ULE and its \"HAN FUN\" protocol are variants tailored for home security, automation, and the internet of things (IoT).The DECT standard includes the generic access profile (GAP), a common interoperability profile for simple telephone capabilities, which most manufacturers implement.", "GAP-conformance enables DECT handsets and bases from different manufacturers to interoperate at the most basic level of functionality, that of making and receiving calls.", "Japan uses its own DECT variant, J-DECT, which is supported by the DECT forum.The New Generation DECT (NG-DECT) standard, marketed as CAT-iq by the DECT Forum, provides a common set of advanced capabilities for handsets and base stations.", "CAT-iq allows interchangeability across IP-DECT base stations and handsets from different manufacturers, while maintaining backward compatibility with GAP equipment.", "It also requires mandatory support for wideband audio.DECT-2020 New Radio, marketed as NR+ (New Radio plus), is a 5G data transmission protocol which meets ITU-R IMT-2020 requirements for ultra-reliable low-latency and massive machine-type communications, and can co-exist with earlier DECT devices." ], [ "Standards history", "The DECT standard was developed by ETSI in several phases, the first of which took place between 1988 and 1992 when the first round of standards were published.", "These were the ETS 300-175 series in nine parts defining the air interface, and ETS 300-176 defining how the units should be type approved.", "A technical report, ETR-178, was also published to explain the standard.", "Subsequent standards were developed and published by ETSI to cover interoperability profiles and standards for testing.Named Digital European Cordless Telephone at its launch by CEPT in November 1987; its name was soon changed to Digital European Cordless Telecommunications, following a suggestion by Enrico Tosato of Italy, to reflect its broader range of application including data services.", "In 1995, due to its more global usage, the name was changed from European to Enhanced.", "DECT is recognized by the ITU as fulfilling the IMT-2000 requirements and thus qualifies as a 3G system.", "Within the IMT-2000 group of technologies, DECT is referred to as IMT-2000 Frequency Time (IMT-FT).DECT was developed by ETSI but has since been adopted by many countries all over the World.", "The original DECT frequency band (1880–1900 MHz) is used in all countries in Europe.", "Outside Europe, it is used in most of Asia, Australia and South America.", "In the United States, the Federal Communications Commission in 2005 changed channelization and licensing costs in a nearby band (1920–1930 MHz, or 1.9 GHz), known as Unlicensed Personal Communications Services (UPCS), allowing DECT devices to be sold in the U.S. with only minimal changes.", "These channels are reserved exclusively for voice communication applications and therefore are less likely to experience interference from other wireless devices such as baby monitors and wireless networks.The New Generation DECT (NG-DECT) standard was first published in 2007; it was developed by ETSI with guidance from the Home Gateway Initiative through the DECT Forum to support IP-DECT functions in home gateway/IP-PBX equipment.", "The ETSI TS 102 527 series comes in five parts and covers wideband audio and mandatory interoperability features between handsets and base stations.", "They were preceded by an explanatory technical report, ETSI TR 102 570.The DECT Forum maintains the CAT-iq trademark and certification program; CAT-iq wideband voice profile 1.0 and interoperability profiles 2.0/2.1 are based on the relevant parts of ETSI TS 102 527.The DECT Ultra Low Energy (DECT ULE) standard was announced in January 2011 and the first commercial products were launched later that year by Dialog Semiconductor.", "The standard was created to enable home automation, security, healthcare and energy monitoring applications that are battery powered.", "Like DECT, DECT ULE standard uses the 1.9 GHz band, and so suffers less interference than Zigbee, Bluetooth, or Wi-Fi from microwave ovens, which all operate in the unlicensed 2.4 GHz ISM band.", "DECT ULE uses a simple star network topology, so many devices in the home are connected to a single control unit.A new low-complexity audio codec, LC3plus, has been added as an option to the 2019 revision of the DECT standard.", "This codec is designed for high-quality voice and music applications, and supports scalable narrowband, wideband, super wideband, and fullband coding, with sample rates of 8, 16, 24, 32 and 48 kHz and audio bandwidth of up to 20 kHz.DECT-2020 New Radio protocol was published in July 2020; it defines a new physical interface based on cyclic prefix orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (CP-OFDM) capable of up to 1.2Gbit/s transfer rate with QAM-1024 modulation.", "The updated standard supports multi-antenna MIMO and beamforming, FEC channel coding, and hybrid automatic repeat request.", "There are 17 radio channel frequencies in the range from 450MHz up to 5,875MHz, and channel bandwidths of 1,728, 3,456, or 6,912kHz.", "Direct communication between end devices is possible with a mesh network topology.", "In October 2021, DECT-2020 NR was approved for the IMT-2020 standard, for use in Massive Machine Type Communications (MMTC) industry automation, Ultra-Reliable Low-Latency Communications (URLLC), and professional wireless audio applications with point-to-point or multicast communications; the proposal was fast-tracked by ITU-R following real-world evaluations.", "The new protocol will be marketed as NR+ (New Radio plus) by the DECT Forum.", "OFDMA and SC-FDMA modulations were also considered by the ESTI DECT committee.OpenD is an open-source framework designed to provide a complete software implementation of DECT ULE protocols on reference hardware from Dialog Semiconductor and DSP Group; the project is maintained by the DECT forum." ], [ "Application", "The DECT standard originally envisaged three major areas of application:* Domestic cordless telephony, using a single base station to connect one or more handsets to the public telecommunications network.", "* Enterprise premises cordless PABXs and wireless LANs, using many base stations for coverage.", "Calls continue as users move between different coverage cells, through a mechanism called handover.", "Calls can be both within the system and to the public telecommunications network.", "* Public access, using large numbers of base stations to provide high capacity building or urban area coverage as part of a public telecommunications network.Of these, the domestic application (cordless home telephones) has been extremely successful.", "The enterprise PABX market, albeit much smaller than the cordless home market, has been very successful as well, and all the major PABX vendors have advanced DECT access options available.", "The public access application did not succeed, since public cellular networks rapidly out-competed DECT by coupling their ubiquitous coverage with large increases in capacity and continuously falling costs.", "There has been only one major installation of DECT for public access: in early 1998 Telecom Italia launched a wide-area DECT network known as \"Fido\" after much regulatory delay, covering major cities in Italy.", "The service was promoted for only a few months and, having peaked at 142,000 subscribers, was shut down in 2001.DECT has been used for wireless local loop as a substitute for copper pairs in the \"last mile\" in countries such as India and South Africa.", "By using directional antennas and sacrificing some traffic capacity, cell coverage could extend to over .", "One example is the corDECT standard.The first data application for DECT was Net3 wireless LAN system by Olivetti, launched in 1993 and discontinued in 1995.A precursor to Wi-Fi, Net3 was a micro-cellular data-only network with fast roaming between base stations and 520 kbit/s transmission rates.Data applications such as electronic cash terminals, traffic lights, and remote door openers also exist, but have been eclipsed by Wi-Fi, 3G and 4G which compete with DECT for both voice and data." ], [ "DECT 6.0", "DECT 6.0 is a North American marketing term for DECT devices manufactured for the United States and Canada operating at 1.9 GHz.", "The \"6.0\" does not equate to a spectrum band; it was decided the term DECT 1.9 might have confused customers who equate larger numbers (such as the 2.4 and 5.8 in existing 2.4 GHz and 5.8 GHz cordless telephones) with later products.", "The term was coined by Rick Krupka, marketing director at Siemens and the DECT USA Working Group / Siemens ICM.In North America, DECT suffers from deficiencies in comparison to DECT elsewhere, since the UPCS band (1920–1930 MHz) is not free from heavy interference.", "Bandwidth is half as wide as that used in Europe (1880–1900 MHz), the 4 mW average transmission power reduces range compared to the 10 mW permitted in Europe, and the commonplace lack of GAP compatibility among US vendors binds customers to a single vendor.Before 1.9 GHz band was approved by the FCC in 2005, DECT could only operate in unlicensed 2.4 GHz and 900 MHz Region 2 ISM bands; some users of Uniden WDECT 2.4 GHz phones reported interoperability issues with Wi-Fi equipment.North-American products may not be used in Europe, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Africa, as they cause and suffer from interference with the local cellular networks.", "Use of such products is prohibited by European Telecommunications Authorities, PTA, Telecommunications Regulatory Commission of Sri Lanka and the Independent Communication Authority of South Africa.", "European DECT products may not be used in the United States and Canada, as they likewise cause and suffer from interference with American and Canadian cellular networks, and use is prohibited by the Federal Communications Commission and Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada.DECT 8.0 HD is a marketing designation for North American DECT devices certified with CAT-iq 2.0 \"Multi Line\" profile." ], [ "NG-DECT/CAT-iq", "Cordless Advanced Technology—internet and quality (CAT-iq) is a certification program maintained by the DECT Forum.", "It is based on New Generation DECT (NG-DECT) series of standards from ETSI.NG-DECT/CAT-iq contains features that expand the generic GAP profile with mandatory support for high quality wideband voice, enhanced security, calling party identification, multiple lines, parallel calls, and similar functions to facilitate VoIP calls through SIP and H.323 protocols.There are several CAT-iq profiles which define supported voice features:* CAT-iq 1.0 \"HD Voice\" (ETSI TS 102 527-1): wideband audio, calling party line and name identification (CLIP/CNAP)* CAT-iq 2.0 \"Multi Line\" (ETSI TS 102 527-3): multiple lines, line name, call waiting, call transfer, phonebook, call list, DTMF tones, headset, settings* CAT-iq 2.1 \"Green\" (ETSI TS 102 527-5): 3-party conference, call intrusion, caller blocking (CLIR), answering machine control, SMS, power-management* CAT-iq Data light data services, software upgrade over the air (SUOTA) (ETSI TS 102 527-4)* CAT-iq IOT Smart Home connectivity (IOT) with DECT Ultra Low Energy (ETSI TS 102 939)CAT-iq allows any DECT handset to communicate with a DECT base from a different vendor, providing full interoperability.", "CAT-iq 2.0/2.1 feature set is designed to support IP-DECT base stations found in office IP-PBX and home gateways." ], [ "Technical features", "The DECT standard specifies a means for a portable phone or \"Portable Part\" to access a fixed telephone network via radio.", "Base station or \"Fixed Part\" is used to terminate the radio link and provide access to a fixed line.", "A gateway is then used to connect calls to the fixed network, such as public switched telephone network (telephone jack), office PBX, ISDN, or VoIP over Ethernet connection.Typical abilities of a domestic DECT Generic Access Profile (GAP) system include multiple handsets to one base station and one phone line socket.", "This allows several cordless telephones to be placed around the house, all operating from the same telephone jack.", "Additional handsets have a battery charger station that does not plug into the telephone system.", "Handsets can in many cases be used as intercoms, communicating between each other, and sometimes as walkie-talkies, intercommunicating without telephone line connection.DECT operates in the 1880–1900 MHz band and defines ten frequency channels from 1881.792 MHz to 1897.344 MHz with a band gap of 1728 kHz.DECT operates as a multicarrier frequency-division multiple access (FDMA) and time-division multiple access (TDMA) system.", "This means that the radio spectrum is divided into physical carriers in two dimensions: frequency and time.", "FDMA access provides up to 10 frequency channels, and TDMA access provides 24 time slots per every frame of 10ms.", "DECT uses time-division duplex (TDD), which means that down- and uplink use the same frequency but different time slots.", "Thus a base station provides 12 duplex speech channels in each frame, with each time slot occupying any available channel thus 10 × 12 = 120 carriers are available, each carrying 32 kbit/s.DECT also provides frequency-hopping spread spectrum over TDMA/TDD structure for ISM band applications.", "If frequency-hopping is avoided, each base station can provide up to 120 channels in the DECT spectrum before frequency reuse.", "Each timeslot can be assigned to a different channel in order to exploit advantages of frequency hopping and to avoid interference from other users in asynchronous fashion.DECT allows interference-free wireless operation to around outdoors.", "Indoor performance is reduced when interior spaces are constrained by walls.DECT performs with fidelity in common congested domestic radio traffic situations.", "It is generally immune to interference from other DECT systems, Wi-Fi networks, video senders, Bluetooth technology, baby monitors and other wireless devices.===Technical properties===DECT pulse duration measurement (100Hz, 10ms) on channel 8ETSI standards documentation ETSI EN 300 175 parts 1–8 (DECT), ETSI EN 300 444 (GAP) and ETSI TS 102 527 parts 1–5 (NG-DECT) prescribe the following technical properties:* Audio codec:** mandatory:*** 32kbit/s G.726 ADPCM (narrow band),*** 64kbit/s G.722 sub-band ADPCM (wideband)** optional:*** 64kbit/s G.711 μ-law/A-law PCM (narrow band),*** 32kbit/s G.729.1 (wideband),*** 32kbit/s MPEG-4 ER AAC-LD (wideband),*** 64kbit/s MPEG-4 ER AAC-LD (super-wideband)* Frequency: the DECT physical layer specifies RF carriers for the frequency ranges 1880 MHz to 1980 MHz and 2010 MHz to 2025 MHz, as well as 902 MHz to 928 MHz and 2400 MHz to 2483,5 MHz ISM band with frequency-hopping for the U.S. market.", "The most common spectrum allocation is 1880 MHz to 1900 MHz; outside Europe, 1900 MHz to 1920 MHz and 1910 MHz to 1930 MHz spectrum is available in several countries.", "** in Europe, as well as South Africa, Asia, Hong Kong, Australia, and New Zealand** in Korea** in Taiwan** (J-DECT) in Japan** in China (until 2003)** in Brazil** in Latin America** (DECT 6.0) in the United States and Canada* Carriers (1.728 MHz spacing):** 10 channels in Europe and Latin America** 8 channels in Taiwan** 5 channels in the US, Brazil, Japan** 3 channels in Korea* Time slots: 2 × 12 (up and down stream)* Channel allocation: dynamic* Average transmission power: 10 mW (250 mW peak) in Europe & Japan, 4 mW (100 mW peak) in the US=== Physical layer ===The DECT physical layer uses FDMA/TDMA access with TDD.Gaussian frequency-shift keying (GFSK) modulation is used: the binary one is coded with a frequency increase by 288 kHz, and the binary zero with frequency decrease of 288 kHz.", "With high quality connections, 2-, 4- or 8-level differential PSK modulation (DBPSK, DQPSK or D8PSK), which is similar to QAM-2, QAM-4 and QAM-8, can be used to transmit 1, 2, or 3 bits per each symbol.", "QAM-16 and QAM-64 modulations with 4 and 6 bits per symbol can be used for user data (B-field) only, with resulting transmission speeds of up to 5,068Mbit/s.DECT provides dynamic channel selection and assignment; the choice of transmission frequency and time slot is always made by the mobile terminal.", "In case of interference in the selected frequency channel, the mobile terminal (possibly from suggestion by the base station) can initiate either intracell handover, selecting another channel/transmitter on the same base, or intercell handover, selecting a different base station altogether.", "For this purpose, DECT devices scan all idle channels at regular 30s intervals to generate a received signal strength indication (RSSI) list.", "When a new channel is required, the mobile terminal (PP) or base station (FP) selects a channel with the minimum interference from the RSSI list.The maximum allowed power for portable equipment as well as base stations is 250 mW.", "A portable device radiates an average of about 10 mW during a call as it is only using one of 24 time slots to transmit.", "In Europe, the power limit was expressed as effective radiated power (ERP), rather than the more commonly used equivalent isotropically radiated power (EIRP), permitting the use of high-gain directional antennas to produce much higher EIRP and hence long ranges.===Data link layer===The DECT media access control layer controls the physical layer and provides connection oriented, connectionless and broadcast services to the higher layers.The DECT data link layer uses Link Access Protocol Control (LAPC), a specially designed variant of the ISDN data link protocol called LAPD.", "They are based on HDLC.GFSK modulation uses a bit rate of 1152 kbit/s, with a frame of 10ms (11520bits) which contains 24 time slots.", "Each slots contains 480 bits, some of which are reserved for physical packets and the rest is guard space.", "Slots 0–11 are always used for downlink (FP to PP) and slots 12–23 are used for uplink (PP to FP).There are several combinations of slots and corresponding types of physical packets with GFSK modulation:* Basic packet (P32) 420 or 424 bits \"full slot\", used for normal speech transmission.", "User data (B-field) contains 320 bits.", "* Low-capacity packet (P00) 96 bits at the beginning of the time slot (\"short slot\").", "This packet only contains 64-bit header (A-field) used as a dummy bearer to broadcast base station identification when idle.", "* Variable capacity packet (P00''j'') 100 + ''j'' or 104 + ''j'' bits, either two half-slots (0 ≤ ''j'' ≤ 136) or \"long slot\" (137 ≤ ''j'' ≤ 856).", "User data (B-field) contains ''j'' bits.", "** P64 (''j'' = 640), P67 (''j'' = 672) \"long slot\", used by NG-DECT/CAT-iq wideband voice and data.", "* High-capacity packet (P80) 900 or 904 bits, \"double slot\".", "This packet uses two time slots and always begins in an even time slot.", "The B-field is increased to 800 bits..The 420/424 bits of a GFSK basic packet (P32) contain the following fields:* 32 bits synchronization code (S-field): constant bit string AAAAE98AH for FP transmission, 55551675H for PP transmission* 388 bits data (D-field), including** 64 bits header (A-field): control traffic in logical channels C, M, N, P, and Q** 320 bits user data (B-field): DECT payload, i.e.", "voice data** 4 bits error-checking (X-field): CRC of the B-field* 4 bits collision detection/channel quality (Z-field): optional, contains a copy of the X-fieldThe resulting full data rate is 32 kbit/s, available in both directions.===Network layer===The DECT network layer always contains the following protocol entities:* Call Control (CC)* Mobility Management (MM)Optionally it may also contain others:* Call Independent Supplementary Services (CISS)* Connection Oriented Message Service (COMS)* Connectionless Message Service (CLMS)All these communicate through a Link Control Entity (LCE).The call control protocol is derived from ISDN DSS1, which is a Q.931-derived protocol.", "Many DECT-specific changes have been made.The mobility management protocol includes the management of identities, authentication, location updating, on-air subscription and key allocation.", "It includes many elements similar to the GSM protocol, but also includes elements unique to DECT.Unlike the GSM protocol, the DECT network specifications do not define cross-linkages between the operation of the entities (for example, Mobility Management and Call Control).", "The architecture presumes that such linkages will be designed into the interworking unit that connects the DECT access network to whatever mobility-enabled fixed network is involved.", "By keeping the entities separate, the handset is capable of responding to any combination of entity traffic, and this creates great flexibility in fixed network design without breaking full interoperability.DECT GAP is an interoperability profile for DECT.", "The intent is that two different products from different manufacturers that both conform not only to the DECT standard, but also to the GAP profile defined within the DECT standard, are able to interoperate for basic calling.", "The DECT standard includes full testing suites for GAP, and GAP products on the market from different manufacturers are in practice interoperable for the basic functions.===Security===The DECT media access control layer includes authentication of handsets to the base station using the DECT Standard Authentication Algorithm (DSAA).", "When registering the handset on the base, both record a shared 128-bit Unique Authentication Key (UAK).", "The base can request authentication by sending two random numbers to the handset, which calculates the response using the shared 128-bit key.", "The handset can also request authentication by sending a 64-bit random number to the base, which chooses a second random number, calculates the response using the shared key, and sends it back with the second random number.The standard also provides encryption services with the DECT Standard Cipher (DSC).", "The encryption is fairly weak, using a 35-bit initialization vector and encrypting the voice stream with 64-bit encryption.", "While most of the DECT standard is publicly available, the part describing the DECT Standard Cipher was only available under a non-disclosure agreement to the phones' manufacturers from ETSI.The properties of the DECT protocol make it hard to intercept a frame, modify it and send it later again, as DECT frames are based on time-division multiplexing and need to be transmitted at a specific point in time.", "Unfortunately very few DECT devices on the market implemented authentication and encryption procedures and even when encryption was used by the phone, it was possible to implement a man-in-the-middle attack impersonating a DECT base station and revert to unencrypted mode which allows calls to be listened to, recorded, and re-routed to a different destination.After an unverified report of a successful attack in 2002, members of the deDECTed.org project actually did reverse engineer the DECT Standard Cipher in 2008, and as of 2010 there has been a viable attack on it that can recover the key.In 2012, an improved authentication algorithm, the DECT Standard Authentication Algorithm 2 (DSAA2), and improved version of the encryption algorithm, the DECT Standard Cipher 2 (DSC2), both based on AES 128-bit encryption, were included as optional in the NG-DECT/CAT-iq suite.DECT Forum also launched the DECT Security certification program which mandates the use of previously optional security features in the GAP profile, such as early encryption and base authentication.===Profiles===Various access profiles have been defined in the DECT standard:* Public Access Profile (PAP) (deprecated)* Generic Access Profile (GAP) ETSI EN 300 444* Cordless Terminal Mobility (CTM) Access Profile (CAP) ETSI EN 300 824* Data access profiles** DECT Packet Radio System (DPRS) ETSI EN 301 649** DECT Multimedia Access Profile (DMAP)** Multimedia in the Local Loop Access Profile (MRAP)** Open Data Access Profile (ODAP)** Radio in the Local Loop (RLL) Access Profile (RAP) ETSI ETS 300 765* Interworking profiles (IWP)** DECT/ISDN Interworking Profile (IIP) ETSI EN 300 434** DECT/GSM Interworking Profile (GIP) ETSI EN 301 242** DECT/UMTS Interworking Profile (UIP) ETSI TS 101 863" ], [ "DECT for data networks", "Other interoperability profiles exist in the DECT suite of standards, and in particular the DPRS (DECT Packet Radio Services) bring together a number of prior interoperability profiles for the use of DECT as a wireless LAN and wireless internet access service.", "With good range (up to indoors and using directional antennae outdoors), dedicated spectrum, high interference immunity, open interoperability and data speeds of around 500 kbit/s, DECT appeared at one time to be a superior alternative to Wi-Fi.", "The protocol capabilities built into the DECT networking protocol standards were particularly good at supporting fast roaming in the public space, between hotspots operated by competing but connected providers.", "The first DECT product to reach the market, Olivetti's Net3, was a wireless LAN, and German firms Dosch & Amand and Hoeft & Wessel built niche businesses on the supply of data transmission systems based on DECT.However, the timing of the availability of DECT, in the mid-1990s, was too early to find wide application for wireless data outside niche industrial applications.", "Whilst contemporary providers of Wi-Fi struggled with the same issues, providers of DECT retreated to the more immediately lucrative market for cordless telephones.", "A key weakness was also the inaccessibility of the U.S. market, due to FCC spectrum restrictions at that time.", "By the time mass applications for wireless Internet had emerged, and the U.S. had opened up to DECT, well into the new century, the industry had moved far ahead in terms of performance and DECT's time as a technically competitive wireless data transport had passed." ], [ "Health and safety", "DECT uses UHF radio, similar to mobile phones, baby monitors, Wi-Fi, and other cordless telephone technologies.In North America, the 4 mW average transmission power reduces range compared to the 10 mW permitted in Europe.The UK Health Protection Agency (HPA) claims that due to a mobile phone's adaptive power ability, a European DECT cordless phone's radiation could actually exceed the radiation of a mobile phone.", "A European DECT cordless phone's radiation has an average output power of 10 mW but is in the form of 100 bursts per second of 250 mW, a strength comparable to some mobile phones.Most studies have been unable to demonstrate any link to health effects, or have been inconclusive.", "Electromagnetic fields may have an effect on protein expression in laboratory settings but have not yet been demonstrated to have clinically significant effects in real-world settings.", "The World Health Organization has issued a statement on medical effects of mobile phones which acknowledges that the longer term effects (over several decades) require further research." ], [ "DECT-2020", "'''DECT-2020''' also called NR+ is a new radio standard by ETSI for the DECT bands worldwide.", "The standard was designed to meet a subset of the ITU IMT-2020 5G requirements that are applicable to IOT and Industrial internet of things.", "DECT-2020 is compliant with the requirements for Ultra Reliable Low Latency Communications URLLC and massive Machine Type Communication (mMTC) of IMT-2020.DECT-2020 NR has new capabilities compared to DECT and DECT Evolution:* Better multipath operation (OFDM Cyclic Prefix)* Better radio sensitivity (OFDM and Turbocodes)* Better resistance to radio interference (co-channel interference rejection)* Better bandwidth utilization* Mesh deploymentThe DECT-2020 standard has been designed to co-exist in the DECT radio band with existing DECT deployments.", "It uses the same Time Division slot timing and Frequency Division center frequencies and uses pre-transmit scanning to minimize co-channel interference.=== Applications ===DECT NR+ (called DECT-2020 NR in ETSI) primarily focuses on addressing the needs of local area deployments for two use case areas: massive Machine Type Communication (mMTC) and Ultra-Reliable Low Latency Communication (URLLC) as defined for 5G networks application areas.", "The release 1 of the standard targets several applications within these use cases, including Smart Metering and Smart grid, Industrial internet of things, Building automation, and Professional audioDECT NR+ decentralized and autonomous networking capability was specifically designed for Metering and Smart Grid applications, and mesh networking application in general.", "The technology can scale up to millions of devices within a single network.The low latency communications URLLC is suitable for various use cases of Industry 4.0.These applications encompass robotics, monitoring and predictive maintenance and others.", "NR+ supports these use cases through its low latency and high reliability, dedicated frequency band, and high density and scalabilityRegarding Professional Audio and PMSE applications, DECT NR+ offers the necessary features of low latency and high reliability.", "This makes it suitable for applications requiring real-time audio transmission and performance as required by professional audio systems.=== DECT-2020 Technology ===DECT NR+ technology is specified by DECT committee in the ETSI.", "The specifications for NR+ are called DECT-2020 in ETSI.==== Co-Existence with Classic DECT ====An important design criteria for NR+ was to co-exist with Classic DECT communications.", "This allows NR+ to use the DECT reserved radio bands 1, 2 and 9, in the frequency range of 1880-1930 MHz.", "DECT reserved radio bands are license free, but devices need to pass certification ensuring correct operation on the bands.==== Topologies ====NR+ supports 3 topologies# Mesh network# Star network# Point-to-Point LinkNR+ Mesh network is based on a clustered tree In all these network topologies the NR+ assumes that a device, called ''FT node'', manages the radio resource usage in the cluster or link it controls.The Point-to-point and star networks enable dedicated links, with reserved capacity for scheduled transmissions.", "A leaf node, called ''PT node'' in NR+, can ask for certain resource reservation for it when it associates to the FT node.", "As this reservation can be done only for the next link, Mesh networking with multiple relaying links in the path relies on random access channel usage where the devices needing to communicate compete for the access window defined by the FT node.", "This increases the communication delays in Mesh.==== Mesh operation ====The benefits of mesh networking network topology and operation are robustness for changes or errors and coverage extension.Robustness is the result of the autonomous decisions of the devices.", "There is no single point of failure.", "NR+ also supports having multiple gateway devices, called ''Sinks'', connecting the NR+ mesh network to Internet.", "All the devices autonomously measure parent FT device's radio link quality, and can switch to another FT device if a better link or shorter route to sink is available.", "Similarly, if a parent device is not acknowledging messages, or is not sending the periodic ''beacon'' advertisement, a device will look for alternative parents.", "The mesh network heals itself in error situations and changes in the network.Each device added to the network may act as a FT device, extending the network coverage.", "The sinks are configured first and start advertising the network in beacon messages.", "Devices scan radio channels, and associate to the parent they hear advertising the network and cluster.", "Associated devices can act as FT devices, and extend the network by selecting a channel with least traffic and start forwarding the network advertisement beacons.", "This extends the coverage for each FT device that joins the network.==== NR+ Protocol Layers ====Overall description of the technology and protocol layers are provided in the DECT-2020 New Radio (NR); Part 1: Overview; Release 1 specification===== Convergence Layer (CVG) =====Convergence layer offers identification and multiplexing of the traffic of different applications and services using the NR+ communications.", "CVG operates end-to-end between the NR+ network nodes.", "It is analogous to ports in UDP or TCP protocol.", "Like UDP and TCP, CVG offers both unrealiable and reliable messaging services, datagram or flow control service and segmentation and reassembly for messages.Convergence layer provides security with encryption and integrity protection of messages end-to-end in the NR+ network.===== Data Link Control Layer (DLC) =====Data link control layer is the message routing service for NR+ networks.", "Routing decisions are done in each device in the network, there is no central routing table.", "DLC routing operates in 3 modes:# Uplink routing, to sink device: each node forwards message to parent# Downlink routing: from sink to FT or PT device in the network.", "Messages are forwarded to each FT device in the network until the destination device's parent device can deliver the message to the destination device.# Horizontal routing, between devices in the network with hop limited floodingUnicast, multicast and broadcast routing is supported.As the NR+ network has internal routing and addresses it can operate without Internet Protocol routing services.", "Internet protocols can be carried in NR+ networks.===== Medium Access Control layer (MAC) =====Medium access control main services are radio resource control and data transfer.Radio resource control ensures the #Co-Existence with Classic DECT.", "To do this, FT devices periodically scan the radio channel they operate on, and map ''busy'' time slots measured to be in use assuming it is an on-going Classic DECT connection.", "FT devices allocate the channel access time for the child devices on ''free'' time slots, preserving error free communications on the ''busy'' slots time slots.", "Channel access allocations are sent in beacon messages to all devices in the cluster.MAC layer also provides link scope encryption and integrity protection.===== Physical Layer (PHY) =====Physical layer uses Cyclic prefix version of OFDM as the core technology.", "The technologies provide well-known behaviour in challenging radio conditions.PHY layer provides error detection to higher layers, Forward error correction and HARQ with soft combining.", "Received messages with errors are combined with re-transmissions, making it possible to decode correct message even if the re-transmission too contained errors.NR+ radio can operate on frequencies below 6 GHz.", "Standard defined speeds are up to gigabits per second.", "Radio implementations of course vary in the speeds achieved and frequencies supported.==== Security ====NR+ defines message encryption and integrity protection in both CVG and MAC layers.", "Encryption and integrity protection use own separate keys on the 2 layers.", "The encryption is security is based on AES with key length of 128 bits.", "Integrity protection is based on same algorithm and key lengthNR+ does not define the key distribution mechanism \"the number of key-pairs and the key distribution is outside of the scope of the present document\" although it has been studied=== Future DECT-2020 work in ETSI ===The DECT technical committee has started specification work for Release 2 of the standard in June 2023." ], [ "See also", "* Unlicensed Personal Communications Services* GSM Interworking Profile (GIP)* IP-DECT* CT2 (DECT's predecessor in Europe)* Net3* CorDECT* WDECT* Unlicensed Personal Communications Services* Microcell* Wireless local loop" ], [ "References" ], [ "Standards", "; ETSI EN 300 175 V2.9.1 (2022-03).", "Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT) Common Interface (CI):* * * * * * * * ;ETSI TS 103 636 v1.4.1 (2023-03).", "DECT-2020 New Radio (NR):* * * * * ;Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT):* * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * Technical Report: Multicell Networks based on DECT and CAT-iq .", "Dosch & Amand Research" ], [ "External links", "* DECT Forum at dect.org* DECT information at ETSI* DECTWeb.com* Open source implementation of a DECT stack" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dhyana" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dhyana''' may refer to:" ], [ "Meditative practices in Indian religions", "* Dhyana in Buddhism (Pāli: ''jhāna'')* Dhyana in Hinduism* Jain Dhyāna, see Jain meditation" ], [ "Other", "*''Dhyana'', a work by British composer John Tavener (1944-2013)*''Dhyana'' (MaYaN album), 2018*Hygon Dhyana, a x86 compatible microprocessor" ], [ "See also", "*Chan (disambiguation), Chinese Buddhist school from ''dhyana'' in Sanskrit*Zen (disambiguation), Japanese Buddhist school deriving from Chan*Dhyan, an Indian actor" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "December 30" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "=== Pre-1600 ===*534 – The second and final edition of the Code of Justinian comes into effect in the Byzantine Empire.", "*999 – Battle of Glenmama: The combined forces of Munster and Meath under king Brian Boru inflict a crushing defeat on the allied armies of Leinster and Dublin near Lyons Hill in Ireland.", "*1066 – Granada massacre: A Muslim mob storms the royal palace in Granada, crucifies Jewish vizier Joseph ibn Naghrela and massacres most of the Jewish population of the city.", "*1419 – Hundred Years' War: Battle of La Rochelle.", "*1460 – Wars of the Roses: Lancastrians kill the 3rd Duke of York and win the Battle of Wakefield.===1601–1900===*1702 – Queen Anne's War: James Moore, Governor of the Province of Carolina, abandons the Siege of St.", "Augustine.", "*1813 – War of 1812: British soldiers burn Buffalo, New York.", "*1816 – The Treaty of St. Louis between the United States and the united Ottawa, Ojibwa, and Potawatomi Indian tribes is proclaimed.", "*1825 – The Treaty of St. Louis between the United States and the Shawnee Nation is proclaimed.", "*1853 – Gadsden Purchase: The United States buys land from Mexico to facilitate railroad building in the Southwest.", "*1890 – Following the Wounded Knee Massacre, the United States Army and Lakota warriors face off in the Drexel Mission Fight.", "*1896 – Filipino patriot and reform advocate José Rizal is executed by a Spanish firing squad in Manila.", "* 1896 – Canadian ice hockey player Ernie McLea scores the first hat-trick in Stanley Cup play, and the Cup-winning goal as the Montreal Victorias defeat the Winnipeg Victorias 6–5.", "*1897 – The British Colony of Natal annexes Zululand.===1901–present===*1902 – The Discovery Expedition under Robert Falcon Scott attained a Farthest South at 82°17′S in Antarctica.", "*1903 – A fire at the Iroquois Theater in Chicago, Illinois kills at least 605.", "*1905 – Former Idaho Governor Frank Steunenberg is assassinated at the front gate of his home in Caldwell.", "*1906 – The All-India Muslim League is founded in Dacca, East Bengal, British India (later Dhaka, Bangladesh).", "*1916 – Russian mystic and advisor to the Tsar Grigori Yefimovich Rasputin is murdered by a loyalist group led by Prince Felix Yusupov.", "His frozen, partially-trussed body was discovered in a Petrograd river three days later.", "* 1916 – The last coronation in Hungary is performed for King Charles IV and Queen Zita.", "*1922 – The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) is formed.", "*1927 – The Ginza Line, the first subway line in Asia, opens in Tokyo, Japan.", "*1935 – The Italian Air Force bombs a Swedish Red Cross hospital during the Second Italo-Abyssinian War.", "*1936 – The Flint sit-down strike hits General Motors.", "*1943 – Subhas Chandra Bose raises the flag of Indian independence at Port Blair.", "*1944 – King George II of Greece declares a regency, leaving the throne vacant.", "*1947 – Cold War: King Michael I of Romania is forced to abdicate by the Soviet Union-backed Communist government of Romania.", "*1952 – An RAF Avro Lancaster bomber crashes in Luqa, Malta after an engine failure, killing three crew members and a civilian on the ground.", "*1954 – The Finnish National Bureau of Investigation is established to consolidate criminal investigation and intelligence into a single agency.", "*1958 – The Guatemalan Air Force sinks several Mexican fishing boats alleged to have breached maritime borders, killing three and sparking international tension.", "*1967 – Aeroflot Flight L-51 crashes near Liepāja International Airport in Liepāja, Latvia, killing 43.", "*1972 – Vietnam War: Operation Linebacker II ends.", "*1987 – Stella Sigcau, Prime minister of the South African Bantustan of Transkei, is ousted from power in a bloodless military coup led by General Bantu Holomisa.", "*1993 – Israel establishes diplomatic relations with Vatican City and also upgrades to full diplomatic relations with Ireland.", "*1996 – Proposed budget cuts by Benjamin Netanyahu spark protests from 250,000 workers who shut down services across Israel.", "*1997 – In the worst incident in Algeria's insurgency, the Wilaya of Relizane massacres, 400 people from four villages are killed.", "*2000 – Rizal Day bombings: A series of bombs explode in various places in Metro Manila, Philippines within a period of a few hours, killing 22 and injuring about a hundred.", "*2004 – A fire in the República Cromagnon nightclub in Buenos Aires, Argentina, kills 194.", "*2005 – Tropical Storm Zeta forms in the open Atlantic Ocean, tying the record for the latest tropical cyclone ever to form in the North Atlantic basin.", "*2006 – Madrid–Barajas Airport is bombed.", "* 2006 – The Indonesian passenger ferry sinks in a storm, resulting in at least 400 deaths.", "* 2006 – Former President of Iraq Saddam Hussein is executed.", "*2009 – A segment of the Lanzhou–Zhengzhou–Changsha pipeline ruptures in Shaanxi, China, and approximately of diesel oil flows down the Wei River before finally reaching the Yellow River.", "* 2009 – A suicide bomber kills nine people at Forward Operating Base Chapman, a key facility of the Central Intelligence Agency in Afghanistan.", "*2013 – More than 100 people are killed when anti-government forces attack key buildings in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo." ], [ "Births", "=== Pre–1600 ===*AD 39 – Titus, Roman emperor (probable; d. 81)* 159 – Empress Dowager Bian, second wife of Cao Cao, mother of Cao Wei's first emperor, Cao Pi (d. 230)*1204 – Abû 'Uthmân Sa'îd ibn Hakam al Qurashi, ruler of Minorca (d. 1282)*1371 – Vasily I of Moscow (d. 1425)*1490 – Ebussuud Efendi, Ottoman lawyer and jurist (d. 1574)*1548 – David Pareus, German theologian (d. 1622)*1578 – Ulrik of Denmark, Danish prince-bishop (d. 1624)===1601–1900===*1642 – Vincenzo da Filicaja, Italian poet (d. 1707)*1673 – Ahmed III, Ottoman sultan (d. 1736)*1678 – William Croft, English organist and composer (d. 1727)*1722 – Charles Yorke, English lawyer and politician, Lord Chancellor of Great Britain (d. 1770)*1724 – Louis-Jean-François Lagrenée, French painter and educator (d. 1805)*1757 – Sebastián Kindelán y O'Regan, colonial governor of East Florida, Santo Domingo and Cuba (d. 1826)*1760 – Charles Sapinaud de La Rairie, French general (d. 1829)*1792 – Sylvester Jordan, German lawyer and politician (d. 1861)*1819 – Theodor Fontane, German author and poet (d. 1898)* 1819 – John W. Geary, American lawyer and politician, 16th Governor of Pennsylvania (d. 1873)*1825 – Samuel Newitt Wood, American lawyer and politician (d. 1891)*1842 – Osman Hamdi Bey, Ottoman administrator, intellectual, art expert and painter (d. 1910)*1849 – John Milne, English seismologist and geologist (d. 1913)*1851 – Asa Griggs Candler, American businessman and politician, 44th Mayor of Atlanta (d. 1929)*1853 – André Messager, French pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1929)*1857 – Sylvio Lazzari, French-Austrian composer (d. 1944)*1865 – Rudyard Kipling, Indian-English author and poet, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1936)*1869 – Stephen Leacock, English-Canadian political scientist and author (d. 1944)* 1869 – Ōzutsu Man'emon, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 18th Yokozuna (d. 1918)*1873 – Al Smith, American lawyer and politician, 42nd Governor of New York (d. 1944)*1878 – William Aberhart, Canadian evangelist and politician, seventh Premier of Alberta (d. 1943)*1879 – Ramana Maharshi, Indian guru and philosopher (d. 1950)*1883 – Archer Baldwin, American-English farmer and politician (d. 1966)* 1883 – Lester Patrick, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 1960)*1884 – Hideki Tōjō, Japanese general and politician, 40th Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1948)*1886 – Austin Osman Spare, English artist and occultist (d. 1956)*1887 – William Kolehmainen, Finnish-American runner and coach (d. 1967)* 1887 – K. M. Munshi, Indian politician, writer and educationist, founder of Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan (d. 1971)*1890 – Adolfo Ruiz Cortines, Mexican soldier and politician, 47th President of Mexico (d. 1973)*1897 – Alfredo Bracchi, Italian songwriter and screenwriter (d. 1976)*1899 – Helge Ingstad, Norwegian explorer, lawyer, and politician, 2nd Governor of Svalbard (d. 2001)===1901–present===*1904 – Dmitry Kabalevsky, Russian composer and academic (d. 1987)*1905 – Daniil Kharms, Russian poet, author, and playwright (d. 1942)*1906 – Alziro Bergonzo, Italian architect and painter (d. 1997)* 1906 – Carol Reed, English director and producer (d. 1976)*1910 – Paul Bowles, American composer and author (d. 1999)*1911 – Jeanette Nolan, American actress (d. 1998)*1913 – Lucio Agostini, Italian-Canadian conductor and composer (d. 1996)* 1913 – Elyne Mitchell, Australian author (d. 2002)*1914 – Bert Parks, American actor, singer, television personality, and beauty pageant host (d. 1992)*1917 – Seymour Melman, American engineer and author (d. 2004)*1919 – Dick Spooner, English cricketer (d. 1997)* 1919 – David Willcocks, English organist, composer, and conductor (d. 2015)*1921 – Rashid Karami, Lebanese lawyer and politician, 32nd Prime Minister of Lebanon (d. 1987)*1922 – Jane Langton, American author and illustrator (d. 2018)*1923 – Prakash Vir Shastri, Indian academic and politician (d. 1977)*1924 – Yvonne Brill, Canadian-American propulsion engineer (d. 2013)*1925 – Ian MacNaughton, Scottish actor, producer, and director (d. 2002)*1926 – Stan Tracey, English pianist and composer (d. 2013)*1927 – Jan Kubíček, Czech painter and sculptor (d. 2013)*1928 – Bo Diddley, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2008)*1929 – Rosalinde Hurley, English physician, microbiologist, and academic (d. 2004)*1930 – Roy Yorke Calne, English surgeon and academic (d. 2024)* 1930 – Elmira Minita Gordon, Belizean educator, 1st Governor-General of Belize (d. 2021)* 1930 – Red Rhodes, American pedal steel guitarist (d. 1995)* 1930 – Tu Youyou, Chinese chemist and pharmacist, Nobel Prize laureate*1931 – Skeeter Davis, American singer-songwriter (d. 2004)* 1931 – John T. Houghton, Welsh physicist and author (d. 2020)* 1931 – Frank Torre, American baseball player and manager (d. 2014)*1933 – Timité Bassori, Ivorian filmmaker, actor, and writer*1934 – John N. Bahcall, American astrophysicist and astronomer, co-developed the Hubble Space Telescope (d. 2005)* 1934 – Joseph Bologna, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2017)* 1934 – Barry Briggs, New Zealand motorcycle racer and sportscaster* 1934 – Joseph P. Hoar, American general* 1934 – Del Shannon, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1990)* 1934 – Russ Tamblyn, American actor*1935 – Omar Bongo, Gabonese lieutenant and politician, President of Gabon (d. 2009)* 1935 – Sandy Koufax, American baseball player and sportscaster* 1935 – Jack Riley, American actor (d. 2016)*1937 – Gordon Banks, English footballer and manager (d. 2019)* 1937 – John Hartford, American singer-songwriter and fiddler (d. 2001)* 1937 – Jim Marshall, American football player* 1937 – Paul Stookey, American singer-songwriter and guitarist *1938 – Ron Wolf, American Football Hall of Fame General Manager*1939 – Glenda Adams, Australian author and academic (d. 2007)* 1939 – Felix Pappalardi, American singer-songwriter, bass player, and producer (d. 1983)*1940 – James Burrows, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter*1941 – Mel Renfro, American football player and coach*1942 – Vladimir Bukovsky, Russian author and activist (d. 2019)* 1942 – Guy Edwards, English race car driver* 1942 – Michael Nesmith, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor (d. 2021) * 1942 – Janko Prunk, Slovenian historian, academic, and politician* 1942 – Robert Quine, American guitarist (d. 2004)* 1942 – Toomas Savi, Estonian physician and politician* 1942 – Fred Ward, American actor (d. 2022) *1944 – William J. Fallon, American admiral* 1944 – Joseph Hilbe, American mathematician and philosopher (d. 2017)*1945 – Davy Jones, English singer-songwriter and actor (d. 2012)* 1945 – Lloyd Kaufman, American director, producer, and screenwriter, co-founded Troma Entertainment* 1945 – Paola Pigni, Italian runner (d. 2021)* 1945 – Concetta Tomei, American actress*1946 – Clive Bunker, English drummer and songwriter * 1946 – Patti Smith, American singer-songwriter and poet* 1946 – Berti Vogts, German footballer and coach*1947 – James Kahn, American author, screenwriter, and producer* 1947 – Jeff Lynne, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer * 1947 – Steve Mix, American basketball player and coach*1948 – Jed Johnson, American interior designer and director (d. 1996)*1949 – David Bedford, English runner* 1949 – Jerry Coyne, American biologist and author* 1949 – Jim Flaherty, Canadian lawyer and politician, 37th Canadian Minister of Finance (d. 2014)*1950 – Timothy Mo, Chinese-English author* 1950 – Lewis Shiner, American journalist and author* 1950 – Bjarne Stroustrup, Danish computer scientist, created the C++ programming language* 1950 – Martti Vainio, Finnish runner*1951 – Doug Allder, English footballer and coach* 1951 – Chris Jasper, American musician, singer-songwriter, and producer* 1951 – Nick Rose, English runner*1952 – June Anderson, American soprano and actress*1953 – Daniel T. Barry, American engineer and astronaut* 1953 – Dana Key, American singer, guitarist, and producer (d. 2010)* 1953 – Graham Vick, English director and producer* 1953 – Meredith Vieira, American journalist and game show host*1954 – Barry Greenstein, American poker player and philanthropist*1956 – Ingus Baušķenieks, Latvian singer-songwriter and producer * 1956 – Suzy Bogguss, American country singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1956 – Patricia Kalember, American actress* 1956 – Sheryl Lee Ralph, American actress and singer*1957 – Matt Lauer, American journalist and television host*1958 – Pedro Costa, Portuguese director, screenwriter, and cinematographer* 1958 – Steven Smith, American engineer and astronaut*1959 – Antonio Pappano, English pianist and conductor* 1959 – Kåre Thomsen, Norwegian guitarist and graphic designer* 1959 – Tracey Ullman, English-American actress, singer, director, and screenwriter* 1959 – Josée Verner, Canadian politician, 8th Canadian Minister of Intergovernmental Affairs*1960 – Richard M. Durbin, English biologist and academic*1961 – Douglas Coupland, German-Canadian author and playwright* 1961 – Bill English, New Zealand farmer and politician, 39th Prime Minister of New Zealand* 1961 – Sean Hannity, American radio and television host* 1961 – Ben Johnson, Jamaican-Canadian sprinter* 1961 – Charlie Nicholas, Scottish footballer and sportscaster*1963 – Chandler Burr, American journalist and author* 1963 – George Newbern, American actor* 1963 – Mike Pompeo, American diplomat and politician; 70th United States Secretary of State* 1963 – Johnny Rogers, American-Spanish basketball player* 1963 – Milan Šrejber, Czech tennis player*1964 – Almir Kayumov, Russian footballer and referee (d. 2013)* 1964 – Sylvie Moreau, Canadian actress and screenwriter* 1964 – George Newbern, American actor*1965 – Heidi Fleiss, American procurer *1966 – Gary Chartier, American philosopher, scholar, and academic* 1966 – Bennett Miller, American director and producer*1967 – Carl Ouellet, Canadian wrestler and sportscaster*1968 – Bryan Burk, American screenwriter and producer* 1968 – Adam Dale, Australian cricketer* 1968 – Sandra Glover, American hurdler* 1968 – Albano Mucci, Australian activist*1969 – Emmanuel Clérico, French race car driver* 1969 – Dave England, American snowboarder and stuntman* 1969 – Jay Kay, English singer and songwriter* 1969 – Kersti Kaljulaid, President of Estonia* 1969 – Michelle McGann, American golfer* 1969 – Meredith Monroe, American actress*1971 – Sister Bliss, English keyboard player, songwriter, and producer * 1971 – C. S. Lee, Korean-American actor* 1971 – Ricardo, Spanish footballer and manager* 1971 – Daniel Sunjata, American actor*1972 – Daniel Amokachi, Nigerian footballer and manager * 1972 – Maureen Flannigan, American actress and producer* 1972 – Paul Keegan, Irish footballer* 1972 – Dita Indah Sari, Indonesian trade union leader and activist* 1972 – Steven Wiig, American actor and drummer *1973 – Jason Behr, American actor* 1973 – Ato Boldon, Trinidadian runner, sportscaster, and politician*1974 – Alexandro Alves do Nascimento, Brazilian footballer (d. 2012)*1975 – Scott Chipperfield, Australian footballer* 1975 – Tiger Woods, American golfer*1976 – Kastro, American rapper * 1976 – Patrick Kerney, American football player* 1976 – A. J. Pierzynski, American baseball player and sportscaster*1977 – Laila Ali, American boxer and actress* 1977 – Glory Alozie, Nigerian-Spanish sprinter and hurdler* 1977 – Grant Balfour, Australian baseball player* 1977 – Saša Ilić, Serbian footballer* 1977 – Kenyon Martin, American basketball player* 1977 – Lucy Punch, English actress* 1977 – Kazuyuki Toda, Japanese footballer*1978 – Devin Brown, American basketball player* 1978 – Tyrese Gibson, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actor* 1978 – Phillips Idowu, English triple jumper* 1978 – Zbigniew Robert Promiński, Polish drummer * 1978 – Rob Scuderi, American ice hockey player*1979 – Michael Grimm, American singer-songwriter and guitarist*1980 – Eliza Dushku, American actress and producer* 1980 – D. J. Mbenga, Congolese-Belgian basketball player* 1980 – Alison McGovern, British politician*1981 – Ali Al-Habsi, Omani footballer* 1981 – Cédric Carrasso, French footballer* 1981 – Michael Rodríguez, Costa Rican footballer* 1981 – Matt Ulrich, American football player*1982 – Kristin Kreuk, Canadian actress * 1982 – Tobias Kurbjuweit, German footballer* 1982 – Dawan Landry, American football player*1983 – Eddie Edwards, American professional wrestler* 1983 – Nick Symmonds, American runner* 1983 – Kevin Systrom, American computer programmer and businessman, co-founded Instagram*1984 – Randall Azofeifa, Costa Rican footballer* 1984 – Andra Day, American singer and songwriter* 1984 – LeBron James, American basketball player, producer and businessman*1985 – Lars Boom, Dutch cyclist* 1985 – Bryson Goodwin, Australian rugby league player* 1985 – Anna Wood, American actress*1986 – Domenico Criscito, Italian footballer* 1986 – Ellie Goulding, English singer-songwriter and producer* 1986 – Caity Lotz, American actress* 1986 – Jeff Ward, American actor* 1986 – Gianni Zuiverloon, Dutch footballer*1987 – Jakub Nakládal, Czech ice hockey player*1989 – Tyler Anderson, American baseball player* 1989 – Yoon Bo-ra, South Korean singer, rapper and actress* 1989 – Ryan Sheckler, American skateboarder and entrepreneur* 1989 – Kateřina Vaňková, Czech tennis player*1990 – Bruno Henrique, Brazilian footballer* 1990 – Joe Root, English cricketer* 1990 – C. J. Wilcox, American basketball player*1991 – Camila Giorgi, Italian tennis player*1992 – Ryan Tunnicliffe, English footballer* 1992 – Carson Wentz, American football player*1995 – Igor Shesterkin, Russian hockey goaltender* 1995 – V, South Korean singer" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 274 – Pope Felix I* 717 – Egwin of Evesham, bishop of Worcester* 903 – Tian Jun, Chinese warlord (b.", "858)* 925 – Wang Shenzhi, founder of Min (b.", "862)*1115 – Theodoric II, Duke of Lorraine *1331 – Bernard Gui, inquisitor (b.", "1261 or 1262)*1435 – Bonne of Berry, Regent of Savoy (b.", "1362)*1436 – Louis III, Elector Palatine (b.", "1378)*1460 – Edmund, Earl of Rutland, Irish politician, Lord Chancellor of Ireland (b.", "1443)* 1460 – Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York (b.", "1411)*1525 – Jakob Fugger, German banker and businessman (b.", "1459)*1572 – Galeazzo Alessi, Italian architect, designed the Basilica of Santa Maria degli Angeli (b.", "1512)*1573 – Giovanni Battista Giraldi, Italian author and poet (b.", "1504)*1591 – Pope Innocent IX (b.", "1519)===1601–1900===*1606 – Heinrich Bünting, German priest and cartographer (b.", "1545)*1621 – Job of Manyava, Ukrainian monk and saint (b.", "1550)*1640 – John Francis Regis, French priest and saint (b.", "1597)*1643 – Giovanni Baglione, Italian painter and historian of art (b.", "1566)*1644 – Jan Baptist van Helmont, Flemish chemist, physiologist, and physician (b.", "1577)*1662 – Ferdinand Charles, Archduke of Austria (b.", "1628)*1769 – Nicholas Taaffe, 6th Viscount Taaffe, Irish-Austrian soldier and courtier (b.", "1685)*1777 – Maximilian III Joseph, Elector of Bavaria (b.", "1727)*1788 – Francesco Zuccarelli, Italian painter and academic (b.", "1702)*1803 – Francis Lewis, Welsh-American merchant and politician (b.", "1713)*1879 – Manuel de Araújo Porto-Alegre, Baron of Santo Ângelo, Brazilian poet and painter (b.", "1806)*1885 – Martha Darley Mutrie, British painter (b.", "1824)*1896 – José Rizal, Filipino ophthalmologist, journalist, and author (b.", "1861)===1901–present===*1906 – Josephine Butler, English feminist and social reformer (b.", "1828)*1908 – Thomas-Alfred Bernier, Canadian journalist, lawyer, and politician (b.", "1844)*1916 – Grigori Rasputin, Russian mystic (b.", "1869)*1928 – Jean Collas, French rugby player and tug of war competitor (b.", "1874)*1937 – Hans Niels Andersen, Danish businessman, founded the East Asiatic Company (b.", "1852)*1940 – Childe Wills, American engineer (b.", "1878)*1941 – El Lissitzky, Russian photographer and architect (b.", "1890)*1944 – Romain Rolland, French author and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1866)*1945 – Song Jin-woo, South Korean journalist and politician (b.", "1889)*1947 – Han van Meegeren, Dutch painter (b.", "1889)* 1947 – Alfred North Whitehead, English-American mathematician and philosopher (b.", "1861)*1954 – Archduke Eugen of Austria (b.", "1863)*1955 – Rex Ingamells, Australian poet and author (b.", "1913)*1967 – Vincent Massey, Canadian lawyer and politician, 18th Governor General of Canada (b.", "1887)*1968 – Trygve Lie, Norwegian journalist and politician, first Secretary-General of the United Nations (b.", "1896)*1970 – Sonny Liston, American boxer (b.", "1932)*1971 – Jo Cals, Dutch lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of the Netherlands (b.", "1914)* 1971 – Vikram Sarabhai, Indian physicist and academic (b.", "1919)*1979 – Richard Rodgers, American playwright and composer (b.", "1902)*1982 – Alberto Vargas, Peruvian-American painter and illustrator (b.", "1896)*1983 – Violette Cordery, English race car driver (b.", "1900)*1986 – Era Bell Thompson, American journalist (b.", "1905)*1988 – Yuli Daniel, Russian author and poet (b.", "1925)* 1988 – Isamu Noguchi, American sculptor and landscaper (b.", "1904)*1990 – Raghuvir Sahay, Indian author, poet, and critic (b.", "1929)*1992 – Romeo Muller, American actor, screenwriter, for screenplays like the 1964, Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer (TV special) (b.", "1928)*1993 – İhsan Sabri Çağlayangil, Turkish lawyer and politician, 20th Turkish Minister of Foreign Affairs (b.", "1908)* 1993 – Irving \"Swifty\" Lazar, American talent agent (b.", "1907)* 1993 – Giuseppe Occhialini, Italian-French physicist and academic (b.", "1907)*1994 – Dmitri Ivanenko, Ukrainian-Russian physicist and academic (b.", "1904)*1995 – Ralph Flanagan, American pianist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1914)* 1995 – Doris Grau, American voice actor and script supervisor (b.", "1924)*1996 – Lew Ayres, American actor (b.", "1908)*1997 – Shinichi Hoshi, Japanese author and illustrator (b.", "1926)*1998 – Sam Muchnick, American wrestling promoter, co-founded the National Wrestling Alliance (b.", "1905)*1999 – Joff Ellen, Australian comedian and actor (b.", "1915)* 1999 – Fritz Leonhardt, German engineer, co-designed the Cologne Rodenkirchen Bridge and Fernsehturm Stuttgart (b.", "1909)* 1999 – Des Renford, Australian swimmer (b.", "1927)* 1999 – Sarah Knauss, American supercentenarian (b.", "1880)*2000 – Julius J. Epstein, American screenwriter and producer (b.", "1909)*2002 – Mary Brian, American actress (b.", "1906)* 2002 – Eleanor J. Gibson, American psychologist and academic (b.", "1910)* 2002 – Mary Wesley, English author (b.", "1912)*2003 – John Gregory Dunne, American novelist, screenwriter, and critic (b.", "1932)*2004 – Artie Shaw, American clarinet player, composer, and bandleader (b.", "1910)*2005 – Eddie Barlow, South African cricketer and coach (b.", "1940)* 2005 – Rona Jaffe, American novelist (b.", "1932)*2006 – Saddam Hussein, Iraqi general and politician, fifth President of Iraq (b.", "1937)* 2006 – Terry Peck, Falkland Islander police officer and spy (b.", "1938)* 2006 – Michel Plasse, Canadian ice hockey player (b.", "1948)*2009 – Rowland S. Howard, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1959)* 2009 – Abdurrahman Wahid, Indonesian journalist and politician, fourth President of Indonesia (b.", "1940)*2010 – Bobby Farrell, Dutch dancer and performer from Aruba (b.", "1949)*2011 – Ronald Searle, English-French cartoonist (b.", "1920)*2012 – Philip Coppens, Belgian-American journalist and author (b.", "1971)* 2012 – Beate Sirota Gordon, Austrian-American director and producer (b.", "1923)* 2012 – Rita Levi-Montalcini, Italian neurologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1909)* 2012 – Carl Woese, American microbiologist and biophysicist (b.", "1928)* 2012 – Dennis Ferguson, Australian sex offender (b.", "1948)*2013 – Kinnaird R. McKee, American admiral (b.", "1929)* 2013 – José María Maguregui, Spanish footballer and manager (b.", "1934)* 2013 – Eiichi Ohtaki, Japanese singer-songwriter and producer (b.", "1948)* 2013 – Johnny Orr, American basketball player and coach (b.", "1927)* 2013 – Paul Sally, American mathematician and academic (b.", "1933)*2014 – Terry Becker, American actor, director, and producer (b.", "1921)* 2014 – Jim Galloway, Scottish-Canadian clarinet player and saxophonist (b.", "1936)* 2014 – Luise Rainer, German-born American-British actress (b.", "1910)*2015 – Doug Atkins, American football player (b.", "1930)* 2015 – Howard Davis, Jr., American boxer and trainer (b.", "1956)* 2015 – Mangesh Padgaonkar, Indian poet, playwright, and translator (b.", "1929)* 2015 – Howard Pawley, Canadian lawyer and politician, 18th Premier of Manitoba (b.", "1934)*2017 – Erica Garner, American civil rights activist (b.", "1990)*2020 – Dawn Wells, American actress, (b.", "1938)*2022 – Barbara Walters, American journalist, producer, and author (b.", "1929)*2023 – Tom Wilkinson, English actor (b.", "1948)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Christian feast day:**Abraham the Writer**Anysia of Salonika**Egwin of Evesham**Frances Joseph-Gaudet (Episcopal Church) **Liberius of Ravenna**Pope Felix I**Ralph of Vaucelles**Roger of Cannae**December 30 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Day of the Declaration of Slovakia as an Independent Ecclesiastic Province (Slovakia)*Rizal Day (Philippines)*The fifth day of Kwanzaa (United States)*The sixth of the Twelve Days of Christmas (Western Christianity)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on December 30" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Donn" ], [ "Introduction", "Bull Rock, off the southwest coast of Ireland, is often identified with Teach Duinn (the House of Donn)In Irish mythology, '''Donn''' (\"the dark one\", from ) is an ancestor of the Gaels and is believed to have been a god of the dead.", "Donn is said to dwell in '''Tech Duinn''' (the \"house of Donn\" or \"house of the dark one\"), where the souls of the dead gather.", "He may have originally been an aspect of the Dagda.", "Folklore about Donn survived into the modern era in parts of Ireland, in which he is said to be a phantom horseman riding a white horse." ], [ "Early literary sources", "A 9th-century poem says that Donn's dying wish was that all his descendants would gather at Donn's house or ''Tech Duinn'' (modern Irish ''Teach Duinn'') after death: \"To me, to my house, you shall all come after your deaths\".", "The 10th-century tale ''Airne Fíngein'' (\"Fíngen's Vigil\") says that Tech Duinn is where the souls of the dead gather.", "In their translation of ''Acallam na Senórach'', Ann Dooley and Harry Roe commented that \"to go to the House of Donn in Irish tradition means to die\".", "This suggests that the pagan Gaels saw Donn as their ancestor and believed they would go to his abode when they died.", "Tech Duinn may have been thought of as a place where the souls of the dead gathered before travelling to their final destination in the otherworld, or before being reincarnated.", "According to Julius Caesar, the Gauls also claimed descent from a god whom he likened to Dīs Pater, the Roman god of the underworld.The Christian writers who recorded the ''Lebor Gabála Érenn'' made Donn into Éber Donn one of the mythical Milesian ancestors of the Gaels.", "The Milesians invade Ireland and take it from the Tuatha Dé Danann.", "During their invasion, Donn slights Ériu, one of the eponymous goddesses of Ireland, and he drowns in a shipwreck off the southwest coast.", "Donn is then buried on a rocky island which becomes known as Tech Duinn.", "In the literature, Tech Duinn is said to lie at or beyond the western edge of Ireland.", "Tech Duinn is commonly identified with Bull Rock, an islet off the western tip of the Beara Peninsula.", "Bull Rock resembles a dolmen or portal tomb as it has a natural tunnel through it, allowing the sea to pass under it as if through a portal.", "In Ireland there was a belief that the souls of the dead departed westwards over the sea with the setting sun.The ''Metrical Dindshenchas'' entry for “Tech Duinn” recounts the tale:Through the incantations of the druids a storm came upon them, and the ship wherein Donn was foundered.", "‘Let his body be carried to yonder high rock’, says Amairgen: ‘his folk shall come to this spot.’ So hence it is called Tech Duinn: and for this cause, according to the heathen, the souls of sinners visit Tech Duinn before they go to hell, and give their blessing, ere they go, to the soul of Donn.", "But as for the righteous soul of a penitent, it beholds the place from afar, and is not borne astray.", "Such, at least, is the belief of the heathen.", "– Translation by E. Gwynn''In the tale ''Togail Bruidne Dá Derga'' (\"The Destruction of Dá Derga's Hostel\"), king Conaire Mór meets his death in Bruiden Dá Derga (the \"great hall or hostel of the red god\").", "On his way to the hostel, Conaire meets three red men riding red horses from the otherworld.", "They foretell his doom and tell him \"we ride the horses of Donn ... although we are alive, we are dead\".", "Donn is called \"king of the dead\" in the tale.", "It has been suggested that Dá Derga and Dá Derga's Hostel is another name for Donn and his abode.", "It may be a name for the death god in the context of violent death or sacrifice, hence the name \"red god\".In the tale ''Tochmarc Treblainne'' (\"The Wooing of Treblann\"), the otherworld woman Treblann elopes with the mortal man Fráech, who sends her to safety in Tech Duinn while he embarks on a quest.", "In this tale, Donn is said to be the son or foster-son of the Dagda.", "Dáithí Ó hÓgáin notes similarities between the two and suggests that Donn was originally an epithet of the Dagda.Donn is the father of Diarmuid Ua Duibhne, whom he gives to the god of youth, Aengus mac Óg, to raise." ], [ "Modern sources", "Folklore about Donn survived into the early modern era.", "In County Limerick, a Donn Fírinne was said to dwell in the sacred hill of Cnoc Fírinne (Knockfeerina or Knockfierna), and folklore told of people being brought into the hill to be with Donn when they died.", "He was said to appear as a phantom horseman riding a white horse.", "He was also associated with the weather: thunder and lightning meant that Donn Fírinne was riding his horse through the sky, and if clouds were over the hill it meant that he was gathering them together to make rain.", "This imagery may have been influenced by the lore of Odin and his horse Sleipnir from the Norse settlers in Limerick.", "Donn Fírinne was also said to appear and warn anyone who interfered with his hill.", "On the west coast of County Clare there was a Donn na Duimhche or Donn Dumhach (\"Donn of the dunes\"), who \"was also often encountered as a night-horseman\".", "In later folklore, the name 'Donn' came to mean an 'otherworld lord' in general.In modern Irish ''donn'' is the most common word for the colour brown, and by extension can also mean \"sturdy (like) wood\".", "This is one possible etymology of the English colour \"dun\" (greyish brown)." ], [ "See also", "* Danu (Irish goddess)* Dôn* Hy-Brasil – legendary island to the west of Ireland" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Data compression ratio" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Data compression ratio''', also known as '''compression power''', is a measurement of the relative reduction in size of data representation produced by a data compression algorithm.", "It is typically expressed as the division of uncompressed size by compressed size." ], [ "Definition", "Data compression ratio is defined as the ratio between the ''uncompressed size'' and ''compressed size''::Thus, a representation that compresses a file's storage size from 10 MB to 2 MB has a compression ratio of 10/2 = 5, often notated as an explicit ratio, 5:1 (read \"five\" to \"one\"), or as an implicit ratio, 5/1.This formulation applies equally for compression, where the uncompressed size is that of the original; and for decompression, where the uncompressed size is that of the reproduction.", "Sometimes the ''space saving'' is given instead, which is defined as the reduction in size relative to the uncompressed size: :Thus, a representation that compresses the storage size of a file from 10MB to 2MB yields a space saving of 1 - 2/10 = 0.8, often notated as a percentage, 80%.For signals of indefinite size, such as streaming audio and video, the compression ratio is defined in terms of uncompressed and compressed data rates instead of data sizes: :and instead of space saving, one speaks of '''data-rate saving''', which is defined as the data-rate reduction relative to the uncompressed data rate: :For example, uncompressed songs in CD format have a data rate of 16 bits/channel x 2 channels x 44.1 kHz ≅ 1.4 Mbit/s, whereas AAC files on an iPod are typically compressed to 128 kbit/s, yielding a compression ratio of 10.9, for a data-rate saving of 0.91, or 91%.", "When the uncompressed data rate is known, the compression ratio can be inferred from the compressed data rate." ], [ "Lossless vs. Lossy", "Lossless compression of digitized data such as video, digitized film, and audio preserves all the information, but it does not generally achieve compression ratio much better than 2:1 because of the intrinsic entropy of the data.", "Compression algorithms which provide higher ratios either incur very large overheads or work only for specific data sequences (e.g.", "compressing a file with mostly zeros).", "In contrast, lossy compression (e.g.", "JPEG for images, or MP3 and Opus for audio) can achieve much higher compression ratios at the cost of a decrease in quality, such as Bluetooth audio streaming, as visual or audio compression artifacts from loss of important information are introduced.", "A compression ratio of at least 50:1 is needed to get 1080i video into a 20 Mbit/s MPEG transport stream." ], [ "Uses", "The data compression ratio can serve as a measure of the complexity of a data set or signal.", "In particular it is used to approximate the algorithmic complexity.", "It is also used to see how much of a file is able to be compressed without increasing its original size." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Nondegrading lossy compression" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Disc jockey" ], [ "Introduction", "Club DJ Robert HoodClub DJ Ellen Allien at MAGMA festival 2006, in Tenerife, SpainDJ workplace in a nightclub, consisting of three CDJs (top), three turntables for vinyl records and a DJ mixerA '''disc jockey''', more commonly abbreviated as '''DJ''', is a person who plays recorded music for an audience.", "Types of DJs include radio DJs (who host programs on music radio stations), club DJs (who work at nightclubs or music festivals), mobile DJs (who are hired to work at public and private events such as weddings, parties, or festivals), and turntablists (who use record players, usually turntables, to manipulate sounds on phonograph records).", "Originally, the \"disc\" in \"disc jockey\" referred to shellac and later vinyl records, but nowadays DJ is used as an all-encompassing term to also describe persons who mix music from other recording media such as cassettes, CDs or digital audio files on a CDJ, controller, or even a laptop.", "DJs may adopt the title \"DJ\" in front of their real names, adopted pseudonyms, or stage names.DJs commonly use audio equipment that can play at least two sources of recorded music simultaneously.", "This enables them to blend tracks together to create transitions between recordings and develop unique mixes of songs.", "This can involve aligning the beats of the music sources so their rhythms and tempos do not clash when played together and enable a smooth transition from one song to another.", "DJs often use specialized DJ mixers, small audio mixers with crossfader and cue functions to blend or transition from one song to another.", "Mixers are also used to pre-listen to sources of recorded music in headphones and adjust upcoming tracks to mix with currently playing music.", "DJ software can be used with a DJ controller device to mix audio files on a computer instead of a console mixer.", "DJs may also use a microphone to speak to the audience; effects units such as reverb to create sound effects and electronic musical instruments such as drum machines and synthesizers." ], [ "Etymology", "The term \"disc jockey\" was ostensibly coined by radio gossip commentator Walter Winchell in 1935 to describe the radio work of Martin Block.", "The phrase first appeared in print in a 1941 ''Variety'' magazine.", "Originally, the word \"disc\" in \"disc jockey\" referred to phonograph or gramophone records and was used to describe radio personalities who introduced them on the air." ], [ "Role", "\"DJ\" is used as an all-encompassing term to describe someone who mixes recorded music from any source, including vinyl records, cassettes, CDs, or digital audio files stored on USB stick or laptop.", "DJs typically perform for a live audience in a nightclub or dance club or a TV, radio broadcast audience, or an online radio audience.", "DJs also create mixes, remixes and tracks that are recorded for later sale and distribution.", "In hip hop music, DJs may create beats, using percussion breaks, basslines and other musical content sampled from pre-existing records.", "In hip hop, rappers and MCs use these beats to rap over.", "Some DJs adopt the title \"DJ\" as part of their names (e.g., DJ Jazzy Jeff, DJ Qbert, DJ Shadow and DJ Yoda).", "Professional DJs often specialize in a specific genre of music, such as techno, house or hip hop music.", "DJs typically have extensive knowledge about the music they specialize in.", "Many DJs are avid music collectors of vintage, rare or obscure tracks and records." ], [ "Types", "===Club DJs===DJ Pete Rock performing at Rahzel and Friends – Brooklyn Bowl, 2016Club DJs, commonly referred to as DJs in general, play music at musical events, such as parties at music venues or bars, clubs, music festivals, corporate and private events.", "Typically, club DJs mix music recordings from two or more sources using different mixing techniques to produce a non-stopping flow of music.", "Mixing began with hip hop in the 1970s and would subsequently expand to other genres in especially (but not exclusively) dance music.", "One key technique used for seamlessly transitioning from one song to another is beatmatching.", "A DJ who mostly plays and mixes one specific music genre is often given the title of that genre; for example, a DJ who plays hip hop music is called a hip hop DJ, a DJ who plays house music is a house DJ, a DJ who plays techno is called a techno DJ, and so on.The quality of a DJ performance (often called a DJ mix or DJ set) consists of two main features: technical skills, or how well the DJ can operate the equipment and produce smooth transitions between two or more recordings and a playlist; and the ability of a DJ to select the most suitable recordings, also known as \"reading the crowd\".===Hip hop DJs===DJ Kool Herc, Grandmaster Flash, and Afrika Bambaataa were members of a block party at South Bronx from 1973 onwards.", "Kool Herc played records such as James Brown's \"Give It Up or Turnit a Loose\", Jimmy Castor's \"It's Just Begun\", Booker T. & the M.G.", "'s' \"Melting Pot\", Incredible Bongo Band's \"Bongo Rock\" and \"Apache\", and UK rock band Babe Ruth's \"The Mexican\".", "With Bronx clubs struggling with street gangs, uptown DJs catering to an older disco crowd with different aspirations, and commercial radio also catering to a demographic distinct from teenagers in the Bronx, Herc's parties had a ready-made audience.DJ Kool Herc developed the style that was the blueprint for hip hop music.", "Herc used the record to focus on a short, heavily percussive part in it: the \"break\".", "Since this part of the record was the one the dancers liked best, Herc isolated the break and prolonged it by changing between two record players.", "As one record reached the end of the break, he cued a second record back to the beginning of the break, which allowed him to extend a relatively short section of music into a \"five-minute loop of fury\".", "This innovation had its roots in what Herc called \"The Merry-Go-Round\", a technique by which the DJ switched from break to break at the height of the party.", "This technique is specifically called \"The Merry-Go-Round\" because according to Herc, it takes one \"back and forth with no slack.", "\"===Radio DJs===Radio DJs or radio personalities introduce and play music broadcasts on AM, FM, digital or Internet radio stations.===Dancehall/reggae deejays===In Jamaican music, a deejay (DJ) is a reggae or dancehall musician who sings and \"toasts\" (raps) to an instrumental riddim.", "Deejays are not to be confused with DJs from other music genres like hip hop, where they select and play music.", "Dancehall/reggae DJs who select riddims to play are called selectors.", "Deejays whose style is nearer to singing are sometimes called singjays.The term deejay originated in the 1960s and 1970s when performers such as U-Roy and King Stitt toasted over the instrumental (dub music) versions of popular records.", "These versions were often released on the flip side to the song's 45 record.", "This gave the deejays the chance to create on-the-fly lyrics to the music.", "Big Youth, and I-Roy were famous deejays in Jamaica.===Turntablists===DJ Qbert performing in Rainbow Warehouse in Birmingham (video with close-up photography at the DJ mixer, though without sound)Turntablists, also called battle DJs, use turntables and DJ mixer to manipulate recorded sounds to produce new music.", "In essence, they use DJ equipment as a musical instrument.", "Perhaps the best-known turntablist technique is scratching.", "Turntablists often participate in DJ contests like DMC World DJ Championships and Red Bull 3Style.=== Residents ===A resident DJ performs at a venue on a regular basis or permanently.", "They would perform regularly (typically under an agreement) in a particular discotheque, a particular club, a particular event, or a particular broadcasting station.", "Residents have a decisive influence on the club or a series of events.", "Per agreement with the management or company, the DJ would have to perform under agreed times and dates.", "Typically, DJs perform as residents for two or three times in a week, for example, on Friday and Saturday.", "DJs who make a steady income from a venue are also considered resident DJs.Examples for resident DJs are:* Alfredo Fiorito, Richie Hawtin, Sven Väth — Amnesia, Ibiza, Spain* Martin Garrix — Hï Ibiza, Ibiza, Spain* Larry Levan — Paradise Garage, New York City, US* David Mancuso — The Loft, New York City* Tiësto, Deadmau5, Calvin Harris — Hakkasan, Las Vegas, US* Kaskade — Encore Beach Club, Las Vegas, US* Ben Klock, Marcel Dettmann, Tama Sumo — Berghain, Berlin, Germany* Fish Go Deep — Cork, Ireland* Djsky — Ghana, West Africa* Tale of Us —Hï Ibiza, Ibiza, Spain* Claptone — Pacha, Ibiza, Spain===Other types===*Bedroom DJs — A non-professional DJ who mixes music in their room as a hobby, rather than on radio or in a music venue such as a bar or a nightclub.", "Bedroom DJs are normally motivated by a desire to hone their skills and have fun with friends.", "Many professional DJs start out as bedroom DJs but not all bedroom DJs want to become professional - some are content being hobbyists.", "Most bedroom DJs generally have small set-ups of basic equipment.", "They might be learning how to DJ on a laptop or have a controller.", "* Mobile DJs — DJs with their own portable audio sound systems who specialize in performing at gatherings such as block parties, street fairs, taverns, weddings, birthdays, school and corporate events.", "Mobile DJs may also offer lighting packages and video systems.", "* DJanes — a term describing women DJs used in countries such as Germany that employ grammatical gender in their languages* Celebrity DJs — widely known celebrities performing as DJs." ], [ "Women DJs", "In Western popular music, even though there are relatively few women DJs and turntablists, women musicians have achieved great success in singing and songwriting roles, however, they are given much less representation than men DJs.", "Part of this may stem from a generally low percentage of women in audio technology-related jobs.", "A 2013 ''Sound on Sound'' article by Rosina Ncube stated that there are \"... few women in record production and sound engineering.\"", "Ncube states that \"ninety-five percent of music producers are male, and although there are women producers achieving great things in music, they are less well-known than their counterparts.\"", "The vast majority of students in music technology programs are male.", "In hip hop music, the low percentage of women DJs and turntablists may stem from the overall men's domination of the entire hip hop music industry.", "Most of the top rappers, MCs, DJs, record producers and music executives are men.", "There are a small number of high-profile women, but they are rare.", "In 2007, Mark Katz's article \"Men, Women, and Turntables: Gender and the DJ Battle\", stated that \"very few women do turntablism battles; the matter has been a topic of conversation among hip-hop DJs for years.\"", "In 2010, Rebekah Farrugia said \"the male-centricity of electronic dance music (EDM) culture\" contributes to \"a marginalisation of women in these EDM spaces.\"", "While turntablism and broader DJ practices should not be conflated, Katz suggests use or lack of use of the turntable broadly by women across genres and disciplines is impacted upon by what he defines as \"male technophilia\".", "Historian Ruth Oldenziel concurs in her writing on engineering with this idea of socialization as a central factor in the lack of engagement with technology.", "She says:an exclusive focus on women's supposed failure to enter the field – is insufficient for understanding how our stereotypical notions have come into being; it tends to put the burden of proof entirely on women and to unreasonably blame them for their supposedly inadequate socialization, their lack of aspiration, and their want of masculine values.", "An equally challenging question is why and how boys have come to love things technical, how boys have historically been socialized as technophiles.French electronic music producer and DJ Miss KittinRussian music producer and DJ Nina Kraviz at De Revolutie festival in April 2014Lucy Green has focused on gender in relation to musical performers and creators, and specifically on educational frameworks as they relate to both.", "She suggests that women's alienation from \"areas that have a strong technological tendency such as DJing, sound engineering and producing\" are \"not necessarily about their dislike of these instruments but relates to the interrupting effect of their dominantly masculine delineations\".", "Despite this, women and girls do increasingly engage in turntable and DJ practices, individually and collectively, and \"carve out spaces for themselves in EDM and DJ Culture\".", "A 2015 article cited a number of prominent women DJs: Hannah Wants, Ellen Allien, Miss Kittin, Monika Kruse, Nicole Moudaber, B.Traits, Magda, Nina Kraviz, Nervo, and Annie Mac.", "Two years later, another article brings out a list with world-famous women DJs including Nastia, tINY, Nora En Pure, Anja Schneider, Peggy Gou, Maya Jane Coles, and Eli & Fur.American DJ The Black Madonna has been called \"one of the world's most exciting turntablists\".", "Her stage name The Black Madonna is a tribute to her mother's favorite Catholic saint.", "In 2018, The Black Madonna played herself as an in-residence DJ for the video game ''Grand Theft Auto Online'', as part of the ''After Hours'' DLC.There are various projects dedicated to the promotion and support of these practices such as Female DJs London.", "Some artists and collectives go beyond these practices to be more gender inclusive.", "For example, Discwoman, a New York-based collective and booking agency, describe themselves as \"representing and showcasing cis women, trans women and genderqueer talent.", "\"In Japan, the newest Bushiroad franchise: ''D4DJ'' focuses on an all-women DJ unit." ], [ "Equipment", "DJs use equipment that enables them to play multiple sources of recorded music and mix them to create seamless transitions and unique arrangements of songs.", "An important tool for DJs is the specialized DJ mixer, a small audio mixer with a crossfader and cue functions.", "The crossfader enables the DJ to blend or transition from one song to another.", "The cue knobs or switches allow the DJ to \"listen\" to a source of recorded music in headphones before playing it for the live club or broadcast audience.", "Previewing the music in headphones helps the DJ pick the next track they want to play, cue up the track to the desired starting location, and align the two tracks' beats in traditional situations where auto-sync technology is not being used.", "This process ensures that the selected song will mix well with the currently playing music.", "DJs may align the beats of the music sources so their rhythms do not clash when they are played together to help create a smooth transition from one song to another.", "Other equipment may include a microphone, effects units such as reverb, and electronic musical instruments such as drum machines and synthesizers.As music technology has progressed, DJs have adopted different types of equipment to play and mix music, all of which are still commonly used.", "Traditionally, DJs used two turntables plugged into a DJ mixer to mix music on vinyl records.", "As compact discs became popular media for publishing music, specialized high-quality CD players known as CDJs were developed for DJs.", "CDJs can take the place of turntables or be used together with turntables.", "Many CDJs can now play digital music files from USB flash drives or SD cards in addition to CDs.", "With the spread of portable laptops, tablets, and smartphone computers, DJs began using software together with specialized sound cards and DJ controller hardware.", "DJ software can be used in conjunction with a hardware DJ mixer or be used instead of a hardware mixer.===Turntables===DJ Spooky at the Sundance Film Festival in 2003, using two Technics SL-1200 turntables and a DJ mixerTurntables allow DJs to play vinyl records.", "By adjusting the playback speed of the turntable, either by adjusting the speed knob or by manipulating the platter (e.g., by slowing down the platter by putting a finger gently along the side), DJs can match the tempos of different records so their rhythms can be played together at the same time without clashing or make a smooth, seamless transition from one song to another.", "This technique is known as beatmatching.", "DJs typically replace the rubber mat on turntables that keep the record moving in sync with the turntable with a slipmat that facilitates manipulating the playback of the record by hand.", "With the slipmat, the DJ can stop or slow down the record while the turntable is still spinning.", "Direct-drive turntables are the type preferred by DJs.", "Belt-drive turntables are less expensive, but they are not suitable for turntablism and DJing, because the belt-drive motor can be damaged by this type of manipulation.", "Some DJs, most commonly those who play hip hop music, go beyond merely mixing records and use turntables as musical instruments for scratching, beat juggling, and other turntablism techniques.===CDJs/media players===CDJs / media players are high-quality digital media players made for DJing.", "They often have large jog wheels and pitch controls to allow DJs to manipulate the playback of digital files for beatmatching similar to how DJs manipulate vinyl records on turntables.", "CDJs often have features such as loops and waveform displays similar to DJ software.", "Originally designed to play music from compact discs, they now can play digital music files stored on USB flash drives and SD cards.", "Some CDJs can also connect to a computer running DJ software to act as a DJ controller.", "Modern media players have the ability to stream music from online music providers such as Beatport, Beatsource, Tidal and SoundCloud GO.===DJ mixers===Numark DM2002X Pro Master DJ mixer.", "This three-channel mixer can have up to three input sound sources.", "The gain control knobs and equalization control knobs allow the volume and tone of each sound source to be adjusted.", "The vertical faders allow for further adjustment of the volume of each sound source.", "The horizontally-mounted crossfader enables the DJ to smoothly transition from a song on one sound source to a song from a different sound source.DJ mixers are small audio mixing consoles specialized for DJing.", "Most DJ mixers have far fewer channels than a mixer used by a record producer or audio engineer; whereas standard live sound mixers in small venues have 12 to 24 channels, and standard recording studio mixers have even more (as many as 72 on large boards), basic DJ mixers may have only two channels.", "While DJ mixers have many of the same features found on larger mixers (faders, equalization knobs, gain knobs, effects units, etc.", "), DJ mixers have a feature that is usually only found on DJ mixers: the crossfader.", "The crossfader is a type of fader that is mounted horizontally.", "DJs used the crossfader to mix two or more sound sources.", "The midpoint of the crossfader's travel is a 50/50 mix of the two channels (on a two-channel mixer).", "The far left side of the crossfader provides only the channel A sound source.", "The far right side provides only the channel B sound source (e.g., record player number 2).", "Positions in between the two extremes provide different mixes of the two channels.", "Some DJs use a computer with DJ software and a DJ controller instead of an analog DJ mixer to mix music, although DJ software can be used in conjunction with a hardware DJ mixer.===Headphones===DJs generally use higher-quality headphones than those designed for music consumers.", "DJ headphones have other properties useful for DJs, such as designs that acoustically isolate the sounds of the headphones from the outside environment (hard shell headphones), flexible headbands and pivot joints to allow DJs to listen to one side of the headphones while turning the other headphone away (so they can monitor the mix in the club), and replaceable cables.", "Replaceable cables enable DJs to buy new cables if a cable becomes frayed, worn, or damaged, or if a cable is accidentally cut.Closed-back headphones are highly recommended for DJs to block outside noise as the environment of DJ usually tends to be very noisy.", "Standard headphones have a 3.5mm jack but DJ equipment usually requires ¼ inch jack.", "Most specialized DJ Headphones have an adapter to switch between a 3.5mm jack and ¼ inch jack.", "Detachable coiled cables are perfect for DJ Headphones.===Software===A screenshot of Mixxx DJ software running on Mac OS XDJs have changed their equipment as new technologies are introduced.", "The earliest DJs in pop music, in 1970s discos, used record turntables, vinyl records and audio consoles.", "In the 1970s, DJs would have to lug heavy direct-drive turntables and crates of records to clubs and shows.", "In the 1980s, many DJs transitioned to compact cassettes.", "In the 1990s and 2000s, many DJs switched to using digital audio such as CDs and MP3 files.", "As technological advances made it practical to store large collections of digital music files on a laptop computer, DJ software was developed so DJs could use a laptop as a source of music instead of transporting CDs or vinyl records to gigs.", "Unlike most music player software designed for regular consumers, DJ software can play at least two audio files simultaneously, display the waveforms of the files on screen and enable the DJ to listen to either source.The waveforms allow the DJ to see what is coming next in the music and how the playback of different files is aligned.", "The software analyzes music files to identify their tempo and where the beats are.", "The analyzed information can be used by the DJ to help manually beatmatch like with vinyl records or the software can automatically synchronize the beats.", "Digital signal processing algorithms in software allow DJs to adjust the tempo of recordings independently of their pitch (and musical key, a feature known as \"keylock\".", "Some software analyzes the loudness of the music for automatic normalization with ReplayGain and detects the musical key.", "Additionally, DJ software can store cue points, set loops, and apply effects.As tablet computers and smartphones became widespread, DJ software was written to run on these devices in addition to laptops.DJ software requires specialized hardware in addition to a computer to fully take advantage of its features.", "The consumer-grade, regular sound card integrated into most computer motherboards can only output two channels (one stereo pair).", "However, DJs need to be able to output at least four channels (two stereo pairs, thus Left and Right for input 1 and Left and Right for input 2), either unmixed signals to send to a DJ mixer or the main output plus a headphone output.", "Additionally, DJ sound cards output higher-quality signals than the sound cards built into consumer-grade computer motherboards.===Timecode===Special vinyl records (or CDs/digital files played with CDJs) can be used with DJ software to play digital music files with DJ software as if they were pressed onto vinyl, allowing turntablism techniques to be used with digital files.", "These vinyl records do not have music recordings pressed onto them.", "Instead, they are pressed with a special signal, referred to as \"timecode\", to control DJ software.", "The DJ software interprets changes in the playback speed, direction, and position of the timecode signal and manipulates the digital files it is playing in the same way that the turntable manipulates the timecode record.This requires a specialized DJ sound card with at least 4 channels (2 stereo pairs) of inputs and outputs.", "With this setup, the DJ software typically outputs unmixed signals from the music files to an external hardware DJ mixer.", "Some DJ mixers have integrated USB sound cards that allow DJ software to connect directly to the mixer without requiring a separate sound card.===DJ controllers===A DJ software can be used to mix audio files on the computer instead of a separate hardware mixer.", "When mixing on a computer, DJs often use a DJ controller device that mimics the layout of two turntables plus a DJ mixer to control the software rather than the computer keyboard & touchpad on a laptop, or the touchscreen on a tablet computer or smartphone.", "Many DJ controllers have an integrated sound card with 4 output channels (2 stereo pairs) that allow the DJ to use headphones to preview music before playing it on the main output.===Other equipment===* A microphone, so that the DJ can introduce songs and speak to the audience over the sound system.", "* Electronic effects units such as delay, reverb, octave, equalizer, chorus, etc.", "* Multi-stylus head shells, which allow a DJ to play different grooves of the same record at the same time.", "* Samplers, sequencers, electronic musical keyboards (synthesizers), effects pedals (effects unit) or drum machines.", "* PA system or sound reinforcement system (power amplifiers and speaker enclosures), typically including subwoofer cabinets for deep bass (or, if a DJ is broadcasting and/or recording a set, broadcasting equipment or recording gear)*Monitor speakers, for listening to the \"house mix\" that is playing over the main speakers" ], [ "Techniques", "Grand Wizzard Theodore (R).", "In the early 1970s in the South Bronx, he invented the \"DJ scratch\" technique.Several techniques are used by DJs as a means to better mix and blend recorded music.", "These techniques primarily include the cueing, equalization and audio mixing of two or more sound sources.", "The complexity and frequency of special techniques depend largely on the setting in which a DJ is working.", "Radio DJs are less likely to focus on advanced music-mixing procedures than club DJs, who rely on a smooth transition between songs using a range of techniques.", "However, some radio DJs are experienced club DJs, so they use the same sophisticated mixing techniques.Club DJ turntable techniques include beatmatching, phrasing and slip-cueing to preserve energy on a dance floor.", "Turntablism embodies the art of cutting, beat juggling, scratching, needle drops, phase shifting, back spinning and more to perform the transitions and overdubs of samples in a more creative manner (although turntablism is often considered a use of the turntable as a musical instrument rather than a tool for blending recorded music).", "Professional DJs may use harmonic mixing to choose songs that are in compatible musical keys.", "Other techniques include chopping, screwing and looping.Recent advances in technology in both DJ hardware and software can provide assisted or automatic completion of some traditional DJ techniques and skills.", "Examples include phrasing and beatmatching, which can be partially or completely automated by using DJ software that performs automatic synchronization of sound recordings, a feature commonly labelled \"sync\".", "Most DJ mixers now include a beat counter which analyzes the tempo of an incoming sound source and displays its tempo in beats per minute (BPM), which may assist with beatmatching analog sound sources.In the past, being a DJ has largely been a self-taught craft but with the complexities of new technologies and the convergence with music production methods, there are a growing number of schools and organizations that offer instruction on the techniques.===Miming===In DJ culture, miming refers to the practice of DJ's pantomiming the actions of live-mixing a set on stage while a pre-recorded mix plays over the sound system.", "Miming mixing in a live performance is considered to be controversial within DJ culture.", "Some within the DJ community say that miming is increasingly used as a technique by celebrity model DJs who may lack mixing skills, but can draw big crowds to a venue.During a DJ tour for the release of the French group Justice's ''A Cross the Universe'' in November 2008, controversy arose when a photograph of Augé DJing with an unplugged Akai MPD24 surfaced.", "The photograph sparked accusations that Justice's live sets were faked.", "Augé has since said that the equipment was unplugged very briefly before being reattached and the band put a three-photo set of the incident on their MySpace page.", "After a 2013 Disclosure concert, the duo was criticized for pretending to live mix to a playback of a pre-recorded track.", "Disclosure's Guy Lawrence said they did not deliberately intend to mislead their audience, and cited miming by other DJs such as David Guetta." ], [ "History", "Playing recorded music for dancing and parties rose with the mass marketing of home phonographs in the late 19th century.", "British radio disc jockey Jimmy Savile hosted his first live dance party in 1943 using a single turntable and a makeshift sound system.", "Four years later, Savile began using two turntables welded together to form a single DJ console.", "In 1947, the Whisky à Gogo opened in Paris as the first discotheque.", "In 1959, one of the first discos in Germany, the Scotch Club, opened in Aachen and visiting journalist Klaus Quirini (later DJ Heinrich) made comments, conducted audience games, and announced songs while playing records.", "The first song he played was the hit ''Ein Schiff wird kommen'' by Lale Andersen.In the 1960s, Rudy Bozak began making the first DJ mixers, mixing consoles specialized for DJing.In the late 1960s to early 1970s Jamaican sound system culture, producer and sound system operator (DJ), (Jamaican) King Tubby and producer Lee \"Scratch\" Perry were pioneers of the genre known as dub music.", "They experimented with tape-based composition; emphasized repetitive rhythmic structures (often stripped of their harmonic elements); electronically manipulated spatiality; sonically manipulated pre-recorded musical materials from mass media; and remixed music among other innovative techniques.", "It is widely known that the Jamaican dancehall culture has had and continues to have a significant impact on the American hip hop culture.Vintage DJ Station.", "A DJ mixer is placed between the two turntables.Pioneer DDJ-RX controller with the mixing software rekordbox running on a computer.", "The physical setup (two \"discs\" as primary tools, mixing controls mainly in the middle) of this digital DJ workplace strongly resembles the style of the old analog DJ set above, as the latter was standard and \"best practice\".DJ turntablism has origins in the invention of direct-drive turntables.", "Early belt-drive turntables were unsuitable for turntablism and mixing, since they had a slow start-up time, and they were prone to wear-and-tear and breakage, as the belt would break from backspinning or scratching.", "The first direct-drive turntable was invented by engineer Shuichi Obata at Matsushita (now Panasonic), based in Osaka, Japan.", "It eliminated belts, and instead employed a motor to directly drive a platter on which a vinyl record rests.", "In 1969, Matsushita released it as the SP-10, the first direct-drive turntable on the market, and the first in their influential Technics series of turntables.In 1972, Technics started making their SL-1200 turntable, featuring high torque direct drive design.", "The SL-1200 had a rapid start and its durable direct drive enabled DJs to manipulate the platter, as with scratching techniques.", "Hip hop DJs began using the Technics SL-1200s as musical instruments to manipulate records with turntablism techniques such as scratching and beat juggling rather than merely mixing records.", "These techniques were developed in the 1970s by DJ Kool Herc, Grand Wizard Theodore, and Afrika Bambaataa, as they experimented with Technics direct-drive decks, finding that the motor would continue to spin at the correct RPM even if the DJ wiggled the record back and forth on the platter.", "In 1980, Japanese company Roland released the TR-808, an analog rhythm/drum machine, which has unique artificial sounds, such as its booming bass and sharp snare, and a metronome-like rhythm.", "Yellow Magic Orchestra's use of the instrument in 1980 influenced hip hop pioneer Afrika Bambaataa, after which the TR-808 would be widely adopted by hip hop DJs, with 808 sounds remaining central to hip-hop music ever since.", "The Roland TB-303, a bass synthesizer released in 1981, had a similar impact on electronic dance music genres such as techno and house music, along with Roland's TR-808 and TR-909 drum machines.In 1982, the Compact Disc (CD) format was released, popularizing digital audio.", "In 1998, the first MP3 digital audio player, the Eiger Labs MPMan F10, was introduced.", "In January of that same year at the BeOS Developer Conference, N2IT demonstrated FinalScratch, the first digital DJ system to allow DJs control of MP3 files through special time-coded vinyl records or CDs.", "While it would take some time for this novel concept to catch on with the \"die-hard Vinyl DJs\", this would become the first step in the Digital DJ revolution.", "Manufacturers joined with computer DJing pioneers to offer professional endorsements, the first being Professor Jam (a.k.a.", "William P. Rader), who went on to develop the industry's first dedicated computer DJ convention and learning program, the \"CPS (Computerized Performance System) DJ Summit\", to help spread the word about the advantages of this emerging technology.In 2001, Pioneer DJ began producing the CDJ-1000 CD player, making the use of digital music recordings with traditional DJ techniques practical for the first time.", "As the 2000s progressed, laptop computers became more powerful and affordable.", "DJ software, specialized DJ sound cards, and DJ controllers were developed for DJs to use laptops as a source of music rather than turntables or CDJs.", "In the 2010s, like laptops before them, tablet computers and smartphones became more powerful & affordable.", "DJ software was written to run on these more portable devices instead of laptops, although laptops remain the more common type of computer for DJing." ], [ "Health concerns", "The risk of DJs working in nightclubs with loud music includes noise-induced hearing loss and tinnitus.", "Nightclubs constantly exceed safe levels of noise exposure with average sound levels ranging from 93.2 to 109.7 dB.", "Constant music exposure creates temporary and permanent auditory dysfunction for professional DJs with average levels at 96dB being above the recommended level, at which ear protection is mandatory for industry.", "Three-quarters of DJs have tinnitus and are at risk of tenosynovitis in the wrists and other limbs.", "Tenosynovitis results from staying in the same position over multiple gigs for scratching motion and cueing, this would be related to a repetitive strain injury.", "Gigs can last 4-5 hours in the nightlife and hospitality industry, as a result, there are potential complications of prolonged standing which include slouching, varicose veins, cardiovascular disorders, joint compression, and muscle fatigue.", "This is common for other staff to experience as well including bartenders and security staff for example." ], [ "In film", "* ''Berlin Calling'' – a German film about fictional DJ and producer Ickarus (Paul Kalkbrenner), who is struggling with drug abuse* ''Speaking in Code'' – an American documentary film about techno artists Modeselektor, Wighnomy Brothers, Philip Sherburne, Monolake and David Day* ''Kvadrat'' – a French and Russian documentary film about the realities of techno DJing, using the example of DJ Andrey Pushkarev* ''It's All Gone Pete Tong'' – a fictional mockumentary British movie about Frankie Wilde, a DJ who gradually becomes deaf due to drug abuse and an unhealthy lifestyle* ''We Are Your Friends'' – an American fiction film about a college DJ trying to make it in the DJing scene with \"one hit song\", starring Zac Efron* ''Scratch'' – a documentary about the hip-hop DJ and the 2000-era turntablist movement* ''Tonkatsu DJ Agetarou'' – a Japanese anime, originally a manga, about a fictional character named Agetarou who aspires to be a DJ master with the help of his friends and mentor, Big Master Fry.", "*''24 Hour Party People'' – about the UK music scene from the late 1970s to the \"Madchester\" scene of the late 1980s and early 1990s.", "*''Human Traffic –'' about early UK rave counter-culture featuring music and performances by celebrated DJs Fatboy Slim, CJ Bolland, Carl Cox, and Mad Doctor X.", "*''Turn Up Charlie'' – a 2019 series about a struggling DJ, played by Idris Elba, who is also a bachelor trying to make it again after a one-hit back in the 1990s* ''Avicii: True Stories'' – a documentary film about Avicii" ], [ "See also", "* Digital DJ licensing* List of club DJs* List of music software#DJ software* Live PA* DJ mix* Record collecting* Spelling of disc* Stage lighting* VJ (media personality)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Notes", "* Assef, Claudia (2000).", "''Todo DJ Já Sambou: A História do Disc-Jóquei no Brasil''.", "São Paulo: Conrad Editora do Brasil.", ".", "* Brewster, Bill, and Frank Broughton (2000).", "''Last Night a DJ Saved My Life: The History of the Disc Jockey''.", "New York: Grove Press.", "(North American edition).", "London: Headline.", "(UK edition).", "* Broughton, Frank, and Bill Brewster.", "''How to DJ Right: The Art and Science of Playing Records''.", "New York: Grove Press, 2003.", "* Graudins, Charles A.", "''How to Be a DJ''.", "Boston: Course Technology PTR, 2004.", "* Lawrence, Tim (2004).", "''Love Saves the Day: A History of American Dance Music Culture, 1970–1979 ''.", "Duke University Press.", ".", "* Miller, Paul D. a.k.a.", "DJ Spooky, ''Sound Unbound: Writings on DJ Culture and Electronic Music'', MIT Press 2008..* Poschardt, Ulf (1998).", "''DJ Culture''.", "London: Quartet Books.", ".", "* Zemon, Stacy.", "''The Mobile DJ Handbook: How to Start & Run a Profitable Mobile Disc Jockey Service'', Second Edition.", "St. Louis: Focal Press, 2002." ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Detroit" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Detroit''' (; , ) is the most populous city in the U.S. state of Michigan.", "It is the largest U.S. city on the United States–Canada border, and the seat of government of Wayne County.", "Detroit had a population of 639,111 at the 2020 census, making it the 29th-most populous city in the United States.", "The Metro Detroit area, home to 4.3 million people, is the second-largest in the Midwest after the Chicago metropolitan area and the 14th-largest in the United States.", "A significant cultural center, Detroit is known for its contributions to music, art, architecture and design, in addition to its historical automotive background.In 1701, Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac and Alphonse de Tonty founded Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit.", "During the late 19th and early 20th century, it became an important industrial hub at the center of the Great Lakes region.", "The city's population rose to be the fourth-largest in the nation by 1920, after New York City, Chicago and Philadelphia, with the expansion of the automotive industry in the early 20th century.", "The Detroit River became the busiest commercial hub in the world as it carried over 65 million tons of shipping commerce each year.", "In the late 20th century, Detroit entered a state of urban decay which has continued to the present, as a result of industrial restructuring, the loss of jobs in the auto industry, and rapid suburbanization.", "Since reaching a peak of 1.85 million at the 1950 census, Detroit's population has declined by more than 65 percent.", "In 2013, Detroit became the largest U.S. city to file for bankruptcy, which it successfully exited in December 2014.Detroit is a port on the Detroit River, one of the four major straits that connect the Great Lakes system to the St. Lawrence Seaway.", "The city anchors the second-largest regional economy in the Midwest and the 14th-largest in the United States.", "Detroit is best known as the center of the U.S. automotive industry, and the \"Big Three\" auto manufacturers—General Motors, Ford, and Stellantis North America (Chrysler)—are all headquartered in Metro Detroit.", "The Detroit Metropolitan Airport is among the most important hub airports in the United States.", "Detroit and its neighboring Canadian city Windsor constitute the second-busiest international crossing in North America, after San Diego–Tijuana.Detroit's diverse culture has had both local and international influence, particularly in music, with the city giving rise to the genres of Motown and techno and playing an important role in the development of jazz, hip-hop, rock, and punk.", "The rapid growth of Detroit in its boom years resulted in a globally unique stock of architectural monuments and historic places.", "Since the 2000s, conservation efforts have managed to save many architectural pieces and achieve several large-scale revitalizations, including the restoration of several historic theaters and entertainment venues, high-rise renovations, new sports stadiums, and a riverfront revitalization project.An increasingly popular tourist destination, Detroit receives 16 million visitors per year.", "In 2015, Detroit was named a \"City of Design\" by UNESCO, the first U.S. city to receive that designation.", "''Time'' named Detroit as one of the fifty World's Greatest Places of 2022 to explore." ], [ "History", "=== Toponymy ===Detroit and adjacent Windsor Canada separated by the Detroit RiverDetroit is named after the Detroit River, connecting Lake Huron with Lake Erie.", "The name comes from the French word meaning as the city was situated on a narrow passage of water linking the two lakes.", "The river was known as in French, which means .", "In the historical context, the strait included the St. Clair River, Lake St. Clair and the Detroit River.===Early settlement===Paleo-Indians inhabited areas near Detroit as early as 11,000 years ago including the culture referred to as the Mound Builders.", "By the 17th century, the region was inhabited by Huron, Odawa, Potawatomi and Iroquois peoples.", "The area is known by the Anishinaabe people as ''Waawiiyaataanong'', translating to 'where the water curves around'.The first Europeans did not penetrate into the region and reach the straits of Detroit until French missionaries and traders worked their way around the Iroquois League, with whom they were at war in the 1630s.", "The Huron and Neutral people held the north side of Lake Erie until the 1650s, when the Iroquois pushed them and the Erie people away from the lake and its beaver-rich feeder streams in the Beaver Wars of 1649–1655.By the 1670s, the war-weakened Iroquois laid claim to as far south as the Ohio River valley in northern Kentucky as hunting grounds, and had absorbed many other Iroquoian peoples after defeating them in war.", "For the next hundred years, virtually no British or French action was contemplated without consultation with the Iroquois or consideration of their likely response.", "When the French and Indian War evicted the Kingdom of France from Canada, it removed one barrier to American colonists migrating west.", "British negotiations with the Iroquois would both prove critical and lead to a Crown policy limiting settlements below the Great Lakes and west of the Alleghenies.", "Many colonial American would-be migrants resented this restraint and became supporters of the American Revolution.", "The 1778 raids and resultant 1779 decisive Sullivan Expedition reopened the Ohio Country to westward emigration, which began almost immediately.", "By 1800 white settlers were pouring westwards.===French settlement===Topographical plan of the Town of Detroit and Fort Lernoult showing major streets, gardens, fortifications, military comple­xes, and public buildings (John Jacob Ulrich Rivardi, ca.", "1800)On July 24, 1701, the French explorer Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac, with his lieutenant Alphonse de Tonty and more than a hundred other settlers, began constructing a small fort on the north bank of the Detroit River.", "Cadillac named the settlement Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit, after Louis Phélypeaux, comte de Pontchartrain, Secretary of State of the Navy under Louis XIV.", "''Sainte-Anne-de-Détroit'' was founded on July 26 and is the second-oldest continuously operating Roman Catholic parish in the United States.", "France offered free land to colonists to attract families to Detroit; when it reached a population of 800 in 1765, it became the largest European settlement between Montreal and New Orleans, both also French settlements, in the former colonies of New France and La Louisiane, respectively.By 1773, after the addition of Anglo-American settlers, the population of Detroit was 1,400.By 1778, its population reached 2,144 and it was the third-largest city in what was known as the Province of Quebec since the British takeover of French colonies following their victory in the Seven Years' War.The region's economy was based on the lucrative fur trade, in which numerous Native American people had important roles as trappers and traders.", "Today the flag of Detroit reflects its French colonial heritage.", "Descendants of the earliest French and French-Canadian settlers formed a cohesive community, who gradually were superseded as the dominant population after more Anglo-American settlers arrived in the early 19th century with American westward migration.", "Living along the shores of Lake St. Clair and south to Monroe and downriver suburbs, the ethnic French Canadians of Detroit, also known as Muskrat French in reference to the fur trade, remain a subculture in the region in the 21st century.During the French and Indian War (1754–63)—the North American front of the Seven Years' War between Britain and France—British troops gained control of the settlement in 1760 and shortened its name to Detroit.", "Several regional Native American tribes, such as the Potowatomi, Ojibwe and Huron, launched Pontiac's War in 1763 and laid siege to Fort Detroit but failed to capture it.", "In defeat, France ceded its territory in North America east of the Mississippi to Britain following the war.Following the American Revolutionary War and the establishment of the United States as an independent country, Britain ceded Detroit along with other territories in the area under the Jay Treaty which established the northern border with its colony of Canada.", "The Great Fire of 1805 destroyed most of the Detroit settlement, which had primarily buildings made of wood.", "One stone fort, a river warehouse, and brick chimneys of former wooden homes were the sole structures to survive.", "Of the 600 Detroit residents in this area, none died in the fire.===19th century===From 1805 to 1847, Detroit was the capital of Michigan as a territory and as a state.", "William Hull, the United States commander at Detroit, surrendered without a fight to British troops and their Native American allies during the War of 1812 in the siege of Detroit, believing his forces were vastly outnumbered.", "The Battle of Frenchtown was part of a U.S. effort to retake the city, and U.S. troops suffered their highest fatalities of any battle in the war.", "This battle is commemorated at River Raisin National Battlefield Park south of Detroit in Monroe County.", "Detroit was recaptured by the United States later that year.The settlement was incorporated as a city in 1815.As the city expanded, a geometric street plan developed by Augustus B. Woodward was followed, featuring grand boulevards as in Paris.Prior to the American Civil War, the city's access to the Canada–US border made it a key stop for refugee slaves gaining freedom in the North along the Underground Railroad.", "Many went across the Detroit River to Canada to escape pursuit by slave catchers.", "An estimated 20,000 to 30,000 African-American refugees settled in Canada.", "George DeBaptiste was considered to be the \"president\" of the Detroit Underground Railroad, William Lambert the \"vice president\" or \"secretary\", and Laura Smith Haviland the \"superintendent\".Numerous men from Detroit volunteered to fight for the Union during the Civil War, including the 24th Michigan Infantry Regiment.", "It was part of the legendary Iron Brigade, which fought with distinction and suffered 82% casualties at the Battle of Gettysburg in 1863.When the First Volunteer Infantry Regiment arrived to fortify Washington, D.C., President Abraham Lincoln is quoted as saying, \"Thank God for Michigan!\"", "George Armstrong Custer led the Michigan Brigade during the Civil War and called them the \"Wolverines\".During the late 19th century, wealthy industry and shipping magnates commissioned the design and construction of several Gilded Age mansions east and west of the current downtown, along the major avenues of the Woodward plan.", "Most notable among them was the David Whitney House at 4421 Woodward Avenue, and the grand avenue became a favored address for mansions.", "During this period, some referred to Detroit as the \"Paris of the West\" for its architecture, grand avenues in the Paris style, and for Washington Boulevard, recently electrified by Thomas Edison.", "The city had grown steadily from the 1830s with the rise of shipping, shipbuilding, and manufacturing industries.", "Strategically located along the Great Lakes waterway, Detroit emerged as a major port and transportation hub.", "In 1896, a thriving carriage trade prompted Henry Ford to build his first automobile in a rented workshop on Mack Avenue.", "During this growth period, Detroit expanded its borders by annexing all or part of several surrounding villages and townships.===20th century===In 1903, Henry Ford founded the Ford Motor Company.", "Ford's manufacturing—and those of automotive pioneers William C. Durant, Horace and John Dodge, James and William Packard, and Walter Chrysler—established Detroit's status in the early 20th century as the world's automotive capital.", "The growth of the auto industry was reflected by changes in businesses throughout the Midwest and nation, with the development of garages to service vehicles and gas stations, as well as factories for parts and tires.", "Because of the booming auto industry, Detroit became the fourth-largest city in the nation by 1920, following New York City, Chicago and Philadelphia.In 1907, the Detroit River carried 67,292,504 tons of shipping commerce through Detroit to locations all over the world.", "For comparison, London shipped 18,727,230 tons, and New York shipped 20,390,953 tons.", "The river was dubbed \"the Greatest Commercial Artery on Earth\" by ''The Detroit News'' in 1908.The prohibition of alcohol from 1920 to 1933 resulted in the Detroit River becoming a major conduit for smuggling of illegal Canadian spirits.With the rapid growth of industrial workers in the auto factories, labor unions such as the American Federation of Labor and the United Auto Workers (UAW) fought to organize workers to gain them better working conditions and wages.", "They initiated strikes and other tactics in support of improvements such as the 8-hour day/40-hour work week, increased wages, greater benefits, and improved working conditions.", "The labor activism during those years increased the influence of union leaders in the city such as Jimmy Hoffa of the Teamsters and Walter Reuther of the UAW.Detroit, like many places in the United States, developed racial conflict and discrimination in the 20th century following the rapid demographic changes as hundreds of thousands of new workers were attracted to the industrial city.", "The Great Migration brought rural blacks from the South; they were outnumbered by southern whites who also migrated to the city.", "Immigration brought southern and eastern Europeans of Catholic and Jewish faith; these new groups competed with native-born whites for jobs and housing in the booming city.Detroit was one of the major Midwest cities that was a site for the dramatic urban revival of the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) beginning in 1915.", "\"By the 1920s the city had become a stronghold of the KKK\", whose members primarily opposed Catholic and Jewish immigrants but also practiced discrimination against Black Americans.", "Even after the decline of the KKK in the late 1920s, the Black Legion, a secret vigilante group, was active in the Detroit area in the 1930s.", "One-third of its estimated 20,000 to 30,000 members in Michigan were based in the city.", "It was defeated after numerous prosecutions following the kidnapping and murder in 1936 of Charles Poole, a Catholic organizer with the federal Works Progress Administration.", "Some 49 men of the Black Legion were convicted of numerous crimes, with many sentenced to life in prison for murder.By 1940, 80% of Detroit deeds contained restrictive covenants prohibiting African Americans from buying houses they could afford.", "These discriminatory tactics were successful as a majority of black people in Detroit resorted to living in all-black neighborhoods such as Black Bottom and Paradise Valley.", "At this time, white people still made up about 90.4% of the city's population.", "White residents attacked black homes: breaking windows, starting fires, and detonating bombs.In the 1940s the world's \"first urban depressed freeway\" ever built, the Davison, was constructed.", "During World War II, the government encouraged retooling of the American automobile industry in support of the Allied powers, leading to Detroit's key role in the American Arsenal of Democracy.", "Jobs expanded so rapidly due to the defense buildup in World War II that 400,000 people migrated to the city from 1941 to 1943, including 50,000 blacks in the second wave of the Great Migration, and 350,000 whites, many of them from the South.", "Whites, including ethnic Europeans, feared black competition for jobs and scarce housing.", "The federal government prohibited discrimination in defense work, but when in June 1943 Packard promoted three black people to work next to whites on its assembly lines, 25,000 white workers walked off the job.", "The 1943 Detroit race riot took place in June, three weeks after the Packard plant protest, beginning with an altercation at Belle Isle.", "A total of 34 people were killed, 25 of them black and most at the hands of the white police force, while 433 were wounded (75% of them black), and property valued at $2 million (worth $30.4 million in 2020) was destroyed.", "Rioters moved through the city, and young whites traveled across town to attack more settled blacks in their neighborhood of Paradise Valley.====Postwar era====Industrial mergers in the 1950s, especially in the automobile sector, increased oligopoly in the American auto industry.", "Detroit manufacturers such as Packard and Hudson merged into other companies and eventually disappeared.", "At its peak population of 1,849,568, in the 1950 Census, the city was the fifth-largest in the United States.In this postwar era, the auto industry continued to create opportunities for many African Americans from the South, who continued with their Great Migration to Detroit and other northern and western cities to escape the strict Jim Crow laws and racial discrimination policies of the South.", "Postwar Detroit was a prosperous industrial center of mass production.", "The auto industry comprised about 60% of all industry in the city, allowing space for a plethora of separate booming businesses including stove making, brewing, furniture building, oil refineries, pharmaceutical manufacturing, and more.", "The expansion of jobs created unique opportunities for black Americans, who saw novel high employment rates: there was a 103% increase in the number of blacks employed in postwar Detroit.", "Black Americans who immigrated to northern industrial cities from the south still faced intense racial discrimination in the employment sector.", "Racial discrimination kept the workforce and better jobs predominantly white, while many black Detroiters held lower-paying factory jobs.", "Despite changes in demographics as the city's black population expanded, Detroit's police force, fire department, and other city jobs continued to be held by predominantly white residents.", "This created an unbalanced racial power dynamic.Unequal opportunities in employment resulted in unequal housing opportunities for the majority of the black community: with overall lower incomes and facing the backlash of discriminatory housing policies, the black community was limited to lower cost, lower quality housing in the city.", "The surge in the black population augmented the strain on housing scarcity.", "The livable areas available to the black community were limited, and as a result, families often crowded together in unsanitary, unsafe, and illegal quarters.", "Such discrimination became increasingly evident in the policies of redlining implemented by banks and federal housing groups, which almost completely restricted the ability of blacks to improve their housing and encouraged white people to guard the racial divide that defined their neighborhoods.", "As a result, black people were often denied bank loans to obtain better housing, and interest rates and rents were unfairly inflated to prevent their moving into white neighborhoods.", "White residents and political leaders largely opposed the influx of black Detroiters to white neighborhoods, believing that their presence would lead to neighborhood deterioration (most predominantly black neighborhoods deteriorated due to local and federal governmental neglect).", "This perpetuated a cyclical exclusionary process that marginalized the agency of black Detroiters by trapping them in the unhealthiest, least safe areas of the city.As in other major American cities in the postwar era, modernist planning ideology drove the construction of a federally subsidized, extensive highway and freeway system around Detroit, and pent-up demand for new housing stimulated suburbanization; highways made commuting by car for higher-income residents easier.", "However, this construction had negative implications for many lower-income urban residents.", "Highways were constructed through and completely demolished neighborhoods of poor residents and black communities who had less political power to oppose them.", "The neighborhoods were mostly low income, considered blighted, or made up of older housing where investment had been lacking due to racial redlining, so the highways were presented as a kind of urban renewal.", "These neighborhoods (such as Black Bottom and Paradise Valley) were extremely important to the black communities of Detroit, providing spaces for independent black businesses and social/cultural organizations.", "Their destruction displaced residents with little consideration of the effects of breaking up functioning neighborhoods and businesses.In 1956, Detroit's last heavily used electric streetcar line, which traveled along the length of Woodward Avenue, was removed and replaced with gas-powered buses.", "It was the last line of what had once been a 534-mile network of electric streetcars.", "In 1941, at peak times, a streetcar ran on Woodward Avenue every 60 seconds.All of these changes in the area's transportation system favored low-density, auto-oriented development rather than high-density urban development.", "Industry also moved to the suburbs, seeking large plots of land for single-story factories.", "By the 21st century, the metro Detroit area had developed as one of the most sprawling job markets in the United States; combined with poor public transport, this resulted in many new jobs being beyond the reach of urban low-income workers.An electric PCC streetcar in Detroit, 1953In 1950, the city held about one-third of the state's population.", "Over the next 60 years, the city's population declined to less than 10 percent of the state's population.", "During the same time period, the sprawling metropolitan area grew to contain more than half of Michigan's population.", "The shift of population and jobs eroded Detroit's tax base.In June 1963, Rev.", "Martin Luther King Jr. gave a major speech as part of a civil rights march in Detroit that foreshadowed his \"I Have a Dream\" speech in Washington, D.C., two months later.", "While the civil rights movement gained significant federal civil rights laws in 1964 and 1965, longstanding inequities resulted in confrontations between the police and inner-city black youth who wanted change.The deadly 1967 Detroit riot resulted in massive demographic shifts via white flight.Longstanding tensions in Detroit culminated in the Twelfth Street riot in July 1967.Governor George W. Romney ordered the Michigan National Guard into Detroit, and President Lyndon B. Johnson sent in U.S. Army troops.", "The result was 43 dead, 467 injured, over 7,200 arrests, and more than 2,000 buildings destroyed, mostly in black residential and business areas.", "Thousands of small businesses closed permanently or relocated to safer neighborhoods.", "The affected district lay in ruins for decades.", "According to the ''Chicago Tribune'', it was the 3rd most costly riot in the United States.On August 18, 1970, the NAACP filed suit against Michigan state officials, including Governor William Milliken, charging ''de facto'' public school segregation.", "The NAACP argued that although schools were not legally segregated, the city of Detroit and its surrounding counties had enacted policies to maintain racial segregation in public schools.", "The NAACP also suggested a direct relationship between unfair housing practices and educational segregation, as the composition of students in the schools followed segregated neighborhoods.", "The District Court held all levels of government accountable for the segregation in its ruling.", "The Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed some of the decision, holding that it was the state's responsibility to integrate across the segregated metropolitan area.", "The U.S. Supreme Court took up the case February 27, 1974.The subsequent ''Milliken v. Bradley'' decision had nationwide influence.", "In a narrow decision, the Supreme Court found schools were a subject of local control, and suburbs could not be forced to aid with the desegregation of the city's school district.", "\"Milliken was perhaps the greatest missed opportunity of that period\", said Myron Orfield, professor of law at the University of Minnesota Law School.", "\"Had that gone the other way, it would have opened the door to fixing nearly all of Detroit's current problems.\"", "John Mogk, a professor of law and an expert in urban planning at Wayne State University Law School in Detroit, says, Everybody thinks that it was the riots in 1967 that caused the white families to leave.", "Some people were leaving at that time but, really, it was after Milliken that you saw mass flight to the suburbs.", "If the case had gone the other way, it is likely that Detroit would not have experienced the steep decline in its tax base that has occurred since then.====1970s and decline====The former Packard Automotive Plant, closed since 1958In November 1973, the city elected Coleman Young as its first black mayor.", "After taking office, Young emphasized increasing racial diversity in the police department, which was predominantly white.", "Young also worked to improve Detroit's transportation system, but the tension between Young and his suburban counterparts over regional matters was problematic throughout his mayoral term.In 1976, the federal government offered $600 million (~$ in ) for building a regional rapid transit system, under a single regional authority.", "But the inability of Detroit and its suburban neighbors to solve conflicts over transit planning resulted in the region losing the majority of funding for rapid transit.", "The city then moved forward with construction of the elevated downtown circulator portion of the system, which became known as the Detroit People Mover.The gasoline crises of 1973 and 1979 affected auto industry.", "Buyers chose smaller, more fuel-efficient cars made by foreign makers as the price of gas rose.", "Efforts to revive the city were stymied by the struggles of the auto industry, as their sales and market share declined.", "Automakers laid off thousands of employees and closed plants in the city, further eroding the tax base.", "To counteract this, the city used eminent domain to build two large new auto assembly plants in the city.Young sought to revive the city by seeking to increase investment in the city's declining downtown.", "The Renaissance Center, a mixed-use office and retail complex, opened in 1977.This group of skyscrapers was an attempt to keep businesses in downtown.", "Young also gave city support to other large developments to attract middle and upper-class residents back to the city.", "Despite the Renaissance Center and other projects, the downtown area continued to lose businesses to the automobile-dependent suburbs.", "Major stores and hotels closed, and many large office buildings went vacant.", "Young was criticized for being too focused on downtown development and not doing enough to lower the city's high crime rate and improve city services to residents.High unemployment was compounded by middle-class flight to the suburbs, and some residents leaving the state to find work.", "The result for the city was a higher proportion of poor in its population, reduced tax base, depressed property values, abandoned buildings, abandoned neighborhoods, and high crime rates.====1980s====On August 16, 1987, Northwest Airlines Flight 255 crashed near Detroit Metro airport, killing all but one of the 155 people on board, as well as two people on the ground.====1990s & 2000s====In 1993, Young retired as Detroit's longest-serving mayor, deciding not to seek a sixth term, with Dennis Archer succeeding him.", "Archer prioritized downtown development, easing tensions with its suburban neighbors.", "A referendum to allow casino gambling in the city passed in 1996; several temporary casino facilities opened in 1999, and permanent downtown casinos with hotels opened in 2007–08.Campus Martius, a reconfiguration of downtown's main intersection as a new park, was opened in 2004.The park has been cited as one of the best public spaces in the United States.", "In 2001, the first portion of the International Riverfront redevelopment was completed as a part of the city's 300th-anniversary celebration.====2010s====In September 2008, Mayor Kwame Kilpatrick (who had served for six years) resigned following felony convictions.", "In 2013, Kilpatrick was convicted on 24 federal felony counts, including mail fraud, wire fraud, and racketeering, and was sentenced to 28 years in federal prison.", "The former mayor's activities cost the city an estimated $20 million.", "Roughly half of the owners of Detroit's 305,000 properties failed to pay their 2011 tax bills, resulting in about $246 million (~$ in ) in taxes and fees going uncollected, nearly half of which was due to Detroit.", "The rest of the money would have been earmarked for Wayne County, Detroit Public Schools, and the library system.The city's financial crisis resulted in Michigan taking over administrative control of its government.", "Governor Rick Snyder declared a financial emergency in March 2013, stating the city had a $327 million budget deficit and faced more than $14 billion in long-term debt.", "It had been making ends meet on a month-to-month basis with the help of bond money held in a state escrow account and had instituted mandatory unpaid days off for many city workers.", "Those troubles, along with underfunded city services, such as police and fire departments, and ineffective turnaround plans from Mayor Bing and the City Council led the state of Michigan to appoint an emergency manager for Detroit.", "On June 14, 2013, Detroit defaulted on $2.5 billion of debt by withholding $39.7 million in interest payments, while Emergency Manager Kevyn Orr met with bondholders and other creditors in an attempt to restructure the city's $18.5 billion debt and avoid bankruptcy.", "On July 18, 2013, Detroit became the largest U.S. city to file for bankruptcy.", "It was declared bankrupt by U.S. District Court on December 3, with its $18.5 billion debt.", "On November 7, 2014, the city's plan for exiting bankruptcy was approved.", "On December 11 the city officially exited bankruptcy.", "The plan allowed the city to eliminate $7 billion in debt and invest $1.7 billion into improved city services.One way the city obtained this money was through the Detroit Institute of Arts (DIA).", "Holding over 60,000 pieces of art worth billions of dollars, some saw it as the key to funding this investment.", "The city came up with a plan to monetize the art and sell it, leading to the DIA becoming a private organization.", "After months of legal battles, the city finally got hundreds of millions of dollars towards funding a new Detroit.One of the largest post-bankruptcy efforts to improve city services has been to fix the city's broken street lighting system.", "At one time it was estimated that 40% of lights were not working, which resulted in public safety issues and abandonment of housing.", "The plan called for replacing outdated high-pressure sodium lights with 65,000 LED lights.", "Construction began in late 2014 and finished in December 2016; Detroit is the largest U.S. city with all LED street lighting.Construction progress at Hudson's Site in 2021In the 2010s, several initiatives were taken by Detroit's citizens and new residents to improve the cityscape by renovating and revitalizing neighborhoods.", "Such projects include volunteer renovation groups and various urban gardening movements.", "Miles of associated parks and landscaping have been completed in recent years.", "In 2011, the Port Authority Passenger Terminal opened, with the riverwalk connecting Hart Plaza to the Renaissance Center.One symbol of the city's decades-long decline, the Michigan Central Station, was long vacant.", "The city renovated it with new windows, elevators and facilities, completing the work in December 2015.In 2018, Ford Motor Company purchased the building and plans to use it for mobility testing with a potential return of train service.", "Several other landmark buildings have been privately renovated and adapted as condominiums, hotels, offices, or for cultural uses.", "Detroit was mentioned as a city of renaissance and has reversed many of the trends of the prior decades.The city has seen a rise in gentrification.", "In downtown, for example, the construction of Little Caesars Arena brought with it high class shops and restaurants along Woodward Avenue.", "Office tower and condominium construction has led to an influx of wealthy families but also a displacement of long-time residents and culture.", "Areas outside of downtown and other recently revived areas have an average household income of about 25% less than the gentrified areas, a gap that is continuing to grow.", "Rents and cost of living in these gentrified areas rise every year, pushing minorities and the poor out, causing more and more racial disparity and separation in the city.", "In 2019, the cost of a one-bedroom loft in Rivertown reached $300,000 (~$ in ), with a five-year sale price change of over 500% and average income rising by 18%." ], [ "Geography", "A satellite image from Sentinel-2 taken in September 2021 of Detroit and its surrounding metropolitan area with Windsor across the river===Metropolitan area===Detroit is the center of a three-county urban area (with a population of 3,734,090 within an area of according to the 2010 United States Census), six-county metropolitan statistical area (population of 5,322,219 in an area of as of the 2010 census), and a nine-county Combined Statistical Area (population of 5.3 million within ).===Topography===According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water.", "Detroit is the principal city in Metro Detroit and Southeast Michigan.", "It is situated in the Midwestern United States and the Great Lakes region.The Detroit River International Wildlife Refuge is the only international wildlife preserve in North America and is uniquely located in the heart of a major metropolitan area.", "The refuge includes islands, coastal wetlands, marshes, shoals, and waterfront lands along of the Detroit River and western Lake Erie shoreline.The city slopes gently from the northwest to southeast on a till plain composed largely of glacial and lake clay.", "The most notable topographical feature in the city is the Detroit Moraine, a broad clay ridge on which the older portions of Detroit and Windsor are located, rising approximately above the river at its highest point.", "The highest elevation in the city is directly north of Gorham Playground on the northwest side approximately three blocks south of 8 Mile Road, at a height of .", "Detroit's lowest elevation is along the Detroit River, at a surface height of .Belle Isle Park is a island park in the Detroit River, between Detroit and Windsor, Ontario.", "It is connected to the mainland by the MacArthur Bridge.", "Belle Isle Park contains such attractions as the James Scott Memorial Fountain, the Belle Isle Conservatory, the Detroit Yacht Club on an adjacent island, a half-mile (800 m) beach, a golf course, a nature center, monuments, and gardens.", "Both the Detroit and Windsor skylines can be viewed at the island's Sunset Point.Three road systems cross the city: the original French template, with avenues radiating from the waterfront, and true north–south roads based on the Northwest Ordinance township system.", "The city is north of Windsor, Ontario.", "Detroit is the only major city along the Canada–U.S.", "border in which one travels south in order to cross into Canada.Detroit has four border crossings: the Ambassador Bridge and the Detroit–Windsor tunnel provide motor vehicle thoroughfares, with the Michigan Central Railway Tunnel providing railroad access to and from Canada.", "The fourth border crossing is the Detroit–Windsor Truck Ferry, near the Windsor Salt Mine and Zug Island.", "Near Zug Island, the southwest part of the city was developed over a salt mine that is below the surface.", "The Detroit salt mine run by the Detroit Salt Company has over of roads within.===Climate===Detroit and the rest of southeastern Michigan have a hot-summer humid continental climate (Köppen: ''Dfa'') which is influenced by the Great Lakes like other places in the state; the city and close-in suburbs are part of USDA Hardiness zone 6b, while the more distant northern and western suburbs generally are included in zone 6a.", "Winters are cold, with moderate snowfall and temperatures not rising above freezing on an average 44 days annually, while dropping to or below on an average 4.4 days a year; summers are warm to hot with temperatures exceeding on 12 days.", "The warm season runs from May to September.", "The monthly daily mean temperature ranges from in January to in July.", "Official temperature extremes range from on July 24, 1934, down to on January 21, 1984; the record low maximum is on January 19, 1994, while, conversely the record high minimum is on August 1, 2006, the most recent of five occurrences.", "A decade or two may pass between readings of or higher, which last occurred July 17, 2012.The average window for freezing temperatures is October 20 thru April 22, allowing a growing season of 180 days.Precipitation is moderate and somewhat evenly distributed throughout the year, although the warmer months such as May and June average more, averaging annually, but historically ranging from in 1963 to in 2011.Snowfall, which typically falls in measurable amounts between November 15 through April 4 (occasionally in October and very rarely in May), averages per season, although historically ranging from in 1881–82 to in 2013–14.A thick snowpack is not often seen, with an average of only 27.5 days with or more of snow cover.", "Thunderstorms are frequent in the Detroit area.", "These usually occur during spring and summer.Climate data for DetroitMonthJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYearAverage sea temperature °F (°C)33.6(0.9)32.7(0.4)33.4(0.8)39.7(4.3)48.9(9.4)63.9(17.7)74.7(23.7)75.4(24.1)70.5(21.4)60.3(15.7)48.6(9.2)38.1(3.4)51.7(10.9)Mean daily daylight hours9.011.012.013.015.015.015.014.012.011.010.09.012.2Average Ultraviolet index1246789864214.8Source: Weather Atlas ===Architecture===Ally Detroit Center and the Michigan Labor Legacy MonumentThe Detroit Financial District viewed from across the Detroit RiverSeen in panorama, Detroit's waterfront shows a variety of architectural styles.", "The postmodern Neo-Gothic spires of Ally Detroit Center were designed to refer to the city's Art Deco skyscrapers.", "Together with the Renaissance Center, these buildings form a distinctive and recognizable skyline.", "Examples of the Art Deco style include the Guardian Building and Penobscot Building downtown, as well as the Fisher Building and Cadillac Place in the New Center area near Wayne State University.", "Among the city's prominent structures are United States' largest Fox Theatre, the Detroit Opera House, and the Detroit Institute of Arts, all built in the early 20th century.While the Downtown and New Center areas contain high-rise buildings, the majority of the surrounding city consists of low-rise structures and single-family homes.", "Outside of the city's core, residential high-rises are found in upper-class neighborhoods such as the East Riverfront, extending toward Grosse Pointe, and the Palmer Park neighborhood just west of Woodward.", "The University Commons-Palmer Park district in northwest Detroit, near the University of Detroit Mercy and Marygrove College, anchors historic neighborhoods including Palmer Woods, Sherwood Forest, and the University District.Forty-two significant structures or sites are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.", "Neighborhoods constructed prior to World War II feature the architecture of the times, with wood-frame and brick houses in the working-class neighborhoods, larger brick homes in middle-class neighborhoods, and ornate mansions in upper-class neighborhoods such as Brush Park, Woodbridge, Indian Village, Palmer Woods, Boston-Edison, and others.Some of the oldest neighborhoods are along the major Woodward and East Jefferson corridors, which formed spines of the city.", "Some newer residential construction may also be found along the Woodward corridor and in the far west and northeast.", "The oldest extant neighborhoods include West Canfield and Brush Park.", "There have been multi-million dollar restorations of existing homes and construction of new homes and condominiums here.The city has one of the United States' largest surviving collections of late 19th- and early 20th-century buildings.", "Architecturally significant churches and cathedrals in the city include St. Joseph's, Old St. Mary's, the Sweetest Heart of Mary, and the Cathedral of the Most Blessed Sacrament.The city has substantial activity in urban design, historic preservation, and architecture.", "A number of downtown redevelopment projects—of which Campus Martius Park is one of the most notable—have revitalized parts of the city.", "Grand Circus Park and historic district is near the city's theater district; Ford Field, home of the Detroit Lions, and Comerica Park, home of the Detroit Tigers.", "Little Caesars Arena, a new home for the Detroit Red Wings and the Detroit Pistons, with attached residential, hotel, and retail use, opened in 2017.The plans for the project call for mixed-use residential on the blocks surrounding the arena and the renovation of the vacant 14-story Eddystone Hotel.", "It will be a part of The District Detroit, a group of places owned by Olympia Entertainment Inc., including Comerica Park and the Detroit Opera House, among others.The Detroit International Riverfront includes a partially completed three-and-one-half-mile riverfront promenade with a combination of parks, residential buildings, and commercial areas.", "It extends from Hart Plaza to the MacArthur Bridge, which connects to Belle Isle Park, the largest island park in a U.S. city.", "The riverfront includes Tri-Centennial State Park and Harbor, Michigan's first urban state park.", "The second phase is a extension from Hart Plaza to the Ambassador Bridge for a total of of parkway from bridge to bridge.", "Civic planners envision the pedestrian parks will stimulate residential redevelopment of riverfront properties condemned under eminent domain.Other major parks include River Rouge (in the southwest side), the largest park in Detroit; Palmer (north of Highland Park) and Chene Park (on the east river downtown).====Neighborhoods====The Midtown Woodward Historic DistrictDetroit has a variety of neighborhood types.", "The revitalized Downtown, Midtown, Corktown, New Center areas feature many historic buildings and are high density, while further out, particularly in the northeast and on the fringes, high vacancy levels are problematic, for which a number of solutions have been proposed.", "In 2007, Downtown Detroit was recognized as the best city neighborhood in which to retire among the United States' largest metro areas by CNNMoney editors.Lafayette Park is a revitalized neighborhood on the city's east side, part of the Ludwig Mies van der Rohe residential district.", "The development was originally called the Gratiot Park.", "Planned by Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig Hilberseimer and Alfred Caldwell it includes a landscaped, park with no through traffic, in which these and other low-rise apartment buildings are situated.", "Immigrants have contributed to the city's neighborhood revitalization, especially in southwest Detroit.", "Southwest Detroit has experienced a thriving economy in recent years, as evidenced by new housing, increased business openings and the recently opened Mexicantown International Welcome Center.The city has numerous neighborhoods consisting of vacant properties resulting in low inhabited density in those areas, stretching city services and infrastructure.", "These neighborhoods are concentrated in the northeast and on the city's fringes.", "A 2009 parcel survey found about a quarter of residential lots in the city to be undeveloped or vacant, and about 10% of the city's housing to be unoccupied.", "The survey also reported that most (86%) of the city's homes are in good condition with a minority (9%) in fair condition needing only minor repairs.The Cass Park Historic District in MidtownNew CenterTo deal with vacancy issues, the city has begun demolishing the derelict houses, razing 3,000 of the total 10,000 in 2010, but the resulting low density creates a strain on the city's infrastructure.", "To remedy this, a number of solutions have been proposed including resident relocation from more sparsely populated neighborhoods and converting unused space to urban agricultural use, including Hantz Woodlands, though the city expects to be in the planning stages for up to another two years.Public funding and private investment have been made with promises to rehabilitate neighborhoods.", "In April 2008, the city announced a $300 million (~$ in ) stimulus plan to create jobs and revitalize neighborhoods, financed by city bonds and paid for by earmarking about 15% of the wagering tax.", "The city's working plans for neighborhood revitalizations include 7-Mile/Livernois, Brightmoor, East English Village, Grand River/Greenfield, North End, and Osborn.", "Private organizations have pledged substantial funding to the efforts.", "Additionally, the city has cleared a section of land for large-scale neighborhood construction, which the city is calling the ''Far Eastside Plan''.", "In 2011, Mayor Dave Bing announced a plan to categorize neighborhoods by their needs and prioritize the most needed services for those neighborhoods." ], [ "Demographics", "Population pyramid of Detroit in 2021In the 2020 United States Census, the city had 639,111 residents, ranking it the 27th most populous city in the United States.", "Of the large shrinking cities in the United States, Detroit has had the most dramatic decline in the population of the past 70 years (down 1,210,457) and the second-largest percentage decline (down 65.4%).", "While the drop in Detroit's population has been ongoing since 1950, the most dramatic period was the significant 25% decline between the 2000 and 2010 Census.Ethnic origins in DetroitDetroit's 639,111 residents represent 269,445 households, and 162,924 families residing in the city.", "The population density was .", "There were 349,170 housing units at an average density of .", "Of the 269,445 households, 34.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 21.5% were married couples living together, 31.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 39.5% were non-families, 34.0% were made up of individuals, and 3.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.59, and the average family size was 3.36.There was a wide distribution of age in the city, with 31.1% under the age of 18, 9.7% from 18 to 24, 29.5% from 25 to 44, 19.3% from 45 to 64, and 10.4% 65 years of age or older.", "The median age was 31 years.", "For every 100 females, there were 89.1 males.", "For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83.5 males.=== Religion ===According to a 2014 study, 67% of the population of the city identified themselves as Christians, with 49% professing attendance at Protestant churches, and 16% professing Roman Catholic beliefs, while 24% claim no religious affiliation.", "Other religions collectively make up about 8% of the population.===Income and employment===The loss of industrial and working-class jobs in the city has resulted in high rates of poverty and associated problems.", "From 2000 to 2009, the city's estimated median household income fell from $29,526 to $26,098., the mean income of Detroit is below the overall U.S. average by several thousand dollars.", "Of every three Detroit residents, one lives in poverty.", "Luke Bergmann, author of ''Getting Ghost: Two Young Lives and the Struggle for the Soul of an American City'', said in 2010, \"Detroit is now one of the poorest big cities in the country\".In the 2018 American Community Survey, median household income in the city was $31,283, compared with the median for Michigan of $56,697.The median income for a family was $36,842, well below the state median of $72,036.33.4% of families had income at or below the federally defined poverty level.", "Out of the total population, 47.3% of those under the age of 18 and 21.0% of those 65 and older had income at or below the federally defined poverty line.+ Median income in Detroit (as of July 1, 2019)AreaNumberof house-holdsMedianHouse-holdIncomePerCapitaIncomePercent-age inpovertyDetroit City263,688$30,894 ()$18,621 ()35.0% ()Wayne County, MI682,282$47,301$27,28219.8%United States120,756,048$62,843$34,10311.4%===Race and ethnicity===+ Historical Racial Composition of the City of Detroit Self-identified race 2020 2010 1990 1970 1950 1940 1930 1920 1910 White 14.7% 10.6% 21.6% 55.5% 83.6% 90.7% 92.2% 95.8% 98.7% —Non-Hispanic 11% 7.8% 20.7% 54.0% 90.4% Black or African American 77.7% 82.7% 75.7% 43.7% 16.2% 9.2% 7.7% 4.1% 1.2% Hispanic or Latino (of any race) 8.0% 6.8% 2.8% 1.8% 0.3% Asian 1.6% 1.1% 0.8% 0.3% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% Map of racial distribution in Detroit, 2010 U.S. Census.", "Each dot is 25 people: Beginning with the rise of the automobile industry, Detroit's population increased more than sixfold during the first half of the 20th century as an influx of European, Middle Eastern (Lebanese, Assyrian/Chaldean), and Southern migrants brought their families to the city.", "With this economic boom following World War I, the African American population grew from a mere 6,000 in 1910 to more than 120,000 by 1930.Perhaps one of the most overt examples of neighborhood discrimination occurred in 1925 when African American physician Ossian Sweet found his home surrounded by an angry mob of his hostile white neighbors violently protesting his new move into a traditionally white neighborhood.", "Sweet and ten of his family members and friends were put on trial for murder as one of the mob members throwing rocks at the newly purchased house was shot and killed by someone firing out of a second-floor window.Detroit has a relatively large Mexican-American population.", "In the early 20th century, thousands of Mexicans came to Detroit to work in agricultural, automotive, and steel jobs.", "During the Mexican Repatriation of the 1930s many Mexicans in Detroit were willingly repatriated or forced to repatriate.", "By the 1940s much of the Mexican community began to settle what is now Mexicantown.", "Immigration from Jalisco significantly increased the Latino population in the 1990s.", "By 2010 Detroit had 48,679 Hispanics, including 36,452 Mexicans: a 70% increase from 1990.Greektown Historic District in DetroitAfter World War II, many people from Appalachia also settled in Detroit.", "Appalachians formed communities and their children acquired southern accents.", "Many Lithuanians also settled in Detroit during the World War II era, especially on the city's Southwest side in the West Vernor area, where the renovated Lithuanian Hall reopened in 2006.While African Americans previously comprised only 13% of Michigan's population, by 2010 they made up nearly 82% of Detroit's population.", "The next largest population groups were white people, at 10%, and Hispanics, at 6%.", "In 2001, 103,000 Jews, or about 1.9% of the population, were living in the Detroit area.", "According to the 2010 census, segregation in Detroit has decreased in absolute and relative terms and in the first decade of the 21st century, about two-thirds of the total black population in the metropolitan area resided within the city limits of Detroit.", "The number of integrated neighborhoods increased from 100 in 2000 to 204 in 2010.Detroit also moved down the ranking from number one most segregated city to number four.", "A 2011 op-ed in ''The New York Times'' attributed the decreased segregation rating to the overall exodus from the city, cautioning that these areas may soon become more segregated.", "Chaldean Town, a historically Chaldean neighborhood in DetroitAs of 2002, Detroit's percentage of Asians was 1%.", "There are four areas in Detroit with significant Asian and Asian American populations.", "Northeast Detroit has a large population of Hmong with a smaller group of Lao people.", "A portion of Detroit next to eastern Hamtramck includes Bangladeshi Americans, Indian Americans, and Pakistani Americans; nearly all of the Bangladeshi population in Detroit lives in that area.", "The area north of downtown has transient Asian national origin residents who are university students or hospital workers.", "Few of them have permanent residency after schooling ends.", "They are mostly Chinese and Indian but the population also includes Filipinos, Koreans, and Pakistanis.", "In Southwest Detroit and western Detroit there are smaller, scattered Asian communities." ], [ "Economy", "'''Top city employers'''Source: ''Crain's Detroit Business'' Rank Company or organization # 1Detroit Medical Center11,497 2City of Detroit9,591 3Quicken Loans9,192 4Henry Ford Health System8,807 5Detroit Public Schools6,586 6U.S.", "Government6,308 7Wayne State University6,023 8Chrysler5,426 9Blue Cross Blue Shield5,415 10General Motors4,327 11State of Michigan3,911 12DTE Energy3,700 13St.", "John Providence Health System3,566 14U.S.", "Postal Service2,643 15Wayne County2,566 16MGM Grand Detroit2,551 17MotorCity Casino1,973 18Compuware1,912 19Detroit Diesel1,685 20Greektown Casino1,521 21Comerica1,194 22Deloitte942 23Johnson Controls760 24PwC756 25Ally Financial715Several major corporations are based in the city, including three Fortune 500 companies.", "The most heavily represented sectors are manufacturing (particularly automotive), finance, technology, and health care.", "The most significant companies based in Detroit include General Motors, Rocket Mortgage, Ally Financial, Compuware, Shinola, American Axle, Little Caesars, DTE Energy, Lowe Campbell Ewald, Blue Cross Blue Shield of Michigan, and Rossetti Architects.About 80,500 people work in downtown Detroit, comprising one-fifth of the city's employment base.", "Aside from the numerous Detroit-based companies listed above, downtown contains large offices for Comerica, Chrysler, Fifth Third Bank, HP Enterprise, Deloitte, PricewaterhouseCoopers, KPMG, and Ernst & Young.", "Ford Motor Company is in the adjacent city of Dearborn.Thousands more employees work in Midtown, north of the central business district.", "Midtown's anchors are the city's largest single employer Detroit Medical Center, Wayne State University, and the Henry Ford Health System in New Center.", "Midtown is also home to watchmaker Shinola and an array of small and startup companies.", "New Center bases TechTown, a research and business incubator hub that is part of the Wayne State University system.", "Like downtown, Corktown Is experiencing growth with the new Ford Corktown Campus under development.The First National Building, a class-A office center within the Detroit Financial DistrictThe Detroit River is one of the busiest straits in the world.", "Lake freighter ''MV American Courage'' passing the strait.", "Many downtown employers are relatively new, as there has been a marked trend of companies moving from satellite suburbs into the downtown core.", "Compuware completed its world headquarters in downtown in 2003.OnStar, Blue Cross Blue Shield, and HP Enterprise Services are at the Renaissance Center.", "PricewaterhouseCoopers Plaza offices are adjacent to Ford Field, and Ernst & Young completed its office building at One Kennedy Square in 2006.Perhaps most prominently, in 2010, Quicken Loans, one of the largest mortgage lenders, relocated its world headquarters and 4,000 employees to downtown Detroit, consolidating its suburban offices.", "In July 2012, the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office opened its Elijah J. McCoy Satellite Office in the Rivertown/Warehouse District as its first location outside Washington, D.C.'s metropolitan area.In April 2014, the United States Department of Labor reported the city's unemployment rate at 14.5%.Labor force distribution in Detroit by category: The city of Detroit and other public–private partnerships have attempted to catalyze the region's growth by facilitating the building and historical rehabilitation of residential high-rises in the downtown, creating a zone that offers many business tax incentives, creating recreational spaces such as the Detroit RiverWalk, Campus Martius Park, Dequindre Cut Greenway, and Green Alleys in Midtown.", "The city has cleared sections of land while retaining some historically significant vacant buildings in order to spur redevelopment; even though it has struggled with finances, the city issued bonds in 2008 to provide funding for ongoing work to demolish blighted properties.", "Two years earlier, downtown reported $1.3 billion in restorations and new developments which increased the number of construction jobs in the city.", "In the decade prior to 2006, downtown gained more than $15 billion in new investment from private and public sectors.Despite the city's recent financial issues, many developers remain unfazed by Detroit's problems.", "Midtown is one of the most successful areas within Detroit to have a residential occupancy rate of 96%.", "Numerous developments have been recently completed or are in various stages of construction.", "These include the $82 million reconstruction of downtown's David Whitney Building (now an Aloft Hotel and luxury residences), the Woodward Garden Block Development in Midtown, the residential conversion of the David Broderick Tower in downtown, the rehabilitation of the Book Cadillac Hotel (now a Westin and luxury condos) and Fort Shelby Hotel (now Doubletree) also in downtown, and various smaller projects.Downtown's population of young professionals is growing, and retail is expanding.", "A study in 2007 found out that Downtown's new residents are predominantly young professionals (57% are ages 25 to 34, 45% have bachelor's degrees, and 34% have a master's or professional degree), a trend which has hastened over the last decade.", "Since 2006, $9 billion has been invested in downtown and surrounding neighborhoods; $5.2 billion of which has come in 2013 and 2014.Construction activity, particularly rehabilitation of historic downtown buildings, has increased markedly.", "As of 2014, the number of vacant downtown buildings has dropped from nearly 50 to around 13.In 2013 Meijer, a midwestern retail chain, opened its first supercenter store in Detroit; this was a $20 million, 190,000-square-foot store in the northern portion of the city and it also is the centerpiece of a new $72 million shopping center named Gateway Marketplace.", "In 2015 Meijer opened its second supercenter store in the city.", "In 2019 JPMorgan Chase announced plans to invest $50 million more in affordable housing, job training and entrepreneurship by the end of 2022, growing its investment to $200 million." ], [ "Arts and culture", "March for ScienceNorth American International Auto ShowIn the central portions of Detroit, the population of young professionals, artists, and other transplants is growing and retail is expanding.", "This dynamic is luring additional new residents, and former residents returning from other cities, to the city's Downtown along with the revitalized Midtown and New Center areas.A desire to be closer to the urban scene has attracted some young professionals to reside in inner ring suburbs such as Ferndale and Royal Oak.", "The proximity to Windsor provides for views and nightlife, along with Ontario's minimum drinking age of 19.A 2011 study by Walk Score recognized Detroit for its above average walkability among large U.S. cities.", "About two-thirds of suburban residents occasionally dine and attend cultural events or take in professional games in the city.===Nicknames===Known as the world's automotive center, \"Detroit\" is a metonym for that industry.", "It is an important source of popular music legacies celebrated by the city's two familiar nicknames, the ''Motor City'' and ''Motown''.", "Other nicknames arose in the 20th century, including ''City of Champions'', beginning in the 1930s for its successes in individual and team sport; ''The D''; ''Hockeytown'' (a trademark owned by the Detroit Red Wings); ''Rock City'' (after the Kiss song \"Detroit Rock City\"); and ''The 313'' (its telephone area code).===Music===\"Motown Mansion\" in Boston-Edison Historic District; former home of Berry Gordy, founder of Motown RecordsDetroit Electronic Music FestivalDetroit Institute of Music EducationLive music has been a prominent feature of Detroit's nightlife since the late 1940s, bringing the city recognition under the nickname \"Motown\".", "The metropolitan area has many nationally prominent live music venues.", "Concerts hosted by Live Nation perform throughout the Detroit area.", "The theater venue circuit is the United States' second largest and hosts Broadway performances.The city has a rich musical heritage and has contributed to many genres over the decades.", "Important music events include the Detroit International Jazz Festival, the Detroit Electronic Music Festival, the Motor City Music Conference (MC2), the Urban Organic Music Conference, the Concert of Colors, and the hip-hop Summer Jamz festival.In the 1940s, Detroit blues artist John Lee Hooker became a long-term resident in the Delray neighborhood.", "Hooker, among other important blues musicians, migrated from his home in Mississippi, bringing the Delta blues to Detroit.", "Hooker recorded for Fortune Records, the biggest pre-Motown blues/soul label.", "During the 1950s, the city became a center for jazz, with stars performing in the Black Bottom neighborhood.", "Prominent emerging jazz musicians included trumpeter Donald Byrd (who attended Cass Tech and performed with Art Blakey and The Jazz Messengers early in his career) and saxophonist Pepper Adams (who enjoyed a solo career and accompanied Byrd on several albums).", "The Graystone International Jazz Museum documents jazz in Detroit.Other prominent Motor City R&B stars in the 1950s and early 1960s were Nolan Strong, Andre Williams and Nathaniel Mayer—who all scored local and national hits on the Fortune Records label.", "According to Smokey Robinson, Strong was a primary influence on his voice as a teenager.", "The Fortune label, a family-operated label on Third Avenue, was owned by the husband-and-wife team of Jack Brown and Devora Brown.", "Fortune—which also released country, gospel and rockabilly LPs and 45s—laid the groundwork for Motown, which became Detroit's most legendary record label.Berry Gordy, Jr. founded Motown Records, which rose to prominence during the 1960s and early 1970s with acts such as Stevie Wonder, the Temptations, the Four Tops, Smokey Robinson & The Miracles, Diana Ross & The Supremes, the Jackson 5, Martha and the Vandellas, the Spinners, Gladys Knight & the Pips, the Marvelettes, the Elgins, the Monitors, the Velvelettes and Marvin Gaye.", "Artists were backed by in-house vocalists The Andantes and The Funk Brothers.", "\"The Motown sound\" played an important role in the crossover appeal with popular music, since it was the first African American–owned record label to primarily feature African-American artists.", "Gordy moved Motown to Los Angeles in 1972 to pursue film production, but the company has since returned to Detroit.", "Aretha Franklin, another Detroit R&B star, carried the Motown sound; however, she did not record with Berry's Motown label.Local artists and bands rose to prominence in the 1960s and 70s, including the MC5, Glenn Frey, the Stooges, Bob Seger, Amboy Dukes featuring Ted Nugent, Mitch Ryder and The Detroit Wheels, Rare Earth, Alice Cooper, and Suzi Quatro.", "The group Kiss emphasized the city's connection with rock in the song \"Detroit Rock City\" and the movie produced in 1999.In the 1980s, Detroit was an important center of the hardcore punk rock underground with many nationally known bands coming out of the city and its suburbs, such as the Necros, the Meatmen, and Negative Approach.In the 1990s and 2000s, the city produced many influential hip hop artists, including Eminem, the hip-hop artist with the highest cumulative sales, his rap group D12, hip-hop rapper and producer Royce da 5'9\", hip-hop producer Denaun Porter, hip-hop producer J Dilla, rapper and musician Kid Rock and rappers Big Sean and Danny Brown.", "The band Sponge toured and produced music.", "The city also has an active garage rock scene that has generated national attention with acts such as the White Stripes, the Von Bondies, the Detroit Cobras, the Dirtbombs, Electric Six, and the Hard Lessons.", "Detroit is cited as the birthplace of techno music in the early 1980s.", "The city also lends its name to an early and pioneering genre of electronic dance music, \"Detroit techno\".", "Featuring science fiction imagery and robotic themes, its futuristic style was greatly influenced by the geography of Detroit's urban decline and its industrial past.", "Prominent Detroit techno artists include Juan Atkins, Derrick May, Kevin Saunderson, and Jeff Mills.", "The Detroit Electronic Music Festival, now known as Movement, occurs annually in late May on Memorial Day Weekend, and takes place in Hart Plaza.===Performing arts===Detroit Fox Theatre in DowntownMajor theaters in Detroit include the Fox Theatre (5,174 seats), Music Hall Center for the Performing Arts (1,770 seats), the Gem Theatre (451 seats), Masonic Temple Theatre (4,404 seats), the Detroit Opera House (2,765 seats), the Fisher Theatre (2,089 seats), The Fillmore Detroit (2,200 seats), Saint Andrew's Hall, the Majestic Theater, and Orchestra Hall (2,286 seats), which hosts the renowned Detroit Symphony Orchestra.", "The Nederlander Organization, the largest controller of Broadway productions in New York City, originated with the purchase of the Detroit Opera House in 1922 by the Nederlander family.Motown Motion Picture Studios with produces movies in Detroit and the surrounding area based at the Pontiac Centerpoint Business Campus for a film industry expected to employ over 4,000 people in the metro area.===Tourism===Detroit Institute of ArtsBecause of its unique culture, distinctive architecture, and revitalization and urban renewal efforts in the 21st century, Detroit has enjoyed increased prominence as a tourist destination in recent years.", "''The New York Times'' listed Detroit as the ninth-best destination in its list of ''52 Places to Go in 2017'', while travel guide publisher ''Lonely Planet'' named Detroit the second-best city in the world to visit in 2018.", "''Time'' named Detroit as one of the 50 World's Greatest Places of 2022 to explore.Many of the area's prominent museums are in the historic cultural center neighborhood around Wayne State University and the College for Creative Studies.", "These museums include the Detroit Institute of Arts, the Detroit Historical Museum, Charles H. Wright Museum of African American History, the Detroit Science Center, as well as the main branch of the Detroit Public Library.", "Other cultural highlights include Motown Historical Museum, the Ford Piquette Avenue Plant museum, the Pewabic Pottery studio and school, the Tuskegee Airmen Museum, Fort Wayne, the Dossin Great Lakes Museum, the Museum of Contemporary Art Detroit, the Contemporary Art Institute of Detroit, and the Belle Isle Conservatory.In 2010, the G.R.", "N'Namdi Gallery opened in a complex in Midtown.", "Important history of America and the Detroit area are exhibited at The Henry Ford in Dearborn, the United States' largest indoor-outdoor museum complex.", "The Detroit Historical Society provides information about tours of area churches, skyscrapers, and mansions.", "Inside Detroit hosts tours, educational programming, and a downtown welcome center.", "Other sites of interest are the Detroit Zoo in Royal Oak, the Cranbrook Art Museum in Bloomfield Hills, the Anna Scripps Whitcomb Conservatory on Belle Isle, and Walter P. Chrysler Museum in Auburn Hills.Greektown and three downtown casino resort hotels serve as part of an entertainment hub.", "The Eastern Market farmer's distribution center is the largest open-air flowerbed market in the United States and has more than 150 foods and specialty businesses.", "On Saturdays, about 45,000 people shop there.", "The annual Detroit Festival of the Arts in Midtown draws about 350,000 people.The Ford Piquette Avenue Plant, birthplace of the Ford Model T and the world's oldest car factory building open to the publicAnnual summer events include the Electronic Music Festival, International Jazz Festival, the Woodward Dream Cruise, the African World Festival, the country music Hoedown, Noel Night, and Dally in the Alley.", "Within downtown, Campus Martius Park hosts large events, including the annual Motown Winter Blast.", "As the world's traditional automotive center, the city hosts the North American International Auto Show.", "Held since 1924, America's Thanksgiving Parade is one of the nation's largest.", "River Days, a five-day summer festival on the International Riverfront lead up to the Windsor–Detroit International Freedom Festival fireworks, which draw super sized-crowds ranging from hundreds of thousands to over three million people.An important civic sculpture is ''The Spirit of Detroit'' by Marshall Fredericks at the Coleman Young Municipal Center.", "The image is often used as a symbol of Detroit, and the statue is occasionally dressed in sports jerseys to celebrate when a Detroit team is doing well.", "A memorial to Joe Louis is located at the intersection of Jefferson and Woodward Avenues.", "The sculpture, commissioned by ''Sports Illustrated'' and executed by Robert Graham, is a long arm with a fisted hand suspended by a pyramidal framework." ], [ "Sports", "Detroit is one of four U.S. cities that have venues within the city representing the four major sports in North America.", "Detroit is the only city to have its four major sports teams play within its downtown district.", "Venues include: Comerica Park (home of MLB's Detroit Tigers), Ford Field (home of the NFL's Detroit Lions), and Little Caesars Arena (home of the NHL's Detroit Red Wings and the NBA's Detroit Pistons).Detroit has won titles in all four of the major professional sports leagues.", "The Tigers have won four World Series titles (1935, 1945, 1968, and 1984).", "The Red Wings have won 11 Stanley Cups (1935–36, 1936–37, 1942–43, 1949–50, 1951–52, 1953–54, 1954–55, 1996–97, 1997–98, 2001–02, 2007–08) (the most by an American NHL franchise).", "The Lions have won 4 NFL titles (1935, 1952, 1953, 1957) .", "The Pistons have won three NBA titles (1989, 1990, 2004).", "In the years following the mid-1930s, Detroit was referred to as the \"City of Champions\" after the Tigers, Lions, and Red Wings captured the three major professional sports championships in existence at the time in a seven-month period (the Tigers won the World Series in October 1935; the Lions won the NFL championship in December 1935; the Red Wings won the Stanley Cup in April 1936).Founded in 2012 as a semi-professional soccer club, Detroit City FC plays professional soccer in the USL Championship.", "Nicknamed, ''Le Rouge'', the club are two-time champions of NISA since joining in 2020.They play their home matches in Keyworth Stadium, which is located in the enclave of Hamtramck.In college sports, Detroit's central location within the Mid-American Conference (MAC) has made it a frequent site for the league's championship events.", "While the MAC Basketball Tournament moved permanently to Cleveland starting in 2000, the MAC Football Championship Game has been played at Ford Field since 2004 and annually attracts 25,000 to 30,000 fans.", "The University of Detroit Mercy has an NCAA Division I program, and Wayne State University has both NCAA Division I and II programs.", "The NCAA football Quick Lane Bowl is held at Ford Field each December.The city hosted the 2005 MLB All-Star Game, Super Bowl XL in 2006, the 2006 and 2012 World Series, WrestleMania 23 in 2007, and the NCAA Final Four in April 2009.The Detroit Indy Grand Prix is held in Belle Isle Park.", "In 2007, open-wheel racing returned to Belle Isle with both Indy Racing League and American Le Mans Series Racing.", "From 1982 to 1988, Detroit held the Detroit Grand Prix, at the Detroit street circuit.In 1932, Eddie \"The Midnight Express\" Tolan from Detroit won the 100- and 200-meter races and two gold medals at the 1932 Summer Olympics.", "Joe Louis won the heavyweight championship of the world in 1937.Detroit has made the most bids to host the Summer Olympics without ever being awarded the games, with seven unsuccessful bids for the 1944, 1952, 1956, 1960, 1964, 1968, and 1972 summer games." ], [ "Government", "The Guardian Building serves as the headquarters of Wayne County.The city is governed pursuant to the home rule ''Charter of the City of Detroit''.", "The government is run by a mayor, the nine-member Detroit City Council, the eleven-member Board of Police Commissioners, and a clerk.", "All of these officers are elected on a nonpartisan ballot, with the exception of four of the police commissioners, who are appointed by the mayor.", "Detroit has a \"strong mayoral\" system, with the mayor approving departmental appointments.", "The council approves budgets, but the mayor is not obligated to adhere to any earmarking.", "The city clerk supervises elections and is formally charged with the maintenance of municipal records.", "City ordinances and substantially large contracts must be approved by the council.", "The ''Detroit City Code'' is the codification of Detroit's local ordinances.Presently three Community Advisory Councils advise City Council representatives.", "Residents of each of Detroit's seven districts have the option of electing Community Advisory Councils.", "The city clerk supervises elections and is formally charged with the maintenance of municipal records.", "Municipal elections for mayor, city council and city clerk are held at four-year intervals, in the year after presidential elections.", "Following a November 2009 referendum, seven council members will be elected from districts beginning in 2013 while two will continue to be elected at-large.Detroit's courts are state-administered and elections are nonpartisan.", "The Probate Court for Wayne County is in the Coleman A.", "Young Municipal Center in downtown.", "The Circuit Court is across Gratiot Avenue in the Frank Murphy Hall of Justice.", "The city is home to the Thirty-Sixth District Court, as well as the First District of the Michigan Court of Appeals and the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan.", "The city provides law enforcement through the Detroit Police Department and emergency services through the Detroit Fire Department.===Politics===Beginning with its incorporation in 1802, Detroit has had a total of 74 mayors.", "Detroit's last mayor from the Republican Party was Louis Miriani, who served from 1957 to 1962.In 1973, the city elected its first black mayor, Coleman Young.", "Despite development efforts, his combative style during his five terms in office was not well received by many suburban residents.", "Mayor Dennis Archer, a former Michigan Supreme Court Justice, refocused the city's attention on redevelopment with a plan to permit three casinos downtown.", "By 2008, three major casino resort hotels established operations in the city.In 2000, the city requested an investigation by the United States Justice Department into the Detroit Police Department which was concluded in 2003 over allegations regarding its use of force and civil rights violations.", "The city proceeded with a major reorganization of the Detroit Police Department.", "In 2013, felony bribery charges were brought against seven building inspectors.", "In 2016, further corruption charges were brought against 12 principals, a former school superintendent and supply vendor for a $12 million (~$ in ) kickback scheme.", "However, law professor Peter Henning argues Detroit's corruption is not unusual for a city its size, especially when compared with Chicago.Detroit is sometimes referred to as a sanctuary city because it has \"anti-profiling ordinances that generally prohibit local police from asking about the immigration status of people who are not suspected of any crime\".", "The city in recent years has been a stronghold for the Democratic Party, with around 94% of votes in the city going to Joe Biden, the Democratic candidate in the 2020 Presidential election." ], [ "Education", "===Colleges and universities===College of Business Administration, University of Detroit MercyDetroit is home to several institutions of higher learning including Wayne State University, a national research university with medical and law schools in the Midtown area offering hundreds of academic degrees and programs.", "The University of Detroit Mercy, in northwest Detroit in the University District, is a prominent Roman Catholic co-educational university affiliated with the Society of Jesus (the Jesuits) and the Sisters of Mercy.", "The University of Detroit Mercy School of Law is downtown across from the Renaissance Center.Grand Valley State University's Detroit Center hosts workshops, seminars, professional development, and other large gatherings.", "Located in the heart of downtown next to Comerica Park and the Detroit Athletic Club, the center has become a key component for educational activity in the city.DeRoy Auditorium at Wayne State University, by Minoru YamasakiSacred Heart Major Seminary, founded in 1919, is affiliated with Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, ''Angelicum'' in Rome and offers pontifical degrees as well as civil undergraduate and graduate degrees.", "Other institutions in the city include the College for Creative Studies and Wayne County Community College.", "In June 2009, the Michigan State University College of Osteopathic Medicine which is based in East Lansing opened a satellite campus at the Detroit Medical Center.===Primary and secondary schools=== many K-12 students in Detroit frequently change schools, with some children having been enrolled in seven schools before finishing their K-12 careers.", "There is a concentration of senior high schools and charter schools in the downtown area, which had wealthier residents and more gentrification relative to other parts of Detroit: Downtown, northwest Detroit, and northeast Detroit have 1,894, 3,742, and 6,018 students of high school age, respectively, while they have 11, three, and two high schools, respectively.", "because of the lack of public transportation and the lack of school bus services, many Detroit families have to rely on themselves to transport children to school.====Public schools and charter schools====Western International High SchoolCass Technical High SchoolWith about 66,000 public school students (2011–12), the Detroit Public Schools (DPS) district is the largest school district in Michigan.", "Detroit has an additional 56,000 charter school students for a combined enrollment of about 122,000 students.", "there are about as many students in charter schools as there are in district schools.", "DPS continues to have the majority of the special education pupils.", "In addition, some Detroit students, as of 2016, attend public schools in other municipalities.In 1999, the Michigan Legislature removed the locally elected board of education amid allegations of mismanagement and replaced it with a reform board appointed by the mayor and governor.", "The elected board of education was re-established following a city referendum in 2005.The first election of the new 11-member board of education occurred on November 8, 2005.With growing charter schools enrollment as well as a continued exodus of population, the city planned to close many public schools.", "State officials report a 68% graduation rate for Detroit's public schools adjusted for those who change schools.", "Traditional public and charter school students in the city have performed poorly on standardized tests.", "and 2011, while Detroit traditional public schools scored a record low on national tests, the publicly funded charter schools did even worse than the traditional public schools.", "there were 30,000 excess openings in Detroit traditional public and charter schools, bearing in mind the number of K-12-aged children in the city.", "In 2016, Kate Zernike of ''The New York Times'' stated school performance did not improve despite the proliferation of charters, describing the situation as \"lots of choice, with no good choice\".Detroit public schools students scored the lowest on tests of reading and writing of all major cities in the United States in 2015.Among eighth-graders, only 27% showed basic proficiency in math and 44% in reading.", "Nearly half of Detroit's adults are functionally illiterate.====Private schools====Detroit is served by various private schools, as well as parochial Roman Catholic schools operated by the Archdiocese of Detroit.", "there are four Catholic grade schools and three Catholic high schools in the City of Detroit, with all of them in the city's west side.", "The Archdiocese of Detroit lists a number of primary and secondary schools in the metro area as Catholic education has emigrated to the suburbs.", "Of the three Catholic high schools, two are operated by the Society of Jesus and the third is co-sponsored by the Sisters, Servants of the Immaculate Heart of Mary and the Congregation of St.", "Basil." ], [ "Media", "Offices of the ''Detroit Free Press'' and ''Detroit News''The ''Detroit Free Press'' and ''The Detroit News'' are the major daily newspapers, both broadsheet publications published together under a joint operating agreement called the Detroit Media Partnership.", "Media philanthropy includes the ''Detroit Free Press'' high school journalism program and the Old Newsboys' Goodfellow Fund of Detroit.", "In March 2009, the two newspapers reduced home delivery to three days per week, print reduced newsstand issues of the papers on non-delivery days and focus resources on Internet-based news delivery.", "The ''Metro Times'', founded in 1980, is a weekly publication, covering news, arts & entertainment.Founded in 1935 and based in Detroit, the ''Michigan Chronicle'' is one of the oldest and most respected African-American weekly newspapers in America, covering politics, entertainment, sports and community events.", "The Detroit television market is the 11th largest in the United States; according to estimates that do not include audiences in large areas of Ontario (Windsor and its surrounding area on broadcast and cable TV, as well as several other cable markets in Ontario, such as Ottawa) which receive and watch Detroit television stations.Detroit has the 11th largest radio market in the United States, though this ranking does not take into account Canadian audiences.", "Nearby Canadian stations such as Windsor's CKLW (whose jingles formerly proclaimed \"CKLW-the Motor City\") are popular in Detroit." ], [ "Crime", "Detroit has gained notoriety for its high amount of crime, having struggled with it for decades.", "The number of homicides in 1974 was 714.The homicide rate in 2022 was the third highest in the nation at 50.0 per 100,000.Downtown typically has lower crime than national and state averages.", "According to a 2007 analysis, Detroit officials note about 65 to 70 percent of homicides in the city were drug related, with the rate of unsolved murders roughly 70%.Although the rate of violent crime dropped 11% in 2008, violent crime in Detroit has not declined as much as the national average from 2007 to 2011.The violent crime rate is one of the highest in the United States.", "Neighborhoodscout.com reported a crime rate of 62.18 per 1,000 residents for property crimes, and 16.73 per 1,000 for violent crimes (compared to national figures of 32 per 1,000 for property crimes and 5 per 1,000 for violent crime in 2008).", "In 2012, crime in the city was among the reasons for more expensive car insurance.Areas of the city adjacent to the Detroit River are also patrolled by the United States Border Patrol." ], [ "Infrastructure", "The Detroit Public Library in 2018===Health systems===There are over a dozen major hospitals, which include the Detroit Medical Center (DMC), Henry Ford Health System, St. John Health System, and the John D. Dingell VA Medical Center.", "DMC, a regional Level I trauma center, consists of Detroit Receiving Hospital and University Health Center, Children's Hospital of Michigan, Harper University Hospital, Hutzel Women's Hospital, Kresge Eye Institute, Rehabilitation Institute of Michigan, Sinai-Grace Hospital, and the Karmanos Cancer Institute.", "DMC has more than 2,000 licensed beds and 3,000 affiliated physicians.", "It is the largest private employer in the city.", "The center is staffed by physicians from the Wayne State University School of Medicine, the largest single-campus medical school in the United States and the fourth largest medical school overall.Harper Hospital and Hutzel Women's HospitalDMC formally became a part of Vanguard Health Systems on December 30, 2010, as a for-profit corporation.", "Vanguard has agreed to invest nearly $1.5 B in the DMC complex.", "Vanguard has agreed to assume all debts and pension obligations.", "The metro area has many other hospitals including William Beaumont Hospital, St. Joseph's, and University of Michigan Medical Center.", "In 2011, DMC and Henry Ford Health System substantially increased investments in medical research facilities and hospitals in the city's Midtown and New Center.", "In 2012, two major construction projects were begun in New Center.", "The Henry Ford Health System started the first phase of a $500 million, 300-acre revitalization project, with the construction of a new $30 million, 275,000-square-foot, ''Medical Distribution Center'' for Cardinal Health, Inc. and Wayne State University started construction on a new $93 million, 207,000-square-foot, Integrative Biosciences Center (IBio).", "As many as 500 researchers and staff will work out of the IBio Center.===Transportation===A QLine streetcar at Campus Martius station|alt=See captionWith its proximity to Canada and its facilities, ports, major highways, rail connections and international airports, Detroit is an important transportation hub.", "The city has three international border crossings, the Ambassador Bridge, Detroit–Windsor Tunnel and Michigan Central Railway Tunnel, linking Detroit to Windsor.", "The Ambassador Bridge is the single busiest border crossing in North America, carrying 27% of the total trade between the U.S. and Canada.In 2015 Canadian Transport Minister Lisa Raitt announced Canada agreed to pay the entire cost to build a $250 million U.S. Customs plaza adjacent to the planned new Detroit–Windsor bridge, now the Gordie Howe International Bridge.", "Canada had already planned to pay for 95% of the bridge, which will cost $2.1 billion and is expected to open in 2024.", "\"This allows Canada and Michigan to move the project forward immediately to its next steps which include further design work and property acquisition on the U.S. side of the border\", Raitt said in a statement issued after she spoke in the House of Commons.====Transit systems====The Detroit People Mover (DPM) elevated railway in BricktownMass transit in the region is provided by bus services.", "The Detroit Department of Transportation provides service within city limits up to the outer edges of the city.", "From there, the Suburban Mobility Authority for Regional Transportation (SMART) provides service to the suburbs and the city regionally with local routes and SMART's FAST service.", "FAST is a new service provided by SMART which offers limited stops along major corridors throughout the Detroit metropolitan area connecting the suburbs to downtown.", "The new high-frequency service travels along three of Detroit's busiest corridors, Gratiot, Woodward, and Michigan, and only stops at designated FAST stops.", "Cross border service between the downtown areas of Windsor and Detroit is provided by Transit Windsor via the Tunnel Bus.An elevated rail system known as the People Mover, completed in 1987, provides daily service around a loop downtown.", "The QLINE serves as a link between the People Mover and the Amtrak station via Woodward Avenue.", "The Ann Arbor–Detroit Regional Rail line will extend from New Center, connecting to Ann Arbor via Dearborn, Wayne, and Ypsilanti when it is opened.The Regional Transit Authority (RTA) was established by an act of the Michigan legislature in 2012 to oversee and coordinate all existing regional mass transit operations, and to develop new transit services in the region.", "The RTA's first project was the introduction of RelfeX, a limited-stop, cross-county bus service connecting downtown and midtown Detroit with Oakland county via Woodward avenue.Amtrak Wolverine at Detroit stationAmtrak provides service to Detroit, operating its ''Wolverine'' service between Chicago and Pontiac.", "The Amtrak station is in New Center north of downtown.", "Intercity bus service is offered at the Detroit Bus Station.", "Greyhound Lines, Flixbus, Indian Trails, and Barons Bus Lines connect Detroit with numerous cities across the Midwest.====Car ownership====The city of Detroit has a higher than average percentage of households without a car.", "In 2016, 24.7% of Detroit households lacked a car, much higher than the national average of 8.7%.", "Detroit averaged 1.15 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8.====Freight railroads====Freight railroad operations in the city of Detroit are provided by Canadian National Railway, Canadian Pacific Railway, Conrail Shared Assets, CSX Transportation and Norfolk Southern Railway, each of which have local yards within the city.", "Detroit is also served by the Delray Connecting Railroad and Detroit Connecting Railroad shortlines.====Airports====Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport (DTW), the principal airport serving Detroit, is located in nearby Romulus.Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport (DTW), the principal airport serving Detroit, is in nearby Romulus.", "DTW is a primary hub for Delta Air Lines (following its acquisition of Northwest Airlines), and a secondary hub for Spirit Airlines.", "The airport is connected to Downtown Detroit by the Suburban Mobility Authority for Regional Transportation (SMART) FAST Michigan route.Coleman A.", "Young International Airport (DET), previously called Detroit City Airport, is on Detroit's northeast side; the airport now maintains only charter service and general aviation.", "Willow Run Airport, in western Wayne County near Ypsilanti, is a general aviation and cargo airport.====Freeways====Metro Detroit has an extensive toll-free network of freeways administered by the Michigan Department of Transportation.", "Four major Interstate Highways surround the city.", "Detroit is connected via Interstate 75 (I-75) and I-96 to Kings Highway 401 and to major Southern Ontario cities such as London, Ontario and the Greater Toronto Area.", "I-75 (Chrysler and Fisher freeways) is the region's main north–south route, serving Flint, Pontiac, Troy, and Detroit, before continuing south (as the Detroit–Toledo and Seaway Freeways) to serve many of the communities along the shore of Lake Erie.I-94 (Edsel Ford Freeway) runs east–west through Detroit and serves Ann Arbor to the west (where it continues to Chicago) and Port Huron to the northeast.", "The stretch of the I-94 freeway from Ypsilanti to Detroit was one of America's earlier limited-access highways.", "Henry Ford built it to link the factories at Willow Run and Dearborn during World War II.", "A portion was known as the Willow Run Expressway.", "The I-96 freeway runs northwest–southeast through Livingston, Oakland and Wayne counties and (as the Jeffries Freeway through Wayne County) has its eastern terminus in downtown Detroit.I-275 runs north–south from I-75 in the south to the junction of I-96 and I-696 in the north, providing a bypass through the western suburbs of Detroit.", "I-375 is a short spur route in downtown Detroit, an extension of the Chrysler Freeway.", "I-696 (Reuther Freeway) runs east–west from the junction of I-96 and I-275, providing a route through the northern suburbs of Detroit.", "Taken together, I-275 and I-696 form a semicircle around Detroit.", "Michigan state highways designated with the letter M serve to connect major freeways.===Floating post office===''J.W.", "Westcott II'' on the Detroit River in front of the Ambassador BridgeDetroit has a floating post office, the ''J.", "W. Westcott II'', which serves lake freighters along the Detroit River.", "Its ZIP Code is 48222.The ZIP Code is used exclusively for the ''J.", "W. Westcott II'', which makes it the only floating ZIP Code in the United States.", "It has a land-based office at 12 24th Street, just south of the Ambassador Bridge.", "The J.W.", "Westcott Company was established in 1874 by Captain John Ward Westcott as a maritime reporting agency to inform other vessels about port conditions, and the ''J.", "W. Westcott II'' vessel began service in 1949 and is still in operation today." ], [ "Notable people" ], [ "Sister cities", "Detroit's sister cities include the following:* Chongqing, China* Dubai, United Arab Emirates* Kitwe, Zambia* Minsk, Belarus* Nassau, Bahamas* Toyota, Japan* Turin, Italy" ], [ "See also", "*USS ''Detroit'', at least 6 ships" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * Barrow, Heather B.", "''Henry Ford's Plan for the American Suburb: Dearborn and Detroit''.", "DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 2015.", "* Bates, Beth Tompkins.", "''The Making of Black Detroit in the Age of Henry Ford''.", "Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2012.", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Farmer, Silas.", "(1884) (July 1969) ''The history of Detroit and Michigan, or, The metropolis illustrated: a chronological cyclopaedia of the past and present: including a full record of territorial days in Michigan, and the annuals of Wayne County'', in various formats at Open Library.", "* * * Galster, George.", "(2012).", "''Driving Detroit: The Quest for Respect in the Motor City'' University of Pennsylvania Press* * * * * * Holli, Melvin G., and Jones, Peter d'A., eds.", "''Biographical Dictionary of American Mayors, 1820-1980'' (Greenwood Press, 1981) short scholarly biographies each of the city's mayors 1820 to 1980.online; see index at p. 408 for list.", "* * * * * * * * * Philp, Drew (2017). ''", "A $500 house in Detroit: rebuilding an abandoned home and an American city.''", "Scribner.", "* * * * Powell, L. P (1901).", "\"Detroit, the Queen City\", ''Historic Towns of the Western States'' (New York).", "* * * * * * * * ===Primary sources===* Moon, Elaine Latzman (1994).", "''Untold tales, unsung heroes: an oral history of Detroit's African American community, 1918-1967'', online." ], [ "External links", "* * Detroit Regional Chamber* Labor, Urban Affairs and Detroit History archival collections at the Walter P. Reuther Library* Virtual Motor City Collection at Wayne State University Library, contains over 30,000 images of Detroit from 1890 to 1980* \"In Energized Detroit, Savoring an Architectural Legacy\".", "''The New York Times''.", "March 26, 2018." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Deccan Traps" ], [ "Introduction", "The Western Ghats at Matheran in MaharashtraOblique satellite view of the Deccan TrapsMap of the Deccan TrapsThe '''Deccan Traps''' is a large igneous province of west-central India (17–24°N, 73–74°E).", "It is one of the largest volcanic features on Earth, taking the form of a large shield volcano.", "It consists of numerous layers of solidified flood basalt that together are more than about thick, cover an area of about , and have a volume of about .", "Originally, the Deccan Traps may have covered about , with a correspondingly larger original volume.", "This volume overlies the Archean age Indian Shield, which is likely the lithology the province passed through during eruption.", "The province is commonly divided into four subprovinces: the main Deccan, the Malwa Plateau, the Mandla Lobe, and the Saurashtran Plateau." ], [ "Etymology", "The term ''trap'' has been used in geology since 1785–1795 for such rock formations.", "It is derived from the Swedish word for stairs () and refers to the step-like hills forming the landscape of the region.", "The name Deccan has Sanskrit origins meaning \"southern\"." ], [ "History", "Deccan Traps at Ajanta CavesThe Deccan Traps began forming 66.25 million years ago, at the end of the Cretaceous period, although it is possible that some of the oldest material may underlie younger material.", "The bulk of the volcanic eruption occurred at the Western Ghats between 66 and 65 million years ago when lava began to extrude through fissures in the crust known as fissure eruptions.", "Determining the exact age for Deccan rock is difficult due to a number of limitations, one being that the transition between eruption events may be separated by only a few thousand years and the resolution of dating methods used is not able to pinpoint these events.", "In this way, determining the rate of magma emplacement is also difficult to constrain.", "This series of eruptions may have lasted for less than 30,000 years.The original area covered by the lava flows is estimated to have been as large as , approximately half the size of modern India.", "The Deccan Traps region was reduced to its current size by erosion and plate tectonics; the present area of directly observable lava flows is around .The Deccan Traps are segmented into three stratigraphic units: the Upper, Middle, and Lower traps.", "While it was previously interpreted that these groups represented their own key points in the sequence of events in Deccan extrusion, it is now more widely accepted that these horizons relate more closely to paleo topography and distance from the eruption site." ], [ "Effect on mass extinctions and climate", "The release of volcanic gases, particularly sulfur dioxide, during the formation of the traps may have contributed to climate change.", "An average drop in temperature of about was recorded during this period.Because of its magnitude, scientists have speculated that the gases released during the formation of the Deccan Traps played a major role in the Cretaceous–Paleogene (K–Pg) extinction event (also known as the Cretaceous–Tertiary or K–T extinction).", "It has been theorized that sudden cooling due to sulfurous volcanic gases released by the formation of the traps and toxic gas emissions may have contributed significantly to the K–Pg mass extinction.", "However, the current consensus among the scientific community is that the extinction was primarily triggered by the Chicxulub impact event in North America, which would have produced a sunlight-blocking dust cloud that killed much of the plant life and reduced global temperature (this cooling is called an impact winter).Work published in 2014 by geologist Gerta Keller and others on the timing of the Deccan volcanism suggests the extinction may have been caused by both the volcanism and the impact event.", "This was followed by a similar study in 2015, both of which consider the hypothesis that the impact exacerbated or induced the Deccan volcanism, since the events occurred approximately at antipodes.However, the impact theory is still the best supported and has been determined by various reviews to be the consensus view.A more recent discovery appears to demonstrate the scope of the destruction from the impact alone, however.", "In a March 2019 article in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, an international team of twelve scientists revealed the contents of the Tanis fossil site discovered near Bowman, North Dakota, that appeared to show a devastating mass destruction of an ancient lake and its inhabitants at the time of the Chicxulub impact.", "In the paper, the group reports that the geology of the site is strewn with fossilized trees and remains of fish and other animals.", "The lead researcher, Robert A. DePalma of the University of Kansas, was quoted in the New York Times as stating that \"You would be blind to miss the carcasses sticking out...", "It is impossible to miss when you see the outcrop\".", "Evidence correlating this find to the Chicxulub impact included tektites bearing \"the unique chemical signature of other tektites associated with the Chicxulub event\" found in the gills of fish fossils and embedded in amber, an iridium-rich top layer that is considered another signature of the event, and an atypical lack of evidence for scavenging perhaps suggesting that there were few survivors.", "The exact mechanism of the site's destruction has been debated as either an impact-caused tsunami or lake and river seiche activity triggered by post-impact earthquakes, though there has yet been no firm conclusion upon which researchers have settled.However, a recent computation involving more than 100 processors dedicated to algorithmic intelligence show that the Deccan Traps had been erupting for 300,000 years prior to the impact, and likely kept erupting for nearly 700,000 years, which would have greatly contributed to global extinction." ], [ "Petrology", "The Deccan Traps shown as a dark purple spot on the geologic map of IndiaCrystals of epistilbite and calcite in a vug in Deccan Traps basalt lava from Jalgaon District, MaharashtraWithin the Deccan Traps at least 95% of the lavas are tholeiitic basalts.", "Major mineral constituents are olivine, pyroxenes, and plagioclase, as well as certain Fe-Ti-rich oxides.", "These magmas are <7% MgO.", "Many of these minerals are observed however, as highly altered forms.", "Other rock types present include: alkali basalt, nephelinite, lamprophyre, and carbonatite.Mantle xenoliths have been described from Kachchh (northwestern India) and elsewhere in the western Deccan and contain spinel lherzolite and pyroxenite constituents.While the Deccan traps have been categorized in many different ways including the three different stratigraphic groups, geochemically the province can be split into as many as eleven different formations.", "Many of the petrologic differences in these units are a product of varying degrees of crustal contamination." ], [ "Fossils", "250pxThe Deccan Traps are famous for the beds of fossils that have been found between layers of lava.", "Particularly well known species include the frog ''Oxyglossus pusillus'' (Owen) of the Eocene of India and the toothed frog ''Indobatrachus'', an early lineage of modern frogs, which is now placed in the Australian family Myobatrachidae.", "The Infratrappean Beds (Lameta Formation) and Intertrappean Beds also contain fossil freshwater molluscs." ], [ "Theories of formation", "It is postulated that the Deccan Traps eruption was associated with a deep mantle plume.", "High 3He/4He ratios of the main pulse of the eruption are often seen in magmas with mantle plume origin.", "The area of long-term eruption (the hotspot), known as the Réunion hotspot, is suspected of both causing the Deccan Traps eruption and opening the rift that separated the Mascarene Plateau from India.", "Regional crustal thinning supports the theory of this rifting event and likely encouraged the rise of the plume in this area.", "Seafloor spreading at the boundary between the Indian and African Plates subsequently pushed India north over the plume, which now lies under Réunion island in the Indian Ocean, southwest of India.", "The mantle plume model has, however, been challenged.Data continues to emerge that supports the plume model.", "The motion of the Indian tectonic plate and the eruptive history of the Deccan traps show strong correlations.", "Based on data from marine magnetic profiles, a pulse of unusually rapid plate motion began at the same time as the first pulse of Deccan flood basalts, which is dated at 67 million years ago.", "The spreading rate rapidly increased and reached a maximum at the same time as the peak basaltic eruptions.", "The spreading rate then dropped off, with the decrease occurring around 63 million years ago, by which time the main phase of Deccan volcanism ended.", "This correlation is seen as driven by plume dynamics.The motions of the Indian and African plates have also been shown to be coupled, the common element being the position of these plates relative to the location of the Réunion plume head.", "The onset of accelerated motion of India coincides with a large slowing of the rate of counterclockwise rotation of Africa.", "The close correlations between the plate motions suggest that they were both driven by the force of the Réunion plume.When comparing the Na8, Fe8, and Si8 contents of the Deccan to other major igneous provinces, the Deccan appears to have undergone the greatest degree of melting suggesting a deep plume origin.", "Olivine appears to have fractionated at near-Moho depths with additional fractionation of gabbro ~6 km below the surface.", "Features such as widespread faulting, frequent diking events, high heat flux, and positive gravity anomalies suggest that the extrusive phase of the Deccan Traps is associated with the existence of a triple junction which may have existed during the Late Cretaceous, having been caused by a deep mantle plume.", "Not all of these diking events are attributed to large-scale contributions to the overall flow volume.", "It can be difficult, however, to locate the largest dikes as they are often located towards the west coast and are therefore believed to currently reside under water." ], [ "Suggested link to impact events", "250px===Chicxulub crater===Although the Deccan Traps began erupting well before the impact, in a 2015 study it was proposed based on argon–argon dating that the impact may have caused an increase in permeability that allowed magma to reach the surface and produced the most voluminous flows, accounting for around 70% of the volume.", "The combination of the asteroid impact and the resulting increase in eruptive volume may have been responsible for the mass extinctions that occurred at the time that separates the Cretaceous and Paleogene periods, known as the K–Pg boundary.", "However this proposal has been questioned by other authors, who describe the suggestion as being \"convenient interpretations based on superficial and cursory observations.", "\"===Shiva crater===A geological structure that exists in the sea floor off the west coast of India has been suggested as a possible impact crater, in this context called the Shiva crater.", "It was also dated approximately 66 million years ago, potentially matching the Deccan traps.", "The researchers claiming that this feature is an impact crater suggest that the impact may have been the triggering event for the Deccan Traps as well as contributing to the acceleration of the Indian plate in the early Paleogene.", "However, the current consensus in the Earth science community is that this feature is unlikely to be an actual impact crater." ], [ "See also", "*Columbia River Basalt Group*Emeishan Traps*Geology of India*Krishna Godavari Basin*Lameta Formation*List of flood basalt provinces*List of volcanoes in India*Siberian Traps*Verneshot*Viluy Traps" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** Scientist argues that volcanoes, not meteorite, killed dinosaurs* The Deccan Traps/Volcanism Theory" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Don't ask, don't tell" ], [ "Introduction", "\"'''Don't ask, don't tell'''\" ('''DADT''') was the official United States policy on military service of non-heterosexual people.", "Instituted during the Clinton administration, the policy was issued under Department of Defense Directive 1304.26 on December 21, 1993, and was in effect from February 28, 1994, until September 20, 2011.The policy prohibited military personnel from discriminating against or harassing closeted homosexual or bisexual service members or applicants, while barring openly gay, lesbian, or bisexual persons from military service.", "This relaxation of legal restrictions on service by gays and lesbians in the armed forces was mandated by Public Law 103–160 (Title 10 of the United States Code §654), which was signed November 30, 1993.The policy prohibited people who \"demonstrate a propensity or intent to engage in homosexual acts\" from serving in the armed forces of the United States, because their presence \"would create an unacceptable risk to the high standards of morale, good order and discipline, and unit cohesion that are the essence of military capability\".The act prohibited any non-heterosexual person from disclosing their sexual orientation or from speaking about any same-sex relationships, including marriages or other familial attributes, while serving in the United States armed forces.", "The act specified that service members who disclose that they are homosexual or engage in homosexual conduct should be separated (discharged) except when a service member's conduct was \"for the purpose of avoiding or terminating military service\" or when it \"would not be in the best interest of the armed forces\".", "Since DADT ended in 2011, persons who are openly homosexual and bisexual have been able to serve.The \"don't ask\" section of the DADT policy specified that superiors should not initiate an investigation of a service member's orientation without witnessing disallowed behaviors.", "However, evidence of homosexual behavior deemed credible could be used to initiate an investigation.", "Unauthorized investigations and harassment of suspected servicemen and women led to an expansion of the policy to \"don't ask, don't tell, don't pursue, don't harass\".Beginning in the early 2000s, several legal challenges to DADT were filed, and legislation to repeal DADT was enacted in December 2010, specifying that the policy would remain in place until the President, the Secretary of Defense, and the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff certified that repeal would not harm military readiness, followed by a 60-day waiting period.", "A July 6, 2011, ruling from a federal appeals court barred further enforcement of the U.S. military's ban on openly gay service members.", "President Barack Obama, Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta, and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Admiral Mike Mullen sent that certification to Congress on July 22, 2011, which set the end of DADT to September 20, 2011.Even with DADT repealed, the legal definition of marriage as being one man and one woman under the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) meant that, although same-sex partners could get married, their marriage was not recognized by the federal government.", "This barred partners from access to the same benefits afforded to heterosexual couples such as base access, health care, and United States military pay, including family separation allowance and Basic Allowance for Housing with dependents.", "The Department of Defense attempted to open some of the benefits that were not restricted by DOMA, but the Supreme Court decision in ''United States v. Windsor'' (2013) made these efforts unnecessary." ], [ "Background", "''Dignity and Respect'', the U.S. Army's 2001 training guide on the homosexual conduct policy, gave official guidelines on what can be considered credible information of someone's homosexuality or bisexuality.Engaging in homosexual activity had been grounds for discharge from the American military since the Revolutionary War.", "Policies based on sexual orientation appeared as the United States prepared to enter World War II.", "When the military added psychiatric screening to its induction process, it included homosexuality as a disqualifying trait, then seen as a form of psychopathology.", "When the army issued revised mobilization regulations in 1942, it distinguished \"homosexual\" recruits from \"normal\" recruits for the first time.", "Before the buildup to the war, gay service members were court-martialed, imprisoned, and dishonorably discharged; but in wartime, commanding officers found it difficult to convene court-martial boards of commissioned officers and the administrative blue discharge became the military's standard method for handling gay and lesbian personnel.", "In 1944, a new policy directive decreed that homosexuals were to be committed to military hospitals, examined by psychiatrists, and discharged under Regulation 615–360, section 8.In 1947, blue discharges were discontinued and two new classifications were created: \"general\" and \"undesirable\".", "Under such a system, a serviceman or woman found to be gay but who had not committed any sexual acts while in service would tend to receive an undesirable discharge.", "Those found guilty of engaging in sexual conduct were usually dishonorably discharged.", "A 1957 U.S. Navy study known as the Crittenden Report dismissed the charge that homosexuals constitute a security risk, but nonetheless did not advocate for an end to anti-gay discrimination in the navy on the basis that \"The service should not move ahead of civilian society nor attempt to set substantially different standards in attitude or action with respect to homosexual offenders.\"", "It remained secret until 1976.Fannie Mae Clackum was the first service member to successfully appeal such a discharge, winning eight years of back pay from the US Court of Claims in 1960.From the 1950s through the Vietnam War, some notable gay service members avoided discharges despite pre-screening efforts, and when personnel shortages occurred, homosexuals were allowed to serve.The gay and lesbian rights movement in the 1970s and 1980s raised the issue by publicizing several noteworthy dismissals of gay service members.", "Air Force TSgt Leonard Matlovich, the first service member to purposely out himself to challenge the ban, appeared on the cover of ''Time'' in 1975.In 1982 the Department of Defense issued a policy stating that, \"Homosexuality is incompatible with military service.\"", "It cited the military's need \"to maintain discipline, good order, and morale\" and \"to prevent breaches of security\".", "In 1988, in response to a campaign against lesbians at the Marines' Parris Island Depot, activists launched the Gay and Lesbian Military Freedom Project (MFP) to advocate for an end to the exclusion of gays and lesbians from the armed forces.", "In 1989, reports commissioned by the Personnel Security Research and Education Center (PERSEREC), an arm of the Pentagon, were discovered in the process of Joseph Steffan's lawsuit fighting his forced resignation from the U.S.", "Naval Academy.", "One report said that \"having a same-gender or an opposite-gender orientation is unrelated to job performance in the same way as is being left- or right-handed.\"", "Other lawsuits fighting discharges highlighted the service record of service members like Tracy Thorne and Margarethe (Grethe) Cammermeyer.", "The MFP began lobbying Congress in 1990, and in 1991 Senator Brock Adams (D-Washington) and Rep. Barbara Boxer introduced the Military Freedom Act, legislation to end the ban completely.", "Adams and Rep. Pat Schroeder (D-Colorado) re-introduced it the next year.", "In July 1991, Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney, in the context of the outing of his press aide Pete Williams, dismissed the idea that gays posed a security risk as \"a bit of an old chestnut\" in testimony before the House Budget Committee.", "In response to his comment, several major newspapers endorsed ending the ban, including ''USA Today'', the ''Los Angeles Times'', and the ''Detroit Free Press''.", "In June 1992, the General Accounting Office released a report that members of Congress had requested two years earlier estimating the costs associated with the ban on gays and lesbians in the military at $27 million annually.During the 1992 U.S. presidential election campaign, the civil rights of gays and lesbians, particularly their open service in the military, attracted some press attention, and all candidates for the Democratic presidential nomination supported ending the ban on military service by gays and lesbians, but the Republicans did not make a political issue of that position.", "In an August cover letter to all his senior officers, General Carl Mundy Jr., Commandant of the Marine Corps, praised a position paper authored by a Marine Corps chaplain that said that \"In the unique, intensely close environment of the military, homosexual conduct can threaten the lives, including the physical (e.g.", "AIDS) and psychological well-being of others\".", "Mundy called it \"extremely insightful\" and said it offered \"a sound basis for discussion of the issue\".", "The murder of gay U.S. Navy petty officer Allen R. Schindler Jr. on October 27, 1992, brought calls from advocates of allowing open service by gays and lesbians for prompt action from the incoming Clinton administration." ], [ "Origin", "The policy was introduced as a compromise measure in 1993 by President Bill Clinton who campaigned in 1992 on the promise to allow all citizens to serve in the military regardless of sexual orientation.", "Commander Craig Quigley, a Navy spokesman, expressed the opposition of many in the military at the time when he said, \"Homosexuals are notoriously promiscuous\" and that in shared shower situations, heterosexuals would have an \"uncomfortable feeling of someone watching\".During the 1993 policy debate, the National Defense Research Institute prepared a study for the Office of the Secretary of Defense published as ''Sexual Orientation and U.S. Military Personnel Policy: Options and Assessment''.", "It concluded that \"circumstances could exist under which the ban on homosexuals could be lifted with little or no adverse consequences for recruitment and retention\" if the policy were implemented with care, principally because many factors contribute to individual enlistment and re-enlistment decisions.", "On May 5, 1993, Gregory M. Herek, associate research psychologist at the University of California at Davis and an authority on public attitudes toward lesbians and gay men, testified before the House Armed Services Committee on behalf of several professional associations.", "He stated, \"The research data show that there is nothing about lesbians and gay men that makes them inherently unfit for military service, and there is nothing about heterosexuals that makes them inherently unable to work and live with gay people in close quarters.\"", "Herek added, \"The assumption that heterosexuals cannot overcome their prejudices toward gay people is a mistaken one.", "\"In Congress, Democratic Senator Sam Nunn of Georgia and Chair of the Senate Armed Services Committee led the contingent that favored maintaining the absolute ban on gays.", "Reformers were led by Democratic Congressman Barney Frank of Massachusetts, who favored modification (but ultimately voted for the defense authorization bill with the gay ban language), and 1964 Republican presidential nominee Barry Goldwater, a former Senator and a retired Major General, who argued on behalf of allowing service by open gays and lesbians but was not allowed to appear before the Committee by Nunn.", "In a June 1993 ''Washington Post'' opinion piece, Goldwater wrote: \"You don't have to be straight to shoot straight\".Congress rushed to enact the existing gay ban policy into federal law, outflanking Clinton's planned repeal effort.", "Clinton called for legislation to overturn the ban, but encountered intense opposition from the Joint Chiefs of Staff, members of Congress, and portions of the public.", "DADT emerged as a compromise policy.", "Congress included text in the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1994 (passed in 1993) requiring the military to abide by regulations essentially identical to the 1982 absolute ban policy.", "The Clinton administration on December 21, 1993, issued Defense Directive 1304.26, which directed that military applicants were not to be asked about their sexual orientation.", "This policy is now known as \"Don't Ask, Don't Tell\".", "The phrase was coined by Charles Moskos, a military sociologist.In accordance with the December 21, 1993, Department of Defense Directive 1332.14, it was legal policy (10 U.S.C.", "§ 654) that homosexuality was incompatible with military service and that persons who engaged in homosexual acts or stated that they are homosexual or bisexual were to be discharged.", "The Uniform Code of Military Justice, passed by Congress in 1950 and signed by President Harry S Truman, established the policies and procedures for discharging service members.The full name of the policy at the time was \"Don't Ask, Don't Tell, Don't Pursue\".", "The \"Don't Ask\" provision mandated that military or appointed officials not ask about or require members to reveal their sexual orientation.", "The \"Don't Tell\" stated that a member may be discharged for claiming to be a homosexual or bisexual or making a statement indicating a tendency towards or intent to engage in homosexual activities.", "The \"Don't Pursue\" established what was minimally required for an investigation to be initiated.", "A \"Don't Harass\" provision was added to the policy later.", "It ensured that the military would not allow harassment or violence against service members for any reason.The Servicemembers Legal Defense Network was founded in 1993 to advocate an end to discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation in the U.S. Armed Forces." ], [ "Court challenges", "DADT was upheld by five federal Courts of Appeal.", "The Supreme Court, in ''Rumsfeld v. Forum for Academic and Institutional Rights, Inc.'' (2006), unanimously held that the federal government could constitutionally withhold funding from universities, no matter what their nondiscrimination policies might be, for refusing to give military recruiters access to school resources.", "An association of law schools had argued that allowing military recruiting at their institutions compromised their ability to exercise their free speech rights in opposition to discrimination based on sexual orientation as represented by DADT.===''McVeigh v. Cohen''===In January 1998, Senior Chief Petty Officer Timothy R. McVeigh (not to be confused with convicted Oklahoma City bomber, Timothy J. McVeigh) won a preliminary injunction from a U.S. district court that prevented his discharge from the U.S. Navy for \"homosexual conduct\" after 17 years of service.", "His lawsuit did not challenge the DADT policy but asked the court to hold the military accountable for adhering to the policy's particulars.", "The Navy had investigated McVeigh's sexual orientation based on his AOL email account name and user profile.", "District Judge Stanley Sporkin ruled in ''McVeigh v. Cohen'' that the Navy had violated its own DADT guidelines: \"Suggestions of sexual orientation in a private, anonymous email account did not give the Navy a sufficient reason to investigate to determine whether to commence discharge proceedings.\"", "He called the Navy's investigation \"a search and destroy mission\" against McVeigh.", "The case also attracted attention because a navy paralegal had misrepresented himself when querying AOL for information about McVeigh's account.", "Frank Rich linked the two issues: \"McVeigh is as clear-cut a victim of a witch hunt as could be imagined, and that witch hunt could expand exponentially if the military wants to add on-line fishing to its invasion of service members' privacy.\"", "AOL apologized to McVeigh and paid him damages.", "McVeigh reached a settlement with the Navy that paid his legal expenses and allowed him to retire with full benefits in July.", "''The New York Times'' called Sporkin's ruling \"a victory for gay rights, with implications for the millions of people who use computer on-line services\".===''Witt v. Department of the Air Force''===In April 2006, Margaret Witt, a major in the United States Air Force who was being investigated for homosexuality, filed suit in the United States District Court for the Western District of Washington seeking declaratory and injunctive relief on the grounds that DADT violates substantive due process, the Equal Protection Clause, and procedural due process.", "In July 2007 the Secretary of the Air Force ordered her honorable discharge.", "Dismissed by the district court, the case was heard on appeal, and the Ninth Circuit issued its ruling on May 21, 2008.Its decision in ''Witt v. Department of the Air Force'' reinstated Witt's substantive-due-process and procedural-due-process claims and affirmed the dismissal of her Equal Protection claim.", "The Ninth Circuit, analyzing the Supreme Court decision in ''Lawrence v. Texas'' (2003), determined that DADT had to be subjected to heightened scrutiny, meaning that there must be an \"important\" governmental interest at issue, that DADT must \"significantly\" further the governmental interest, and that there can be no less intrusive way for the government to advance that interest.The Obama administration declined to appeal, allowing a May 3, 2009, deadline to pass, leaving ''Witt'' as binding on the entire Ninth Circuit, and returning the case to the District Court.", "On September 24, 2010, District Judge Ronald B. Leighton ruled that Witt's constitutional rights had been violated by her discharge and that she must be reinstated to the Air Force.The government filed an appeal with the Ninth Circuit on November 23, but did not attempt to have the trial court's ruling stayed pending the outcome.", "In a settlement announced on May 10, 2011, the Air Force agreed to drop its appeal and remove Witt's discharge from her military record.", "She will retire with full benefits.===''Log Cabin Republicans v. United States of America''===In 2010, a lawsuit filed in 2004 by the Log Cabin Republicans (LCR), the nation's largest Republican gay organization, went to trial.", "Challenging the constitutionality of DADT, the plaintiffs stated that the policy violates the rights of gay military members to free speech, due process and open association.", "The government argued that DADT was necessary to advance a legitimate governmental interest.", "Plaintiffs introduced statements by President Barack Obama, from prepared remarks, that DADT \"doesn't contribute to our national security\", \"weakens our national security\", and that reversal is \"essential for our national security\".", "According to plaintiffs, these statements alone satisfied their burden of proof on the due process claims.On September 9, 2010, Judge Virginia A. Phillips ruled in ''Log Cabin Republicans v. United States of America'' that the ban on service by openly gay service members was an unconstitutional violation of the First and Fifth Amendments.", "On October 12, 2010, she granted an immediate worldwide injunction prohibiting the Department of Defense from enforcing the \"Don't Ask Don't Tell\" policy and ordered the military to suspend and discontinue any investigation or discharge, separation, or other proceedings based on it.", "The Department of Justice appealed her decision and requested a stay of her injunction, which Phillips denied but which the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals granted on October 20and stayed pending appeal on November 1.The U.S. Supreme Court refused to overrule the stay.District Court neither anticipated questions ofconstitutional law nor formulated a rule broader than is required by the facts.", "Theconstitutional issues regarding DADT are well-defined, and the District Courtfocused specifically on the relevant inquiry of whether the statute impermissiblyinfringed upon substantive due process rights with regard to a protected area ofindividual liberty.", "Engaging in a careful and detailed review of the facts presentedto it at trial, the District Court properly concluded that the Government put forwardno persuasive evidence to demonstrate that the statute is a valid exercise ofcongressional authority to legislate in the realm of protected liberty interests.", "SeeLog Cabin, 716 F. Supp.", "2d at 923.Hypothetical questions were neither presentednor answered in reaching this decision.On October 19, 2010, military recruiters were told they could accept openly gay applicants.", "On October 20, 2010, Lt. Daniel Choi, an openly gay man honorably discharged under DADT, re-enlisted in the U.S. Army.Following the passage of the Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010, the Justice Department asked the Ninth Circuit to suspend LCR's suit in light of the legislative repeal.", "LCR opposed the request, noting that gay personnel were still subject to discharge.", "On January 28, 2011, the Court denied the Justice Department's request.", "The Obama administration responded by requesting that the policy be allowed to stay in place while they completed the process of assuring that its end would not impact combat readiness.", "On March 28, the LCR filed a brief asking that the court deny the administration's request.In 2011, while waiting for certification, several service members were discharged under DADT at their own insistence, until July 6 when a three-judge panel of the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals re-instated Judge Phillips' injunction barring further enforcement of the U.S. military's ban on openly gay service members.", "On July 11, the appeals court asked the DOJ to inform the court if it intended to proceed with its appeal.", "On July 14, the Justice Department filed a motion \"to avoid short-circuiting the repeal process established by Congress during the final stages of the implementation of the repeal\".", "and warning of \"significant immediate harms on the government\".", "On July 15, the Ninth Circuit restored most of the DADT policy, but continued to prohibit the government from discharging or investigating openly gay personnel.", "Following the implementation of DADT's repeal, a panel of three judges of the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals vacated the Phillips ruling." ], [ "Debate", "General Norton A. Schwartz, chief of staff of the United States Air Force, testifies on the repeal of \"Don't Ask, Don't Tell\" before the Senate Armed Services Committee on December 3, 2010.Following the July 1999 murder of Army Pfc.", "Barry Winchell, apparently motivated by anti-gay bias, President Clinton issued an executive order modifying the Uniform Code of Military Justice to permit evidence of a hate crime to be admitted during the sentencing phase of a trial.", "In December, Secretary of Defense William Cohen ordered a review of DADT to determine if the policy's anti-gay harassment component was being observed.", "When that review found anti-gay sentiments were widely expressed and tolerated in the military, the DOD adopted a new anti-harassment policy in July 2000, though its effectiveness was disputed.", "On December 7, 1999, Hillary Clinton told an audience of gay supporters that \"Gays and lesbians already serve with distinction in our nation's armed forces and should not face discrimination.", "Fitness to serve should be based on an individual's conduct, not their sexual orientation.\"", "Later that month, retired General Carl E. Mundy Jr. defended the implementation of DADT against what he called the \"politicization\" of the issue by both Clintons.", "He cited discharge statistics for the Marines for the past five years that showed 75% were based on \"voluntary admission of homosexuality\" and 49% occurred during the first six months of service, when new recruits were most likely to reevaluate their decision to enlist.", "He also argued against any change in the policy, writing in the ''New York Times'': \"Conduct that is widely rejected by a majority of Americans can undermine the trust that is essential to creating and maintaining the sense of unity that is critical to the success of a military organization operating under the very different and difficult demands of combat.\"", "The conviction of Winchell's murderer, according to the ''New York Times'', \"galvanized opposition\" to DADT, an issue that had \"largely vanished from public debate\".", "Opponents of the policy focused on punishing harassment in the military rather than the policy itself, which Senator Chuck Hagel defended on December 25: \"The U.S. armed forces aren't some social experiment.", "\"The principal candidates for the Democratic presidential nomination in 2000, Al Gore and Bill Bradley, both endorsed military service by open gays and lesbians, provoking opposition from high-ranking retired military officers, notably the recently retired commandant of the Marine Corps, General Charles C. Krulak.", "He and others objected to Gore's statement that he would use support for ending DADT as a \"litmus test\" when considering candidates for the Joint Chiefs of Staff.", "The 2000 Democratic Party platform was silent on the issue, while the Republican Party platform that year said: \"We affirm that homosexuality is incompatible with military service.\"", "Following the election of George W. Bush in 2000, observers expected him to avoid any changes to DADT, since his nominee for Secretary of State Colin Powell had participated in its creation.In February 2004, members of the British Armed Forces, Lt Rolf Kurth and Lt Cdr Craig Jones, along with Aaron Belkin, Director of the Center for the Study of Sexual Minorities in the Military met with members of Congress and spoke at the National Defense University.", "They spoke about their experience of the current situation in the UK.", "The UK lifted the gay ban on members serving in their forces in 2000.In July 2004, the American Psychological Association issued a statement that DADT \"discriminates on the basis of sexual orientation\" and that \"Empirical evidence fails to show that sexual orientation is germane to any aspect of military effectiveness including unit cohesion, morale, recruitment and retention.\"", "It said that the U.S. military's track record overcoming past racial and gender discrimination demonstrated its ability to integrate groups previously excluded.", "The Republican Party platform that year reiterated its support for the policy—\"We affirm traditional military culture, and we affirm that homosexuality is incompatible with military service.", "\"—while the Democratic Party maintained its silence.In February 2005, the Government Accountability Office released estimates of the cost of DADT.", "It reported at least $95.4 million in recruiting costs and at least $95.1 million for training replacements for the 9,488 troops discharged from 1994 through 2003, while noting that the true figures might be higher.", "In September, as part of its campaign to demonstrate that the military allowed open homosexuals to serve when its workforce requirements were greatest, the Center for the Study of Sexual Minorities in the Military (now the Palm Center) reported that army regulations allowed the active-duty deployment of Army Reservists and National Guard troops who claim to be or who are accused of being gay.", "A U.S. Army Forces Command spokesperson said the regulation was intended to prevent Reservists and National Guard members from pretending to be gay to escape combat.", "Advocates of ending DADT repeatedly publicized discharges of highly trained gay and lesbian personnel, especially those in positions with critical shortages, including fifty-nine Arabic speakers and nine Persian speakers.", "Elaine Donnelly, president of the Center for Military Readiness, later argued that the military's failure to ask about sexual orientation at recruitment was the cause of the discharges: You could reduce this number to zero or near zero if the Department of Defense dropped Don't Ask, Don't Tell. ...", "We should not be training people who are not eligible to be in the Armed Forces.", "\"In February 2006, a University of California Blue Ribbon Commission that included Lawrence Korb, a former assistant defense secretary during the Reagan administration, William Perry, Secretary of Defense in the Clinton administration, and professors from the United States Military Academy released their assessment of the GAO's analysis of the cost of DADT released a year earlier.", "The commission report stated that the GAO did not take into account the value the military lost from the departures.", "They said that that total cost was closer to $363 million, including $14.3 million for \"separation travel\" following a service member's discharge, $17.8 million for training officers, $252.4 million for training enlistees, and $79.3 million in recruiting costs.In 2006, Soulforce, a national LGBT rights organization, organized its Right to Serve Campaign, in which gay men and lesbians in several cities attempted to enlist in the Armed Forces or National Guard.", "Donnelly of the Center for Military Readiness stated in September: \"I think the people involved here do not have the best interests of the military at heart.", "They never have.", "They are promoting an agenda to normalize homosexuality in America using the military as a battering ram to promote that broader agenda.\"", "She said that \"pro-homosexual activists ... are creating media events all over the country and even internationally.", "\"In 2006, a speaking tour of gay former service members, organized by SLDN, Log Cabin Republicans, and Meehan, visited 18 colleges and universities.", "Patrick Guerriero, executive director of Log Cabin, thought the repeal movement was gaining \"new traction\" but \"Ultimately\", said, \"we think it's going to take a Republican with strong military credentials to make a shift in the policy.\"", "Elaine Donnelly called such efforts \"a big P.R.", "campaign\" and said that \"The law is there to protect good order and discipline in the military, and it's not going to change.", "\"In December 2006, Zogby International released the results of a poll of military personnel conducted in October 2006 that found that 26% favored allowing gays and lesbians to serve openly in the military, 37% were opposed, while 37% expressed no preference or were unsure.", "Of respondents who had experience with gay people in their unit, 6% said their presence had a positive impact on their personal morale, 66% said no impact, and 28% said negative impact.", "Regarding overall unit morale, 3% said positive impact, 64% no impact, and 27% negative impact.Retired Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General John Shalikashvili and former Senator and Secretary of Defense William Cohen opposed the policy in January 2007: \"I now believe that if gay men and lesbians served openly in the United States military, they would not undermine the efficacy of the armed forces\" Shalikashvili wrote.", "\"Our military has been stretched thin by our deployments in the Middle East, and we must welcome the service of any American who is willing and able to do the job.\"", "Shalikashvili cited the recent \"Zogby poll of more than 500 service members returning from Afghanistan and Iraq, three-quarters of whom said they were comfortable interacting with gay people.", "The debate took a different turn in March when General Peter Pace, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, told the editorial board of the ''Chicago Tribune'' he supported DADT because \"homosexual acts between two individuals are immoral and ... we should not condone immoral acts.\"", "His remarks became, according to the ''Tribune'', \"a huge news story on radio, television and the Internet during the day and showed how sensitive the Pentagon's policy has become.\"", "Senator John Warner, who backed DADT, said \"I respectfully, but strongly, disagree with the chairman's view that homosexuality is immoral\", and Pace expressed regret for expressing his personal views and said that DADT \"does not make a judgment about the morality of individual acts.\"", "Massachusetts Governor Mitt Romney, then in the early stages of his campaign for the 2008 Republican presidential nomination, defended DADT:That summer, after U.S.", "Senator Larry Craig was arrested for lewd conduct in a men's restroom, conservative commentator Michael Medved argued that any liberalization of DADT would \"compromise restroom integrity and security\".", "He wrote: \"The national shudder of discomfort and queasiness associated with any introduction of homosexual eroticism into public men's rooms should make us more determined than ever to resist the injection of those lurid attitudes into the even more explosive situation of the U.S.", "military.", "\"In November 2007, 28 retired generals and admirals urged Congress to repeal the policy, citing evidence that 65,000 gay men and women were serving in the armed forces and that there were over a million gay veterans.", "On November 17, 2008, 104 retired generals and admirals signed a similar statement.", "In December, SLDN arranged for ''60 Minutes'' to interview Darren Manzella, an Army medic who served in Iraq after coming out to his unit.On May 4, 2008, while Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Admiral Mike Mullen addressed the graduating cadets at West Point, a cadet asked what would happen if the next administration were supportive of legislation allowing gays to serve openly.", "Mullen responded, \"Congress, and not the military, is responsible for DADT.\"", "Previously, during his Senate confirmation hearing in 2007, Mullen told lawmakers, \"I really think it is for the American people to come forward, really through this body, to both debate that policy and make changes, if that's appropriate.\"", "He went on to say, \"I'd love to have Congress make its own decisions\" with respect to considering repeal.In May 2009, when a committee of military law experts at the Palm Center, an anti-DADT research institute, concluded that the President could issue an Executive Order to suspend homosexual conduct discharges, Obama rejected that option and said he wanted Congress to change the law.On July 5, 2009, Colin Powell told CNN that the policy was \"correct for the time\" but that \"sixteen years have now gone by, and I think a lot has changed with respect to attitudes within our country, and therefore I think this is a policy and a law that should be reviewed.\"", "Interviewed for the same broadcast, Mullen said the policy would continue to be implemented until the law was repealed, and that his advice was to \"move in a measured way. ...", "At a time when we're fighting two conflicts there is a great deal of pressure on our forces and their families.\"", "In September, ''Joint Force Quarterly'' published an article by an Air Force colonel that disputed the argument that unit cohesion is compromised by the presence of openly gay personnel.In October 2009, the Commission on Military Justice, known as the Cox Commission, repeated its 2001 recommendation that Article 125 of the Uniform Code of Military Justice, which bans sodomy, be repealed, noting that \"most acts of consensual sodomy committed by consenting military personnel are not prosecuted, creating a perception that prosecution of this sexual behavior is arbitrary.", "\"In January 2010, the White House and congressional officials started work on repealing the ban by inserting language into the 2011 defense authorization bill.", "During Obama's State of the Union Address on January 27, 2010, he said that he would work with Congress and the military to enact a repeal of the gay ban law and for the first time set a timetable for repeal.At a February 2, 2010, congressional hearing, Senator John McCain read from a letter signed by \"over one thousand former general and flag officers\".", "It said: \"We firmly believe that this law, which Congress passed to protect good order, discipline and morale in the unique environment of the armed forces, deserves continued support.\"", "The signature campaign had been organized by Elaine Donnelly of the Center for Military Readiness, a longtime supporter of a traditional all-male and all-heterosexual military.", "Servicemembers United, a veterans group opposed to DADT, issued a report critical of the letter's legitimacy.", "They said that among those signing the letter were officers who had no knowledge of their inclusion or who had refused to be included, and even one instance of a general's widow who signed her husband's name to the letter though he had died before the survey was published.", "The average age of the officers whose names were listed as signing the letter was 74, the oldest was 98, and Servicemembers United noted that \"only a small fraction of these officers have even served in the military during the 'Don't Ask, Don't Tell' period, much less in the 21st century military.", "\"The Center for American Progress issued a report in March 2010 that said a smooth implementation of an end to DADT required eight specified changes to the military's internal regulations.", "On March 25, 2010, Defense Secretary Gates announced new rules mandating that only flag officers could initiate discharge proceedings and imposing more stringent rules of evidence on discharge proceedings." ], [ "Repeal", "The underlying justifications for DADT had been subjected to increasing suspicion and outright rejection by the early 21st century.", "Mounting evidence obtained from the integration efforts of foreign militaries, surveys of U.S. military personnel, and studies conducted by the DoD gave credence to the view that the presence of open homosexuals within the military would not be detrimental at all to the armed forces.", "A DoD study conducted at the behest of Secretary of Defense Robert Gates in 2010 supports this most.The DoD working group conducting the study considered the impact that lifting the ban would have on unit cohesion and effectiveness, good order and discipline, and military morale.", "The study included a survey that revealed significant differences between respondents who believed they had served with homosexual troops and those who did not believe they had.", "In analyzing such data, the DoD working group concluded that it was actually generalized perceptions of homosexual troops that led to the perceived unrest that would occur without DADT.", "Ultimately, the study deemed the overall risk to military effectiveness of lifting the ban to be low.", "Citing the ability of the armed forces to adjust to the previous integration of African-Americans and women, the DoD study asserted that the United States military could adjust as had it before in history without an impending serious effect.In March 2005, Rep. Martin T. Meehan introduced the Military Readiness Enhancement Act in the House.", "It aimed \"to amend title 10, United States Code, to enhance the readiness of the Armed Forces by replacing the current policy concerning homosexuality in the Armed Forces, referred to as 'Don't ask, don't tell,' with a policy of nondiscrimination on the basis of sexual orientation\".", "As of 2006, it had 105 Democrats and 4 Republicans as co-sponsors.", "He introduced the bill again in 2007 and 2009.During the 2008 U.S. presidential election campaign, Senator Barack Obama advocated a full repeal of the laws barring gays and lesbians from serving in the military.", "Nineteen days after his election, Obama's advisers announced that plans to repeal the policy might be delayed until 2010, because Obama \"first wants to confer with the Joint Chiefs of Staff and his new political appointees at the Pentagon to reach a consensus, and then present legislation to Congress\".", "As president he advocated a policy change to allow gay personnel to serve openly in the armed forces, stating that the U.S. government has spent millions of dollars replacing troops expelled from the military, including language experts fluent in Arabic, because of DADT.", "On the eve of the National Equality March in Washington, D.C., October 10, 2009, Obama stated in a speech before the Human Rights Campaign that he would end the ban, but he offered no timetable.", "Obama said in his 2010 State of the Union Address: \"This year, I will work with Congress and our military to finally repeal the law that denies gay Americans the right to serve the country they love because of who they are.\"", "This statement was quickly followed up by Defense Secretary Robert Gates and Joint Chiefs chairman Michael Mullen voicing their support for a repeal of DADT.===Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010===The Senate passed S.4023 65–31 with all Democrats (except for one abstention) and 8 Republicans in support.Democrats in both houses of Congress first attempted to end DADT by amending the Defense Authorization Act.", "On May 27, 2010, on a 234–194 vote, the U.S. House of Representatives approved the Murphy amendment to the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2011.It provided for repeal of the DADT policy and created a process for lifting the policy, including a U.S. Department of Defense study and certification by key officials that the change in policy would not harm military readiness followed by a waiting period of 60 days.", "The amended defense bill passed the House on May 28, 2010.On September 21, 2010, John McCain led a successful filibuster against the debate on the Defense Authorization Act, in which 56 Senators voted to end debate, four short of the 60 votes required.", "Some advocates for repeal, including the Palm Center, OutServe, and Knights Out, opposed any attempt to block the passage of NDAA if it failed to include DADT repeal language.", "The Human Rights Campaign, the Center for American Progress, Servicemembers United and SLDN refused to concede that possibility.President Obama meeting in the Oval Office with Secretary Gates, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the Commandant of the Coast Guard on the eve of the publication of a DoD report on the repeal of DADT.The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) filed a lawsuit, ''Collins v. United States'', against the Department of Defense in November 2010 seeking full compensation for those discharged under the policy.On November 30, 2010, the Joint Chiefs of Staff released the \"Don't Ask, Don't Tell\" Comprehensive Review Working Group (CRWG) report authored by Jeh C. Johnson, General Counsel of the Department of Defense, and Army General Carter F. Ham.", "It outlined a path to the implementation of repeal of DADT.", "The report indicated that there was a low risk of service disruptions due to repealing the ban, provided time was provided for proper implementation and training.", "It included the results of a survey of 115,000 active-duty and reserve service members.", "Across all service branches, 30 percent thought that integrating gays into the military would have negative consequences.", "In the Marine Corps and combat specialties, the percentage with that negative assessment ranged from 40 to 60 percent.", "The CRWG also said that 69 percent of all those surveyed believed they had already worked with a gay or lesbian and of those, 92 percent reported that the impact of that person's presence was positive or neutral.", "The same day, in response to the CRWG, 30 professors and scholars, most from military institutions, issued a joint statement saying that the CRWG \"echoes more than 20 studies, including studies by military researchers, all of which reach the same conclusion: allowing gays and lesbians to serve openly will not harm the military ... We hope that our collective statement underscores that the debate about the evidence is now officially over\".", "The Family Research Council's president, Tony Perkins, interpreted the CRWG data differently, writing that it \"reveals that 40 percent of Marines and 25 percent of the Army could leave\".Gates encouraged Congress to act quickly to repeal the law so that the military could carefully adjust rather than face a court decision requiring it to lift the policy immediately.", "The United States Senate held two days of hearings on December 2 and 3, 2010, to consider the CRWG report.", "Defense Secretary Robert Gates, Joint Chiefs chairman Michael Mullen urged immediate repeal.", "The heads of the Marine Corps, Army, and Navy all advised against immediate repeal and expressed varied views on its eventual repeal.", "Oliver North, writing in ''National Review'' the next week, said that Gates' testimony showed \"a deeply misguided commitment to political correctness\".", "He interpreted the CRWG's data as indicating a high risk that large numbers of resignations would follow the repeal of DADT.", "Service members, especially combat troops, he wrote, \"deserve better than to be treated like lab rats in Mr. Obama's radical social experiment\".Obama signs the Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010On December 9, 2010, another filibuster prevented debate on the Defense Authorization Act.", "In response to that vote, Senators Joe Lieberman and Susan Collins introduced a bill that included the policy-related portions of the Defense Authorization Act that they considered more likely to pass as a stand-alone bill.", "It passed the House on a vote of 250 to 175 on December 15, 2010.On December 18, 2010, the Senate voted to end debate on its version of the bill by a cloture vote of 63–33.The final Senate vote was held later that same day, with the measure passing by a vote of 65–31.U.S.", "Secretary of Defense Robert Gates released a statement following the vote indicating that the planning for implementation of a policy repeal would begin right away and would continue until Gates certified that conditions were met for orderly repeal of the policy.", "President Obama signed the repeal into law on December 22, 2010.===Implementation of repeal===The repeal act established a process for ending the DADT policy.", "The President, the Secretary of Defense and the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff were required to certify in writing that they had reviewed the Pentagon's report on the effects of DADT repeal, that the appropriate regulations had been reviewed and drafted, and that implementation of repeal regulations \"is consistent with the standards of military readiness, military effectiveness, unit cohesion, and recruiting and retention of the Armed Forces\".", "Once certification was given, DADT would be lifted after a 60-day waiting period.Representative Duncan D. Hunter announced plans in January 2011 to introduce a bill designed to delay the end of DADT.", "His proposed legislation required all of the chiefs of the armed services to submit the certification at the time required only of the President, Defense Secretary and Joint Chiefs chairman.", "In April, Perkins of the Family Research Council argued that the Pentagon was misrepresenting its own survey data and that hearings by the House Armed Services Committee, now under Republican control, could persuade Obama to withhold certification.", "Congressional efforts to prevent the change in policy from going into effect continued into May and June 2011.On January 29, 2011, Pentagon officials stated that the training process to prepare troops for the end of DADT would begin in February and would proceed quickly, though they suggested that it might not be completed in 2011.On the same day, the DOD announced it would not offer any additional compensation to service members who had been discharged under DADT, who received half of the separation pay other honorably discharged service members received.In May 2011, the U.S. Army reprimanded three colonels for performing a skit in March 2011 at a function at Yongsan Garrison, South Korea, that mocked the repeal.In May 2011, revelations that an April Navy memo relating to its DADT training guidelines contemplated allowing same-sex weddings in base chapels and allowing chaplains to officiate if they so chose resulted in a letter of protest from 63 Republican congressman, citing the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) as controlling the use of federal property.", "Tony Perkins of the Family Research Council said the guidelines \"make it even more uncomfortable for men and women of faith to perform their duties\".", "A Pentagon spokesperson replied that DOMA \"does not limit the type of religious ceremonies a chaplain may perform in a chapel on a military installation\", and a Navy spokesperson said that \"A chaplain can conduct a same-sex ceremony if it is in the tenets of his faith\".", "A few days later the Navy rescinded its earlier instructions \"pending additional legal and policy review and interdepartmental coordination\".While waiting for certification, several service members were discharged at their own insistence until a July 6 ruling from a federal appeals court barred further enforcement of the U.S. military's ban on openly gay service members, which the military promptly did.Anticipating the lifting of DADT, some active duty service members wearing civilian clothes marched in San Diego's gay pride parade on July 16.The DOD noted that participation \"does not constitute a declaration of sexual orientation\".President Obama, Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta, and Admiral Mike Mullen, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, sent the certification required by the Repeal Act to Congress on July 22, 2011, setting the end of DADT for September 20, 2011.A Pentagon spokesman said that service members discharged under DADT would be able to re-apply to rejoin the military then.At the end of August 2011, the DOD approved the distribution of the magazine produced by OutServe, an organization of gay and lesbian service members, at Army and Air Force base exchanges beginning with the September 20 issue, coinciding with the end of DADT.On September 20, Air Force officials announced that 22 Air Force Instructions were \"updated as a result of the repeal of DADT\".", "On September 30, 2011, the Department of Defense modified regulations to reflect the repeal by deleting \"homosexual conduct\" as a ground for administrative separation.===Day of repeal and aftermath===US Navy LT Gary C. Ross marries Dan Swezy, becoming the first active member of the U.S. military to legally marry a same-sex partner.On the eve of repeal, US Air Force 1st Lt. Josh Seefried, one of the founders of OutServe, an organization of LGBT troops, revealed his identity after two years of hiding behind a pseudonym.", "Senior Airman Randy Phillips, after conducting a social media campaign seeking encouragement coming out and already out to his military co-workers, came out to his father on the evening of September 19.When the video of their conversation he posted on YouTube went viral, it made him, in one journalist's estimation, \"the poster boy for the DADT repeal\".", "The moment the repeal took effect at midnight on September 19, US Navy Lt. Gary C. Ross married his same-sex partner of eleven and a half years, Dan Swezy, making them the first same-sex military couple to legally marry in the United States.", "Retired Rear Adm. Alan M. Steinman became the highest-ranking person to come out immediately following the end of DADT.", "HBO produced a World of Wonder documentary, ''The Strange History of Don't Ask, Don't Tell'', and premiered it on September 20.", "''Variety'' called it \"an unapologetic piece of liberal advocacy\" and \"a testament to what formidable opponents ignorance and prejudice can be\".", "Discharge proceedings on the grounds of homosexuality, some begun years earlier, came to an end.Petty Officer 2nd Class Marissa Gaeta of the shares the traditional \"first kiss\" with her fiancée, Petty Officer 3rd Class Citlalic Snell, December 23, 2011.In the weeks that followed, a series of firsts attracted press attention to the impact of the repeal.", "The Marine Corps were the first branch of the armed services to recruit from the LGBTQ community.", "Reservist Jeremy Johnson became the first person discharged under DADT to re-enlist.", "Jase Daniels became the first to return to active duty, re-joining the Navy as a third class petty officer.", "On December 2, Air Force intelligence officer Ginger Wallace became the first open LGBT service member to have a same-sex partner participate in the \"pinning-on\" ceremony that marked her promotion to colonel.", "On December 23, after 80 days at sea, US Navy Petty Officer 2nd Class Marissa Gaeta won the right to the traditional \"first kiss\" upon returning to port and shared it with her same-sex partner.", "On January 20, 2012, U.S. service members deployed to Bagram, Afghanistan, produced a video in support of the It Gets Better Project, which aims to support LGBT at-risk youth.", "Widespread news coverage continued even months after the repeal date, when a photograph of Marine Sgt.", "Brandon Morgan kissing his partner at a February 22, 2012, homecoming celebration on Marine Corps Base Hawaii went viral.", "When asked for a comment, a spokesperson for the Marine Corps said: \"It's your typical homecoming photo.", "\"On September 30, 2011, Under Secretary of Defense Clifford Stanley announced the DOD's policy that military chaplains are allowed to perform same-sex marriages \"on or off a military installation\" where local law permits them.", "His memo noted that \"a chaplain is not required to participate in or officiate a private ceremony if doing so would be in variance with the tenets of his or her religion\" and \"a military chaplain's participation in a private ceremony does not constitute an endorsement of the ceremony by DoD\".", "Some religious groups announced that their chaplains would not participate in such weddings, including an organization of evangelical Protestants, the Chaplain Alliance for Religious Liberty and Roman Catholics led by Archbishop Timothy Broglio of the Archdiocese for the Military Services, USA.In late October 2011, speaking at the Air Force Academy, Colonel Gary Packard, leader of the team that drafted the DOD's repeal implementation plan, said: \"The best quote I've heard so far is, 'Well, some people's Facebook status changed, but that was about it.", "In late November, discussing the repeal of DADT and its implementation, Marine General James F. Amos said \"I'm very pleased with how it has gone\" and called it a \"non-event\".", "He said his earlier public opposition was appropriate based on ongoing combat operations and the negative assessment of the policy given by 56% of combat troops under his command in the Department of Defense's November 2010 survey.", "A Defense Department spokesperson said implementation of repeal occurred without incident and added: \"We attribute this success to our comprehensive pre-repeal training program, combined with the continued close monitoring and enforcement of standards by our military leaders at all levels.", "\"In December 2011, Congress considered two DADT-related amendments in the course of work on the National Defense Authorization Act for 2012.The Senate approved 97–3, an amendment removing the prohibition on sodomy found in Article 125 of the Uniform Code of Military Justice as recommended by the Comprehensive Review Working Group (CRWG) a year earlier.", "The House approved an amendment banning same-sex marriages from being performed at military bases or by military employees, including chaplains and other employees of the military when \"acting in an official capacity\".", "Neither amendment appeared in the final legislation.In July 2012, the Department of Defense granted permission for military personnel to wear their uniforms while participating in the San Diego Pride Parade.", "This was the first time that U.S. military personnel were permitted to wear their service uniforms in such a parade.Marking the first anniversary of the passage of the Repeal Act, television news networks reported no incidents in the three months since DADT ended.", "One aired video of a social gathering for gay service members at a base in Afghanistan.", "Another reported on the experience of lesbian and gay troops, including some rejection after coming out to colleagues.The Palm Center, a think tank that studies issues of sexuality and the military, released a study in September 2012 that found no negative consequences, nor any effect on military effectiveness from DADT repeal.", "This study began six months following repeal and concluded at the one year mark.", "The study included surveys of 553 generals and admirals who had opposed repeal, experts who supported DADT, and more than 60 heterosexual, gay, lesbian and bisexual active duty service personnel.On January 7, 2013, the ACLU reached a settlement with the federal government in ''Collins v. United States''.", "It provided for the payment of full separation pay to service members discharged under DADT since November 10, 2004, who had previously been granted only half that." ], [ "2012 presidential campaign issue", "Several candidates for the 2012 Republican presidential nomination called for the restoration of DADT, including Michele Bachmann, Rick Perry, and Rick Santorum.", "Newt Gingrich called for an extensive review of DADT's repeal.Ron Paul, having voted for the Repeal Act, maintained his support for allowing military service by open homosexuals.", "Herman Cain called the issue \"a distraction\" and opposed reinstating DADT.", "Mitt Romney said that the winding down of military operations in Iraq and Afghanistan obviated his opposition to the repeal and said he was not proposing any change to policy.On September 22, 2011, the audience at a Republican candidates' debate booed a U.S. soldier posted in Iraq who asked a question via video about the repeal of DADT, and none of the candidates acknowledged or responded to the crowd's behavior.", "Two days later, Obama commented on the incident while addressing a dinner of the Human Rights Campaign: \"You want to be commander in chief?", "You can start by standing up for the men and women who wear the uniform of the United States, even when it's not politically convenient\".In June 2012, Rep. Howard McKeon, Republican chair of the House Armed Services Committee, said he considered the repeal of DADT a settled issue, and that if Romney became president he would not advocate its reinstatement, though others in his party might." ], [ "2021 benefits restoration", "In September 2021, on the 10th anniversary of the Don't Ask, Don't Tell repeal, President Joe Biden announced that the Veterans Administration would start providing benefits for service members who received other-than-honorable discharges (before DADT was enacted and while it was in effect) because of their sexual orientation." ], [ "Views of the policy", "===Public opinion===Soulforce, a civil rights group.In 1993, ''Time'' reported that 44% of those polled supported openly gay service members, and in 1994, a CNN poll indicated 53% of Americans believed gays and lesbians should be permitted to serve openly.According to a December 2010 ''Washington Post''–ABC News poll, 77% of Americans said gays and lesbians who publicly disclose their sexual orientation should be able to serve in the military.", "That number showed little change from polls over the previous two years, but represented the highest level of support in a Post-ABC poll.", "The support also cut across partisan and ideological lines, with majorities of Democrats (86%), Republicans (74%), independents (74%), liberals (92%), conservatives (67%), white evangelical Protestants (70%) and non-religious (84%) in favor of homosexuals serving openly.A November 2010 survey by the Pew Research Center found that 58% of the U.S. public favored allowing gays and lesbians to serve openly in the military, while less than half as many (27%) were opposed.", "According to a November 2010 CNN/Opinion Research Corporation poll, 72% of adult Americans favored permitting people who are openly gay or lesbian to serve in the military, while 23% opposed it.", "\"The main difference between the CNN poll and the Pew poll is in the number of respondents who told pollsters that they didn't have an opinion on this topic – 16 percent in the Pew poll compared to only five percent in the CNN survey\", said CNN Polling Director Keating Holland.", "\"The two polls report virtually the same number who say they oppose gays serving openly in the military, which suggests that there are some people who favor that change in policy but for some reason were reluctant to admit that to the Pew interviewers.", "That happens occasionally on topics where moral issues and equal-treatment issues intersect.", "\"A February 2010 Quinnipiac University Polling Institute national poll showed 57% of American voters favored gays serving openly, compared to 36% opposed, while 66% said not allowing openly gay personnel to serve is discrimination, compared to 31% who did not see it as discrimination.", "A CBS News/''New York Times'' national poll done at the same time showed 58% of Americans favored gays serving openly, compared to 28% opposed.===Chaplains and religious groups===Chaplain groups and religious organizations took various positions on DADT.", "Some felt that the policy needed to be withdrawn to make the military more inclusive.", "The Southern Baptist Convention battled the repeal of DADT, warning that their endorsements for chaplains might be withdrawn if the repeal took place.", "They took the position that allowing gay men and women to serve in the military without restriction would have a negative impact on the ability of chaplains who think homosexuality is a sin to speak freely regarding their religious beliefs.", "The Roman Catholic Church called for the retention of the policy, but had no plans to withdraw its priests from serving as military chaplains.", "Sixty-five retired chaplains signed a letter opposing repeal, stating that repeal would make it impossible for chaplains whose faith teaches that same-sex behavior is immoral to minister to military service members.", "Other religious organizations and agencies called the repeal of the policy a \"non-event\" or \"non-issue\" for chaplains, claiming that chaplains have always supported military service personnel, whether or not they agree with all their actions or beliefs." ], [ "Discharges under DADT", "After the policy was introduced in 1993, the military discharged over 13,000 troops from the military under DADT.", "The number of discharges per fiscal year under DADT dropped sharply after the September 11 attacks and remained comparatively low through to the repeal.", "Discharges exceeded 600 every year until 2009.Year Coast Guard Marines Navy Army Air Force Total 1994 0 36 258 136 187 617 1995 15 69 269 184 235 772 1996 12 60 315 199 284 870 1997 10 78 413 197 309 1,007 1998 14 77 345 312 415 1,163 1999 12 97 314 271 352 1,046 2000 19 114 358 573 177 1,241 2001 14 115 314 638 217 1,273 2002 29 109 218 429 121 906 2003 – – – – – 787 2004 15 59 177 325 92 668 2005 16 75 177 386 88 742 2006 – – – – – 623 2007 – – – – – 627 2008 – – – – – 619 2009 – – – – – 428 2010 11 – – – – 261 '''Total''' ≥156 ≥889 ≥3,158 ≥3,650 ≥2,477 13,650 Disclaimer: These statistics are not official and only include soldiers who came forward to the Servicemembers Legal Defense Network.", "Because some soldiers do not disclose their discharge, some of the numbers may be inaccurate.US Navy 110317-N-5469W-016 Rear Adm. Vic Guillory, commander of U.S.", "Naval Forces Southern Command and U.S. 4th Fleet, kicks off the Don't Ask, Don.jpg|Rear Adm. Vic Guillory, commander of U.S.", "Naval Forces Southern Command and U.S. 4th Fleet leads DADT repeal training for Tier 2 command leadership at Naval Station Mayport, March 17, 2011US Navy 110406-N-YS896-005 Naval Special Warfare Command personnel watch Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) Adm. Gary Roughead during Don't Ask, Don't.jpg|Naval Special Warfare Command personnel watching Chief of Naval Operations Adm. Gary Roughead during DADT repeal training, April 6, 2011US Navy 110505-N-UB993-004 Capt.", "Joel A. Roos conducts Don't Ask Don't Tell (DADT) Repeal training for enlisted, officer and civilian staff of Nava.jpg|DADT Repeal training for enlisted, officer and civilian staff at Naval Medical Center San Diego, May 5, 2011" ], [ "State-based gay and lesbian military veteran laws", "In November 2019, both Rhode Island and New York State signed into law and implemented restoring military benefits to gay and lesbian military veterans.", "An estimated approximately 100,000 individuals were affected by the \"don't ask don't tell policy\" (since it was repealed in September 2011)." ], [ "See also", "* Liberal homophobia* Steve May, gay Republican Arizona legislator, Army reservist until May 2001* Sexual orientation and gender identity in the United States military* Sexual orientation and military service – for information on policies in military services worldwide* Transgender military ban in the United States" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography===* * Allan Bérubé, \"How Gay Stays White and What Kind of White It Stays\", in ''My Desire for History: Essays in Gay, Community, and Labor History'', John D'Emilio and Estelle B. Freeman, eds.", "(University of North Carolina Press, 2011)* * Tim McFeeley, \"Getting It Straight: A Review of the 'Gays in the Military' Debate\", in John D'Emilio, William B. Turner, and Urvashi Vaid, eds., ''Creating Change: Sexuality, Public Policy, and Civil Rights'' (NY: St. Martin's Press, 2000)* David Mixner, ''Stranger Among Friends'' (NY: Bantam, 1996)* *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Belkin, Aaron (2013).", "Readiness and DADT Repeal: Has the New Policy of Open Service Undermined the Military?", "''Armed Forces & Society'', Forthcoming ... Access OnlineFirst at http://afs.sagepub.com/content/early/2012/12/06/0095327X12466248.abstract* * Carter, Chad C. and Antony B. Kolenc (2005).", "\"'Don't Ask, Don't Tell': Has the Policy Met Its Goals?\"", ", ''University of Dayton Law Review'', Fall 2005* Huffman, J. Ford and Schultz, Tammy S. (editors) (2012), ''The End of Don't Ask Don't Tell: The Impact in Studies and Personal Essays by Service Members and Veterans'', Marine Corps University* * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * Document Library, Robert Crown Law Library at Stanford Law Library* Text of Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010* Elaine Donnelly and Aaron Belkin Debate DADT at Maxwell Air Force Base, summer 2010* ''Don't Ask Don't Tell Review'', House of Representatives, Military Personnel Subcommittee, July 23, 2008" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Divination" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Divination''' () is the attempt to gain insight into a question or situation by way of an occultic ritual or practice.", "Using various methods throughout history, diviners ascertain their interpretations of how a should proceed by reading signs, events, or omens, or through alleged contact or interaction with supernatural agencies such as spirits, gods, god-like-beings or the \"will of the universe\".", "Display on divination, featuring a cross-cultural range of items, in the Pitt Rivers Museum in Oxford, England Divination can be seen as an attempt to organize what appears to be random so that it provides insight into a problem or issue at hand.", "Some modern instruments or practices of divination for magical practices include Tarot-card reading, rune casting, tea-leaf reading, automatic writing, and water scrying.", "If a distinction is made between divination and fortune-telling, divination has a more formal or ritualistic element and often contains a more social character, usually in a religious context, as seen in traditional African medicine.", "Fortune-telling, on the other hand, is a more everyday practice for personal purposes.", "Particular divination methods vary by culture and religion.In its functional relation to magic in general, divination can have a preliminary and investigative role:... the diagnosis or prognosis achieved through divination is both temporarily and logically related to the manipulative, protective or alleviative function of magic rituals.", "In divination one finds the cause of an ailment or a potential danger, in magic one subsequently acts upon this knowledge.Divination has long attracted criticism.", "In the modern era, it has been dismissed by the scientific community and by skeptics as being superstitious; experiments do not support the idea that divination techniques can actually predict the future more reliably or precisely than would be possible without it.", "In antiquity, divination came under attack from philosophers such as the Academic skeptic Cicero in ''De Divinatione'' (1st century BCE) and the Pyrrhonist Sextus Empiricus in ''Against the Astrologers'' (2nd century CE).", "The satirist Lucian ( 125 – after 180) devoted an essay to Alexander the false prophet." ], [ "History", "Russian peasant girls using chickens for divination; 19th-century lubok.===Antiquity===The Oracle of Amun at the Siwa Oasis was made famous when Alexander the Great visited it after conquering Egypt from Persia in 332 BC.", "or can be interpreted as categorically forbidding divination.", "However, some would claim that divination is indeed practiced in the Bible, such as in Exodus 28, when the Urim and Thummim are mentioned.", "Some would also say that Gideon also practiced divination, though when he uses a piece of fleece or wool in , he is not attempting to predict the outcome of an important battle; rather, he is communicating with God.", "Communicating with God through prayer may in some cases be considered divination; both are open, typically two-way conversations with God.", "In addition, the method of \"casting lots\" used in and to divide the conquered lands of Canaan between the twelve tribes is not seen by some as divination, but as done at the behest of God ().Hatch disputes these comparisons because these practices invoked the \"one true God\" and discouraged individuals from manipulating this god for their own benefit.", "He believes that these two aspects are absent from divination.", "====Oracles and Greek divination====Both oracles and seers in ancient Greece practiced divination.", "Oracles were the conduits for the gods on earth; their prophecies were understood to be the will of the gods verbatim.", "Because of the high demand for oracle consultations and the oracles’ limited work schedule, they were not the main source of divination for the ancient Greeks.", "That role fell to the seers ().Seers were not in direct contact with the gods; instead, they were interpreters of signs provided by the gods.", "Seers used many methods to explicate the will of the gods including extispicy, ornithomancy, etc.", "They were more numerous than the oracles and did not keep a limited schedule; thus, they were highly valued by all Greeks, not just those with the capacity to travel to Delphi or other such distant sites.The disadvantage of seers was that only direct yes-or-no questions could be answered.", "Oracles could answer more generalized questions, and seers often had to perform several sacrifices in order to get the most consistent answer.", "For example, if a general wanted to know if the omens were proper for him to advance on the enemy, he would ask his seer both that question and if it were better for him to remain on the defensive.", "If the seer gave consistent answers, the advice was considered valid.During battle, generals would frequently ask seers at both the campground (a process called the ''hiera'') and at the battlefield (called the ''sphagia'').", "The hiera entailed the seer slaughtering a sheep and examining its liver for answers regarding a more generic question; the sphagia involved killing a young female goat by slitting its throat and noting the animal's last movements and blood flow.", "The battlefield sacrifice only occurred when two armies prepared for battle against each other.", "Neither force would advance until the seer revealed appropriate omens.Because the seers had such power over influential individuals in ancient Greece, many were skeptical of the accuracy and honesty of the seers.", "The degree to which seers were honest depends entirely on the individual seers.", "Despite the doubt surrounding individual seers, the craft as a whole was well regarded and trusted by the Greeks, and the Stoics accounted for the validity of divination in their physics.===Middle Ages and Early Modern period===The divination method of casting lots (Cleromancy) was used by the remaining eleven disciples of Jesus in to select a replacement for Judas Iscariot.", "Therefore, divination was arguably an accepted practice in the early church.", "However, divination became viewed as a pagan practice by Christian emperors during ancient Rome.In 692 the Quinisext Council, also known as the \"Council in Trullo\" in the Eastern Orthodox Church, passed canons to eliminate pagan and divination practices.", "Fortune-telling and other forms of divination were widespread through the Middle Ages.", "In the constitution of 1572 and public regulations of 1661 of the Electorate of Saxony, capital punishment was used on those predicting the future.", "Laws forbidding divination practice continue to this day.", "The Waldensians sect were accused of practicing divination.Småland is famous for Årsgång, a practice which occurred until the early 19th century in some parts of Småland.", "Generally occurring on Christmas and New Year's Eve, it is a practice in which one would fast and keep themselves away from light in a room until midnight to then complete a set of complex events to interpret symbols encountered throughout the journey to foresee the coming year.In Islam, astrology (''‘ilm ahkam al-nujum''), the most widespread divinatory science, is the study of how celestial entities could be applied to the daily lives of people on earth.", "It is important to emphasize the practical nature of divinatory sciences because people from all socioeconomic levels and pedigrees sought the advice of astrologers to make important decisions in their lives.", "Astronomy was made a distinct science by intellectuals who did not agree with the former, although distinction may not have been made in daily practice, where astrology was technically outlawed and only tolerated if it was employed in public.", "Astrologers, trained as scientists and astronomers, were able to interpret the celestial forces that ruled the \"sub-lunar\" to predict a variety of information from lunar phases and drought to times of prayer and the foundation of cities.", "The courtly sanction and elite patronage of Muslim rulers benefited astrologers’ intellectual statures.Joseph Enthroned.", "Folio from the \"Book of Omens\" (''Falnama''), Safavid Dynasty.", "1550.Freer Gallery of Art.", "This painting would have been positioned alongside a prognostic description of the meaning of this image on the page opposite (conventionally to the left).", "The reader would flip randomly to a place in the book and digest the text having first viewed the image.The “science of the sand” (''‘ilm al-raml''), otherwise translated as geomancy, is “based on the interpretation of figures traced on sand or other surface known as geomantic figures.” It is a good example of Islamic divination at a popular level.", "The core principle that meaning derives from a unique occupied position is identical to the core principle of astrology.Like astronomy, geomancy used deduction and computation to uncover significant prophecies as opposed to omens (''‘ilm al-fa’l''), which were process of “reading” visible random events to decipher the invisible realities from which they originated.", "It was upheld by prophetic tradition and relied almost exclusively on text, specifically the Qur’an (which carried a table for guidance) and poetry, as a development of bibliomancy.", "The practice culminated in the appearance of the illustrated “Books of Omens” (''Falnama'') in the early 16th century, an embodiment of the apocalyptic fears as the end of the millennium in the Islamic calendar approached.Dream interpretation, or oneiromancy ''(‘ilm ta’bir al-ru’ya''), is more specific to Islam than other divinatory science, largely because of the Qur’an’s emphasis on the predictive dreams of Abraham, Yusuf, and Muhammad.", "The important delineation within the practice lies between “incoherent dreams” and “sound dreams,” which were “a part of prophecy” or heavenly message.", "Dream interpretation was always tied to Islamic religious texts, providing a moral compass to those seeking advice.", "The practitioner needed to be skilled enough to apply the individual dream to general precedent while appraising the singular circumstances.The power of text held significant weight in the \"science of letters\" ''(‘ilm al-huruf''), the foundational principle being \"God created the world through His speech.\"", "The science began with the concept of language, specifically Arabic, as the expression of \"the essence of what it signifies.\"", "Once the believer understood this, while remaining obedient to God’s will, they could uncover the essence and divine truth of the objects inscribed with Arabic like amulets and talismans through the study of the letters of the Qur’an with alphanumeric computations.In Islamic practice in Senegal and Gambia, just like many other West African countries, diviners and religious leaders and healers were interchangeable because Islam was closely related with esoteric practices (like divination), which were responsible for the regional spread of Islam.", "As scholars learned esoteric sciences, they joined local non-Islamic aristocratic courts, who quickly aligned divination and amulets with the \"proof of the power of Islamic religion.\"", "So strong was the idea of esoteric knowledge in West African Islam, diviners and magicians uneducated in Islamic texts and Arabic bore the same titles as those who did.From the beginning of Islam, there \"was (and is) still a vigorous debate about whether or not such divinatory practices were actually permissible under Islam,” with some scholars like Abu-Hamid al Ghazili (d. 1111) objecting to the science of divination because he believed it bore too much similarity to pagan practices of invoking spiritual entities that were not God.", "Other scholars justified esoteric sciences by comparing a practitioner to \"a physician trying to heal the sick with the help of the same natural principles.", "\"===Mesoamerica===Divination was a central component of ancient Mesoamerican religious life.", "Many Aztec gods, including central creator gods, were described as diviners and were closely associated with sorcery.", "Tezcatlipoca is the patron of sorcerers and practitioners of magic.", "His name means \"smoking mirror,\" a reference to a device used for divinatory scrying.", "In the Mayan ''Popol Vuh'', the creator gods Xmucane and Xpiacoc perform divinatory hand casting during the creation of people.", "The Aztec ''Codex Borbonicus'' shows the original human couple, Oxomoco and Cipactonal, engaged in divining with kernels of maize.", "This primordial pair is associated with the ritual calendar, and the Aztecs considered them to be the first diviners.Every civilization that developed in pre-Columbian Mexico, from the Olmecs to the Aztecs, practiced divination in daily life, both public and private.", "Scrying through the use of reflective water surfaces, mirrors, or the casting of lots were among the most widespread forms of divinatory practice.", "Visions derived from hallucinogens were another important form of divination, and are still widely used among contemporary diviners of Mexico.", "Among the more common hallucinogenic plants used in divination are morning glory, jimson weed, and peyote." ], [ "Contemporary divination in Asia", "===India and Nepal===Theyyam or \"theiyam\" in Malayalam is the process by which a devotee invites a Hindu god or goddess to use his or her body as a medium or channel and answer other devotees' questions.", "The same is called \"arulvaakku\" or \"arulvaak\" in Tamil, another south Indian language - Adhiparasakthi Siddhar Peetam is famous for arulvakku in Tamil Nadu.", "The people in and around Mangalore in Karnataka call the same, Buta Kola, \"paathri\" or \"darshin\"; in other parts of Karnataka, it is known by various names such as, \"prashnaavali\", \"vaagdaana\", \"asei\", \"aashirvachana\", and so on.", "In Nepal it is known as, \"Devta ka dhaamee\" or \"jhaakri\".In English, the closest translation for these is, \"oracle.\"", "The Dalai Lama, who lives in exile in northern India, still consults an oracle known as the ''Nechung Oracle'', which is considered the official state oracle of the government of Tibet.", "The Dalai Lama has according to centuries-old custom, consulted the Nechung Oracle during the new year festivities of Losar.===Japan===Although Japan retains a history of traditional and local methods of divination, such as ''onmyōdō'', contemporary divination in Japan, called ''uranai'', derives from outside sources.", "Contemporary methods of divination in Japan include both Western and Chinese astrology, geomancy or feng shui, tarot cards, I Ching (Book of Changes) divination, and physiognomy (methods of reading the body to identify traits).In Japan, divination methods include Futomani from the Shinto tradition.====Personality types====Personality typing as a form of divination has been prevalent in Japan since the 1980s.", "Various methods exist for divining personality type.", "Each attempt to reveal glimpses of an individual's destiny, productive and inhibiting traits, future parenting techniques, and compatibility in marriage.", "Personality type is increasingly important for young Japanese, who consider personality the driving factor of compatibility, given the ongoing marriage drought and birth rate decline in Japan.An import to Japan, Chinese zodiac signs based on the birth year in 12 year cycles (rat, ox, tiger, hare, dragon, snake, horse, sheep, monkey, cock, dog, and boar) are frequently combined with other forms of divination, such as so-called 'celestial types' based on the planets (Saturn, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Mercury, or Uranus).", "Personality can also be divined using cardinal directions, the four elements (water, earth, fire, air), and yin-yang.", "Names can also lend important personality information under name classification which asserts that names bearing certain Japanese vowel sounds (a, i, u, e, o) share common characteristics.", "Numerology, which utilizes methods of divining 'birth numbers' from significant numbers such as birth date, may also reveal character traits of individuals.Individuals can also assess their own and others' personalities according to physical characteristics.", "Blood type remains a popular form of divination from physiology.", "Stemming from Western influences, body reading or ''ninsou'', determines personality traits based on body measurements.", "The face is the most commonly analyzed feature, with eye size, pupil shape, mouth shape, and eyebrow shape representing the most important traits.", "An upturned mouth may be cheerful, and a triangle eyebrow may indicate that someone is strong-willed.Methods of assessment in daily life may include self-taken measurements or quizzes.", "As such, magazines targeted at women in their early-to-mid twenties feature the highest concentration of personality assessment guides.", "There are approximately 144 different women's magazines, known as ''nihon zashi koukoku kyoukai'', published in Japan aimed at this audience.====Japanese tarot====The adaptation of the Western divination method of tarot cards into Japanese culture presents a particularly unique example of contemporary divination as this adaptation mingles with Japan's robust visual culture.", "Japanese tarot cards are created by professional artists, advertisers, and fans of tarot.", "One tarot card collector claimed to have accumulated more than 1,500 Japan-made decks of tarot cards.Japanese tarot cards fall into diverse categories such as:* Inspiration Tarot ();* I-Ching Tarot ();* Spiritual Tarot ();* Western Tarot (); and* Eastern Tarot ().The images on tarot cards may come from images from Japanese popular culture, such as characters from manga and anime including Hello Kitty, or may feature cultural symbols.", "Tarot cards may adapt the images of Japanese historical figures, such as high priestess Himiko (170–248CE) or imperial court wizard Abe no Seimei (921–1005CE) .", "Still others may feature images of cultural displacement, such as English knights, pentagrams, the Jewish Torah, or invented glyphs.", "The introduction of such cards began by the 1930s and reached prominence 1970s.", "Japanese tarot cards were originally created by men, often based on the Rider-Waite-Smith tarot published by the Rider Company in London in 1909.Since, the practice of Japanese tarot has become overwhelmingly feminine and intertwined with kawaii culture.", "Referring to the cuteness of tarot cards, Japanese model Kuromiya Niina was quoted as saying \"because the images are cute, even holding them is enjoyable.\"", "While these differences exist, Japanese tarot cards function similarly to their Western counterparts.", "Cards are shuffled and cut into piles then used to forecast the future, for spiritual reflection, or as a tool for self-understanding.===Taiwan===A common act of divination in Taiwan is called the Poe.", "“The Poe” translated to English means “moon boards”.", "It consists of two wood or bamboo blocks cut into the shape of a crescent moon.", "The one edge is rounded while the other is flat; the two are mirror images.", "Both crescents are held out in one's palms and while kneeling, they are raised to the forehead level.", "Once in this position, the blocks are dropped and the future can be understood depending on their landing.", "If both fall flat side up or both fall rounded side up, that can be taken as a failure of the deity to agree.", "If the blocks land one rounded and one flat, the deity indicates \"Yes\", or positive.", "“Laughing poe” is when rounded sides land down and they rock before coming to a standstill.", "“Negative poe” is when the flat sides fall downward and abruptly stop; this indicates \"No\".", "When there is a positive fall, it is called “Sacred poe”, although the negative falls are not usually taken seriously.", "As the blocks are being dropped the question is said in a murmur, and if the answer is yes, the blocks are dropped again.", "To make sure the answer is definitely a yes, the blocks must fall in a “yes” position three times in a row.", "A more serious type of divination is the Kiō-á.", "There is a small wooden chair, and around the sides of the chair are small pieces of wood that can move up and down in their sockets, this causes a clicking sounds when the chair is moved in any way.", "Two men hold this chair by its legs before an altar, while the incense is being burned, and the deity is invited to descend onto the chair.", "It is seen that it is in the chair by an onset of motion.", "Eventually, the chair crashes onto a table prepared with wood chips and burlap.", "The characters on the table are then traced and these are said to be written by the deity who possessed the chair, these characters are then interpreted for the devotees." ], [ "Contemporary divination in Africa", "Divination is widespread throughout Africa.", "Among many examples it is one of the central tenets of Serer religion in Senegal.", "Only those who have been initiated as Saltigues (the Serer high priests and priestesses) can divine the future.", "These are the \"hereditary rain priests\" whose role is both religious and medicinal." ], [ "See also", "* Astrology* Chinese fortune telling* Fortune telling* Geomancy* ''Jiaobei''* ''Kau chim''* List of occult terms* Methods of divination* Oneiromancy* Prophecy* Qimen Dunjia* Sandobele* ''Shaobing Song''* ''Tengenjutsu'' (fortune telling)* ''Tui bei tu''" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Works cited===* * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Beerden, K.", "2013.", "''Worlds full of signs: ancient Greek divination in context''.", "Leiden: Brill.", "* Engels, D.", "2007.", "''Das römische Vorzeichenwesen (753-27 v.Chr.).", "Quellen, Terminologie, Kommentar, historische Entwicklung.''", "Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag.", "* Evans-Pritchard, E. E.", "1976.", "''Witchcraft, oracles, and magic among the Azande''.", "* Fahd, Toufic.", "1966.", "''La divination arabe; études religieuses, sociologiques et folkloriques sur le milieu natif d’Islam''.", "* Hitti, Philip K.", "1968.", "''Makers of Arab History''.", "Princeton, NJ.", "St. Martin's Press.", "p. 61.", "* LaGamma, Alisa.", "2000.\"", "Art and oracle: African art and rituals of divination.\"", "New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art.", ".", "* Loewe, Michael, and Carmen Blacker, eds.", "1981.", "''Oracles and Divination''.", "Shambhala/Random House.", ".", "*Sahagún, Bernardino de.", "''General History of the Things of New Spain, Book 4, The Soothsayers and Book 5, The Omens''.", "Number 14, parts 5 and 6.Translated by Charles E. Dibble and Arthur J. O. Anderson.", "Santa Fe, N. M., 1979.This single volume of the Florentine Codex contains books 4 and 5, listing attributes of Aztec days signs and omens.", "*Tedlock, Barbara.", "''Time and the Highland Maya''.", "Albuquerque, N.M., 1982.Detailed study of divination techniques using the ritual calendar among Quiché Maya in the Guatemalan Highlands.", "*Vernant, J. P.", "1974.", "''Divination et rationalité''.", "Paris: Éditions du Seuil.", "*Watt, W. Montgomery.", "1961.", "''Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman''.", "Edinburgh, UK.", "Oxford University Press.", "pp.", "1–2." ], [ "External links", "* ''Greek Divination: a study of its methods and principles'', William Reginald Halliday, Macmillan, 1913, 309pp - a complete scanned edition of a general treatment of Greek divination (at Google Books)* David Zeitlyn and others on African Divination systems: Africa Divination: Mambila and others*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Diets of Nuremberg" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Diets of Nuremberg''', also called the Imperial Diets of Nuremberg, took place at different times between the Middle Ages and the 17th century.The first Diet of Nuremberg, in 1211, elected the future emperor Frederick II of Hohenstaufen as German king.At the Diet of 1356 the Emperor Charles IV issued the Golden Bull of 1356, which required each Holy Roman Emperor to summon the first Imperial Diet after his election at Nuremberg.", "Apart from that, a number of other diets were held there.Important to Protestantism were the Diets of 1522 (\"First Diet of Nuremberg\"), 1524 (\"Second Diet of Nuremberg\") and 1532 (\"Third Diet of Nuremberg\")." ], [ "The 1522 Diet of Nuremberg", "This Diet has become known mostly for the reaction of the papacy to the decision made on Luther at the Diet of Worms the previous year.", "The new pope, Adrian VI, sent his nuncio Francesco Chieregati to the Diet, to insist both that the Edict of Worms be executed and that action be taken promptly against Luther.", "This demand, however, was coupled with a promise of thorough reform in the Roman hierarchy, frankly admitting the partial guilt of the Vatican in the decline of the Church.In the recess drafted on 9 February 1523, however, the German princes rejected this appeal.", "Using Adrian's admissions, they declared that they could not have it appear 'as though they wished to oppress evangelical truth and assist unchristian and evil abuses.'" ], [ "The 1524 Diet of Nuremberg", "This Diet generally took the same line as the previous one.", "The Estates reiterated their decision from the previous Diet.", "The Cardinal-legate, Campeggio, who was present, showed his disgust at the behaviour of the Estates.", "On 18 April, the Estates decided to call 'a general gathering of the German nation', to meet at Speyer the following year and to decide what would be done until the meeting of the general council of the Church which they demanded.", "This resulted in the Diet of Speyer (1526), which in turn was followed by the Diet of Speyer (1529).", "The latter included the Protestation at Speyer." ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Karl Brandi, ''The Emperor Charles V'' (1939), pp.", "185–188" ] ]
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[ [ "Dr. Strangelove" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Dr.", "Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb''''' (known simply and more commonly as '''''Dr.", "Strangelove''''') is a 1964 political satire black comedy film directed, co-written, and produced by Stanley Kubrick and starring Peter Sellers in three roles, including the title character.", "The film, which satirizes the Cold War fears of a nuclear conflict between the Soviet Union and the United States, also stars George C. Scott, Sterling Hayden, Keenan Wynn, Slim Pickens, and Tracy Reed, and is loosely based on the thriller novel ''Red Alert'' (1958) by Peter George, who also co-wrote the screenplay with Kubrick and Terry Southern.The story concerns an unhinged United States Air Force general who orders a pre-emptive nuclear attack on the Soviet Union.", "It separately follows the President of the United States, his advisors, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and a Royal Air Force exchange officer as they attempt to prevent the crew of a B-52 (following orders from the general) from bombing the Soviet Union and starting a nuclear war.The film is often considered one of the best comedies ever made and one of the greatest films of all time.", "In 1998, the American Film Institute ranked it twenty-sixth in its list of the best American movies (in the 2007 edition, the film ranked thirty-ninth), and in 2000, it was listed as number three on its list of the funniest American films.", "In 1989, the United States Library of Congress included ''Dr.", "Strangelove'' as one of the first 25 films selected for preservation in the National Film Registry for being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\".", "The film received four Academy Award nominations, including Best Picture, Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay, and Best Actor for Sellers.", "The film was also nominated for seven BAFTA Film Awards, winning Best Film From Any Source, Best British Film, and Best Art Direction (Black and White), and it also won the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation." ], [ "Plot", "United States Air Force Brigadier General Jack D. Ripper is commander of Burpelson Air Force Base, which houses the 843rd Bomb Wing, flying B-52 bombers armed with hydrogen bombs.", "The planes are on airborne alert two hours from their targets inside the USSR.General Ripper orders his executive officer, Group Captain Lionel Mandrake (an exchange officer from the Royal Air Force), to put the base on alert, confiscate all privately owned radios from base personnel and issue \"Wing Attack Plan R\" to the patrolling bombers.", "All the aircraft commence attack flights on the USSR and set their radios to allow communications only through their CRM 114 discriminators, which are designed to accept only communications preceded by a secret three-letter code known only to General Ripper.", "Happening upon a radio that had been missed earlier and hearing regular civilian broadcasting, Mandrake realizes that no attack order has been issued by the Pentagon and tries to stop Ripper, who locks them both in his office.", "Ripper tells Mandrake that he believes the Soviets have been fluoridating American water supplies to pollute the \"precious bodily fluids\" of Americans.", "Mandrake realizes Ripper has gone completely mad.The film's trailerIn the War Room at the Pentagon, General Buck Turgidson briefs President Merkin Muffley and other officers about how \"Plan R\" enables a senior officer to launch a retaliatory nuclear attack on the Soviets if all superiors have been killed in a first strike on the United States.", "Trying every CRM code combination to issue a recall order would require two days, so Muffley orders the U.S. Army to storm the base and arrest General Ripper.", "Turgidson, noting the slim odds of recalling the planes in time, then proposes that Muffley not only let the attack proceed but send reinforcements.", "According to an unofficial study, this would result in \"modest and acceptable civilian casualties\" from the \"badly damaged and uncoordinated\" Soviet military remaining after the initial attack.", "Muffley rejects Turgidson's recommendation and instead brings Soviet ambassador Alexei de Sadeski into the War Room to telephone Soviet Premier Dimitri Kissov, who is drunk, on the \"hotline\".", "Muffley warns the Premier of the impending attack and offers to reveal the targets, flight plans, and defensive systems of the bombers so that the Soviets can protect themselves.After a heated discussion with the Premier, the ambassador informs President Muffley that the Soviet Union created a doomsday machine as a nuclear deterrent; it consists of many buried bombs jacketed with \"cobalt–thorium G\", which are set to detonate automatically should any nuclear attack strike the country.", "The resulting nuclear fallout would then engulf the planet for 93 years, rendering the Earth's surface uninhabitable.", "The device cannot be deactivated, as it is programmed to explode if any such attempt is made.", "The President's German scientific advisor, the paraplegic former Nazi Dr. Strangelove, points out that such a doomsday machine would only be an effective deterrent if everyone knew about it; de Sadeski replies that the Soviet Premier had planned to reveal its existence to the world the following week at the Party Congress.U.S.", "Army troops arrive at Burpelson and battle with the garrison.", "After General Ripper commits suicide, Mandrake identifies Ripper's CRM code from doodles on his desk blotter and relays it to the Pentagon.", "Using the code, Strategic Air Command successfully recalls all of the bombers except for one, commanded by Major T. J.", "\"King\" Kong, due to the radio equipment being damaged by a Soviet SAM.", "The Soviets hunt the bomber, but Kong flies below radar and switches targets due to dwindling fuel.", "As the plane approaches the new target, a Soviet ICBM site, the crew is unable to open the damaged bomb bay doors.", "Kong enters the bay and repairs the electrical wiring while straddling an H-bomb, causing the doors to open, and the bomb to drop, with Kong on top of it.", "Kong joyously hoots and waves his cowboy hat as he rides the falling bomb to his death.In the War Room, Dr. Strangelove recommends that the President gather several hundred thousand people to live in deep underground mines where the radiation will not penetrate.", "He suggests a 10:1 female-to-male ratio for a breeding program to repopulate the Earth once the radiation has subsided.", "Worried that the Soviets will do the same, Turgidson warns about a \"mineshaft gap\" while de Sadeski secretly photographs the War Room.", "Dr. Strangelove declares he has a plan, then suddenly stands up out of his wheelchair.", "With great surprise, he exclaims, \"Mein Führer, I can walk!\"", "The film ends with a montage of nuclear explosions, accompanied by Vera Lynn's rendition of the song \"We'll Meet Again\"." ], [ "Cast", "* Peter Sellers as:** Group captain Lionel Mandrake, a British RAF exchange officer** Merkin Muffley, the President of the United States** Dr. Strangelove (né Merkwürdigliebe), the wheelchair-using nuclear war expert and former Nazi, who has alien hand syndrome* George C. Scott as General Buck Turgidson, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff* Sterling Hayden as Brigadier General Jack D. Ripper, paranoid commander of Burpelson Air Force Base, which is part of the Strategic Air Command.", "* Keenan Wynn as Colonel \"Bat\" Guano, the Army officer who finds Mandrake and Ripper* Jack Creley as Mr. Staines, National Security Advisor* Slim Pickens as Major T. J.", "\"King\" Kong, the B-52 bomber's commander and pilot* Peter Bull as Soviet Ambassador Alexei de Sadeski* James Earl Jones as Lieutenant Lothar Zogg, the B-52's bombardier (film debut)* Tracy Reed as Miss Scott, General Turgidson's secretary and mistress, the film's only female character.", "She also appears as \"Miss Foreign Affairs\", the Playboy Playmate in ''Playboy'' June 1962 issue, which Major Kong is shown perusing at one point.", "* Shane Rimmer as Capt.", "Ace Owens, the co-pilot of the B-52=== Peter Sellers's multiple roles ===Columbia Pictures agreed to finance the film if Peter Sellers played at least four major roles.", "The condition stemmed from the studio's opinion that much of the success of Kubrick's previous film ''Lolita'' (1962) was based on Sellers's performance, in which his single character assumes several identities.", "Sellers also played three roles in ''The Mouse That Roared'' (1959).", "Kubrick accepted the demand, later saying that \"such crass and grotesque stipulations are the ''sine qua non'' of the motion-picture business.", "\"Sellers ended up playing three of the four roles written for him.", "He had been expected to play Air Force Major T. J.", "\"King\" Kong, the B-52 aircraft commander, but from the beginning, Sellers was reluctant.", "He felt his workload was too heavy and worried he would not properly portray the character's Texan English accent.", "Kubrick pleaded with him, and he asked the screenwriter Terry Southern (who had been raised in Texas) to record a tape with Kong's lines spoken in the correct accent, which he practiced using Southern's tapes.", "But after the start of shooting in the aircraft, Sellers sprained his ankle and could no longer work in the cramped aircraft mockup.Sellers improvised much of his dialogue, with Kubrick incorporating the ad-libs into the written screenplay so that the improvised lines became part of the canonical screenplay, a practice known as retroscripting.", "==== Group Captain Lionel Mandrake ====According to film critic Alexander Walker, the author of biographies of both Sellers and Kubrick, the role of Group Captain Lionel Mandrake was the easiest of the three for Sellers to play, since he was aided by his experience of mimicking his superiors while serving in the RAF during World War II.", "There is also a heavy resemblance to Sellers's friend and occasional co-star Terry-Thomas and the prosthetic-limbed RAF flying ace Sir Douglas Bader.==== President Merkin Muffley ====For his performance as President Merkin Muffley, Sellers assumed a Midwestern American English accent.", "Sellers drew inspiration for the role from Adlai Stevenson, a former Illinois governor who was the Democratic candidate for the 1952 and 1956 presidential elections and the U.N. ambassador during the Cuban Missile Crisis.In early takes, Sellers simulated cold symptoms to emphasize the character's apparent weakness.", "That caused frequent laughter among the film crew, ruining several takes.", "Kubrick ultimately found this comic portrayal inappropriate, feeling Muffley should be a serious character.", "In later takes, Sellers played the role straight, though the President's cold is still evident in several scenes.==== Dr. Strangelove ====John von Neumann promoted the policy of mutual assured destruction.Dr.", "Strangelove is a scientist and former Nazi, suggesting Operation Paperclip, the US effort to recruit top German technical talent at the end of World War II.", "He serves as President Muffley's scientific adviser in the War Room.", "When General Turgidson wonders aloud to Mr. Staines (Jack Creley), what kind of name \"Strangelove\" is, possibly a \"Kraut name\", Staines responds that Strangelove's original German surname was ''Merkwürdigliebe'' (\"Strange love\" in German) and that \"he changed it when he became a citizen\".", "Strangelove accidentally addresses the president as ''Mein Führer'' twice in the film.", "Dr. Strangelove did not appear in the book ''Red Alert''.The character is an amalgamation of RAND Corporation strategist Herman Kahn, rocket scientist Wernher von Braun (a central figure in Nazi Germany's rocket development program recruited to the US after the war), and Edward Teller, the \"father of the hydrogen bomb\".", "It is frequently claimed the character was based on Henry Kissinger, but Kubrick and Sellers denied this; Sellers said: \"Strangelove was never modeled after Kissinger—that's a popular misconception.", "It was always Wernher von Braun.\"", "Furthermore, Henry Kissinger points out in his memoirs that at the time of the writing of ''Dr.", "Strangelove'', he was a little-known academic.The wheelchair-using Strangelove furthers a Kubrick trope of the menacing, seated antagonist, first depicted in ''Lolita'' through the character \"Dr. Zaempf\".", "Strangelove's accent was influenced by that of Austrian-American photographer Weegee, who worked for Kubrick as a special photographic effects consultant.", "Strangelove's appearance echoes the mad scientist archetype as seen in the character Rotwang in Fritz Lang's film ''Metropolis'' (1927).", "Sellers's Strangelove takes from Rotwang the single black gloved hand (which, in Rotwang's case, is mechanical because of a lab accident), the wild hair, and, most importantly, his ability to avoid being controlled by political power.", "According to Alexander Walker, Sellers improvised Dr. Strangelove's lapse into the Nazi salute, borrowing one of Kubrick's black leather gloves for the uncontrollable hand that makes the gesture.", "Dr. Strangelove apparently has alien hand syndrome.", "Kubrick wore the gloves on the set to avoid being burned when handling hot lights, and Sellers, recognizing the potential connection to Lang's work, found them to be menacing.=== Slim Pickens as Major T. J.", "\"King\" Kong ===Wing Attack Plan R, fresh from the cockpit's safe, allows a nuclear strike without the President's authorization.Slim Pickens, an established character actor and veteran of many Western films, was eventually chosen to replace Sellers as Major Kong after Sellers' injury.", "John Wayne was offered the role after Sellers was injured, but he never responded to Kubrick's offer.", "Dan Blocker of the ''Bonanza'' western television series was also approached to play the part, but according to Southern, Blocker's agent rejected the script as being \"too pinko\".", "Kubrick then recruited Pickens, whom he knew from his brief involvement in a Marlon Brando western film project that was eventually filmed as ''One-Eyed Jacks''.His fellow actor James Earl Jones recalls, \"He was Major Kong on and off the set—he didn't change a thing—his temperament, his language, his behavior.\"", "Pickens was not told that the movie was a black comedy, and he was only given the script for scenes he was in to get him to play it \"straight\".Kubrick's biographer John Baxter explained, in the documentary ''Inside the Making of Dr. Strangelove'':Pickens, who had previously played only supporting and character roles, said that his appearance as Maj. Kong greatly improved his career.", "He later commented, \"After ''Dr.", "Strangelove'', my salary jumped five times, and assistant directors started saying 'Hey, Slim' instead of 'Hey, you'.", "\"=== George C. Scott as General Buck Turgidson ===General Buck Turgidson imitating a low-flying B-52 \"frying chickens in a barnyard\"George C. Scott played the role of General Buck Turgidson, the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.", "In this capacity General Turgidson was the nation's highest-ranking military officer and the principal military advisor to the President and the National Security Council.", "He is seen during most of the movie advising President Muffley on the best steps to take in order to stop the fleet of B-52 Stratofortresses that was deployed by Brigadier General Jack D. Ripper to drop nuclear bombs on Soviet soil.According to James Earl Jones, Kubrick tricked Scott into playing the role of Gen. Turgidson in a much more outlandish manner than Scott was comfortable doing.", "Kubrick talked Scott into doing absurd \"practice\" takes, which Kubrick told Scott would never be used, as a way to warm up for the \"real\" takes.", "Kubrick used these takes rather than the more restrained ones in the final film, causing Scott to swear never to work with Kubrick again.During the filming, Kubrick and Scott had different opinions regarding certain scenes, but Kubrick obtained Scott's compliance largely by beating him at chess, which they played frequently on the set." ], [ "Production", "=== Novel and screenplay ===Stanley Kubrick started with nothing but a vague idea to make a thriller about a nuclear accident that built on the widespread Cold War fear for survival.", "While doing research, Kubrick gradually became aware of the subtle and paradoxical \"balance of terror\" between nuclear powers.", "At Kubrick's request, Alastair Buchan (the head of the Institute for Strategic Studies) recommended the thriller novel ''Red Alert'' by Peter George.", "Kubrick was impressed with the book, which had also been praised by game theorist and future Nobel Prize in Economics winner Thomas Schelling in an article written for the ''Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists'' and reprinted in ''The Observer'', and immediately bought the film rights.", "In 2006, Schelling wrote that conversations between Kubrick, Schelling, and George in late 1960 about a treatment of ''Red Alert'' updated with intercontinental missiles eventually led to the making of the film.In collaboration with George, Kubrick started writing a screenplay based on the book.", "While writing the screenplay, they benefited from some brief consultations with Schelling and later, Herman Kahn.", "In following the tone of the book, Kubrick originally intended to film the story as a serious drama.", "However, he began to see comedy inherent in the idea of mutual assured destruction as he wrote the first draft.", "He later said:Among the titles that Kubrick considered for the film were ''Dr.", "Doomsday or: How to Start World War III Without Even Trying'', ''Dr.", "Strangelove's Secret Uses of Uranus'', and ''Wonderful Bomb''.", "After deciding to make the film a black comedy, Kubrick brought in Terry Southern as a co-writer in late 1962.The choice was influenced by reading Southern's comic novel ''The Magic Christian'', which Kubrick had received as a gift from Peter Sellers, and which itself became a Sellers film in 1969.Southern made important contributions to the film, but his role led to a rift between Kubrick and Peter George; after ''Life'' magazine published a photo-essay on Southern in August 1964 which implied that Southern had been the script's principal author—a misperception neither Kubrick nor Southern did much to dispel— George wrote a letter to the magazine, published in its September 1964 issue, in which he pointed out that he had both written the film's source novel and collaborated on various incarnations of the script over a period of ten months, whereas \"Southern was briefly employed ... to do some additional rewriting for Kubrick and myself and fittingly received a screenplay credit in behind Mr. Kubrick and myself.", "\"=== Sets and filming ===The War Room with the Big Board in the film''Dr.", "Strangelove'' was filmed at Shepperton Studios, near London, as Sellers was in the middle of a divorce at the time and unable to leave England.", "The sets occupied three main sound stages: the Pentagon War Room, the B-52 Stratofortress bomber and the last one containing both the motel room and General Ripper's office and outside corridor.", "The studio's buildings were also used as the Air Force base exterior.", "The film's set design was done by Ken Adam, the production designer of several ''James Bond'' films (at the time he had already worked on ''Dr.", "No'').", "The black-and-white cinematography was by Gilbert Taylor, and the film was edited by Anthony Harvey and an uncredited Kubrick.", "The original musical score for the film was composed by Laurie Johnson and the special effects were by Wally Veevers.", "The opening theme is an instrumental version of \"Try a Little Tenderness.\"", "The theme of the chorus from the bomb run scene is a modification of \"When Johnny Comes Marching Home.\"", "Sellers and Kubrick got along well during the film's production and shared a love of photography.For the War Room, Ken Adam first designed a two-level set which Kubrick initially liked, only to decide later that it was not what he wanted.", "Adam next began work on the design that was used in the film, an expressionist set that was compared with ''The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari'' and Fritz Lang's ''Metropolis''.", "It was an enormous concrete room ( long and wide, with a -high ceiling) suggesting a bomb shelter, with a triangular shape (based on Kubrick's idea that this particular shape would prove the most resistant against an explosion).", "One side of the room was covered with gigantic strategic maps reflecting in a shiny black floor inspired by dance scenes in Fred Astaire films.", "In the middle of the room there was a large circular table lit from above by a circle of lamps, suggesting a poker table.", "Kubrick insisted that the table would be covered with green baize (although this could not be seen in the black-and-white film) to reinforce the actors' impression that they are playing 'a game of poker for the fate of the world.'", "Kubrick asked Adam to build the set ceiling in concrete to force the director of photography to use only the on-set lights from the circle of lamps.", "Moreover, each lamp in the circle of lights was carefully placed and tested until Kubrick was happy with the result.Lacking cooperation from the Pentagon in the making of the film, the set designers reconstructed the aircraft cockpit to the best of their ability by comparing the cockpit of a B-29 Superfortress and a single photograph of the cockpit of a B-52 and relating this to the geometry of the B-52's fuselage.", "The B-52 was state-of-the-art in the 1960s, and its cockpit was off-limits to the film crew.", "When some United States Air Force personnel were invited to view the reconstructed B-52 cockpit, they said that \"it was absolutely correct, even to the little black box which was the CRM.\"", "It was so accurate that Kubrick was concerned about whether Adam's team had carried out all its research legally.In several shots of the B-52 flying over the polar ice en route to Russia, the shadow of the actual camera plane, a Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress, is visible on the icecap below.", "The B-52 was a scale model composited into the Arctic footage, which was sped up to create a sense of jet speed.", "Home movie footage included in ''Inside the Making of Dr. Strangelove'' on the 2001 Special Edition DVD release of the film shows clips of the B-17 with a cursive \"Dr. Strangelove\" painted over the rear entry hatch on the right side of the fuselage.In 1967, some of the flying footage from ''Dr.", "Strangelove'' was re-used in The Beatles' television film ''Magical Mystery Tour''.", "As told by editor Roy Benson in the BBC Radio Documentary ''Celluloid Beatles'', the production team of ''Magical Mystery Tour'' lacked footage to cover the sequence for the song \"Flying.\"", "Benson had access to the aerial footage filmed for the B-52 sequences of ''Dr.", "Strangelove'', which was stored at Shepperton Studios.", "The use of the footage prompted Kubrick to call Benson to complain.=== ''Fail Safe'' ===''Red Alert'' author Peter George collaborated on the screenplay with Kubrick and satirist Terry Southern.", "''Red Alert'' was more solemn than its film version, and it did not include the character Dr. Strangelove, though the main plot and technical elements were quite similar.", "A novelization of the actual film, rather than a reprint of the original novel, was published by Peter George, based on an early draft in which the narrative is bookended by the account of aliens, who, having arrived at a desolated Earth, try to piece together what has happened.", "It was reissued in October 2015 by Candy Jar Books, featuring never-before-published material on Strangelove's early career.During the filming of ''Dr.", "Strangelove'', Stanley Kubrick learned that ''Fail Safe'', a film with a similar theme, was being produced.", "Although ''Fail Safe'' was to be an ultrarealistic thriller, Kubrick feared that its plot resemblance would damage his film's box office potential, especially if it were released first.", "Indeed, the novel ''Fail-Safe'' (on which the film is based) is so similar to ''Red Alert'' that Peter George sued on charges of plagiarism and settled out of court.What worried Kubrick the most was that ''Fail Safe'' boasted the acclaimed director Sidney Lumet and the first-rate dramatic actors Henry Fonda as the American president and Walter Matthau as the advisor to the Pentagon, Professor Groeteschele.", "Kubrick decided to throw a legal wrench into ''Fail Safe''s production gears.", "Lumet recalled in the documentary ''Inside the Making of Dr. Strangelove'': \"We started casting.", "Fonda was already set ... which of course meant a big commitment in terms of money.", "I was set, Walter Bernstein, the screenwriter was set ... And suddenly, this lawsuit arrived, filed by Stanley Kubrick and Columbia Pictures.", "\"Kubrick argued that ''Fail Safe''s own source novel ''Fail-Safe'' (1962) had been plagiarized from Peter George's ''Red Alert'', to which Kubrick owned creative rights.", "He pointed out unmistakable similarities in intentions between the characters Groeteschele and Strangelove.", "The plan worked, and the suit was settled out of court, with the agreement that Columbia Pictures, which had financed and was distributing ''Strangelove'', also buy ''Fail Safe'', which had been an independently financed production.", "Kubrick insisted that the studio release his movie first, and ''Fail Safe'' opened eight months after ''Dr.", "Strangelove'', to critical acclaim but mediocre ticket sales.=== Ending ===The end of the film shows Dr. Strangelove exclaiming, \"''Mein Führer,'' I can walk!\"", "before cutting to footage of nuclear explosions, with Vera Lynn and her audience singing \"We'll Meet Again\".", "This footage comes from nuclear tests such as shot \"Baker\" of Operation Crossroads at Bikini Atoll, the Trinity test, a test from Operation Sandstone and the hydrogen bomb tests from Operation Redwing and Operation Ivy.", "In some shots, old warships (such as the German heavy cruiser ''Prinz Eugen''), which were used as targets, are plainly visible.", "In others, the smoke trails of rockets used to create a calibration backdrop can be seen.", "Former ''Goon Show'' writer and friend of Sellers Spike Milligan was credited with suggesting Vera Lynn's song for the ending.=== Original ending ===The cream pie fight was removed from the final cut.It was originally planned for the film to end with a scene that depicted everyone in the War Room involved in a pie fight.", "Accounts vary as to why the pie fight was cut.", "In a 1969 interview, Kubrick said, \"I decided it was farce and not consistent with the satiric tone of the rest of the film.\"", "Critic Alexander Walker observed that \"the cream pies were flying around so thickly that people lost definition, and you couldn't really say whom you were looking at.\"", "Nile Southern, son of screenwriter Terry Southern, suggested the fight was intended to be less jovial: \"Since they were laughing, it was unusable, because instead of having that totally black, which would have been amazing, like, this blizzard, which in a sense is metaphorical for all of the missiles that are coming, as well, you just have these guys having a good old time.", "So, as Kubrick later said, 'it was a disaster of Homeric proportions.=== Effects of the Kennedy assassination on the film ===A first test screening of the film was scheduled for November 22, 1963, the day of the assassination of John F. Kennedy.", "The film was just weeks from its scheduled premiere, but because of the assassination, the release was delayed until late January 1964, as it was felt that the public was in no mood for such a film any sooner.During post-production, one line by Slim Pickens, \"a fella could have a pretty good weekend in Dallas with all that stuff\", was dubbed to change \"Dallas\" to \"Vegas\", since Dallas was where Kennedy was killed.", "The original reference to Dallas survives in the English audio of the French-subtitled version of the film.The assassination also serves as another possible reason that the pie-fight scene was cut.", "In the scene, after Muffley takes a pie in the face, General Turgidson exclaims: \"Gentlemen!", "Our gallant young president has been struck down in his prime!\"", "Editor Anthony Harvey stated that the scene \"would have stayed, except that Columbia Pictures were horrified, and thought it would offend the president's family.\"", "Kubrick and others have said that the scene had already been cut before preview night because it was inconsistent with the rest of the film.=== Re-release in 1994 ===In 1994, the film was re-released.", "While the 1964 release used a 1.85:1 aspect ratio, the new print was in the slightly squarer 1.66:1 (5:3) ratio that Kubrick had originally intended." ], [ "Themes", "=== Satirizing the Cold War ===''Dr.", "Strangelove'' ridicules nuclear war planning.", "It mocks numerous contemporary Cold War attitudes such as the \"missile gap\" but it primarily directs its satire on the theory of mutually assured destruction (MAD), in which each side is supposed to be deterred from a nuclear war by the prospect of a universal cataclysm regardless of who \"won\".", "Military strategist and former physicist Herman Kahn, in the book ''On Thermonuclear War'' (1960), used the theoretical example of a \"doomsday machine\" to illustrate the limitations of MAD, which was developed by John von Neumann.The concept of such a machine is consistent with MAD doctrine when it is logically pursued to its conclusion.", "It thus worried Kahn that the military might like the idea of a doomsday machine and build one.", "Kahn, a leading critic of MAD and the Eisenhower administration's doctrine of massive retaliation upon the slightest provocation by the USSR, considered MAD to be foolish bravado, and urged America to instead plan for proportionality, and thus even a limited nuclear war.", "With this reasoning, Kahn became one of the architects of the flexible response doctrine which, while superficially resembling MAD, allowed for the possibility of responding to a limited nuclear strike with a proportional, or calibrated, return of fire (see ''Conflict escalation'').Kahn educated Kubrick on the concept of the semi-realistic \"cobalt-thorium G\" doomsday machine, and then Kubrick used the concept for the film.", "Kahn in his writings and talks would often come across as cold and calculating, for example, with his use of the term \"megadeaths\" and in his willingness to estimate how many human lives the United States could lose and still rebuild economically.", "Kahn's dispassionate attitude towards millions of deaths is reflected in Turgidson's remark to the president about the outcome of a preemptive nuclear war: \"Mr. President, I'm not saying we wouldn't get our hair mussed.", "But I do say no more than ten to twenty million killed, tops, uh, depending on the breaks.\"", "Turgidson has a binder that is labelled \"World Targets in Megadeaths,\" a term coined in 1953 by Kahn and popularized in his 1960 book ''On Thermonuclear War''.The fallout-shelter-network proposal mentioned in the film, with its inherently high radiation protection characteristics, has similarities and contrasts to that of the real Swiss civil defense network.", "Switzerland has an overcapacity of nuclear fallout shelters for the country's population size, and by law, new homes must still be built with a fallout shelter.", "If the US did that, it would violate the spirit of MAD and, according to MAD adherents, allegedly destabilize the situation because the US could launch a first strike and its population would largely survive a retaliatory second strike (see MAD § Theory).To rebut early 1960s novels and Hollywood films like ''Fail-Safe'' and ''Dr.", "Strangelove'', which raised questions about US control over nuclear weapons, the Air Force produced a documentary film, ''SAC Command Post'', to demonstrate its responsiveness to presidential command and its tight control over nuclear weapons.", "However, later academic research into declassified documents showed that U.S. military commanders had been given presidentially-authorized pre-delegation for the use of nuclear weapons during the early Cold War, showing that this aspect of the film's plot was plausible.The characters of Buck Turgidson and Jack Ripper both satirize the real-life Gen. Curtis LeMay of the Strategic Air Command.=== Sexual themes ===In the months following the film's release, director Stanley Kubrick received a fan letter from Legrace G. Benson of the Department of History of Art at Cornell University interpreting the film as being sexually-layered.", "The director wrote back to Benson and confirmed the interpretation, \"Seriously, you are the first one who seems to have noticed the sexual framework from intromission (the planes going in) to the last spasm (Kong's ride down and detonation at target).\"" ], [ "Release", "The film was a popular success, earning US$4,420,000 in rentals in North America during its initial theatrical release." ], [ "Reception", "=== Critical response ===''Dr.", "Strangelove'' is Kubrick's highest-rated film on Rotten Tomatoes, holding a 98% approval rating based on 96 reviews, with an average rating of 9.1/10.The site's summary states that \"Stanley Kubrick's brilliant Cold War satire remains as funny and razor-sharp today as it was in 1964.\"", "The film also holds a score of 97 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on 32 reviews, indicating \"universal acclaim\".", "The film is ranked number 7 in the All-Time High Scores chart of Metacritic's Video/DVD section.", "It was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry.''Dr.", "Strangelove'' is on Roger Ebert's list of ''The Great Movies'', and he described it as \"arguably the best political satire of the century\".", "One of the most celebrated of all film comedies, in 1998, ''Time Out'' conducted a reader's poll and ''Dr.", "Strangelove'' was voted the 47th greatest film of all time.", "''Entertainment Weekly'' voted it at No.", "14 on their list of ''100 Greatest Movies of All Time''.", "in 2002, it was ranked as the 5th best film in ''Sight & Sound'' poll of best films.", "John Patterson of ''The Guardian'' wrote, \"There had been nothing in comedy like ''Dr Strangelove'' ever before.", "All the gods before whom the America of the stolid, paranoid 50s had genuflected—the Bomb, the Pentagon, the National Security State, the President himself, Texan masculinity and the alleged Commie menace of water-fluoridation—went into the wood-chipper and never got the same respect ever again.\"", "It is also listed as number 26 on ''Empire's 500 Greatest Movies of All Time'', and in 2010 it was listed by ''Time'' magazine as one of the 100 best films since the publication's inception in 1923.The Writers Guild of America ranked its screenplay the 12th best ever written.In 2000, readers of ''Total Film'' magazine voted it the 24th greatest comedic film of all time.", "The film ranked 42nd in BBCs 2015 list of the 100 greatest American films.", "The film was selected as the 2nd best comedy of all time in a poll of 253 film critics from 52 countries conducted by the BBC in 2017.=== Studio response ===Columbia Pictures' early reaction to ''Dr.", "Strangelove'' was anything but enthusiastic.", "In \"Notes From The War Room\", in the summer 1994 issue of ''Grand Street'' magazine, co-screenwriter Terry Southern recalled that, as production neared the end, \"It was about this time that word began to reach us, reflecting concern as to the nature of the film in production.", "Was it anti-American?", "Or just anti-military?", "And the jackpot question: Was it, in fact, anti-American to whatever extent it was anti-military?", "\"Southern recalled how Kubrick grew concerned about seeming apathy and distancing by studio heads Abe Schneider and Mo Rothman, and by Columbia's characterization of the film as \"just a zany, novelty flick which did not reflect the views of the corporation in any way.\"", "Southern noted that Rothman was in \"prominent attendance\" at a ceremony in 1989 when the Library of Congress announced it as one of the first 25 films on the National Film Registry.=== Accolades === Award Category Recipient Result Academy Awards Best Picture Stanley Kubrick Best Director Best Actor Peter Sellers Best Adapted Screenplay Stanley Kubrick, Peter George and Terry Southern BAFTA Awards Best Film From Any Source Best British Film Best British Screenplay Stanley Kubrick, Peter George, and Terry Southern Best British Actor Peter Sellers Best Foreign Actor Sterling Hayden Best Art Direction (Black and White) Ken Adam UN Award Writers Guild of America Awards Best Written American Comedy Hugo Awards Best Dramatic Presentation Belgian Film Critics Association Grand Prix New York Film Critics Circle Best Film Best Director Stanley Kubrick Best Screenplay Stanley Kubrick, Peter George, and Terry Southern Silver Ribbon Best Foreign Director Stanley Kubrick The film ranked No.", "32 on ''TV Guide''s list of the 50 Greatest Movies on TV (and Video).American Film Institute included the film as #26 in AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies, #3 in AFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs, #64 in AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes (\"Gentlemen, you can't fight in here!", "This is the War Room!\")", "and #39 in AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition)." ], [ "Canceled sequel", "In 1995, Kubrick enlisted Terry Southern to script a sequel titled ''Son of Strangelove''.", "Kubrick had Terry Gilliam in mind to direct.", "The script was never completed, but index cards laying out the story's basic structure were found among Southern's papers after he died in October 1995.It was set largely in underground bunkers, where Dr. Strangelove had taken refuge with a group of women.In 2013, Gilliam commented, \"I was told after Kubrick died—by someone who had been dealing with him—that he had been interested in trying to do another ''Strangelove'' with me directing.", "I never knew about that until after he died but I would have loved to.\"" ], [ "Stage adaptation", "On July 14, 2023, it was announced that a stage adaptation of the film, co-adapted by Armando Iannucci and Sean Foley and starring Steve Coogan will premiere in London's West End in autumn 2024.It will be the first stage adaptation of Kubrick's works." ], [ "See also", "* * CRM 114 (fictional device)* Cobalt bomb* Dead Hand (nuclear war)* List of films considered the best* Operation Paperclip—OSS program used to recruit scientists from Nazi Germany* Politics in fiction* Special Atomic Demolition Munition-type of nuclear bomb that can be strapped to a parachuter.", "* Stanley Kubrick Archive" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Ellsberg, Daniel \"The Doomsday Machine\" New York: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2017 .", "* Dolan, Edward F., Jr. ''Hollywood Goes to War''.", "London: Bison Books, 1985..* Hardwick, Jack and Schnepf, Ed.", "\"A Viewer's Guide to Aviation Movies.\"", "''The Making of the Great Aviation Films'', General Aviation Series, Volume 2, 1989.", "* * Oriss, Bruce.", "''When Hollywood Ruled the Skies: The Aviation Film Classics of World War II''.", "Hawthorne, California: Aero Associates Inc., 1984..* * Wheeler Winston Dixon ''Dr.", "Strangelove'' essay at National Film Registry * Daniel Eagan ''Dr.", "Strangelove'' essay in America's Film Legacy: The Authoritative Guide to the Landmark Movies in the National Film Registry, A&C Black, 2010 , pages 598-600 * ** :** ''Don't Panic'' covers ''Dr.", "Strangelove'' (archived)* Brian Siano \"Commentary on ''Dr.", "Strangelove'' at visual-memory.co.uk* Grant B. Stillman \"Last Secrets of Strangelove Revealed\" at visual-memory.co.uk* ''Dr.", "Strangelove'' Study Guide by Dan Lindley.", "See also: :* ''Dr.", "Strangelove'' notes longer version by Dan Lindley* \"''Dr.", "Strangelove'': The Darkest Room\", an essay by David Bromwich at the Criterion Collection* Ann Hornaday, \"The 34 best political movies ever made\", ranked No.", "6, ''The Washington Post'' (January 23, 2020)" ], [ "External links", "'''Papers'''* Continuity transcript* Annotated bibliography on ''Dr.", "Strangelove'' from the Alsos Digital Library'''Metadata'''* * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "DNA ligase" ], [ "Introduction", "'''DNA ligase''' is a type of enzyme that facilitates the joining of DNA strands together by catalyzing the formation of a phosphodiester bond.", "It plays a role in repairing single-strand breaks in duplex DNA in living organisms, but some forms (such as DNA ligase IV) may specifically repair double-strand breaks (i.e.", "a break in both complementary strands of DNA).", "Single-strand breaks are repaired by DNA ligase using the complementary strand of the double helix as a template, with DNA ligase creating the final phosphodiester bond to fully repair the DNA.DNA ligase is used in both DNA repair and DNA replication (see ''Mammalian ligases'').", "In addition, DNA ligase has extensive use in molecular biology laboratories for recombinant DNA experiments (see ''Research applications'').", "Purified DNA ligase is used in gene cloning to join DNA molecules together to form recombinant DNA." ], [ "Enzymatic mechanism", "The image demonstrates how ligase (yellow oval) catalyzes two DNA fragment strands.", "The ligase joins the two fragments of DNA to form a longer strand of DNA by \"pasting\" them together.The mechanism of DNA ligase is to form two covalent phosphodiester bonds between 3' hydroxyl ends of one nucleotide (\"acceptor\"), with the 5' phosphate end of another (\"donor\").", "Two ATP molecules are consumed for each phosphodiester bond formed.", "AMP is required for the ligase reaction, which proceeds in four steps:# Reorganization of activity site such as nicks in DNA segments or Okazaki fragments etc.# Adenylylation (addition of AMP) of a lysine residue in the active center of the enzyme, pyrophosphate is released;# Transfer of the AMP to the 5' phosphate of the so-called donor, formation of a pyrophosphate bond;# Formation of a phosphodiester bond between the 5' phosphate of the donor and the 3' hydroxyl of the acceptor.sticky ends)Ligase will also work with blunt ends, although higher enzyme concentrations and different reaction conditions are required." ], [ "Types", "=== ''E.", "coli'' ===The ''E.", "coli'' DNA ligase is encoded by the ''lig'' gene.", "DNA ligase in ''E.", "coli'', as well as most prokaryotes, uses energy gained by cleaving nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) to create the phosphodiester bond.", "It does not ligate blunt-ended DNA except under conditions of molecular crowding with polyethylene glycol, and cannot join RNA to DNA efficiently.The activity of E. coli DNA ligase can be enhanced by DNA polymerase at the right concentrations.", "Enhancement only works when the concentrations of the DNA polymerase 1 are much lower than the DNA fragments to be ligated.", "When the concentrations of Pol I DNA polymerases are higher, it has an adverse effect on E. coli DNA ligase=== T4 ===The DNA ligase from bacteriophage T4 (a bacteriophage that infects ''Escherichia coli'' bacteria).", "The T4 ligase is the most-commonly used in laboratory research.", "It can ligate either cohesive or blunt ends of DNA, oligonucleotides, as well as RNA and RNA-DNA hybrids, but not single-stranded nucleic acids.", "It can also ligate blunt-ended DNA with much greater efficiency than ''E.", "coli'' DNA ligase.", "Unlike ''E.", "coli'' DNA ligase, T4 DNA ligase cannot utilize NAD and it has an absolute requirement for ATP as a cofactor.", "Some engineering has been done to improve the ''in vitro'' activity of T4 DNA ligase; one successful approach, for example, tested T4 DNA ligase fused to several alternative DNA binding proteins and found that the constructs with either p50 or NF-kB as fusion partners were over 160% more active in blunt-end ligations for cloning purposes than wild type T4 DNA ligase.", "A typical reaction for inserting a fragment into a plasmid vector would use about 0.01 (sticky ends) to 1 (blunt ends) units of ligase.", "The optimal incubation temperature for T4 DNA ligase is 16 °C.Bacteriophage T4 ligase mutants have increased sensitivity to both UV irradiation and the alkylating agent methyl methanesulfonate indicating that DNA ligase is employed in the repair of the DNA damages caused by these agents.=== Mammalian ===In mammals, there are four specific types of ligase.# DNA ligase I: ligates the nascent DNA of the lagging strand after the Ribonuclease H has removed the RNA primer from the Okazaki fragments.# DNA ligase III: complexes with DNA repair protein XRCC1 to aid in sealing DNA during the process of nucleotide excision repair and recombinant fragments.", "Of the all known mammalian DNA ligases, only Lig III has been found to be present in mitochondria.# DNA ligase IV: complexes with XRCC4.It catalyzes the final step in the non-homologous end joining DNA double-strand break repair pathway.", "It is also required for V(D)J recombination, the process that generates diversity in immunoglobulin and T-cell receptor loci during immune system development.", "* DNA ligase II: A purification artifact resulting from proteolytic degradation of DNA ligase III.", "Initially, it has been recognized as another DNA ligase and it is the reason for the unusual nomenclature of DNA ligases.DNA ligase from eukaryotes and some microbes uses adenosine triphosphate (ATP) rather than NAD.===Thermostable===Derived from a thermophilic bacterium, the enzyme is stable and active at much higher temperatures than conventional DNA ligases.", "Its half-life is 48 hours at 65 °C and greater than 1 hour at 95 °C.", "Ampligase DNA Ligase has been shown to be active for at least 500 thermal cycles (94 °C/80 °C) or 16 hours of cycling.10 This exceptional thermostability permits extremely high hybridization stringency and ligation specificity." ], [ "Measurement of activity", "There are at least three different units used to measure the activity of DNA ligase:* '''Weiss unit''' - the amount of ligase that catalyzes the exchange of 1 nmole of 32P from inorganic pyrophosphate to ATP in 20 minutes at 37°C.", "This is the one most commonly used.", "* '''Modrich-Lehman unit''' - this is rarely used, and one unit is defined as the amount of enzyme required to convert 100 nmoles of d(A-T)n to an exonuclease-III resistant form in 30 minutes under standard conditions.", "* Many commercial suppliers of ligases use an arbitrary unit based on the ability of ligase to ligate cohesive ends.", "These units are often more subjective than quantitative and lack precision." ], [ "Research applications", "DNA ligases have become indispensable tools in modern molecular biology research for generating recombinant DNA sequences.", "For example, DNA ligases are used with restriction enzymes to insert DNA fragments, often genes, into plasmids.Controlling the optimal temperature is a vital aspect of performing efficient recombination experiments involving the ligation of cohesive-ended fragments.", "Most experiments use T4 DNA Ligase (isolated from bacteriophage T4), which is most active at 37 °C.", "However, for optimal ligation efficiency with cohesive-ended fragments (\"sticky ends\"), the optimal enzyme temperature needs to be balanced with the melting temperature Tm of the sticky ends being ligated, the homologous pairing of the sticky ends will not be stable because the high temperature disrupts hydrogen bonding.", "A ligation reaction is most efficient when the sticky ends are already stably annealed, and disruption of the annealing ends would therefore result in low ligation efficiency.", "The shorter the overhang, the lower the Tm.Since blunt-ended DNA fragments have no cohesive ends to anneal, the melting temperature is not a factor to consider within the normal temperature range of the ligation reaction.", "The limiting factor in blunt end ligation is not the activity of the ligase but rather the number of alignments between DNA fragment ends that occur.", "The most efficient ligation temperature for blunt-ended DNA would therefore be the temperature at which the greatest number of alignments can occur.", "The majority of blunt-ended ligations are carried out at 14-25 °C overnight.", "The absence of stably annealed ends also means that the ligation efficiency is lowered, requiring a higher ligase concentration to be used.A novel use of DNA ligase can be seen in the field of nano chemistry, specifically in DNA origami.", "DNA based self-assembly principles have proven useful for organizing nanoscale objects, such as biomolecules, nanomachines, nanoelectronic and photonic component.", "Assembly of such nano structure requires the creation of an intricate mesh of DNA molecules.", "Although DNA self-assembly is possible without any outside help using different substrates such as provision of catatonic surface of Aluminium foil, DNA ligase can provide the enzymatic assistance that is required to make DNA lattice structure from DNA over hangs." ], [ "History", "The first DNA ligase was purified and characterized in 1967 by the Gellert, Lehman, Richardson, and Hurwitz laboratories.", "It was first purified and characterized by Weiss and Richardson using a six-step chromatographic-fractionation process beginning with elimination of cell debris and addition of streptomycin, followed by several Diethylaminoethyl (DEAE)-cellulose column washes and a final phosphocellulose fractionation.", "The final extract contained 10% of the activity initially recorded in the ''E.", "coli ''media; along the process it was discovered that ATP and Mg++ were necessary to optimize the reaction.", "The common commercially available DNA ligases were originally discovered in bacteriophage T4, ''E.", "coli'' and other bacteria." ], [ "Disorders", "Genetic deficiencies in human DNA ligases have been associated with clinical syndromes marked by immunodeficiency, radiation sensitivity, and developmental abnormalities,  LIG4 syndrome (Ligase IV syndrome) is a rare disease associated with mutations in DNA ligase 4 and interferes with dsDNA break-repair mechanisms.", "Ligase IV syndrome causes immunodeficiency in individuals and is commonly associated with microcephaly and marrow hypoplasia.", "A list of prevalent diseases caused by lack of or malfunctioning of DNA ligase is as follows.=== Xeroderma pigmentosum ===Xeroderma pigmentosum, which is commonly known as XP, is an inherited condition characterized by an extreme sensitivity to ultraviolet (UV) rays from sunlight.", "This condition mostly affects the eyes and areas of skin exposed to the sun.", "Some affected individuals also have problems involving the nervous system.=== Ataxia-telangiectasia ===Mutations in the ATM gene cause ataxia–telangiectasia.", "The ATM gene provides instructions for making a protein that helps control cell division and is involved in DNA repair.", "This protein plays an important role in the normal development and activity of several body systems, including the nervous system and immune system.", "The ATM protein assists cells in recognizing damaged or broken DNA strands and coordinates DNA repair by activating enzymes that fix the broken strands.", "Efficient repair of damaged DNA strands helps maintain the stability of the cell's genetic information.", "Affected children typically develop difficulty walking, problems with balance and hand coordination, involuntary jerking movements (chorea), muscle twitches (myoclonus), and disturbances in nerve function (neuropathy).", "The movement problems typically cause people to require wheelchair assistance by adolescence.", "People with this disorder also have slurred speech and trouble moving their eyes to look side-to-side (oculomotor apraxia).=== Fanconi Anemia ===Fanconi anemia (FA) is a rare, inherited blood disorder that leads to bone marrow failure.", "FA prevents bone marrow from making enough new blood cells for the body to work normally.", "FA also can cause the bone marrow to make many faulty blood cells.", "This can lead to serious health problems, such as leukemia.=== Bloom syndrome ===Bloom syndrome results in skin that is sensitive to sun exposure, and usually the development of a butterfly-shaped patch of reddened skin across the nose and cheeks.", "A skin rash can also appear on other areas that are typically exposed to the sun, such as the back of the hands and the forearms.", "Small clusters of enlarged blood vessels (telangiectases) often appear in the rash; telangiectases can also occur in the eyes.", "Other skin features include patches of skin that are lighter or darker than the surrounding areas (hypopigmentation or hyperpigmentation respectively).", "These patches appear on areas of the skin that are not exposed to the sun, and their development is not related to the rashes." ], [ "As a drug target", "In recent studies, human DNA ligase I was used in Computer-aided drug design to identify DNA ligase inhibitors as possible therapeutic agents to treat cancer.", "Since excessive cell growth is a hallmark of cancer development, targeted chemotherapy that disrupts the functioning of DNA ligase can impede adjuvant cancer forms.", "Furthermore, it has been shown that DNA ligases can be broadly divided into two categories, namely, ATP- and NAD+-dependent.", "Previous research has shown that although NAD+-dependent DNA ligases have been discovered in sporadic cellular or viral niches outside the bacterial domain of life, there is no instance in which a NAD+-dependent ligase is present in a eukaryotic organism.", "The presence solely in non-eukaryotic organisms, unique substrate specificity, and distinctive domain structure of NAD+ dependent compared with ATP-dependent human DNA ligases together make NAD+-dependent ligases ideal targets for the development of new antibacterial drugs." ], [ "See also", "* DNA end* Lagging strand* DNA replication* Okazaki fragment* DNA polymerase* Sequencing by ligation" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* DNA Ligase: PDB molecule of the month* Davidson College General Information on Ligase* OpenWetWare DNA Ligation Protocol* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dewey Decimal Classification" ], [ "Introduction", "A library bookshelf in Hong Kong classified using the New Classification Scheme for Chinese Libraries, an adaptation of the Dewey Classification schemeThe '''Dewey Decimal Classification''' ('''DDC'''), colloquially known as the '''Dewey Decimal System''', is a proprietary library classification system which allows new books to be added to a library in their appropriate location based on subject.", "It was first published in the United States by Melvil Dewey in 1876.Originally described in a 44-page pamphlet, it has been expanded to multiple volumes and revised through 23 major editions, the latest printed in 2011.It is also available in an abridged version suitable for smaller libraries.", "OCLC, a non-profit cooperative that serves libraries, currently maintains the system and licenses online access to '''WebDewey''', a continuously updated version for catalogers.The decimal number classification introduced the concepts of ''relative location'' and ''relative index''.", "Libraries previously had given books permanent shelf locations that were related to the order of acquisition rather than topic.", "The classification's notation makes use of three-digit numbers for main classes, with fractional decimals allowing expansion for further detail.", "Numbers are flexible to the degree that they can be expanded in linear fashion to cover special aspects of general subjects.", "A library assigns a classification number that unambiguously locates a particular volume in a position relative to other books in the library, on the basis of its subject.", "The number makes it possible to find any book and to return it to its proper place on the library shelves.", "The classification system is used in 200,000 libraries in at least 135 countries." ], [ "History", "Melvil Dewey, the inventor of the Dewey Decimal classification===1873–1885: early development===Melvil Dewey (1851–1931) was an American librarian and self-declared reformer.", "He was a founding member of the American Library Association and can be credited with the promotion of card systems in libraries and business.", "He developed the ideas for his library classification system in 1873 while working at the Amherst College library.", "He applied the classification to the books in that library, until in 1876 he had a first version of the classification.", "In 1876, he published the classification in pamphlet form with the title ''A Classification and Subject Index for Cataloguing and Arranging the Books and Pamphlets of a Library.", "''He used the pamphlet, published in more than one version during the year, to solicit comments from other librarians.", "It is not known who received copies or how many commented as only one copy with comments has survived, that of Ernest Cushing Richardson.", "His classification system was mentioned in an article in the first issue of the ''Library Journal'' and in an article by Dewey in the Department of Education publication ''Public Libraries in America'' in 1876.In March 1876, he applied for, and received, copyright on the first edition of the index.", "The edition was 44 pages in length, with 2,000 index entries, and was printed in 200 copies.===1885–1942: period of adoption===1885 - Dewey Decimal ClassificationThe second edition of the Dewey Decimal system, published in 1885 with the title '''', comprised 314 pages, with 10,000 index entries.", "Five hundred copies were produced.", "Editions 3–14, published between 1888 and 1942, used a variant of this same title.", "Dewey modified and expanded his system considerably for the second edition.", "In an introduction to that edition Dewey states that \"nearly 100 persons hav spelling of 'have' per English-language spelling reform, which Dewey championed contributed criticisms and suggestions\".One of the innovations of the Dewey Decimal system was that of positioning books on the shelves in relation to other books on similar topics.", "When the system was first introduced, most libraries in the US used fixed positioning: each book was assigned a permanent shelf position based on the book's height and date of acquisition.", "Library stacks were generally closed to all but the most privileged patrons, so shelf browsing was not considered of importance.", "The use of the Dewey Decimal system increased during the early 20th century as librarians were convinced of the advantages of relative positioning and of open shelf access for patrons.New editions were readied as supplies of previously published editions were exhausted, even though some editions provided little change from the previous, as they were primarily needed to fulfill demand.", "In the next decade, three editions followed closely on: the 3rd (1888), 4th (1891), and 5th (1894).", "Editions 6 through 11 were published from 1899 to 1922.The 6th edition was published in a record 7,600 copies, although subsequent editions were much lower.", "During this time, the size of the volume grew, and edition 12 swelled to 1,243 pages, an increase of 25% over the previous edition.In response to the needs of smaller libraries which were finding the expanded classification schedules difficult to use, in 1894, the first abridged edition of the Dewey Decimal system was produced.", "The abridged edition generally parallels the full edition, and has been developed for most full editions since that date.", "By popular request, in 1930, the Library of Congress began to print Dewey Classification numbers on nearly all of its cards, thus making the system immediately available to all libraries making use of the Library of Congress card sets.Dewey's was not the only library classification available, although it was the most complete.", "Charles Ammi Cutter published the Expansive Classification in 1882, with initial encouragement from Melvil Dewey.", "Cutter's system was not adopted by many libraries, with one major exception: it was used as the basis for the Library of Congress Classification system.In 1895, the International Institute of Bibliography, located in Belgium and led by Paul Otlet, contacted Dewey about the possibility of translating the classification into French, and using the classification system for bibliographies (as opposed to its use for books in libraries).", "This would have required some changes to the classification, which was under copyright.", "Dewey gave permission for the creation of a version intended for bibliographies, and also for its translation into French.", "Dewey did not agree, however, to allow the International Institute of Bibliography to later create an English version of the resulting classification, considering that a violation of their agreement, as well as a violation of Dewey's copyright.", "Shortly after Dewey's death in 1931, however, an agreement was reached between the committee overseeing the development of the Decimal Classification and the developers of the French ''Classification Decimal''.", "The English version was published as the Universal Decimal Classification and is still in use today.According to a study done in 1927, the Dewey system was used in the US in approximately 96% of responding public libraries and 89% of the college libraries.", "After the death of Melvil Dewey in 1931, administration of the classification was under the Decimal Classification Committee of the Lake Placid Club Education Foundation, and the editorial body was the Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee with participation of the American Library Association (ALA), Library of Congress, and Forest Press.", "By the 14th edition in 1942, the Dewey Decimal Classification index was over 1,900 pages in length and was published in two volumes.===1942–present: forging an identity===Children being taught the top-level categories of the Dewey Decimal Classification system at a library in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, in the 1960sThe growth of the classification to date had led to significant criticism from medium and large libraries which were too large to use the abridged edition but found the full classification overwhelming.", "Dewey had intended issuing the classification in three editions: the library edition, which would be the fullest edition; the bibliographic edition, in English and French, which was to be used for the organization of bibliographies rather than of books on the shelf; and the abridged edition.", "In 1933, the bibliographic edition became the Universal Decimal Classification, which left the library and abridged versions as the formal Dewey Decimal Classification editions.", "The 15th edition, edited by Milton Ferguson, implemented the growing concept of the \"standard edition\", designed for the majority of general libraries but not attempting to satisfy the needs of the very largest or of special libraries.", "It also reduced the size of the Dewey system by over half, from 1,900 to 700 pages.", "This revision was so radical that an advisory committee was formed right away for the 16th and 17th editions.", "The 16th and 17th editions, under the editorship of the Library of Congress, grew again to two volumes.", "However, by then, the Dewey Decimal system had established itself as a classification for general libraries, with the Library of Congress Classification having gained acceptance for large research libraries.The first electronic version of \"Dewey\" was created in 1993.Hard-copy editions continue to be issued at intervals; the online WebDewey and Abridged WebDewey are updated quarterly." ], [ "Administration and publication", "Dewey and a small editorial staff managed the administration of the very early editions.", "Beginning in 1922, the Lake Placid Club Educational Foundation, a not-for-profit organization founded by Melvil Dewey, managed administrative affairs.", "The ALA set up a Special Advisory Committee on the Decimal Classification as part of the Cataloging and Classification division of ALA in 1952.The previous Decimal Classification Committee was changed to the Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee, with participation of the ALA Division of Cataloging and Classification, and of the Library of Congress.Melvil Dewey edited the first three editions of the classification system and oversaw the revisions of all editions until his death in 1931.May Seymour became editor in 1891 and served until her death in 1921.She was followed by Dorcas Fellows, who was editor until her death in 1938.Constantin J. Mazney edited the 14th edition.", "Milton Ferguson functioned as editor from 1949 to 1951.The 16th edition in 1958 was edited under an agreement between the Library of Congress and Forest Press, with David Haykin as director.", "Editions 16–19 were edited by Benjamin A. Custer and the editor of edition 20 was John P. Comaromi.", "Joan Mitchell was editor until 2013, covering editions 21 to 23.In 2013 Michael Panzer of OCLC became Editor-in-Chief.", "The Dewey Editorial Program Manager since 2016 has been Rebecca Green.Dewey himself held copyright in editions 1 to 6 (1876–1919).", "Copyright in editions 7–10 was held by the publisher, The Library Bureau.", "On the death of May Seymour, Dewey conveyed the \"copyrights and control of all editions\" to the Lake Placid Club Educational Foundation, a non-profit chartered in 1922.The Online Computer Library Center of Dublin, Ohio, US, acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification system when it bought Forest Press in 1988.In 2003 the Dewey Decimal Classification came to the attention of the U.S. press when OCLC sued the Library Hotel for trademark infringement for using the classification system as the hotel theme.", "The case was settled shortly thereafter.The OCLC has maintained the classification since 1988, and also publishes new editions of the system.", "The editorial staff responsible for updates is based partly at the Library of Congress and partly at OCLC.", "Their work is reviewed by the Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee, a ten-member international board which meets twice each year.", "The four-volume unabridged edition was published approximately every six years, with the last edition (DDC 23) published in mid-2011.In 2017 the editorial staff announced that the English edition of DDC will no longer be printed, in favor of using the frequently updated WebDewey.", "An experimental version of Dewey in RDF was previously available at dewey.info beginning in 2009, but has not been available since 2015.In addition to the full version, a single-volume abridged edition designed for libraries with 20,000 titles or fewer has been made available since 1895.The last printed English abridged edition, Abridged Edition 15, was published in early 2012.Full edition Publication year Abridged edition Publication year 1st 1876 2nd 1885 3rd 1888 4th 1891 5th 1894 1st 1895 6th 1899 7th 1911 8th 1913 2nd 1915 9th 1915 10th 1919 11th 1922 3rd 1926 12th 1927 4th 1929 13th 1932 5th 1936 14th 1942 6th 1945 15th 1951 7th 1953 16th 1958 8th 1959 17th 1965 9th 1965 18th 1971 10th 1971 19th 1979 11th 1979 20th 1989 12th 1990 21st 1996 13th 1997 22nd 2003 14th 2004 23rd 2011 15th 2012" ], [ "Design", "The Dewey Decimal Classification organizes library materials by discipline or field of study.", "The scheme comprises ten classes, each divided into ten divisions, each having ten sections.", "The system's notation uses Indo-Arabic numbers, with three whole numbers making up the main classes and sub-classes and decimals designating further divisions.", "The classification structure is hierarchical and the notation follows the same hierarchy.", "Libraries not needing the full level of detail of the classification can trim right-most decimal digits from the class number to obtain more general classifications.", "For example::500 Natural sciences and mathematics:: 510 Mathematics::: 516 Geometry:::: 516.3 Analytic geometries::::: 516.37 Metric differential geometries:::::: 516.375 Finsler geometryThe classification was originally enumerative, meaning that it listed all of the classes explicitly in the schedules.", "Over time it added some aspects of a faceted classification scheme, allowing classifiers to construct a number by combining a class number for a topic with an entry from a separate table.", "Tables cover commonly used elements such as geographical and temporal aspects, language, and bibliographic forms.", "For example, a class number could be constructed using 330 for economics + .9 for geographic treatment + .04 for Europe to create the class 330.94 European economy.", "Or one could combine the class 973 (for the United States) + .05 (for periodical publications on the topic) to arrive at the number 973.05 for periodicals concerning the United States generally.", "The classification also makes use of mnemonics in some areas, such that the number 5 represents the country Italy in classification numbers like 945 (history of Italy), 450 (Italian language), and 195 (Italian philosophy).", "The combination of faceting and mnemonics makes the classification ''synthetic'' in nature, with meaning built into parts of the classification number.The Dewey Decimal Classification has a number for all subjects, including fiction, although many libraries maintain a separate fiction section shelved by alphabetical order of the author's surname.", "Each assigned number consists of two parts: a class number (from the Dewey system) and a book number, which \"prevents confusion of different books on the same subject\".", "A common form of the book number is called a Cutter number, which represents the author and distinguishes the book from other books on the same topic.===Classes===(From DDC 23)* 000 – Computer science, information and general works* 100 – Philosophy and psychology* 200 – Religion* 300 – Social sciences* 400 – Language* 500 – Pure science* 600 – Technology* 700 – Arts and recreation* 800 – Literature* 900 – History and geography===Tables===(From DDC 23)*T1 Standard Subdivisions*T2 Geographic Areas, Historical Periods, Biography*T3 Subdivisions for the Arts, for Individual Literatures, for Specific Literary Forms**T3A Subdivisions for Works by or about Individual Authors**T3B Subdivisions for Works by or about More than One Author**T3C Notation to Be Added Where Instructed in Table 3B, 700.4, 791.4, 808–809*T4 Subdivisions of Individual Languages and Language Families*T5 Ethnic and National Groups*T6 Languages===Relative Index===The Relative Index (or, as Dewey spelled it, \"Relativ Index\") is an alphabetical index to the classification, for use both by classifiers and by library users when seeking books by topic.", "The index was \"relative\" because the index entries pointed to the class numbers, not to the page numbers of the printed classification schedule.", "In this way, the Dewey Decimal Classification itself had the same relative positioning as the library shelf and could be used either as an entry point to the classification, by catalogers, or as an index to a Dewey-classed library itself." ], [ "Influence and criticism", "Dewey Decimal Classification numbers formed the basis of the Universal Decimal Classification (UDC), which combines the basic Dewey numbers with selected punctuation marks (comma, colon, parentheses, etc.).", "Adaptations of the system for specific regions outside the English-speaking world include the Korean Decimal Classification, the New Classification Scheme for Chinese Libraries, and the Nippon Decimal Classification in Japan.Despite its widespread use, the classification has been criticized for its complexity and its limited capability for amendment.", "In particular, the arrangement of subheadings has been described as archaic and biased towards an Anglo-American world view.", "This is particularly clear in the 800s section, in which most literature, particularly from outside the United States or Europe, is relegated to the 890s particularly when contrasted with the 900s—history.", "In 2007–08, the Maricopa County Library District in Arizona abandoned the DDC in favor of the Book Industry Standards and Communications (BISAC) system commonly used by commercial bookstores, in an effort to make its libraries more accessible for their users.", "Several other libraries across the United States and other countries (including Canada and the Netherlands) followed suit.", "=== Treatment of homosexuality ===In 1932, topics relating to homosexuality were first added to the system under 132 (mental derangements) and 159.9 (abnormal psychology).", "In 1952, homosexuality was also included under 301.424 (the study of sexes in society).", "In 1989, it was added to 363.49 (social problems), a classification that continues in the current edition.In 1996, homosexuality was added to 306.7 (sexual relations); this remains the preferred location in the current edition.", "Although books can also be found under 616.8583 (sexual practices viewed as medical disorders), the official direction states:=== Treatment of religion ===The top-level class for religion heavily favors Christianity, dedicating nearly all of the 200 division to it: the world's thousands of other religions were listed under the 290s.", "For example, Islam is under just DDC 297, despite being almost as large as Christianity by population.", "The entire 200 section has remained largely unchanged since DDC 1, since restructuring would pose a significant amount of work for existing libraries.", "The motivation for this change is ideological rather than technical, as appending significant figures can add space as needed.=== Treatment of women ===It has also been argued by Hope A. Olson that the placement of topics related to women shows implicit bias, but this has been simpler to address than the religion schema.", "Some changes made so far have been in numerical proximity, altering the placement of topics relative to each other.", "For example, in older versions of the DDC, some categories regarding women were adjacent to categories on etiquette; the placement of these categories next to each other imposed an association of etiquette with women, rather than treating it as gender-neutral.", "This was changed in DDC version 17, in 1965." ], [ "See also", "* Books in the United States* Comparison of Dewey and Library of Congress subject classification* List of Dewey Decimal classes" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* OCLC's Dewey Decimal website* Full text of '' Dewey Decimal Classification and Relative Index'' online loan from the Internet Archive (various editions available)* Full text of '' A Classification and Subject Index for Cataloguing and Arranging the Books and Pamphlets of a Library (Dewey Decimal Classification)'' (1876) from Project Gutenberg* Book Industry Standards and Communications (BISAC) system" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Duḥkha" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Duḥkha''''' (), 'unease', \"standing unstable,\" commonly translated as \"suffering\", \"pain\", or \"unhappiness\", is an important concept in Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism.", "Its meaning depends on the context, and may refer more specifically to the \"unsatisfactoriness\" or \"unease\" of mundane life, not being at ease when driven by craving/grasping and ignorance.", "While the term ''dukkha'' has often been derived from the prefix ''du'' (\"bad\" or \"difficult\") and the root ''kha'', \"empty\", \"hole\", a badly fitting axle-hole of a cart or chariot giving \"a very bumpy ride\", it may actually be derived from ''duḥ-stha'', a \"dis-/ bad- + stand-\", that is, \"standing badly, unsteady\", \"unstable\".It is the first of the Four Noble Truths and it is one of the three marks of existence.", "The term also appears in scriptures of Hinduism, such as the Upanishads, in discussions of moksha (spiritual liberation)." ], [ "Etymology and meaning", "''Duḥkha'' (Sanskrit: दुःख; Pali: ''dukkha'') is a term found in the Upanishads and Buddhist texts, meaning anything that is \"uneasy, uncomfortable, unpleasant, difficult, causing pain or sadness\".", "It is also a concept in Indian religions about the nature of life that innately includes the \"unpleasant\", \"suffering\", \"pain\", \"sorrow\", \"distress\", \"grief\" or \"misery.\"", "The term ''duḥkha'' does not have a one-word English translation, and embodies diverse aspects of unpleasant human experiences.", "It is often understood as the opposite of ''sukha'', meaning \"happiness,\" \"comfort\" or \"ease.", "\"===Etymology=======Axle hole====The word has been explained in recent times as a derivation from Aryan terminology for an axle hole, referring to an axle hole which is not in the center and leads to a bumpy, uncomfortable ride.", "According to Winthrop Sargeant,Joseph Goldstein, American vipassana teacher and writer, explains the etymology as follows:===='Standing unstable'====However, according to Monier Monier-Williams, the actual roots of the Pali term ''dukkha'' appear to be Sanskrit दुस्- (''dus-'', \"bad\") + स्था (''stha'', \"to stand\").", "Regular phonological changes in the development of Sanskrit into the various Prakrits led to a shift from ''dus-sthā'' to ''duḥkha'' to ''dukkha''.Analayo concurs, stating that ''dukkha'' as derived from ''duh-stha'', \"standing badly,\" \"conveys nuances of \"uneasiness\" or of being \"uncomfortable.\"", "Silk Road philologist Christopher I. Beckwith elaborates on this derivation.", "According to Beckwith:===Translation===The literal meaning of ''duhkha'', as used in a general sense is \"suffering\" or \"painful.\"", "Its exact translation depends on the context.", "Contemporary translators of Buddhist texts use a variety of English words to convey the aspects of ''dukh''.", "Early Western translators of Buddhist texts (before the 1970s) typically translated the Pali term ''dukkha'' as \"suffering.\"", "Later translators have emphasized that \"suffering\" is a too limited translation for the term duḥkha, and have preferred to either leave the term untranslated, or to clarify that translation with terms such as anxiety, distress, frustration, unease, unsatisfactoriness, not having what one wants, having what one doesn't want, etc.", "In the sequence \"birth is painful,\" ''dukhka'' may be translated as \"painful.\"", "When related to vedana, \"feeling,\" ''dukkha'' (\"unpleasant,\" \"painful\") is the opposite of ''sukkha'' (\"pleasure,\" \"pleasant\"), yet all feelings are ''dukkha'' in that they are impermanent, conditioned phenomena, which are unsatisfactory, incapable of providing lasting satisfaction.", "The term \"unsatisfactoriness\" then is often used to emphasize the unsatisfactoriness of \"life under the influence of afflictions and polluted karma.\"" ], [ "Buddhism", "===Early Buddhism===''Duḥkha'' is one of the three marks of existence, namely ''anitya'' (\"impermanent\"), ''duḥkha'' (\"unsatisfactory\"), ''anatman'' (without a lasting essence).Within the Buddhist sutras, duḥkha has a broad meaning, and is divided in three categories:* ''Dukkha-dukkha'', '''aversion to physical suffering''' this includes the physical and mental sufferings of birth, aging, illness, dying; distress due to what is not desirable.", "* ''Viparinama-dukkha'', '''the frustration of disappearing happiness''' this is the duḥkha of pleasant or happy experiences changing to unpleasant when the causes and conditions that produced the pleasant experiences cease.", "* ''Sankhara-dukkha'', '''the unsatisfactoriness of changing and impermanent \"things\"''' the incapability of conditioned things to give us lasting happiness.", "This includes \"a basic unsatisfactoriness pervading all existence, all forms of life, because all forms of life are changing, impermanent and without any inner core or substance.\"", "On this level, the term indicates a lack of lasting satisfaction, or a sense that things never measure up to our expectations or standards.Various sutras sum up how life in this \"mundane world\" is regarded to be ''duḥkha'', starting with ''saṃsāra'', the ongoing process of death and rebirth itself:# Birth is duḥkha, maturation is duhkha, aging is duḥkha, illness is duḥkha, death is duḥkha; # Sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, and despair are duḥkha; # Association with the unbeloved is duḥkha; separation from the loved is duḥkha; # Not getting what is wanted is duḥkha.", "# In conclusion, the five clinging-aggregates are duḥkha.Early emphasis is on the importance of developing insight into the nature of ''duḥkha'', the conditions that cause it, and how it can be overcome.", "This process is formulated in the teachings on the Four Noble Truths.===Chinese Buddhism===Chinese Buddhist tradition has been influenced by Taoism and Confucian theory that advocates that duhkha (古:十Ten directions, 口 hole or opening) is associated to the theory of seven emotions of endogenous disease through the formation of the spirit of the po a term that relates to the Western psychological notion of ego or the theological reference to the human soul.", "This theory is expounded in the application of traditional Chinese medicine for the treatment and prevention of pain and suffering from illness, disease and ignorance.", "===Literal suffering and awakening===Awakening, that is, awakening to one's true mind of emptiness and compassion, does not necessarily end physical suffering.", "In the Buddhist tradition, suffering after awakening is often explained as the working-out or untangling of karma of one's previous present life." ], [ "Hinduism", "In Hindu literature, the earliest Upaniads — the and the — in all likelihood predate the advent of Buddhism.", "In these scriptures of Hinduism, the Sanskrit word ''dukha'' (दुःख) appears in the sense of \"suffering, sorrow, distress\", and in the context of a spiritual pursuit and liberation through the knowledge of Atman (soul/self).The verse 4.4.14 of the states:EnglishSanskritWhile we are still here, we have come to know it ''tman''.If you've not known it, great is your destruction.Those who have known it – they become immortal.As for the rest – only suffering awaits them.The verse 7.26.2 of the states:EnglishSanskritWhen a man rightly sees his soul,he sees no death, no sickness or distress.When a man rightly sees,he sees all, he wins all, completely.The concept of sorrow and suffering, and self-knowledge as a means to overcome it, appears extensively with other terms in the pre-Buddhist Upanishads.", "The term ''Duhkha'' also appears in many other middle and later post-Buddhist Upanishads such as the verse 6.20 of Shvetashvatara Upanishad, as well as in the Bhagavada Gita, all in the context of moksha.", "The term also appears in the foundational Sutras of the six schools of Hindu philosophy, such as the opening lines of ''Samkhya karika'' of the Samkhya school.Second Translation (Verse 1): Ferenc Ruzsa (1997), The triple suffering - A note on the Samkhya karika, Xth World Sanskrit Conference: Bangalore, University of Hungary, Budapest;Third Translation (all Verses): Samkhyakarika of Iswara Krishna John Davis (Translator), Trubner, London, University of Toronto Archives" ], [ "See also", "* Existential despair* Four Noble Truths* Nirodha* Noble Eightfold Path* Pathos* Samudaya* ''The Sickness Unto Death''* Suffering * Sukha* Taṇhā" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", ";Printed sources* * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * ** * * * * * * ;Web-sources" ], [ "External links", "* Everything Is Teaching Us, Ajahn Chah (2018), Amaravati Publications * How does mindfulness transform suffering?", "I: the nature and origins of dukkha, JD Teasdale, M Chaskalson (2011)* Explanations of dukkha, Tilmann Vetter (1998), Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies* What Buddha Taught, Walpola Rahula* ''Dukkha'', edited by John T. Bullitt - Access to Insight* ''The Buddha's Concept of Dukkha'', Kingsley Heendeniya* ''Ku'' 苦 entry (use \"guest\" with no password for one-time login), Digital Dictionary of Buddhism* The Buddha Did Not Teach an End to Suffering, Douglas C. Bates" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Darwin Awards" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Darwin Awards''' are a rhetorical tongue-in-cheek honor that originated in Usenet newsgroup discussions around 1985.They recognize individuals who have supposedly contributed to human evolution by selecting themselves out of the gene pool by dying or becoming sterilized by their own actions.The project became more formalized with the creation of a website in 1993, followed by a series of books starting in 2000 by Wendy Northcutt.", "The criterion for the awards states: \"In the spirit of Charles Darwin, the Darwin Awards commemorate individuals who protect our gene pool by making the ultimate sacrifice of their own lives.", "Darwin Award winners eliminate themselves in an extraordinarily idiotic manner, thereby improving our species' chances of long-term survival.", "\"Accidental self-sterilization also qualifies, but the site notes: \"Of necessity, the award is usually bestowed posthumously.\"", "The candidate is disqualified, though, if \"innocent bystanders\" are killed in the process, as they might have contributed positively to the gene pool.", "The logical problem presented by award winners who may have already reproduced is not addressed in the selection process owing to the difficulty of ascertaining whether or not a person has children; the Darwin Award rules state that the presence of offspring does not disqualify a nominee." ], [ "History", "The origin of the Darwin Awards can be traced back to posts on Usenet group discussions as early as 1985.A post on August 7, 1985 describes the awards as being \"given posthumously to people who have made the supreme sacrifice to keep their genes out of our pool.", "Style counts, not everyone who dies from their own stupidity can win.\"", "This early post cites an example of a person who tried to break into a vending machine and was crushed to death when he pulled it over himself.", "Another widely distributed early story mentioning the Darwin Awards is the JATO Rocket Car, which describes a man who strapped a jet-assisted take-off unit to his Chevrolet Impala in the Arizona desert and who died on the side of a cliff as his car achieved speeds of .", "This story was later determined to be an urban legend by the Arizona Department of Public Safety.", "Wendy Northcutt says the official Darwin Awards website run by Northcutt does its best to confirm all stories submitted, listing them as, \"confirmed true by Darwin\".", "Many of the viral emails circulating the Internet, however, are hoaxes and urban legends.The website and collection of books were started in 1993 by Wendy Northcutt, who at the time was a graduate in molecular biology from the University of California, Berkeley.", "She went on to study neurobiology at Stanford University, doing research on cancer and telomerase.", "In her spare time, she organised chain letters from family members into the original Darwin Awards website hosted in her personal account space at Stanford.", "She eventually left the bench in 1998 and devoted herself full-time to her website and books in September 1999.By 2002, the website received 7 million page hits per month.Northcutt encountered some difficulty in publishing the first book, since most publishers would only offer her a deal if she agreed to remove the stories from the Internet, but she refused: \"It was a community!", "I could not do that.", "Even though it might have cost me a lot of money, I kept saying no.\"", "She eventually found a publisher who agreed to print a book containing only 10% of the material gathered for the website.", "The first book turned out to be a success, and was listed on ''The New York Times'' best-seller list for 6 months.Not all of the feedback from the stories Northcutt published was positive, and she occasionally received email from people who knew the deceased.", "One such person advised: \"This is horrible.", "It has shocked our community to the core.", "You should remove this.\"", "Northcutt demurred: \"I can't.", "It's just too stupid.\"", "Northcutt kept the stories on the website and in her books, citing them as a \"funny-but-true safety guide\", and mentioning that children who read the book are going to be much more careful around explosives.The website also awards Honorable Mentions to individuals who survive their misadventures with their reproductive capacity intact.", "One example of this is Larry Walters, who attached helium-filled weather balloons to a lawn chair and floated far above Long Beach, California, in July 1982.He reached an altitude of , but survived, to be later fined for crossing controlled airspace.", "(Walters later fell into depression and committed suicide.)", "Another notable honorable mention was given to the two men who attempted to burgle the home of footballer Duncan Ferguson (who had an infamous reputation for physical aggression on and off the pitch, including four convictions for assault and who had served six months in Glasgow's Barlinnie Prison) in 2001, with one burglar requiring three days' hospitalisation after being confronted by the player.A 2014 study published in the ''British Medical Journal'' found that between 1995 and 2014, males represented 88.7% of Darwin Award winners (see figure).The comedy film ''The Darwin Awards'' (2006), written and directed by Finn Taylor, was based on the website and many of the Darwin Awards stories." ], [ "Rules", "Northcutt has stated five requirements for a Darwin Award:=== Nominee must be dead or rendered sterile ===This may be subject to dispute.", "Potential awardees may be out of the gene pool because of age; others have already reproduced before their deaths.", "To avoid debates about the possibility of ''in vitro'' fertilization, artificial insemination, or cloning, the original Darwin Awards book applied the following \"deserted island\" test to potential winners: If the person were unable to reproduce when stranded on a deserted island with a fertile member of the opposite sex, he or she would be considered sterile.", "Winners of the award, in general, either are dead or have become unable to use their sexual organs.=== Astoundingly stupid judgment ===The candidate's foolishness must be unique and sensational, likely because the award is intended to be funny.", "A number of foolish but common activities, such as smoking in bed, are excluded from consideration.", "In contrast, self-immolation caused by smoking after being administered a flammable ointment in a hospital and specifically told not to smoke is grounds for nomination.", "One \"Honorable Mention\" (a man who attempted suicide by swallowing nitroglycerine pills, and then tried to detonate them by running into a wall) is noted to be in this category, despite being intentional and self-inflicted (i.e.", "attempted suicide), which would normally disqualify the inductee.=== Cause of one's own demise ===Killing a friend with a hand grenade would not be eligible, but killing oneself while manufacturing a homemade chimney-cleaning device from a grenade would be.", "To earn a Darwin Award, one must have killed oneself, or rendered oneself sterile; merely causing death to a third party is insufficient.=== Capable of sound judgement ===The nominee must be at least past the legal driving age and free of mental defect (Northcutt considers injury or death caused by mental defect to be tragic, rather than amusing, and routinely disqualifies such entries).", "After much discussion, a small category regarding deaths below this age limit also exists.", "Entry into this category requires that the peers of the candidate be of the opinion that the actions of the person in question were above and beyond the limits of reason.In 2011, however, the awards targeted a 16-year-old boy in Leeds who died stealing copper wiring (the standard minimum driving age in Great Britain being 17).", "In 2012, Northcutt made similar light of a 14-year-old girl in Brazil who was killed while leaning out of a school bus window, but she was \"disqualified\" for the award itself because of the likely public objection owing to the girl's age, which Northcutt asserts is based on \"magical thinking\".=== Event must be verified ===The story must be documented by reliable sources: e.g., reputable newspaper articles, confirmed television reports, or responsible eyewitnesses.", "If a story is found to be untrue, it is disqualified, but particularly amusing ones are placed in the urban legend section of the archives.", "Despite this requirement, many of the stories are fictional, often appearing as \"original submissions\" and presenting no further sources than unverified \"eyewitnesses\".", "Most such stories on Northcutt's Darwin Awards site are filed in the Personal Accounts section.===Informal rules===In addition, later revisions to the qualification criteria add several requirements that have not been made into formalized \"rules\":* Innocent bystanders cannot be endangered.", "* The qualifying event must be caused ''without'' deliberate intent to end the nominee's own life (or fertility).", "(To discourage notoriety-seekers from injuring themselves purposely to win a Darwin.)" ], [ "Reception", "The Darwin Awards have received varying levels of scrutiny from the scientific community.", "In his book ''Encyclopedia of Evolution'', biology professor Stanley A.", "Rice comments: \"Despite the tremendous value of these stories as entertainment, it is unlikely that they represent evolution in action\", citing the nonexistence of \"judgment impairment genes\".", "On an essay in the book ''The Evolution of Evil'', professor Nathan Hallanger acknowledges that the Darwin Awards are meant as black humor, but associates them with the eugenics movement of the early 20th century.", "University of Oxford biophysicist Sylvia McLain, writing for ''The Guardian'', says that while the Darwin Awards are \"clearly meant to be funny\", they do not accurately represent how genetics work, further noting that \"'smart' people do stupid things all the time\".", "Geologist and science communicator Sharon A. Hill has criticized the Darwin Awards on both scientific and ethical grounds, claiming that no genetic traits impact personal intelligence or good judgment to be targeted by natural selection, and calling them an example of \"ignorance\" and \"heartlessness\"." ], [ "Notable recipients", "* The driver of the JATO Rocket Car in the well-known urban legend.", "* Garry Hoy who fell from the 24th story of the Toronto-Dominion Centre whilst attempting to demonstrate to a group of students that the windows were unbreakable.", "His death has been featured in television programs such as ''1000 Ways to Die'' and ''MythBusters''.", "* Charles Stephens, the first person to die while attempting to go over Niagara Falls in a barrel.", "* Larry Walters was awarded an 'Honorable Mention' for his lawn chair balloon flight into controlled airspace.", "* John Allen Chau who, on his own behalf, tried to convert an isolated indigenous group on North Sentinel Island to Christianity, and was killed by them." ], [ "Books", "* * * * * * * * *" ], [ "See also", "* * List of inventors killed by their own inventions* * List of selfie-related injuries and deaths* List of unusual deaths* *''Schadenfreude''*Death by misadventure*Herman Cain Award, a similar ironic award" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Outline of dance" ], [ "Introduction", "The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to dance:Dance – human movement either used as a form of expression or presented in a social, spiritual or performance setting.", "Choreography is the art of making dances, and the person who does this is called a choreographer.", "Definitions of what constitutes dance are dependent on social, cultural, aesthetic, artistic and moral constraints and range from functional movement (such as Folk dance) to codified, virtuoso techniques such as ballet.", "A great many dances and dance styles are performed to dance music." ], [ "What ''type'' of thing is dance?", "Dance (also called \"dancing\") can fit the following categories:* an activity or behavior** one of the arts – a creative endeavor or discipline.", "*** one of the performing arts.", "** Hobby – regular activity or interest that is undertaken for pleasure, typically done during one's leisure time.", "** Exercise – bodily activity that enhances or maintains physical fitness and overall health and wellness.", "**Sport—bodily activity that displays physical exertion**Recreation – leisure time activity**RitualSome other things can be named \"dance\" metaphorically; see dance (disambiguation)" ], [ "Types of dance", "Type of dance – a particular dance or dance style.", "There are many varieties of dance.", "Dance categories are not mutually exclusive.", "For example, tango is traditionally a ''partner dance''.", "While it is mostly ''social dance'', its ballroom form may be ''competitive dance'', as in DanceSport.", "At the same time it is enjoyed as ''performance dance'', whereby it may well be a ''solo dance''.", "* List of dances** List of dance style categories** List of ethnic, regional, and folk dances by origin** List of folk dances sorted by origin** List of national dances** List of DanceSport dances=== Dance genres ===* Acro dance* B-boying* Ballet* Bollywood dance* Ballroom dance* Baroque dance* Belly dance** Glossary of belly dance terms*Bharatanatyam*Casino (Cuban salsa)*Cha-cha-cha* Chicago stepping* Circle dance* Competitive dance** Dance squad* Contemporary dance* Contra dance* Country-western dance* Disco** Hustle* Erotic dancing* Fandango* Flamenco* Folk dance* Hip-hop dance* Indian classical dance* Jazz dance* Jig* Jive* Krumping* Lambada* Lap dance* Limbo* Line dance* Mambo* Modern dance* Pole dance* Polka* Quickstep* Salsa* Sequence dance* Street dance* Swing* Tango* Tap dance* Twist* Two-step* Waltz* War dance* Zamba=== Dance styles by number of interacting dancers ===* Solo dance – a dance danced by an individual dancing alone.", "* Partner dance – dance with just 2 dancers, dancing together.", "In most partner dances, one, typically a man, is the leader; the other, typically a woman, is the follower.", "As a rule, they maintain connection with each other.", "In some dances the connection is loose and called dance handhold.", "In other dances the connection involves body contact.", "** Glossary of partner dance terms* Group dance – dance danced by a group of people simultaneously.", "Group dances are generally, but not always, coordinated or standardized in such a way that all the individuals in the group are dancing the same steps at the same time.", "Alternatively, various groups within the larger group may be dancing different, but complementary, parts of the larger dance.=== Dance styles by main purpose ===* Ceremonial dance – * Competitive dance – * Erotic dance – * Participation dance – * Performance dance – * Social dance – * Concert dance –" ], [ "Geography of dance (by region)", ": '''Africa''':: '''West Africa''' 40px::: Benin • Burkina Faso • Cape Verde • Côte d'Ivoire • Gambia • Ghana • Guinea • Guinea-Bissau • Liberia • Mali • Mauritania • Niger • Nigeria • Senegal • Sierra Leone • Togo:: '''North Africa''' 40px::: Algeria • Egypt (Ancient Egypt) • Libya • Mauritania • Morocco • Sudan • South Sudan •Tunisia • Western Sahara:: '''Central Africa''' 40px::: Angola • Burundi • Cameroon • Central African Republic • Chad • The Democratic Republic of the Congo • Equatorial Guinea • Gabon • Republic of the Congo • Rwanda • São Tomé and Príncipe:: '''East Africa''' 40px::: Burundi • Comoros • Djibouti • Eritrea • Ethiopia • Kenya • Madagascar • Malawi • Mauritius • Mozambique • Rwanda • Seychelles • Somalia • Tanzania • Uganda • Zambia • Zimbabwe:: '''Southern Africa''' 40px::: Botswana • Eswatini • Lesotho • Namibia • South Africa:: '''Dependencies''' ::: Mayotte (France) • St. Helena (UK) • Puntland • Somaliland • Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic: '''Antarctica''':: ''None'': '''Asia''':: '''Central Asia'''::: Kazakhstan • Kyrgyzstan • Tajikistan • Turkmenistan • Uzbekistan:: '''East Asia'''::: China :::: Tibet:::: Hong Kong • Macau::: Japan • North Korea • South Korea • Mongolia • Taiwan :: '''North Asia'''::: Russia:: '''Southeast Asia'''::: Brunei • Burma (Myanmar) • Cambodia • East Timor (Timor-Leste) • Indonesia • Laos • Malaysia • Philippines • Singapore • Thailand • Vietnam:: '''South Asia'''::: Afghanistan • Bangladesh • Bhutan • Iran • Maldives • Nepal • Pakistan • Sri Lanka::: India:: '''West Asia'''::: Armenia • Azerbaijan • Bahrain • Cyprus (including disputed Northern Cyprus) • Georgia • Iraq • Israel • Jordan • Kuwait • Lebanon • Oman • Palestinian territories Qatar • Saudi Arabia • Syria • Turkey • United Arab Emirates • Yemen: '''Caucasus''' (a region considered to be in both Asia and Europe, or between them):: '''North Caucasus'''::: Parts of Russia (Chechnya, Ingushetia, Dagestan, Adyghea, Kabardino-Balkaria, Karachai-Cherkessia, North Ossetia, Krasnodar Krai, Stavropol Krai):: '''South Caucasus'''::: Georgia (including disputed Abkhazia, South Ossetia) • Armenia • Azerbaijan (including disputed Nagorno-Karabakh Republic): '''Europe''' 40px:: Akrotiri and Dhekelia • Åland • Albania • Andorra • Armenia • Austria • Azerbaijan • Belarus • Belgium • Bosnia and Herzegovina • Bulgaria • Croatia • Cyprus • Czech Republic • Denmark • Estonia • Faroe Islands • Finland • France • Georgia • Germany • Gibraltar • Greece • Guernsey • Hungary • Iceland • Ireland • Isle of Man • Italy • Jersey • Kazakhstan • Kosovo • Latvia • Liechtenstein • Lithuania • Luxembourg • Macedonia • Malta • Moldova (including disputed Transnistria) • Monaco • Montenegro • Netherlands • Poland • Portugal • Romania • Russia • San Marino • Serbia • Slovakia • Slovenia •:: Norway::: Svalbard ::Spain::: Autonomous communities of Spain: Catalonia:: Sweden • Switzerland • Turkey • Ukraine :: United Kingdom::: England • Northern Ireland • Scotland • Wales:: Vatican City:: European Union: '''North America''':: '''Canada''' 40px ::: '''Provinces of Canada:''' • Alberta • British Columbia • Manitoba • New Brunswick • Newfoundland and Labrador • Nova Scotia • Ontario (Toronto) • Prince Edward Island • Quebec • Saskatchewan::: '''Territories of Canada:''' Northwest Territories • Nunavut • Yukon::Greenland • Saint Pierre and Miquelon:: '''United States''' 40px:: '''Mexico''' 40px: '''Central America'''::: Belize • Costa Rica • El Salvador • Guatemala • Honduras • Nicaragua • Panama:: '''Caribbean'''::: Anguilla • Antigua and Barbuda • Aruba • Bahamas • Barbados • Bermuda • British Virgin Islands • Cayman Islands • Cuba • Dominica • Dominican Republic • Grenada • Haiti • Jamaica • Montserrat • Netherlands Antilles • Puerto Rico • Saint Barthélemy • Saint Kitts and Nevis • Saint Lucia • Saint Martin • Saint Vincent and the Grenadines • Trinidad and Tobago • Turks and Caicos Islands • United States Virgin Islands:'''Oceania''' '''(includes the continent of Australia)''':: '''Australasia'''::: Australia 40px:::: '''Dependencies/Territories of Australia'''::::: Christmas Island • Cocos (Keeling) Islands • Norfolk Island::: New Zealand :: '''Melanesia'''::: Fiji • Indonesia (Oceanian part only) • New Caledonia (France) • Papua New Guinea • Rotuma • Solomon Islands • Vanuatu :: '''Micronesia'''::: Federated States of Micronesia • Guam (United States) • Kiribati • Marshall Islands • Nauru • Northern Mariana Islands (United States) • Palau • Wake Island (United States) :: '''Polynesia'''::: American Samoa (United States) • Chatham Islands (NZ) • Cook Islands (NZ) • Easter Island (Chile) • French Polynesia (France) • Hawaii (United States) • Loyalty Islands (France) • Niue (NZ) • Pitcairn Islands (UK) • Adamstown • Samoa • Tokelau (NZ) • Tonga • Tuvalu • Wallis and Futuna (France): '''South America''' 40px:: Argentina • Bolivia • Brazil • Chile • Colombia • Ecuador • Falkland Islands • Guyana • Paraguay • Peru • Suriname • Uruguay • Venezuela: '''South Atlantic''':: Ascension Island • Saint Helena • Tristan da Cunha" ], [ "History of dance", "History of dance* Dance in ancient Egypt* Dance in mythology and religion* Dance styles throughout history** Medieval dance** Masque** English country dance** Baroque dance** Renaissance dance** Regency dance** Vintage dance** Historical dance** Modern dance** Contemporary dance" ], [ "Dance technique", "* Choreography** Dance notation* Connection* Dance moves** Glossary of dance moves* Dance partnering* Dance theory* Lead and follow* Musicality" ], [ "Dance culture", "* Dance and health* Dance competition* Dance costume* Dance critique* Dance education** Dance studio* Dance etiquette* Dance in film** Dance double** Dance film* Dance marathon* Dance music* Dance party** Ball (dance party)** Prom** Rave* Dance radio* Dance troupe* Dance on television* Nightclub* Performance* Performance surface (dance floor)* Physically integrated dance (disability and dance)* Women in dance" ], [ "Dance science", "Dance science* Dance history – ''(see History of dance, above)''* Dance and health* Dance theory* Dance technology* Ethnochoreology (dance anthropology)" ], [ "Dance organizations", "* List of dance organizations" ], [ "Dance-related media", "* Dance film* Dance music* Musical film=== Books about dance ===*List of dance wikibooks" ], [ "Dancers", "* List of dancers* List of dance personalities" ], [ "See also", "* Index of dance articles* List of ballroom and social dance albums* Outline of music** Music** Musical terminology*International folk dance* Quotations about dance" ], [ "External links", "* Historic Illustrations of Dancing from 3300 B.C.", "to 1911 A.D. from Project Gutenberg* United States National Museum of Dance and Hall of Fame" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "DCM" ], [ "Introduction", "'''DCM''' may refer to:" ], [ "Science and technology", "* Dichloromethane, a common solvent in organic chemistry* Deep chlorophyll maximum, subsurface maximum in the concentration of chlorophyll* Dynamic causal modelling, a method for the interpretation of functional neuroimaging data* Docking Cargo Module, A Russian module of the International Space Station* Dilated cardiomyopathy, a heart condition===Computing===* Digital clock manager, in field-programmable gate arrays* .dcm, a filename extension for Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine * Desired Configuration Management, in Microsoft's System Center Configuration Manager" ], [ "Organisations", "* DCM textiles, formerly Delhi Cloth & General Mills* DCM Ventures, a venture capital company* Digital Cinema Media, an advertising company*NTT DoCoMo (NYSE symbol), a mobile phone operator in Japan* Doll Capital Management, a US venture capital firm which funded SandForce, BitTorrent and others* Dunbee-Combex-Marx, a former British toy manufacturer which purchased Lines Bros and Schuco Modell* DoubleClick Campaign Manager, online ad management and ad serving solution." ], [ "Other uses", "* IATA code for Castres–Mazamet Airport, an airport in France* Demand Chain Management* Deputy Chief of Mission* Director of Civilian Marksmanship, by U.S.", "Civilian Marksmanship Program* Debt capital markets in finance* Distinguished Conduct Medal, British and Commonwealth medal for extreme bravery" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "DKW" ], [ "Introduction", "'''DKW''' ('''''Dampf-Kraft-Wagen''''', , also '''''Deutsche Kinder-Wagen''''' .", "'''''Das-Kleine-Wunder''''', or '''''Des-Knaben-Wunsch''''', ) was a German car- and motorcycle-marque.", "DKW was one of the four companies that formed Auto Union in 1932 and thus became an ancestor of the modern-day Audi company.In 1916, Danish engineer Jørgen Skafte Rasmussen founded a factory in Zschopau, Saxony, Germany, to produce steam fittings.", "That year he attempted to produce a steam-driven car, called the DKW.", "Although unsuccessful, he made a two-stroke toy engine in 1919, called ''Des Knaben Wunsch'' – \"the boy's wish\".", "He put a slightly modified version of this engine into a motorcycle and called it ''Das Kleine Wunder'' – \"the little wonder\" the initials from this becoming the DKW brand: by the late 1920s, DKW had become the world's largest motorcycle manufacturer.In September 1924, DKW bought , saving them from Germany's hyperinflation economic crisis.", "Rudolf Slaby became chief-engineer at DKW.In 1932, DKW merged with Audi, Horch and Wanderer to form Auto Union.", "After World War II, DKW moved to West Germany.", "The original factory became MZ.", "Auto Union came under Daimler-Benz ownership in 1957 and was purchased by the Volkswagen Group in 1964.The last German-built DKW car was the F102, which ceased production in 1966.Its successor, the four-stroke F103, was marketed under the Audi brand, another Auto Union marque.DKW-badged cars continued to be built under license in Brazil and Argentina until 1967 and 1969 respectively.", "The DKW trademark is currently owned by Auto Union GmbH, a wholly-owned subsidiary of Audi AG which also owns the rights to other historical trademarks and intellectual property of the Auto Union combine." ], [ "Automobiles made between 1928 and 1942", "1931 DKW F1DKW cars were made from 1928 until 1966, apart from the interruption caused by the Second World War.", "DKWs always used two-stroke engines, reflecting the company's position by the end of the 1920s as the world's largest producer of motorcycles.", "The first DKW car, the small and rather crude Typ P, emerged on 7 May 1928 and the model continued to be built at the company's Spandau (Berlin) plant, first as a roadster and later as a stylish if basic sports car, until 1931.More significant was a series of inexpensive cars built 300 km (185 miles) to the south in Zwickau in the plant acquired by the company's owner in 1928 when he had become the majority owner in Audi Werke AG.", "Models F1 to F8 (F for Front) were built between 1931 and 1942, with successor models reappearing after the end of the war in 1945.They were the first volume production cars in Europe with front wheel drive, and were powered by transversely mounted two-cylinder two-stroke engines.", "Displacement was 584 or 692 cc: claimed maximum power was initially 15 PS, and from 1931 a choice between 18 or .", "These models had a generator that doubled as a starter, mounted directly on the crankshaft, known as a Dynastart.", "DKWs from Zwickau notched up approximately 218,000 units between 1931 and 1942.Most cars were sold on the home market and over 85% of DKWs produced in the 1930s were the little F series cars: DKW reached second place in German sales by 1934 and stayed there, accounting for 189,369 of the cars sold between 1931 and 1938, more than 16% of the market.Between 1929 and 1940, DKW produced a less well remembered but technically intriguing series of rear-wheel drive cars called (among other names) ''Schwebeklasse'' and ''Sonderklasse'' with two-stroke V4 engines.", "Engine displacement was 1,000 cc, later 1,100 cc.", "The engines had two extra cylinders for forced induction, so they appeared like V6 engines but without spark plugs on the front cylinder pair.In 1939, DKW made a prototype with the first three-cylinder engine, with a displacement of 900 cc and producing .", "With a streamlined body, the car could run at .", "It was put into production after World War II, first as an Industrieverband Fahrzeugbau (IFA) F9 (later Wartburg) in Zwickau, East Germany, and shortly afterwards in DKW-form from Düsseldorf as the 3=6 or F91.DKW engines were used by Saab as a model for the Saab two-stroke in its Saab 92 car manufacturing venture, in 1947." ], [ "Automobiles made after 1945", "Osmo Kalpala servicing his DKW during the 1956 Rally Finland.As Auto Union was based in Saxony in what became the German Democratic Republic (East Germany), it took some time for it to regroup after the war.", "The company was registered in West Germany as Auto Union GmbH in 1949, first as a spare-part provider, but soon to take up production of the RT 125 motorcycle and a new delivery van, called a ''Schnellaster'' F800.Their first line of production took place in Düsseldorf.", "This van used the same engine as the last F8 made before the war.Their first car was the F89 using the body from the prototype F9 made before the war and the two-cylinder two-stroke engine from the last F8.Production went on until it was replaced by the successful three-cylinder engine that came with the F91.The F91 was in production 1953–1955, and was replaced by the larger F93 in 1956.The F91 and F93 had 900 cc three-cylinder two-stroke engines, the first ones delivering , the last .", "The ignition system comprised three independent sets of points and coils, one for each cylinder, with the points mounted in a cluster around a single lobed cam at the front end of the crankshaft.", "The cooling system was of the free convection type assisted by a fan driven from a pulley mounted at the front end of the crankshaft.1958 Auto Union 1000 Coupe de LuxeThe F93 was produced until 1959, and was replaced by the Auto-Union 1000.These models were produced with a 1,000 cc two-stroke engine, with a choice between or S versions until 1963.During this transition, production was moved from Düsseldorf to Ingolstadt, where Audi still has its production.", "From 1957, the cars could be fitted with a saxomat, an automatic clutch, the only small car then offering this feature.", "The last versions of the Auto-Union 1000S had disc brakes as option, an early development for this technology.", "A sporting 2+2 seater version was available as the Auto-Union 1000 SP from 1957 to 1964, the first years only as a coupé and from 1962 also as a convertible.In 1956, the very rare DKW Monza was put into small-scale production on a private initiative, with a sporting two-seater body of glassfiber on a standard F93 frame.", "It was first called Solitude, but got its final name from the long-distance speed records it made on the Autodromo Nazionale Monza in Italy in December 1956.Running in Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) class G, it set records including 48 hours at an average speed of , 10,000 km at and 72 hours at .", "The car was first produced by in Stuttgart, then by Massholder in Heidelberg and lastly by Robert Schenk in Stuttgart.", "The number produced is said to be around 75, 50 survived.", "Production finished by the end of 1958.DKW Junior (1962)A more successful range of cars was sold from 1959, the Junior/F12 series based on a modern concept from the late 1950s.", "The range consists of Junior (basic model) made from 1959 to 1961, Junior de Luxe (a little enhanced) from 1961 to 1963, F11 (a little larger) and F12 (larger and bigger engine) from 1963 to 1965, and F12 Roadster from 1964 to 1965.The Junior/F12 series became quite popular, and many cars were produced.", "An assembly plant was licensed in Ballincollig, County Cork, Ireland between 1952 and c.1964 and roughly 4,000 vehicles were assembled, ranging from saloons, vans and motorbikes to commercial combine harvesters.", "This was the only DKW factory outside Germany in Europe and for many years after its closure its large DKW sign could be visible on the wall of the factory.", "The building was demolished in the late 2000s and was redeveloped into a German Aldi store and a McDonald's drive-thru.All the three-cylinder two-stroke post-war cars had some sporting potential and formed the basis for many rally victories in the 1950s and early 1960s.", "This made DKW the most winning car brand in the European rally league for several years during the fifties.In 1960, DKW developed a V6 engine by combining two three-cylinder two-stroke engines, with a capacity of 1,000 cc.", "The capacity was increased and the final V6 in 1966 had a capacity of 1,300 cc, which developed at 5,000 rpm using the standard configuration with two carburettors.", "A four-carburettor version produced , a six-carburettor one .", "It weighed only .", "The V6 was planned to be used in the DKW Munga and the F102.About 100 engines were built for testing purposes and 13 DKW F102 and some Mungas were fitted with the V6 engine in the 1960s.The DKW F102The last DKW was the F102, coming into production in 1964 as a replacement for the old-looking AU1000.However, the F102 sold poorly, largely due to its two-stroke engine technology which was at the limit of its development.", "Auto Union's parent, Daimler-Benz, decided to offload the company to Volkswagen.", "The car was re-engineered with a four-stroke engine and relaunched as the Audi F103.This marked the end of the DKW marque for cars, and the rebirth of the Audi name.From 1956 to 1961, Dutch importer Hart, Nibbrig & Greve assembled cars in an abandoned asphalt factory in Sassenheim, where they employed about 120 workers, two transporter, that collected SKD kits from Duesseldorf and built about 13.500 cars.", "When the DKW plant moved the import of SKD kits stopped, as it became too expensive." ], [ "DKW in South America", "From 1956 to 1967, DKW cars were made in Brazil by the local company Vemag (''Veículos e Máquinas Agrícolas S.A.'', \"Vehicles and Agricultural Machinery Inc.\").", "Vemag was assembling Scania-Vabis trucks, but Scania Vabis became an independent company in July 1960.The original plans were to build the Candango off-roader (Munga), a utility vehicle and a four-door sedan, called Vemaguet and Belcar respectively.", "The first model built was the 900 cc F91 Universal but the Belcar and Vemaguet names were applied later.A second series 1967 DKW-Vemag Belcar in front of a first series 1964 DKW-Vemag BelcarIn 1958, the F94 four-door sedan and station wagon were launched, in the early 1960s renamed Belcar and Vemaguet.", "The company also produced a luxury coupe (the DKW Fissore) and the off-road Munga (locally called Candango).", "In 1960 Vemag cars received the larger one-litre, engine from the Auto Union 1000.Vemag had a successful official racing team, with the coupe GT Malzoni, with fiberglass body.", "This project was the foundation of the long-lasting Brazilian sports car brand Puma.", "The Brazilian F94 line has been improved with several cosmetic changes and became more and more different from the German and Argentine models.", "Vemag had no capital to invest in new products and came under governmental pressure to merge.", "In 1964–1965 Volkswagen gradually took over Auto Union, a minority holder in Vemag, and in 1967 Volkswagen bought the remainder of the stock.", "VW quickly began phasing out DKW-Vemag production and introduced the Volkswagen 1600 sedan to the old Vemag plant, after a total of 109,343 DKW-Vemag cars had been built.DKW vehicles were made in Argentina from 1960 to 1969 by IASF S.A. (Industria Automotriz Santa Fe Sociedad Anónima) in Sauce Viejo, Santa Fe.", "The most beautiful were the Cupé Fissore, which had many famous owners (Julio Sosa, César Luis Menotti, and others).", "Other models are the Auto Union 1000 S Sedán (21,797 made until 1969) and the Auto Union 1000 Universal S (6,396 made until 1969).", "and the Auto Union Combi/Pick-up.The last version of the Auto Union Combi/Pick-up (DKW F1000 L), launched in 1969, survived a few months and was bought out by IME, which continued production until 1979.1967 DKW-Vemag FissoreDKW GT Malzoni" ], [ "Vans and utility vehicles", "DKW MungaThe DKW Munga was built by Auto Union in Ingolstadt.", "Production began in October 1956 and ended in December 1968, with 46,750 cars built.DKW F800/3 SchnellasterFrom 1949 to 1962, DKW produced the ''Schnellaster'' with a trailing-arm rear suspension system with springs in the cross bar assembly.", "Spanish subsidiary IMOSA produced a modern successor introduced in 1963, the DKW F 1000 L. This van started with the three-cylinder 1,000 cc engine, but later received a Mercedes-Benz Diesel engine and was renamed a Mercedes-Benz in 1975." ], [ "Motorcycles", "DKWDuring the late 1920s and until WWII broke out, DKW was both the world's largest motorcycle manufacturer, as well as Europe's pioneer of front-wheel drive automobiles with their successful 1931 and later DKW Front models, before the 1932 Adler Trumpf and the 1934 Citroen Traction Avant.", "In 1931, Arnold Zoller started building split-singles and this concept made DKW the dominant racing motorcycle in the Lightweight and Junior classes between the wars.", "This included off-road events like the International Six Days Trial where the marque scored some considerable inter-war year successes alongside Bavarian Motor Works At the same time, the company also had some success with super-charged racing motorcycles which because of their light weight were particularly successful in the ISDTThe motorcycle branch produced famous models such as the RT 125 pre- and post-World War II, and after the war with production at the original factory in GDR becoming MZ it made 175, 250 and 350 (cc) models.", "As war reparations, the design drawings of the RT125 were given to Harley-Davidson in the US and BSA in the UK.", "The Harley-Davidson version was known loosely as the Hummer (Hummer is really just a few specific years, but generally people call the Harley lightweights Hummers), while BSA used them for the Bantam.", "IFA and later MZ models continued in production until the 1990s, when economics brought production of the two stroke to an end.", "Other manufacturers copied the DKW design, officially or otherwise.", "This can be seen in the similarity of many small two-stroke motorcycles from the 1950s, including from Yamaha, Voskhod, Maserati and Polish WSK." ], [ "Cars", "===Pre-war production===DKW F8 Meisterklasse (1939–1942)* DKW Typ P (1928–1931) ≈2,000 units* DKW Typ 4=8 (1929–1940) ≈24,000 units* DKW F1 (1931–1932) ≈4,000 units* DKW F2 (1932–1935) ≈17,000 units* DKW F4 (1934–1935) ≈7,000 units* DKW F5 (1935–1937) ≈60,000 units* DKW F7 (1937–1938) ≈80,000 units* DKW F8 (1939–1942) ≈50,000 units into the war.", "* DKW F9 prototype (1939)Pre-war and war-years production of civilian models totalled almost 250,000 units, of which some 218,000 were front-wheel driven.===Post-war===DKW F12 Saloon (1963–1965)* DKW Schnellaster van (1949–1962)* DKW F10 (1950)* DKW F89 (1950–1954)* DKW 3=6 (F91/F93/F94) (1953–1959)* DKW Monza (1956–1958)* DKW Munga off-road (1956–1968)* DKW Junior (F11/F12) (1959–1965)* DKW F102 (1963–1966)" ], [ "Motorcycles and scooters", "DKW Super Sport 500DKW SS 250 from 1938/39DKW RM 350 from 1953* DKW ARE 175* DKW Golem (''Sesselmotorrad'')* DKW Hobby-Roller* DKW Hummel* DKW KM 200* DKW KS 200* DKW NZ 250* DKW NZ 350* DKW NZ 500* DKW ORE 250* DKW RT 100* DKW RT 125* DKW RT 175* DKW RT 200* DKW RT 200H* DKW RT 250/2* DKW RT 250 H* DKW RT 350 S* DKW SB 200* DKW SB 350* DKW SB 500* DKW Sport 250* DKW SS 500 (water-cooled)* DKW SS 600 (water-cooled)* DKW ZS 500* DKW ZSW 500 (water-cooled)* DKW Hercules (Wankel)File:DKW E 206, Bj.", "1927 (museum mobile 2013-09-03).JPG|DKW E 206, 1927File:DKW 97ccm 1939.JPG|DKW (1939)File:DKW 198ccm 1940.jpg|DKW (1940)File:DKW 1950-1.jpg|DKW RT 125 W (1950)File:DKW RT200 9,2PS 1952.jpg|DKW RT 200 (1952)File:DKW RT 350 S, Bj.", "1956 (links) im museum mobile.JPG|RT 350 S, 1956File:DKW RT175-1 174ccm 1955.JPG|DKW RT 175 S (1955)File:DKW Hummel.JPG|DKW HummelFile:Express T.Sport DKW.JPG|Express T. Sport (DKW-Motor)File:ZweiRadMuseumNSU DKW Hobby.JPG|DKW Motorroller ''Hobby'' of 1954 in the ''Deutsches Zweirad- und NSU-Museum''" ], [ "See also", "* Eucort* List of automobile manufacturers of Germany" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*** Siegfried Rauch Hrsg.", "von Frank Rönicke: ''DKW – Geschichte einer Weltmarke''.", "Motorbuch-Verlag, Stuttgart 2007, .", "* Thomas Erdmann: ''Vom Dampfkraftwagen zur Meisterklasse – Die Geschichte der DKW Automobile 1907–1945''.", "autovision, Hamburg 2003, .", "* Peter Kurze: ''DKW Meisterklasse – Ein Wagen für die ganze Welt''.", "Delius Klasing, Bielefeld 2005, .", "* * * * Harald Linz, Halwart Schrader: ''Die Internationale Automobil-Enzyklopädie''.", "United Soft Media Verlag, München 2008, ." ], [ "External links", "* UK-based official Wartburg, Trabant and IFA owners' club* AUTO UNION Sales Brochures 1939* DKW Owners' Club* DKW Motorcycle Club* ''Die Meisterdinger von Nürnberg'' – DKW webpages* ''DKW & Auto Union History''* The Long History of Reverse-Cylinder Engine Designs – motocrossactionmag.com" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Doctor Syn" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Reverend Doctor Christopher Syn''' is the smuggler hero of a series of novels by Russell Thorndike.", "The first book, ''Doctor Syn: A Tale of the Romney Marsh'' was published in 1915.The story idea came from smuggling in the 18th-century Romney Marsh, where brandy and tobacco were brought in at night by boat from France to avoid the tax.", "Minor battles were fought, sometimes at night, between gangs of smugglers, such as the Hawkhurst Gang, and the Revenue, supported by the army and local militias in South Kent and Sussex." ], [ "Character biography", "Christopher Syn, born 1729, is portrayed as a brilliant scholar from Queen's College, Oxford, possessing swashbuckling skills such as riding, fencing, and seamanship.", "He was content to live the quiet life of a country vicar in Dymchurch-under-the-Wall under the patronage of Sir Charles Cobtree, the father of his best friend Anthony Cobtree, until his beautiful young Spanish wife Imogene was seduced by and eloped with Nicholas Tappitt, who Dr. Syn had considered a close friend.Christopher Syn set out on a quest for revenge, always managing to reach the eloped pair's destinations ahead of them just in time to terrify them against landing and facing him in a deliberate campaign of terror.", "While sailing from Spain to America in pursuit, his ship was captured by the pirate ship ''The Sulphur Pit'', commanded by Captain Satan.", "In a one-on-one fight, Syn defeated and killed Captain Satan to take command of his ship and crew; among them was Mr. Mipps, a former Royal Navy carpenter with whom Syn had become friends in England after rescuing him from the Customs men.", "Mipps swore loyalty to Syn from that time onward.With Mipps at his side, Syn turned to piracy and became a great success.", "Later, when his crew refused to let Syn leave, Syn and Mipps slipped away in one of the ship's boats; unknown to Syn, Mipps had arranged a convenient \"accident\" in the ship's powder magazine with an exploding barrel of gunpowder, eliminating witnesses of Syn's piratical acts.Mipps then joined Syn in his quest for revenge, pursuing Tappitt and Imogene throughout the thirteen American colonies (supposedly preaching the gospel to the Indians) and around the world (as part of a whaling voyage) afterwards.", "Mipps was with him in the Caribbean when Dr. Syn turned again to piracy, assuming the name of Captain Clegg (taking the name \"Clegg\" from a certain vicious biting fly he had encountered in America).", "\"Clegg\" hijacked his enemy Tappitt's own ship and crew and sailed off with them (renaming the ship the ''Imogene'') to become the most infamous pirate of the day.However, a mulatto who escaped the destruction of Syn's previous ship stowed away in Clegg's ship and accused him before the crew; Clegg quelled the potential mutiny by having the mulatto's tongue cut out, marooning him on a coral reef and violently killing Yellow Pete, the ship's Chinese cook, who represented the crew in their wish to rescue the mulatto.", "Afterwards, realizing that Clegg had become too notorious, Syn decided to abandon his quest and return to England, and Mipps set up a second \"accidental\" explosion to destroy the ''Imogene'' and her crew.Syn returned to England on the night of a storm (13 November 1775) that wrecked his brig off the English coast in sight of Dymchurch.", "That night he went to the house of his old friend (and now squire) Anthony Cobtree.", "When news came that the local vicar had drowned while trying to save victims of the shipwreck, Squire Cobtree offered the post to Christopher Syn.", "Syn accepted and settled down to a more respectable life as the vicar of Dymchurch and Dean of Peculiars in Romney Marsh, Kent, resuming his original name.Mipps arrived in Dymchurch with the intent of settling down.", "Syn made him the village sexton upon condition that Mipps \"remember to forget\" (that Syn had been Clegg and that they had known each other before), and that Mipps never get involved with the local smugglers.Syn soon became aware that his parishioners were smuggling goods from France to avoid the excessive customs duties the government charged.", "Learning from Mipps (who, contrary to Syn's orders, had become a leader of the smugglers) that certain townsfolk had been ambushed and captured during a smuggling run, Syn purchased the great black stallion Gehenna from gypsy horse-traders and raced to their rescue.", "A suit of clothing borrowed from a scarecrow made an improvised disguise, and Syn and Mipps were able to rescue the townsfolk from the Dragoons.After this, Syn decided that he could only protect his people by becoming their leader.", "He created a more elaborate scarecrow costume, with eerie luminous paint.", "Riding Gehenna at night, the respectable Dr. Syn became \"The Scarecrow\", the feared head of the smugglers.", "Together with Mipps, he organized the smugglers into a well-organized band of \"Night Riders\", also called \"The Devil Riders\", with macabre disguises and code-names.Syn's cunning was so great that the smugglers outwitted the government forces for many years.", "A hidden stable watched over by Mother Handaway, the local \"witch\" (who believed the Scarecrow to be The Devil in living form), was the hiding place for the horses of the Scarecrow and his lieutenants, Mipps and the local highwayman Jimmie Bone (who, being as good a horseman as Syn and of similar build, was sometimes called upon to impersonate the Scarecrow when Syn either had to be elsewhere or seen in the same place).Shortly after the first appearances of the Scarecrow, Nicholas Tappitt (using the name \"Colonel Delacourt\") and the ailing Imogene returned to England, ending up in Dymchurch.", "Recognizing Syn as Clegg, Tappitt realized that Syn and the Scarecrow were one and the same person, and helped the authorities set a trap for him, hoping to both rid himself of his enemy and claim the reward for his capture.", "The trap was sprung, but Squire Cobtree's daughter Charlotte, who had fallen in love with Syn and also learned his secret identities as both Clegg and the Scarecrow, was the tragic victim when she dressed in the Scarecrow's disguise and was fatally wounded as a result.", "Tappitt was then suspected of being the Scarecrow, and a Customs officer and three constables came to arrest him.", "In the ensuing fight, Tappitt killed the Customs man and the constables subdued and arrested Tappitt for murdering the Customs officer.After Imogene's death in Syn's arms (during which she revealed to him that he had a son by her who was missing somewhere in America), Syn fought a final duel with Tappitt in his jail cell, defeating him.", "Syn then struck a bargain with Tappitt: if Tappitt confessed to being the notorious pirate Clegg, then Syn would look after and care for Tappitt and Imogene's new-born infant daughter (also named Imogene).", "Tappitt agreed, and \"Captain Clegg\" was hanged and later \"buried without benefit of clergy at a cross-roads hard by the Kent Ditch\".Many years later, Captain Collyer, a Royal Navy officer assigned to smash the local smuggling ring, uncovered the deception and Dr. Syn's true identity, thanks in part to the tongueless mulatto (who had been rescued by Collyer years before and who had been serving Collyer as a \"ferret\" seeking out hidden contraband) who recognized Syn as Clegg.", "Syn evaded capture while at the same time making sure that Imogene and Squire Cobtree's son Denis (who had fallen in love with Imogene) would have a happy life together (they were eventually married), but was murdered in revenge by the mulatto, who then mysteriously managed to escape, leaving Syn harpooned through the neck.", "As a last mark of respect, Collyer ordered that Syn be buried at sea, rather than have his body hung in chains.Mipps escaped in the confusion of Syn's death and disappeared from England, but it is said that a little man very much like him is living out his days in a Buddhist Monastery somewhere in the Malay Peninsula, delighting the monks with recounting the adventures of Doctor Syn and the eerie stories of the Romney Marsh and the mysterious Scarecrow and his Night Riders." ], [ "Publication history", "The Dr. Syn books detail his adventures and attempts to help the people of Dymchurch and the surrounding area evade the Excise tax.", "There are seven novels in the series:* ''Doctor Syn: A Tale of the Romney Marsh'' (1915)* ''Doctor Syn on the High Seas'' (1935)* ''Doctor Syn Returns'' (1935)* ''Further Adventures of Doctor Syn'' (1936)* ''Courageous Exploits of Doctor Syn'' (1938)* ''Amazing Quest of Doctor Syn'' (1939)* ''Shadow of Doctor Syn'' (1944)Note: the \"first\" book, ''Doctor Syn'', is actually the final story chronologically; the others proceed in published sequence.An expanded version of ''Doctor Syn Returns'' titled ''The Scarecrow Rides'' was published for the U.S. market by The Dial Press in 1935; years later in 2013 it was re-printed in paperback by Black Curtain Press.", "().In 1960, American author William Buchanan reworked Thorndike's ''Further Adventures of Doctor Syn'' under the title ''Christopher Syn'' (New York, Abelard Schuman), giving Thorndike co-authorship credit; this version provides a different conclusion and some conflation, renaming and even removal of the supporting characters.", "''Christopher Syn'' became the basis for the 1962 Disney production; there was also a novelization of the Disney theatrical version titled ''Doctor Syn, Alias the Scarecrow'' written by Vic Crume." ], [ "In other media", "===Films===Three film adaptations have been made of Dr. Syn's exploits.====''Doctor Syn'' (1937)====The first, ''Doctor Syn'' (1937), starred the actor George Arliss in the title role and was his last film.====''Captain Clegg'' (1962)====''Captain Clegg'' (1962), known as ''Night Creatures'' in the U. S., was produced by Hammer Film Productions with actor Peter Cushing in the lead role, directed by Peter Graham Scott.", "In the screenplay by Anthony Hinds, the main character's name was changed from Doctor Syn to Parson Blyss to avoid rights problems with Disney's forthcoming version, and ''Captain Clegg'''s screenplay follows the novel ''Doctor Syn'' and the screenplay of the 1937 film closely with the exception of a tightening of the plot.", "In the Arliss film ''Doctor Syn'', Syn escapes to sea with Mipps and the rest of the Dymchurch smugglers, whereas ''Captain Clegg'' ends more faithfully to the novel, with Parson Blyss being killed by the mulatto (who is then killed by Mipps) and then being carried to and buried in Captain Clegg's empty grave by Mipps.", "''Captain Clegg'' was released in the UK on DVD and Blu-ray in 2014; ''Night Creatures'' was never released on videotape in the United States, but is included in the 2014 two-disc DVD collection ''The Hammer Horror Series''.", "In North America, the film was released on 6 September 2005 along with seven other Hammer horror films on the 4-DVD set ''The Hammer Horror Series'' (ASIN: B0009X770O), which is part of MCA-Universal's \"Franchise Collection\".", "This set was re-released on Blu-ray September 13, 2016.A Blu-ray was released in the UK on 23 June 2014 by Final Cut Entertainment.", "In 2021, Powerhouse Films re-released the film on Blu-Ray, along with ''The Shadow of the Cat'', ''The Phantom of the Opera'', and ''Nightmare'', as part of ''Hammer Volume Six: Night Shadows'' boxset.====''The Scarecrow of Romney Marsh'' (1963)====''The Scarecrow of Romney Marsh'' (1963) was produced for the ''Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color'' TV series.", "It was shot on location in Kent, England and was directed by James Neilson.", "It stars Patrick McGoohan in the title role, with George Cole as Mipps and Sean Scully as John Banks, the younger son of Squire Banks (Michael Hordern).", "St Clement's Church in Old Romney doubled as Dr Syn's Dymchurch parish church in the production, and Disney funded the repair of the building in order to use it as a filming location.Part One dealt with the arrival of General Pugh (Geoffrey Keen), who had been ordered by the War Office to smash the smuggling ring and prevent the Scarecrow from rescuing a Dymchurch man captured by a naval press gang as bait to trap the Scarecrow.", "Part Two depicted The Scarecrow dealing with the traitorous Joe Ransley (Patrick Wymark).", "Part Three showed how the Scarecrow rescued Harry Banks (David Buck) and American Simon Bates (Tony Britton) from General Pugh's clutches in Dover Castle.While originally conceived and edited for American television (and announced in an advertisement by NBC in the Tuesday, July 9, 1963 issue of ''The Hollywood Reporter''), ''The Scarecrow of Romney Marsh'' was re-edited for a British theatrical release before the American television debut.", "Retitled ''Dr Syn, Alias the Scarecrow'', the British theatrical version was released on a double bill with ''The Sword in the Stone'' and ran during the 1963 Christmas season (advertised in the January 1964 issue of ''Photoplay'').", "This version was shown in Europe as well as Central and South America through 1966.In the 1970s, the production was re-edited again for its first American theatrical release, on double bills with both ''Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs'' and ''Treasure Island''.", "The VHS release of the 1980s, sharing the removal of the Scarecrow's laugh from Terry Gilkyson's title song, was expanded to include the story material from all three television episodes, while retaining the feature film structure and credits; it was available for a relatively short amount of time.", "Shortly after the US theatrical run, it was re-edited once more for a two-part presentation on Disney's television series in the 1970s, simply omitting the middle episode.", "The original three-part series was first shown as part of ''Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color'' on February 9, 16 and 23, 1964.Later it was included in a late 1980s ''Wonderful World of Disney'' syndication rerun package, and cablecast in 1990s on the Disney Channel.", "This version generally followed the storyline of ''The Further Adventures of Dr. Syn'' and made it clear that Syn did not die or stage his own death: at the film's end, he is having a cup of tea with the Squire, who admits to now owing a debt of gratitude to the Scarecrow.On November 11, 2008 The Walt Disney Company released a limited pressing of 39,500 copies of ''The Scarecrow of Romney Marsh'' on DVD for the first time, in a collector's metal tin case.", "This was a part of the ''Disney Treasures'' collection and was now titled ''Dr.", "Syn: The Scarecrow of Romney Marsh''.", "This release sold out in three weeks.", "The DVD was made available again for the members of the Disney Movie Club on February 17, 2009.This two-disc set includes the American television version and the original British theatrical release version ''Dr Syn, Alias the Scarecrow'' in a widescreen format.", "It also includes the original introductions by Walt Disney (in which he erroneously states that Dr. Syn was an actual historical figure) and a documentary on Disney's interest in filming the property.", "In October 2019, the Disney Movie Club released it on Blu-ray, this time titled ''The Scarecrow of Romney Marsh''.", "Its single disc, also in the widescreen format, contains the three episodes originally broadcast on television in 1963.It also includes Walt Disney's introductions, but none of the supplemental features that appear on 2009 release.====Other adaptations====Made in 1974, ''Carry On Dick'', of the ''Carry On'' series of films, followed the same premise of a country vicar (Sid James) who is secretly an outlaw, in this case the highwayman Dick Turpin.===Theatre===In 2001 a stage adaptation titled ''Doctor Syn'' was performed at churches throughout the Romney Marsh, the final night being performed in Dymchurch.", "The cast featured Daniel Thorndike (the author's son), Michael Fields, Steven Povey and Ben Barton, along with various amateurs from the area.British composer Adam Pounds has written an opera, ''Syn'', based on the character of Doctor Syn, which was performed at the Mumford Theatre in Cambridge.===Audio adaptations===;''Doctor Syn''Rufus Sewell read a 10-part audio adaptation combining and abridging ''Doctor Syn on the High Seas'' and ''Doctor Syn Returns'' for BBC Radio, broadcast on BBC Radio 7 in December 2006 and repeated in June 2007.;''The Further Adventures of Doctor Syn''A 10-part audio adaptation of ''The Further Adventures of Doctor Syn'' (combining and abridging ''The Further Adventures of Doctor Syn'' and ''The Shadow of Doctor Syn'') read by Rufus Sewell was performed on BBC Radio 7 in December 2007.;''The Last of Doctor Syn'' BBC Radio 7 broadcast the six-part series, an abridged reading by Rufus Sewell of the original ''Doctor Syn'' novel, from January 4-11, 2010.;No Quarter John Paul Jones of Led Zeppelin reinterpreted elements of the Doctor Syn story as his \"No Quarter\" fantasy sequence in Led Zeppelin's concert film ''The Song Remains the Same''.===Comic books===A three-issue adaptation of the Disney production was published by Gold Key Comics under the ''Scarecrow of Romney Marsh'' title, spanning April 1964 through October 1965.A much abridged revision of the adventures of Dr. Syn appeared as a short comic serialized in the monthly publication ''Disney Adventures''.", "The new story features the heroic Doctor and his young sidekick protecting innocent villagers from corrupt government officials and soldiers.", "''Disney Adventures'' would also produce a crossover story with the ''Pirates of the Caribbean'' franchise, where Dr. Syn meets Captain Jack Sparrow.Doctor Syn appears in the ''League of Extraordinary Gentlemen'' series as a member of the league gathered by Lemuel Gulliver.", "His alter ego, Captain Clegg, also makes appearances, where he is mentioned to have had a brief romantic liaison with future teammate Fanny Hill.", "In the 2003 film adaptation of ''League'', Dr. Syn can be spotted in one of the portraits hanging on the wall in M's library." ], [ "Cultural legacy", "A \"Days of Syn\" festival is held even-numbered years by Dymchurch residents for fund-raising.", "The 2006 \"Days of Syn\" was on 26–28 August (UK August Bank Holiday weekend) and featured a talk on Dr. Syn at the Anglican church at 6:30 p.m. On Sunday at 3 p.m. there was a church service where Dr. Syn and the cast appeared in period costume.", "On Monday, starting at the Bowery Hall, scenes were reenacted from ''Doctor Syn'', and again during the day along the Dymchurch shoreline and in the Ocean pub.In 2009, discussions took place to build a 100 ft high statue of \"The Scarecrow\" on a site in the centre of Romney Marsh.", "This had not been done by 2016.Doctor Syn is also the name given to one of the locomotives on the Romney, Hythe and Dymchurch Railway.Doctor Syn also inspired novelist George Chittenden, who captured smuggling on the Kent coast in his debut novel ''The Boy Who Led Them'', which follows the rise and fall of a smuggling gang leader further down the coast in the notorious town of Deal.In 2009, an playfully erotic Afrikaans-language novel, ''Dagtaak'', was published pseudonymously by D R Syn.", "The author's name and some of the traits of the main character in this novel, allude to the Dr Syn series.", "Initial advances to produce an arthouse circuit movie from the novel did not come to fuition." ], [ "References", "* Keith Swallow, ''The Book of Syn: Russell Thorndike, Dr. Syn and the Romney Marsh'' (pub.", "Edgerton, 2013)" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * The Life and Times of the Rev.", "Doctor Christopher Syn* Dymchurch Online Information about the character, novels and movies, with contact information for the Days of Syn Committee.", "* Dr. Syn Website Comprehensive Dr. Syn website with history, picture & book information about Russell Thorndike's infamous character" ] ]
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